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229108	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/David%20Trimble	David Trimble	William David Trimble, Baron Trimble, PC (born 15 October 1944), is a British politician who was the first First Minister of Northern Ireland from 1998 to 2002, and the leader of the Ulster Unionist Party (UUP) from 1995 to 2005. He was also the Member of Parliament (MP) for Upper Bann from 1990 to 2005 and the Member of the Legislative Assembly (MLA) for Upper Bann from 1998 to 2007. In 2006, he was made a life peer in the House of Lords and a year later left the UUP to join the Conservative Party. Trimble began his career teaching law at The Queen's University of Belfast in the 1970s, during which time he began to get involved with the paramilitary-linked Vanguard Progressive Unionist Party. He was elected to the Northern Ireland Constitutional Convention in 1975, and joined the UUP in 1978 after the VPUP disbanded. Remaining at Queen's University, he continued his academic career until being elected as the MP for Upper Bann in 1990. In 1995 he was unexpectedly elected as the leader of the UUP. He was instrumental in the negotiations that led to the Good Friday Agreement in 1998, and (along with John Hume) won the Nobel Peace Prize that year for his efforts. He was later elected to become the first First Minister of Northern Ireland, although his tenure was turbulent and frequently interrupted by disagreements over the timetable for Provisional Irish Republican Army decommissioning. After being defeated at the 2005 general election, Trimble resigned the leadership of the UUP soon afterwards. In June 2006, he accepted a life peerage in the House of Lords, taking the title of Baron Trimble, of Lisnagarvey in the County of Antrim. He did not stand again for the Assembly, which finally reconvened in 2007, instead leaving the UUP to join the Conservative Party. Early life and education Trimble was the son of William and Ivy Trimble, lower-middle class Presbyterians who lived in Bangor, County Down. He attended Bangor Grammar School (1956–63). Trimble's paternal grandfather George was born in Easkey, County Sligo, to parents William Trimble and Mary Burns. He studied at Queen's University of Belfast (QUB) from 1964 to 1968, where he was awarded the McKane Medal for Jurisprudence. He received a first class honours degree (the first at Queen's in three years), becoming a Bachelor of Laws (LL.B). Early career Academic career Trimble qualified as a barrister in 1969. He began that year as a Queen's University of Belfast lecturer, subsequently becoming Assistant Dean of the law faculty from 1973 to 1975, a Senior Lecturer in 1977, and Head of the Department of Commercial and Property Law from 1981 to 1989. He resigned from the university in 1990 when he was elected to Parliament. In 1983, as he sat in his office at the university, he heard gunshots which turned out to be those of IRA killers of Edgar Graham, a friend and fellow law professor. He was asked to identify the body. In 1994 he was told by the Royal Ulster Constabulary that he had been targeted for assassination. Political career Trimble became involved with the right-wing, paramilitary-linked Vanguard Unionist Progressive Party (known as Vanguard) in the early 1970s. He ran unsuccessfully for the party in the 1973 Assembly election for North Down, coming last. In 1974, he was a legal adviser to the Ulster Workers' Council during the successful UWC strike against the Sunningdale Agreement. He was elected to the Northern Ireland Constitutional Convention in 1975 as a Vanguard member for Belfast South, and for a time he served as the party's joint deputy leader, along with the Ulster Defence Association's Glenn Barr. The party had been established by Bill Craig to oppose sharing power with Irish Nationalists, and to prevent closer ties with the Republic of Ireland; however Trimble was one of those to back Craig when the party split over Craig's proposal to allow voluntary power sharing with the SDLP. He joined the mainstream Ulster Unionist Party (UUP) in 1978 after Vanguard disbanded, and was elected one of the four party secretaries. He served as Vice Chairman of the Lagan Valley Unionist Association from 1983 to 1985, and was named chairman in 1985. He served as chairman of the UUP Legal Committee from 1989 to 1995 and as honorary secretary of the Ulster Unionist Council in 1990–96. He was elected to Parliament with 58% of the vote in a by-election in Upper Bann in 1990. He was one of the few British politicians who urged support for the government of Bosnia and Herzegovina during the civil war in the 1990s. Leader of the Ulster Unionist Party On 8 September 1995, Trimble unexpectedly won election as Leader of the UUP, defeating the front-runner John Taylor and three other candidates. Trimble's election as Leader came in the aftermath of his role in the Drumcree conflict, in which he led a controversial 1995 Orange Order Protestant march, amidst Nationalist protest, down the predominantly Catholic nationalist Garvaghy Road in Portadown, County Armagh. Trimble and Democratic Unionist Party Leader Ian Paisley walked hand-in-hand as the march, banned since 1997, proceeded down the road. Many Irish Catholics viewed it as insensitive, while many Protestants felt that it was a sign that Trimble was defending them. Shortly after the election, Trimble became the first UUP Leader in 30 years (since Terence O'Neill) to meet with the Taoiseach in Dublin. In 1997, he became the first unionist leader since the partition of Ireland in 1921 to agree to negotiate with Sinn Féin. Later, in the All-Party negotiations, he led the UUP delegation and sat at the table with Sinn Féin, though in the eight months of the negotiations he never spoke directly to their leader, Gerry Adams. The talks were successful, culminating in the Belfast Agreement of 10 April 1998, which resulted in power-sharing with Nationalists. On 22 May 1998, voters in Northern Ireland approved the agreement, with 71 per cent in favour. Trimble was appointed to the Privy Council of the United Kingdom in the 1998 New Year Honours. First Minister of Northern Ireland Trimble at first opposed the appointment of former U.S. Senator George Mitchell as the chairman of multi-party talks, but eventually accepted him. The talks resulted in the Good Friday Agreement (GFA) of April 1998. Trimble was subsequently seen as instrumental in getting his party to accept the accord. Trimble was elected on 25 June 1998 as a Member of the Northern Ireland Assembly for Upper Bann. He was elected First Minister of Northern Ireland on 1 July 1998. Arguments over the extent of Provisional Irish Republican Army decommissioning led to repeated disruptions during Trimble's tenure as First Minister. In particular: The office of First Minister was suspended from 11 February 2000 to 30 May 2000. During this time, Trimble attempted to reassure party members who were sceptical of the post-Good Friday Agreement institutions, saying, "Unionists won the war... The Agreement gave unionism the opportunity to take control of Northern Ireland's constitutional future and to take a major stake in the government of our country... Does anyone really think Gerry Adams wanted this?". Trimble resigned as First Minister on 1 July 2001 due to the continuing impasse arising from the IRA's refusal of his demands that it decommission its arms, as per the commitments all parties had signed up to in section 7 pt. 3 (page 25) of the 1998 Good Friday Agreement but he was re-elected on 5 November 2001 The Assembly was suspended from 14 October 2002 until 2007 due to accusations of an IRA spy ring being operated there (the so-called Stormontgate Affair) In 1998, Tony Blair announced a new judicial inquiry, the Bloody Sunday Inquiry, into the killing of 13 unarmed civil rights marchers in Derry in 1972. A previous investigation, the Widgery Tribunal, into the same event had been discredited. During the debate in the House of Commons, Trimble was one of few dissenting voices. He said "I am sorry to have to say to the Prime Minister that I think that the hope expressed by the Honourable Member for Foyle [John Hume] that this will be part of the healing process is likely to be misplaced. Opening old wounds like this is likely to do more harm than good. The basic facts of the situation are known and not open to dispute." Reporting in 2010, the Saville Inquiry confirmed that all of the 13 killings and 13 woundings were unjustified. Peerage At the general elections of 2005, Trimble was defeated in Upper Bann by the Democratic Unionist Party's David Simpson in his bid for re-election to Parliament in Westminster. The Ulster Unionist Party retained only one seat in Parliament (out of 18 in Northern Ireland) after the 2005 general election, and Trimble resigned the party leadership on 7 May 2005. On 11 April 2006, it was announced that Trimble would take a seat in the House of Lords as a working life peer. On 21 May 2006 it was announced that he had chosen the geographical designation Lisnagarvey, the original name for his adopted home town of Lisburn. Subsequently, on 2 June 2006, he was created Baron Trimble, of Lisnagarvey in the County of Antrim. On 18 December 2006, he announced that he would be standing down from the Northern Ireland Assembly at the next election. Trimble was named an Honorary Patron of the University Philosophical Society, Trinity College Dublin. On 17 April 2007, Trimble announced he had decided to join the Conservative Party in order to have greater influence in politics in the United Kingdom. At the same time, however, he stated that he did not intend to campaign against the Ulster Unionist Party, and proposed the idea of a future alliance between the Conservatives and the Ulster Unionists, similar to that which had existed prior to 1974 and the fallout of the Sunningdale Agreement. This idea became reality with the formation of the electoral alliance of Ulster Conservatives and Unionists in late 2008. It was reported that if the Conservatives won the 2010 general election, Trimble would receive a "significant" ministerial role, possibly in the Cabinet. In the event, however, Trimble was not offered any governmental or front bench position following the formation of the Conservative–Liberal Democrat coalition government. In May 2010, Trimble joined the Friends of Israel Initiative, a non-Jewish international project supporting Israel's right to exist. The initiative, started by former prime minister of Spain José María Aznar, also included former United States Ambassador to the United Nations John R. Bolton, British historian Andrew Roberts, and former Peruvian president Alejandro Toledo. On 29 January 2013, Trimble and Aznar co-wrote an article in The Times condemning Hezbollah and calling on European governments to list it as a terrorist organisation. In 2016, Trimble supported the Leave side in the UK referendum on EU membership. He said that if he had ever had any doubts about the issue, "his eight years on the EU Select Committees in the House of Lords – which scrutinise the EU's operations – had convinced him of the need to cut ties with Brussels". He cited a study which found that economic growth in the UK reduced after the decision to enter the Common Market, and reduced further when the UK went into the Single Market. Turkel Commission of Inquiry On 14 June 2010, Trimble was appointed as an observer to the Israeli special independent public Turkel Commission of Inquiry into the Gaza flotilla raid. The Commission investigated whether Israel's actions in preventing the arrival of ships in Gaza were in accordance with international law. It focused among other things on the security considerations for imposing a naval blockade on the Gaza Strip and the conformity of the naval blockade with the rules of international law; the conformity of the actions during the raid to principles of international law; and the actions taken by those who organised and participated in the flotilla, and their identities. On the commission were former Israeli Supreme Court Justice, Jacob Turkel, and former Technion University President, Amos Horev, as well two other members added in July 2010. (Bar Ilan University Professor of International Law Shabtai Rosenne also served on the commission from its establishment until his death on 21 September 2010.) In addition, the commission had two foreign observers, Trimble and former head of the Canadian military's judiciary, Judge Advocate General, Ken Watkin, who took part in hearings and discussions, but did not vote on the final conclusions. The panel, in January 2011, concluded both Israel's naval blockade of Gaza and the interception of the flotilla "were found to be legally pursuant to the rules of international law". Personal life Trimble's first marriage, to Heather McComb in August 1968, ended in divorce in 1976. There were no children from his first marriage. Trimble married a former student, Daphne Elizabeth (née Orr), in August 1978. They have two sons and two daughters (Richard, Victoria, Nicholas, and Sarah). Lady Trimble served as a member of the Equality Commission for Northern Ireland, and later the Northern Ireland Human Rights Commission, before standing unsuccessfully in the UK parliamentary election of May 2010 for the Ulster Conservatives and Unionists. His son Nicholas is active within the Ulster Unionist Party. In 2016 Nicholas Trimble was co-opted to replace Alexander Redpath as a Councillor representing Downshire West on Lisburn and Castlereagh City Council. In July 2019, he admitted that he was "forced" to change his position on same-sex marriage and partnerships after voting against them, because of his lesbian daughter Vicky who married her girlfriend Rosalind Stephens in Scotland in 2017. He told peers in the House of Lords "I cannot change that, and I cannot now go around saying that I am opposed to it because I acquiesced to it. There we are." Honours In October 1998, Trimble and John Hume were awarded the Nobel Peace Prize for their efforts to find a peaceful solution to the conflict in Northern Ireland. The Nobel Institute noted: As the leader of the traditionally predominant party in Northern Ireland, David Trimble showed great political courage when, at a critical stage of the process, he advocated solutions which led to the [Belfast (Good Friday)] peace agreement. At a ceremony in Paris on 8 December 1999, Trimble was appointed an Officier in the Légion d'Honneur by the French Government. In 2002, Trimble was awarded the Golden Plate Award of the American Academy of Achievement. Selected works Books To Raise Up a New Northern Ireland: Articles and Speeches 1998–2000, David Trimble, The Belfast Press, 2001 Articles "The Belfast Agreement", David Trimble, 22 Fordham International Law Journal 1145, 1998–99 See also List of Northern Ireland Members of the House of Lords List of Northern Ireland members of the Privy Council Notes and references Further reading Godson, Dean (2004). Himself Alone: David Trimble and the Ordeal of Unionism. HarperCollins, Kerr, Michael (2005). Transforming Unionism: David Trimble and the 2005 Election. Irish Academic Press, MacDonald, Henry (2001). Trimble. Bloomsbury Publishing, Millar, Frank (2004). David Trimble: The Price of Peace. Liffey Press, External links David Trimble's official website David Trimble bio Northern Ireland Assembly (Archived) Lord Trimble The Search for Peace: David Trimble BBC News Maiden Speech : House of Commons – 23 May 1990 UK Parliament David Trimble Biography and Interview with American Academy of Achievement 1944 births Academics of Queen's University Belfast Alumni of Queen's University Belfast Barristers from Northern Ireland British legal scholars Conservative Party (UK) life peers Elizabethtown College alumni First Ministers of Northern Ireland Leaders of the Ulster Unionist Party Living people Members of the Bar of Northern Ireland Members of the Northern Ireland Constitutional Convention Members of the Northern Ireland Forum Members of the Privy Council of the United Kingdom Members of the Parliament of the United Kingdom for Upper Bann Nobel laureates from Northern Ireland Nobel Peace Prize laureates Ministers of the Northern Ireland Executive (since 1999) Northern Ireland MLAs 1998–2003 Northern Ireland MLAs 2003–2007 People educated at Bangor Grammar School Presbyterians from Northern Ireland UK MPs 1987–1992 UK MPs 1992–1997 UK MPs 1997–2001 UK MPs 2001–2005 Vanguard Unionist Progressive Party politicians Members of the Freedom Association Male non-fiction writers from Northern Ireland British political writers British political commentators Ulster Unionist Party MLAs Ulster Unionist Party members of the House of Commons of the United Kingdom	[ -0.3758527636528015, 0.08062971383333206, 0.18580646812915802, -0.9491689801216125, 0.3335430324077606, 0.4992888271808624, 0.12684504687786102, 0.06968271732330322, -0.4114442467689514, 0.05692509189248085, -0.47851845622062683, 0.2952345907688141, -0.22842390835285187, -0.144711434841156, 0.4185844361782074, 0.16652515530586243, -0.25324705243110657, -0.12773874402046204, -0.5652739405632019, -0.3856678307056427, 0.10670188069343567, -0.11279250681400299, 0.02622264437377453, 0.5453201532363892, 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229110	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Edgar%20Schein	Edgar Schein	Edgar Henry Schein (born March 5, 1928), a former professor at the MIT Sloan School of Management, has made a notable mark on the field of organizational development in many areas, including career development, group process consultation, and organizational culture. He is the son of former University of Chicago professor Marcel Schein. Model of organizational culture Schein's model of organizational culture originated in the 1980s. Schein (2004) identifies three distinct levels in organizational cultures: artifacts and behaviours espoused values assumptions The three levels refer to the degree to which the different cultural phenomena are visible to the observer. Artifacts include any tangible, overt or verbally identifiable elements in any organization. Architecture, furniture, dress code, office jokes, all exemplify organizational artifacts. Artifacts are the visible elements in a culture and they can be recognized by people not part of the culture. Espoused values are the organization's stated values and rules of behavior. It is how the members represent the organization both to themselves and to others. This is often expressed in official philosophies and public statements of identity. It can sometimes often be a projection for the future, of what the members hope to become. Examples of this would be employee professionalism, or a "family first" mantra. Trouble may arise if espoused values by leaders are not in line with the deeper tacit assumptions of the culture. Shared basic assumptions are the deeply embedded, taken-for-granted behaviours which are usually unconscious, but constitute the essence of culture. These assumptions are typically so well integrated in the office dynamic that they are hard to recognize from within. Career anchors A career anchor is one's self-concept and consists of one's perceptions of one's talents and abilities, one's basic values, and one's perceptions of motives and needs as they pertain to career. Schein's original research in the mid-1970s identified five possible career anchor constructs: (1) autonomy/independence, (2) security/stability, (3) technical-functional competence, (4) general managerial competence, and (5) entrepreneurial creativity. Follow-up studies in the 1980s identified three additional constructs: (6) service or dedication to a cause, (7) pure challenge, and (8) life style. A 2008 study distinguishes between entrepreneurship and creativity to form nine possible constructs. Education Ph.D., social psychology, Harvard University, 1952 Master's Degree, Psychology, Stanford University, 1949 Ph.B., B.A., University of Chicago, 1947 Publications Coercive Persuasion: A socio-psychological analysis of the "brainwashing" of American civilian prisoners by the Chinese Communists (1961) Professional Education: Some New Directions (1972) Career Dynamics (1978) Organizational Psychology, first published 1965, second edition 1970, third edition 1980 The Clinical Perspective in Field Work (1987) The Art of Managing Human Resources (Editor, 1987) Strategic Pragmatism: The Culture of Singapore's Economic Development Board (1996) Process Consultation Revisited (1999) DEC Is Dead, Long Live DEC: The Lasting Legacy of Digital Equipment Corporation (with Peter S. DeLisi, Paul J. Kampas, and Michael M. Sonduck, 2004), Berrett-Koehler Publishers; . Procesadvisering (2005) The Corporate Culture Survival Guide, 2nd Edition (2009) Organizational Culture and Leadership, 4th Edition (2010) Helping: How to Offer, Give, and Receive Help (2011), Berrett-Koehler Publishers; . Humble Inquiry: The Gentle Art of Asking Instead of Telling (2013), Berrett-Koehler Publishers; . Career Anchors, 4th Edition with J. VanMaanen (2013) Organizational Psychology Then and Now: Some Observations. Annual Review of Organizational Psychology and Organizational Behavior, Vol. 2. (2015) Dialogic Organization Development: The Theory and Practice of Transformational Change (edited by Gervase R. Bushe & Robert J. Marshak, foreword Edgar Schein, 2015), Berrett-Koehler Publishers; . Humble Consulting: How to Provide Real Help Faster (2016), Berrett-Koehler Publishers; . Humble Leadership: The Power of Relationships, Openness, and Trust (with Peter A. Schein, 2018), Berrett-Koehler Publishers; . Awards, honors Awards Lifetime Achievement Award in Workplace Learning and Performance of the American Society of Training and Development, February 3, 2000 Everett Cherrington Hughes Award for Career Scholarship, Careers Division of the Academy of Management, August 8, 2000 Marion Gislason Award for Leadership in Executive Development, Boston University School of Management Executive Development Roundtable, December 11, 2002 Distinguished Scholar-Practitioner Award of the Academy of Management, 2009 Life Time Achievement Award from the International Leadership Association, 2012 Honorary Doctorate from the IEDC Bled School of Management in Slovenia, 2012 Professional Fellow, American Psychological Association Fellow, Academy of Management Board member Advisory Board, Institute of Nuclear Power Operations Board Member, Massachusetts Audubon Society Board Member, Boston Lyric Opera See also Warren Bennis Harold Leavitt David Nadler John Van Maanen List of social psychologists References American business theorists American psychologists Mind control theorists University of Chicago alumni 1928 births Living people MIT Sloan School of Management faculty Harvard University alumni Stanford University alumni Swiss emigrants to the United States	[ -0.042711418122053146, 0.85740065574646, -0.5722752809524536, -0.018641851842403412, -0.22078491747379303, 0.41805845499038696, 0.8257416486740112, -0.11941327899694443, 0.3081637918949127, -0.3896887004375458, -0.12499818205833435, 0.5577488541603088, 0.10138069838285446, 0.04235910251736641, 0.09226689487695694, -0.17757999897003174, -0.022003766149282455, -0.24820226430892944, -0.32287099957466125, -0.26691320538520813, -0.5511633157730103, -0.29170528054237366, 0.05961467698216438, 0.24958018958568573, 0.05247291550040245, 0.8334769606590271, 0.28511834144592285, -0.24725626409053802, -0.13126607239246368, 0.21573100984096527, 0.0944928526878357, 0.29985108971595764, 0.22811637818813324, -0.4388696253299713, 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229111	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John%20Julius%20Angerstein	John Julius Angerstein	John Julius Angerstein (1735 – 22 January 1823) was a London businessman and Lloyd's underwriter, a patron of the fine arts and a collector. It was the prospect that his collection of paintings was about to be sold by his estate in 1824 that suddenly galvanised the King, George IV, and the prime minister, Lord Liverpool, into purchasing his collection for the nation and led to the founding of the British National Gallery in Angerstein's house at 100 Pall Mall. Parentage John Julius Angerstein was born in St Petersburg, Russia, in 1735. It has wrongly been suggested that he was a natural son of Empress Catherine II or of Elizabeth, Empress of Russia. Family tradition holds that his true parents were Empress Anna of Russia and the London businessman Andrew Poulett Thompson; his first position after arriving in London at the age of fifteen was in Thompson's counting-house. Family In 1771 Angerstein married Anna Crockett (widow of Charles Crockett and daughter of Henry Muilman [1700–1772], a South Sea Company director, banker, Danish consul in London and Russia Company consul, and Anne, née Darnall) at St Peter-le-Poer, Old Broad Street. They had two children – Juliana, who married General Nikolai Sablukov of the Russian service, and John Angerstein (1773–1858). Anna died in 1783, and in 1785 John Julius Angerstein married Eliza Lucas (daughter of the Rev. Joseph Payne and widow of Thomas Lucas, a director of the South Sea Company, president of Guy's Hospital and West Indies merchant). A portrait of Angerstein and his second wife, Eliza, by Thomas Lawrence was exhibited at the Royal Academy in 1792 (now held by The Louvre museum, Paris). Life and art collection In his role as a merchant Angerstein has been said to have owned a third share in slave estates in Grenada, but this assertion is incorrect. Although Angerstein almost certainly insured vessels involved in the slave trade, the only evidence of his involvement in slave-owning plantations (and the likely basis of the fallacy) was indirect, and not financial. Angerstein's friend and client, George Peters, was owed money by the merchant Israel Wilkes. Angerstein and two others were made trustees for the creditors over Wilkes' assets, including two sugar estates in Grenada. Angerstein was chairman of Lloyd's from 1790 to 1796 and counted King George III, British Prime Minister William Pitt the Younger and artist Sir Thomas Lawrence among his friends. Although a slave owner, he was also on the Committee for the Relief of the Black Poor, an organisation with strong abolitionist connections. After a number of knife attacks on women by the so-called "London Monster", Angerstein promised a reward of £100 for capture of the perpetrator. Among his earliest art purchases was The Rape of the Sabines by Rubens. Later acquisitions included works by Rembrandt, Velázquez, Titian, Raphael, Correggio and Hogarth, plus early drawings by J.M.W. Turner. From the sale in London of the French Orleans Collection he bought The Raising of Lazarus by Sebastiano del Piombo and other works. After his death, thirty-eight of his finest paintings were bought by the British government for £60,000 to form the nucleus of the collection of the British National Gallery. Until the National Gallery was built in Trafalgar Square in London, the 38 works from Angerstein's collection were displayed in Angerstein's town house in Pall Mall. He lived for some years in Greenwich in south-east London, leasing a estate from Sir Gregory Page in 1774 and over the next two years building a house, Woodlands (designed by local architect George Gibson). This area is now known as Westcombe Park, part of a wide area on the north-eastern fringes of Blackheath that he sought to enclose in 1801. The house fell empty in 1870 when John's grandson William Angerstein relinquished the lease. In 1806 Angerstein served as vice-president of the newly formed London Institution, and the previous year became a founding governor of the British Institution for Promoting the Fine Arts in the United Kingdom. As an active church-goer, he worshipped at St Alfege's Church, Greenwich, where he was also churchwarden. Connections today His family's connections with Greenwich are still commemorated. Angerstein Lane, near the heath at Blackheath, bears the family name. A public house, The Angerstein Hotel, is on Woolwich Road, Greenwich, close to the Woolwich Road flyover (Blackwall Tunnel A102 southern approach) – on the opposite side of which lies the Angerstein Business Park (owned by Greenwich Enterprise Board). East of this is the Angerstein Railway Line (almost solely used for commercial freight, mainly sea-dredged aggregate landed at Angerstein Wharf, operated by Aggregate Industries), linking the peninsula at North Greenwich with the main railway network; as a result, an area of largely industrial land in between the lines, and to the east of the A102 road, is sometimes referred to as the "Angerstein Triangle." Notes References Citations Sources External links 1735 births 1823 deaths British art collectors British businesspeople People from Greenwich People associated with the National Gallery, London Emigrants from the Russian Empire to the United Kingdom People from Saint Petersburg British slave owners	[ -0.04990050569176674, 0.5002468228340149, -0.27566438913345337, -0.14548394083976746, 0.0888655036687851, 0.5706345438957214, 0.38348260521888733, -0.39704203605651855, -0.1331484019756317, -0.20572592318058014, -0.30765342712402344, -0.1529874950647354, -0.2567814886569977, 0.29897692799568176, 0.03917221352458, -0.00661404337733984, -0.24752752482891083, 0.00981025118380785, -0.5119274258613586, 0.00453920429572463, -0.35099318623542786, -0.07046494632959366, 0.258178174495697, 0.018543461337685585, -0.14703314006328583, -0.35661473870277405, 0.1989007443189621, -0.977950394153595, -0.28308582305908203, 0.09257667511701584, 0.3542053997516632, 0.7649046182632446, -0.18193913996219635, 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229112	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Career%20development	Career development	Career Development or Career Development Planning refers to the process an individual may undergo to evolve their occupational status. It is the process of making decisions for long term learning, to align personal needs of physical or psychological fulfillment with career advancement opportunities. Career Development can also refer to the total encompassment of an individual's work-related experiences, leading up to the occupational role they may hold within an organization. Career Development can occur on an individual basis or a corporate and organizational level. Career Development Planning On an individual basis, career planning encompasses a process in which the individual is self-aware of their personal needs and desires for fulfillment in their personal life, in conjunction with the career they hold. While every person's experiences are unique, this contributes to the different careers that people will acquire over their lifespan. Long Term Careers Careers that are long-term commitments throughout an individual's life are referred to as 'Steady-State Careers.' The person will work towards their retirement with specialized skillsets learned throughout their entire life. For example, somebody would be required to complete a steady process of graduating from medical school and then working in the medical profession until they have retired. Steady-state careers may also be referred to as holding the same occupational role in an organization for an extended period and becoming specialized in the area of expertise. A retail manager who has worked in the sales industry for an extended period of their life would have the knowledge, skills, and attributes regarding managing non-managerial staff and coordinating job tasks to be fulfilled by subordinates. A career that requires new initiatives of growth and responsibility upon accepting new roles can be referred to as 'Linear Careers,' as every unique opportunity entails a more significant impact of responsibility and decision-making power on an organizational environment. A linear career path involves a vertical movement in the hierarchy of management when one is promoted. For example, a higher-level management position in a company would entail more responsibility regarding decision-making and allocation of resources to effectively and efficiently run a company. Mid-level managers and top-level managers/CEOs would be referred to as having linear careers, as their vertical movement in the organizational hierarchy would also entail more responsibilities for planning, controlling, leading, and organizing managerial tasks. Short Term Careers When individuals take on a short term or temporary work, these are 'Transitory Careers' and 'Spiral Careers'. Transitory Careers occur when a person undergoes frequent job changes, in which each task is not similar to the preceding one. For example, a fast-food worker who leaves the food industry after a year to work as an entry-level bookkeeper or an administrative assistant in an office setting is a Transitory Career change. The worker's skills and knowledge of their previous career will not be applicable to their new role. A spiral career is any series of short term jobs that are non-identical to one another, but still contribute to skill-building of a specific attribute that individuals will accept over their lifetime. Many individuals can undergo slight career transitions or accept short-term contract work in the same work field, to build on different skill sets needed for them to succeed in an organizational environment. For example, an individual with a degree in Business hired to do 'project management' in one area of a department can be promoted or transferred to complete another task in the same department to work on 'marketing'. Career Development Perspectives- Individual versus Organizational Needs An individual's personal initiatives that they pursue for their career development are primarily concerned with their personal values, goals, interests, and the path required to fulfill these desires. A degree of control and sense of urgency over a personal career development path can require an individual to pursue additional education or training initiatives to align with their goals. In relation, John L. Holland's 6 career anchors categorizes people to be investigative, realistic, artistic, social, enterprising, and conventional, in which the career path will depend on the characteristic that an individual may embody. The more aware an individual is of their personality type, the better alignment of career development and opportunities they may obtain. The factors that influence an individual to make proper career goal decisions also relies on the environmental factors that are directly affecting them. Decisions are based on varying aspects affecting work-life balance, desires to align career options with their personal values, and the degree of stimulation or growth. A corporate organization can be sufficient in providing career development opportunities through the Human Resources functions of Training and Development. The primary purpose of Training and Development is to ensure that the strategic planning of the organizational goals will remain adaptable to the demands of a changing environment. Upon recruiting and hiring employees, an organization's Human Resource department is responsible for providing clear job descriptions regarding the job tasks at hand required for the role, along with the opportunities of job rotation, transfers, and promotions. Hiring managers are responsible for ensuring that the subordinates are aware of their job tasks, and ensure the flow of communication remains efficient. In relation, managers are also responsible for nurturing and creating a favorable work environment to work in, to foster the long term learning, development, and talent acquisition of their subordinates. Consequently, the extent to which a manager embraces the delegation of training and developing their employees plays a key factor in the retention and turnover of employees. Relative Context of Social Identity in Career Planning As the process of career planning is relational to balancing the varying factors of demands in an individual's life, socio-demographics factors relating to an individual's age, race, gender, and socio-economic status may influence the extent to which they pursue career planning or other opportunities for training and development of skills. The varying aspects of social identity in relation to the context of finding a balance to the demands in personal life will influence individuals to make decisions to change, adapt, or abandon their career path. Both men and women for example, will make different types of decisions based on the situational factors that require balance. Women tend to make more choices to balance work and non-work priorities such as child or elder care. This may also discourage some women to pursue their career path, and focus on prioritizing assistance for others. Men will make decisions based on not only having to balance work and non-work priorities, but for advancement and added income. Figures in career development Jesse B. Davis John L. Holland Frank Parsons Edgar Schein See also Employment counselor Holland Codes Occupational Outlook Handbook Personality psychology Global Career Development Facilitator (GCDF) References Business terms	[ 0.5335763692855835, 0.04263632372021675, -0.46981751918792725, 0.021650034934282303, 0.5139749646186829, 0.32768046855926514, 0.5385786294937134, 0.39006999135017395, -0.2526211142539978, -1.0528576374053955, -0.24399763345718384, 0.7483908534049988, 0.5016034245491028, -0.008114158175885677, -0.41454192996025085, 0.19143804907798767, 0.6678829789161682, 0.4993009567260742, 0.2201620489358902, -0.2764017581939697, -0.9285311102867126, -0.18631185591220856, -0.0960206463932991, -0.34248775243759155, 0.3938985764980316, -0.06046954542398453, 0.4322253167629242, 0.1802808940410614, -0.3643989861011505, -0.40699025988578796, -0.3606845736503601, -0.4210158884525299, 0.23720280826091766, -0.04396800696849823, -0.4958440065383911, 0.3163144588470459, 0.0647735595703125, 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229116	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Veterinarian	Veterinarian	A veterinarian (vet), also known as a veterinary surgeon or veterinary physician, is a medical professional who practices veterinary medicine by treating diseases, disorders, managing reproductive health and injuries in non-human animals. Along with this, Vets also play vital role in animal reproduction, animal health management emphasizing on animal reproductive health, conservation, breeding and preventive medicine like animal nutrition, bio security. Description In many countries, the local nomenclature for a veterinarian is a regulated and protected term, meaning that members of the public without the prerequisite qualifications and/or licensure are not able to use the title. This title is selective in order to produce the most knowledgeable veterinarians that pass these qualifications. In many cases, the activities that may be undertaken by a veterinarian (such as treatment of illness or surgery in animals) are restricted only to those professionals who are registered as a veterinarian. For instance, in the United Kingdom, as in other jurisdictions, animal treatment may only be performed by registered veterinary physicians (with a few designated exceptions, such as paraveterinary workers), and it is illegal for any person who is not registered to call themselves a veterinarian, prescribe any drugs, or perform treatment. Most veterinary physicians work in clinical settings, treating animals directly. These veterinarians may be involved in a general practice, treating animals of all types; they may be specialized in a specific group of animals such as companion animals, livestock, zoo animals or equines; or may specialize in a narrow medical discipline such as surgery, dermatology or internal medicine . As with other healthcare professionals, veterinarians face ethical decisions about the care of their patients. Current debates within the profession include the ethics of certain procedures believed to be purely cosmetic or unnecessary for behavioral issues, such as declawing of cats, docking of tails, cropping of ears and debarking on dogs. Etymology and nomenclature The word "veterinary" comes from the Latin meaning "working animals". "Veterinarian" was first used in print by Thomas Browne in 1646. Although "vet" is commonly used as an abbreviation in all English-speaking countries, the occupation is formally referred to as a veterinary surgeon in the United Kingdom and Ireland and now as a veterinarian in most of the rest of the English-speaking world. History Ancient Indian sage and veterinary physician Shalihotra (mythological estimate c. 2350 BCE), the son of a sage, Hayagosha, is considered the founder of veterinary sciences. The first veterinary college was founded in Lyon, France, in 1762 by Claude Bourgelat. According to Lupton, after observing the devastation being caused by cattle plague to the French herds, Bourgelat devoted his time to seeking out a remedy. This resulted in his founding a veterinary college in Lyon in 1761, from which establishment he dispatched students to combat the disease; in a short time, the plague was stayed and the health of stock restored, through the assistance rendered to agriculture by veterinary science and art. The Odiham Agricultural Society was founded in 1783 in England to promote agriculture and industry, and played an important role in the foundation of the veterinary profession in Britain. A 1785 Society meeting resolved to "promote the study of Farriery upon rational scientific principles." The professionalization of the veterinary trade was finally achieved in 1790, through the campaigning of Granville Penn, who persuaded the Frenchman Benoit Vial de St. Bel to accept the professorship of the newly established Veterinary College in London. The Royal College of Veterinary Surgeons was established by royal charter in 1844. Veterinary science came of age in the late 19th century, with notable contributions from Sir John McFadyean, credited by many as having been the founder of modern Veterinary research. Roles and responsibilities Veterinarians treat disease, disorder or injury in animals, which includes diagnosis, treatment and aftercare. The scope of practice, specialty and experience of the individual veterinarian will dictate exactly what interventions they perform, but most will perform surgery (of differing complexity). Unlike in human medicine, veterinarians must rely primarily on clinical signs, as animals are unable to vocalize symptoms as a human would. In some cases, owners may be able to provide a medical history and the veterinarian can combine this information along with observations, and the results of pertinent diagnostic tests such as radiography, CT scans, MRI, blood tests, urinalysis and others. Veterinarians must consider the appropriateness of euthanasia ("putting to sleep") if a condition is likely to leave the animal in pain or with a poor quality of life, or if treatment of a condition is likely to cause more harm to the patient than good, or if the patient is unlikely to survive any treatment regimen. Additionally, there are scenarios where euthanasia is considered due to the constrains of the client's finances. As with human medicine, much veterinary work is concerned with prophylactic treatment, in order to prevent problems occurring in the future. Common interventions include vaccination against common animal illnesses, such as distemper or rabies, and dental prophylaxis to prevent or inhibit dental disease. This may also involve owner education so as to avoid future medical or behavioral issues. Additionally veterinarians have important roles in public health and the prevention of zoonoses. Employment The majority of veterinarians are employed in private practice treating animals (75% of vets in the United States, according to the American Veterinary Medical Association). Small animal veterinarians typically work in veterinary clinics, veterinary hospitals, or both. Large animal veterinarians often spend more time travelling to see their patients at the primary facilities which house them, such as zoos or farms. Other employers include charities treating animals, colleges of veterinary medicine, research laboratories, animal food companies, and pharmaceutical companies. In many countries, the government may also be a major employer of veterinarians, such as the United States Department of Agriculture or the Animal and Plant Health Agency in the United Kingdom. State and local governments also employ veterinarians. Focus of practice Veterinarians and their practices may be specialized in certain areas of veterinary medicine. Areas of focus include: Exotic animal veterinarian – Specializes in treating animals other than common pets and livestock. Includes reptiles, exotic birds such as parrots and cockatoos, and small mammals such as ferrets, rabbits, and chinchillas. Conservation medicine – The study of the relationship between animal and human health and environmental information. Small animal practice – Usually dogs, cats, and other companion animals/household pets such as hamsters and gerbils. Some practices are canine-only or feline-only practices. Laboratory animal practice – Some veterinarians work in a university or industrial laboratory and are responsible for the care and treatment of laboratory animals of any species (often involving bovines, porcine species, felines, canines, rodents, and even exotic animals). Their responsibility is not only for the health and well-being of the animals, but also for enforcing humane and ethical treatment of the animals in the facility. Large animal practice – Usually referring to veterinarians that work with, variously, livestock and other large farm animals, as well as equine species and large reptiles. Equine medicine – Some veterinarians are specialists in equine medicine. Horses are different in anatomy, physiology, pathology, pharmacology, and husbandry to other domestic species. Specialization in equine veterinary practice is something that is normally developed after qualification, even if students do have some interest before graduation. Food supply medicine – Some veterinarians deal exclusively or primarily with animals raised for food (such as meat, milk, and eggs). Livestock practitioners may deal with ovine (sheep), bovine (cattle) and porcine (swine) species; such veterinarians deal with management of herds, nutrition, reproduction, and minor field surgery. Dairy medicine practice focuses on dairy animals. Poultry medicine practice focuses on the health of flocks of poultry; the field often involves extensive training in pathology, epidemiology, and nutrition of birds. The veterinarian treats the flock and not the individual animals. Food safety practice – Veterinarians are employed by both the food industry and government agencies to advise on and monitor the handling, preparation, and storage of food in ways that prevent foodborne illness. Wildlife medicine – A relatively recent branch of veterinary medicine, focusing on wildlife. Wildlife medicine veterinarians may work with zoologists and conservation medicine practitioners and may also be called out to treat marine species such as sea otters, dolphins, or whales after a natural disaster or oil spill. Aquatic medicine – mostly refers to veterinary care of fish in aquaculture (like salmon, cod, among other species), but can also include care of aquatic mammals. For certain countries with high economic income from aquaculture, this is an important part of the veterinary field (like Norway, Chile). Other countries (particularly those who are landlocked), might have little or no emphasis on aquatic medicine. Dentistry – Many practices are incorporating dentistry into their daily medical services. Veterinary dentistry can extend the life of the patient by preventing oral disease and keeping the teeth and gums of the patient in healthy condition. Veterinary specialties Veterinary specialists are in the minority compared to general practice veterinarians, and tend to be based at points of referral, such as veterinary schools or larger animal hospitals. Unlike human medicine, veterinary specialties often combine both the surgical and medical aspects of a biological system. Veterinary specialties are accredited in North America by the AVMA through the American Board of Veterinary Specialties, in Europe by the European Board of Veterinary Specialisation and in Australasia by the Australasian Veterinary Boards Council. While some veterinarians may have areas of interest outside of recognized specialties, they are not legally specialists. Specialties can cover general topics such as anesthesiology, dentistry, and surgery, as well as organ system focus such as cardiology or dermatology. A full list can be seen at veterinary specialties. Mobile Practice Many veterinarians, especially in large animal practice, offer house calls and farm calls through a mobile practice. The start-up and operating costs of a mobile practice are typically lower than those of a traditional brick and mortar hospital, which can cost millions of dollars or more for equipment and surgical supplies. Costs associated with mobile units can range from as low as $5,000 for a utility box in an SUV to around $250,000 for a fully equipped custom built chassis. The potential advantages to the client are not having to transport the animal, lower stress for the animal, a lower risk of disease transmission from other animals, and convenience. A 2015 study published in the Journal of American Veterinary Medical Association proved that blood pressure readings, pulse rates and body temperature rates were increased by 11–16% when those readings were done in the clinic versus in the home. However, mobile practices often lack the facilities and equipment to provide advanced care, surgery, or hospitalization. Some mobile practices maintain a relationship with a traditional hospital for referral of cases needing more comprehensive care. Salary The last AVMA Report on Veterinary Compensation, published in 2018, indicated private practice associate veterinarians who had board certification earned a mean of $187,000. A veterinarian's salary can easily exceed $300,000 depending on the specialty. The median starting salary for new veterinary graduates without specialization in 2018 was $103,800 in the United States according to the Bureau of Labor Statistics, while the lowest paid earned less than $89,540 annually. States and districts with the highest mean salary are California ($398,340), Michigan ($325,100), Illinois ($324,870), New York ($322,500), and Hawaii ($221,150). Veterinarians who own their own clinics are typically paid a much higher salary. The average owner payout is $400,000 for every $1,000,000 of clinic income. In 2021 there were practices sold with $8-10,000,000 in yearly revenue with the owners drawing salaries of several million dollars. Over 90% of practice owners do not regret purchasing or starting their own practice, according to a 2020 survey of clinic owners. Education and regulation In order to practice, vets must complete an appropriate degree in veterinary medicine, and in most cases must also be registered with the relevant governing body for their jurisdiction. Veterinary science degrees Degrees in veterinary medicine culminate in the award of a veterinary science degree, although the title varies by region. For instance, in North America, graduates will receive a Doctor of Veterinary Medicine (Doctor of Veterinary Medicine or Veterinariae Medicinae Doctoris; DVM or VMD), whereas in the United Kingdom, Australia, New Zealand or India they would be awarded a Bachelor of Veterinary Science, Surgery or Medicine (BVS, BVSc, BVetMed or BVMS), and in Ireland graduates receive a Medicinae Veterinariae Baccalaureus (MVB). In continental Europe, the degree of Doctor Medicinae Veterinariae (DMV, DrMedVet, Dr. med. vet., MVDr.) or Doctor Veterinariae Medicinae (DVM, DrVetMed, Dr. vet. med.) is granted. The award of a bachelor's degree was previously commonplace in the United States, but the degree name and academic standards were upgraded to match the 'doctor' title used by graduates. Comparatively few universities have veterinary schools that offer degrees which are accredited to qualify the graduates as registered vets. For example, there are 30 in the United States, 5 in Canada, 1 in New Zealand, 7 in Australia (4 of which offer degrees accredited by the American Veterinary Medical Association (AVMA)), and 8 in the United Kingdom (4 of which offer degrees accredited by the American Veterinary Medical Association (AVMA)). Due to this scarcity of places for veterinary degrees, admission to veterinary school is competitive and requires extensive preparation. In the United States in 2007, approximately 5,750 applicants competed for the 2,650 seats in the 28 accredited veterinary schools, with an acceptance rate of 46%. With competitive admission, many schools may place heavy emphasis and consideration on a candidate's veterinary and animal experience. Formal experience is a particular advantage to the applicant, often consisting of work with veterinarians or scientists in clinics, agribusiness, research, or some area of health science. Less formal experience is also helpful for the applicant to have, and this includes working with animals on a farm or ranch or at a stable or animal shelter and basic overall animal exposure. In the United States, approximately 80% of admitted students are female. In the early history of veterinary medicine of the United States, most veterinarians were males. However, in the 1990s this ratio reached parity, and now it has been reversed. Preveterinary courses should emphasize the sciences. Most veterinary schools typically require applicants to have taken one year equivalent classes in organic, inorganic chemistry, physics, general biology; and one semester of vertebrate embryology and biochemistry. Usually, the minimal mathematics requirement is college level calculus. Individual schools might require introduction to animal science, livestock judging, animal nutrition, cell biology, and genetics. However, due to the limited availability of these courses, many schools have removed these requirements to widen the pool of possible applicants. Registration and licensing Following academic education, most countries require a vet to be registered with the relevant governing body, and to maintain this license to practice. According to the Bureau of Labor Statistics, veterinarians must be licensed to practice in the United States. Licensing entails passing an accredited program, a national exam, and a state exam. For instance, in the United States, a prospective vet must receive a passing grade on a national board examination, the North America Veterinary Licensing Exam. This exam must be completed over the course of eight hours, and consists of 360 multiple-choice questions, covering all aspects of veterinary medicine, as well as visual material designed to test diagnostic skills. Postgraduate study The percentage electing to undertake further study following registration in the United States has increased from 36.8% to 39.9% in 2008. About 25% of those or about 9% of graduates were accepted into traditional academic internships. Approximately 9% of veterinarians eventually board certify in one of 40 distinct specialties from 22 specialty organizations recognized by the AVMA American Board of Veterinary Specialties (ABVS). ABVS Recognized Veterinary Specialties Source: Curriculum comparison with human medicine The first two-year curriculum in both veterinary and human medical schools are very similar in course names, but in certain subjects are relatively different in content. Considering the courses, the first two-year curriculum usually includes biochemistry, physiology, histology, anatomy, pharmacology, microbiology, epidemiology, pathology and hematology. Some veterinary schools use the same biochemistry, histology, and microbiology books as human medicine students; however, the course content is greatly supplemented to include the varied animal diseases and species differences. In the past, many veterinarians were trained in pharmacology using the same text books used by human physicians. As the specialty of veterinary pharmacology has developed, more schools are using pharmacology textbooks written specifically for veterinarians. Veterinary physiology, anatomy, and histology is complex, as physiology often varies among species. Microbiology and virology of animals share the same foundation as human microbiology, but with grossly different disease manifestation and presentations. Epidemiology is focused on herd health and prevention of herd borne diseases and foreign animal diseases. Pathology, like microbiology and histology, is very diverse and encompasses many species and organ systems. Most veterinary schools have courses in small animal and large animal nutrition, often taken as electives in the clinical years or as part of the core curriculum in the first two years. The final two-year curriculum is similar to that of human medicine only in clinical emphasis. A veterinary student must be well prepared to be a fully functional animal physician on the day of graduation, competent in both surgery and medicine. The graduating veterinarian must be able to pass medical board examination and be prepared to enter clinical practice on the day of graduation, while most human medical doctors in the United States complete 3 to 5 years of post-doctoral residency before practicing medicine independently, usually in a very narrow and focused specialty. Many veterinarians do also complete a post-doctoral residency, but it is not nearly as common as it is in human medicine. In the last years, curricula in both human and veterinary medicine have been adapted with the aim of incorporating competency-based teaching. Furthermore, the importance of institutionalized systematic teacher feedback has been recognized and tools such as clinical encounter cards are being implemented in clinical veterinary education. Impact on human medicine Some veterinarians pursue post-graduate training and enter research careers and have contributed to advances in many human and veterinary medical fields, including pharmacology and epidemiology. Research veterinarians were the first to isolate oncoviruses, Salmonella species, Brucella species, and various other pathogenic agents. Veterinarians were in the forefront in the effort to suppress malaria and yellow fever in the United States. Veterinarians identified the botulism disease-causing agent, developed a widely used anesthetic induction drug, produced an anticoagulant used to treat human heart disease, and developed surgical techniques for humans, such as hip-joint replacement, limb and organ transplants. Occupational hazards Veterinarians work with a wide variety of animal species typically in hospitals, clinics, labs, farms, and zoos. Veterinarians face many occupational hazards including zoonotic diseases, bites and scratches, hazardous drugs, needlestick injuries, ionizing radiation, and noise. According to the U.S. Department of Labor, 12% of workers in the veterinary services profession reported a work-related injury or illness in 2016. Needlestick injuries are the most common accidents among veterinarians, but they are likely underreported. Needlesticks can result in hazardous drug or bloodborne-pathogen exposures. Unlike human medical professionals, veterinarians receive minimal training on safe handling of hazardous drugs in school. Also, a large percentage of veterinarians are women of reproductive age and drug exposures put them at risk of infertility or other adverse health outcomes. Additionally, some antibiotics, steroids, and chemotherapy drugs are known to have negative effects on male fertility. The U.S. National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health has issued guidance on the safe handling of hazardous drugs for veterinary workers. Animal bites and scratches are another common injury in veterinary practice. The close interactions with animals put veterinarians at increased risk of contracting zoonoses. A systematic review of veterinary students found that between 17 – 64% had acquired a zoonotic disease during their studies. The animal species, work setting, health and safety practices, and training can all affect the risk of injury and illness. Veterinary practices need a health and safety plan that addresses infection prevention and other hazards. Noise can be a prominent exposure, in which case a hearing loss prevention program may be recommended. A NIOSH study on kennel noise found that noise levels often exceeded OSHA's permissible exposure limit. Reducing noise is beneficial for animal and human health. Workplaces should utilize engineering controls, administrative controls, and personal protective equipment to keep their employees safe. PPE such as gloves, safety goggles, lab coats, and hearing protection should be readily available with mandatory training on proper usage. Raising awareness is the most important step in promoting workplace health and safety. Veterinarians have high suicide rates in comparison to the general population. A study by the U.S. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention found that male veterinarians are 2.1 times and female veterinarians are 3.5 times as likely as the general population to die by suicide. Some reasons for this could be long hours, work overload, client expectations and complaints, poor remuneration, euthanasia procedures, and poor work-life balance. A survey of more than 11,000 vets found 9% had serious psychological distress, 31% experienced depressive episodes, and 17% had suicidal ideation. Online support groups, such as Not One More Vet, have been established to help veterinarians who may be experiencing suicidal thoughts. Another driver of stress can be student loan debt. A 2013 national survey found that average debt for veterinary medicine graduates was as high as $162,113. Veterinarian lifelong earning potential is less than a physician, so it can take a lot longer to break even. The COVID-19 pandemic has created a greater demand for veterinary services. Many people are home with extra time on their hands, and adoption agencies and animals shelters have seen a surge in pet purchases as a result. The American Veterinary Medical Association has provided COVID-19 resources for veterinarians on prevention measures, animal testing, and wellbeing. In popular culture Reality televisions shows featuring veterinarians include: Bondi Vet, an Australian factual television series. It follows the lives of veterinary surgeon Chris Brown at the Bondi Junction Veterinary Hospital. The Incredible Dr. Pol, a US veterinarian reality show. Produced by National Geographic Wild, a Disney channel. It follows the life of Dr. Jan Pol and Pol Veterinarian Service in Michigan. E-Vet Interns (1998–2002), a US show filmed at Alameda East Veterinary Hospital in Denver, Colorado. Emergency Vets, filmed at Alameda East Veterinary Hospital in Denver, Colorado. Rookie Vets (2005), featuring students at Massey University in New Zealand. Vet School Confidential (2001), following students at Michigan State University College of Veterinary Medicine in the US. Vets in Practice (1997–2002), a British series. Fictional works featuring a veterinarian as the main protagonist include: James Herriot's series of books containing fictionalized stories of his career as a farm animal veterinarian in England, which was adapted as the BBC television series All Creatures Great and Small. The Three Lives of Thomasina about Andrew MacDhui, a veterinarian in a village in Scotland. The Doctor Dolittle series of children's books, which have twice been adapted into movies, Doctor Dolittle (1967), Dr. Dolittle (1998), and Dolittle (2020). The movie Beethoven, featuring the evil veterinarian Dr. Herman Varnick. Veterinary malpractice Most states in the US allow for malpractice lawsuit in case of death or injury to an animal from professional negligence. Usually the penalty is not greater than the value of the animal. Some states allow for punitive penalty, loss of companionship, and suffering, likely increasing the cost of veterinary malpractice insurance and the cost of veterinary care. Most veterinarians carry business, worker's compensation, and facility insurance to protect their clients and workers from injury inflicted by animals. See also Veterinary medicine in the United Kingdom Veterinary medicine in the United States References Further reading Freyberger, P. (2009). Vetting: The Making of a Veterinarian. PJF Publishing. Herriot, James (2004)[1972]. All Creatures Great and Small. St. Martin's Griffin. 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229119	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hobbyist%20operating%20system	Hobbyist operating system	The development of a hobbyist operating system is one of the more involved and technical options for a computer hobbyist. The definition of a hobby operating system can sometimes be vague. It can be from the developer's view, where the developers do it just for fun or learning; it can also be seen from the user's view, where the users are only using it as a toy; or it can be defined as an operating system which doesn't have a very big user base. Development can begin from existing resources like a kernel, an operating system, or a bootloader, or it can also be made completely from scratch. The development platform could be a bare hardware machine, which is the nature of an operating system, but it could also be developed and tested on a virtual machine. Since the hobbyist must claim more ownership for adapting a complex system to the ever-changing needs of the technical terrain, much enthusiasm is common amongst the many different groups attracted to operating system development. Development Elements of operating system development include: Kernel: Bootstrapping Memory management Process management and scheduling Device driver management Program API External programs User interface The C programming language is frequently used for hobby operating system programming, as well as assembly language, though other languages can be used as well. The use of assembly language is common with small systems, especially those based on eight bit microprocessors such as the MOS Technology 6502 family or the Zilog Z80, or in systems with a lack of available resources because of its small output size and low-level efficiency. User interface Most hobby operating systems use a command-line interface or a simple text user interface due to ease of development. More advanced hobby operating systems may have a graphical user interface. For example, AtheOS was a hobby operating system with a graphical interface written entirely by one programmer. Examples Use of BIOS This section is predominantly x86 oriented. The term BIOS (Basic Input/Output System) refers to firmware that initialises computer hardware and has provisions to load an operating system. The BIOS also sets up a standard interface for several low-level device drivers at boot time. BIOS resources are often used by hobbyist operating systems, especially those written on 16-bit x86 machines, as many hobby operating systems developers lack the time to write complex low level drivers themselves or they simply want to get into writing software for the system as soon as possible. The most commonly used BIOS functions are VideoBIOS and Disk services. These are used because video cards and disk drives vary significantly on different machines and specialised drivers are often difficult to write. The use of the BIOS is uncommon in operating systems that operate in Protected mode or Long mode, because the system must switch back to real mode which BIOS drivers run in. See also List of hobbyist operating systems Computer architecture References External links OSDev.org - A hobby OSDev community Independent Software - Set of tutorials on boot loader development and entering protected mode The little book about OS development - This book is a practical guide to writing your own x86 operating system Kernel 101 – Let’s write a Kernel aodfaq - OS development FAQ Bona Fide OS Development - Store of OS development tutorials and other documents A step by step tutorial Operating System Resource Center - Information and resources on various OSDev topics (both software and hardware) Operating system technology	[ 0.2951420545578003, 0.29415881633758545, 0.08637551218271255, 0.4317964017391205, 0.5619275569915771, -0.4757678508758545, -0.12115854024887085, 0.5258368253707886, -0.45709019899368286, -0.4990110695362091, -0.37992197275161743, 0.9588651657104492, -0.29674574732780457, -0.2657504379749298, -0.3100275993347168, 0.3093082010746002, 0.19056624174118042, 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229120	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vet	Vet	Vet, VET or the Vet may refer to: Veterinary physician, a professional who treats disease, disorder and injury in animals Veterinary medicine, the branch of science that deals with animals Veteran, a person with long experience in a particular area, most often in military service during wartime Veterans Stadium, informally "The Vet", a former sports stadium in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania Veterans Stadium (New Britain, Connecticut) Vet River, South Africa Finnish Board of Film Classification (Finnish: ), an institution of the Finnish Ministry of Education Venezuelan Standard Time, a UTC-04:00 time zone Vocational education and training, prepares trainees for jobs that are based on manual or practical activities Sebastian Vettel, a German F1 driver See also Vette (disambiguation) Vetting, a process of an evaluation	[ 1.0324485301971436, 0.2120312750339508, -0.48838740587234497, 0.09101743996143341, 0.22145116329193115, 0.18223783373832703, 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229121	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Omnibus	Omnibus	Omnibus may refer to: Film and television Omnibus (film) Omnibus (broadcast), a compilation of TV episodes Omnibus (UK TV series), an arts-based documentary programme Omnibus (U.S. TV series), an educational program Omnibus (talk show), an Italian series Literature Omnibus edition, a collection of literary works Omnibus Press, a book publisher Omnibus, a Marvel Comics character associated with the Leader Music Albums Omnibus (album), a 2006 album by Tarkio Omnibus, a 2008 album by Blue Mountain Omnibus, a 2001 album by Ruby Braff Omnibus: The 60s Singles As and Bs, a 1999 album by The Move Songs "Omnibus", a song by the Move on the B-side of "Wild Tiger Woman" "Omnibus", a song by XTC from Nonsuch Transport Horse-drawn omnibus or horsebus, a large, enclosed and sprung horse-drawn vehicle used for passenger transport Motor omnibus or autobus, a road vehicle designed to carry passengers Other uses Omnibus, an Italian illustrated magazine (1937–1939) Omnibus (painting), an 1892 painting by Anders Zorn Omnibus (survey), a research method used in interviewing OmniBus (video game), a 2016 video game Omnibus Promotion, a sound effects company Omnibus, a system bus on some varieties of PDP-8 computers Omnibus, a podcast hosted by John Roderick and Ken Jennings See also Anthology film, a feature film consisting of several different short films Bus (computing) Omnibus bill, a single legislative document containing many laws or amendments Omnibus claim, a patent claim which does not explicitly state any technical features of the product or process Omnibus clause Omnibus hearing Omnibus issue, in philately Omnibus law (Serbia), a Serbian law regarding Vojvodina Omnibus progression, a type of harmonic sequence Omnibus spending bill, a single legislative document that sets the budget of many government departments Omnibus test, a type of statistical test The man on the Clapham omnibus Bus (disambiguation) Omni 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229122	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Perching%20duck	Perching duck	The perching ducks were previously treated as a small group of ducks in the duck, goose and swan family Anatidae, grouped together on the basis of their readiness to perch high in trees. It has been subsequently shown that the grouping is paraphyletic and their apparent similarity results from convergent evolution, with the different members more closely related to various other ducks than to each other. The species previously included, and their current subfamilial allocation, are: Plectropterinae Spur-winged goose Plectropterus gambensis Tadorninae Salvadori's teal Salvadorina waigiuensis (initially placed in Anatinae) Blue duck Hymenolaimus malacorhynchos Torrent duck Merganetta armata Anatinae Brazilian teal Amazonetta brasiliensis In addition, several species cannot with certainty be allocated to a subfamily, though they do not form a distinct clade. Rather, their characters are too ambiguous to allow unequivocal placement based on the available data: Comb duck Sarkidiornis melanotos: Tadorninae or basal Anatinae? Pink-eared duck Malacorhynchus membranaceus: Tadorninae or Oxyurinae? Hartlaub's duck Pteronetta hartlaubi: Anatinae or a very distinct clade? Green pygmy goose Nettapus pulchellus: Anatinae or a Gondwanan clade? Cotton pygmy goose Nettapus coromandellanus: Anatinae or a Gondwanan clade? African pygmy goose Nettapus auritus: Anatinae or a Gondwanan clade? Muscovy duck Cairina moschata: Anatinae or Tadorninae? White-winged duck Cairina scutulata: Anatinae or closer to Aythyinae? Wood duck Aix sponsa: Anatinae or Tadorninae? Mandarin duck Aix galericulata: Anatinae or Tadorninae? Ringed teal Callonetta leucophrys: Anatinae or Tadorninae? Maned duck Chenonetta jubata: Anatinae or Tadorninae? 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229124	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Golden%20Raspberry%20Awards	Golden Raspberry Awards	The Golden Raspberry Awards (also known as the Razzies and Razzie Awards) is a parody award show honoring the worst of cinematic under-achievements. Co-founded by UCLA film graduates and film industry veterans John J. B. Wilson and Mo Murphy, the Razzie Awards' satirical annual ceremony has preceded its opposite, the Academy Awards, for four decades. The term raspberry is used in its irreverent sense, as in "blowing a raspberry". The statuette itself is a golf ball-sized raspberry atop a Super 8mm film reel spray-painted gold, with an estimated street value of $4.97. The Golden Raspberry Foundation have claimed that the award "encourages well-known filmmakers and top notch performers to own their bad." The first Golden Raspberry Awards ceremony was held on March 31, 1981, in John J. B. Wilson's living-room alcove in Hollywood, to honor the perceived worst films of the 1980 film season. To date, Sylvester Stallone is the most awarded actor ever with 10 awards won while Madonna is the most awarded actress with nine awards. History American publicist John J. B. Wilson had seen seeing a 99-cent double feature of Can't Stop the Music and Xanadu and thought in his drive home that those movies deserved awards for their low quality, and subsequently started thinking of all the other films that disappointed him in 1980, particularly as he had watched hundreds of productions in his job making trailers. So, the following year, in the potluck parties he usually held at his home in Hollywood on the night of the Academy Awards, after the 53rd Academy Awards had completed for the evening, Wilson passed ballots regarding the worst in film to the attendees, and invited his friends to give random award presentations in his living room. Wilson stood at a podium made of cardboard in a tacky tuxedo, with a foam ball attached to a broomstick as a fake microphone, and announced Can't Stop the Music as the first Golden Raspberry Award Winner for Worst Picture. The impromptu ceremony was a success and the following week a press release about his event was picked up by a few local newspapers, including a mention in the Los Angeles Daily News with the headline: "Take These Envelopes, Please". Approximately three dozen people came to the 1st Golden Raspberry Awards. The 2nd Golden Raspberry Awards had double the attendance, and the 3rd awards ceremony had doubled that number. By the 4th Golden Raspberry Awards ceremony, CNN and two major wire services covered the event. Wilson realized that by scheduling the Golden Raspberry Awards prior to the Academy Awards, the ceremony would get more press coverage: "We finally figured out you couldn't compete with the Oscars on Oscar night, but if you went the night before, when the press from all over the world are here and they are looking for something to do, it could well catch on," he said to BBC News. Format Members of the Golden Raspberry Award Organization pay for membership, and number 650 from 19 countries. After three editions held during Wilson's potluck Oscar parties, Wilson realized that by scheduling the Golden Raspberry Awards prior to the Academy Awards, the ceremony would get more press coverage, and the fourth edition happened at Los Angeles' Third Street Elementary School. The ceremonies have kept this scheduling with both nominations and awards revealed in the day before the Academy Awards, with only two exceptions ever since, that only used the day before the Oscars to reveal the nominees: 2012's 32nd Golden Raspberry Awards, where the ceremony happened on April 1 for being April Fool's Day; and 2020, where the plans for the milestone 40th Golden Raspberry Awards was a bigger, televised ceremony in March, which wound up cancelled due to the COVID-19 pandemic and just had the winners revealed online. Recipients who have accepted their award Recipients who have accepted their Golden Raspberry Award include Tom Green (Worst Actor/Worst Director), Halle Berry and Sandra Bullock (Worst Actress), Michael Ferris and J. D. Shapiro (Worst Screenplay), Paul Verhoeven (Worst Director), eight-time Oscar winner Alan Menken, Dinesh D'Souza, Fifty Shades of Grey producers Dana Brunetti and Michael De Luca. Contenders for worst and best Several people have received Razzie nominations while simultaneously receiving award nominations from other organizations, sometimes for the same work or role. Razzie and Oscar Three people won both a Razzie and an Oscar the same weekend: composer Alan Menken in 1993, director Brian Helgeland in 1997, and actress Sandra Bullock in 2010, though all three won for different films (for example, Helgeland won a Razzie for The Postman and an Oscar for L.A. Confidential). Three actors have received Oscar and Razzie nominations for the same role: James Coco (Only When I Laugh), Amy Irving (Yentl) and Glenn Close (Hillbilly Elegy). The Aerosmith song "I Don't Want to Miss a Thing" from Armageddon was nominated for both an Academy Award for Best Original Song and a Golden Raspberry Award for Worst Original Song, as were the Trisha Yearwood song "How Do I Live" from the 1997 film Con Air and the Tony Bennett song "Life in a Looking Glass" from the 1986 film That's Life!. Gena Rowlands was nominated for the Academy Award for Best Actress for her role in the 1980 John Cassavetes film Gloria while her co-star John Adames won the Worst Supporting Actor alongside co-winner Laurence Olivier in The Jazz Singer (1980). Wall Street (1987) is the only film to win both an Oscar and a Razzie. Michael Douglas won the Academy Award for Best Actor, while Daryl Hannah's performance won the Razzie for Worst Supporting Actress. Disney's The Lone Ranger won one Razzie (Worst Remake) of its five nominations, and was also nominated for two Oscars (for Best Makeup and Hairstyling and Best Visual Effects). The 1983 romance/dance film Flashdance was nominated for the Razzie Award for Worst Screenplay and won an Oscar for Best Original Song for Irene Cara's "Flashdance... What a Feeling". While 1992's The Bodyguard was a critical failure (earning seven Razzie nominations), it was a huge box office hit and, moreover, its multi-platinum soundtrack album earned two nominations for Best Original Song. Joker (2019) was the most nominated film at the 92nd Academy Awards, with 11 nominations including the Best Picture, and won two including the Best Actor. However, the film's polarized critical reception resulted in it earning a nomination in the special Razzie category of Worst Reckless Disregard for Human Life and Public Property, which it lost to Rambo: Last Blood. This nomination also made Joker the second film to be nominated for the Academy Award for Best Picture and a Razzie, after 1990's The Godfather Part III. Borat Subsequent Moviefilm was nominated for Best Adapted Screenplay and Best Supporting Actress for Maria Bakalova at the 93rd Academy Awards in the same year it was nominated for Worst Supporting Actor for Rudy Giuliani and Worst Screen Combo for Giuliani and Bakalova (later changed to Giuliani and "his pants zipper"). Razzie and Annie Award In spite of the heavily negative critical consensus (winning only one of its six nominations), the 2012 action film Battleship was also nominated for an Annie Award for Best Animated Effects in a Live Action Production. Despite receiving the Golden Raspberry Award for Worst Supporting Actor for his portrayal of Jar Jar Binks in Star Wars Episode I: The Phantom Menace, voice actor Ahmed Best won an Annie Award in 2009 for the portrayal of the same character in the animated TV episode Robot Chicken: Star Wars Episode II. Razzie and Golden Globe Neil Diamond, winner of the inaugural Worst Actor Razzie for 1980's The Jazz Singer, was nominated for the Golden Globe in the same role. 1988's Cocktail won two of its four nominations for Worst Picture and Worst Screenplay, but the Beach Boys's song "Kokomo" was also nominated for a Golden Globe for Best Original Song. Despite being a major critical and commercial failure, and only receiving the most awards and nominations (including Worst Picture and Worst Director (Tom Hooper)), the 2019 film Cats was also nominated for a Golden Globe for Best Original Song for Taylor Swift's song "Beautiful Ghosts". The Sia-directed autism musical Music, nominated for four Razzies, was also nominated for two Golden Globes: Best Actress (Kate Hudson, who won a Razzie) and Best Picture, both for Musical or Comedy. Razzie and Grammy Various songs received wins/nominations for both the Razzie and the Grammy Awards, such as Madonna's "Die Another Day" (Best Dance Recording), Will Smith's "Wild Wild West" (Best Rap Solo Performance), Britney Spears' "Overprotected" (Best Female Pop Vocal Performance), U2's "Hold Me, Thrill Me, Kiss Me, Kill Me" (Best Rock Performance by a Duo or Group with Vocal), The Smashing Pumpkins' "The End Is the Beginning Is the End" (Best Hard Rock Performance), and LeAnn Rimes' "How Do I Live" (Best Female Country Vocal Performance). Razzie and Tony Ben Platt won a Tony Award for Best Actor in a Musical playing the titular character in Dear Evan Hansen in 2017 and received a Razzie nomination for Worst Actor for the same role for the 2021 film adaptation. Razzie and Saturn Award In 1981, Stanley Kubrick was nominated both for a Razzie Award as Worst Director at the 1st Golden Raspberry Awards as well as for a Saturn Award for Best Director at the 8th Saturn Awards for the same film: [[The Shining (film)\|The Shining]]. In 2002, Natalie Portman was nominated for Worst Supporting Actress and for the Saturn Award for Best Actress for the same role in Star Wars: Episode II – Attack of the Clones. Cassandra Peterson was nominated for Worst Actress at the 9th Golden Raspberry Awards and for Best Actress at the 16th Saturn Awards for her role as Elvira in the 1988 film Elvira: Mistress of the Dark. In 2001, whilst Tim Burton's Planet of the Apes garnered all three Razzies it was nominated for, Rick Baker's makeup designs were very well received, that it earned him a Saturn Award nomination for Best Makeup, while Helena Bonham Carter, Tim Roth and Colleen Atwood were respectively nominated for Best Supporting Actress, Best Supporting Actor, and Best Costume. The 1997 apocalyptic film The Postman "received" all five awards, but also three Saturn nominations. Razzie and international awards In 1985, Michael Cimino's Year of the Dragon, which was nominated for five Razzie Awards (including Worst Picture) at the 6th Golden Raspberry Awards, was also nominated for the César Award for Best Foreign Film (César du meilleur film étranger) and was listed by the prestigious French magazine Cahiers du Cinéma as the third best film of 1985. In 2017, Darren Aronofsky, director of Mother!, was nominated for both the Worst Director Razzie at the 38th Golden Raspberry Awards and the Golden Lion at the 74th Venice International Film Festival. In 2018, the mystery comedy Holmes & Watson won four of its six nominations (including Worst Picture and Worst Director (Etan Cohen)) at the 39th Golden Raspberry Awards, but was also nominated for two ALFS Awards (including British Actor (Steve Coogan) and Young British Performer (Noah Jupe)). Despite Johnny Depp receiving two Razzie nominations for his performance in the film, Emily Blunt received an ALFS Award nomination for her performance in the CGI-animated box office hit Sherlock Gnomes. She also received nominations for her parts in the critically acclaimed movies A Quiet Place and Mary Poppins Returns. While M. Night Shyamalan's After Earth tied Movie 43 for the most awards with three, it also brought its composer James Newton Howard a World Soundtrack Award nomination for Film Composer of the Year. Categories Current Awards Worst Picture: 1980 to present Worst Director: 1980 to present Worst Actor: 1980 to present Worst Actress: 1980 to present Worst Supporting Actor: 1980 to present Worst Supporting Actress: 1980 to present Worst Screenplay: 1980 to present Worst Prequel, Remake, Rip-off or Sequel: 1994 to present, except 1996 and 1999 Worst Screen Combo: 2013 to present Razzie Redeemer Award: 2014 to present Retired Worst Original Song: 1980 to 1999, 2002 Worst New Star: 1981 to 1998, except 1989 Worst Musical Score: 1981 to 1985 Worst Visual Effects: 1986 to 1987 Worst Screen Couple: 1994 to 2009, 2011 to 2012 Worst Screen Couple/Worst Screen Ensemble: 2010 Worst Screen Ensemble: 2011 to 2012 Special categories Special categories have also been introduced for specific years. Such special awards include: Anniversary Awards Every decade-closing ceremony includes an award for the worst actors and movies of the decade—though the 2000 ceremony put the actors as worst of the 20th century instead. Special prizes for the 25th anniversary of the Razzies awards were also given out in 2005. Other types of awards Razzie Redeemer Award The Razzie Redeemer Award is presented to a former nominee or winner who has subsequently made a comeback from critical or commercial failure. The award was introduced in 2014. Winners include Ben Affleck, Sylvester Stallone, Mel Gibson, "A Safe Hollywood-Haven", Melissa McCarthy, and Eddie Murphy. Worst Career Achievement This award has been given five times, to Ronald Reagan in 1981, to Linda Blair in 1983, to Irwin Allen in 1985, to "Bruce the Rubber Shark" from Jaws in 1987, and to director Uwe Boll in 2009 who received this for his achievement as "Germany's answer to Ed Wood". Governor's Award This is a special award given by Razzie Award Governor John J. B. Wilson to an individual whose achievements are not covered by the Razzies' other categories. It was awarded in 2003 to Travis Payne for "Distinguished Under-Achievement in Choreography" in the film From Justin to Kelly. Barry L. Bumstead Award This award is given to a critical and financial failure that would have been nominated if it had received an eligible release. It was awarded in 2015 to United Passions, to Misconduct in 2016, in 2017 to CHiPs and in 2018 to Billionaire Boys Club. Ceremonies 1980: 1st Golden Raspberry Awards 1981: 2nd Golden Raspberry Awards 1982: 3rd Golden Raspberry Awards 1983: 4th Golden Raspberry Awards 1984: 5th Golden Raspberry Awards 1985: 6th Golden Raspberry Awards 1986: 7th Golden Raspberry Awards 1987: 8th Golden Raspberry Awards 1988: 9th Golden Raspberry Awards 1989: 10th Golden Raspberry Awards 1990: 11th Golden Raspberry Awards 1991: 12th Golden Raspberry Awards 1992: 13th Golden Raspberry Awards 1993: 14th Golden Raspberry Awards 1994: 15th Golden Raspberry Awards 1995: 16th Golden Raspberry Awards 1996: 17th Golden Raspberry Awards 1997: 18th Golden Raspberry Awards 1998: 19th Golden Raspberry Awards 1999: 20th Golden Raspberry Awards 2000: 21st Golden Raspberry Awards 2001: 22nd Golden Raspberry Awards 2002: 23rd Golden Raspberry Awards 2003: 24th Golden Raspberry Awards 2004: 25th Golden Raspberry Awards 2005: 26th Golden Raspberry Awards 2006: 27th Golden Raspberry Awards 2007: 28th Golden Raspberry Awards 2008: 29th Golden Raspberry Awards 2009: 30th Golden Raspberry Awards 2010: 31st Golden Raspberry Awards 2011: 32nd Golden Raspberry Awards 2012: 33rd Golden Raspberry Awards 2013: 34th Golden Raspberry Awards 2014: 35th Golden Raspberry Awards 2015: 36th Golden Raspberry Awards 2016: 37th Golden Raspberry Awards 2017: 38th Golden Raspberry Awards 2018: 39th Golden Raspberry Awards 2019: 40th Golden Raspberry Awards 2020: 41st Golden Raspberry Awards 2021: 42nd Golden Raspberry Awards Criticism The Razzies have received criticism, including from news sources such as Indiewire and The Daily Telegraph, for several issues, including that members of the Golden Raspberry Foundation are not required to watch the nominated films, it follows different set of rules which is different from the invitation-only Academy of Motion Picture Arts and Sciences. Critics take issue with the Razzies picking "easy targets" and critically panned mainstream films instead of those perceived as less popular but more deserving productions, continuing to appeal to celebrities, seemingly for publicity and attention, over other, worthier films and performances. Sam Adams of Indiewire has said the Razzies are "like hecklers hurling insults at comedians or a concertgoer yelling out 'Whoo!' during a quiet song, they're not-so-secretly crying out to be noticed. The Razzies, properly enough, avoid pouncing on the little guy; they don't trash no-budget indies no one has seen for having bad lighting or terrible sound". Robbie Collin of The Daily Telegraph has said "the Razzies' ongoing failure to train its sights on anything but the most obvious targets means it grows more tired and redundant by the year". CraveOnline's William Bibbiani stated that the Razzies follow "a cheap shot of pranksterism", and "with only a handful of exceptions, only seen fit to nominate the most infamous movies of the year, and not necessarily the worst." In 2018, Scott Meslow, writing for GQ, accused the Razzies of being "pretty lazy, very sexist, and a little racist" in their choices, reiterating criticism that voters were overreliant on films already widely perceived as notorious, and further asserting they disproportionally nominated films directed by and starring Tyler Perry and films marketed towards women. See also Academy Awards Stinkers Bad Movie Awards The Golden Turkey Awards'' Golden Kela Awards List of films considered the worst List of people who have accepted Golden Raspberry Awards References External links Razzie Awards page on the Internet Movie Database Razzie channel on YouTube All Time Razzie Champions List American film awards Lists of worsts Awards established in 1981 Ironic and humorous awards Award ceremonies	[ -0.04670475795865059, 0.1348893791437149, 0.29781442880630493, 0.2888520061969757, -0.43827134370803833, -0.25317132472991943, 0.4315658211708069, 0.117477647960186, -0.2998925745487213, 0.19128546118736267, -0.5030941963195801, 0.5376206636428833, 0.19539617002010345, 0.5451573133468628, -0.39423254132270813, 0.3158133327960968, 0.28262731432914734, 0.6306912899017334, 0.4524075984954834, -0.5886729955673218, -0.5028902888298035, 0.32529395818710327, 0.821718692779541, -0.797713577747345, -0.3242162764072418, 0.2843102514743805, 0.17441114783287048, 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229125	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/George%20Stubbs	George Stubbs	George Stubbs (25 August 1724 – 10 July 1806) was an English painter, best known for his paintings of horses. Self-trained, Stubbs learnt his skills independently from other great artists of the eighteenth century such as Reynolds or Gainsborough. Stubbs' output includes history paintings, but his greatest skill was in painting animals, perhaps influenced by his love and study of anatomy. His series of paintings on the theme of a lion attacking a horse are early and significant examples of the Romantic movement that emerged in the late 18th century. His painting, Whistlejacket, hangs in the National Gallery, London. Biography Stubbs was born in Liverpool, the son of a currier, or leather-dresser, John Stubbs, and his wife Mary. Information on his life until the age of 35 or so is sparse, relying almost entirely on notes made by Ozias Humphry, a fellow artist and friend; Humphry's informal memoir, which was not intended for publication, was based on a series of private conversations he had with Stubbs around 1794, when Stubbs was 70 years old, and Humphry 52. Stubbs worked at his father's trade until the age of 15 or 16, at which point he told his father that he wished to become a painter. While initially resistant, Stubbs's father (who died not long after in 1741), eventually acquiesced in his son's choice of a career path, on the condition that he could find an appropriate mentor. Stubbs subsequently approached the Lancashire painter and engraver Hamlet Winstanley, and was briefly engaged by him in a sort of apprenticeship relationship, probably not more than several weeks in duration. Having initially demonstrated his abilities and agreed to do some copying work, Stubbs had access to and opportunity to study the collection at Knowsley Hall near Liverpool, the estate where Winstanley was then residing; however, he soon left when he came into conflict with the older artist over exactly which pictures he could work on copying. Thereafter as an artist he was self-taught. He had had a passion for anatomy from his childhood, and in or around 1744, he moved to York, in the North of England, to pursue his ambition to study the subject under experts. In York, from 1745 to 1753, he worked as a portrait painter, and studied human anatomy under the surgeon Charles Atkinson, at York County Hospital, One of his earliest surviving works is a set of illustrations for a textbook on midwifery by John Burton, Essay towards a Complete New System of Midwifery, published in 1751. In 1754 Stubbs visited Italy. Forty years later he told Ozias Humphry that his motive for going to Italy was, "to convince himself that nature was and is always superior to art whether Greek or Roman, and having renewed this conviction he immediately resolved upon returning home". In 1756 he rented a farmhouse in the village of Horkstow, Lincolnshire, and spent 18 months dissecting horses, assisted by his common-law wife, Mary Spencer. He moved to London in about 1759 and in 1766 published The anatomy of the Horse. The original drawings are now in the collection of the Royal Academy. Even before his book was published, Stubbs's drawings were seen by leading aristocratic patrons, who recognised that his work was more accurate than that of earlier horse painters such as James Seymour, Peter Tillemans and John Wootton. In 1759 the 3rd Duke of Richmond commissioned three large pictures from him, and his career was soon secure. By 1763 he had produced works for several more dukes and other lords and was able to buy a house in Marylebone, a fashionable part of London, where he lived for the rest of his life. A famous work, Whistlejacket, a painting of the thoroughbred race horse rising on his hind legs, commissioned by the 2nd Marquess of Rockingham, is now in the National Gallery in London. This and two other paintings carried out for Rockingham break with convention in having plain backgrounds. Throughout the 1760s he produced a wide range of individual and group portraits of horses, sometimes accompanied by hounds. He often painted horses with their grooms, whom he always painted as individuals. Meanwhile, he also continued to accept commissions for portraits of people, including some group portraits. From 1761 to 1776 he exhibited at the Society of Artists of Great Britain, but in 1775 he switched his allegiance to the recently founded but already more prestigious Royal Academy of Arts. Stubbs also painted more exotic animals including lions, tigers, giraffes, monkeys, and rhinoceroses, which he was able to observe in private menageries. His painting of a kangaroo was the first glimpse of this animal for many 18th-century Britons. He became preoccupied with the theme of a wild horse threatened by a lion and produced several variations on this theme. These and other works became well known at the time through engravings of Stubbs's work, which appeared in increasing numbers in the 1770s and 1780s. Stubbs also painted historical pictures, but these are much less well regarded. From the late 1760s he produced some work on enamel. In the 1770s Josiah Wedgwood developed a new and larger type of enamel panel at Stubbs's request. Stubbs hoped to achieve commercial success with his paintings in enamel, but the venture left him in debt. Also in the 1770s he painted single portraits of dogs for the first time, while also receiving an increasing number of commissions to paint hunts with their packs of hounds. He remained active into his old age. In the 1780s he produced a pastoral series called Haymakers and Reapers, and in the early 1790s he enjoyed the patronage of the Prince of Wales, whom he painted on horseback in 1791. His last project, begun in 1795, was A comparative anatomical exposition of the structure of the human body with that of a tiger and a common fowl, fifteen engravings from which appeared between 1804 and 1806. The project was left unfinished upon Stubbs's death at the age of 81 on 10 July 1806, in London. He was buried in the graveyard of Marylebone Church, now a public garden. Stubbs's son George Townly Stubbs was an engraver and printmaker. A lion attacking a horse Stubbs began an informal series of works on the subject of a lion attacking a horse around 1762 or 1763, and he continued to explore and reinterpret the theme in at least 17 images over a period of about 30 years. These paintings are among his most celebrated and influential works. One art historian wrote "The appearance of the monumental picture now in the Mellon Collection [A Lion Attacking a Horse, ca. 1762-63] must be treated as one of the outstanding events in English eighteenth-century art for within the context of painting at that date its singularity as well as its inherent originality is most striking. Not since the publication of Hogarth's Harlot's Progress thirty years before had there occurred such an innovation." The iconic paintings are in fact among the earliest manifestations of Romanticism in painting, predating the work of more familiar masters of the movement such as William Blake, Eugène Delacroix, Francisco Goya, William Turner, and Théodore Géricault, who was known to be an admirer of both horses, and the work of George Stubbs. Jean Clay, professor of art history at the University of Paris, perceptively observed that not only does the energy and terror of the animals foreshadow the spirit of romanticism but, as Stubbs's series progressed, the horror seemed to diffuse and expand throughout the whole of the landscape: "an image that would fertilize the Romantic imagination and come to full flower a half-century later." The series are mostly oil paintings on canvas, but also include examples of enamel on copper, original engravings, and even a relief model in Wedgwood clay. The white horse was painted from one of the Kings Horses in the Mews, secured for the artist by an architect friend, Mr. Payne. Stubbs was able to study a lion in life that was in the menagerie of Lord Shellburne at Hounslow Heath. The earliest work is a life-size painting of A Lion Attacking a Horse (ca. 1762-63), which was commissioned by the 2nd Marquess of Rockingham and now in the Yale Center for British Art. Art historian Basil Taylor postulated the theme was treated in three distinct episodes: Episode A, a lion prowling at some distance from a terrified horse; Episode B, a lion close to a terrified horse; Episode C a lion on the horse's back biting its flank. Interestingly, Stubbs first painted "Episode C", and it was not until later that he was inspired to go back and paint the moments leading up to the climatic event. An anecdote regarding the origin of the subject matter emerged soon after the artist death, originally published in The Sporting Magazine in 1808, and reiterate often for well over a century and a half. Art historian H. W. Janson repeated it "On a visit to North Africa, he had seen a horse killed by a lion; this experience haunted his imagination, and from it he developed a new type of animal picture full of Romantic feeling for the grandeur and violence of nature." However, research published in 1965 produced a rather persuasive argument that Stubbs in fact never traveled to Africa, and the actual inspiration for the painting was an antique sculpture he had seen in a well documented 1754 stay in Rome. The sculpture, Lion Seizing a Horse, in the Palazzo dei Conservatori, Rome, is a restored Roman copy of a Hellenistic original. It has been a celebrated work since the Renaissance, admired by Michelangelo, included in guidebooks of Stubbs's day, and copied any number of times by various artist in marble, bronze, and prints, including an 18th century marble copy in the collection of Stubbs's patron Henry Blundell, who also acquired one of the paintings by Stubbs. Legacy Stubbs remained a secondary figure in British art until the mid-twentieth century. The art historian Basil Taylor and art collector Paul Mellon both championed Stubbs's work. Stubbs's Pumpkin with a Stable-lad was the first painting that Mellon bought in 1936. Basil Taylor was commissioned in 1955 by Pelican Press to write the book Animal Painting in England – From Barlow to Landseer, which included a large segment on Stubbs. In 1959 Mellon and Taylor first met and bonded over their appreciation of Stubbs. This led Mellon to create the Paul Mellon Foundation for British Art (The predecessor of the Paul Mellon Centre for Studies in British Art) with Taylor as the director. Mellon eventually amassed the largest collection of Stubbs paintings in the world which would become a part of his larger collection of British art that would become the Yale Center for British Art. In 1971, Taylor published the seminal catalogue, Stubbs. The record price for a Stubbs painting was set by the sale at auction of Gimcrack on Newmarket Heath, with a Trainer, a Stable-Lad, and a Jockey (1765) at Christie's in London in July 2011 for £22.4 million. It was sold by the British Woolavington Collection of sporting art; the buyer was unidentified. The British Royal Collection holds 16 paintings by Stubbs. Two paintings by Stubbs were bought by the National Maritime Museum in Greenwich, London after a public appeal to raise the £1.5 million required. The two paintings, The Kongouro from New Holland and Portrait of a Large Dog were both painted in 1772. Depicting a kangaroo and a dingo respectively, they are the first depictions of Australian animals in Western art. His work was shown in a retrospective exhibition at the Whitechapel Gallery in London, 27 February – 7 April 1957. The Tate Britain, in conjunction with the Yale Center for British Art, organized the largest exhibition ever devoted to Stubbs (up to that time) in 1984, which traveled to New Haven in 1985. Gallery Horses Dogs Exotic wildlife List of selected artworks In the Yale Center for British Art In the Tate Gallery In the Royal Collection In the National Museums Liverpool In the National Gallery, London Whistlejacket (1762) A Gentleman driving a Lady in a Phaeton (1787) The Milbanke and Melbourne Families (c.1769) In the National Maritime Museum, Greenwich The Kongouro from New Holland (1772) Portrait of a Large Dog (1772) In other collections Hunterian Museum and Art Gallery, University of Glasgow The Moose (1770) The Nilgai (1769) A Blackbuck (1770–1780) Hunterian Museum (London) The Yak of Tartary (1791) Rhinoceros (1790–1792) Drill and Albino Baboon (before 1789) British Sporting Art Trust A Pointer (a pair) A Spaniel (a pair) Lord Clanbrassil with Hunter Mowbrary (1769) Fighting Stallions (1791) National Trust British racehorse "Hambletonian" National Gallery of Art, Washington Captain Samuel Sharpe Pocklington with His Wife, Pleasance, and possibly His Sister, Frances (1769) White Poodle in a Punt (c. 1780) Victoria and Albert MuseumGoose with Outspread WingsLions and a Lioness with a Rocky Background (1776) The Portland Collection The 3rd Duke of Portland on horseback at Welbeck Abbey William Henry Cavendish-Bentinck, 3rd Duke of Portland and his younger brother Lord Edward See also Animal art English school of painting References Further reading Boyle, Frederick & Mayer, Joseph. Memoirs of Thomas Dodd, William Upcott, and George Stubbs, R.A. (Liverpool: D. Marples, 1879). Egerton, Judy. George Stubbs, 1724–1806 (Tate Gallery Publications, 1984). Egerton, Judy. George Stubbs, Painter. Catalogue Raisonné (New Haven and London: Published for the Paul Mellon Centre for Studies in British Art by Yale University Press, 2007) Rump, Gerhard C. Pferde und Jagdbilder in der englischen Kunst. Studien zu George Stubbs und dem Genre der "Sporting Art" von 1650–1830 (Olms: Hildesheim, New York, 1983) Gilbey, Walter. Animal Painters of England from the Year 1650, Volume 2 (Vinton, 1900) p. 192 ff. Morrison, Venetia. Art of George Stubbs (Headline Book Pub., 1989). Myrone, Martin. George Stubbs (British Artists series) (Tate Publishing, 2002). Taylor, Basil. Stubbs'' (London: Phaidon Prees, 1971) External links George Stubbs online (Artcyclopedia) George Stubbs – a celebration (Walker Art Gallery) George Stubbs (Encyclopedia of Irish and World Art) George Stubbs's biography (Mezzo Mundo Fine Art) Paintings by George Stubbs (Tate Gallery) Profile on Royal Academy of Arts Collections Selected images from Anatomy of the Horse From The College of Physicians of Philadelphia Digital Library Judy Egerton archive 1724 births 1806 deaths 18th-century English painters English male painters 19th-century English painters Equine artists Artists from Liverpool English enamellers 18th-century enamellers 19th-century enamellers Associates of the Royal Academy	[ 0.19944550096988678, 0.13380363583564758, -1.0006648302078247, -0.18898120522499084, 0.361497700214386, 0.8773769736289978, 0.8065335154533386, -0.16941723227500916, -0.48551616072654724, -0.04955417290329933, -0.02000219002366066, 0.22238129377365112, -0.33893221616744995, -0.2746555805206299, 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229127	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Netherlands%20Carillon	Netherlands Carillon	The Netherlands Carillon is a 127-foot (39-m) tall campanile housing a 53-bell carillon. The instrument and tower were given in the 1950s "From the People of the Netherlands to the People of the United States of America" to thank the United States for its contributions to the liberation of the Netherlands from Nazi Germany in 1945 and for its economic aid in the years after. The Netherlands Carillon is a historic property listed on the National Register of Historic Places as part of Arlington Ridge Park, which is part of the George Washington Memorial Parkway. It is owned and operated by the National Park Service. The carillon is situated on a ridge overlooking the Potomac River and Washington, DC, and it provides expansive views of the National Mall, West Potomac Park (its original, temporary location), and Arlington National Cemetery. Its adjacency to the Marine Corps War Memorial to the north and Arlington National Cemetery to the south draws 1.2 million visitors annually, including recreational visitors from Rosslyn's residential areas. Throughout the day, the carillon automatically plays the Westminster Quarters. On significant days of the year in Dutch and American culture, it plays automated concerts, and from June to August, the director-carillonist Edward Nassor hosts a concert series whereby visiting carillonists perform weekly concerts on the instrument. History In late 1951, Govert L. Verheul, press officer of the Dutch Ministry of Economic Affairs in The Hague, proposed that the Netherlands present a gift to the United States to commemorate their actions during and after World War II and as a symbol of the two countries' lasting friendship. He came up with the idea of gifting a carillon when washing dishes one night and accidentally clinking wine glasses together. Consequently, a large-scale fundraising campaign was launched, and it received an enthusiastic response. It was eventually endorsed by Queen Juliana. On April 4, 1952, she visited the United States to present a small silver bell to President Harry S. Truman as a token of the carillon that was to come. In ceremonies at Meridian Hill Park in Washington, DC, the queen spoke of the importance of the small bells of the future instrument: Two years later, forty-nine bells arrived and were installed in West Potomac Park, where they were formally accepted by the United States. The Netherlands did not initially have the money to provide a proper campanile for the carillon, so it was housed in a temporary structure. Gerrit Rietveld, a Dutch furniture designer and architect, was approached to design the campanile, but he was eventually removed from the project because of his perceived communist sympathies. Instead, renowned Dutch architect Joost W. C. Boks designed the carillon's permanent home. The tower was erected just north of Arlington National Cemetery and south of the Marine Corps War Memorial and was completed by early 1960. The carillon and new tower received a formal dedication ceremony on May 5, 1960, or the fifteenth anniversary of Dutch Liberation Day. The inaugural concert was performed by renowned carillonist Charles T. Chapman. A tulip library was planted in a circular bed immediately to the east of the plaza in 1964, also a gift from the Netherlands. A small successional woodland to the southwest forms the backdrop to the carillon as a result of the 1960s National Capital Parks Planting Plan. Additional landscaped beds in the form of musical notes were planted in 1967 and 1972 as part of Lady Bird Johnson’s Beautification Program, with a variety of annuals and perennials, in addition to tulips. The program also planted the horseshoe of trees for the campanile's backdrop. After its dedication in 1960, the carillon was seldom played. It only performed for Easter Sunday services sponsored by the Arlington Ministerial Association. The few performances were by Frank Péchin Law. He assumed the position of director-carillonist after his instrumental involvement in establishing the "Summer Series of Recitals on the Netherlands Carillon" in July 1963, sponsored by the US Department of the Interior. Every Saturday from July through August, the carillon is played by a guest carillonist, invited by the director-carillonist. In the early 1970s, the Netherlands Carillon was repainted from a dark bronze to a gray blue color. In 1983, less than twenty-five years after the carillon's construction and after years of pressure from Mr. Law, a major renovation was undertaken to address deterioration of the tower's steel panels. The National Park Service announced a $300,000 () renovation plan for the instrument in 1981, but budget issues delayed the project. Again, the tower was repainted the light gray blue color, neither time with the approval of the Commission of Fine Arts. Upon Mr. Law's death in 1985, the Netherlands Carillon fell silent until Edward M. Nassor took over the position of director-carillonist in 1987. In the years before the fiftieth anniversary of Dutch Liberation Day in 1995, a group of prominent Dutch businessmen established a foundation to assist in the refurbishment of the carillon and tower, which had not seen major care since 1970. They were motivated by the significance of the meaning behind the Netherlands Carillon to lead this effort. By teaming up with the Netherlands Chamber of Commerce in the United States, the Netherland-America Foundation, and the government of the Netherlands, approximately $1,400,000 () was raised for the project to move forward. The tower was closed for modernization changes, and the original dark bronze color of the tower was restored. The bells were transported to the Netherlands to be repaired by Royal Eijsbouts, except for the largest thirteen, which remained in the tower and were repaired in place. The original playing keyboard was replaced. Royal Eijsbouts also cast a fiftieth bell in celebration of the fiftieth anniversary of Dutch liberation. It was presented by Dutch Prime Minister Wim Kok to U.S. President Bill Clinton on February 28, 1995, and the renovated carillon was dedicated on May 5, 1995. After receiving the new bell, President Clinton commented on its significance: The Netherlands Carillon found itself in bad shape again less than twenty years later. Due to severe rusting and fears of structural instability, the tower was closed to the public in the early 2010s. In 2016, the National Park Service and Royal Netherlands Embassy launched a campaign to fundraise money for a $5,800,000 () restoration of the carillon. The Park Service committed $4 million. In October 2019, the third renovation of the carillon was officially launched. The National Park Service was tasked with work on the tower, while the Royal Netherlands Embassy was tasked with work on the carillon. The carillon was transported to the Royal Eijsbouts foundry and arrived on December 3, 2019. In celebration of the Dutch "75 Years of Freedom" campaign, the carillon received three new bells with each dedicated to an American who had a significant impact on Dutch and American society: General George C. Marshall, Martin Luther King Jr., and Eleanor Roosevelt. The addition of these three bells converted the carillon to a concert pitch instrument and upgraded it to "grand carillon" status. The tower required extensive restorative work to the steel plates and inner structure of the tower. Additional supports were installed to account for the added weight of the three new bells. The first carillon at the Arlington National Cemetery was installed by Amvets in 1949 and dedicated by President Truman. Design and symbolism Carillon In the early 1950s, there were three major Dutch bell founders: Van Bergen, Royal Eijsbouts and Petit & Fritsen. In order to avoid showing favoritism, all three founders were asked to cast the original forty-nine bells jointly and anonymously between 1952 and 1953. The total weight of the bells is , ranging from for the bourdon (i.e. largest) bell and for the smallest. The bells are constructed of a bronze alloy of approximately four-fifths copper and one-fifth tin. Each bell carries an emblem signifying a group within Dutch society. The verses cast on the bells were composed by the Dutch poet, Ben van Eysselsteijn. A fiftieth bell, cast by Royal Eijsbouts, was added following Dutch- and American-sponsored renovations in 1995, and dedicated on May 5, the fiftieth anniversary of the liberation of the Netherlands. It is two semitones higher in pitch than the lightest of the original forty-nine bells. The years "1945" and "1995" and the words "freedom" and "friendship" are inscribed on this bell. The 2019–21 renovation increased the size of the carillon to fifty-three bells, all cast by Royal Eijsbouts, and converted the instrument to concert pitch. These three additional bells are dedicated jointly to "75 Years of Freedom" and individually to people who had a major impact on the Netherlands and the United States during and after World War II: 1) General George C. Marshall for his role in the Marshall Plan, from which the Netherlands received over $1 billion for post-war reconstruction efforts; 2) the Rev. Dr. Martin Luther King Jr., for his role as the voice of the American civil rights movement; and 3) Eleanor Roosevelt, for her role as an advocate for social justice and human rights. Tower The carillon's bells hang dead in a tower approximately high, long, and wide. The original plans had called for the structure to be tall, but was then reduced after receiving concerns about its height in relationship to the Lincoln Memorial from the Commission of Fine Arts. The tower is an open steel structure reinforced by steel plates and a bronze baked-enamel finish. It was designed by renowned Dutch architect Joost W. C. Boks (1904–1986) and constructed in 1960. At the base of the tower, a rectangular staircase leads to an observation deck off the ground. From there, a spiral staircase winds further upward to a second observatory off the ground. The playing cabin sits in the center of the upper observation deck. At the base of the tower, a large inscription reads "From the People of the Netherlands to the People of the United States of America." The interconnecting lines and rectangles of the structure's frame echo the work of Dutch abstract painter Piet Mondrian. The tower's design also reflects the rejection of classical European architecture, which, in the years immediately following World War II, was associated with fascist regimes. The Netherlands Carillon is the first modernist steel memorial associated with the otherwise classical stone architecture found on the National Mall. Grounds The Netherlands Carillon stands on a quartzite plaza and is enclosed by a low lava stone wall. Two bronze lions, which represent the Dutch Royal Family, guard the entrance to the plaza. They were designed by Dutch sculptor Paul Philip Koning. The Netherlands Carillon is located just north of Arlington National Cemetery and south of the Marine Corps War Memorial. It is administered by the National Park Service as part of the George Washington Memorial Parkway complex in Arlington Ridge Park. A tulip library was planted in a circular bed immediately to the east of the plaza in 1964. As they are culturally and economically significant to the Netherlands, ten thousand tulips are planted in these gardens each year. In 1967 and 1972, First Lady Lady Bird Johnson's Beautification Program embellished the carillon grounds with new flower gardens in the shape of musical notes. These gardens are planted with tulips and other perennials and annuals. The program also planted the horseshoe of trees surrounding the backdrop of the campanile. Concerts The Netherlands Carillon keeps time throughout the day by playing the Westminster Quarters on the hours and quarters. The carillon plays several automated concerts each day and on significant days in Dutch and American culture: Mondays through Saturdays at noon and 6:00 PM Medley of armed forces anthems Stars and Stripes Forever Sundays at noon Star-Spangled Banner Wilhelmus (the Dutch national anthem) Stars and Stripes Forever Sundays at 6:00 PM Star-Spangled Banner America the Beautiful Eternal Father, Strong To Save (the Navy Hymn) May 5 (Dutch Liberation Day) at noon and 6:00 PM Star-Spangled Banner Wilhelmus (the Dutch national anthem) September 2 at 9:04 AM (The time at which the Japanese Instrument of Surrender was signed aboard the USS Missouri in 1945.) Star-Spangled Banner America the Beautiful Eternal Father, Strong To Save Thanksgiving Day at noon and 6:00 PM Simple Gifts We Gather Together December 31 at 6:00 PM Auld Lang Syne During the months of June, July, and August, director-carillonist Edward Nassor organizes weekly concerts and recitals on Saturday afternoons. Carillonists from across the world are invited to play various styles of music each week. A schedule of concerts and visiting carillonists is published on the National Park Service's website in the months before the season begins. See also Netherlands–United States relations Other war memorial carillons National War Memorial (New Zealand) Netherlands Centennial Carillon References External links National Park Service official site President Truman's full remarks on accepting the Netherlands Carillon, April 4, 1952 Correspondence between President Eisenhower and Queen Juliana upon the finished campanile, May 5, 1960 Flickr album of the 2019–21 renovation of the Netherlands Carillon Flickr album of the 2016 Dutch Remembrance Day ceremonies at the Netherlands Carillon Towers completed in 1960 George Washington Memorial Parkway Carillons Monuments and memorials in Virginia Buildings and structures in Arlington County, Virginia Netherlands–United States relations Tourist attractions in Arlington County, Virginia 1960 sculptures Diplomatic gifts 1960 establishments in Virginia	[ -0.22770553827285767, 0.21356704831123352, -0.12212716788053513, -0.3929269313812256, 0.3291049897670746, 0.3536425530910492, 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229130	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solecism	Solecism	A solecism is a phrase that transgresses the rules of grammar. The term is often used in the context of linguistic prescription; it also occurs descriptively in the context of a lack of idiomaticness. Etymology The word originally was used by the Greeks for what they perceived as grammatical mistakes in their language. The word was used to indicate to reduce something to absurdity. Ancient Athenians considered the dialect of the inhabitants of Soli, Cilicia to be a corrupted form of their pure Attic dialect, and labelled the errors in the form as "solecisms" (Greek: σολοικισμοί, soloikismoí; sing.: σολοικισμός, soloikismós). Therefore, when referring to similar grammatical mistakes heard in the speech of Athenians, they described them as "solecisms" and that term has been adopted as a label for grammatical mistakes in any language; in Greek there is often a distinction in the relevant terms in that a mistake in semantics (i.e., a use of words with other-than-appropriate meaning or a neologism constructed through application of generative rules by an outsider) is called a barbarism ( barbarismos), whereas solecism refers to mistakes in syntax, in the construction of sentences. Examples See also Catachresis Disputed English grammar English as She Is Spoke Fowler's Modern English Usage Malapropism Prescription and description Error (linguistics) Zeugma, a rhetorical use of solecism for effect References External links Grammar English grammar Ancient Greek Linguistic error Sociolinguistics es:Solecismo	[ -0.09106786549091339, 0.7437002658843994, -0.4334620237350464, -0.1510016918182373, -0.40721309185028076, 0.033122751861810684, 0.6832512021064758, 0.3020126223564148, -0.1472351849079132, -0.19068513810634613, -0.462788462638855, 0.6579903960227966, -0.1891421377658844, -0.2735389769077301, -0.006549355108290911, 0.31994202733039856, 0.5705088973045349, 0.31772539019584656, 0.42380157113075256, -0.379075825214386, -0.07436016201972961, 0.32582899928092957, 0.09875183552503586, -0.8156152367591858, 0.5816574096679688, -0.13702842593193054, 0.23607900738716125, 0.2507879137992859, -0.7591637372970581, 0.02199426479637623, 0.040803201496601105, 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229134	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John%20Field%20%28composer%29	John Field (composer)	John Field (26 July 1782 – 23 January 1837), was an Irish pianist, composer, and teacher. Field is best known as the inventor of the nocturne. He is mentioned in passing in War and Peace when Countess Rostova calls on the Rostov household musician to play her favourite nocturne. He was born in Dublin into a musical family, and received his early education there, in particular with the Italian composer Tommaso Giordani. The Fields soon moved to London, where Field studied under Muzio Clementi. Under his tutelage, Field quickly became a famous and sought-after concert pianist. Together, master and pupil visited Paris, Vienna, and St. Petersburg. Ambiguity surrounds Field's decision to remain in the former Russian capital, but it is likely that Field acted as a sales representative for the Clementi Pianos. Field was very highly regarded by his contemporaries and his playing and compositions influenced many major composers, including Frédéric Chopin, Johannes Brahms, Robert Schumann, and Franz Liszt. Although little is known of Field in Russia, he undoubtedly contributed substantially to concerts and teaching, and to the development of the Russian piano school. Notable students include Prussian pianist and composer Charles Mayer, the Franco-Russian composer Alexandre Dubuque, and Polish pianist and composer Antoine de Kontski. Biography 1782–1801: Early life Field was born 26 July 1782 in Golden Lane, Dublin, the eldest son of Irish parents who were members of the Church of Ireland. He was baptised 30 September. His father, Robert Field, earned his living by playing the violin in Dublin theatres. Field first studied the piano under his grandfather (also named John Field), who was a professional organist, and later under Tommaso Giordani. He made his debut at the age of nine, a performance that was well-received, on 24 March 1792 in Dublin. According to an early biographer, W. H. Grattan Flood, Field started composing in Ireland, but no evidence exists to support his claim. Flood also asserted that Field's family moved to Bath, Somerset, in 1793 and lived there for a short time, and this too is considered unlikely by modern researchers. By late 1793, though, the Fields had settled in London, where the young pianist started studying with Muzio Clementi. This arrangement was made possible by Field's father, who was perhaps able to secure the apprenticeship through Giordani, who knew Clementi. Field continued giving public performances and soon became famous in London, attracting favourable comments from the press and the local musicians. Around 1795 his performance of a Dussek piano concerto was praised by Haydn. Field continued his studies with Clementi, also helping the Italian with the making and selling of instruments. He also took up violin playing, which he studied under J. P. Solomon. His first published compositions were issued by Clementi in 1795; the first historically important work, the Piano Concerto No. 1, H 27, was premiered by the composer in London on 7 February 1799, when he was aged 16. Field's first official opus was a set of three piano sonatas published by (and dedicated to) Clementi in 1801. 1802–1829: Settling in Russia In summer 1802 Field and Clementi left London and went to Paris on business. They soon travelled to Vienna, where Field took a brief course in counterpoint under Johann Georg Albrechtsberger and had a meeting with Beethoven, for whom Field played in October, and Beethoven highly praised him. In early winter he arrived in Saint Petersburg. Field was inclined to stay, impressed by the artistic life of the city. Clementi left in June 1803, but not before securing Field a teaching post in Narva and "appointing" the young man as his deputy, so that Field would receive similarly high fees. After Clementi's departure, Field had a busy concert season, eventually performing at the newly founded Saint Petersburg Philharmonic Society. In 1805 Field embarked on a concert tour of the Baltic states, staying in Saint Petersburg during the summer. The following year he gave his first concert in Moscow. Clementi arranged the publication of some of Field's old works in Russia in late 1806; he evidently sold Field a piano in exchange for music. Field returned to Moscow in April 1807 and apparently did not revisit Saint Petersburg until 1811 (but he kept his apartment at Vasilievsky Island). In 1810 he married Adelaide Percheron, a French pianist and former pupil. Up to 1808 almost all publications of Field's music were reissues of old works. In 1808–9 he finally began publishing newly composed music, starting with piano variations on Russian folksongs: Air russe varié for piano 4 hands, H 10, and Kamarinskaya for piano, H 22. In 1811 the composer returned to Saint Petersburg. He spent the next decade of his life here, more productive than ever before, publishing numerous new pieces and producing corrected editions of old ones. He was successful in establishing a fruitful collaboration with both H. J. Dalmas, the most prominent Russian publisher of the time, and Breitkopf & Härtel, one of the most important music publishing houses of Europe. In 1815 Field fathered an illegitimate son, Leon Charpentier (later ), but remained with his wife. They had a son, Adrien, in 1819; Leon would later become a famous tenor, active in Russia, while Adrien followed his father's steps and became a pianist. By 1819 Field was sufficiently wealthy to be able to refuse the position of court pianist that was offered to him. His lifestyle and social behaviour were becoming more and more extravagant. In 1818 Field revisited Moscow on business, prompted by his collaboration with the publisher Wenzel. He and his wife gave a series of concerts in the city in 1821, the last of which marked their last appearance in public together. Adelaide left Field soon afterward (taking Adrien with her) and attempted a solo career, which was not particularly successful. Field stayed in Moscow and continued performing and publishing his music. In 1822 he met Johann Nepomuk Hummel; the two collaborated on a performance of Hummel's Sonata for Piano 4-Hands, Op. 92. 1830–1837: Last years and death Partly as a result of his extravagant lifestyle, Field's health began deteriorating by the mid-1820s. From about 1823 his concert appearances started decreasing; by the late 1820s he was suffering from rectal cancer. Field left for London to seek medical attention. He arrived in September 1831 and, after an operation, gave concerts there and in Manchester. He stayed in England for some time, meeting distinguished figures such as Mendelssohn and Moscheles. In March 1832 his former teacher and friend Clementi died, and Field served as pallbearer at his funeral. On Christmas Day 1832 Field was in Paris, performing his 7th Piano Concerto, which received a mixed reaction, just as at his recent concerts in England. After a series of concerts in various European cities, Field spent nine months (1834–5) in a Naples hospital. His Russian patrons rescued him. He briefly stayed with Carl Czerny in Vienna, where he gave three recitals, and then returned to Moscow with his son Adrien. He gave his last concert in March 1836 and died in Moscow almost a year later, on 23 January 1837, from pneumonia. He was buried in the Vvedenskoye Cemetery. According to an eyewitness report, when asked on his deathbed what his religion was, Field replied with a characteristic pun: "I am not a Calvinist, but a Claveciniste (French for harpsichordist)." Music Field became well-known for his post-London style, probably developed in Moscow around 1807. The characteristic texture is that of a chromatically decorated melody over sonorous left hand parts supported by sensitive pedalling. Field also had an affinity for ostinato patterns and pedal points, rather unusual for the prevailing styles of the day. Entirely representative of these traits are Field's 18 nocturnes and associated pieces such as Andante inedit, H 64. These works were some of the most influential music of the early Romantic period: they do not adhere to a strict formal scheme (such as the sonata form), and they create a mood without text or programme. These pieces were admired by Frédéric Chopin, who subsequently made the piano nocturne famous, and Franz Liszt, who published an edition of the nocturnes based on rare Russian sources that incorporated late revisions by Field. Liszt's preface to the said edition was an extensive eulogy for Field and his nocturnes. Field also gave a few lessons to the young Mikhail Glinka, who was to become the first notable Russian composer. Similarly influential were Field's early piano concertos, which occupy a central place in the development of the genre in the 19th century. Already the earliest of these works show competent and imaginative orchestration, and bold, original piano writing. One interesting trait of his piano concertos is their limited choice of keys: they all use either E-flat major or C major at some point (or both, in the last concerto's case). Composers such as Hummel, Kalkbrenner and Moscheles were influenced by these works, which are particularly notable for their central movements, frequently nocturne-like. Some of the less known works were also historically important: particularly the piano fantasies, in which Field pioneered the Romantic large scale episodic structure. None of his piano sonatas, and only two of his 7 piano concertos, have a formal slow movement. In performance, Field would interpolate an existing nocturne in a related key or improvise one. List of works This list is arranged according to Hopkinson numbers, introduced in the 1961 catalogue by Cecil Hopkinson. Many of these works were arranged for other instruments and (or) revised by the composer himself; such arrangements and revised versions are not listed. Ephemera In the Dublin suburb of Walkinstown there is a road called Field Avenue, one of a number of so called 'musical roads' named after prominent Irish musicians. See also Nocturnes (Field) Notes References Bibliography Patrick Piggott, The Life and Music of John Field, 1782–1837, Creator of the Nocturne (London: Faber and Faber, 1973). Majella Boland, John Field in Context: a Reappraisal of the Nocturne and Piano Concerti (PhD Dissertation, University College Dublin, 2013) Julian Horton, "John Field and the Alternative History of Concerto First-Movement Form", in Music and Letters vol. 92 (2011) no. 1. External links 1782 births 1837 deaths 19th-century classical composers 19th-century classical pianists 19th-century Irish people 19th-century male musicians Burials at Vvedenskoye Cemetery Deaths from pneumonia in Russia Classical-period composers Composers for piano Irish classical composers Irish classical pianists Irish expatriates in Russia Irish male classical composers Male classical pianists Musicians from Dublin (city) Pupils of Muzio Clementi Romantic composers	[ -0.620189368724823, 0.4884486198425293, -0.5161756873130798, -0.5271384716033936, -0.04354238137602806, 0.5929542183876038, 0.16000458598136902, 0.0985352024435997, -0.12976020574569702, -0.5134570598602295, -0.351395845413208, -0.08327989280223846, -0.3228035569190979, 0.3261506259441376, -0.2449125498533249, 0.6106724143028259, 0.18464334309101105, -0.5158544778823853, -0.544739305973053, -0.5212455987930298, 0.07099583745002747, -0.27235648036003113, 0.43807321786880493, 0.2547013461589813, -0.18610526621341705, 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229136	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Linguistic%20prescription	Linguistic prescription	Linguistic prescription, or prescriptive grammar, is the establishment of rules defining preferred usage of language. These rules may address such linguistic aspects as spelling, pronunciation, vocabulary, syntax, and semantics. Sometimes informed by linguistic purism, such normative practices often suggest that some usages are incorrect, inconsistent, illogical, lack communicative effect, or are of low aesthetic value, even in cases where such usage is more common than the prescribed usage. They may also include judgments on socially proper and politically correct language use. Linguistic prescriptivism may aim to establish a standard language, teach what a particular society or sector of a society perceives as a correct or proper form, or advise on effective and stylistically felicitous communication. If usage preferences are conservative, prescription might appear resistant to language change; if radical, it may produce neologisms. Prescriptive approaches to language are often contrasted with the descriptive approach ("descriptivism"), employed in academic linguistics, which observes and records how language is actually used without any judgment. The basis of linguistic research is text (corpus) analysis and field study, both of which are descriptive activities. Description may also include researchers' observations of their own language usage. In the Eastern European linguistic tradition, the discipline dealing with standard language cultivation and prescription is known as "language culture" or "speech culture". Despite being apparent opposites, prescription and description are often considered complementary, as comprehensive descriptive accounts must take into account and record existing speaker preferences, and a prior understanding of how language is actually used is necessary for prescription to be effective. Since the mid-20th century some dictionaries and style guides, which are prescriptive works by nature, have increasingly integrated descriptive material and approaches. Examples of guides updated to add more descriptive and evidence-based material include Webster's Third New International Dictionary (1961) and the third edition Garner's Modern English Usage (2009) in English, or the Nouveau Petit Robert (1993) in French. A partially descriptive approach can be especially useful when approaching topics of ongoing conflict between authorities, or in different dialects, disciplines, styles, or registers. Other guides, such as The Chicago Manual of Style, are designed to impose a single style and thus remain primarily prescriptive (). Some authors define "prescriptivism" as the concept where a certain language variety is promoted as linguistically superior to others, thus recognizing the standard language ideology as a constitutive element of prescriptivism or even identifying prescriptivism with this system of views. Others, however, use this term in relation to any attempts to recommend or mandate a particular way of language usage (in a specific context or register), without, however, implying that these practices must involve propagating the standard language ideology. According to another understanding, the prescriptive attitude is an approach to norm-formulating and codification that involves imposing arbitrary rulings upon a speech community, as opposed to more liberal approaches that draw heavily from descriptive surveys; in a wider sense, however, the latter also constitute a form of prescriptivism. Mate Kapović makes a distinction between "prescription" and "prescriptivism", defining the former as "process of codification of a certain variety of language for some sort of official use", and the latter as "an unscientific tendency to mystify linguistic prescription". Aims Linguistic prescription is categorized as the final stage in a language standardization process. It is culture dependent and politically motivated. It can be called social progress and included in the cultivation of a culture. As culture is seen to be a major force in the development of standard language, multilingual countries often promote standardization and advocate adherence to prescriptive norms. The chief aim of linguistic prescription is to specify socially preferred language forms (either generally, as in Standard English, or in style and register) in a way that is easily taught and learned. Prescription may apply to most aspects of language, including spelling, pronunciation, vocabulary, syntax, and semantics. Prescription is useful for facilitating inter-regional communication, allowing speakers of divergent dialects to understand a standardized idiom used in broadcasting, for example, more readily than each other's dialects. While such a lingua franca may evolve by itself, the tendency to formally codify and normalize it is widespread in most parts of the world. Foreign language instruction is also considered a form of prescription, since it involves instructing learners how to speak, based on usage documentation laid down by others. Linguistic prescription may also be used to advance a social or political ideology. During the second half of the 20th century, efforts driven by various advocacy groups had considerable influence on language use under the broad banner of "political correctness", to promote special rules for anti-sexist, anti-racist, or generically anti-discriminatory language (e.g. "people-first language" as advocated by disability rights organizations). Authority Prescription presupposes authorities whose judgments may come to be followed by many other speakers and writers. For English, these authorities tend to be books. H. W. Fowler's Modern English Usage was widely taken as an authority for British English for much of the 20th century; Strunk and White's The Elements of Style has done similarly for American English. The Duden grammar (first edition 1880) has a similar status for German. Although lexicographers often see their work as purely descriptive, dictionaries are widely regarded as prescriptive authorities. Books such as Lynne Truss's Eats, Shoots & Leaves (2003), which argues for stricter adherence to prescriptive punctuation rules, also seek to exert an influence. Formal regulation Linguistic prescription is imposed by regulation in some places. The French Academy in Paris is the national body in France whose recommendations about the French language are often followed in the French-speaking world (francophonie), though not legally enforceable. In Germany and the Netherlands, recent spelling and punctuation reforms, such as the German orthographic reform of 1996, were devised by teams of linguists commissioned by the respective governments and then implemented by statutes, some met with widespread dissent. Examples of national prescriptive bodies and initiatives are: Afrikaans: The Taalkommissie (Language Commission) is responsible for the compilation of the Afrikaanse Woordelys en Spelreëls (Afrikaans Word-list and Spelling Rules), an orthography of formal, standardized Afrikaans. Albanian: The Social Sciences and Albanological Section of the Academy of Sciences of Albania for the Tosk variety of the Albanian standard language. Canadian French: The Office québécois de la langue française in the Canadian province of Québec, where French is perceived to be particularly threatened by the incursion of English. Dutch: In the Netherlands and the Flanders region of Belgium, standardized spelling norms are compulsory for government publications and in education (see Wordlist of the Dutch language). The Flemish press and other media also adhere to these rules. In the Netherlands, however, some media apply a slightly adapted spelling, as outlined in the White Booklet. French: The recommendations of the Académie française, a national body, are legally unenforceable, but they are often followed by standard French speakers. German: The German orthography reform of 1996 established statutory national normative spelling usages for each of the German-speaking countries (Germany, Austria, Liechtenstein, Switzerland, and Belgium). It has, however, been comprehensively disregarded by many people; in relevance, it became so controversial in the federal state of Schleswig-Holstein that in a plebiscite held there in 1998 56.4% of voters opposed its implementation. Notwithstanding, the Schleswig-Holstein parliament reversed the referendum outcome in 1999. Many major German newspapers chose to implement the reforms only partially (e.g. Axel Springer AG, Der Spiegel) or to reject it entirely, ending a period when combined German spelling, although officially only necessary in government and educational use, was the widespread de facto standard. Italian: The Academy of the Bran (Accademia della Crusca), the Italian language academic body. Polish: The Polish Language Council for standard Polish, which aims to popularize Polish language knowledge, issue prescriptions for standard usage (, lit. "correct Polish") and formulate normative orthography. The Polish prescriptive policy recognizes two normative subvarieties of standard Polish: the "model/official norm" () and the "colloquial/vernacular norm" (), with the former being a highly traditionalistic idiom for written language and public usage, and the latter being a more liberal idiom for private contexts that is more permissive for loanwords and deviations from "traditional" usage. According to the Polish language ideology, the latter is also considered to include regional usages. Romanian: The Romanian Academy for standard Romanian, whose interpretations and instructions are approved by the Romanian state and other substances where Romanian is authoritatively recognized (e.g. the European Union and Vojvodina). In the Moldovan Republic, the only country besides Romania where Romanian is the state language, it is officially called "Moldovan" and is monitored by the Institute of Linguistics of Academy of Sciences of Moldova. Russian: The Union of Soviet Writers policed the Russian language with linguistic prescription to establish a standardized Russian language during the era of the Soviet Union. Spanish: The Real Academia Española in affiliation with the Association of Spanish Language Academies for standard Spanish in 21 countries. Turkish: The Turkish Language Association, founded in 1932 by Atatürk, regulates the Turkish languge. Style manuals Other kinds of authorities exist in specific settings, most commonly in the form of style guidebooks (also called style guides, manuals of style, style books, or style sheets). Style guides vary in form, and maybe alphabetical usage dictionaries, comprehensive manuals divided into numerous subsection by the facet of language, or very compact works insistent upon only a few matters of particular importance to the publisher. Some aim to be comprehensive only for a specific field, deferring to more general-audience guides on matters that are not particular to the discipline in question. There are different types of style guides, by purpose and audience. Because the genres of writing and the audiences of each manual are different, style manuals often conflict with each other, even within the same vernacular of English. Many publishers have established an internal house style specifying preferred spellings and grammatical forms, such as serial commas, how to write acronyms, and various awkward expressions to avoid. Most of these are internal documentation for the publisher's staff, though various newspapers, universities, and other organizations have made theirs available for public inspection, and sometimes even sell them as books, e.g. The New York Times Manual of Style and Usage and The Economist Style Guide. In a few cases, an entire publishing sector complies with a publication that originated as a house style manual, such as The Chicago Manual of Style and New Hart's Rules in non-fiction book publishing in the United States and the United Kingdom, respectively, and The Associated Press Stylebook in American news style. Others are by self-appointed advocates whose rules are propagated in the popular press, as in "proper Cantonese pronunciation". The aforementioned Fowler, and Strunk & White, were among the self-appointed, as are some modern authors of style works, like Bryan A. Garner and his Modern English Usage (formerly Modern American Usage). Various style guides are used for academic papers and professional journals and have become de facto standards in particular fields, though the bulk of their material pertains to formatting of source citations (in mutually conflicting ways). Some examples are those issued by the American Medical Association, the Modern Language Association, and the Modern Humanities Research Association; there are many others. Scientific Style and Format, by the Council of Science Editors, seeks to normalize style in scientific journal publishing, based where possible on standards issued by bodies like the International Standards Organization. None of these works have any sort of legal or regulatory authority (though some governments produce their own house style books for internal use). They still have authority in the sense that a student may be marked down for failure to follow a specified style manual; a professional publisher may enforce compliance; a publication may require its employees to use house style as a matter of on-the-job competence. A well-respected style guide, and usually one intended for a general audience, may also have the kind of authority that a dictionary does consult as a reference work to satisfy personal curiosity or settle an argument. Origins Historically, linguistic prescriptivism originates in a standard language when a society establishes social stratification and a socio-economic hierarchy. The spoken and written language usages of the authorities (state, military, church) is preserved as the standard language. Departures from this standard language may jeopardize social success (see social class). Sometimes, archaisms and honorific stylizations may be deliberately introduced or preserved to distinguish the prestige form of the language from contemporary colloquial language. Likewise, the style of language used in ritual also differs from everyday speech. Special ceremonial languages known only to a select few spiritual leaders are found throughout the world; Liturgical Latin has served a similar function for centuries. When a culture develops a writing system, orthographic rules for the consistent transcription of culturally important transactions (laws, scriptures, contracts, poetry, etc.) allow a large number of discussants to understand written conversations easily, and across multiple generations. Early historical trends in literacy and alphabetization were closely tied to the influence of various religious institutions. Western Christianity propagated the Latin alphabet. Eastern Orthodoxy spread the Greek and Cyrillic alphabets. Judaism used the Hebrew alphabet, and Islam the Arabic script. Hinduism used the Devanagari script. In certain traditions, strict adherence to prescribed spellings and pronunciations was and remains of great spiritual importance. Islamic naming conventions and greetings are notable examples of the linguistic prescription being a prerequisite to spiritual righteousness. Another commonly cited example of prescriptive language usage closely associated with social propriety is the system of Japanese honorific speech. Most, if not all, widely spoken languages demonstrate some degree of social codification in how they conform to prescriptive rules. Linguistic prestige is a central research topic within sociolinguistics. Notions of linguistic prestige apply to different dialects of the same language and also to separate, distinct languages in multilingual regions. Prestige level disparity often leads to diglossia: speakers in certain social contexts consciously choose a prestige language or dialect over a less prestigious one, even if it is their native tongue. Government bureaucracy tends toward prescriptivism as a means of enforcing functional continuity. Such prescriptivism dates from ancient Egypt, where bureaucrats preserved the spelling of the Middle Kingdom of Egypt into the Ptolemaic period through the standard usage of Egyptian hieroglyphics. Sources From the earliest attempts at prescription in classical times grammarians have based their norms on observed prestige use of language. Modern prescriptivist textbooks draw heavily on descriptive linguistic analysis. The prescription may privilege some existing forms over others for the sake of maximizing clarity and precision in language use. Others are subjective judgments of what constitutes good taste. Some reflect the promotion of one class or region within a language community over another, which can become politically controversial. Prescription can also reflect ethical considerations, as in prohibiting swear words. Words referring to elements of sexuality or toilet hygiene may be regarded as obscene. Blasphemies against religion may be forbidden. In the 21st century, political correctness objects to the use of words perceived as offensive. Some elements of prescription in English are sometimes thought to have been based on the norms of Latin grammar. Robert Lowth is frequently cited as having done so, but he specifically objected to "forcing the English under the rules of a foreign Language". Criticisms Prescriptivism is often subject to criticism. Many linguists, such as Geoffrey Pullum and other posters to Language Log, are highly skeptical of the quality of advice given in many usage guides, including highly regarded books like Strunk and White's The Elements of Style. In particular, linguists point out that popular books on English usage written by journalists or novelists (e.g. Simon Heffer's Strictly English: The Correct Way to Write ... and Why It Matters) often make basic errors in linguistic analysis. A frequent criticism is that prescription has a tendency to favor the language of one particular area or social class over others, and thus militates against linguistic diversity. Frequently, a standard dialect is associated with the upper class, for example Great Britain's Received Pronunciation (RP). RP has now lost much of its status as the Anglophone standard, and other standards are now alternative systems for English as a foreign language. Although these have a more democratic base, they still exclude the vast majority of the English-speaking world: speakers of Scottish English, Hiberno-English, Appalachian English, Australian English, Indian English, Nigerian English or African-American English may feel the standard is arbitrarily selected or slanted against them. Therefore, prescription has political consequences; indeed, it can be—and has been—used consciously as a political tool. A second issue with prescriptivism is that it tends to explicitly devalue non-standard dialects. It has been argued that prescription, apart from formulating standard language norms, often attempts to influence speakers to apply the proposed linguistic devices invariably, without considering the existence of different varieties and registers of language. While some linguists approve the practical role of language standardization in modern nation states, certain models of prescriptive codification have been criticized for going far beyond mere norm-setting, i.e. by promoting the sanctioned language variety as the only legitimate means of communication and presenting it as the only valid baseline of correctness, while stigmatizing non-standard usages as "mistakes". Such practices have been said to contribute to perpetuating the belief that non-codified forms of language are innately inferior, creating social stigma and discrimination toward their speakers. In contrast, modern linguists would generally hold that all forms of language, including both vernacular dialects and different realizations of a standardized variety, are scientifically equal as instruments of communication, even if deemed socially inappropriate for certain situational contexts. Resulting in standard language ideology, normative practices might also give rise to the conviction that explicit formal instruction is an essential prerequisite for acquiring proper command of one's native language, thus creating a massive feeling of linguistic insecurity. Propagating such language attitudes is characteristic of the prescriptivists in Eastern Europe, where normativist ideas of correctness can be found even among professional linguists. Another serious issue with prescription is that prescriptive rules quickly become entrenched and it is difficult to change them when the language changes. Thus, there is a tendency for prescription to lag behind the vernacular language. In 1834, an anonymous writer advised against the split infinitive, reasoning that the construction was not a frequent feature of English as he knew it. Today the construction is in everyday use and generally considered standard usage, yet the old prohibition can still be heard. A further problem is a challenge of specifying understandable criteria. Although prescribing authorizations may have clear ideas about why they make a particular choice, and their choices are seldom entirely arbitrary, there exists no linguistically sustainable metric for ascertaining which forms of language should be considered standard or otherwise preferable. Judgments that seek to resolve ambiguity or increase the ability of the language to make subtle distinctions are easier to defend. Judgments based on the subjective associations of a word are more problematic. Finally, there is the problem of inappropriate dogmatism. Although competent authorities tend to make careful statements, popular pronouncements on language are apt to condemn. Thus, wise prescriptive advice identifying a form as colloquial or non-standard and suggesting that it be used with caution in some contexts may – when taken up in the classroom – become converted into a ruling that the dispreferred form is automatically unacceptable in all circumstances, a view academic linguists reject. (Linguists may accept that a construction is ungrammatical or incorrect in relation to a certain lect if it does not conform to its inherent rules, but they would not consider it absolutely wrong simply because it diverges from the norms of a prestige variety.) A classic example from 18th-century England is Robert Lowth's tentative suggestion that preposition stranding in relative clauses sounds colloquial. This blossomed into a grammatical rule that a sentence should never end with a preposition. Such dogmatism has often caused resentment. For these reasons, some writers argue that linguistic prescription is foolish or futile. Samuel Johnson commented on the tendency of some prescription to resist language change: See also Examples of prescriptivist topics Citations Sources Strunk and White's The Elements of Style Further reading Simon Blackburn, 1996 [1994], "descriptive meaning", Oxford Dictionary of Philosophy, pp. 101–102 for possible difficulty of separating the descriptive and evaluative External links Ideology, Power and Linguistic Theory (pdf format) a paper about descriptivism and prescriptivism by Geoffrey Pullum. 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229138	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Prescriptivism	Prescriptivism	Prescriptivism may refer to: Linguistic prescriptivism, the practice of laying down norms for language usage Universal prescriptivism, a meta-ethical theory of the meaning of moral statements	[ 0.4920729398727417, 0.3458704352378845, -0.8470590114593506, 0.32194629311561584, -0.6909676790237427, 0.5574908256530762, 0.8446809649467468, 0.3659212589263916, 0.2604786455631256, -0.5451719164848328, -0.21022263169288635, 0.5684269666671753, -0.6004864573478699, -0.05317956581711769, 0.03178868815302849, 0.1357668936252594, 0.4515281617641449, 0.3413885533809662, -0.08440818637609482, 0.060903400182724, -0.2707982063293457, 0.04248650372028351, -0.21410873532295227, -0.4904741942882538, 0.21988257765769958, -0.04788991063833237, 0.6108866333961487, -0.21659256517887115, -0.42095860838890076, 0.21125775575637817, -0.1627468764781952, 0.3325137495994568, -0.38295578956604004, -0.2495872527360916, -0.49356916546821594, 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229139	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/William%20Beckford%20%28novelist%29	William Beckford (novelist)	William Thomas Beckford (29 September 1760 – 2 May 1844) was an English novelist, art collector, patron of decorative art, critic, travel writer, plantation owner and for some time politician. He was reputed at one stage to be England's richest commoner. The son of William Beckford and Maria Hamilton, daughter of the Hon. George Hamilton, he served as a Member of Parliament for Wells in 1784–1790 and Hindon in 1790–1795 and 1806–1820. He is remembered for a Gothic novel Vathek (1786), for building the lost Fonthill Abbey in Wiltshire and Lansdown Tower ("Beckford's Tower") in Bath, and for his art collection. Biography Beckford was born in the family's London home at 22 Soho Square on 29 September 1760. At the age of ten, he inherited a fortune from his father William Beckford, who had been twice a Lord Mayor of London. It consisted of £1 million in cash, an estate at Fonthill in Wiltshire (including the Palladian mansion Fonthill Splendens), and several sugar plantations in Jamaica. Among the wealth the young Beckford inherited from his father were about 3,000 black slaves. This fortune allowed him to indulge his interest in art and architecture, as well as writing. He was briefly trained in music by Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart, but his drawing master, Alexander Cozens, was a greater influence, and Beckford continued to correspond with him for some years until they fell out. On 5 May 1783 Beckford married Lady Margaret Gordon, a daughter of the fourth Earl of Aboyne. However, he was bisexual and after 1784 chose self-exile from British society when his letters to William Courtenay, later 9th Earl of Devon, were intercepted by the boy's uncle, who advertised the affair in the newspapers. Courtenay was just ten years old on first meeting Beckford, who was eight years older. Beckford was discovered (according to a house guest at the time) to be "whipping Courtenay in some posture or another" after finding a letter penned by Courtenay to another lover. Although Beckford was never charged with child molestation, fornication or attempted buggery, he subsequently chose to exile himself on the continent with his long-suffering wife, who died in childbirth aged 24. For many years Beckford was believed to have conducted a simultaneous affair with his cousin Peter's wife Louisa Pitt (c. 1755–1791). Having studied under Sir William Chambers and Cozens, Beckford journeyed in Italy in 1782 and wrote a book about his travels: Dreams, Waking Thoughts and Incidents (1783). Soon came his best-known work, the Gothic novel Vathek (1786), written originally in French; he boasted that it took a single sitting of three days and two nights, though there is reason to believe that this was a flight of imagination. His other main writings were Memoirs of Extraordinary Painters (1780), a satirical work, and Letters from Italy with Sketches of Spain and Portugal (1834), with brilliant descriptions of scenes and manners. In 1793 he visited Portugal, where he settled for a while. Beckford's fame, however, rests as much on his eccentricities as a builder and collector as on his literary efforts. In undertaking his buildings he managed to dissipate his fortune, which was estimated by his contemporaries to give him an income of £100,000 a year. The loss of one of his Jamaican sugar plantations to James Beckford Wildman was particularly costly. Only £80,000 of his capital remained at his death. Art collection Beckford was a compulsive and restless collector, who also frequently sold works, sometimes later repurchasing them. His collection was notable for its many Italian Quattrocento paintings, then little collected and relatively inexpensive. Despite his interest in Romantic medievalism, he owned few medieval works, though many from the Renaissance. He was also interested in showy Asian objects such as Mughal hardstone carvings. Although he avoided the classical marbles typically sought by well-educated English collectors, much of his collection was of 18th-century French furniture and decorative arts, then priced enormously high compared with paintings, by modern standards. He bought a single Turner in 1800, when the artist was only 25 (The Fifth Plague of Egypt, £157.10s), in 1828 William Blake's drawings for Gray's Elegy, and several works by Richard Parkes Bonington, but in general he preferred older works. By 1822 Beckford was short of funds and in debt. He put Fonthill Abbey up for sale, for which 72,000 copies of Christie's illustrated catalogue were sold at a guinea apiece; the pre-sale view filled every farmhouse in the neighbourhood with visitors from London. Fonthill, with part of his collection, was sold before the sale for £330,000 to John Farquhar, who had made a fortune selling gunpowder in India. Farquhar at once auctioned the art and furnishings in the "Fonthill sale" of 1823, at which Beckford and his son-in-law, the Duke of Hamilton, bought much, often more cheaply than the first price Beckford had paid, as the market was somewhat depressed. What remained of the collection, as maintained and added to at Lansdown Tower, amounting virtually to a second collection, was inherited by the Dukes of Hamilton. Much of that was dispersed in the "Hamilton Palace sale" of 1882, one of the major sales of the century. The Fonthill sale precipitated William Hazlitt's scathing review of Beckford's taste for "idle rarities and curiosities or mechanical skill," fine bindings, bijouterie and highly finished paintings, "the quintessence and rectified spirit of still-life", republished in Hazlitt's Sketches of the Picture Galleries of England (1824), and richly demonstrating his own prejudices. Beckford pieces are now in museums all over the world. Hazlitt was unaware that the sale had been salted with lots inserted by Phillips the auctioneer that had never passed Beckford's muster: "I would not disgrace my house by Chinese furniture," he remarked later in life. "Horace Walpole would not have suffered it in his toyshop at Strawberry Hill". Works owned by Beckford Now in the National Gallery, London: Saint Catherine of Alexandria; the National Gallery paid c £6,000 in 1839, as part of a bulk purchase from Beckford. Agony in the Garden, bought at the Joshua Reynolds sale in 1795 for £5, sold with Fonthill and repurchased by Beckford at the Fonthill Sale (as a Mantegna) for £52.10s. Portrait of Doge Leonardo Loredan, Giovanni Bellini, bought 1807, 13 guineas, sold to NG in 1844 for £630. Exhumation of Saint Hubert, Rogier van der Weyden and workshop, bought by Beckford in 1802 for £96.12s, by NG in 1868 for £1,500. Philip IV in Brown and Silver by Diego Velázquez, bought by NG for £6,300 at the 1882 Hamilton Palace Sale, a very high price for a Spanish painting at the time. Tuccia and Sophonisba, Andrea Mantegna, £1,785 the pair in 1882 Adoration of the Magi, Filippino Lippi, £1,227 in 1882 The Poulterer's Shop, Gerrit Dou Circumcision, Luca Signorelli, £3,150, 1882. St Jerome in a Landscape, Cima da Conegliano Virgin and Child with St John, Perugino. Crucifixion Altarpiece Jacopo di Cione or "Style of Orcagna", the principal Trecento work in the collection. Now in the Frick Collection: Claude Lorrain, The Sermon on the Mount, inherited from his father, . Gentile Bellini, Doge Giovanni Mocenigo Other collections: the "Altieri Claudes", now at Anglesey Abbey, "The Father of Psyche Sacrificing at the Temple of Apollo", 1663 and "The Landing of Aeneas" painted in 1675. A famous index of taste, as they were auctioned from the estate of the Duke of Kent in 1947 for only £5,300 in 1947 and bought by Lord Fairhaven for Anglesey Abbey, when Beckford had paid £6,825 in 1799, and sold them in £10,500 in 1808 and Philip John Miles paid £12,000 for them in 1813 to hang them at Leigh Court, making them among the most expensive paintings of the day. The Fonthill Vase, a 14th-century Chinese porcelain vase which is the earliest known piece of Chinese porcelain to arrive in Europe, where it was given 14th century metal mounts. Now in the National Museum of Ireland. Other works are in the Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York (Pesellino Madonna and Child with Six Saints attributed by Beckford to Fra Angelico; Giovanni Bellini, Virgin and Child, attributed by Beckford to Cima da Conegliano; Benjamin West, commemorative portraits of Beckford's grandparents, commissioned in 1797 for Fonthill Abbey, the 13th-century Malmesbury Abbey Limoges champlevé enamel chasse, a matching commode and secretaire made by Jean-Henri Riesener for Marie Antoinette, and two from the 400-piece Meissen porcelain table service for the Prince of Orange, ca 1770; the National Gallery of Art Washington (Bronzino, Eleanor of Toledo), Wallace Collection (Canaletto & Corneille de Lyon), Getty Museum (Gerrit Dou, Astronomer by Candlelight). Walters Art Museum (the Byzantine agate Rubens Vase), Huntington Library and Art Gallery George Romney portrait of Beckford as a young man and his double portrait of Beckford's daughters). The growing database of The National Inventory Research Project (NIRP) involving The National Inventory of Continental European Paintings (NICE or NICEP) lists 20 other works from the collection in various other UK public collections. Fonthill Abbey The opportunity to purchase the complete library of Edward Gibbon gave Beckford the basis for his own library, and James Wyatt built Fonthill Abbey in which to house this and the owner's art collection. Lord Nelson visited Fonthill Abbey with the Hamiltons in 1800. The house was completed in 1807. Beckford entered parliament as member for Wells and later for Hindon, quitting by taking the Chiltern Hundreds; but he lived mostly in seclusion, spending much of his father's wealth without adding to it. In 1822 he sold Fonthill, and a large part of his art collection, to John Farquhar for £330,000 and moved to Bath, where he bought No. 20 Lansdown Crescent and No. 1 Lansdown Place West, joining them with a one-storey arch thrown across a driveway. In 1836 he also bought Nos. 18 and 19 Lansdown Crescent (leaving No 18 empty to ensure peace and quiet). Most of Fonthill Abbey collapsed under the weight of its poorly-built tower on the night of 21 December 1825. The wreckage was slowly removed, leaving only a fragment that survives as a private home. This is the first part, which included the shrine to St Anthony — Beckford's patron when he was living in Lisbon. Lansdown Crescent and Lansdown Tower (Beckford's Tower) Beckford spent his later years in his home at Lansdown Crescent, Bath, during which time he commissioned architect Henry Goodridge to design a spectacular folly at the northern end of his land on Lansdown Hill: Lansdown Tower, now known as Beckford's Tower, in which he kept many of his treasures. The tower is now owned by the Bath Preservation Trust and managed by the Beckford Tower Trust as a museum to William Beckford; part of the property is rented to the Landmark Trust which makes it available for public hire as a spectacular holiday home. The museum contains numerous engravings and chromolithographs of the Tower's original interior as well as furniture commissioned specifically for the Tower by Beckford and gradually reassembled through the efforts of the Bath Preservation Trust and others. There is also a great deal of information at the Tower about Beckford, including objects related to his life in Bath, at Fonthill and elsewhere. After his death at Lansdown Crescent on 2 May 1844, aged 84, his body was laid in a sarcophagus and placed on an artificial mound, as was the custom of Saxon kings from whom he claimed to be descended. Beckford had wished to be buried in the grounds of Lansdown Tower, but his body was interred at Bath Abbey Cemetery in Lyncombe Vale on 11 May 1844 (accessible from Ralph Allen Drive). The Tower was sold to a local publican who turned it into a beer garden. Eventually it was bought back by Beckford's younger daughter, Susan Hamilton, Duchess of Hamilton, who gave the land round it to Walcot parish for consecration as a cemetery in 1848. This allowed Beckford's remains to be reinterred near the Tower he loved. Beckford's self-designed tomb, a massive sarcophagus of polished pink granite with bronze armorial plaques, now stands on a hillock in the cemetery surrounded by an oval ditch. On one side is a quotation from Vathek: "Enjoying humbly the most precious gift of heaven to man – Hope", and on another lines from his poem, A Prayer: "Eternal Power! Grant me, through obvious clouds one transient gleam of thy bright essence in my dying hour." Henry Goodridge designed a Byzantine entrance gateway to the cemetery, flanked by bronze railings which had surrounded Beckford's original tomb in Bath Abbey Cemetery. Walcot Cemetery is closed for burials but still open to the public, as is the Tower on regular days in the year. (See the Bath Preservation Trust website.) Other works As a writer, Beckford is remembered for Vathek, of which the reception from every quarter may have satisfied his ambitions for a career in belles-lettres, and for his travel memoir, Italy: with some Sketches of Spain and Portugal. He followed Vathek with two parodies of current cultural fashions, the formulaic sentimental novel, in Modern Novel Writing, or, The Elegant Enthusiast (1796) and Azemia, a satire on the Minerva Press novels, written as "Jacquetta Agneta Mariana Jenks, of Belgrove Priory in Wales"; and also published Biographical Memoirs of Extraordinary Painters (1780), a literary prank burlesquing serious biographical encyclopaedias. Towards the end of his life he published collected travel letters, under the title Recollections of an Excursion to the Monasteries of Alcobaca and Batalha (1835), the memoir of a trip made in 1794. Legacy Beckford left two daughters, the younger of whom (Susanna Euphemia, sometimes called Susan) was married to Alexander Hamilton, 10th Duke of Hamilton, and inherited the majority of his collection, which was then moved north to Hamilton Palace, now demolished. The elder, Margaret Maria Elizabeth Beckford, married Lt-Gen. James Orde. Beckford was portrayed by Daniel Massey in the 1982 Central Television production I Remember Nelson, and has been the subject of several biographies in recent decades. Beckford wrote a considerable amount of music, much of it with the assistance of his amanuensis, John Burton, with whom he collaborated on his largest composition: Arcadian Pastoral. The music manuscripts, which had lain among Beckford's effects at Hamilton Palace, were bought and presented to Basil Blackwell as a leaving present. He in turn bequeathed them to the Bodleian Library. In 1998, Michael Maxwell Steer edited and published all Beckford's music, including the collection of Modinhas Brasileiras which had been copied for him during his stay at Sintra in 1787. These are particularly interesting as they are the second surviving example of this Portuguese song form. The edition is available in six volumes from The Beckford Edition. It can be consulted in the Bodleian, and elsewhere. Cultural references According to E. H. Coleridge, Beckford is the person referred to in Lord Byron's short poem "To Dives – A Fragment". Byron describes a person of great wealth, "of Wit, in Genius, as in Wealth the first", who feels "Wrath's vial on thy lofty head burst" when he is "seduced to deeds accurst" and "smitten with th' unhallowed thirst of Crime unnamed". Byron also refers to him in Childe Harold, Canto I, stanza 22. In 1974, Aubrey Menen published Fonthill: A Comedy, a satirical portrait of Beckford. See also List of horror fiction authors Notes References Sources "Davies": National Gallery Catalogues: Catalogue of the Earlier Italian Schools, Martin Davies, National Gallery Catalogues, London 1961, reprinted 1986, Getty Provenance Research databases (Public collections etc.) Reitlinger, Gerald; The Economics of Taste, Vol I: The Rise and Fall of Picture Prices 1760–1960, Barrie and Rockliffe, London, 1961 External links Beckfordiana: The William Beckford Website Norton, Rictor. "William Beckford: The Fool of Fonthill," Gay History and Literature, updated 16 Nov 1999, accessed 2 March 2013. Norton, Rictor. "William Beckford's Gay Scrapbooks," Gay History and Literature, updated 16 Nov 1999, accessed 2 March 2013. Norton, Rictor. "A Visit to Fonthill," Gay History and Literature, updated 30 June 2000, accessed 2 March 2013. His Obituary from the Bath and Cheltenham Gazette'', p. 3 Fonthill Abbey entry from The DiCamillo Companion to British & Irish Country Houses Images of Lansdown Tower (Beckford's Tower) in Bath The House of Commons Constituencies Beginning With "W" Bath Preservation Trust Landmark Trust William Beckford Collection. General Collection. Beinecke Rare Book and Manuscript Library. Works Free eBooks by William Beckford at Manybooks Online edition of Vathek at eBooks@Adelaide 1760 births 1844 deaths 19th-century British short story writers 19th-century English male writers 18th-century English novelists 18th-century English male writers 19th-century English writers 18th-century LGBT people 19th-century LGBT people William Bisexual men Bisexual politicians Bisexual writers British writers in French Burials in Somerset English art collectors English fantasy writers English horror writers English male short story writers English short story writers English male novelists English people of Scottish descent LGBT members of the Parliament of Great Britain LGBT members of the Parliament of the United Kingdom English LGBT novelists LGBT politicians from England Members of the Parliament of Great Britain for English constituencies Members of the Parliament of the United Kingdom for English constituencies People from Wiltshire British slave owners Soho Square Eccentrics UK 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229141	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Duchess%20of%20Argyll	Duchess of Argyll	The Duchess of Argyll is typically the wife of the Duke of Argyll, an extant title in the Peerage of the United Kingdom created in 1892. The Duke is also Duke of Argyll in the Peerage of Scotland, which was originally created in the 1701. The family seat is Inveraray Castle near Inveraray in the county of Argyll, in western Scotland. Duchesses of Argyll Peerage of Scotland (1701) Elizabeth Tollemache (1659–1735), wife of the 1st Duke Mary Brown (died 1717), 1st wife of the 2nd Duke Jane Warburton (died 1767), 2nd wife of the 2nd Duke Anne Whitfield, wife of the 3rd Duke Mary Drummond Ker, wife of the 4th Duke Elizabeth Gunning (1733–1790), wife of the 5th Duke Lady Caroline Villiers (1774–1835), wife of the 6th Duke Anne Cunninghame (died 1874), 3rd wife of the 7th Duke Lady Elizabeth Leveson-Gower (1824–1878), 1st wife of the 8th Duke Amelia Claughton (1843-1894), 2nd wife of the 8th Duke Ina McNeill (1843-1925), 3rd wife of the 8th Duke Princess Louise (1848–1939), wife of the 9th Duke Louise Vanneck (1904–1970), 2nd wife of the 11th Duke Margaret Whigham (1912–1993), 3rd wife of the 11th Duke Mathilda Mortimer (1925–1997), 4th wife of the 11th Duke Iona Colquhoun (born 1945), wife of the 12th Duke Eleanor Cadbury (born 1973), wife of the 13th Duke Peerage of the United Kingdom (1892) Ina McNeill (1843-1925), 3rd wife of the 8th Duke Princess Louise (1848–1939), wife of the 9th Duke Louise Vanneck (1904–1970), 2nd wife of the 11th Duke Margaret Whigham (1912–1993), 3rd wife of the 11th Duke Mathilda Mortimer (1925–1997), 4th wife of the 11th Duke Iona Colquhoun (born 1945), wife of the 12th Duke Eleanor Cadbury (born 1973), wife of the 13th Duke	[ -0.5595137476921082, 0.03617643937468529, 0.0739864632487297, -0.4926097095012665, -0.44305169582366943, 0.11460050195455551, 0.45170536637306213, -0.1927735060453415, -0.7749847173690796, 0.24548320472240448, -0.3485732078552246, 0.3329835832118988, 0.016150183975696564, 0.8728318810462952, 0.04865624010562897, 0.350881963968277, 0.18280455470085144, 0.5484117865562439, -0.4021688401699066, -0.5244778990745544, -0.03521823137998581, -0.07963567972183228, -0.07299932837486267, 0.043873414397239685, 0.4116404950618744, 0.16168087720870972, 0.8769920468330383, -0.014433522708714008, 0.5289610624313354, 0.22141258418560028, 0.09833946824073792, 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229142	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Marine%20Corps%20War%20Memorial	Marine Corps War Memorial	The United States Marine Corps War Memorial (Iwo Jima Memorial) is a national memorial located in Arlington County, Virginia, in the United States. The memorial was dedicated in 1954 to all Marines who have given their lives in defense of the United States since 1775. It is located in Arlington Ridge Park within the George Washington Memorial Parkway, near the Ord-Weitzel Gate to Arlington National Cemetery and the Netherlands Carillon. The memorial was turned over to the National Park Service in 1955. The war memorial was inspired by the iconic 1945 photograph of six Marines raising a U.S. flag atop Mount Suribachi during the Battle of Iwo Jima in World War II taken by Associated Press combat photographer Joe Rosenthal. Upon first seeing the photograph, sculptor Felix de Weldon created a maquette for a sculpture based on the photo in a single weekend at Patuxent River Naval Air Station in Maryland, where he was serving in the Navy. He and architect Horace W. Peaslee designed the memorial. Their proposal was presented to Congress, but funding was not possible during the war. In 1947, a federal foundation was established to raise funds for the memorial. History The centerpiece of the memorial is a colossal sculpture group depicting the six Marines who raised the second and largest of two U.S. flags that were both raised atop Mount Suribachi located at the south end of Iwo Jima, on February 23, 1945. The first flag flown over the mountain was regarded to be too small to be seen by all the American troops on the other side of it where most of the fighting would take place, so it was replaced by a larger flag. The flag-raising also was recorded by Marine Sergeant Bill Genaust, a combat motion picture cameraman. He filmed the event in color while standing beside Rosenthal. Genaust's footage established that the second flag raising was not staged. On March 4, 1945, he was killed by the Japanese after entering a cave on Iwo Jima and his remains have never been found. The subjects of Rosenthal's photograph (identification changes were made in 1947, 2016, and 2019), from right to left, are as follows: Position 1: Corporal Harlon H. Block Position 2: Corporal Harold P. Keller Position 3: Private First Class Franklin R. Sousley Position 4: Sergeant Michael Strank Position 5: Private First Class Harold H. Schultz Position 6: Private First Class Ira H. Hayes The Memorial was approved by the United States Congress and commission for the memorial was awarded in 1951, after it was approved and accepted by the Marine Corps League who also selected De Weldon as the sculptor. De Weldon spent three years creating a full-sized master model in plaster, with figures tall. This was disassembled like a giant puzzle, and each piece was separately cast in bronze. Peaslee's base for the memorial is made of black diabase granite from a quarry in Lönsboda, a small town in the southernmost province of Sweden. It features a number of inscriptions. The Groundbreaking ceremony was held on February 19, 1954, exactly nine years after the Marines landed on Iwo Jima. General Lemuel Shepherd, 20th Commandant of the Marine Corps, did the groundbreaking. Construction of the memorial began in September. The bronze pieces of the sculpture were assembled to Brooklyn, New York for casting in bronze. This took about 3 months to complete. After that, they were reassembled into a dozen pieces and were shipped back to Arlington, Virginia in a 3 truck convoy, to which was added a flagpole. The total cost of the memorial was $850,000, including the development of the site. It was paid for with donations mostly from active duty Marines and Marine Reservists. Other donors included former Marines and friends of the Marine Corps and members of the Naval Service; no public funds were used. The memorial was dedicated on Wednesday, November 10, 1954, the 179th anniversary of the founding of the Marine Corps. The Presiding officials included President Dwight D. Eisenhower, Vice President Richard Nixon, Secretary of Defense Charles E. Wilson, Deputy Secretary of Defense Robert Anderson, Assistant Secretary of the Interior Orme Lewis, and General Lemuel C. Shepherd. Besides the words and prayers said by three military chaplains, remarks during the dedication were given by Robert Anderson, Chairman of the Day, Colonel J.W. Moreau, U.S. Marine Corps (Retired), President, Marine Corps War Memorial Foundation, Orme Lewis, and General Lemuel Shepherd who presented the monument to the people of the United States. Following that, a U.S. flag was raised up the Memorial's flagpole. Felix de Weldon also spoke, and Richard Nixon gave the dedicatory address. The dedication ceremony ended with the playing of taps. The Memorial was under the stewardship of the Marine Corps Memorial Foundation until the monument was dedicated. President John F. Kennedy issued a proclamation on June 12, 1961, that a Flag of the United States should fly over the memorial 24 hours a day, which is one of the few official sites where this is required. Despite being mounted on the staff of the sculpture, which depicts an event that occurred when the U.S. flag had 48 stars, the flag used is a modern one (specifically, one featuring the number and arrangement of stars prescribed as of when the flag is being flown) in keeping with both the text of the proclamation and the memorial's dedication to all Marines who died in defense of the United States regardless of when their deaths occurred. The memorial is located on a high ridge, overlooking the national capital. The Marine Barracks, Washington, D.C. uses the memorial as the centerpiece of its weekly Sunset Parade, featuring the Drum and Bugle Corps and the Silent Drill Platoon. Memorial marker and inscriptions The memorial consists of front and rear inscriptions, and inscribed in gold letters around the polished black granite upper base of the memorial is the date and location of every United States Marine Corps major action up to the present time. Front (west side): "Uncommon Valor Was A Common Virtue" – "Semper Fidelis" Rear (east side): "In Honor And Memory Of The Men Of The United States Marine Corps Who Have Given Their Lives To Their Country Since 10 November 1775" Felix de Weldon's and Joe Rosenthal's names are also inscribed on the bottom left and bottom right base of the front side of the memorial. Rosenthal's name was added in 1982. Marker "Dedicated To The Marine Dead Of All Wars, And Their Comrades Of Other Services Who Fell Fighting Beside Them. Created By Felix De Weldon, And Inspired By The Immortal Photograph Taken By Joseph J. Rosenthal On February 23, 1945, Atop Mt. Suribachi, Iwo Jima, Volcano Islands. Erected By The Marine Corps War Memorial Foundation, With Funds Provided By Marines And Their Friends, And With The Cooperation And Support Of Many Public Officials. Dedicated, November 10, 1954" Major action inscriptions Revolutionary War 1775–1783 French Naval War 1798–1801 Tripoli 1801–1805 War of 1812 1812–1815 Florida Indian Wars Mexico 1846–1848 War Between the States 1861–1865 Spanish War 1898 Philippine Insurrection 1898–1902 Boxer Rebellion 1900 Nicaragua 1912 Vera Cruz 1914 Haiti 1915–1934 Santo Domingo 1916–1924 World War I 1917–1918 Belleau Wood Soissons St. Mihiel Blanc Mont Meuse-Argonne Nicaragua 1926–1933 World War II 1941–1945 1941; Pearl Harbor Wake Island Bataan & Corregidor 1942; Midway Guadalcanal 1943; New Georgia Bougainville Tarawa New Britain 1944; Marshall Islands Marianas Islands Peleliu 1945; Iwo Jima Okinawa Korea 1950 Lebanon 1958 Vietnam 1962–1975 Dominican Republic 1965 Lebanon 1981–1984 Grenada 1983 Persian Gulf 1987–1991 Panama 1988–1990 Somalia 1992–1994 Afghanistan 2001– Iraq 2003– Memorial rumor and criticism A persistent rumor has attributed the existence of a thirteenth hand from the six statues of the men depicted on the memorial, and speculation about the possible reasons for it. When informed of the rumor, de Weldon exclaimed, "Thirteen hands. Who needed thirteen hands? Twelve were enough." In discussing the site for the United States Air Force Memorial, originally to be near de Weldon's work, J. Carter Brown, chairman of the United States Commission of Fine Arts in 1998, described the Marine Corps Memorial as kitsch. "It was taken from a photograph, it is by a sculptor, even though he was a member of this commission at one point, who is not going to go down as a Michelangelo in history—and yet it is very effective, largely because of its site," he said. Brown's remark was met with calls for his resignation from the commission, and disagreement over his categorization from the commission's staff. Refurbishment On April 29, 2015, philanthropist David Rubenstein pledged over five million dollars to refurbish the memorial in honor of his father, a Marine veteran from World War II who died in 2013, "and all Marines who have died in service to the United States." The $5.37 million donation, made through the National Park Foundation, supported cleaning and waxing the statue, polishing the black granite panels, regilding inscriptions, relandscaping, and making repairs to the pavement, lighting and flagpole. While the Park Service performs regular routine maintenance, this was the first comprehensive refurbishment of the memorial since its dedication in 1954. The work was done in three phases with completion in 2018. Related memorials When there were no government funds for sculpture during the war, the sculptor financed a concrete version of similar design in a one-third size that was placed on a parcel of land in Washington, D.C. until 1947, when it was put into storage. It later was restored and displayed at a museum on an aircraft carrier and again, returned to storage. This small concrete statue of the second U.S. flag raising at Iwo Jima in 1945 was scheduled to be auctioned in February 2013 at a New York auction dedicated to World War II artifacts, but it failed to receive the minimum bid required for the auction of it to begin. Other related memorials and copies: The original plaster working model for the bronze and granite memorial statue currently stands in Harlingen, Texas, at the Marine Military Academy, a private Marine Corps-inspired youth military academy. The academy also is the final resting place of Corporal Harlon Block, one of the flag raisers who was killed in action on Iwo Jima. A small model stands in the lobby of Spruance Hall, U.S. Naval War College, Newport, Rhode Island. It was presented by the sculptor, a resident of Newport. There are scaled-down replicas at three Marine bases: At Marine Corps Base Quantico in Virginia just outside the front gate. At Marine Corps Base Hawaii in Kāne'ohe Bay. At Marine Corps Recruit Depot Parris Island in South Carolina on the Peatross Parade Deck, where the replica is steel that is one-third scale and also sculpted by Weldon. For the final act of The Crucible, the Marines' 54-hour final training test, Marine recruits at Parris Island hike 9 miles to the statue as the sun rises and the flag is raised. They then are addressed on the flag raising and its meaning and are then awarded their Eagle, Globe and Anchor emblems by their drill instructors signifying them as full-fledged Marines. A similar (though not identical) statue was erected located at Cape Coral, Florida, in 1964 On 18 May 1973, a bronze relief of the memorial was placed along Cedar Point Road near St. Nicholas's Chapel at the Patuxent River Naval Air Station in Maryland. A version of the memorial dedicated in commemoration of the 50th anniversary of World War II stands in the Knoebels Amusement Resort in Elysburg, Pennsylvania. A similar design is used for the National Iwo Jima Memorial in Newington, Connecticut, which was dedicated in 1995 to the 6,821 U.S. servicemen who died in the battle. A copy was dedicated at Fall River's Bicentennial Park, along the banks of the Taunton River, in Massachusetts in 2005. The tilted spire above the National Museum of the Marine Corps is a visual allusion to the original sculpture. A plywood cutout version is found along Highway 62 ca. from the center of Twentynine Palms, California. Iwo Jima Sculpture and Memorial Wall at Foster Park in Young Harris, Georgia Gallery See also Iron Mike National Museum of the Marine Corps United States Navy Memorial References External links Uncommon Valor A short USMC-created film about the Iwo Jima Memorial Marine Military Academy Iwo Jima monument USMC War Memorial photographs at WW2DB Marine Corps War Memorial (Marine Barracks Washington webpage) Marine Corps University History Division page on Marine Corps War Memorial 1954 establishments in Virginia Buildings and structures in Arlington County, Virginia Battle of Iwo Jima Monuments and memorials in Virginia United States Marine Corps lore and symbols United States Marine Corps memorials Military monuments and memorials in the United States Tourist attractions in Arlington County, Virginia 1954 sculptures Bronze sculptures in Virginia George Washington Memorial Parkway Historic American Landscapes Survey in Virginia Statues in Virginia Articles containing video clips Sculptures 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229143	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/H-dropping	H-dropping	H-dropping or aitch-dropping is the deletion of the voiceless glottal fricative or "H-sound", . The phenomenon is common in many dialects of English, and is also found in certain other languages, either as a purely historical development or as a contemporary difference between dialects. Although common in most regions of England and in some other English-speaking countries, and linguistically speaking a neutral evolution in languages, H-dropping is often stigmatized as a sign of careless or uneducated speech. The reverse phenomenon, H-insertion or H-adding, is found in certain situations, sometimes as an allophone or hypercorrection by H-dropping speakers, and sometimes as a spelling pronunciation or out of perceived etymological correctness. A particular example of this is the spread of 'haitch' for 'aitch'. In English Historical /h/-loss In Old English phonology, the sounds , , and (described respectively as glottal, velar and palatal voiceless fricatives) are taken to be allophones of a single phoneme . The sound appeared at the start of a syllable, either alone or in a cluster with another consonant. The other two sounds were used in the syllable coda ( after back vowels and after front vowels). The instances of in coda position were lost during the Middle English and Early Modern English periods, although they are still reflected in the spelling of words such as taught (now pronounced like taut) and weight (now pronounced in most accents like wait). Most of the initial clusters involving also disappeared (see H-cluster reductions). As a result, in the standard varieties of Modern English, the only position in which can occur is at the start of a syllable, either alone (as in hat, house, behind, etc.), in the cluster (as in huge), or (for a minority of speakers) in the cluster (as in whine if pronounced differently from wine). The usual realizations of the latter two clusters are and (see English phonology). Contemporary H-dropping The phenomenon of H-dropping considered as a feature of contemporary English is the omission, in certain accents and dialects, of this syllable-initial , either alone or in the cluster . (For the cluster and its reduction, see Pronunciation of English ⟨wh⟩.) Description H-dropping, in certain accents and dialects of Modern English, causes words like harm, heat, home and behind to be pronounced arm, eat, ome and be-ind (though in some dialects an [h] may appear in behind to prevent hiatus – see below). Cases of H-dropping occur in all English dialects in the weak forms of function words like he, him, her, his, had, and have. The pronoun it is a product of historical H-dropping – the older hit survives as an emphatic form in a few dialects such as Southern American English, and in the Scots language. Because the of unstressed have is usually dropped, the word is usually pronounced in phrases like should have, would have, and could have. These can be spelled out in informal writing as "should've", "would've", and "could've". Because is also the weak form of the word of, these words are often misspelled as should of, would of and could of. History There is evidence of h-dropping in texts from the 13th century and later. It may originally have arisen through contact with the Norman language, where h-dropping also occurred. Puns which rely on the possible omission of the sound can be found in works by William Shakespeare and in other Elizabethan era dramas. It is suggested that the phenomenon probably spread from the middle to the lower orders of society, first taking hold in urban centers. It started to become stigmatized, being seen as a sign of poor education, in the 16th or 17th century. Geographical distribution H-dropping occurs (variably) in most of the dialects of the English language in England and Welsh English, including Cockney, West Country English, West Midlands English (including Brummie), East Midlands English, most of northern England (including Yorkshire and Lancashire), and Cardiff English. It is not generally found in Scottish English and Irish English. It is also typically absent in certain regions of England and Wales, including Northumberland, East Anglia and most of North Wales. H-dropping also occurs in some Jamaican English, and perhaps in other Caribbean English (including some of The Bahamas). It is not generally found in North American English, although it has been reported in Newfoundland (outside the Avalon Peninsula). However, dropping of /h/ from the cluster /hj/ (so that human is pronounced ) is found in some American dialects, as well as in parts of Ireland – see reduction of /hj/. Social distribution and stigmatization H-dropping, in the countries and regions in which it is prevalent, occurs mainly in working-class accents. Studies have shown it to be significantly more frequent in lower than in higher social groups. It is not a feature of RP (the prestige accent of England), or even of "Near-RP", a variant of RP that includes some regional features. This does not always apply, however, to the dropping of /h/ in weak forms of words like his and her. H-dropping in English is widely stigmatized, being perceived as a sign of poor or uneducated speech, and discouraged by schoolteachers. John Wells writes that it seems to be "the single most powerful pronunciation shibboleth in England." Use and status of the H-sound in H-dropping dialects In fully H-dropping dialects, that is, in dialects without a phonemic , the sound may still occur but with uses other than distinguishing words. An epenthetic may be used to avoid hiatus, so that for example the egg is pronounced the hegg. It may also be used when any vowel-initial word is emphasized, so that horse (assuming the dialect is also non-rhotic) and ass may be pronounced and in emphatic utterances. That is, has become an allophone of the zero onset in these dialects. For many H-dropping speakers, however, a phonological appears to be present, even if it is not usually realized – that is, they know which words "should" have an , and have a greater tendency to pronounce an [h] in those words than in other words beginning with a vowel. Insertion of [h] may occur as a means of emphasis, as noted above, and also as a response to the formality of a situation. Sandhi phenomena may also indicate a speaker's awareness of the presence of an – for example, some speakers might say "a edge" (rather than "an edge") for a hedge, and might omit the linking R before an initial vowel resulting from a dropped H. It is likely that the phonemic system of children in H-dropping areas lacks an /h/ entirely, but that social and educational pressures lead to the incorporation of an (inconsistently realized) /h/ into the system by the time of adulthood. H-insertion The opposite of H-dropping, called H-insertion or H-adding, sometimes occurs as a hypercorrection in typically H-dropping accents of English. It is commonly noted in literature from late Victorian times to the early 20th century that some lower-class people consistently drop h in words that should have it, while adding h to words that should not have it. An example from the musical My Fair Lady is, "In 'Artford, 'Ereford, and 'Ampshire, 'urricanes 'ardly hever 'appen". Another is in C. S. Lewis' The Magician's Nephew: "Three cheers for the Hempress of Colney 'Atch". In practice, however, it would appear that h-adding is more of a stylistic prosodic effect, being found on some words receiving particular emphasis, regardless of whether those words are h-initial or vowel-initial in the standard language. Some English words borrowed from French may begin with the letter but not with the sound . Examples include heir, and, in many regional pronunciations, hour, hono(u)r and honest. In some cases, spelling pronunciation has introduced the sound into such words, as in humble, hotel and (for most speakers) historic. Spelling pronunciation has also added to the British English pronunciation of herb, , while American English retains the older pronunciation . Etymology may also serve as a motivation for H-addition, as in the words horrible, habit and harmony; these were borrowed into Middle English from French without an (orrible, abit, armonie), but all three derive from Latin words with an and would later acquire an in English as an etymological "correction". The name of the letter H itself, "aitch", is subject to H-insertion in some dialects, where it is pronounced "haitch". (In Hiberno-English, "haitch" has come to be considered standard, consistent with its not an H-dropping dialects). List of homophones resulting from H-dropping The following is a list of some pairs of English words which may become homophones when H-dropping occurs. (To view the list, click "show".) See also the list of H-dropping homophones in Wiktionary. In other languages Processes of H-dropping have occurred in various languages at certain times, and in some cases, they remain as distinguishing features between dialects, as in English. Some Dutch dialects, especially the southern ones, feature H-dropping. The dialects of Zeeland, West and East Flanders, most of Antwerp and Flemish Brabant, and the west of North Brabant have lost /h/ as a phonemic consonant but use [h] to avoid hiatus and to signal emphasis, much as in the H-dropping dialects of English. H-dropping is also found in some North Germanic languages, for instance Elfdalian and the dialect of Roslagen, where it is found already in Old East Norse. Also the Low Saxon speaking area around Zwolle, Kampen and Meppel have h-dropping. The phoneme in Ancient Greek, occurring only at the beginnings of words and originally written with the letter H and later as a rough breathing, was lost in the Ionic dialect. It is also not pronounced in Modern Greek. The phoneme was lost in Late Latin, the ancestor of the modern Romance languages. Both French and Spanish acquired new initial in medieval times, but they were later lost in both languages in a "second round" of H-dropping. Some dialects of Spanish have yet again acquired from , which as of now is stable. It is hypothesized in the laryngeal theory that the loss of or similar sounds played a role in the early development of the Indo-European languages. In Maltese, existed as a phoneme until the 19th century. It was then lost in most positions, sometimes lengthening the adjacent vowel. Chiefly word-finally it was merged with //. The latter phoneme, in turn, may now be pronounced by some speakers, chiefly in the syllable onset. 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229145	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bandersnatch	Bandersnatch	A bandersnatch is a fictional creature in Lewis Carroll's 1871 novel Through the Looking-Glass and his 1874 poem The Hunting of the Snark. Although neither work describes the appearance of a bandersnatch in great detail, in The Hunting of the Snark, it has a long neck and snapping jaws, and both works describe it as ferocious and extraordinarily fast. Through the Looking-Glass implies that bandersnatches may be found in the world behind the looking-glass, and in The Hunting of the Snark, a bandersnatch is found by a party of adventurers after crossing an ocean. Bandersnatches have appeared in various adaptations of Carroll's works; they have also been used in other authors' works and in other forms of media. Description Carroll's first mention of a Bandersnatch, in the poem "Jabberwocky" (which appears in Through the Looking-Glass), is very brief: the narrator of the poem admonishes his son to "shun / The frumious Bandersnatch", the name describing the creature's fuming and furious character. Later in the novel, the White King says of his wife (the White Queen): "She runs so fearfully quick. You might as well try to catch a Bandersnatch!" In "The Hunting of the Snark," while the party searches for the Snark, the Banker runs ahead and encounters a Bandersnatch: And the Banker, inspired with a courage so new It was matter for general remark, Rushed madly ahead and was lost to their view In his zeal to discover the Snark. But while he was seeking with thimbles and care, A Bandersnatch swiftly drew nigh And grabbed at the Banker, who shrieked in despair, For he knew it was useless to fly. He offered large discount — he offered a cheque (Drawn "to bearer") for seven-pounds-ten: But the Bandersnatch merely extended its neck And grabbed at the Banker again. Without rest or pause — while those frumious jaws Went savagely snapping around — He skipped and he hopped, and he floundered and flopped, Till fainting he fell to the ground. The Bandersnatch fled as the others appeared Led on by that fear-stricken yell: And the Bellman remarked "It is just as I feared!" And solemnly tolled on his bell. In other media Literature Anna Matlack Richards's A New Alice in the Old Wonderland (1895) contains a broader description given of the Bandersnatch within the poem Bandersnatchy. In this poem, another hero sets out to slay the frumious Bandersnatch so as to gain respect from his people against the hero who slew the Jabberwock (a story he would sit and tell till after ten o'clock). The author writes that it is necessary to be armed with a vorpal sword or a winxy pistol, because one never can tell what a Bandersnatch might do. The hero describes the creature as being extremely long-legged with a long tail and the ability to fly. It could be understood that the Bandersnatch perhaps camouflages itself as a tree. There is an illustration by the author's daughter, Anna Richards Brewster, of the hero's encounter with the Bandersnatch. In a letter from 1959, C. S. Lewis wrote, "No one ever influenced Tolkien – you might as well try to influence a bandersnatch." In Larry Niven's Known Space series (1965 to present), there is a heavy-gravity species somewhat resembling a giant slug; upon their discovery they were immediately given the genus and species "Frumious bandersnatch." In Roger Zelazny’s (1987) Sign of Chaos (part of Chronicles of Amber) the protagonist encounters a Bandersnatch. The creature is described as segmented, with a side-to-side gait, leaving a trail of steaming saliva, and hissing like a leaky pressure cooker. The Bandersnatch suffered a heart-attack after having a cardiac arrest spell cast on it, implying that its general anatomy is analogous to normal animals. The episode takes place in a reality created by the mind of one of the characters while under the influence of a hallucinogenic drug. In Wilfrid Blunt's 1966 novel Omar, the character Omar is a hyrax who speaks English and certain dialects of horses and rhinoceroses. Omar claims that the word bandersnatch refers to hyraxes, and that the warning to "shun a bandersnatch" only pertains if it happens to be frumious. The Frumious Bandersnatch is the title of a 2003 police procedural novel by Ed McBain, one of the last in his 87th Precinct series of detective crime fiction. In Eric Nylund's 2006 novel Ghosts of Onyx, the code-name 'Bandersnatch' is used to warn UNSC troops for a radiological or energy-based disaster. It was previously used on occasions where Covenant troops had 'glassed' former human colonies. Television and film In Pandora Hearts (2006), Lily's chain is a large black dog named Bandersnatch. In the Young Justice episode "Earthling," Adam Strange improvises a performance of the second verse of Jabberwocky in order to distract a patrol while on the planet Rann. "Beware the Jabberwock, my son! The jaws that bite, the claws that catch! Beware the Jubjub bird, and shun The frumious Bandersnatch!" He soon scurries away saying "No time to say hello, goodbye! I'm late! I'm late! I'm late!" "... and down the rabbit hole I go!" Strange's mission accomplices include a pet from his alien hosts' household with an appearance not unlike some illustrations of a Jubjub bird. In the 2010 film Alice in Wonderland, the Bandersnatch appears as a large white beast somewhat resembling a mix of bulldog, snow leopard and bear with long fur, black spots, a long tail, and multiple rows of sharp teeth. It is a creature under the control of the Red Queen until Alice returns its eye (which it had lost to the Dormouse). It helps Alice to escape and joins the White Queen's forces. In the video game adaptation of the film, it serves a similar role. The Bandersnatch appears in the Once Upon a Time in Wonderland episode "Forget-Me-Not." This version is a monstrous wild boar. In the past, Alice had faced the Bandersnatch before. In the present, Jafar and the Red Queen send the female Bandersnatch after Alice and the Knave of Hearts in order to get Alice to use up one of her wishes from Cyrus. Jafar gives the Bandersnatch the magic message response that Alice made for Cyrus so that it can pick up her scent. The Bandersnatch tracks Alice to the Grendel's house and attacks where it knocks out the Grendel. As Alice restrains the Bandersnatch, the Knave of Hearts stabs it. The Red Queen states to Jafar that the Bandersnatch mates for life and that the male Bandersnatch in their possession is now dead. In the adult animated movie Mardock Scramble: The First Compression (2010), a dockside warehouse owned by the livestock export company "Bander Snatch" is used as a clandestine meeting location (visible at 45:34). In Date A Live season 2, the robotic creatures of Deus Ex Machina are called the Bandersnatch. In the television series Once Upon a Time, the Bandersnatch is mentioned by Alice in the episode "The Girl in the Tower" as a reference to Alice's speed: "I once outran a Bandersnatch." Black Mirror: Bandersnatch is a standalone interactive film released in between the fourth and fifth seasons of the Netflix anthology series Black Mirror. Music San Francisco psychedelic rock band Frumious Bandersnatch named themselves after Carroll's work. Seattle rock band Forgive Durden released a single entitled "Beware the Jubjub Bird and Shun the frumious Bandersnatch!" (2006) from the album Wonderland. An all-male a capella group at Skidmore College named themselves the Bandersnatchers ("Banders" for short) Dutch composer Theo Verbey wrote a piece called Bandersnatch for cello and pianola, which was premiered during the 2010 Amsterdam Cello Biennale. Comics In the 2010 graphic novel Calamity Jack, sequel to Rapunzel's Revenge (published in 2006), the giant Blunderboar has a pet Bandersnatch named Lewis, presumably after Lewis Carroll. This Bandersnatch appears as a giant toadlike being with a massive mouth, two small mouths in place of eyes, a long froglike tongue, and the ability to spit acid. It was killed when the Jabblewocky bit it. In the visual novel Sekien no Inganock - What a Beautiful People, Bandersnatch appears as a fantastic Creature that manifests itself inside the "engine space" within the City's computer network and preys upon hackers who access the virtual reality. In Ursula Vernon's webcomic Digger, a bandersnatch appears as a two-headed, sentient, exiled draft animal. In the online comic Skin Deep, the Bandersnatch is shown to be a harmless creature. Games Bandersnatch, a 1984 vaporware game project by Imagine Software that led to the 1986 game Brataccas. Bandersnatch, a name used many times in the Final Fantasy video game series (1987–present). The name is given to various enemies in many installments of the game in both the Japanese and English-language versions. In most of the games, it is a common enemy that does not create much difficulty for the player, and it usually has qualities of wolves or lions in appearance. In Final Fantasy IX, however, the Bandersnatch is a slightly stronger enemy with a strange appearance that seems to be a large, demonic poodle with an expansive toothy grin. It is summoned by the antagonists during an important story scene in the game. The Bandersnatch of Final Fantasy XV is a major enemy, an enormous bipedal reptile vaguely resembling a Tyrannosaurus, its body covered in brutal, jagged spines, and an unusual mouth with two massive vertical jaws and rows of man-sized fangs. In the massively multiplayer online role-playing games Mabinogi (2004) and LaTale (2006), the Bandersnatch makes an appearance. In Mabinogi, a Bandersnatch is an ice monster located in "Par Dungeon". A normal Bandersnatch can only be killed with one of the fire spells, or a giant's stomp ability, due to their high defense. The Giant Bandersnatch can be killed as a normal monster and is the boss of the dungeon. Both normal and Giant Bandersnatches move slowly and will not normally attack unless first hit is activated. In Latale, the Bandersnatch is a dog-like creature with strange markings and a massive jaw. It is an auto-aggressive monster that either lunges at the player or headbutts when its close to the player. It can be found in the first two rooms of the Treasure Vault Instance or King's Room. Bandersnatches are a powerful type of enemy in Kingdom Rush: Origins, appearing as a large, blue and purple monster with a spiny back and the ability to roll into a ball and move extraordinarily quickly. In the Shadowrun universe, bandersnatches are humanoid creatures whose bodies can refract light. They can blend in almost perfectly with their surroundings, making them difficult to see, even with the use of thermal detectors, since the radiation of their body heat is also masked. They can usually be found in the Salish-Sidhe wilderness, sometimes in abandoned buildings, and tend to attack in small groups. Bandersnatch is the name of an enemy in Resident Evil – Code: Veronica. It shares nothing in common with the source material other than an extendable arm, giving it the 'long reach' of its namesake. Frumious Bandersnatch is the name of a familiar in the browser-based multiplayer online role-playing game Kingdom of Loathing, obtained by buying a special monthly item in March 2009. In the Tera universe, Bandersnatch is a name given to the last boss in Wonderholme'''s dungeon. In the Pathfinder Roleplaying Game, the bandersnatch, along with the Jub-Jub Bird and Jabberwock, is one of a group of monsters called The Tane invented by the fey lords as living weapons. Computer science Bandersnatches are the subject of a difficult algorithm design project for an apparently NP-complete problem in the academic theoretical computer science book by M. R. Garey and D. S. Johnson, Computers and Intractability: A Guide to the Theory of NP-Completeness''. Physical Locations In Ashland, OR, USA there is a hiking trail above Lithia Park named Bandersnatch Trail. Denison University in Granville, OH, USA has a student-run cafe called The Bandersnatch. 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229146	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Propositional%20function	Propositional function	In propositional calculus, a propositional function or a predicate is a sentence expressed in a way that would assume the value of true or false, except that within the sentence there is a variable (x) that is not defined or specified (thus being a free variable), which leaves the statement undetermined. The sentence may contain several such variables (e.g. n variables, in which case the function takes n arguments). Overview As a mathematical function, A(x) or A(x, x, ..., x), the propositional function is abstracted from predicates or propositional forms. As an example, consider the predicate scheme, "x is hot". The substitution of any entity for x will produce a specific proposition that can be described as either true or false, even though "x is hot" on its own has no value as either a true or false statement. However, when a value is assigned to x , such as lava, the function then has the value true; while one assigns to x a value like ice, the function then has the value false. Propositional functions are useful in set theory for the formation of sets. For example, in 1903 Bertrand Russell wrote in The Principles of Mathematics (page 106): "...it has become necessary to take propositional function as a primitive notion. Later Russell examined the problem of whether propositional functions were predicative or not, and he proposed two theories to try to get at this question: the zig-zag theory and the ramified theory of types. A Propositional Function, or a predicate, in a variable x is an open formula p(x) involving x that becomes a proposition when one gives x a definite value from the set of values it can take. According to Clarence Lewis, "A proposition is any expression which is either true or false; a propositional function is an expression, containing one or more variables, which becomes a proposition when each of the variables is replaced by some one of its values from a discourse domain of individuals." Lewis used the notion of propositional functions to introduce relations, for example, a propositional function of n variables is a relation of arity n. The case of n = 2 corresponds to binary relations, of which there are homogeneous relations (both variables from the same set) and heterogeneous relations. See also Propositional formula Boolean-valued function Formula (logic) Sentence (logic) Truth function Open sentence References Functions and mappings Mathematical relations Concepts in logic Predicate logic Logical expressions	[ -0.15141873061656952, 0.18870121240615845, -0.30048444867134094, 0.3444061279296875, -0.2115456908941269, 0.007565482519567013, 0.0712466686964035, 0.42222556471824646, 0.10359238088130951, -0.10478483885526657, -0.4879396855831146, 0.6545849442481995, -0.1620468944311142, 0.02805427461862564, 0.3041909635066986, -0.03346455469727516, 0.7907338738441467, 0.1961839199066162, 0.299782395362854, -0.2553618848323822, -0.2957714796066284, 0.5254596471786499, -0.12081709504127502, -1.0861194133758545, 0.6818968057632446, -0.4153284728527069, -0.04415638744831085, 0.002229649806395173, -0.35581380128860474, 0.06582623720169067, -0.3233633041381836, 0.6553880572319031, -0.26417580246925354, 0.02553480677306652, -0.6217893362045288, -0.07104390114545822, 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229147	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jessie%20Matthews	Jessie Matthews	Jessie Margaret Matthews (11 March 1907 – 19 August 1981) was an English actress, dancer and singer of the 1920s and 1930s, whose career continued into the post-war period. After a string of hit stage musicals and films in the mid-1930s, Matthews developed a following in the USA, where she was dubbed "The Dancing Divinity". Her British studio was reluctant to let go of its biggest name, which resulted in offers for her to work in Hollywood being repeatedly rejected. Early life Matthews was born in a flat behind a butcher's shop at 94 Berwick Street, Soho, London, in relative poverty, the seventh of sixteen children (of whom eleven survived) of a fruit-and-vegetable seller. She took dancing lessons as a child in a room above the local public house at 22 Berwick Street. Career Stage career She went on stage on 29 December 1919, aged 12, in Bluebell in Fairyland, by Seymour Hicks, with music by Walter Slaughter and lyrics by Charles Taylor, at The Metropolitan Music Hall, Edgware Road, London, as a child dancer. She made her cinema debut in 1923 in the silent film The Beloved Vagabond. She also had a small part in Straws in the Wind, released the following year. Matthews was in the chorus in Charlot's Review of 1924 in London. She went with the show to New York, where she was also understudy to the star, Gertrude Lawrence. The show moved to Toronto, and when Lawrence fell ill, Matthews took over the role, and received glowing reviews. Early fame Matthews was acclaimed in the United Kingdom as a dancer, and for introducing numerous popular songs of the 1920s and 1930s, including "A Room with a View" by Noël Coward and "Let's Do It, Let's Fall in Love" by Cole Porter. Matthews' fame reached its initial height with her lead role in Charles B. Cochran's 1930 stage production of Ever Green, which premiered at the Alhambra Theatre Glasgow. The musical, by Rodgers and Hart, was partly inspired by the life of music hall star Marie Lloyd and her daughter's tribute act resurrection of her mother's acclaimed Edwardian stage show as Marie Lloyd Junior. At its time, Ever Green, which included the first major revolving stage in Britain, was the most expensive musical ever mounted on a British stage. Film star Matthews' first major film role was in Out of the Blue (1931). The following year, she starred in two films directed by Albert de Courville, The Midshipmaid and There Goes the Bride. Matthews enjoyed great success with her appearance in the ensemble film The Good Companions (1933) directed by Victor Saville, and The Man from Toronto, released the same year. 1933 also saw her starring in Waltzes from Vienna, an operetta telling the story behind the production of The Blue Danube by Johann Strauss II, directed by a young Alfred Hitchcock. This was followed by another ensemble film, Friday the Thirteenth (1933). She then starred in the film version of Evergreen (1934), which featured the newly composed song "Over My Shoulder", which was to go on to become Matthews' personal signature song, later giving its title to her autobiography and to a 21st-century musical stage show of her life. This was followed by First a Girl (1935), in which she appears as a cross dresser, and then It's Love Again (1936), where she had an American co-star, Robert Young. Exhibitors voted her the sixth biggest star in the country that year. Matthews then began to appear in films directed by husband Sonnie Hale: Gangway (1937), Head over Heels (1937) and Sailing Along (1938). Following the end of Hale's contract with Gaumont British, she starred in her last film for the studio, Climbing High (1938) directed by Carol Reed. In 1938, she was the fourth biggest British star at the box office. World War II Her warbling voice and round cheeks made her a familiar and much-loved personality to British theatre and film audiences at the beginning of World War II. She was one of many British-born stars in the Hollywood film Forever and a Day (1943) (in whose cast Matthews was virtually unique, by virtue of not being an expat: while in New York City preparing for a Broadway role, Matthews had been recruited to film a role originally intended for Greer Garson in Hollywood over three days). Matthews' popularity waned in the 1940s after several years' absence from the screen, followed by an unsatisfactory thriller, Candles at Nine (1944). She directed and featured in the short film, Victory Wedding (1944), starring John Mills and Dulcie Gray. During the war, she entertained troops in Continental Europe as a member of ENSA. Post-war career Post-war audiences associated Matthews with a world of hectic pre-war luxury that was now seen as obsolete in austerity-era Britain. In the late 1940s, she ran an amateur theatre group at the Theatre Royal in Aldershot. After a few false starts as a straight actress, she played Tom Thumb's mother in the 1958 children's film tom thumb, and appeared in Dinner with the Family (1959), made for Australian TV. In the 1960s, Matthews found new fame when she took over the leading role of Mary Dale in the BBC's long-running daily radio soap, The Dales, formerly known Mrs Dale's Diary. The series ended in 1969. Live theatre and variety shows remained the mainstay of Matthews' work throughout the 1950s and 1960s, with successful tours of Australia and South Africa interspersed with periods of less glamorous but welcome work in British provincial theatre and pantomimes. Later career Matthews continued to make cabaret and occasional film and television appearances throughout the 1970s, including a one-off guest role in the popular BBC TV series Angels. She also played Wallis Simpson's "Aunt Bessie" Merriman in the 1978 Thames TV series Edward & Mrs. Simpson, which told the story of Edward VIII's abdication. Her last television appearance was in "A Picture of a Place", an episode of the ITV mystery anthology series Tales of the Unexpected. She took her one-woman stage show to Los Angeles in 1979 and won the United States Drama-Logue Award for the year's best performance in concert. Honours Matthews was awarded an OBE in 1970. Personal life In 1926, aged 18, she married the first of her three husbands, the 19 year-old actor Henry Lytton, Jr., the son of singer and actress Louie Henri and Sir Henry Lytton, the doyen of the Savoy Theatre. Matthews and Lytton Jr. divorced in 1929. Matthews had several romantic relationships conducted in the public eye, often causing controversy in the newspapers. The most notorious was her relationship with the married Sonnie Hale. A high-court judge denounced her as an "odious" individual when her love letters to Hale were used as evidence in the case of his divorce from his wife, actress/singer Evelyn 'Boo' Laye. It took some time for Matthews' popularity to recover from this scandal. "If I ceased to be a star", she wrote in a piece for Picturegoer in 1934, "all that interest in my home life would evaporate, I believe. Perhaps it is the price one has to pay for being a star". Her second and longest marriage (1931–1944) was to actor-director Sonnie Hale; the third to military officer, Lt. Brian Lewis, both marriages ending in divorce. With Hale she had one adopted daughter, Catherine Hale-Monro, who married Count Donald Grixoni on 15 November 1958; they eventually divorced, but she remained known as Catherine, Countess Grixoni. Matthews suffered from periods of ill-health throughout her life and eventually died of cancer, aged 74. Legacy Matthews was the subject of This Is Your Life in 1961. Previously, for the same show, in January 1960, she had appeared in a televised recorded message for Alicia Markova, broadcast from Matthews' home in Melbourne, Australia. Further guest appearances on This is Your Life were made by Matthews for comedian Sandy Powell, dancer Sir Anton Dolin, actor Andrew Sachs and comedian Janet Brown. A posthumous documentary on Matthews, Catch A Fallen Star, part of the BBC's 40 Minutes strand, was broadcast in 1987. A memorial plaque above the venue for her childhood dance classes, 22 Berwick Street, Soho, was unveiled on 3 May 1995 by Andrew Lloyd Webber and stage actress Ruthie Henshall. Theatre credits Bluebell in Fairyland (1919) Music Box Review (1923) London Calling! (1923) Charlot's Review of 1924 (1924) Charlot Show of 1926 (1926) One Dam Thing after Another (1927) This Year of Grace (1928) Wake Up and Dream (1929) Ever Green (1930) Hold My Hand (1931) Partial filmography The Beloved Vagabond (1923) – Pan This England (1923) – Edward, Prince of Wales Straws in the Wind (1924) – The Village Maiden (uncredited) Out of the Blue (1931) – Tommy Tucker There Goes the Bride (1932) – Annette Marquand The Midshipmaid (1932) – Celia Newbiggin The Good Companions (1933) – Susie Dean Friday the Thirteenth (1933) – Millie the Non-Stop Variety Girl The Man from Toronto (1933) – Leslie Farrar Waltzes from Vienna (aka Strauss's Great Waltz) (1934) – Resi Ebezeder Evergreen (1934) – Harriet Green First a Girl (1935) – Elizabeth It's Love Again (1936) – Elaine Bradford aka Mrs. Smythe-Smythe Head Over Heels (aka Head Over Heels in Love) (1937) – Jeanne Colbert Gangway (1937) – Pat Wayne Sailing Along (1938) – Kay Martin Climbing High (1938) – Diana Forever and a Day (1943) – Mildred Trimble Candles at Nine (1944) – Dorothea Capper – Heiress Victory Wedding (1944) (Director) – Narrator Tom Thumb (1958) – The Parent: Anne The Hound of the Baskervilles (1978) – Mrs. Tinsdale Box office ranking For a number of years, British film exhibitors voted her among the top ten stars in Britain at the box office via an annual poll in the Motion Picture Herald. 1936 – 6th most popular star, 2nd most popular British star 1937 – 3rd 1938 – 4th Home video Matthews' 12 starring films from There Goes the Bride to Sailing Along have been released on DVD in the UK by Network. The same films, except for Waltzes from Vienna and Evergreen, have also been released on DVD in the US by VCI Entertainment In France, Waltzes from Vienna has been released on DVD under its local title, Le Chant du Danube by Universal, who paired it with another Hitchcock-directed film, Downhill (1927). Climbing High has also been released on French DVD by Elephant Films, as La Grande escalade. Three of the four remaining films Matthews made after the end of her leading lady period (Forever and a Day, Tom Thumb and The Hound of the Baskervilles) have been released on DVD in various countries. Bibliography and sources Over My Shoulder, by Jessie Matthews and Muriel Burgess, W.H. Allen Publisher, 1974 () Jessie Matthews – A Biography, by Michael Thornton, Hart-Davis Publisher, 1974 () Oxford Companion to Popular Music, Peter Grimmond, Oxford University Press, 1991 () References External links British Pictures biography Radio Days biography with audio clips Woman's Hour Centenary programme on BBC Radio 4 Their Record Speaks for Them article about her recording career The Jessie Matthews Homepage archived at the Wayback Machine Theatre & Performance: Jessie Matthews Victoria and Albert Museum article archived at the Wayback Machine Jessie Matthews Appreciation Society. 1907 births 1981 deaths English Roman Catholics Deaths from cancer in England English female dancers English film actresses English musical theatre actresses English radio personalities Officers of the Order of the British Empire People from Eastcote People from Soho 20th-century English actresses Actresses from London 20th-century English singers 20th-century English women singers	[ 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229153	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rose%20Ryal	Rose Ryal	The Rose Ryal is a gold coin of the Kingdom of England issued in the reign of King James I and is now very rare. The coin is really a two-ryal coin worth thirty shillings (i.e. 1½ pounds) and is a development of the earlier fine sovereign of Queen Elizabeth I. The Rose Ryal, so called because the rose appearing on the reverse, was introduced during James I's second coinage (1604-1619). The design of this first issue shows on the obverse the king enthroned with a portcullis beneath his feet, surrounded by the legend IACOBUS DG MAG BRIT FRAN ET HIBER REX ("James, by the grace of God, of Great Britain, France and Ireland King"). The reverse shows the royal arms over a rose surrounded by the legend A. DNO FACTUM EST ISTUD ET EST MIRAB IN OCULIS NRIS ("This is the Lord's doing and it is marvellous in our eyes", from Psalm 118). During James' third coinage (1619–25) a new-style rose ryal was issued. On the reverse is the royal shield, with the value "XXX" over the shield and the whole surrounded by roses, lions, and lis, surrounded by the legend A. DNO FACTUM EST ISTUD ET EST MIRAB IN OCULIS NRIS, while the obverse shows a redesigned version of the enthroned king with a portcullis beneath, surrounded by the legend IACOBUS DG MA BRI FR ET HI REX. 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229154	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Abraham%20Hayward	Abraham Hayward	Abraham Hayward Q.C. (22 November 1801 – 2 February 1884) was an English man of letters. Life He was son of Joseph Hayward, and was born in Wilton, near Salisbury, Wiltshire. After education at Blundell's School, Tiverton, he entered the Inner Temple in 1824, and was called to the bar in June 1832. He took part as a conservative in the discussions of the London Debating Society, where his opponents were J A Roebuck and John Stuart Mill. The editorship of the Law Magazine, or, Quarterly Review of Jurisprudence, which he held from 1828 to 1844, brought him into connection with John Austin, G Cornewall Lewis, and such foreign jurists as Savigny, whose tractate on contemporary legislation and jurisprudence he rendered into English. In 1833 he travelled abroad, and on his return began contributing to the New Monthly, the Foreign Quarterly, the Quarterly Review and the Edinburgh Review. In February 1835 he was elected to the Athenaeum Club under Rule II, and he remained for nearly fifty years one of its most conspicuous and most influential members. He was also a subscriber to the Carlton, but ceased to frequent it when he became a Peelite. At the Temple, Hayward, whose reputation was rapidly growing as a connoisseur not only of a bill of fare but also as company, gave recherché dinners, at which ladies of rank and fashion appreciated the wit of Sydney Smith and Theodore Hook, the dignity of Lockhart and Lyndhurst and the oratory of Macaulay. At the Athenaeum and in political society he to some extent succeeded to the position of Croker. He and Macaulay were commonly said to be the two best-read men in town. Political ladies first, and statesmen afterwards, came to recognise the advantage of obtaining Hayward's good opinion. The "old reviewing hand" became an acknowledged link between society, letters and politics. In one notable and lengthy land rights case, 'The Queen v. Ames', Hayward acted on behalf of the town of Lyme Regis in securing the permanent right of way for its citizens, across the cliffs to Axminster. There were other successes, but his promotion to be Q.C. in 1845 excited a storm of opposition, and, disgusted at being 'black-balled' by J. A. Roebuck and therefore not elected a Bencher of his Inn in the usual course, Hayward virtually withdrew from legal practice. His enemies prevented him from enjoying a well-selected quasisinecure, which both Palmerston and Aberdeen admitted to be his due. Samuel Warren attacked him as Venom Tuft in Ten Thousand a Year; and Disraeli aimed at him partially in Ste Barbe (in Endymion), though the satire here was directed primarily against Thackeray. As a counsellor of great ladies and of politicians, to whom he held forth with a sense of all-round responsibility surpassing that of a cabinet minister, Hayward retained his influence to the last years of his life. But he had little sympathy with modern ideas. He used to say that he had outlived everyone that he could really look up to. He died, a bachelor, in his rooms at 8 St James's Street (a small museum of autograph portraits and reviewing trophies) and was buried in Highgate Cemetery (east side). Works He printed privately a translation of Goethe's Faust into English prose (pronounced by Carlyle to be the best version extant in his time). A second and revised edition was published after another visit to Germany in January 1834, in the course of which Hayward met Tieck, Chamisso, De La Motte Fouqué, Varnhagen von Ense and Madame Goethe. In 1878 he contributed the volume on Goethe to Blackwood's Foreign Classics for English Readers. The late nineteenth century English author George Gissing who read a lot of German literature in German during his lifetime, thought the volume 'poor stuff'. His first successes as reviewer were in 1835–1836 by articles on "Walker's Original" and on "Gastronomy." The essays were reprinted to form The Art of Dining, in 1852. Hayward got up every important subject of discussion immediately it came into prominence, and concentrated his information in such a way that he habitually had the last word to say on a topic. When Rogers died, when Vanity Fair was published, when the Greville Memoirs was issued or a revolution occurred on the continent, Hayward, whose memory was as retentive as his power of accumulating documentary evidence was exhaustive, wrote an elaborate essay on the subject for the Quarterly or the Edinburgh. He followed up his paper by giving his acquaintances no rest until they either assimilated or undertook to combat his views. In February 1848 he became one of the chief leader-writers for the Peelite organ, the Morning Chronicle. The morbid activity of his memory, however, continued to make him many enemies. He alienated Disraeli by tracing a purple patch in his official eulogy of the Duke of Wellington to a newspaper translation from Thiers's funeral panegyric on General St Cyr. His sharp tongue had already made him an enemy of Roebuck, and he disgusted the friends of Mill by the stories he raked up for an obituary notice of the great economist (The Times, 10 May 1873). He broke with Henry Reeve in 1874 by a venomous review of the Greville Memoirs, in which Reeve was compared to the beggarly Scot deputed to let off the blunderbuss which Bolingbroke (Greville) had charged. After his break with Reeve, Hayward devoted himself more exclusively to the Quarterly. His essays on Chesterfield and Selwyn were reprinted in 1854. Collective editions of his articles appeared in volume form in 1858, 1873 and 1874, and Selected Essays in two volumes, 1878. In his useful but far from flawless edition of the Autobiography, Letters and Literary Remains of Mrs (Thrale) Piozzi (1861), he again appears as a supplementer and continuator of J. W. Croker. His Eminent Statesmen and Writers (1880) commemorates to a large extent personal friendships with such men as Dumas, Cavour and Thiers, whom he knew intimately. Two volumes of Hayward's Correspondence (edited by HE Carlisle) were published in 1886. In Vanity Fair (27 November 1875) he may be seen as he appeared in later life. References Philip Harling, ‘Hayward, Abraham (1801–1884)’, Oxford Dictionary of National Biography, Oxford University Press, 2004, accessed 6 February 2007 Antony Chessell, 'The Life and Times of Abraham Hayward, Q.C., Victorian Essayist', Lulu Publishing, 2009 'Abraham Hayward Collection' at the Beinecke Rare Book and Manuscript Library, Yale University. External links Abraham Hayward Collection. General Collection, Beinecke Rare Book and Manuscript Library, Yale University. English non-fiction writers 1801 births 1884 deaths Burials at Highgate Cemetery English barristers People from Wilton, Wiltshire People educated at Blundell's School Members of the Inner Temple English male non-fiction writers 19th-century English lawyers	[ -0.22987903654575348, 0.5362318158149719, -0.5682929754257202, -0.41399383544921875, -0.9549735188484192, 1.1351954936981201, 0.8600151538848877, 0.4120163321495056, -0.3423249423503876, -0.5769423246383667, -0.29595738649368286, -0.16114141047000885, -0.17111390829086304, 0.6010444760322571, 0.19446468353271484, 0.41889822483062744, -0.18019546568393707, 0.8666655421257019, 0.22565233707427979, -0.2893452048301697, -0.1954362839460373, -0.2898062765598297, -0.4611857235431671, -0.2875533401966095, -0.3160225450992584, -0.19638000428676605, 0.14450396597385406, 0.2878829538822174, -0.0654025748372078, -0.1376548409461975, -0.007132858503609896, 0.5296261310577393, 0.2575775980949402, -0.5081565976142883, 0.45479753613471985, 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229155	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Andrew%20Davies%20%28writer%29	Andrew Davies (writer)	Andrew Wynford Davies (; born 20 September 1936) is a Welsh writer of screenplays and novels, best known for House of Cards and A Very Peculiar Practice, and his adaptations of Vanity Fair, Pride and Prejudice, Middlemarch, Bleak House and War & Peace. He was made a BAFTA Fellow in 2002. Education and early career Davies was born in Rhiwbina, Cardiff, Wales. He attended Whitchurch Grammar School in Cardiff and then University College, London, where he received a BA in English in 1957. He took a teaching position at St. Clement Danes Grammar School in London, where he was on the teaching staff from 1958–61. He held a similar post at Woodberry Down Comprehensive School in Hackney, London from 1961–63. Following that, he was a lecturer in English at Coventry College of Education (which later merged with the University of Warwick to become the Faculty of Educational Studies and later the Warwick Institute of Education), and then at the University of Warwick. In 1960, Davies contributed material to the BBC Home Service's Monday Night at Home strand, alongside Harold Pinter and Ivor Cutler. He wrote his first play for radio in 1964 and many more were to follow. In 1960, he married Diana Huntley; the couple have a son and daughter. He is resident in Kenilworth, Warwickshire. Writer Davies' first television play, Who's Going to Take Me On?, was broadcast in 1967 as part of BBC1's The Wednesday Play strand. His early plays were written as a sideline to his work in education, many of them appearing in anthology series such as Thirty Minute Theatre, Play for Today and Centre Stage. One of his London stage plays, Rose, played on Broadway in 1981, with Glenda Jackson and Jessica Tandy. His first serial adaptation of a work of fiction was of To Serve Them All My Days (1980), from the novel by R. F. Delderfield. He wrote A Very Peculiar Practice (1986–88), a campus based comedy-drama series that drew upon his career in education. He is now best known for his adaptations of classic works of literature for television including the Charles Dickens short story The Signalman (1976), Pride and Prejudice (1995) starring Colin Firth and Jennifer Ehle, Vanity Fair (1998), Bleak House (2005) and Sense and Sensibility (2008). He is the writer of the screenplays for the BBC production Middlemarch (1994) and a planned film of the same name once announced for 2011 release. Davies also co-devised with Bernadette Davis the sitcom Game On for BBC2 and co-wrote the first two series broadcast in 1995 and 1996. The popularity of his adaptation of Michael Dobbs's political thriller House of Cards was a significant influence in Dobbs's decision to write two sequels, which Davies also adapted for television. In film, he has collaborated on the screenplays for the first two Bridget Jones films, based on Helen Fielding novels. He is a prolific writer for children. The first of his novels was Conrad's War, published by Blackie in 1978. Davies won the annual Guardian Children's Fiction Prize, which is judged by a panel of British children's writers and recognises the best book by an author who has not yet won it. He has written Alfonso Bonzo (book and television series) and the adventures of Marmalade Atkins (television series and numerous books). He also wrote the stories Dark Towers and Badger Girl for BBC TV's Look and Read programmes for schools audiences. 2008 saw the release of his adaptations of the 1999 novel Affinity by Sarah Waters, Evelyn Waugh's Brideshead Revisited (a film), Charles Dickens' Little Dorrit (a BBC series). Little Dorrit won seven of eleven Emmy nominations and earned Davies an Emmy for Outstanding Writing for a Miniseries. Adaptations of Dombey and Son, one of Dickens' lesser-read works and Anthony Trollope's Palliser novels were scrapped by the BBC in late 2009, following a move away from "bonnet dramas". ITV was looking to recreate its period drama success with Downton Abbey with a new series Mr Selfridge, written by Davies and starring Jeremy Piven. An initial ten-part series first aired on 6 January 2013 and it has run for 4 series by 2016. Davies' six-part adaptation of Leo Tolstoy's War & Peace was broadcast on BBC One in January and February 2016. Following its success, the BBC announced in July 2016 that it would be followed up with a six-part adaptation of Victor Hugo's Les Misérables to be scripted by Davies. In May 2017, it was announced that BBC will adapt Vikram Seth's magnum opus A Suitable Boy into an eight-part series to be scripted by Davies. In May 2018, he announced at the Hay Festival that he is adapting John Updike's Rabbit, Run for television. Filmography Television series and serials The Legend of King Arthur (1979) To Serve Them All My Days (1980) Dark Towers (Look and Read, 1981) Diana (1984) Badger Girl (Look and Read, 1984) A Very Peculiar Practice (1986–88) Mother Love (1989) House of Cards (1990) Anglo-Saxon Attitudes (1992) The Old Devils (1992) To Play the King (1993) Middlemarch (1994) Game On (1995, with Bernadette Davis) Pride and Prejudice (1995) The Final Cut (1995) Wilderness (1996) The Fortunes and Misfortunes of Moll Flanders (1996) Bill's New Frock (1997) Vanity Fair (1998) Wives and Daughters (1999) Take a Girl Like You (2000) The Way We Live Now (2001) Daniel Deronda (2002) Doctor Zhivago (2002) Tipping the Velvet (2002) He Knew He Was Right (2004) Bleak House (2005) The Line of Beauty (2006) Northanger Abbey (2007), part of ITV's Jane Austen Season A Room with a View (2007) Fanny Hill (2007) Sense and Sensibility (2008) Little Dorrit (2008) South Riding (2011) Mr Selfridge (2013–14) Quirke (2014) A Poet in New York (2014) War & Peace (2016) Les Misérables (2019) Sanditon (2019) A Suitable Boy (2020 BBC One TV series) Television plays Who's Going to Take Me On? (1965) Is That Your Body, Boy? (1970) No Good Unless It Hurts (1973) The Water Maiden (1974) Grace (1975) The Imp of the Perverse (1975) The Signalman (1976) A Martyr to the System (1976) Eleanor Marx (1977) Velvet Glove (1977) Fearless Frank (1978) Renoir My Father (1978) Bavarian Night (1981) Heartattack Hotel (1983) Baby I Love You (1985) Pythons on the Mountain (1985) Inappropriate Behaviour (1987) Lucky Sunil (1988) Ball Trap on the Cote Sauvage (1989) Filipina Dreamgirls (1991) A Very Polish Practice (1992) Anna Lee (1993) Harnessing Peacocks (1993) A Few Short Journeys of the Heart (1994) Emma (1996) Getting Hurt (1998) A Rather English Marriage (1998) Othello (2001) Boudica (2003) Falling (2005) The Chatterley Affair (2006) Diary of a Nobody (2007) Cinema Circle of Friends (1995) The Tailor of Panama (2001) Bridget Jones's Diary (2001, with Helen Fielding and Richard Curtis) Bridget Jones: The Edge of Reason (2004, with Helen Fielding) Brideshead Revisited (2008) The Three Musketeers (2011) Novels Conrad's War (Blackie and Son, 1978) —winner of the Guardian Prize Getting Hurt (1989), for adults Dirty Faxes (1990), short stories B. Monkey (1992) —adapted by others as the 1998 film B. Monkey Based on the TV series A Very Peculiar Practice (1986, Coronet) —novelization of A Very Peculiar Practice, season one A Very Peculiar Practice: The New Frontier (1988, Methuen) Stage plays Rose (1980) Prin (1990) Picture books Andrew and Diana Davies have written at least two children's picture books. Poonam's Pets (Methuen Children's, 1990), illustrated by Paul Dowling Raj In Charge (Hamish Hamilton, 1994), illus. Debi Gliori References Further References Cardwell, Sarah (2005) 'Andrew Davies'. Manchester: MUP. External links 1936 births Living people Welsh television writers Welsh screenwriters Guardian Children's Fiction Prize winners Fellows of the Royal Society of Literature Academics of the University of Warwick Writers from Cardiff Alumni of University College London BAFTA winners (people) BAFTA fellows Emmy Award winners People educated at Whitchurch Grammar School, Cardiff Primetime Emmy Award winners People from Rhiwbina	[ 0.1074415072798729, 0.2917277216911316, -0.21661119163036346, -0.3994923532009125, 0.42657747864723206, 0.5291152000427246, 0.02075275592505932, -0.2439611703157425, -0.44746047258377075, -0.1288299411535263, -0.3333132863044739, 0.12927031517028809, -0.20370952785015106, 0.14058852195739746, 0.26000139117240906, 0.682755708694458, -0.4389961361885071, -0.24246035516262054, -0.6975425481796265, -0.6466969847679138, -0.4460379183292389, -0.389250248670578, -0.1595819890499115, 0.3995254635810852, -0.29043200612068176, 0.4788803160190582, 0.29876771569252014, 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229157	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John%20Arthur%20Roebuck	John Arthur Roebuck	John Arthur Roebuck (28 December 1802 – 30 November 1879), British politician, was born at Madras, in India. He was raised in Canada, and moved to England in 1824, and became intimate with the leading radical and utilitarian reformers. He was Member of Parliament (MP) for Bath from 1832 to 1847, and MP for the Sheffield constituency from 1849. He took up the general attitude of hostility to the government of the day, whatever it was, which he retained throughout his life. He twice came to public prominence: in 1838, when, although at the time without a seat in parliament, he appeared at the bar of the Commons to protest, in the name of the Canadian Assembly, against the suspension of the Canadian constitution; and in 1855, when, having overthrown Lord Aberdeen's ministry by carrying a resolution for the appointment of a committee of inquiry into the mismanagement in the Crimean War, he presided over its proceedings. Life John Arthur Roebuck was born at Madras in 1801, was fifth son of Ebenezer Roebuck, a civil servant in India, and a grandson of the inventor John Roebuck. He was taken to England in 1807 following the death of his father. His mother remarried and he was taken to Canada, where he was educated. He returned to England in 1824, and was entered at the Inner Temple, and called to the bar in 1831. In 1834, he married, Henrietta Falconer, a daughter of Thomas Falconer. In 1835 he became the agent in England for the Legislative Assembly of Lower Canada during the dispute between the executive government and the House of Assembly. In 1838, when, although at the time without a seat in parliament, he appeared at the bar of the Commons to protest, in the name of the Canadian Assembly, against the suspension of the Canadian constitution. In 1843 he was appointed Queen's Counsel, and was elected a bencher of his inn. Political career He was elected as a member of parliament for Bath in 1832, declaring himself "an independent member of that house". A disciple of Jeremy Bentham and a friend of John Stuart Mill, Roebuck professed advanced political opinions, which he resolved to uphold in the House of Commons. In general, he took up an attitude of hostility to the government of the day, whatever it was, which he retained throughout his life. He attacked everyone who differed from him with such vehemence as to earn the nickname of "Tear 'em." He was never sympathetic with the Whigs, and never let an opportunity go to exhibit his contempt for them. In 1852, he wrote "The whigs, have ever been an exclusive and aristocratic faction, though at times employing democratic principles and phrases as weapons of offence against their opponents. ... When out of office they are demagogues; in power they become exclusive oligarchs". He opposed the use of coercion in Ireland; advocated the abolition of sinecures; and proposed withdrawing the veto from the House of Lords. In 1835 he collected in a volume a series of Pamphlets for the People in support of his political views. In one of his pamphlets Roebuck denounced newspapers and everybody connected with them. As a result, John Black, the then editor of The Morning Chronicle, challenged him to a duel which was fought on 19 November 1835. Neither party was injured. He failed to be re-elected for Bath in 1837, but he regained the seat in 1841. In 1843, he proposed a motion in favour of secular education, which was rejected. In the debate on the Irish Colleges Bill, he taunted the Irish supporters of the bill with such bitterness that John Patrick Somers, MP for Sligo, threatened to challenge him to a duel. In April 1844 Roebuck defended the Home Secretary Sir James Graham from various charges, and was denounced by George Smythe, 7th Viscount Strangford, as the "Diogenes of Bath," whose actions were always contradictory. Roebuck's reply to this led to Smythe demanding a duel or a retraction. Roebuck lost his seat in the general election of 1847. He spent some of his time in writing A Plan for Governing our English Colonies, which was published in 1849. He was returned to parliament for the Sheffield constituency in a by-election in 1849. Roebuck championed a vigorous foreign policy. In 1850 he moved a strongly worded vote of confidence in Lord Palmerston's recent foreign policy, following the Don Pacifico affair. In 1854 he defended the Crimean War; but the inefficiency which soon became apparent in carrying it on excited his disgust. In 1855, when, having overthrown Lord Aberdeen's ministry by carrying a resolution for the appointment of a committee of inquiry into the mismanagement in the Crimean War, he presided over its proceedings. In his latter years his political opinions became greatly modified. A speech at Salisbury in 1862, in which he alleged that working men were spendthrifts and wife-beaters, made him unpopular for a time. He strongly denounced the trade unionist Sheffield Outrages of 1867. During the American Civil War he firmly championed the slave-holders of the South, boasting that Lord Palmerston had confessed to him that he was on the same side. In June 1863 Roebuck moved a resolution in the House of Commons calling for the Government to "enter into negotiations with the Great Powers of Europe, for the purpose of obtaining their co-operation in the recognition of the independence of the Confederate States of North America." During the debate on the motion Roebuck claimed to have recently received an audience with the Emperor of the French who he said had assured him that France stood ready to recognise the Confederacy if the United Kingdom would do likewise. Roebuck later dropped the motion under pressure from the Government. Roebuck also defended Austrian rule in Italy. These uncompromising attitudes led to Roebuck's rejection by Sheffield voters at the election of 1868. He regained the seat in 1874. In 1878 he was made a privy councillor by the Tory government. He died at Westminster, in 1879. He was survived by his wife and a daughter. Works Remarks on the Proposed Union of the Canadas, 1822 Debate in the House of Commons, on 15 April 1834, on Mr. Roebuck's Motion for "a Select Committee to inquire the means of remedying the evils which exist in the form of the governments now existing in Upper and Lower Canada", 1834 The Canadas and Their Grievances, 1835 Existing Difficulties in the Government of the Canadas, 1836 The Colonies of England : A Plan for the Government of Portion of Our Colonial Possessions, 1849 History of the Whig Ministry of 1830, to the Passing of the Reform Bill, 1852 References Further reading Briggs, Asa. “John Arthur Roebuck and the Crimean War" in Briggs, Victorian People (1955) pp. 52–86. online External links Biography at the Dictionary of Canadian Biography Online Life and Letters of John Arthur Roebuck, P.C., Q.C., M.P.: With Chapters of Autobiography, London: E. Arnold, 1897, 392 p. (online) 1802 births 1879 deaths Members of the Parliament of the United Kingdom for English constituencies History of Sheffield UK MPs 1832–1835 UK MPs 1835–1837 UK MPs 1841–1847 UK MPs 1847–1852 UK MPs 1852–1857 UK MPs 1857–1859 UK MPs 1859–1865 UK MPs 1865–1868 UK MPs 1874–1880 Members of the Privy Council of the United Kingdom	[ -0.012803373858332634, 0.40470272302627563, -0.4109354317188263, 0.0220345389097929, 0.44717592000961304, 1.3151466846466064, 0.45704394578933716, -0.005021215882152319, -0.4066075086593628, -0.6282218098640442, -0.160956010222435, 0.0941588431596756, -0.4582526981830597, 0.3788401186466217, 0.1798436939716339, 0.34586548805236816, -0.22511796653270721, 0.342693954706192, -0.6838076710700989, -0.13577502965927124, -0.25861856341362, 0.12317930907011032, 0.4405571222305298, 0.47986099123954773, -0.4099956750869751, -0.13691528141498566, 0.6437320113182068, -0.22804565727710724, -0.5039204955101013, 0.1736157238483429, 0.2853145897388458, 0.5965157151222229, 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229159	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Royal%20Scots%20Greys	Royal Scots Greys	The Royal Scots Greys was a cavalry regiment of the British Army from 1707 until 1971, when they amalgamated with the 3rd Carabiniers (Prince of Wales's Dragoon Guards) to form The Royal Scots Dragoon Guards (Carabiniers and Greys). The regiment's history began in 1678, when three independent troops of Scots Dragoons were raised. In 1681, these troops were regimented to form The Royal Regiment of Scots Dragoons, numbered the 4th Dragoons in 1694. They were already mounted on grey horses by this stage and were already being referred to as the Grey Dragoons. In 1707, they were renamed The Royal North British Dragoons (North Britain then being the envisaged common name for Scotland), but were already being referred to as the Scots Greys. In 1713, they were renumbered the 2nd Dragoons as part of a deal between the commands of the English Army and the Scottish Army when the two were in the process of being unified into the British Army. They were also sometimes referred to, during the first Jacobite uprising, as Portmore's Dragoons. In 1877, their nickname was finally made official when they became the 2nd Dragoons (Royal Scots Greys), which was inverted in 1921 to The Royal Scots Greys (2nd Dragoons). They kept this title until 2 July 1971, when they amalgamated with the 3rd Carabiniers, forming the Royal Scots Dragoon Guards. Origins of the Scots Greys The Royal Scots Greys began life as three troops of dragoons; this meant that while mounted as cavalry, their armament was closer to that used by infantry units. Troopers were equipped with matchlock muskets, sergeants and corporals with halberds and pistols; only the officers carried swords, though Lieutenants were armed with a partisan. The original uniform called for the troopers to wear grey coats, but there is no record of any requirement that the horses be a particular colour. On 21 May 1678, two troops were raised by Captains John Strachan and John Inglis with a third under Captain Viscount Kingstoun added on 23 September. These were the first mounted units raised for the Crown in Scotland and were used by John Graham, Viscount Dundee to suppress prohibited Presbyterian assemblies or Conventicles in South-West Scotland. Some of the more extreme Presbyterians took up arms in June 1679, and the dragoons were present at Bothwell Bridge. In 1681, an additional three troops were raised and added to the existing three to create what became the Royal Regiment of Scots Dragoons. In this period, regiments were considered the personal property of their Colonel and changed names when transferred. At senior levels in particular, ownership and command were separate functions; 'Colonel' usually indicated ownership, with operational command generally exercised by a Lieutenant Colonel. Charles II's commander in Scotland, Lieutenant-General Thomas Dalziel, 1599-1685 was appointed Colonel with Charles Murray, Lord Dunmore as Lt-Colonel. Shortly after James II & VII became King in February 1685, a Scottish revolt known as Argyll's Rising broke out in June which was easily crushed: the regiment saw action against Argyll's army at Stonedyke near Dumbarton. Dunmore became Colonel of the Regiment himself in 1685. The Lt-Colonel at this time was William Livingston, Viscount Kilsyth. Scotland grew increasingly restive in the period before the November 1688 Glorious Revolution and the regiment was employed ensuring civil order. It arrived in London shortly before William of Orange landed but saw no fighting and in December, Dunmore was replaced as Colonel by Sir Thomas Livingstone, a Scot who had served William for many years and was related to Kilsyth. Now officially known as Livingstone's Regiment of Dragoons, they were part of the force used by Hugh Mackay to suppress the Scottish Jacobite Rising of 1689-1692. As cavalry, their role was to secure the roads between Inverness and Stirling and so were not present at the Jacobite victory of Killiecrankie in July 1689. In 1692, William III confirmed the regiment's designation as 'Royal' and they were ranked as the 4th Dragoons. 1693–1714: Grey Horses, Red Coats, and War of Spanish Succession When inspected by William III in 1693, it was noted the regiment was mounted on grey horses. One suggestion is these were inherited from the Dutch Horse Guards, who had returned to the Netherlands but this has not been confirmed. The original grey coats were replaced with red, or scarlet, coats with blue facings, proclaiming the Scots Greys "Royal" status. Transferred to the Netherlands in 1694 during the Nine Years' War, they were used for reconnaissance duties, but did not see any significant actions during their three years on the continent. Following the 1697 Treaty of Ryswick, they were based in Scotland; after the War of the Spanish Succession began, they returned to Flanders in 1702 as part of Marlborough's army. They played an active role in the campaigns of 1702 and 1703, including the capture of a large shipment of gold in 1703. During Marlborough's march to the Danube in 1704, the Scots Greys served as part of Ross's Dragoon Brigade. Used as dismounted infantry, they took part in the Battle of Schellenberg, then the Battle of Blenheim on 2 July 1704; despite being heavily engaged, they did not have a single fatality, though many were wounded. At the Battle of Elixheim in 1705, the Scots Greys participated in the massed cavalry charge which broke through the French lines. At Ramillies in May 1706, as part of Lord Hays' brigade of dragoons, the regiment captured the colours of the elite Régiment du Roi. Renamed the Royal North British Dragoons, their next significant action was the Battle of Oudenarde. At the Battle of Malplaquet in September 1709, they captured the standard of the French Household Cavalry; This was their last significant action prior to the Treaty of Utrecht in 1713. Following the 1707 Acts of Union, the English and Scottish military establishments were merged, causing debates over regimental precedence; this was connected to the price of commissions, seniority and pay. The Scots Greys were to be designated the first dragoon regiment and the Royal Scots the first regiment of infantry but having both Scots regiments first led to protests. A compromise was reached, whereby the English dragoon regiment was designated as the first, and the Scots Greys became the 2nd Royal North British Dragoons. This was the origin of the motto Second to None. 1715–1741 Home Service and Jacobites Once back in Britain, the Scots Greys returned to Scotland where they helped police the countryside. In 1715, the Earl Mar declared for the "Old Pretender", James Stuart, sparking the Jacobite rising. Remaining loyal to the Anglo-German king, the Scots Greys were active in putting down the uprising. This included taking part at the Battle of Sheriffmuir on 13 November 1715. There the Scots Greys, under the Duke of Argyll, were stationed on the right of the Government forces. Also known at that time as Portmore's Dragoons, the Scots Greys initially attacked the left flank of the Jacobite army. Advancing around a bog, which the highlanders had thought would protect their flank, the Scots Greys surprised the highlanders, making repeated charges into disordered ranks of the Jacobite infantry. The Scots Greys continue to pursue the shattered left wing of the Jacobite force as it fled for nearly two miles until it was blocked by the river Allan. Unable to fall back, disorganised, they were easy targets for the Scots Greys' dragoons. It is reported that the Duke of Argyll was said to cry out to "Spare the poor blue bonnets!". However, little quarter was given by Scots Greys to any group trying to rally that day. The rest of the royal forces were not as successful. The Jacobites managed to route the left wing of the Royal army, the day ending in a tactical standoff. Although the fighting was indecisive, the battle had halted the Jacobite's momentum. For the next four years, the Scots Greys continued to suppress Jacobite supporters in Scotland. With the final end of the First Jacobite rising in 1719, the Scots Greys went back to their traditional role: policing Scotland. The next 23 years passed relatively uneventfully for the regiment. War of the Austrian Succession During the 1740 to 1748 War of the Austrian Succession, 'British' forces served on behalf of Hanover until 1744. The Scots Greys transferred to Flanders in 1742 and garrisoned the area around Ghent. The regiment fought at Dettingen in June 1743, now chiefly remembered as the last time a British monarch commanded troops in battle. An attempt by the Allies to relieve Tournai led to the May 1745 Battle of Fontenoy; this featured a series of bloody frontal assaults by the infantry and the cavalry played little part, with the exception of covering the retreat. When the 1745 Rising began in July many British units were recalled to Scotland but the regiment remained in Flanders, fighting at the Battle of Rocoux on 11 October 1746, a French tactical victory. After Culloden, Cumberland and other British units returned to the Low Countries, in preparation for the 1747 campaign. The French won another tactical victory at Lauffeld on 2 July, where the Scots Greys took part in Ligonier's charge, one of the best known cavalry actions in British military history. This enabled the rest of the army to withdraw but Ligonier was taken prisoner and the Scots Greys lost nearly 40% of their strength. By the time it was back to full strength, the 1748 Peace of Aix-la-Chappelle ended the war and the Scots Greys returned to Britain. Seven Years' War The Scots Greys passed the seven years between the Treaty of Aix-la-Chapelle and the start of the Seven Years' War moving from station to station within Great Britain. The years passed relatively uneventfully for the regiment. The major development during this period was the addition of a light company to the Scots Greys in 1755. However, soon after the light company was raised, with Britain entering into the Seven Years' War, it was detached from the Scots Greys and combined with the light companies of other cavalry regiments to form a temporary, separate light battalion. This light battalion would be employed raiding the French coast. One of the most notable raids was the attack on St. Malo from the 5 to 7 June 1758. The raid resulted in the destruction of the shipping at St. Malo. The balance of the regiment was transferred to Germany, where it joined the army commanded by Prince Ferdinand of Brunswick. Assigned to the cavalry under the command of Lord George Sackville, the Scots Greys arrived in Germany in 1758. The following year, the Scots Greys took part in the Battle of Bergen on 13 April 1759. There, the forces of Britain, Hanover, Brunswick, and Hesse-Kassel were defeated, leaving the cavalry, including the Scots Greys, to cover the retreat. Because of the rear-guard action by the British cavalry, the army was able to survive to fight again later that year near Minden. Reeling after the defeat at Bergen, the British army and its allies reformed and engaged in a series of manoeuvres with the French armies. Eventually, the two forces collided on 1 August 1759 at the Battle of Minden. The Scots Greys, still part of Sackville's command, were held back due to Sackville's delay. Eventually, while Sackville consulted with his superiors, his deputy, on his own initiative, finally ordered the Scots Greys and the rest of the cavalry forward. However, when Sackville returned, he countermanded the order and the cavalry held its place. Once the battle appeared won, with the French retreating, the Scots Greys and the rest of the cavalry pressed the pursuit of the retreating French army. With Sackville sacked as commander of the British cavalry on the continent and court-martialed for his actions at Minden, the Scots Greys and the rest of the British cavalry came under the command of Marquess of Granby. The following year, 1760, saw the British cavalry more aggressively led at the Battle of Warburg. There, on 31 July 1760, the Scots Greys participated in Granby's charge, which broke the French left flank and then defeated the counter-charge of the French cavalry. Three weeks later, the Scots Greys, along with the Inniskilling Dragoons, met with the rearguard of the French forces near the town of Zierenberg. There the dragoons, supported by some British grenadiers, encountered a French cavalry force covering the retreat. Two squadrons of the Scots Greys charged four squadrons of French cavalry. The Scots Greys and Inniskillings routed the French, sending them in a disorderly retreat into the town of Zierenberg. Soon after, infantry was brought up to storm the town; the town and the survivors of the Scots Greys' attack were captured. The Scots Greys began the following year by conducting patrols and skirmishing with French troops. Eventually, the Scots Greys were with the main army under Brunswick at the Battle of Villinghausen on 15–16 July 1761. The start of 1762 found the Scots Greys again raiding and clashing with French cavalry along the Hanoverian frontier. With the war approaching the end, the French decided to make one last concerted effort to overrun Hanover. At the same time, Brunswick, still commanding the Anglo-Hanoverian-Brunswick-Hessian forces in western Germany, wanted to take the initiative once the campaign season arrived. The two forces met at the castle of Wilhelmsthal near Calden. Still attached to Granby's command, the Scots Greys were present for the Battle of Wilhelmsthal, on 24 July 1762. As the French centre gave way, the Scots Greys were ordered to exploit the victory. The Scots Greys drove the French forces through the village of Wilhelmsthal, capturing many prisoners and part of the baggage train. The Battle of Wilhemlstahl was to be the Scots Greys' last major engagement of the war. The following year, the French and British concluded the Treaty of Paris ending the hostilities, for the moment, between the two. With the end of the fighting, the Scots Greys returned home to Great Britain via the low countries. 1764–1815 Home service and changes Between 1764 and 1815, the Scots Greys remained on home service. Unlike many of the other regiments of British cavalry, they did not see any combat during the American Revolutionary War. Also, except for the Flanders Campaign of 1793–94, they saw no other active service during the French Revolutionary or Napoleonic Wars until the Waterloo Campaign of 1815. For most of the 20 years following the Seven Years' War the Scots Greys remained in Scotland and England. During this time, however, change was happening to the Scots Greys. Through a series of changes in uniform and equipment, the regiment began to be identified more as cavalry, rather than as mounted infantry. Drummers, an instrument of the infantry, were replaced with trumpeters, as was standard for cavalry regiments, in 1766. Two years later, the Scot Greys traded in their mitre-style grenadier cap for the tall bearskin hat that would remain a part of the regiment's uniform until its amalgamation in 1971. During this period, the Scots Greys also underwent an organizational change. Although deemed to be a heavy dragoon unit, each troop of the regiment was reorganised to include a detachment of light dragoons. These light dragoons were mounted on lighter, faster horses than the rest of the regiment. However, this increase in strength was soon lost, as the light troops of Scots Greys and other heavy dragoon regiments of the British Army were combined to form a new regiment, the 21st (Douglas's) Light Dragoons, in 1779. Campaign in the Low Countries With the French Revolution in 1789, and the increasing tensions between Great Britain and Revolutionary France, the Scots Greys were brought up to strength and then expanded with four new troops to nine troops of dragoons, each of 54 men, in 1792 in anticipation of hostilities. Four troops of the Scots Greys were alerted for possible foreign deployment in 1792 and were transported to the continent in 1793 to join the Duke of York's army operating in the low countries. The Scots Greys arrived in time to participate in the siege of Valenciennes and then the unsuccessful siege of Dunkirk. Following the failure of the siege, the Scots Greys were employed as part of the screen for the Duke of York's army, skirmishing with French forces. The next significant of action for the Scots Greys occurred at Willems 10 May 1794 on the heights near Tournai. There the Scots Greys, brigaded with the Bays and the Inniskillings, charged the advancing French infantry. The French infantry, upon seeing the threat of the cavalry formed into squares. The Scots Greys charged directly into nearest of the squares. The charge broke the formed infantry square, a remarkable feat. The breaking of the first square demoralised the other French infantry, allowing the Bays and the Inniskillings to break those squares as well. In exchange for 20 casualties, the Greys had helped rout three battalions and capture at least 13 artillery pieces. This would be the last time that British cavalry, alone without artillery support, would break an infantry square until the Battle of Garcia Hernandez in 1812. Despite the victory before Tournai, the Allied Army would be defeated at the Battle of Tourcoing on 18 May 1794. From then on, the British Army would be retreating the face of the French Army. During the retreat, the Scots Greys were active in covering the British forces retreat through the low countries and into Hanover. By the spring of 1795, the Army reached Bremen, in Hanover, and was embarked on ships to return to England. The four troops of Scots Greys arrived in England in November 1795, allowing the regiment to be reunited. The ninth troop was disbanded when the regiment was reunited. Despite their exploits in the low countries, and the fact that Britain would be heavily engaged around the globe fighting Revolutionary and, later, Napoleonic France, the Scots Greys would not see action until 1815. Waterloo This changed when news of Napoleon's escape from Elba reached Britain. The Scots Greys, which had been reduced in size because of the end of the Peninsular War, were expanded. This time, there would be 10 troops of cavalry, a total of 946 officers and men, the largest the regiment had ever been until that time. Six of the ten troops were sent to the continent, under the command of Lieutenant-Colonel James Inglis Hamilton, to join the army forming under the command of the Duke of Wellington. The Scots Greys, upon arrival in Ghent, were brigaded under the command of Major-General Ponsonby in the Union Brigade, with Royal Dragoons and the Inniskillings Dragoons. The Scots Greys, with the rest of the Union Brigade, missed the Battle of Quatre Bras despite a long day of hard riding. As the French fell back, the Scots Greys and the rest of the Union Brigade arrived at the end of their 50-mile ride. On the morning of 18 June 1815, the Scots Greys found themselves in the third line of Wellington's army, on the left flank. As the fights around La Haye Sainte and Hougoumont developed, Wellington's cavalry commander, the Earl of Uxbridge, held the cavalry back. However, with the French infantry advancing and threatening to break the British centre. Uxbridge ordered the Household Brigade and the Union Brigades to attack the French infantry of D'Erlon's Corps. The Scots Greys were initially ordered to remain in reserve as the other two brigades attacked. As the rest of the British heavy cavalry advanced against the French infantry, just after 1:30 pm, Lieutenant-Colonel Hamilton witnessed Pack's brigade beginning to crumble, and the 92nd Highlanders falling back in disorder. On his initiative, Hamilton ordered his regiment forward at the walk. Because the ground was broken and uneven, thanks to the mud, crops, and the men of 92nd, the Scots Greys remained at the walk until they had passed through the Gordons. The arrival of the Scots Greys helped to rally the Gordons, who turned to attack the French. Even without attacking at a full gallop, the weight of the Scots Greys charge proved to be irresistible for the French column pressing Pack's Brigade. As Captain Duthilt, who was present with de Marcognet's 3rd Division, wrote of the Scots Greys charge: Just as I was pushing one of our men back into the ranks I saw him fall at my feet from a sabre slash. I turned round instantly – to see English cavalry forcing their way into our midst and hacking us to pieces. Just as it is difficult, if not impossible, for the best cavalry to break into infantry who are formed into squares and who defend themselves with coolness and daring, so it is true that once the ranks have been penetrated, then resistance is useless and nothing remains for the cavalry to do but to slaughter at almost no risk to themselves. This is what happened, in vain our poor fellows stood up and stretched out their arms; they could not reach far enough to bayonet these cavalrymen mounted on powerful horses, and the few shots fired in chaotic melee were just as fatal to our own men as to the English. And so we found ourselves defenceless against a relentless enemy who, in the intoxication of battle, sabred even our drummers and fifers without mercy. A lieutenant of the 92nd Highlanders who was present would later write, "the Scots Greys actually walked over this column". As the Scots Greys waded through the French column, Sergeant Charles Ewart found himself within sight of the eagle of 45e Régiment de Ligne (45th Regiment of the Line). With a chance to capture the eagle, Ewart fought his way towards it, later recounting: With the eagle captured, Sergeant Ewart was ordered to take the trophy off, denying the French troops a chance to recapture their battle standard. In recognition of his feat, he was promoted from sergeant to ensign. Having defeated the column and captured one of its battle standards, the Scots Greys were now disorganised. Neither Ponsonby nor Hamilton were able to effectively bring their troopers back under control. Rather than being able to reorganise, the Scots Greys continued their advance gaining speed, eventually galloping, and now aimed at Durutte's division of infantry. Unlike the disordered column that had been engaged in attacking Pack's brigade, some of Durutte's men had time to form square to receive the cavalry charge. The volley of musket fire scythed through the Scots Greys' ragged line as they swept over and round the French infantry, unable to break them. Colonel Hamilton was last seen during the charge, leading a party of Scots Greys, towards the French artillery. However, in turning to receive the Scots Greys' charge, Durutte's infantry exposed themselves to the 1st Royal Dragoons. The Royal Dragoons slashed through them, capturing or routing much of the column. Having taken casualties, and still trying to reorder themselves, the Scots Greys and the rest of the Union Brigade found themselves before the main French lines. Their horses were blown, and they were still in disorder without any idea of what their next collective objective was. Some attacked nearby gun batteries of the Grande Battery, dispersing or sabring the gunners. Disorganized and milling about the bottom of the valley between Hougoumont and La Belle Alliance, the Scots Greys and the rest of the British heavy cavalry were taken by surprise by the counter-charge of Milhaud's cuirassiers, joined by lancers from Baron Jaquinot's 1st Cavalry Division. As Ponsonby tried to rally his men against the French cuirassers, he was attacked by Jaquinot's lancers and captured. A nearby party of Scots Greys saw the capture and attempted to rescue their brigade commander. However, the French soldier who had captured Ponsonby executed him and then used his lance to kill three of the Scots Greys who had attempted the rescue. By the time Ponsonby died, the momentum had entirely returned in favour of the French. Milhaud's and Jaquinot's cavalrymen drove the Union Brigade from the valley. The French artillery added to the Scots Greys' misery. The remnants of the Scots Greys retreated to the British lines, harried by French cavalry. They eventually reformed on the left, supporting the rest of the line as best they could with carbine fire. In all, the Scots Greys suffered 104 dead and 97 wounded and lost 228 of the 416 horses. When they were finally reformed, the Scots Greys could only field two weakened squadrons, rather than the three complete ones with which they had begun the day. Following the victory of Waterloo, the Scots Greys pursued the defeated French Army until Napoleon's surrender and final abdication. The Scots Greys would remain on the continent until 1816 as part of the army of occupation under the terms of the peace treaty. 1816–1856: Years of peace and the Crimean War Between 1816 and 1854, the Scots Greys remained in the British Isles. As they had done in the interludes between continental wars, they moved from station to station, sometimes being called upon to support local civilian authorities. The decades of peaceful home service were broken with the outbreak of war with Russia. Trying to prop up the Ottoman Empire, Britain, France, and Sardinia, mobilised forces to fight in the Black Sea. The allied nations agreed that the target of the expedition would be Sevastopol in the Crimea. Assigned to Brigadier-General Sir James Scarlett's Heavy Brigade of the Cavalry Division, the Scots Greys, commanded by Lieutenant-Colonel Henry Griffith arrived in the Crimea in 1854. On 25 October 1854, the Heavy Brigade was part of a British force supporting the siege operations around Sevastopol. The British on the right flank of the siege lines were over extended, giving the Russian forces under General Pavel Petrovich Liprandi an opportunity to disrupt the British siege works and possible destroy their supply base at Balaclava. With nearly 25,000 men, including 3,000 cavalry troopers formed in 20 squadrons and 78 artillery pieces, General Liprandi attacked the British positions. To defend its supply base and siege lines, the British could counter with approximately 4,500 men and 26 artillery pieces. As the Russians attacked, the Scots Greys watched as the redoubts protecting the supply lines and Balaclava were overrun by the Russians. They watched as the Russian force charged the 93rd Highlanders, only to be turned back by the "thin red streak tipped with a line of steel". Leading men into battle for the first time ever, Scarlett ordered his brigade to form two columns. The left column contained a squadron of the 6th (Inniskilling) Dragoons, followed by the two squadrons of the Scots Greys. As they trotted to the assistance of the Campell's Highlanders, Scarlett was informed of additional Russian cavalry threatening his flank. Ordering the brigade to wheel about, the Scots Greys ended up in line with the Inniskilling Dragoons in the front row supported by the 5th Dragoon Guards. Even with the Russian cavalry approaching, Scarlett waited patiently for his dragoons to be brought into formation rather than move in a disorganised formation. The approaching Russian cavalry was on the heights and numbered about 3,000 sabres. The Scots Greys and the rest of the British dragoons were waiting at the base of the heights, and totalled about 800 men. Satisfied that his brigade was ready, Scarlett finally sounded the advance. Although Scarlett had spent precious minutes ordering his line, it soon proved to be unwieldy, especially in the sector occupied by the Scots Greys, who had to pick their way through the abandoned camp of the Light Brigade. The Scots Greys, once clear of the Light Brigade's camp, had to speed up to catch Scarlett and his aides, who were more than 50 yards ahead of them. For some reason, the Russian cavalry commander chose to halt up slope of the Heavy Brigade, choosing to receive the charge at a halt. Scarlett and his command group, two aides and a trumpeter, were the first to reach the Russian cavalry. The rest of the brigade followed closely. As they neared the Russian line, they started to take carbine fire, which killed the Scots Greys' commander and took the hat off of its executive officer. The Scots Greys finally came abreast of the Inniskillings just short of the Russians and the two regiments finally were able to gallop. As the Inniskillings shouted their battle cry, Faugh A Ballagh, observers reported that the Scots Greys made an eerie, growling moan. The Scots Greys charged through the Russian cavalry, along with the Inniskilings, and disappeared into the melee among the mass of Russian cavalry. With both forces disordered by the charge, it became clear to the regimental adjutant of the Scots Greys that, to avoid being overwhelmed by Russian numbers, the Scots Greys had to reform. Pushed back from the centre of the mass, the Scots Greys reformed around the adjutant and drove again into the Russian cavalry. Seeing that the Scots Greys were again cut off, the Royal Dragoons, finally arriving to the fight after disobeying Scarlett's order to remain with the Light Brigade, charged to their assistance, helping to push the Russians back. Amid the hacking and slashing of the sabre battle, the Russian cavalry had had enough, and retreated back up the hill, pursued for a short time by the Scots Greys and the rest of the regiments. The entire encounter lasted approximately 10 minutes, starting at 9:15 and ending by 9:30 am. In that time, in exchange for 78 total casualties, the Heavy Brigade inflicted 270 casualties on the Russian cavalry, including Major-General Khaletski. More importantly, the Scots Greys helped rout a Russian cavalry division, ending the threat to Campbell's Highlanders, and with it the threat to the British supply base. With the rest of the Heavy Brigade, the Scots Greys could only look on as Lord Cardigan lead the Light Brigade on their ill-fated charge. As the Scots Greys returned to the British lines, they passed Colonel Campbell and the 93rd Highlanders. Campbell called out to the Scots Greys, "Greys, gallant Greys, I am sixty-one years of age, but were I young again, I should be proud to serve in your ranks." Not only did Campbell recognise their achievement, so did the Crown. Two members of the Scots Greys, Regimental Sergeant Major John Grieve and Private Henry Ramage, were among the first to be awarded the Victoria Cross for their actions on 25 October. For the rest of the war, the Heavy Cavalry, including the Scots Greys, had little to do. 1857–1905: Home service, Egypt, and the 2nd Anglo-Boer War By 1857, the regiment was back in Britain, returning to its peacetime duties in England, Scotland and Ireland for the next fifty years of service without a shot being heard in anger. After years of being known as the Scots Greys, though official designated as the 2nd Royal North British Dragoons, their nickname was made official. In 1877, the regiment was retitled as 2nd Dragoons (Royal Scots Greys). Although individual members of the regiment on secondment to other units may have seen action, the regiment as a whole did not see active service until the start of the Anglo-Boer War. The largest detachment of the Scots Greys to see action were the two officers and 44 men who were sent to join the Heavy Camel Regiment during the expedition to relieve Gordon at Khartoum. They saw action at the Battle of Abu Klea, where they suffered thirteen killed in action, and another three who died of disease. In 1899, the regiment's years of peace ended with the start of the Second Anglo-Boer War. That year, the Scots Greys, commanded by Lieutenant-Colonel W.P. Alexander, were ordered to Cape Town to join the Cavalry Division being formed. In the years since Balaclava, much had changed about warfare. Gone were the red coats and bearskin shakos. The Scots Greys would now fight wearing khaki. In fact, with the popularity of wearing khaki that accompanied the start of the Boer War, the Scots Greys went so far as to dye their grey mounts khaki to help them blend in with the veldt. The regiment arrived in the Cape Colony in December 1899 and was put to work guarding the British lines of communication between the Orange and Modder rivers. When Lord Roberts was prepared to begin his advance, the Scots Greys were attached to the 1st Cavalry Brigade under Brigadier General Porter. While serving under Porter, the Scots Greys were reinforced by two squadrons of Australian horsemen. Once Roberts' offensive began, the Scots Greys took part in the relief of Kimberly. With Kimberly relieved, the Scots Greys were engaged in the fighting during the advance to Bloemfontein and later Pretoria, including the Battle of Diamond Hill. Following the capture of Pretoria, the Scots Greys were sent to liberate British prisoners. The POW's being held at Waterval POW camp, the same one where those captured in the Jameson Raid had been held. As the Scots Greys approached, prisoner lookouts at the camp spotted the dragoons when they moved through Onderstepoort. As word spread through the camp, the British prisoners over-powered the guards, mostly men either too old or too young to be out on commando, pushed their way out of confinement to meet with the Scots Greys. Although the camp guards were easily overcome, and most likely unknown to the British forces and prisoners, Koos de la Rey and his men were positioned to try and prevent the rescue of the British prisoners. De la Rey ordered warning shells fired, trying to keep the prisoners in their prison camp. Faced with the approaching Scots Greys and the prisoners, De la Rey opted to not do more and instead ordered a retreat rather than fight a battle over the prison camp. The fall of Pretoria was also the end of the second phase of the war. With the end of formal fighting, and the start of third phase of the Boer War, the guerrilla campaign by the Boers, the Scots Greys were on the move constantly. Among the detachments was a squadron was left at Uitval (also known as Silkaatsnek) under the command of Major H. J. Scobell. There they were eventually joined by five companies from the 2nd battalion, the Lincolnshire Regiment, with a section of guns from O Battery, RHA. While Scobell had kept a strong picket line to watch for Boer commandos, this was changed when he was superseded as the commander of the garrison and the Scots Greys came under the command of an infantry colonel. This decrease in pickets allowed a force of Boer commandos to attack the outpost on 10 July 1900. Most of the squadron was captured during the disaster that ensued. The defeat allowed the Boers to hold Silkaatsnek. Following the disaster at Silkaatsnek, the Scots Greys were concentrated and returned to operating with the 1st Cavalry Brigade. From February to April 1901, the Scots Greys and 6th Dragoon Guards were sent on a sweep from Pretoria to east of Transvaal. In the process, they captured or destroyed large amounts of Boer war stocks, including nearly all of the remaining artillery. Following that success, the Scots Greys and 6th Dragoon Guards were sent to sweep the guerrillas from the valley of the Vaal and into the Western Transvaal. There, they received word of the defeat of Benson's column at Battle of Bakenlaagte on 30 October 1901. Reinforced by the 18th Hussars, 19th Hussars, and a detachment of mounted Australians, the reinforced brigade chased after the Boers, killing a number of those who had participated in the fighting at Bakenlaagte. The Scots Greys would continue fighting to suppress the guerrilla campaign. The most notable capture made by the regiment was that of Commandant Danie Malan. Eventually, the last of the "bitter enders" in the Boer camp agreed to peace, with the formal end of the conflict happening on 31 May 1902. The Scots Greys remained for three more years, helping to garrison the colony, operating out of Stellenbosch, before returning home to Britain in 1905. The Great War During the inter-war years, the Scots Greys were re-equipped and reorganised based on the experience of Boer War. Lee–Enfield rifles and new swords were introduced as the British Army debated what the role of cavalry would be in the coming war. In 1914, the Scots Greys were organised as a regiment of three squadrons. Each squadron was made up of four troops with 33 men each. When war did come, in August 1914, the Scots Greys were assigned to the 5th Cavalry Brigade commanded by Brigadier P.W. Chetwode. Initially, the 5th Cavalry Brigade operated as an independent unit under control of the BEF. However, on 6 September 1914, it was assigned to Brigadier-General Gough's command. When Gough's independent command was expanded to a division, the formation was redesignated as the 2nd Cavalry Division. The Scots Greys and the other cavalry regiments of the 5th Brigade would remain with the 2nd Cavalry Division for the rest of the war. 1914: Mons, the Retreat, the Marne, the Aisne The regiment landed in France on 17 August 1914. Soon after arriving in France, staff of the BEF issued a directive ordering the Scots Greys to dye their horses. The reason was partly because the grey mounts made conspicuous targets, but was also partly based on the fact that the all grey mounts made the regiment distinctive and therefore easier to identify. For the rest of the war, the grey horses of the regiment would be dyed a dark chestnut. First contact with the German army came on 22 August 1914 near Mons. The Scots Greys, fighting dismounted, drove off a detachment from the German 13th Division. The German infantry reported that they fell back because they had encountered a brigade. As it became apparent that the B.E.F. could not hold the position against the German onslaught, the Scots Greys became part of the rear guard, protecting the retreating I Corps. In the aftermath of the Battle of Le Cateau, the Scots Greys, with the rest of the 5th Cavalry Brigade, helped to temporarily check the German pursuit at Cerizy, on 28 August 1914. Once the B.E.F. was able to reorganise and take part in the Battle of the Marne, in September 1914, the Scots Greys shifted from covering the retreat to screening the advance. Eventually, the advance of the B.E.F. halted at the Battle of Aisne, where British and German forces fought to standstill just short of the Chemin des Dames. 1914: Race to the sea and First Ypres After being pulled from the trenches at the Aisne, the Scots Greys were sent north to Belgium as part of the lead elements as the British and Germans raced towards the sea, each trying to outflank the other. With the cavalry reinforced to Corps strength, the Scots Greys and the rest of the 5th Cavalry Brigade were transferred to the newly formed 2nd Cavalry Division. As the front became more static, and the need for riflemen on the front line more pressing, the Scots Greys found themselves being used almost exclusively as infantry through the Battles of Messines and Ypres. The regiment was almost continuously engaged from the start of the First Battle of Ypres until its end. 1915–1916: Trench warfare The Scots Greys rotated back into the trenches in 1915. Due to the shortage of infantry, the regiment continued to fill the gaps in the line, fighting in a dismounted role. The regiment remained on line for all but seven days of the Second Battle of Ypres. The losses in that battle would force the Scots Greys into reserve for the rest of the year. According to a report in Scottish newspapers of the time it was decided to paint the horses khaki as their grey coats were too visible to German gunners. This gave rise to a comic poem printed at the time, of which this is the first verse: O wae is me my hert is sair, tho but a horse am I. My Scottish pride is wounded and among the dust maun lie. I used to be a braw Scots grey but now I'm khaki clad. My auld grey coat has disappeared, the thocht o't makes me sad. By January 1916, the Scots Greys were back in action, albeit in a piecemeal fashion. With the Kitchener Armies still not fully ready, men were still needed for the front. Like the other cavalry regiments, the Scots Greys contributed a troop to the front. In two months of action, this line troop was active in raids and countering raids by the German army. With the arrival of the Kitchener Armies, the Scots Greys were concentrated again in preparation of the forthcoming summer offensive. The 2nd Cavalry Division became the reserve for General Plumer's Second Army. Mounted, the Scots Greys were held in readiness to exploit a breakthrough that never came during the Battle of the Somme. As the war continued, it became apparent that more mobile firepower was needed at all levels of the British Army. Accordingly, the Scots Greys were expanded to include a machine gun squadron. 1917: Arras and Cambrai As the war progressed, British generals still hoped to use the Scots Greys and other cavalry regiments in their traditional roles. The Battle of Arras would demonstrate the futility of that hope. Beginning in April, the Scots Greys were engaged in action around the town of Wancourt. In three days of fighting, in an action that would become known as the First Battle of the Scarpe, the regiment suffered heavy casualties among its men and horses. After a short period to refit, the Greys drew the assignment of raiding the German positions at Guillermont Farm. The raid succeeded, with the Scots Greys killing 56 and capturing 14 with negligible loss to themselves. In November 1917, the Scots Greys saw a glimpse of their future when they moved to support the armoured attack at the Battle of Cambrai. Initially intended to be part of the exploitation force, as at the Battle of the Somme, the plan failed to develop the type of break through which could be exploited by the cavalry. As the fighting bogged down, the Scots Greys once again found themselves fighting on foot in an infantry role. Part of the reason that the Scots Greys were unable to advance as cavalry was because the bridge that was crucial to the advance was accidentally destroyed when the tank crossing it proved to be too heavy. Unable to advance mounted, the Scots Greys were committed as infantry to the battle. 1918: St. Quentin, retreat, 100 Days After the winding down of the battles of 1917, the Scots Greys found themselves near the St. Quentin canal. There, they witnessed the German offensive forcing their way across the canal. Although the Scots Greys held their positions, they were soon in danger of being flanked. After almost three years of static warfare, the rapidity of the German advance caught the regiment flat flooted as the German attacks penetrated the Scots Greys position. In the confusion of the retreat, detachments of the Scots Greys became lost and ended up serving with other regiments of the 5th Cavalry Brigade, fighting rearguard actions as the B.E.F. retreated. Once the Michael Offensive began to grind down in April, the Scots Greys, along with the other cavalry regiments, were able to be withdrawn from the line to refit and reorganise. Between May and June 1918, the Scots Greys were held in reserve. However, in August, the Scots Greys was brought forward for the Battle of Amiens. Still part of the 2nd Cavalry Division, the Scots Greys moved in support of the Canadian Corps' attack on Roye. With the victory at Amiens, the B.E.F. began its long-awaited final offensive. During this first month of the offensive, August to September 1918, the Scots Greys rarely operated as a unit. Instead, detachments of the Scots Greys were engaged in a variety of traditional cavalry duties. This included scouting, liaison duties and patrolling. As the B.E.F. approached the Sambre river, the Scots Greys were used to probe the available river crossings. However, just as they did, many dragoons of the Scots Greys began to fall ill from influenza. Within a few days, due almost solely to the influenza outbreak, the regiment could muster only one composite company of men healthy enough to fight. At the time of the Armistice, the Scots Greys were at Avesnes. To enforce the terms of the Armistice, the Scots Greys were ordered to cross into Germany, arriving there on 1 December 1918. However, although they would be here to police the terms of the armistice until a final treaty could be completed, they were almost immediately dismounted. By the beginning of 1919, the Scots Greys were reduced to 7 officers and 126 other ranks. This was approximately the size of one of its pre-war squadrons. After almost five years of service on the continent, the Scots Greys returned home to Britain on 21 March 1919 via Southampton. 1919–1939: Inter-war years For the next year, the Scots Greys remained in Britain. While there, the regiment was once again renamed. This time they were designated the "Royal Scots Greys (2nd Dragoons)". Although tanks had been introduced during the First World War, many senior officers believed that the horse still had a place on the battlefield. Consequently, the Scots Greys retained their horses when they were sent on to their first peacetime deployment "East of Suez". In 1922, the Scots Greys arrived in India, where they would serve for the next six years. Upon returning to Great Britain, the Scots Greys found themselves subject to the problems that the rest of the British Army were going through in that era. In 1933, the regiment took part in a recruiting drive by conducting a march through Scotland, including a three-day traverse of the Cairngorm Mountains to get better publicity. Although budgets were lean, the Scots Greys, like other British cavalry regiments, were finally re-equipped. Each troop would now contain an automatic weapons section. Still mounted on horses, the Scots Greys received orders for Palestine in October 1938. There they took part in suppressing the later stages of Arab Revolt. Much of the time, the Scots Greys were engaged in keeping the peace between the Jewish settlers and the Arabs. Second World War 1939–1941: Palestine and Syria Still stationed in Palestine, under the command of Lieutenant-Colonel H. N. Todd, the Scots Greys were brought up to war strength following the declaration of war against Germany. Although the German blitzkrieg attacks in Poland, France and the Low Countries demonstrated that the tank was now the dominant weapon, the Scots Greys continued to be equipped with horses. As the B.E.F. fought in France in 1940, the Scots Greys were retained in the Middle East to police the Mandate. In fact the last mounted cavalry charge on horseback by the Scots Greys occurred in February 1940, when the regiment was called to quell Arab rioters. At first, the Scots Greys were transformed into a motorised regiment, using wheeled vehicles. Elements of the Scots Greys and Staffordshire Yeomanry formed a composite cavalry regiment assigned to reinforce the divisional cavalry element for Operation Exporter, the invasion of Vichy held Syria and Lebanon. The remainder of the regiment remained in Palestine, operating in the vicinity of Jerusalem. The composite Grey-Stafford regiment took part in most of the battles of the campaign, including the Battle of Kissoué, where it held off a counter-attack by Vichy French armour. A final review of the Scots Greys as a cavalry regiment occurred at Nablus in the Palestine mandate once the campaign in Syria and Lebanon was complete. Soon after this final review, the horses were traded in and then they who had spent their lives as dragoons were retrained to act as drivers, loaders, and gunners for tanks. Now designated as an armoured regiment, they received their first tanks in September 1941. Initially, the Scots Greys trained on the Stuart tank. 1942–1943: Egypt, Libya, Tunisia With the conversion to armour complete, the Scots Greys were transferred to the Eighth Army. Once in Egypt, their new Stuart tanks were immediately withdrawn and the regiment spent time near Cairo learning to operate the Grant. Although combat ready, the Scots Greys did not participate in the fighting around Tobruk in the late spring and summer of 1942. Because so many other armoured units were mauled in the fighting, the Scots Greys had to turn over their tanks to other units. In July 1942, the Scots Greys finally were committed to the fighting, equipped with a mixture of Grant and Stuart tanks. Unlike most tank units in the Eighth Army, which were either predominantly fielding heavy/medium tanks or light tanks, the Scots Greys field 24 Grants and 21 Stuarts. Temporarily attached to the 22nd Armoured Brigade, the Scots Greys were placed with majority of the British heavy armour. Initially held in reserve on Ruweisat Ridge, the Scots Greys conducted a successful counter-attack against the German forces to plug a hole that had been created by the German attack. Attacking as though still a mounted regiment, the Scots Greys fought the Panzer IV's of the 21st Panzer Division, eventually driving them back. A month later, the Scots Greys were in action again at the Second Battle of El Alamein. Now attached to the 22nd Armoured Brigade, part of the 7th Armoured Division. As part of the 4th Armoured Brigade, the Scots Greys took part in the diversionary attack which pinned the 21st Panzer Division and Ariete Division in place while other elements of the Eighth Army executed the main attack to the north. the way through the minefields. Once the break-out began, with Operation Supercharge, the Scots Greys, now back with the 4th Armoured Brigade, which was attached to the 2nd New Zealand Division, began attempted break-out. In the course of their advance, the Scots Greys participated in the annihilation of the Ariete Division on 4 November 1942. At Fuka, the Scots Greys found the division's artillery. Charging forward as if still mounted on horses, the Scots Greys captured eleven artillery pieces and approximately 300 prisoners in exchange for one Stuart put out of action. The Scots Greys continued their pursuit of the Panzer Army Africa for the next month and a half. The main problem for the regiment faced as it chased after Rommel's retreating army was the condition of its tanks. Some tanks were repairable, others had to be replaced from whatever was available. By the end of the month, the Scots Greys were fielding 6 Grant, 17 Sherman, and 21 Stuart tanks. Beginning in the second week of December, the Eighth Army became engaged in what would develop into the Battle of El Agheila. On 15 December 1942, the Scots Greys became engaged in tank battle with elements of the 15th Panzer Division near the village of Nofilia. Due to breakdowns and losses along the way, the Scots Greys were reduced to 5 Grants and 10 Shermans. Leading the 4th Armour Brigade's advance, the Scots Greys entered the village, over-running the infantry defenders, capturing 250 men of the 115 Panzergrenadier Regiment. Just as it was completing the capture of the prisoners, the Scots Greys encountered approximately 30 panzers of the 15th Panzer Division. The tank engagement was inconclusive, with each side losing 4 tanks, although the Scots Greys were able to recover 2 of their damaged tanks. The Germans withdrew as the 2nd New Zealand Division moved to the south, outflanking the 15th Panzer Division. As the pursuit continued, the Scots Greys saw little in the way of tank versus tank action while Rommel's army retreated into Tunisia. By January 1943, the decision was made to withdraw the Scots Greys from the front to refit the regiment. 1943: Italy The Royal Scots Greys were re-equipped as an all-Sherman regiment, with Sherman II tanks. The regiment continued to refit through the short Sicilian campaign, not seeing action until it was part of the Salerno landings (Operation Avalanche), part of the Italian Campaign, in September 1943. The regiment was assigned to 23rd Armoured Brigade, alongside 40th and 46th RTR. The 23rd was an independent brigade reporting directly to British X Corps, which was itself under command of the U.S. Fifth Army. Soon after landing, the Royal Scots Greys were in action against the German forces during the advance to Naples. Although the regiment was part of the 23rd Armoured Brigade, the regiment's three squadrons were split up to provide armour support for the three brigades (167th, 169th and 201st Guards) of the 56th (London) Infantry Division, nicknamed "The Black Cats". Landing with the Black Cats of the 56th Division, the Scots Greys were instrumental in defeating the counter-attacks of Sixteenth Panzer Division. Finally, on 16 September, the Scots Greys were committed to the fight as a regiment, helping to stop, and then drive back, the Twenty-Sixth Panzer Division, allowing X Corps to advance out of the beachhead. The regiment would continue to participate in the Allied drive north, until it was brought to a halt at the Garigliano River. In January 1944, the regiment turned over its tanks to other units needing replacements and was transferred back to England. Just before the regiment sailed, they were transferred back to the 4th Armoured Brigade. 1944–1945: North-West Europe The regiment spent the first half of the year refitting and training in preparation for the invasion of Europe. On 7 June 1944, the first three tanks of the regiment landed on Juno Beach. As part of the Battle of Caen, the Scots Greys took part in the fighting for Hill 112. During the fighting for Hill 112, the Scots Greys came to realise disparity between the Sherman II's and the latest German armour, including the new Panthers. In one incident, a 75mm equipped Sherman of the Scots Greys hit a Panther at 800 yards four times. All four rounds impacted harmlessly on the Panther's frontal armour. Once the breakthrough was achieved, the Scots Greys took part in the pursuit of the retreating German forces. The Scots Greys saw action at the Falaise pocket, the crossing of the Seine, and was one of the first regiments to cross the Somme River at the beginning of September 1944. After crossing the Somme, the Scots Greys, along with the rest of the 4th Armoured Brigade, moved north into Belgium, near Oudenarde. In mid September, the Scots Greys took part in the Operation Market-Garden, in particular the fighting around Eindhoven where the 101st Airborne landed to capture the bridges. The Scots Greys would operate in the Low Countries for the rest of the year. The regiment saw action in operations helping to capture Nijmegen Island, and the area west of the Maas. The regiment also helped to capture the Wilhelmina Canal and clear German resistance along the Lower Rhine to secure the allied flank for the eventual drive into Germany. After nearly six months of fighting in the low countries, the Scots Greys entered Germany as part of Montgomery's Operation Plunder offensive. On 26 February, the Scots Greys crossed into Germany. Little more than a month later, the regiment was involved in the capture of Bremen. On 3 April 1945, the Scots Greys came under the command of the 52nd (Lowland) Infantry Division, forming up in Neuenkirchen. On 5 April, the regiment supported the hard-fought breakout of the 156th (Scottish Rifles) Brigade, as they crossed the Dortmund-Ems Canal and went on to capture the district of Drierwalde. They continued to support the 52nd Division as they made their way across Germany towards Bremen, securing Hopsten, Recke, Voltage, Alfhausen, Bersenbrück, and Holdorf along the way. With Germany crumbling, Allied commanders began to become concerned with how far the Red Army was advancing into Western and Central Europe. To prevent possible post-war claims over Denmark, the Scots Greys and 6th Airborne Division were tasked with the job of extending eastwards past Lübeck. Despite having been in action for three months, the Scots Greys covered in eight hours to capture the city of Wismar on 1 May 1945. The regiment captured the town just hours before meeting up with the Red Army. The final surrender by the surviving Nazi officials on 5 May 1945 marked the end of the war for the Scots Greys. With no further fighting in the regiment's near future, the Scots Greys immediately began collecting horses to establish a regimental riding school at Wismar. 1946–1971: Post-War and Amalgamation After the final surrender of Japan, the Scots Greys shifted to garrison duty. From 1945 until 1952, the regiment remained in the British sector of Germany as part of the British Army of the Rhine (BAOR), garrisoned at Osnabrück as part of 20th Armoured Brigade. In 1952, the regiment deployed to Libya, joining the 25th Armoured Brigade. The regiment returned to home service in 1955, rotating through barracks in Britain and Ireland before returning to Germany 1958 to rejoin the BAOR. In 1962, the Scots Greys were on the move again, this time deploying to help with the Aden Emergency. The regiment remained in Aden until 1963, helping to guard the border with Yemen. After a year in the Middle East, the Scots Greys returned to Germany, where they would remain until 1969. In 1969, the Scots Greys returned home to Scotland for the last time as an independent unit. As part of the reductions started by the 1957 Defence White Paper, the Royal Scots Greys were scheduled to be amalgamated with the 3rd Carabiniers (Prince of Wales's Dragoon Guards). The amalgamation took place on 2 July 1971 at Holyrood Palace, Edinburgh. The amalgamated formation was christened The Royal Scots Dragoon Guards (Carabiniers and Greys). Regimental traditions Regimental museum The regimental collection is held by the Royal Scots Dragoon Guards Museum which is based in Edinburgh Castle. Scots Greys band Unique among British cavalry regiments was that the Scots Greys fielded bagpipers. These bagpipers were initially formed by and paid for by the regiment because they were not authorised pipers on strength. At various times throughout the history of the regiment, there were pipers in the regiment, but these were unofficial. While stationed in India in the 1920s, the regiment fielded its first mounted pipers. At the end of the Second World War, the British Army was contracting from its wartime strength. Despite the contraction of some Scottish Territorial and Yeomanary units, some of the personnel were retained by the army and sent to various other units. As part of this, the Scots Greys received a small pipe band from one of these demobilised units. King George VI took a particular interest in the Scots Greys' pipe band. His interest was so great that he took part in the design of the band's uniform, awarding them the right to wear the Royal Stuart tartan. The Scots Greys band over the years has acquired a few of its own traditions, which were specific to the band as opposed to the rest of the regiment. While the full dress of the rest of regiment required the wearing of a black bearskin headdress, the kettle drummers wore white bearskins. The tradition of the white bearskins originated in 1894, when Tsar Nicholas II became colonel-in-chief of the Scots Greys and presented the original white bearskins. Initially, this was because the Czar of Russia presented the kettle drummers with the white bearskins. Furthermore, the bandsmen, except those wearing a white bearskin, had a red plume on the side of the bearskin. The kettle drummers, with their white bearskins, wore a white plume. A tradition developed within the regiment of the Scots Greys band playing the Russian national anthem in the regiment's officers mess, in honour of Tsar Nicholas II. In addition to distinctive uniforms, the Scots Greys band was also entitled to certain other prerogatives. These included flying the sovereign's personal pipe banner, carried by the pipe major when the sovereign was present. An album called Last of The Greys by the Royal Scots Greys regimental band was released in 1972 – from which the track Amazing Grace went, astonishingly, to top of the "Top 40" charts on both sides of the Atlantic. In the UK, the recording went to number one. The successor formations to the Scots Greys continue to release albums today. Nicknames Up until at least the Second World War, The Greys also had a popular, if somewhat derogatory, nickname of "The Bird Catchers", derived from their cap badge and the capture of the Eagle at Waterloo. Another nickname of the regiment was the "Bubbly Jocks", a Scots term meaning "turkey cock". Anniversaries and the loyal toast Most regiments of the British Army have regimental anniversaries, usually commemorating a battle which the regiment distinguished itself. In the Scots Greys, the regiment annual commemorated its participation in the Battle of Waterloo on 18 June. The Scots Greys, along with certain other regiments of the British Army, handled the loyal toast differently. Since the Glorious Revolution, officers were required to toast the health of the reigning sovereign. Typically, this meant standing and giving a toast to the monarch. The Scots Greys, however, did not stand for the toast. It is said that this tradition of giving the loyal toast while seated started during the reign of George III. During his reign, George III would often dine with the regiment; however, because of his health, he was unable to stand during the toasts. Since he could not, he allowed the officers to remain seated during the loyal toasts. Motto The Scots Greys had the motto "Second to none". It referred to their seniority in the British Army and their fighting prowess. Their official motto, however, was that of the Order of the Thistle; Nemo Me Impune Lacessit (No one provokes me with impunity). Uniform Although the same basic uniform was worn by the heavy cavalry of the British Army at any given period, for centuries each regiment had its own distinctions and variations. The Scots Greys were no different. The most noticeable difference in the uniform of the Scots Greys was that the regimental full dress worn as general issue until 1914 included a bearskin cap. They were the only British heavy cavalry regiment to wear this fur headdress. Prior to receiving the bearskin, they were also unique among British cavalry regiments in wearing the mitre cap (sometimes referred to as a grenadier cap) instead of the cocked hat or tricorn worn by the rest of the British cavalry during the eighteenth century. The mitre cap dates back to the reign of Queen Anne, who awarded them this distinction after the Battle of Ramillies in 1706. An early form of the bearskin was adopted in 1768. Other regimental dress distinctions of the Scots Greys included a white zigzag "vandyk" band on the No. 1 dress peaked caps of the regiment, metal insignia representing the White Horse of Hanover worn at the back of the bearskin, and the silver eagle badge worn to commemorate the capture of the French standard at Waterloo. Alliances The Scots Greys had affiliations with the following units: —2nd Dragoons —New Brunswick Dragoons —12th Light Horse —North Auckland Mounted Rifles Battle honours Battle honours of the Scots Greys: War of Spanish Succession: Blenheim, Ramillies, Oudenarde, Malplaquet War of Austrian Succession: Dettingen Seven Years' War: Warburg, Willems Napoleonic Wars: Waterloo Crimean War: Balaclava, Sevastopol Second Boer War: South Africa 1899–1902, Relief of Kimberley, Paardeberg First World War: Retreat from Mons; Marne 1914; Aisne 1914; Ypres 1914, 1915; Arras 1917; Amiens; Somme 1918; Hindenburg Line; Pursuit to Mons; France and Flanders 1914–18. Mons; Messines 1914; Gheluvelt; Neuve Chapelle; St Julien; Bellewaarde; Scarpe 1917; Cambrai 1917, 1918; Lys; Hazebrouck; Albert 1918; Bapaume 1918; St Quentin Canal; Beaurevoir. Second World War: Hill 112; Falaise; Hochwald; Aller; Bremen; Merjayun; Alam el Halfa; El Alamein; Nofilia; Salerno; Italy 1943; Caen; Venlo Pocket; North-West Europe 1944-5; Syria 1941; El Agheila; Advance on Tripoli; North Africa 1942-3; Battipaglia; Volturno Crossing. Colonels of the regiment The colonels of the regiment were as follows: from 1681 The Royal Regiment of Scots Dragoons 1681 Lieutenant-General Thomas Dalziel 1685 Colonel Lord Charles Murray 1688 Lieutenant-General Sir Thomas Livingstone from 1694 The 4th Dragoons 1704 Brigadier-General Lord John Hay 1706 Field Marshal Lord John Dalrymple from 1707 The Royal North British Dragoons from 1713 2nd Dragoons 1714 General David, Earl of Portmore KT 1717 Lieutenant-General Sir James Campbell KB 1745 Field Marshal John, Earl of Stair KT 1747 Lieutenant-General John, Earl of Crawford 1750 General John, Earl of Rothes KT On 1 July 1751, a royal warrant provided that, in future, regiments would not be known by their colonels' names, but by their "number or rank". from 1751 2nd Dragoons 1752 General John Campbell 1770 General William, Earl of Panmure 1782 Lieutenant-General George Preston; joined the regiment in 1739, reaching the rank of Lieutenant-Colonel; transferred to 17th Lancers as Colonel in 1770, then returned in 1782; 1785 General James Johnston 1795 General Archibald, Earl of Eglinton 1796 Lieutenant-General Sir Ralph Abercromby KB 1801 General Sir David Dundas GCB 1813 General William John Kerr, 5th Marquess of Lothian, KT 1815 General Sir James Steuart, Bt., GCH 1839 General Sir William Keir Grant, KCB, KH 1852 Lieutenant-General Archibald Money, CB 1858 Lieutenant-General Arthur Moyses William Hill, 2nd Baron Sandys 1860 Lieutenant-General Sir Alexander Kennedy Clark-Kennedy, KCB, KH 1864 General Sir John Bloomfield Gough GCB from 1877 2nd Dragoons (Royal Scots Greys) 1891 General George Calvert Clarke CB 1900 Lieutenant-General Andrew Nugent 1905 Major-General Andrew Smythe Montague Browne 1916 Field Marshal Sir William Robert Robertson, Bt., GCB, GCMG, GCVO, DSO from 1921 The Royal Scots Greys (2nd Dragoons) 1925 Field Marshal Sir Philip Walhouse Chetwode, 1st Baron Chetwode, GCB, OM, GCSI, KCMG, DSO 1947 Brigadier George Herbert Norris Todd, MC 1958 Brigadier John Edmund Swetenham, DSO 1968–1971 Colonel Alexander George Jeffrey Readman, DSO from 1971 amalgamated with 3rd Carabiniers to form Royal Scots Dragoon Guards References Sources * External links The British Army's web page on The Royal Scots Dragoons Guards British Army Locations from 1945 British Army Locations from 1945 www.scotsatwar.org.uk The Royal Scots Dragoon Guards Scottish Military Historical Society: The Royal Scots Greys Lineage page Early history of the Scots Greys, Excerpt from the Navy and Army Illustrated 15 January 1897 by G F Bacon The Battle of Waterloo as seen by an ordinary British cavalryman British cavalry of the Napoleonic Wars Cavalry regiments of the British Army Dragoons Dragoon regiments of the British Army Military of Scotland Scottish regiments Military units and formations established in 1678 Military units and formations disestablished in 1971 D2 Regiments of the British Army in World War II Regiments of the British Army in the Crimean War Royal Scots 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229160	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Q%20factor	Q factor	In physics and engineering, the quality factor or Q factor is a dimensionless parameter that describes how underdamped an oscillator or resonator is. It is defined as the ratio of the initial energy stored in the resonator to the energy lost in one radian of the cycle of oscillation. Q factor is alternatively defined as the ratio of a resonator's centre frequency to its bandwidth when subject to an oscillating driving force. These two definitions give numerically similar, but not identical, results. Higher Q indicates a lower rate of energy loss and the oscillations die out more slowly. A pendulum suspended from a high-quality bearing, oscillating in air, has a high Q, while a pendulum immersed in oil has a low one. Resonators with high quality factors have low damping, so that they ring or vibrate longer. Explanation The Q factor is a parameter that describes the resonance behavior of an underdamped harmonic oscillator (resonator). Sinusoidally driven resonators having higher Q factors resonate with greater amplitudes (at the resonant frequency) but have a smaller range of frequencies around that frequency for which they resonate; the range of frequencies for which the oscillator resonates is called the bandwidth. Thus, a high-Q tuned circuit in a radio receiver would be more difficult to tune, but would have more selectivity; it would do a better job of filtering out signals from other stations that lie nearby on the spectrum. High-Q oscillators oscillate with a smaller range of frequencies and are more stable. (See oscillator phase noise.) The quality factor of oscillators varies substantially from system to system, depending on their construction. Systems for which damping is important (such as dampers keeping a door from slamming shut) have Q near . Clocks, lasers, and other resonating systems that need either strong resonance or high frequency stability have high quality factors. Tuning forks have quality factors around 1000. The quality factor of atomic clocks, superconducting RF cavities used in accelerators, and some high-Q lasers can reach as high as 1011 and higher. There are many alternative quantities used by physicists and engineers to describe how damped an oscillator is. Important examples include: the damping ratio, relative bandwidth, linewidth and bandwidth measured in octaves. The concept of Q originated with K. S. Johnson of Western Electric Company's Engineering Department while evaluating the quality of coils (inductors). His choice of the symbol Q was only because, at the time, all other letters of the alphabet were taken. The term was not intended as an abbreviation for "quality" or "quality factor", although these terms have grown to be associated with it. Definition The definition of Q since its first use in 1914 has been generalized to apply to coils and condensers, resonant circuits, resonant devices, resonant transmission lines, cavity resonators, and has expanded beyond the electronics field to apply to dynamical systems in general: mechanical and acoustic resonators, material Q and quantum systems such as spectral lines and particle resonances. Bandwidth definition In the context of resonators, there are two common definitions for Q, which aren't exactly equivalent. They become approximately equivalent as Q becomes larger, meaning the resonator becomes less damped. One of these definitions is the frequency-to-bandwidth ratio of the resonator: where fr is the resonant frequency, Δf is the resonance width or full width at half maximum (FWHM) i.e. the bandwidth over which the power of vibration is greater than half the power at the resonant frequency, ωr = 2fr is the angular resonant frequency, and Δω is the angular half-power bandwidth. Under this definition, Q is the reciprocal of fractional bandwidth. Stored energy definition The other common nearly equivalent definition for Q is the ratio of the energy stored in the oscillating resonator to the energy dissipated per cycle by damping processes: The factor 2 makes Q expressible in simpler terms, involving only the coefficients of the second-order differential equation describing most resonant systems, electrical or mechanical. In electrical systems, the stored energy is the sum of energies stored in lossless inductors and capacitors; the lost energy is the sum of the energies dissipated in resistors per cycle. In mechanical systems, the stored energy is the sum of the potential and kinetic energies at some point in time; the lost energy is the work done by an external force, per cycle, to maintain amplitude. More generally and in the context of reactive component specification (especially inductors), the frequency-dependent definition of Q is used: where ω is the angular frequency at which the stored energy and power loss are measured. This definition is consistent with its usage in describing circuits with a single reactive element (capacitor or inductor), where it can be shown to be equal to the ratio of reactive power to real power. (See Individual reactive components.) Q factor and damping The Q factor determines the qualitative behavior of simple damped oscillators. (For mathematical details about these systems and their behavior see harmonic oscillator and linear time invariant (LTI) system.) A system with low quality factor (Q < ) is said to be overdamped. Such a system doesn't oscillate at all, but when displaced from its equilibrium steady-state output it returns to it by exponential decay, approaching the steady state value asymptotically. It has an impulse response that is the sum of two decaying exponential functions with different rates of decay. As the quality factor decreases the slower decay mode becomes stronger relative to the faster mode and dominates the system's response resulting in a slower system. A second-order low-pass filter with a very low quality factor has a nearly first-order step response; the system's output responds to a step input by slowly rising toward an asymptote. A system with high quality factor (Q > ) is said to be underdamped. Underdamped systems combine oscillation at a specific frequency with a decay of the amplitude of the signal. Underdamped systems with a low quality factor (a little above Q = ) may oscillate only once or a few times before dying out. As the quality factor increases, the relative amount of damping decreases. A high-quality bell rings with a single pure tone for a very long time after being struck. A purely oscillatory system, such as a bell that rings forever, has an infinite quality factor. More generally, the output of a second-order low-pass filter with a very high quality factor responds to a step input by quickly rising above, oscillating around, and eventually converging to a steady-state value. A system with an intermediate quality factor (Q = ) is said to be critically damped. Like an overdamped system, the output does not oscillate, and does not overshoot its steady-state output (i.e., it approaches a steady-state asymptote). Like an underdamped response, the output of such a system responds quickly to a unit step input. Critical damping results in the fastest response (approach to the final value) possible without overshoot. Real system specifications usually allow some overshoot for a faster initial response or require a slower initial response to provide a safety margin against overshoot. In negative feedback systems, the dominant closed-loop response is often well-modeled by a second-order system. The phase margin of the open-loop system sets the quality factor Q of the closed-loop system; as the phase margin decreases, the approximate second-order closed-loop system is made more oscillatory (i.e., has a higher quality factor). Some examples A unity-gain Sallen–Key lowpass filter topology with equal capacitors and equal resistors is critically damped (i.e., Q = ). A second-order Bessel filter (i.e., continuous-time filter with flattest group delay) has an underdamped Q = . A second-order Butterworth filter (i.e., continuous-time filter with the flattest passband frequency response) has an underdamped Q = . A pendulum's Q-factor is: , where M is the mass of the bob, ω = 2π/T is the pendulum's radian frequency of oscillation, and Γ is the frictional damping force on the pendulum per unit velocity. The design of a high-energy (near THz) gyrotron considers both diffractive Q-factor, as a function of resonator length (L) and wavelength (), and ohmic Q-factor (–modes) , where is the cavity wall radius, is the skin depth of the cavity wall, is the eigenvalue scalar (m is azimuth index, p is radial index) (note: skin depth in this application is ) Physical interpretation Physically speaking, Q is approximately the ratio of the stored energy to the energy dissipated over one radian of the oscillation; or nearly equivalently, at high enough Q values, 2 times the ratio of the total energy stored and the energy lost in a single cycle. It is a dimensionless parameter that compares the exponential time constant for decay of an oscillating physical system's amplitude to its oscillation period. Equivalently, it compares the frequency at which a system oscillates to the rate at which it dissipates its energy. More precisely, the frequency and period used should be based on the system's natural frequency, which at low Q values is somewhat higher than the oscillation frequency as measured by zero crossings. Equivalently (for large values of Q), the Q factor is approximately the number of oscillations required for a freely oscillating system's energy to fall off to e−2, or about or 0.2%, of its original energy. This means the amplitude falls off to approximately e− or 4% of its original amplitude. The width (bandwidth) of the resonance is given by (approximately): where fN is the natural frequency, and Δf, the bandwidth, is the width of the range of frequencies for which the energy is at least half its peak value. The resonant frequency is often expressed in natural units (radians per second), rather than using the fN in hertz, as The factors Q, damping ratio ζ, natural frequency ωN, attenuation rate α, and exponential time constant are related such that: and the damping ratio can be expressed as: The envelope of oscillation decays proportional to e−αt or e−t/, where α and can be expressed as: and The energy of oscillation, or the power dissipation, decays twice as fast, that is, as the square of the amplitude, as e−2αt or e−2t/. For a two-pole lowpass filter, the transfer function of the filter is For this system, when Q > (i.e., when the system is underdamped), it has two complex conjugate poles that each have a real part of −α. That is, the attenuation parameter α represents the rate of exponential decay of the oscillations (that is, of the output after an impulse) into the system. A higher quality factor implies a lower attenuation rate, and so high-Q systems oscillate for many cycles. For example, high-quality bells have an approximately pure sinusoidal tone for a long time after being struck by a hammer. Electrical systems For an electrically resonant system, the Q factor represents the effect of electrical resistance and, for electromechanical resonators such as quartz crystals, mechanical friction. Relationship between Q and bandwidth The 2-sided bandwidth relative to a resonant frequency of F0 Hz is F0/Q. For example, an antenna tuned to have a Q value of 10 and a centre frequency of 100 kHz would have a 3 dB bandwidth of 10 kHz. In audio, bandwidth is often expressed in terms of octaves. Then the relationship between Q and bandwidth is where BW is the bandwidth in octaves. RLC circuits In an ideal series RLC circuit, and in a tuned radio frequency receiver (TRF) the Q factor is: where R, L and C are the resistance, inductance and capacitance of the tuned circuit, respectively. The larger the series resistance, the lower the circuit Q. For a parallel RLC circuit, the Q factor is the inverse of the series case: Consider a circuit where R, L and C are all in parallel. The lower the parallel resistance, the more effect it will have in damping the circuit and thus the lower the Q. This is useful in filter design to determine the bandwidth. In a parallel LC circuit where the main loss is the resistance of the inductor, R, in series with the inductance, L, Q is as in the series circuit. This is a common circumstance for resonators, where limiting the resistance of the inductor to improve Q and narrow the bandwidth is the desired result. Individual reactive components The Q of an individual reactive component depends on the frequency at which it is evaluated, which is typically the resonant frequency of the circuit that it is used in. The Q of an inductor with a series loss resistance is the Q of a resonant circuit using that inductor (including its series loss) and a perfect capacitor. where: ω0 is the resonance frequency in radians per second, L is the inductance, XL is the inductive reactance, and RL is the series resistance of the inductor. The Q of a capacitor with a series loss resistance is the same as the Q of a resonant circuit using that capacitor with a perfect inductor: where: ω0 is the resonance frequency in radians per second, C is the capacitance, XC is the capacitive reactance, and RC is the series resistance of the capacitor. In general, the Q of a resonator involving a series combination of a capacitor and an inductor can be determined from the Q values of the components, whether their losses come from series resistance or otherwise: Mechanical systems For a single damped mass-spring system, the Q factor represents the effect of simplified viscous damping or drag, where the damping force or drag force is proportional to velocity. The formula for the Q factor is: where M is the mass, k is the spring constant, and D is the damping coefficient, defined by the equation Fdamping = −Dv, where v is the velocity. Acoustical systems The Q of a musical instrument is critical; an excessively high Q in a resonator will not evenly amplify the multiple frequencies an instrument produces. For this reason, string instruments often have bodies with complex shapes, so that they produce a wide range of frequencies fairly evenly. The Q of a brass instrument or wind instrument needs to be high enough to pick one frequency out of the broader-spectrum buzzing of the lips or reed. By contrast, a vuvuzela is made of flexible plastic, and therefore has a very low Q for a brass instrument, giving it a muddy, breathy tone. Instruments made of stiffer plastic, brass, or wood have higher-Q. An excessively high Q can make it harder to hit a note. Q in an instrument may vary across frequencies, but this may not be desirable. Helmholtz resonators have a very high Q, as they are designed for picking out a very narrow range of frequencies. Optical systems In optics, the Q factor of a resonant cavity is given by where fo is the resonant frequency, E is the stored energy in the cavity, and P = − is the power dissipated. The optical Q is equal to the ratio of the resonant frequency to the bandwidth of the cavity resonance. The average lifetime of a resonant photon in the cavity is proportional to the cavity's Q. If the Q factor of a laser's cavity is abruptly changed from a low value to a high one, the laser will emit a pulse of light that is much more intense than the laser's normal continuous output. This technique is known as Q-switching. Q factor is of particular importance in plasmonics, where loss is linked to the damping of the surface plasmon resonance. While loss is normally considered a hindrance in the development of plasmonic devices, it is possible to leverage this property to present new enhanced functionalities. See also Acoustic resonance Attenuation Chu–Harrington limit Piezoelectric material properties Phase margin Q meter Q multiplier Dissipation factor References Further reading External links Calculating the cut-off frequencies when center frequency and Q factor is given Explanation of Q factor in radio tuning circuits Electrical parameters Linear filters Mechanics Laser science Engineering ratios	[ 0.2204180359840393, 0.14336378872394562, -0.022838415578007698, 0.0493469275534153, -0.2586858868598938, -0.04016170650720596, 0.1746666133403778, -0.40229132771492004, 0.19096291065216064, -0.10285302996635437, -0.34354543685913086, 0.9677674770355225, -0.0025429113302379847, 0.7125362157821655, -0.5262573957443237, 0.7136796712875366, 0.8350443243980408, -0.11016111820936203, -0.4302818179130554, -0.30190032720565796, 0.21797430515289307, -0.029885103926062584, 0.5283992290496826, -0.16038313508033752, 0.23552268743515015, -0.12002173066139221, -0.45838314294815063, -0.06525788456201553, 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229162	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Charles%20Greville%20%28diarist%29	Charles Greville (diarist)	Charles Cavendish Fulke Greville (2 April 1794 – 17 January 1865) was an English diarist and an amateur cricketer who played first-class cricket from 1819 to 1827. His father Charles Greville was a second cousin of the 1st Earl of Warwick, and his mother was Lady Charlotte Bentinck, daughter of the 3rd Duke of Portland (former leader of the Whig party and prime minister). Early life Much of Greville's childhood was spent at his maternal grandfather's house at Bulstrode. He was one of the Pages of Honour to George III, and was educated at Eton and Christ Church, Oxford; but he left the university early, having been appointed private secretary to Earl Bathurst before he was twenty. The interest of the Duke of Portland had secured for him the secretaryship of the island of Jamaica, which was a sinecure office, the duties being performed by a deputy, and the reversion of the clerkship of the council. His mother was widely believed to be the mistress of the Duke of Wellington, an affair which caused her family much distress, and may account for Greville's frequently hostile attitude to Wellington. Cricket career Mainly associated with Marylebone Cricket Club (MCC), he made five known appearances in first-class matches. He played for the Gentlemen in the Gentlemen v Players series. His brother was Algernon Greville. Public career Greville entered upon the discharge of the duties of a Clerk of the Council in ordinary in 1821, and continued to perform them for nearly forty years, until his retirement in 1859. He therefore served under three successive sovereigns (George IV, William IV and Victoria) and, although no political or confidential functions were attached to that office, it was one that brought him into habitual intercourse with the chiefs of all the parties in the state. Well-born, well-bred, handsome and accomplished, Greville led the easy life of a man of fashion, taking an occasional part in the transactions of his day and much consulted in the affairs of private life. In 1837, Greville won 9,000 pounds from the first-place finish of his horse Mango in the St Leger Stakes. Until 1855, when he sold his stud, he was an active member of the turf, and he trained successively with Lord George Bentinck and with the Duke of Portland. Greville died at Mayfair, London, and the celebrity now attached to his name is entirely due to the posthumous publication of a portion of a Journal or Diary that it was his practice to keep during the greater part of his life. These papers were given by him to his friend Henry Reeve a short time before his death, with an injunction that they should be published, as far as was feasible, at not too remote a period after the writer's death. Diary The journals of the reigns of George IV and William IV, extending from 1817 to 1837, were published in obedience to his directions almost ten years after his death. Few publications have been received with greater interest by the public; five large editions were sold in little more than a year, and the demand in America was as great as in England. These journals were regarded as a faithful record of the impressions made on the mind of a competent observer, at the time, by the events he witnessed and the persons with whom he associated. Greville did not stoop to collect or record private scandal. His object appears to have been to leave behind him some of the materials of history, by which the men and actions of his own time would be judged. He records not so much public events as the private causes which led to them; and perhaps no English memoir-writer has left behind him a more valuable contribution to the history of the 19th century. Greville published anonymously, in 1845, a volume on the Past and Present Policy of England in Ireland, in which he advocated the payment of the Roman Catholic clergy; and he was also the author of several pamphlets on the events of his day. The full span of memoirs eventually appeared in three parts—three volumes covering 1817 to 1837, published in 1874, three for the period from 1837 to 1852, published in 1885, and the final two in 1887, covering 1852 to 1860. When the first part appeared in 1874 some passages caused extreme offence. The copies issued were as far as possible recalled and passages suppressed, however a copy of this original manuscript remained in the Wallace family possession until it was sold and eventually acquired by a bookseller from New York, Gabriel Wells. Wells and the Doubleday publishing house produced The Greville Diary in two volumes in 1927 however these were criticised for poor editing and containing some inaccurate statements. In 1874, when it became known that Greville's diary was going to be printed, the news caused an uproar. Queen Victoria wrote that she was "horrified and indignant at this dreadful and really scandalous book. Mr Greville's indiscretion, indelicacy, ingratitude, betrayal of confidence and shameful disloyalty towards his Sovereign make it very important that the book should be severely censored and discredited". She also said that "The tone in which he speaks of royalty is unlike anything which one sees in history, even of people hundreds of years ago, and is most reprehensible...Of George IV he speaks in such shocking language, language not fit for any gentleman to use". The Conservative Prime Minister Benjamin Disraeli wrote to Lady Bradford on 26 October 1874: I have not seen Chas. Greville's book, but have read a good deal of it. It is a social outrage. And committed by one who was always talking of what he called ‘perfect gentlemen.’ I don't think he can figure now in that category. I knew him intimately. He was the vainest being—I don't limit myself to man—that ever existed; and I don't forget Cicero and Lytton Bulwer; but Greville wd. swallow garbage, and required it. Offended selflove is a key to most of his observations. He lent me a volume of his MS. once to read; more modern than these; I found, when he was not scandalous, he was prolix and prosy—a clumsy, wordy writer. The loan was made à propos of the character of Peel, which I drew in George Bentinck's Life, and which, I will presume to say, is the only thing written about Peel wh. has any truth or stuff in it. Greville was not displeased with it, and as a reward, and a treat, told me that he wd. confide to me his character of Peel, and he gave me the sacred volume, wh. I bore with me, with trembling awe, from Bruton St. to Gros[veno]r Gate. If ever it appears, you, who have taste for style and expression, will, I am sure, agree with me that, as a portrait painter, Greville is not a literary Vandyke or Reynolds; a more verbose, indefinite, unwieldy affair, without a happy expression, never issued from the pen of a fagged subordinate of the daily press. His brother, Henry Greville (1801–1872), attaché to the British embassy in Paris from 1834 to 1844, also kept a diary, of which part was published by Viscountess Enfield, Leaves from The Diary of Henry Greville (London, 1883–1884). Notes References Further reading H S Altham, A History of Cricket, Volume 1 (to 1914), George Allen & Unwin, 1962 Arthur Haygarth, Scores & Biographies, Volumes 1–11 (1744–1870), Lillywhite, 1862–72 External links CricketArchive profile 1794 births 1865 deaths Clerks of the Privy Council English cricketers English diarists English cricketers of 1787 to 1825 Marylebone Cricket Club cricketers Gentlemen cricketers Alumni of Christ Church, Oxford British racehorse owners and breeders People educated at Eton College Pages of Honour Place of birth missing Charles 19th-century diarists	[ -0.15243025124073029, 0.7752543091773987, -0.6926189064979553, -0.4855038821697235, 0.0525483563542366, 1.0010274648666382, 0.5343181490898132, -0.0471753254532814, -0.31492114067077637, -0.4274508059024811, -0.23141135275363922, -0.46982210874557495, -0.5439690351486206, 0.36346426606178284, 0.36667490005493164, 0.606856107711792, -0.10333279520273209, 0.19832833111286163, -0.20890508592128754, 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229167	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bucephalus	Bucephalus	Bucephalus or Bucephalas (; , from bous, "ox" and kephalē, "head" meaning "ox-head") ( – June 326 BC) was the horse of Alexander the Great, and one of the most famous horses of antiquity. Ancient accounts state that Bucephalus died after the Battle of the Hydaspes in 326 BC, in what is now modern Punjab Province of Pakistan, and is buried in Jalalpur Sharif outside Jhelum, Punjab, Pakistan. Another account states that Bucephalus is buried in Phalia, a town in Pakistan's Mandi Bahauddin District in Punjab Province, which is named after him (Alexandria Bucephalous). Bucephalus was named after a branding mark depicting an ox's head on his haunch. Taming of Bucephalus A massive creature with a massive head, Bucephalus is described as having a black coat with a large white star on his brow. He is also supposed to have had a "wall eye" (blue eye) , and his breeding was that of the "best Thessalian strain". Plutarch says in 344 BC, at twelve or thirteen years of age, Alexander of Macedonia won the horse by making a wager with his father:<ref name="Clough">Arthur Hugh Clough (editor), John Dryden (translator), Plutarch's 'Lives''', vol. II, Modern Library, 2001. </ref> A horse dealer named Philonicus the Thessalian offered Bucephalus to King Philip II for the remarkably high sum of 13 talents. Because no one could tame the animal, Philip was not interested. However, Alexander was, and he offered to pay himself should he fail. Alexander was given a chance and surprised all by subduing it. He spoke soothingly to the horse and turned it toward the sun so that it could no longer see its own shadow, which had been the cause of its distress. Dropping his fluttering cloak as well, Alexander successfully tamed the horse. Plutarch says that the incident so impressed Philip that he told the boy, "O my son, look thee out a kingdom equal to and worthy of thyself, for Macedonia is too little for thee." Philip's speech strikes the only false note in the anecdote, according to A. R. Anderson, who noted his words as the embryo of the legend fully developed in the History of Alexander the Great I.15, 17. The Alexander Romance presents a mythic variant of Bucephalus's origin. In this tale, the colt, whose heroic attributes surpassed even those of Pegasus, is bred and presented to Philip on his own estates. The mythic attributes of the animal are further reinforced in the romance by the Delphic Oracle who tells Philip that the destined king of the world will be the one who rides Bucephalus, a horse with the mark of the ox's head on his haunch. Alexander and Bucephalus As one of his chargers, Bucephalus served Alexander in numerous battles. The value which Alexander placed on Bucephalus emulated his hero and supposed ancestor Achilles, who claimed that his horses were "known to excel all others—for they are immortal. Poseidon gave them to my father Peleus, who in his turn gave them to me." Arrian states, with Onesicritus as his source, that Bucephalus died at the age of thirty. Other sources, however, give as the cause of death not old age or weariness, but fatal injuries at the Battle of the Hydaspes (June 326 BC), in which Alexander's army defeated King Porus. Alexander promptly founded a city, Bucephala, in honour of his horse. It lay on the west bank of the Hydaspes river (modern-day Jhelum in Pakistan). The modern-day town of Jalalpur Sharif, outside Jhelum, is said to be where Bucephalus is buried. The legend of Bucephalus grew in association with that of Alexander, beginning with the fiction that they were born simultaneously: some of the later versions of the Alexander Romance also synchronized the hour of their death. The pair forged a sort of cult in that, after them, it was all but expected of a conqueror that he have a favourite horse. Julius Caesar had one; so too did the eccentric Roman Emperor Caligula, who made a great fuss of his horse Incitatus, holding birthday parties for him, riding him while adorned with Alexander's breastplate, and planning to make him a consul. In art and literature The ancient statue group The Horse Tamers in the Piazza del Quirinale in Rome is often misinterpreted as "Alexander and Bucephalus". An interpretation of their subject as Alexander and Bucephalus was proposed in 1558 by Onofrio Panvinio, who suggested that Constantine had removed them from Alexandria, where they would have referred to the familiar legend of the city's founder. This became a popular alternative to their identification as the Dioscuri. The popular guides still referred to their creation by Phidias and Praxiteles competing for fame, long after even the modestly learned realized that the two sculptors preceded Alexander by a century. Charles Le Brun's (1619–1690) paintings of Alexandrine subjects, including Bucephalus, survive today in the Louvre. One in particular, The Passage of the Granicus, depicts the warhorse battling the difficulties of the steep muddy river banks, biting and kicking his foes. Franz Kafka's short story Der neue Advokat (in his collection Ein Landarzt, 1919) features Bucephalus transformed. The 1979 film The Black Stallion had the protagonist learning the story of Bucephalus from his father, which is put into practice at a later point in the film. In the animated series Reign: The Conqueror, a sci-fi inspired rendition of the myth Bucephalus is a tall man-eating horse with a metallic jaw, prowling in Macedonia and killing everyone unfortunate enough to meet him. Alexander tames him, and as in the myth he becomes his faithful steed. In the BBC television series Father Brown, the bicycle that the character Father Brown rides in pursuits of solving mysteries is called Bucephalus. In ITV's Inspector Morse prequel drama series, Endeavour'', Series 6 Episode 3, Confection, the horse is also named Bucephalus. See also Bucephalus (brand), an ox-head branding mark anciently used on horses Bucephalus (racehorse), an 18th-century Thoroughbred racehorse Bucephalus (trematode), a trematode flatworm genus BTR-4 "Bucephalus", Ukrainian armored troop carrier References External links Ancient individual animals Alexander the Great Alexander the Great in legend Ancient Greece History of Pakistan Individual warhorses Individual male horses	[ -0.28327450156211853, -0.6545897126197815, -0.7814850807189941, 0.09100577980279922, -0.04392275959253311, 1.2106534242630005, -0.18547748029232025, 0.4165049195289612, -0.3161182999610901, -0.21721550822257996, -0.04427357390522957, 0.23148702085018158, -0.6220665574073792, 0.12061725556850433, -0.31691616773605347, 0.08253846317529678, 0.0705701932311058, -0.08745601773262024, -0.10376570373773575, 0.05244184657931328, 0.3392503261566162, -0.15407879650592804, -0.017760181799530983, 0.2113351672887802, 0.29470115900039673, -0.2760021984577179, 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229168	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hebrew%20University%20of%20Jerusalem	Hebrew University of Jerusalem	The Hebrew University of Jerusalem (HUJI; ) is a public research university based in Jerusalem, Israel. Established in July 1918 and officially opened in April 1925, it is the second-oldest Israeli university, having been founded 30 years before the formal establishment of the State of Israel. The HUJI has three campuses in Jerusalem and one in Rehovot. The world's largest library for Jewish studies—the National Library of Israel—is located on its Edmond J. Safra campus in the Givat Ram neighbourhood of Jerusalem. The university has five affiliated teaching hospitals (including the Hadassah Medical Center), seven faculties, more than 100 research centers, and 315 academic departments. , one-third of all the doctoral candidates in Israel were studying at the HUJI. Among its first few board of governors were Albert Einstein, Sigmund Freud, Martin Buber, and Chaim Weizmann. Four of Israel's prime ministers, including the incumbent Naftali Bennett, are alumni of the university. , 15 Nobel Prize winners, two Fields Medalists, and three Turing Award winners have been affiliated with the HUJI. History One of the visions of the Zionist movement was the establishment of a Jewish university in the Land of Israel. Founding a university was proposed as far back as 1884 in the Kattowitz (Katowice) conference of the Hovevei Zion society, and by Hermann Schapira at the First Zionist Congress of 1897. The cornerstone for the university was laid on July 24, 1918. Seven years later, on April 1, 1925, the Hebrew University campus on Mount Scopus was opened at a gala ceremony attended by the leaders of the Jewish world, distinguished scholars and public figures, and British dignitaries, including the Earl of Balfour, Viscount Allenby, and Sir Herbert Samuel. The university's first chancellor was Judah Magnes, who led the school as chancellor from 1924 to 1935. In 1935 to 1948 he led the school as president. One of the most controversial issues during the conceptualization of the university regarded its future official language. Whereas one side, the so-called “Germanists”, proposed a combination of German and Arabic for all non-Jewish subjects, the other side opted for the general use of Hebrew. The former party was afraid the very recent Modern Hebrew might not yet allow high-level academic discussions since it still suffered from a lack of specific technical terms in non-religious contexts. Although this concern can not simply be dismissed as unreasonable, the representatives of this position underestimated the symbolic significance of Hebrew for many Jews, not least of all for those outside the academia. Therefore, they were not able to prevail in the discussion and had to give in to the decision that the new university would be an explicitly Hebrew one. The question, what would define the specific Hebrew character of the university did not only regard the choice of an official language but also organizational aspects, as for example the establishment of departments and the definition of their respective research areas, and the outline of its overall academic profile. Therefore, in 1919, Shmaryahu Levin inquired a number of prominent Jewish European scholars about their opinions on the subject. One of the respondents was Ignaz Goldziher whose proposals were at least partly implemented: oriental languages, Jewish literature, and archaeology were among the first subjects studied at the university. By 1947, the university had become a large research and teaching institution. Sir Leon Simon was Acting President from 1948 to 1949, and he was succeeded as president by Professor Selig Brodetsky, who served from 1949 to 1952. Plans for a medical school were approved in May 1949, and in November 1949, a faculty of law was inaugurated. In 1952, it was announced that the agricultural institute founded by the university in 1940 would become a full-fledged faculty. During the 1948 Arab–Israeli War, attacks were carried out against convoys moving between the Israeli-controlled section of Jerusalem and the university. The leader of the Arab forces in Jerusalem, Abdul Kader Husseini, threatened military action against the university Hadassah Hospital "if the Jews continued to use them as bases for attacks." After the April 1948 Hadassah medical convoy massacre, in which 79 Jews, including doctors and nurses, were killed, the Mount Scopus campus was cut off from Jerusalem. British soldier Jack Churchill coordinated the evacuation of 700 Jewish doctors, students and patients from the hospital. When the Jordanian government denied Israeli access to Mount Scopus, a new campus was built at Givat Ram in western Jerusalem and completed in 1958. In the interim, classes were held in 40 different buildings around the city. Benjamin Mazar was President of the university from 1953 to 1961, Giulio Racah was Acting President from 1961 to 1962, and Eliahu Eilat was president from 1962 to 1968. The Terra Santa building in Rehavia, rented from the Franciscan Custodians of the Latin Holy Places, was also used for this purpose. A few years later, together with the Hadassah Medical Organization, a medical science campus was built in the south-west Jerusalem neighborhood of Ein Kerem. By the beginning of 1967, the students numbered 12,500, spread among the two campuses in Jerusalem and the agricultural faculty in Rehovot. After the unification of Jerusalem, following the Six-Day War of June 1967, the university was able to return to Mount Scopus, which was rebuilt. According to ARIJ, Israel confiscated 568 Dunams of land from the Palestinian village of Isawiya for the Hebrew University in 1968. In 1981 the construction work was completed, and Mount Scopus again became the main campus of the university. Avraham Harman was President of the university from 1968 to 1983, Don Patinkin from 1983 to 1986, Amnon Pazy from 1986 to 1990, Yoram Ben-Porat from 1990 to 1992, Hanoch Gutfreund from 1992 to 1997, and Menachem Magidor from 1997 to 2009. On July 31, 2002, a member of a terrorist cell detonated a bomb during lunch hour at the university's "Frank Sinatra" cafeteria when it was crowded with staff and students. Nine people—five Israelis, three Americans, and one dual French-American citizen—were murdered and more than 70 wounded. World leaders, including Kofi Annan, President George W. Bush, and the President of the European Union issued statements of condemnation. Menachem Ben-Sasson was President of the university from 2009 to 2017, succeeded by Asher Cohen in 2017. In 2017 the Hebrew University of Jerusalem launched a marijuana research center, intended to "conduct and coordinate research on cannabis and its biological effects with an eye toward commercial applications." Campuses Mount Scopus Mount Scopus (Hebrew: Har HaTzofim הר הצופים), in the north-eastern part of Jerusalem, is home to the main campus, which contains the Faculties of Humanities, Social Sciences, Law, Jerusalem School of Business Administration, Baerwald School of Social Work, Harry S. Truman Research Institute for the Advancement of Peace, Rothberg International School, and the Mandel Institute of Jewish Studies. The Rothberg International School features secular studies and Jewish/Israeli studies. Included for foreign students is also a mandatory Ulpan program for Hebrew language study which includes a mandatory course in Israeli culture and customs. All Rothberg Ulpan classes are taught by Israeli natives. However, many other classes at the Rothberg School are taught by Jewish immigrants to Israel. The land on Mt. Scopus was purchased before World War I from Sir John Gray-Hill, along with the Gray-Hill mansion. The master plan for the university was designed by Patrick Geddes and his son-in-law, Frank Mears in December 1919. Only two buildings of this original scheme were built: the David Wolffsohn University and National Library, and the Mathematics Institute, with the Physics Institute probably being built to the designs of their Jerusalem-based partner, Benjamin Chaikin. Housing for students at Hebrew University who live on Mount Scopus is located at the three dormitories located near the university. These are the Maiersdorf (מאירסדורף) dormitories, the Bronfman (ברונפמן) dormitories, and the Kfar HaStudentim (כפר הסטודנטים, Student Village). Nearby is the Nicanor Cave, an ancient cave that was planned to be a national pantheon. Edmond J. Safra, Givat Ram The Givat Ram campus (recently renamed after Edmond Safra) is the home of the Faculty of Science including the Einstein Institute of Mathematics; the Israel Institute for Advanced Studies, the Center for the Study of Rationality, as well as the National Library of Israel, (JNUL). Ein Kerem The Faculties of Medicine and Dental Medicine and the Institute For Medical Research, Israel-Canada (IMRIC) are located at the south-western Jerusalem Ein Kerem campus alongside the Hadassah-University Medical Center. Rehovot The Robert H. Smith Faculty of Agriculture, Food and the Environment and the Koret School of Veterinary Medicine are located in the city of Rehovot in the coastal plain. The Faculty was established in 1942 and the School of Veterinary Medicine opened in 1985. These are the only institutions of higher learning in Israel that offer both teaching and research programs in their respective fields. The Faculty is a member of the Euroleague for Life Sciences. Libraries The Hebrew University libraries and their web catalogs can be accessed through the HUJI Library Authority portal. Jewish National and University Library The Jewish National and University Library is the central and largest library of the Hebrew University and one of the most impressive book and manuscript collections in the world. It is also the oldest section of the university. Founded in 1892 as a world center for the preservation of books relating to Jewish thought and culture, it assumed the additional functions of a general university library in 1920. Its collections of Hebraica and Judaica are the largest in the world. It houses all materials published in Israel, and attempts to acquire all materials published in the world related to the country. It possesses over five million books and thousands of items in special sections, many of which are unique. Among these are the Albert Einstein Archives, Hebrew manuscripts department, Eran Laor map collection, Edelstein science collection, Gershom Scholem collection, and a collection of Maimonides' manuscripts and early writings. In his will, Albert Einstein left the Hebrew University his personal papers and the copyright to them. The Albert Einstein Archives contain some 55,000 items. In March, 2012 the university announced that it had digitized the entire archive, and was planning to make it more accessible online. Included in the collection are his personal notes, love letters to various women, including the woman who would become his second wife, Elsa. Subject-based libraries In addition to the National Library, the Hebrew University operates subject-based libraries on its campuses, among them the Avraham Harman Science Library, Safra, Givat Ram; Mathematics and Computer Science Library, Safra, Givat Ram; Earth Sciences Library, Safra, Givat Ram; Muriel and Philip I. Berman National Medical Library, Ein Kerem; Central Library of Agricultural Science, Rehovot; Bloomfield Library for the Humanities and Social Sciences, Mt. Scopus; Bernard G. Segal Law Library Center, Mt. Scopus; Emery and Claire Yass Library of the Institute of Archaeology, Mt. Scopus; Moses Leavitt Library of Social Work, Mt. Scopus; Zalman Aranne Central Education Library, Mt. Scopus; Library of the Rothberg School for International Students, Mt. Scopus; Roberta and Stanley Bogen Library of the Harry S. Truman Research Institute for the Advancement of Peace, Mt. Scopus; and the Steven Spielberg Jewish Film Archive. Rankings According to the Academic Ranking of World Universities, the Hebrew University is the top university in Israel, overall between 101st and 150th best university in the world, between 301st and 400th in physics, between 201st and 300th in computer science, and between 51st and 75th in business/economics. In 2021, the Center for World University Rankings ranked the Hebrew University 64th in the world and 1st in Israel in its World University Rankings. The Hebrew University consistently ranks as Israel's best university in mathematics, and among the best worldwide. It was ranked as the 11th best institution in mathematics worldwide in 2017, 19th best in 2018, 21st best in 2019, and 25th best in 2020. Friends of the University The university has an international Society of Friends organizations covering more than 25 countries. Canadian Friends of the Hebrew University of Jerusalem (CFHU), founded in 1944 by Canadian philanthropist Allan Bronfman, promotes awareness, leadership and financial support for The Hebrew University of Jerusalem. CFHU facilitates academic and research partnerships between Canada and Israel as well as establishing scholarships, supporting research, cultivating student and faculty exchanges and recruiting Canadian students to attend the Rothberg International School. CFHU has chapters in Montreal, Ottawa, Toronto, Winnipeg, Edmonton, Calgary and Vancouver. The American Friends of the Hebrew University (AFHU) is a not-for-profit 501(c)3 organization that provides programs, events and fundraising activities in support of the university. It was founded by the American philanthropist, Felix M. Warburg in 1925. Supported by its founder, Stephen Floersheimer, and headed by Eran Razin, Floersheimer Studies is a singular program, publishing studies in the field of society, governance and space in Israel. It was established in 2007 replacing the Floersheimer Institute for Policy Studies of 1991. Faculty Dorit Aharonov, computer science Lydia Aran, scholar of Buddhism Robert Aumann, 2005 Nobel Prize laureate for Economics Shlomo Avineri, Political Science Yishai Bar, law Yehoshua Bar-Hillel, linguistics Yaacov Bar-Siman-Tov, international relations Aharon Barak, former President of the Israeli Supreme Court Yehuda Bauer, Holocaust history Jacob Bekenstein, physics Norman Bentwich, international relations Ernst David Bergmann, chairman of Israeli Atomic Energy Commission Martin Buber, religion & Jewish philosophy Howard Cedar, chairperson, Developmental Biology & Cancer Research, IMRIC Ilan Chet, agricultural biotechnology Richard I. Cohen, history Avishai Dekel Andre Aisenstadt Chair of Theoretical Physics Shmuel Eisenstadt, sociology Menachem Elon, former deputy president of the Israeli Supreme Court Adolf Abraham Halevi Fraenkel, mathematics Hillel Furstenberg, mathematics, Israel Prize winner Leah Goldberg (1911–1970), poet Eliezer E. Goldschmidt, agriculture Asher Dan Grunis, Supreme Court Justice Louis Guttman, social sciences and statistics Ephraim Halevy, Mossad chief Lumír Ondřej Hanuš, analytic chemist Yuval Noah Harari, history Gabriel Herman, Historian Gabriel Horenczyk, psychologist, faculty member of the Melton Centre for Jewish Education and the School of Education. Daniel Kahneman, 2002 Nobel Prize laureate for Economics Ruth Kark, geography of (Eretz) Israel Elihu Katz, communication Aharon Katzir, chemistry David Kazhdan, mathematics Baruch Kimmerling, sociology Roger D. Kornberg, visiting professor, 2006 Nobel Prize laureate for chemistry David Kretzmer, law Ruth Lapidoth, law Ruth Lawrence, mathematics Yeshayahu Leibowitz, biochemistry and Jewish philosophy Raphael D. Levine, chemist Avigdor Levontin, law Nehemia Levtzion (1935—2003), scholar of African history, Near East, Islamic, and African studies, President of the Open University of Israel, and executive director of the Van Leer Jerusalem Institute Amia Lieblich, psychology Elon Lindenstrauss, mathematics, laureate of the 2010 Fields Medal Joram Lindenstrauss, mathematics, Israel Prize winner Avishai Margalit, philosophy Israel Prize winner Amihai Mazar, archaeology, Israel Prize winner Benjamin Mazar. archaeologist, Israel Prize winner, former university president and rector Jacob (Kobi) Metzer, economic historian, professor, and the eighth president of the Open University of Israel Eugen Mittwoch, semitic languages, guest professor in 1924 (famous as head of German Nachrichtenstelle in World War I) George Mosse, history Bezalel Narkiss, art history Amnon Netzer, Jewish studies and history Ehud Netzer (1934–2010), archaeology Yaakov Nahmias, bioengineering Anat Ninio, psychology Mordechai Nisan, education Dan Pagis, literature Nurit Peled-Elhanan, education Tsvi Piran, astrophysics Joshua Prawer, history Michael O. Rabin, computer science and mathematics, Israel Prize winner and recipient of the Turing Award. Giulio Racah, physics Frances Raday, law Aharon Razin, Researcher, IMRIC Eliyahu Rips, mathematics Mordechai Rotenberg, social work Gershom Scholem, Jewish mysticism Eliezer Schweid, Jewish philosophy Ehud de Shalit, number theorist Zlil Sela, mathematics Nir Shaviv, astrophysics Saharon Shelah, mathematics Avigdor Shinan, Hebrew literature Avraham Steinberg, medical ethics Zeev Sternhell, political science Hayim Tadmor, Assyriology Jacob Talmon, history Gadi Taub, social sciences Amos Tversky, psychology Claude Vigée, French literature Avi Wigderson, computer science and mathematics Hanna Yablonka, Holocaust history Joseph Yahalom, Hebrew poetry S. Yizhar, writer Publications Institute of Archaeology, Mt. Scopus Qedem: Monographs of the Institute of Archaeology Qedem Reports Notable alumni Major award laureates Fields Medal laureate: Jean Bourgain (1994), Elon Lindenstrauss (2010) Nobel Prize laureates: Daniel Kahneman (economics 2002), David Gross (physics 2004), Avram Hershko (chemistry 2004), Aaron Ciechanover (chemistry 2004), Robert Aumann (economics 2005), Roger D. Kornberg (chemistry 2006), and Ada Yonath (chemistry 2009) Turing Award laureates: Michael O. Rabin (1976), Richard E. Stearns (1993), Shafi Goldwasser (2012) Political leaders Ambassador Yael Rubinstein Members of the Knesset: Colette Avital, Yael Dayan, Taleb el-Sana, Dalia Itzik, Roman Bronfman, David Rotem, Ahmed Tibi, Avigdor Lieberman, Dov Khenin, Danny Danon, Shulamit Aloni, Rachel Adato, Ze'ev Elkin, Roni Bar-On, Ze'ev Bielski, Yohanan Plesner, David Rotem, Yuval Steinitz, Dan Meridor, Yisrael Katz, Jamal Zahalka, Shai Hermesh, Zvulun Orlev, Menachem Ben-Sasson, Ya'akov Ne'eman, Geulah Cohen, Bechor-Shalom Sheetrit, Orit Farkash-Hacohen Jerusalem city council members: Ofer Berkovitch Presidents of Israel: Ephraim Katzir, Yitzhak Navon, Moshe Katsav, Reuven Rivlin Prime Ministers of Israel: Ehud Barak, Ariel Sharon, Ehud Olmert, Naftali Bennett Supreme Court Justices: Aharon Barak, Dorit Beinisch, Menachem Elon, Elyakim Rubinstein, Meir Shamgar, Jacob Turkel, Yitzhak Zamir, Salim Joubran, Uri Shoham By profession Academics: Emanuel Adler, Michael Albeck, Yoram Ben-Porat, Ahron Bregman, Richard I. Cohen, Uri Davis, Amitai Etzioni, Esther Farbstein, Gerson Goldhaber, Daphna Hacker, Haim Harari, Jose Itzigsohn, Joshua Jortner, Efraim Karsh, Asa Kasher, Walter Laqueur, Alexander Levitzki, Saul Lieberman, Avishai Margalit, Jacob (Kobi) Metzer, Dana Olmert, Neri Oxman, Dana Pe'er, Uriel Reichman, Joshua Ronen, Miri Rubin, Ariel Rubinstein, Eli Salzberger, Amit Schejter, Michael Sela, Igal Talmi, Benjamin Elazari Volcani, Menahem Yaari, Ada Yonath Activists: Dorit Reiss, Elie Yossef Anthropologist: Eliane Karp Archaeologists: Ruth Amiran, Trude Dothan, Aren Maeir, Amihai Mazar, Benjamin Mazar, Eilat Mazar, Yigael Yadin Astronomers: David H. Levy Biology and biochemistry: Sarah Spiegel (1974) Botanists: Daniel Chamovitz, Alexander Eig Business: Kobi Alexander (former CEO and founder of Comverse Technology), Léo Apotheker (former CEO of Hewlett-Packard and SAP), Dina Dublon (board member of Microsoft, Accenture and PepsiCo), Maxine Fassberg (former CEO of Intel Israel), Orit Gadiesh (Chairman of Bain & Company), Eli Hurvitz (CEO 1976–2002 Teva Pharmaceuticals), Gil Shwed (CEO and chairman Check Point Software Technologies) Chemists: Yitzhak Apeloig, Adam Heller, Dan Meyerstein, Renata Reisfeld Climatologists: Amaelle Landais-Israël Educators: Brother Rafael S. Donato FSC, Ed.D., was a Filipino De La Salle Brother and was the past President of De La Salle University Manila, University of St. La Salle, De La Salle Lipa, La Salle Green Hills and De La Salle Araneta University. Film, theatre, show business: Joseph Cedar, Natalie Portman, Uri Zohar Foreign service: Naomi Ben-Ami, Gabriela Shalev, Rafael Harpaz Journalists: Khaled Abu Toameh, Ron Ben-Yishai, Nahum Barnea, Boaz Evron, Amos Kenan, Sayed Kashua, Amira Hass, Akiva Eldar, Yossi Melman, Meron Benvenisti, Tom Segev, Haviv Rettig, Dan Margalit, Ya'akov Ahimeir, Michael Bar-Zohar, David Witzthum, Haim Gouri, Ehud Yaari, Zvi Yehezkeli Historians: Esther Farbstein, Yuval Noah Harari, Itamar Rabinovich, Ron Robin Law Judges: Elisheva Barak-Ussoskin Lawyers: Yoram Dinstein, Meir Shmuel Gabay, Elias Khoury, Menachem Mazuz, Ya'akov Ne'eman, Itzhak Nener, Malcolm Shaw Law professor: Dorit Reiss Mathematicians: Rami Grossberg (1986), Joram Lindenstrauss (1962), Moshe Machover (1962), Menachem Magidor, Amnon Pazy, Oded Schramm (1987), Saharon Shelah (1969) Physicists: Amikam Aharoni, David Gross, Haim Harari, Max Jammer, Igal Talmi, Micha Tomkiewicz Psychologists: Shlomo Breznitz, Asher Cohen Religion Clergy: Malcolm Ranjith, Archbishop of the Roman Catholic Archdiocese of Colombo, 2nd Sri Lankan to be made a cardinal, Patriarch Theophilos III of Jerusalem Theologians: Fr Malachi Martin, Yigal Arnon Soldiers: Yishai Beer, Uzi Dayan, Yuval Neria, Yonatan "Yoni" Netanyahu Sports: Itzik Kornfein, Shaul Ladany, Adin Talbar, Yochanan Vollach Writers: Yehuda Amichai, Galila Ron-Feder Amit, Aharon Appelfeld, Netiva Ben-Yehuda, Elias Chacour, Yael Dayan, Yuval Elizur, Helen Epstein, Jonah Frankel, David Grossman, Dmitry Glukhovsky, Batya Gur, Shifra Horn, Amos Oz, A. B. Yehoshua, Amnon Jackont, Amalia Kahana-Carmon, Yehoshua Kenaz, Miriam Roth, Amir Segal, Anton Shammas, Gideon Telpaz, Natan Yonatan Yissum Research Development Company Yissum Research Development Company is the university's technology transfer company, founded in 1964. Yissum owns all the intellectual property of the researchers and employees of the Hebrew University. Since its formation Yissum has founded more than 80 spin-off companies such as: Mobileye, BriefCam, HumanEyes, OrCam, ExLibris, BioCancell and many more. Yissum is led by Yaacov Michlin and other leaders in the business industry such as: Tamir Huberman, Dov Reichman, Shoshi Keinan, Ariela Markel and Michal Levy. Yissum is also a member of ITTN (Israel Technology Transfer Organization). See also Einstein Papers Project Yehezkel Kaufman List of Israeli universities and colleges References External links Official website Friends of The Hebrew University American Friends of the Hebrew University British Friends of The Hebrew University (BFHU) Canadian Friends of The Hebrew University (CFHU) Alumni The European Alumni of The Hebrew University Law schools in Israel Research institutes in Israel Universities in Israel Universities and colleges in Jerusalem Mount Scopus 1925 establishments in Mandatory Palestine Erich Mendelsohn buildings Buildings and structures in Rehovot	[ 0.34102246165275574, 0.6463456153869629, -0.13822518289089203, -0.37976717948913574, -0.1597110778093338, 0.5979767441749573, -0.0004973247996531427, 0.6916083693504333, 0.04108281061053276, -0.35305407643318176, -0.6822875142097473, -0.35574808716773987, 0.21028004586696625, 0.04242710396647453, -0.16293561458587646, -0.24119767546653748, 0.26054784655570984, 0.34125956892967224, -0.41030123829841614, 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229172	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sailing%20at%20the%201900%20Summer%20Olympics	Sailing at the 1900 Summer Olympics	Sailing/Yachting made its first appearance as an Olympic sport at the 1900 Summer Olympics after competitions were cancelled at the 1896 Olympics. With the exception of 1904, sailing was thereafter always a part of the Olympic program. The sailing program in 1900 consisted of a total of eight sailing classes. For six classes, the races were scheduled from 20 – 27 May at the river Seine around Meulan, and a series of three races was held for the largest classes from 1–5 August on the North Atlantic off the coast of Le Havre. Approximately 150 sailors in 64 boats (the numbers of boats and competitors are not reliable, as in the official report some figures of the World exhibition and the Olympic Games are mixed) from 6 nations competed, including 1 woman, Hélène de Pourtalès, who won a gold medal in the 1 to 2 ton. Venues During the early years of the Olympic movement there were no strict rules for the assignment of venues. For the Olympic sailing in 1900 the organizers decided to combine the Olympic sailing for the smaller yachts with the regattas of the Exposition Universelle on the river Seine near Meulan. For the larger yachts an Olympic regatta was held at Le Havre. Meulan During the Olympic regattas of the Exposition Universelle of 1900 there were more than 100 yachts racing from Paris, Rouen, Cannes, Nantes and Arcachon and yachts from England, Germany, the United States and Holland. The Bassin Olympique was the river Seine near the Cercle de la Voile de Paris that served as the Olympic harbor. The race conditions at Meulan during the Olympic regatta were not ideal. A light breeze could hardly make the sailing interesting. Since the river Seine mainly runs from east to west, the light north-easterly breeze was partly blocked by buildings or trees on the river bank, thus heavily influencing the regatta. Le Havre During the second part of the Olympic regatta the Atlantic Ocean was used for the races of the 10 – 20 ton and the 20+ ton yachts. The conditions during the regatta were so good that the 10 – 20 Ton class was able to sail the complete 22 nautical mile triangular course. The premises of the Société des Régates du Havre were used as Olympic harbor. Course areas Since there were two venues there were two course areas. One the river Seine near Meulan. Here the organization could set courses of . The other course area was on the North Atlantic off the coats of Le Havre. Here courses could be set up to . Participating nations 6 nations sent sailors. Several teams had crews from multiple countries, and in one case, they won a gold medal. This team, of the United Kingdom and France, is attributed as a mixed team. Classes (equipment) Sailing during the turn of the century was not as well defined as it became later during the 20th century. Racing rules were mostly defined by local yacht clubs or in some cases by a National Yachting Federation. Also, boats were not standardized to what are now called One Design or One Builder classes. Therefore, many handicap systems or systems that put yachts into different categories were used. In 1892, Auguste Godinet developed a formula that placed different boats in different Ton categories. This rule was adopted by the Union des yachts français and later by several other National Yachting Federations such as the Société Nautique de Genève. For the sailing at the 1900 Olympics this rule was chosen to determine the tonnage of a yacht. For the smallest class, 0 – ½ Ton, among others, Larks were used. These Larks, copies of the Davis Lark and of the Sorceress designed by Linton Hope, became famous One Designs in France (Monotype de Chatou at the beginning of the 20th century. The Olympics were open for the following classes: Race schedule Medal summary The results of the individual races are known; however, in the past there has not been consensus on which races were considered "Olympic" and thus who the Olympic medalists were. The Official Report, International Olympic Committee (IOC), International Sailing Federation (ISAF) and Sports Reference present different medalists. The IOC has never decided which events were "Olympic" and which were not. Occasionally, sources differ on the nationality of competitors (such as H. MacHenry, alternately listed as French or American). For example, the medalists in the 3 – 10 Ton races are shown in the various sources as: In all classes at Meulan except the Open class, there were two distinct "finals." Boats were assigned time handicaps according to their weight within each class and prizes were handed out to the winners of each race. The IOC initially recognized the winner of the first race in each class as Olympic champion except in the case of the 10 – 20 ton class, which was decided on aggregate time over three races. However, currently the participants of both first and second races in three classes (0 – 0.5t, 1 – 2t and 2 – 3t) are present in the IOC database as medalists. That is, the second race in each of these three classes is recognized by the IOC and for each of these events two gold, two silver, and two bronze medals were retrospectively awarded by the IOC. In the 3 – 10 Ton race, however, only the second race winners are listed with Olympic medals. The data below notes all races and medalists of the regattas of the Games of the second Olympiad, as well as of the Exposition Universelle and counts all winners as medalists, because the IOC website currently affirms a total of 95 medal events in the Games. Medal table All races now considered official Olympic events, as IOC website affirms 95 total medal events. Notes There was some discussion about the validity of the Olympic status of Sailing at the 1900 Summer Olympics. Ian Buchanan, first president of the International Society of Olympic Historians, stated, "Given the possible awarding of cash prizes, the "Olympic status" of this sport in 1900 must be in question. It is not exactly certain if the prizes were cash or "objets d’art" of the values listed, thus, for now, I have retained yachting as an Olympic sport in 1900." Other information During the sailing regattas at the 1900 Summer Olympics among others the following persons were competing (or owning yachts) in the various classes: Celebrities , Édouard Alphonse James de Rothschild , Hermann de Pourtalès First female Olympic gold medalist: , Hélène de Pourtalès Further reading References 1900 Summer Olympics events 1900 1900 in sailing Sailing competitions in France	[ -0.07845466583967209, 0.15210844576358795, -0.3539675176143646, 0.49877867102622986, -0.36374786496162415, -0.13930048048496246, 0.453725665807724, -0.1315581500530243, -1.3334846496582031, -0.38249897956848145, 0.3430885672569275, 0.05068765953183174, 0.03656579926609993, 0.21218405663967133, 0.07654032856225967, 0.29799097776412964, 0.48470091819763184, -0.4195318818092346, 0.08917669951915741, -0.22741816937923431, -0.4206618666648865, 0.11930951476097107, 0.16510027647018433, 0.09008949995040894, -0.30321455001831055, -0.4079790711402893, 0.965825617313385, 0.26834744215011597, 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229173	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plecoptera	Plecoptera	Plecoptera is an order of insects, commonly known as stoneflies. Some 3,500 species are described worldwide, with new species still being discovered. Stoneflies are found worldwide, except Antarctica. Stoneflies are believed to be one of the most primitive groups of Neoptera, with close relatives identified from the Carboniferous and Lower Permian geological periods, while true stoneflies are known from fossils only a bit younger. Their modern diversity, however, apparently is of Mesozoic origin. Plecoptera are found in both the Southern and Northern Hemispheres, and the populations are quite distinct, although the evolutionary evidence suggests species may have crossed the equator on a number of occasions before once again becoming geographically isolated. All species of Plecoptera are intolerant of water pollution, and their presence in a stream or still water is usually an indicator of good or excellent water quality. Description and ecology Stoneflies have a generalized anatomy, with few specialized features compared to other insects. They have simple mouthparts with chewing mandibles, long, multiple-segmented antennae, large compound eyes, and two or three ocelli. The legs are robust, with each ending in two claws. The abdomen is relatively soft, and may include remnants of the nymphal gills even in the adult. Both nymphs and adults have long, paired cerci projecting from the tip of their abdomens. The name "Plecoptera" literally means "braided-wings", from the Ancient Greek plekein (πλέκειν, "to braid") and pteryx (πτέρυξ, "wing"). This refers to the complex venation of their two pairs of wings, which are membranous and fold flat over their backs. Stoneflies are generally not strong fliers, and some species are entirely wingless. A few wingless species, such as the Lake Tahoe benthic stonefly ("Capnia" lacustra) or Baikaloperla, are the only known insects, perhaps with the exception of Halobates, that are exclusively aquatic from birth to death. Some true water bugs (Nepomorpha) may also be fully aquatic for their entire lives, but can leave the water to travel. The nymphs (technically, "naiads") are aquatic and live in the benthic zone of well-oxygenated lakes and streams. A few species found in New Zealand and nearby islands have terrestrial nymphs, but even these inhabit only very moist environments. The nymphs physically resemble wingless adults, but often have external gills, which may be present on almost any part of the body. Nymphs can acquire oxygen via diffusing through the exoskeleton, or through gills located on behind the head, on the thorax, or around the anus. Due to their nymph's requirement for well oxygenated water, the species is very sensitive to water pollution. This makes them important indicators for water quality. Most species are herbivorous as nymphs, feeding on submerged leaves and benthic algae, but many are hunters of other aquatic arthropods. Life cycle The female can lay up to one thousand eggs. It will fly over the water and drop the eggs in the water. It also may hang on a rock or branch. Eggs are covered in a sticky coating which allows them to adhere to rocks without being swept away by swift currents. The eggs typically take two to three weeks to hatch, but some species undergo diapause, with the eggs remaining dormant throughout a dry season, and hatching only when conditions are suitable. The insects remain in the nymphal form for one to four years, depending on species, and undergo from 12 to 36 molts before emerging and becoming terrestrial as adults. Before becoming adults, nymphs will leave the water, attach to a fixed surface and molt one last time. The adults generally only survive for a few weeks, and emerge only during specific times of the year when resources are optimal. Some do not feed at all, but those that do are herbivorous. Adults are not strong fliers and generally stay near the stream or lake they hatched from. Systematics Traditionally, the stoneflies were divided into two suborders, the "Antarctoperlaria" (or "Archiperlaria") and the Arctoperlaria. However, the former simply consists of the two most basal superfamilies of stoneflies, which do not seem to be each other's closest relatives. Thus, the "Antarctoperlaria" are not considered a natural group (despite some claims to the contrary). The Arctoperlaria, though, have been divided into two infraorders, the Euholognatha (or Filipalpia) and the Systellognatha (also called Setipalpia or Subulipalpia). This corresponds to the phylogeny with one exception: the Scopuridae must be considered a basal family in the Arctoperlaria, not assignable to any of the infraorders. Alternatively, the Scopuridae were placed in an unranked clade "Holognatha" together with the Euholognatha (meaning roughly "advanced Holognatha"), but the Scopuridae do not appear significantly closer to the Euholognatha than to the Systellognatha. In addition, not adopting the clades Antarctoperlaria and Holognatha allows for a systematic layout of the Plecoptera that adequately reproduces phylogeny, while retaining the traditional ranked taxa. Basal lineages ("Antarctoperlaria") Superfamily Eusthenioidea Family Diamphipnoidae Family Eustheniidae Superfamily Leptoperloidea Family Austroperlidae Family Gripopterygidae Suborder Arctoperlaria Basal family Scopuridae Infraorder Euholognatha Family Capniidae (about 300 species) – small winter stoneflies Family Leuctridae (390+ species) – rolled-winged stoneflies Family Nemouridae (over 700 species) – spring stoneflies Family Notonemouridae Family Taeniopterygidae (about 110 species) – winter stoneflies Infraorder Systellognatha Family Chloroperlidae (over 180 species) – green stoneflies Family Perlidae (about 400 species) – common stoneflies Family Perlodidae (350+ species) Family Peltoperlidae (about 68 species) – roachlike stoneflies Family Styloperlidae (about 10 species) Family Pteronarcyidae (about 12 species) – salmonflies, giant stoneflies Notes References External links Plecoptera Species File: order Plecoptera (Version 5.0/5.0) Insect orders Extant Permian first 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229174	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ranong%20province	Ranong province	Ranong ( ) (not to be confused with Rayong)is one of Thailand's southern provinces (changwat), on the west coast along the Andaman Sea. It has the fewest inhabitants of all Thai provinces. provinces neighboring Ranong are (clockwise) Chumphon, Surat Thani, and Phang Nga. To the west, it borders Kawthaung, Tanintharyi, Myanmar. Geography Ranong is on the Kra Isthmus, a narrow strip of land, only wide, that connects Thailand with the Malay Peninsula, on the west of the Phuket mountain range. It has a long coast on the Andaman Sea. The province, together with Trat province, is known for being one of the wettest places in Thailand, the rainy season lasting for about eight months. Ranong is the least populated province. The total forest area is or 53.5 percent of provincial area, and 67 percent is mountainous. In former years the major industry was tin mining, but most mines are now exhausted. White clay mining (for the production of porcelain) and fishing are now the main industries, along with rubber and cashew nuts. The Ngao Mangrove Forest Research Centre, also known as the Ranong Biosphere Reserve, in the north of Kapoe District, covering 189,431 rai (303.09 km2), was declared in 1997. It is the fourth biosphere reserve of Thailand, and the only one on the seacoast protecting mangrove forests. Khlong Nakha Wildlife Sanctuary is in the south of the province. History Ranong province once was a deputy town of Chumphon in the Ayutthaya era (1350–1767). It was a small, mountainous town that protected Chumphon from Burma. The population was very low until the discovery of tin, when people from many cities and foreigners started to visit Ranong to do tin business there. This also gave rise to the name Ranong, which was a distorted form of rae nong (แร่นอง), meaning "full of minerals". The ruler of Ranong was known after the town as Luang Ranong () At the start of the Rattanakosin era (1781–present), there was a wealthy Chinese merchant named Kho Su Jiang who bought all the tin business in Ranong and was appointed tax collector of Ranong, with the title Luang Rattana Setti (), by King Nangklao (Rama III). In 1854, the Luang Ranong died. King Mongkut (Rama IV) then promoted Kho Su Jiang to the position, promoting him to Phra Rattana Setti (). By then, Ranong's wealth had increased greatly and through taxation was a significant source of income for the capital, thus in 1877 King Chulalongkorn (Rama V) elevated Ranong to provincial status, answering directly to Bangkok as opposed to Chumphon, with Phra Rattana Setti becoming its first governor. After the First Anglo-Burmese War, when the British assumed control of Tenasserim and the Kraburi River became the demarcation line between Siam and British-controlled Burma, Rayong became an important border city where goods were exchanged, a status which extends past the independence of Burma to the present. Being located on the Kra Isthmus, the narrowest part (44 kilometres) of the Malay Peninsula, the idea of a canal through the area has been long suggested, particularly by the French. If successful, traveling from Europe to China would be easier because one would pass through Thailand, which was faster and cheaper, instead of circumnavigating Malaysia. This was seen as a threat to the financial growth of the harbors of Singapore and Penang, which at the time were owned by Britain, who therefore forced the suspension of the project. At the end of World War II, Thailand signed a British-imposed treaty called "The Termination of The State of War Between Siam and Allies", which forbade Thailand from digging such a canal without British permission. This treaty was revoked in 1954. Since then, plans for the canal have continued to be suggested and discussed, even in the present day, though prime minister Prayut Chan-o-cha said in 2018 that it was not a government priority. Ranong has also been historically significant as a residence for royal tours of the southern provinces, with many kings of Thailand visiting Ranong in the past. The first was King Chulalongkorn, who stayed at Rattana Ransan palace for three nights in 1890. The palace is now a landmark in Ranong. King Prajadhipok (Rama VII) visited in 1928, and King Bhumibol (Rama IX) and Queen Sirikit visited in 1959. Climate Most of Thailand receives from 1,200 to 1,600 mm of precipitation per year. Two provinces, Ranong and Trat, receive more than 4,500 mm a year making them the wettest places in the country. Symbols The provincial seal shows a castle on top of a hill, as an aide memoire that King Chulalongkorn (Rama V) once visited Ranong and stayed at the Ratana Rangsan Castle on top of the Niveskiri Hill. The number five refers to King Rama V; the castle is Ratana Rangsan Palace; the mountain is Niveshkiri; the royal tray refers to the people of Ranong. The provincial slogan is, "Kra Isthmus, mountain grass, cashew nut, mineral water stream, and real pearl of Ranong." The provincial tree is the Banaba (Lagerstroemia speciosa), and the provincial flower is the orchid Dendrobium formosum. Administrative divisions Provincial government Ranong is divided into five districts (amphoe). These are further divided into 30 subdistricts (tambon) and 167 villages (muban). Local government As of 26 November 2019 there are: one Ranong Provincial Administration Organisation () and 12 municipal (thesaban) areas in the province. Ranong and Bang Rin have town (thesaban mueang) status. Further 10 subdistrict municipalities (thesaban tambon). The non-municipal areas are administered by 18 Subdistrict Administrative Organisations - SAO (ongkan borihan suan tambon). Transportation Phet Kasem Road (Thailand Route 4) runs through the city. Ranong Airport is about south of town. The Port Authority of Thailand operates the Ranong Port, which is Thailand's principal Indian Ocean port. In 2008, the Ranong human-smuggling incident resulted in 54 deaths. Human achievement index 2017 Since 2003, United Nations Development Programme (UNDP) in Thailand has tracked progress on human development at sub-national level using the Human achievement index (HAI), a composite index covering all the eight key areas of human development. National Economic and Social Development Board (NESDB) has taken over this task since 2017. Tourism Namtok Ngao National Park (อุทยานแห่งชาติน้ำตกหงาว) Covering a total area of approximately 417,500 rai (668 km2) it was declared a national park on 3 June 1999. Ko Chang (Ranong) (เกาะช้าง) island in tambon Ko Phayam. With an area of 18 square kilometres and 80 homes on the entire island. Cashew and para rubber plantations as well as coastal fisheries are the main industries. Laem Son National Park (อุทยานแห่งชาติแหลมสน) It covers a total area of 196,875 rai (31.5 hectares). It also includes islands in the Andaman Sea; namely, Ko Khangkhao and Mu Ko Kam. Places of interest within the national park include: Hat Bang Ben (หาดบางเบน) is a long sandy beach shaded by pine trees where the national park headquarters is located. Hat Laem Son (หาดแหลมสน) is a white sandy beach approximately four kilometres next to Hat Bang Ben. Hat Praphat or Hat Hin Thung (หาดประพาส หรือ หาดหินทุ่ง) Similar to Hat Bang Ben, Hat Praphat is a large beach shaded by pine trees. Ko Khangkhao (เกาะค้างคาว) is an island with fine sandy beaches and a gravel beach known as Hat Hin Ngam in the north. Ko Kam Yai (เกาะกำใหญ่) is a scenic island with white sandy beaches. Ko Kam Nui (เกาะกำนุ้ย) is not far from Ko Kam Yai with beaches on one side and many other nearby islets. References External links Official website Ranong provincial map, coat of arms and postal stamp Provinces of Thailand Andaman Sea Southern Thailand	[ -0.25530439615249634, -0.02816915512084961, 0.22236290574073792, -0.20840950310230255, -0.22794470191001892, -0.11847273260354996, 0.6093153357505798, 0.4005921185016632, -0.5397906303405762, 0.10631120204925537, -0.23156054317951202, -0.12569665908813477, -0.4802040755748749, 0.2767130136489868, -0.023446451872587204, 0.8305889964103699, 0.7996645569801331, -0.006059449166059494, 0.42940232157707214, -0.7028671503067017, -0.545116662979126, -0.7651795744895935, 0.4737265706062317, -0.13184945285320282, 0.4677141010761261, -0.06846200674772263, 0.5013843774795532, 0.8550459742546082, 0.5811389684677124, -0.15178802609443665, -0.2732275426387787, 0.44919776916503906, -0.10982220619916916, 0.007406318560242653, 0.4626612961292267, 0.39757072925567627, 0.2250930219888687, -0.05406881496310234, -0.5084649920463562, -0.4500660002231598, 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229175	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Apsley%20House	Apsley House	Apsley House is the London townhouse of the Dukes of Wellington. It stands alone at Hyde Park Corner, on the south-east corner of Hyde Park, facing south towards the busy traffic roundabout in the centre of which stands the Wellington Arch. It is a Grade I listed building. It is sometimes referred to as the Wellington Museum, its official designation under a 1947 Act of Parliament. The house is now run by English Heritage and is open to the public as a museum and art gallery, exhibiting the Wellington Collection, a large collection of paintings, other artworks and memorabilia of the career of the 1st Duke. The 9th Duke of Wellington retains the use of part of the buildings. It is perhaps the only preserved example of an English aristocratic townhouse from its period. The practice has been to maintain the rooms as far as possible in the original style and decor. History Apsley House stands at the site of an old lodge that belonged to the crown. During the Interregnum newer buildings were erected between what is now Old Park Lane and Hyde Park Corner. In the 1600s after the Restoration they were leased by James Hamilton (died 1673) and renewed by Elizabeth his widow in 1692 on a 99-year lease (Hamilton Place takes its name from that family). Immediately before Apsley House was built the site was occupied by a tavern called the Hercules Pillars (immortalised by Henry Fielding in The History of Tom Jones, a Foundling as the location where Squire Western resides when he first journeys up to London). The house was originally built in red brick by Robert Adam between 1771 and 1778 for Lord Apsley, the Lord Chancellor, who gave the house its name. Some Adam interiors survive: the Piccadilly Drawing Room with its apsidal end and Adam fireplace, and the Portico Room, behind the giant Corinthian portico added by Wellington. The house was given the popular nickname of Number One, London, since it was the first house passed by visitors who travelled from the countryside after the toll gates at Knightsbridge. It was originally part of a contiguous line of great houses on Piccadilly, demolished to widen Park Lane: its official address remains 149 Piccadilly, W1J 7NT. In 1807 the house was purchased by Richard Wellesley, 1st Marquess Wellesley, the elder brother of Sir Arthur Wellesley, but in 1817 financial difficulties forced him to sell it to his famous brother, by then the Duke of Wellington, who needed a London base from which to pursue his new career in politics. Wellington employed the architect Benjamin Dean Wyatt to carry out renovations in two phases: in the first, begun in 1819, he added a three-storey extension to the north east, housing a State Dining Room, bedrooms and dressing rooms. The Scagiola ornamentations, that resemble marble inlays, were produced in Coade stone from the Coade Ornamental Stone Manufactory in Lambeth. The second phase, started after Wellington had become Prime Minister in 1828, included a new staircase and the "Waterloo Gallery" on the west side of the house. The red-brick exterior was clad in Bath stone, and a pedimented portico added. Wyatt's original estimate for the work was £23,000, but the need to repair structural defects discovered during the work led to costs escalating to more than £61,000. Wyatt introduced his own version of French style to the interior, notably in the Waterloo Gallery and the florid wrought iron stair-rail, described by Pevsner as "just turning from Empire to a neo-Rococo". The Waterloo Gallery is named after the Duke's famous victory over Napoleon at the Battle of Waterloo. The Waterloo Banquet was held annually to commemorate the famous victory of 18 June 1815. The first banquets were held in the Dining Room but in 1828 when Wyatt completed the Waterloo Gallery the banquet was moved there and became a much larger event, seating 74 as opposed to 36 in the dining room. The Duke's equestrian statue can be seen across the busy road, cloaked and watchful, the plinth guarded at each corner by an infantryman. This statue was cast from guns captured at the battle. Gerald Wellesley, 7th Duke of Wellington, gave the house and its most important contents to the nation in 1947, but by the Wellington Museum Act 1947 the right of the family to occupy just over half the house was preserved "so long as there is a Duke of Wellington". The family apartments are now on the north side of the house, concentrated on the second floor. Gallery See also List of monuments to Arthur Wellesley, 1st Duke of Wellington Stratfield Saye House – the country home of the Dukes of Wellington Waterloo ceremony Wellington Museum, Somerset Wellington Museum, Waterloo Additional reading Jervis, Simon & Tomlin, Maurice (revised by Voak, Jonathon; 1984, revisions 1989 & 1995) Apsley House Wellington Museum published by the Trustees of the Victoria and Albert Museum, London Nikolaus Pevsner, The Buildings of England: London vol. I, p. 463. References External links Apsley House – English Heritage website Historical Images of Apsley House Apsley House and Park Lane, Old and New London: Volume 4 (1878), pp. 359–375 Art museums and galleries in London Biographical museums in London Historic house museums in London Houses in the City of Westminster Museums in the City of Westminster English Heritage sites in London Grade I listed houses in London Grade I listed buildings in the City of Westminster Grade I listed museum buildings Arthur Wellesley, 1st Duke of Wellington Bathurst family Prime ministerial homes in the United Kingdom Robert Adam buildings Georgian architecture in London Greek Revival houses in the United Kingdom Neoclassical architecture in London	[ -0.04251579940319061, 0.4519772529602051, 0.2954275608062744, -0.4270397424697876, 0.10923189669847488, 0.7268162965774536, 0.51307612657547, -0.14489078521728516, -0.8554163575172424, 0.156324103474617, -0.67404705286026, -0.45810553431510925, -0.11621157824993134, 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229178	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Robert%20Stirling	Robert Stirling	Robert Stirling (25 October 1790 – 6 June 1878) was a Scottish clergyman and engineer. He invented the Stirling engine and was inducted into the Scottish Engineering Hall of Fame in 2014. Background and Christian ministry Robert Stirling was born at Fatal Fields, a location in Scotland near the village of Methven, Perthshire. A member of the Dublane side of the Stirling family, Robert was born to Patrick and Agnes Stirling. He was one of eight children that Patrick and Agnes shared. His grandfather was Michael Stirling, most famously known for his invention of the threshing machine. Robert's father Patrick also spent time experimenting and innovating with industrial agricultural equipment. Though Robert, like his father and grandfather, had a natural inclination for engineering, he began attending Edinburgh University in 1805 at the age of fifteen to study divinity in hopes of becoming a minister. His brother James, who would play a major role in Stirling's future engineering endeavours, also attended Edinburgh at the age of 14. Robert concluded his studies at Edinburgh and continued to study at Glasgow University in November 1809. In 1814, he returned to Edinburgh University studying divinity for a final time. Robert was licensed to preach in the Church of Scotland in 1816 by the Presbytery of Dumbarton. In September 1816, the commissioner of the Duke of Portland granted Stirling the title of Minister as the second charge for the Laigh Kirk parish in Kilmarnock. Finally, in February 1824, Stirling was appointed as the minister of nearby Galston Parish Church where he continued his ministry until 1878. In July 1819, Robert Stirling married Jane Rankine. Together, they had seven children, five sons and two daughters. Engineering and science History Robert Stirling is considered as one of the fathers of hot air engines. Few before him ventured to build air engines, Guillaume Amontons being the first one to build a working hot air engine in 1699. Amonton was followed in 1807 by George Cayley whose engine was of those in which the fire is enclosed, and fed by air pumped in beneath the grate in sufficient quantity to maintain combustion, while by far the largest portion of the air enters above the fire, to be heated and expanded; the whole, together with the products of combustion, then acts on the piston, and passes through the working cylinder; and the operation being one of simple mixture only, no heating surface of metal is required, the air to be heated being brought into immediate contact with the fire. Stirling came up with a first patent for an air engine in 1816. The principle of the Stirling Air Engine differs from Cayley's, in which the air is forced through the furnace and exhausted, whereas in Stirling's engine the air works in a closed circuit. It was to it that the inventor devoted most of his attention. A two horse-power Stirling hot air engine, built in 1818 for pumping water at an Ayrshire quarry, continued to work for some time, until a careless attendant allowed the heater to become overheated. This experiment proved to the inventor that, owing to the low working pressure obtainable, the engine could only be adapted to small powers for which there was at that time no demand. The Stirling 1816 patent was also about an "Economiser", the predecessor of the regenerator. In this patent (# 4081) he describes the "economiser" technology and several applications where such technology can be used. Out of them came a new arrangement for a hot air engine. In 1818, one engine was built to pump water from a quarry in Ayrshire, but due to technical issues, the engine was abandoned for a time. Stirling patented a second hot air engine, together with his brother James, in 1827. They inverted the design so that the hot ends of the displacers were underneath the machinery and they added a compressed air pump so the air within could be increased in pressure to around 20 atmospheres. The two Stirling brothers were followed shortly after in 1828 by Parkinson & Crossley and in 1829 and Arnott. These precursors, to whom John Ericsson should be added, have brought to the world the hot air engine technology and its enormous advantages over the steam engine. Each of them came with his own specific technology, and although the Stirling engine and the Parkinson & Crossley engines were quite similar, Robert Stirling distinguished himself by inventing the regenerator, the first example of a Regenerative heat exchanger. Parkinson and Crosley introduced the principle of using air of greater density than that of the atmosphere, and so obtained an engine of greater power in the same compass. James Stirling followed this same idea when he built the famous Dundee engine. The Stirling patent of 1827 has been the base of the Stirling third patent of 1840. The changes against the 1827 patent were minor but essential. It was this third patent that gave the birth to the Dundee engine. James Stirling gave a presentation of his engine before the Institution of Civil Engineers in 1845. The first engine of this kind which, after various modifications, was efficiently constructed and heated, had a cylinder of 12 inches (approx. 30 cm) in diameter, with a length of stroke of 2 feet (approx. 61 cm), and made 40 strokes or revolutions in a minute (40 rpm). This engine moved all the machinery at the Dundee Foundry Company's works for eight or ten months, and was previously found capable of raising 700,000 lbs one foot in a minute (approx. 21 HP). Finding this power insufficient for their works, the Dundee Foundry Company erected the second engine, with a cylinder of 16 inches (approx. 40 cm) in diameter, a stroke of 4 feet (approx. 1.20 m), and making 28 strokes in a minute. This engine has now been in continual operation for upwards of two years, and has not only performed the work of the foundry in the most satisfactory manner, but has been tested (by a friction brake on a third mover) to the extent of lifting nearly 1,500,000 lbs (approx. 45 HP). This gives a consumption of 2.7 lbs. (approx. 1.22 kg) per horse-power per hour; but when the engine was not fully burdened, the consumption was considerably under 2.5 lbs. (approx. 1.13 kg) per horse-power per hour. This performance was at the level of the best steam engines whose efficiency was about 10%. After James Stirling, such efficiency was possible only thanks to the use of the economiser (or regenerator). Hot air engine Robert Stirling's best known invention is the heat engine now referred to as the Stirling engine. In 1816 the Stirling brothers applied for a patent in both Scotland and England for a device they invented, a Heat Economiser. The function of this invention was to store and release heat as air circulated through its mechanisms. This differed from most heat engines which used steam as their method of storing and releasing energy. While in Kilmarnock, he collaborated with another inventor, Thomas Morton, who provided workshop facilities for Stirling's research. By 1818 Stirling had incorporated this Heat Economiser into a piston engine that created a closed cycle heat engine, which was powered by air, a contrast to the steam engines that were predominant at the time. This updated version of the heat engine was used to pump water from a quarry. Stirling's heat engine was able to run well but was limited by the weaker metals available at the time. Due to the flimsiness of the materials used, the air vessels were eventually crushed by the high pressure of the heated air. In 1824 Stirling sought to improve the efficiency of the heat engine by attempting to separate the air present in the economizer. This was done by making the plungers in the air engine from thin plates of metal. This was to improve airflow and offer better heating and cooling of the engine. Although this idea received a patent, it was ultimately unsuccessful in improving the heat engine's overall efficiency. In 1840 Stirling received another patent for the heat engine after altering the design in a new attempt to increase durability. The improvements added by Stirling included the addition of rods or plates in the passage through which hot air travelled to the cold section of the engine. By having these surfaces, the air was able to be cooled to a lower temperature when travelling from the hot section of the engine to the cold section of the engine. Additionally, Stirling added cupped leather collars around the piston rods to seal gaps and minimize the leakage of air from the engine. After developing these improvements, Stirling built two of these heat engines to use at an iron foundry he managed in Dundee. One of these air engines was started in March 1843 where it ran until December 1845 when an air vessel failed. The air vessel failure could be attributed to the metals being unable to withstand the high temperatures at which the engine was running. After replacing the air vessel a couple times, the air engine was dismantled in 1847 after Stirling left the Dundee iron foundry. In 1876 Robert Stirling wrote a letter acknowledging the importance of Henry Bessemer's new invention, the Bessemer process for the manufacture of steel. Stirling was optimistic that the new steel would improve the performance of the air engines. Robert Stirling's development of the hot air engine was in part motivated by safety. His engine was designed to fail far less catastrophically than the steam engines of the time while obtaining greater efficiency. Though the Stirling engine is rarely used today, its seemingly perpetual motion capability continues to draw the interest of research institutions like Los Alamos National Laboratory and NASA. Personal life and death On 10 July 1819, Stirling married Jane Rankine at Kilmarnock. They had seven children: Patrick Stirling, born 29 June 1820, became a locomotive engineer Jane Stirling, born 25 September 1821, housewife William Stirling born 14 November 1822, became a civil engineer and railway engineer in South America Robert Stirling, born 16 December 1824, became a railway engineer in Peru. David Stirling, born 12 October 1828, became the Minister of Craigie, Ayrshire James Stirling, born 2 October 1835, became a locomotive engineer Agnes Stirling, born 22 July 1838, became an artist Rev. Robert Stirling died in Galston, East Ayrshire on 6 June 1878. He is buried in Galston Cemetery where a new gravestone was erected in December 2014 by public subscription replacing the original stone which was in a ruined state. It was rededicated on Sunday 3 May 2015. Honors On 11 January 1840, Stirling was awarded the title Doctor of Divinity by the University of St. Andrews for his excellence in ministry. On 3 October 2014 Stirling was inducted into the Scottish Engineering Hall of Fame. See also Stirling cycle Stirling engine Applications of the Stirling engine References 1790 births 1878 deaths People from Perth and Kinross 19th-century Ministers of the Church of Scotland Scottish inventors Scottish engineers Alumni of the University of Edinburgh Alumni of the University of Glasgow Scottish Engineering Hall of Fame inductees	[ -0.03475875034928322, 0.4341442883014679, -0.1572994887828827, -0.45650118589401245, 0.2445608228445053, 1.0356742143630981, 1.0335201025009155, -0.44499239325523376, -0.07269707322120667, -0.4071754813194275, -0.20799733698368073, 0.0588512159883976, -0.5070708394050598, 0.7867431640625, -0.13644631206989288, 0.4820026159286499, -0.01303431298583746, -0.41849279403686523, -0.38139981031417847, 0.10663877427577972, -0.44417110085487366, -0.13446655869483948, 0.6474465131759644, 0.3849741816520691, -0.055774517357349396, -0.11190186440944672, 0.4672129452228546, 0.02562943659722805, 0.19853390753269196, -0.2276175320148468, 0.24576254189014435, 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229179	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Municipalities%20of%20Finland	Municipalities of Finland	The municipalities (; ) represent the local level of administration in Finland and act as the fundamental, self-governing administrative units of the country. The entire country is incorporated into municipalities and legally, all municipalities are equal, although certain municipalities are called cities or towns (; ). Municipalities have the right to levy a flat percentual income tax, which is between 16 and 22 percent, and they provide two thirds of public services. Municipalities control many community services, such as schools, health care and the water supply, and local streets. They do not maintain highways, set laws or keep police forces, which are responsibilities of the central government. Government Municipalities have council-manager government: they are governed by an elected council (, ), which is legally autonomous and answers only to the voters. The size of the council is proportional to the population, the extremes being 9 in Sottunga and 85 in Helsinki. A subsection of the council, the municipal executive board (kunnanhallitus), controls the municipal government and monitors the implementation of decisions of the council. Its decisions must be approved by the council. Unlike national cabinets, its composition is derived from the composition of the council, not along government-opposition lines. Furthermore, individual decisions are prepared in specialized municipal boards (lautakunta) for a council meeting, which include, for example, zoning, social assistance, and education boards. Council, executive board, and municipal board memberships are elected positions of responsibility, not full-time jobs. Remuneration depends on the municipality and position, but is generally nominal or modest: a regular council member is paid 70 euro on average on a per-meeting basis (2017). Municipal managers (, for cities, , for other municipalities) are civil servants named by the council. The city manager of Helsinki is called / "Lord Mayor" for historical reasons. There were previously no mayors in Finland, but after a change in law, Tampere was first city to elect a mayor ( / ) in 2007. The mayor is not, however, currently elected directly, but by the municipal council. The mayor acts as municipal manager and as a speaker of municipal council. Although municipalities do not have police or legislative powers, local ordinances concerning traffic can be set, and municipal parking inspectors can give parking tickets. Municipalities are legal persons and can appear in an administrative court. Likewise, the state of Finland is a separate legal person. Excluding judicial review of formal compliance to administrative law, municipalities are independent and not a part of a local state hierarchy. Municipalities cooperate in regions of Finland. State agencies have jurisdictions spanning one or more regions: each region is served by an ely-keskus (elinkeino-, liikenne- ja ympäristökeskus) on matters of employment, the economy, transport and environment, while law and environmental enforcement is handled by the local aluehallintovirasto, governing multi-region jurisdictions termed alue.-G.H- Taxation and revenue Residents pay a municipal tax that is a form of income tax, which is the mainstay of the income of a municipality (42% of income). Municipal tax is nominally a flat tax that is levied from a broader population (including lower income levels) than progressive state income tax, which is collected only from medium to high income earners. However, in practice even the municipal tax is progressive due to generous deductions granted to the lowest income levels. The pre-deduction base tax varies from 16% in affluent Kauniainen to 20% or more in a number of small rural municipalities. Next to the municipal tax, municipalities receive funding from the state budget (, 19% of income). This funding is means-tested to municipality wealth and serves to balance the differences in municipal tax revenue. Besides taxes, sales revenue, fees and profit of operations also form a substantial share of municipal income (21%). Additionally, municipalities levy a property tax, amounting to 3.6% of income, which is comparatively low: the annual fee is 0.32-0.75% of net present value for permanent residences and 0.50-1.00% for leisure properties like summer cottages as well as undeveloped plots. This is always paid by the owner, never a tenant directly, unlike the council tax. Municipalities receive a share of corporate tax revenue () from companies having a place of business in the municipality (3.8% of income). Some municipal functions receive direct funding both from the municipality and the state, e.g. AMK vocational colleges. Tasks and services Finland has an extensive welfare state, and municipalities are responsible for much of the services to that end. Tasks of the municipalities are as follows: Healthcare Preventative, basic and specialized healthcare Dental healthcare Social services Children's daycare Elderly care Disabled care Social welfare service Subsistency security Child protection Education (see Education in Finland) and culture Peruskoulu (primary education, grades 1–9) Lukio (gymnasiums) Ammattioppilaitos (secondary vocational schools) Ammattikorkeakoulu (tertiary vocational schools) Kansanopisto (folk high school) Public libraries Youth centres Public exercise facilities (public tracks, etc.) Infrastructure and land use Zoning Public transport Maintenance of local streets Water Energy Waste collection Environment Economic development Promotion of the local economy and employment Law enforcement Food safety inspection Animal welfare inspection Environmental protection inspection Parking enforcement Public transport payment enforcement Although municipalities are responsible for their own finances, there is much highly specific legislation and regulation that requires the services to be provided up to a standard. Thus, although municipalities have the power to voluntarily spend tax-generated income, they are required to first allocate funds to legally prescribed services. Municipalities may provide some of these services through corporations that they own or from private companies that they regulate. For example, Helsinki Regional Transport Authority (HSL) provides public transport services in the capital area. Statistics , there are 310 municipalities in Finland, of which 107 are cities or towns (kaupunki). Sixteen municipalities are unilingually Swedish (all in the autonomous Åland region), while 33 are bilingual: 15 with Swedish as the majority language (all but four in Ostrobothnia) and 18 with Finnish as the majority language (all but five in Uusimaa region). Four municipalities in northern Lapland (Utsjoki, Inari, Sodankylä and Enontekiö) have one or all of the three Sami languages spoken in Finland as an official language. Finnish municipalities can choose to be called either kaupunki (city or town) or kunta (small town or rural municipality). Although the Finnish Environment Institute classifies urban settlements with over 15,000 inhabitants as kaupunki, municipalities can name themselves kaupunki with fewer inhabitants. There are inhabitants in Nurmijärvi, the largest kunta in Finland, and inhabitants in Kaskinen, the smallest kaupunki, so the kunta–kaupunki categorisation mainly concerns the name of the municipality. The areas of the municipalities vary, as the population is the primary criterion for forming a municipality. The largest municipalities in size are found in Lapland, of which the largest is Inari at (130 km square). The smallest municipalities are very small towns. Kaskinen is an independent town with a land area of only . Kauniainen, which was originally a corporation in Espoo, is only . History Municipalities were originally parishes. The old word for a municipality is , 'keeper', because when the system was instituted, one municipality kept one minister. Municipalities were divided into villages, which consisted of individual properties. Borders between properties and thus municipalities were defined by oral agreements passed down from generation to generation; usually along straight lines between defined markers such as boulders. Medieval documentation survives only from legal disputes concerning borders. In the 18th century, King Gustaf III implemented the Great Partition, where common lands were redistributed into larger properties, and claimed all unclaimed land to the crown. Thus, there is no "leftover" land outside the jurisdiction of municipalities, as all land belongs to either to a private property or to the government. The secular government divided the properties to taxable units (villages and secular municipalities) according to its own convenience, which were not necessarily convergent with parishes. Furthermore, cities were chartered separately. Up to 1734, the law was different in cities than in rural municipalities. In 1865, the modern municipalities were established as secular entities separate from the parishes. The reform was inspired by the Swedish municipal reforms of 1862. Up to 1964, cities financed their own police and registry services. Until 1977 municipalities were divided into cities (, ), market towns (, ) and rural municipalities (, ). The market town category was abolished and these were renamed as cities. The rest of the municipalities were classified as 'other municipalities'. All municipalities called maalaiskunta were eventually either merged to their parent cities or changed their names. From 1995 onwards only 'municipality' is recognized by law and any municipality is allowed to call itself a city. Identification and heraldry Not all municipalities have an obvious urban center; indeed, rural municipalities are often composed of distributed rural villages. Although the church village (kirkonkylä, abbreviated kk) is the historical center, the largest or administrative center may be in another village. For example, Askola has a church village (Askolan kirkonkylä), but its administrative center is in Monninkylä. Often, the church village has the same name as the municipality, as with Askola. However, this is not necessarily so, e.g. Enontekiö is governed from Hetta; these villages are often erroneously labeled in maps. This is expected as the name of the municipality refers to the entire parish, not just a single center like a church village. Villages have no administrative role, although some have voluntary village associations (kyläyhdistys) and other non-governmental public life. Although related, urban areas in Finland (taajama) are not local administrative units. A catalog is independently compiled each year by Statistics Finland, a state agency, and used primarily for traffic-related purposes (signage, speed limits, and highway planning). There are 745 officially recognized urban areas in Finland, 49 of which have more than 10,000 inhabitants and six more than 100,000. Each municipality has a distinct coat of arms. They are posted on the municipal borders and shown in official documents representing the municipality. The coats of arms for many municipalities have been designed in the modern era, many of them by Gustaf von Numers. In addition, municipalities like Vantaa since 2015 and Helsinki since 2017 have a logo distinct from their coat of arms. Capital region Distinctively, the capital area, or Greater Helsinki, has no special arrangements. The area consists of four entirely independent cities that form a continuous conurbation. Greater Helsinki has grown in population and area relatively quickly: the nearby municipalities, considered rural only 50 years ago, have become suburbs, and the growth is projected to continue. A state-imposed merger of Helsinki and a part of Sipoo, a rural, 40% Swedish-speaking municipality adjacent to Greater Helsinki, was recently approved by the government, counter to the opinion of the Sipoo municipal council. This area will effectively become a new (and Finnish-speaking) suburb with multiple times the inhabitants than there are in Sipoo. Mergers and reform There is currently a heated political debate in Finland about reforming the municipality system. Essentially, a multitude of small municipalities is seen as detrimental to the provision of public services, having originated during Finland's agrarian years. As a result, there have been suggestions of state-imposed mergers. A committee led by the former Minister for Regional and Municipal Affairs, Hannes Manninen, suggested creating a two-tier system of municipalities with different powers, while the Association of Finnish Local and Regional Authorities () favoured a system where municipalities would be units of at least 20,000–30,000 inhabitants, cf. the current median at 4,700. The motion was inspired by a similar reform in Denmark (see Municipalities of Denmark). The former government (Vanhanen II), however, planned to not impose mergers. Recently, many voluntary mergers have been agreed on. Ten mergers were completed in 2005, one in 2006, 14 in 2007 and one in 2008. In 2009, there were even more, many of which consolidated more than two municipalities. Several cities merged with surrounding rural municipalities in Hämeenlinna, Salo, Kouvola, Seinäjoki, Naantali, Kauhava, Lohja, Raseborg, Jyväskylä and Oulu in 2009. In total, there were 32 mergers, involving 99 municipalities, that reduced the number of municipalities by 67. The year 2009 also marked the end of the last maalaiskunta, a municipality surrounding a city but sharing the name, in Jyväskylä. There were four mergers in 2010, six in 2011, ten in 2013, three in 2015, four in 2016, two in 2017, one in 2020 and one in 2021. In the period 2005–2021, the number of municipalities was voluntarily reduced from 444 to 309. In 2012, Katainen's government published an extensive plan aiming at merging municipalities to reach a target of population 20,000 per municipality. Commuter belts have also been proposed as a target by a government committee, such that municipalities where more than 35% of workforce commutes would be subject to a merger. The Sipilä cabinet, from 2015, has been preparing a significant reform of health and social services (sote-uudistus), aimed at increasing choice between municipal and private healthcare, and assigning some healthcare responsibilities into larger units than a municipality. Municipalities by regions Municipalities of Central Finland Municipalities of Finland Proper Municipalities of Kainuu Municipalities of Kymenlaakso Municipalities of Lapland Municipalities of North Karelia Municipalities of South Karelia Municipalities of Ostrobothnia Municipalities of Central Ostrobothnia Municipalities of Northern Ostrobothnia Municipalities of Southern Ostrobothnia Municipalities of Pirkanmaa Municipalities of Satakunta Municipalities of Northern Savonia Municipalities of Southern Savonia Municipalities of Tavastia Proper Municipalities of Päijänne Tavastia Municipalities of Uusimaa Municipalities of Åland Map See also List of Finnish municipalities List of cities and towns in Finland List of former municipalities of Finland References External links Finland, Municipalities of Subdivisions of Finland Municipalities Finland 3 Municipalities, Finland Lists of populated places in Finland	[ 0.6604495048522949, 0.27910253405570984, 0.03460124135017395, 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229180	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Domain%20of%20discourse	Domain of discourse	In the formal sciences, the domain of discourse, also called the universe of discourse, universal set, or simply universe, is the set of entities over which certain variables of interest in some formal treatment may range. Overview The domain of discourse is usually identified in the preliminaries, so that there is no need in the further treatment to specify each time the range of the relevant variables. Many logicians distinguish, sometimes only tacitly, between the domain of a science and the universe of discourse of a formalization of the science. Examples For example, in an interpretation of first-order logic, the domain of discourse is the set of individuals over which the quantifiers range. A proposition such as is ambiguous, if no domain of discourse has been identified. In one interpretation, the domain of discourse could be the set of real numbers; in another interpretation, it could be the set of natural numbers. If the domain of discourse is the set of real numbers, the proposition is false, with as counterexample; if the domain is the set of natural numbers, the proposition is true, since 2 is not the square of any natural number. Universe of discourse The term "universe of discourse" generally refers to the collection of objects being discussed in a specific discourse. In model-theoretical semantics, a universe of discourse is the set of entities that a model is based on. The concept universe of discourse is generally attributed to Augustus De Morgan (1846) but the name was used for the first time by George Boole (1854) on page 42 of his Laws of Thought. Boole's definition is quoted below. The concept, probably discovered independently by Boole in 1847, played a crucial role in his philosophy of logic especially in his principle of wholistic reference. Boole’s 1854 definition See also Domain of a function Domain theory Quantifier (logic) Interpretation (logic) Term algebra Universe (mathematics) References Semantics Predicate logic	[ 0.2542543113231659, 0.22480560839176178, -0.13187363743782043, 0.5073568820953369, -0.3715042769908905, 0.2101168930530548, 0.3502471148967743, 0.6100372672080994, -0.2589592933654785, -0.601835310459137, -0.7297779321670532, 0.6475446820259094, -0.14301812648773193, 0.6134892702102661, 0.6635704636573792, 0.359308123588562, 0.46868962049484253, 0.10826537758111954, 0.2459503412246704, -0.07577955722808838, -0.4003751277923584, 0.07707996666431427, -0.049462899565696716, -0.7455280423164368, 0.5208331942558289, -0.396841436624527, 0.14862991869449615, 0.6986883282661438, -0.14095398783683777, -0.08597954362630844, -0.031066879630088806, 0.4562179446220398, -0.31594088673591614, 0.1665802001953125, -0.18662132322788239, -0.08049176633358002, 0.06253025680780411, 0.15954263508319855, -0.14832718670368195, 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229181	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Green%20Park	Green Park	The Green Park, usually known without the definite article simply as Green Park, is one of the Royal Parks of London. It is in the southern part – the core part – of the City of Westminster, Central London, but before that zone was extended to the north, to take in Marylebone and Paddington it lay in its north-centre. It is north of the gardens and the semi-circular forecourt of Buckingham Palace. First enclosed in the 16th century, it was landscaped in 1820 and is notable among central London parks for having no lakes or buildings, and only minimal flower planting in the form of naturalised narcissus. Description and surroundings Green Park covers just over between Hyde Park and St. James's Park. Together with Kensington Gardens and the gardens of Buckingham Palace, these parks form an almost unbroken stretch of tended green land. This combined parkland is mostly bounded on the four cardinal compass points by Horse Guards Parade or adjoining Downing Street (east); the Victoria/Belgravia district (south); Kensington and Notting Hill (west) and St James's, Mayfair and Bayswater (north). In contrast with its neighbouring parks, Green Park has no lakes, no buildings, no playgrounds and three, early yet distinctive post-war-era public monuments: The Canada Memorial by Pierre Granche The Diana of the Treetops Fountain by Estcourt J Clack, by the park's eponymous tube station The RAF Bomber Command Memorial by Philip Jackson in a hardscaped road apex (sometimes considered Hyde Park Corner, facing it). The park consists almost entirely of mature trees rising out of turf; the only flowers are naturalised narcissus. The park is bounded on the south by Constitution Hill, on the east by the pedestrian Queen's Walk, and on the north by Piccadilly. It meets St. James's Park at Queen's Gardens with the Victoria Memorial at its centre, opposite the entrance to Buckingham Palace. To the south is the ceremonial avenue of the Mall, and the buildings of St James's Palace and Clarence House overlook the park to the east. Green Park Underground station has platforms of the Piccadilly, Victoria and Jubilee lines. It is by the north end of Queen's Walk. Tyburn stream runs beneath Green Park. In 2016 one acre of the park near the Bomber Command Memorial was designated as the 90th Coronation Meadow, named The Queen's Meadow, and established as a wildflower meadow using seed taken from ancient meadows at Horsenden Meadow in Ealing, and Valebridge Common in West Sussex. In 2017 a wide range of flowers were reported such as yellow rattle and common poppy. History The park is said to have in been for many medieval years a swampy burial ground for lepers from the hospital at St James's on its north side. It was first enclosed in the 16th century to be part of the estate of Poulteney family. It was then, as probably earlier too, partly excavated for the sand for the mortar for brickwork and stone building elements. In 1668, this part of "the Poulteney estate", the "Sandpit Field", was surrendered to Charles II, who made the bulk of the land into a Royal Park as "Upper St James's Park" and enclosed it with a brick wall. He laid out its main walks and built an icehouse to supply the household with ice for cooling drinks in summer. In 1746, Upper St. James's Park was officially renamed The Green Park. The park was an open meadow with few flowers at the time but this state may arise from a feud between Charles II and his Queen Consort, Catherine of Braganza. The oral history says the Queen discovered Charles had picked flowers in the park for another woman. In revenge, the Queen ordered that every single flower in the park should be pulled up and no more planted. The Queen's Walk was laid out for George II's queen Caroline; it led to the reservoir that held drinking water for St James's Palace, called the Queen's Basin. Until a few decades later the park was on the outskirts of London; it was dark and somewhat semi-rural. It was known as a haunt of highwaymen and thieves. Prime Minister Robert Walpole was one of many to be robbed there. During the 18th and 19th centuries, it was a popular place for ballooning attempts and public firework displays; Handel's Music for the Royal Fireworks was composed specifically for a fireworks celebration held in The Green Park in 1749. The park was also known as a duelling ground; one particularly notorious one being in 1730 between William Pulteney, 1st Earl of Bath and John Hervey, 1st Earl of Bristol. In 1820, John Nash landscaped the park, as an adjunct to St James's Park. On 10 June 1840, it was the scene of Edward Oxford's assassination attempt on Queen Victoria, on Constitution Hill. 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229182	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shooting%20at%20the%201900%20Summer%20Olympics	Shooting at the 1900 Summer Olympics	At the 1900 Summer Olympics in Paris, many shooting events were featured within the concurrent 1900 Exposition Universelle, but only eight events currently are considered as "Olympic" by IOC. Before July 2021 the International Olympic Committee has never decided which events were "Olympic" and which were not. The competitions were held from 3 August to 5 August and took place at the military sporting complex in Satory and at Boulogne-Billancourt. According to Olympic historian Bill Mallon, one of these nine shooting events (20 metre military pistol) was an event for professionals with prize money and therefore does not meet inclusion criteria for 1900 Olympic Games events. Medal summary Event that currently is not considered as "Olympic" by IOC. Excluded events Competitors in these events had to kill as many live pigeons as possible. Birds were released one at a time from 'traps' in front of the shooters; winners were determined by whoever shot the most birds out of the sky. A shooter was eliminated once they missed two birds. Nearly 300 birds were killed. A prize purse of up to 20,000 Francs was awarded to the winners, though the top four finishers agreed to split the winnings. This was the first and only time in Olympic history when animals were killed on purpose. Animal rights campaigns were mounted to stop live shooting; in 1902 bans came into force in the United States leading to the introduction of clay pigeons. The following results are not included in the IOC Olympic results list: Live pigeon shooting - 20 franc entrance fee Live pigeon shooting - 200 franc entrance fee Running game target Participating nations A total of 72 shooters from 8 nations competed at the Paris Games: Medal table 20 metre military pistol event was an event for professionals with prize money. All three medals in this event were won by the French. It is not included in the IOC website's list of medal results and is not included in the table below. References Bibliography International Olympic Committee medal winners database Retrieved 2 March 2006. 1900 Summer Olympics events 1900 Olympics Shooting competitions in France	[ 0.14252126216888428, 0.25013306736946106, -0.8007316589355469, 0.5421772599220276, -0.4570170044898987, -0.29690513014793396, 0.51656574010849, -0.40896084904670715, -0.9991270899772644, -0.4214029014110565, 0.4575917720794678, 0.02374402806162834, -0.3260948061943054, 0.0032273498363792896, -0.02387697622179985, 0.3054502606391907, 0.5085539817810059, -0.27806052565574646, 0.33947721123695374, 0.09391220659017563, -0.2714109718799591, -0.060627758502960205, 0.2570357322692871, 0.20811568200588226, -0.5766428709030151, 0.09084181487560272, 0.9155150651931763, 0.21964415907859802, 0.30786633491516113, -0.27497729659080505, 0.05947020277380943, 0.018216421827673912, -0.28753095865249634, -0.13771981000900269, -0.46421822905540466, -0.6475134491920471, -0.28094229102134705, 0.030094189569354057, 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229183	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Piccadilly	Piccadilly	Piccadilly () is a road in the City of Westminster, London, to the south of Mayfair, between Hyde Park Corner in the west and Piccadilly Circus in the east. It is part of the A4 road that connects central London to Hammersmith, Earl's Court, Heathrow Airport and the M4 motorway westward. St James's is to the south of the eastern section, while the western section is built up only on the northern side. Piccadilly is just under in length, and it is one of the widest and straightest streets in central London. The street has been a main thoroughfare since at least medieval times, and in the Middle Ages was known as "the road to Reading" or "the way from Colnbrook". Around 1611 or 1612, a Robert Baker acquired land in the area, and prospered by making and selling piccadills. Shortly after purchasing the land, he enclosed it and erected several dwellings, including his home, Pikadilly Hall. What is now Piccadilly was named Portugal Street in 1663 after Catherine of Braganza, wife of Charles II, and grew in importance after the road from Charing Cross to Hyde Park Corner was closed to allow the creation of Green Park in 1668. Some of the most notable stately homes in London were built on the northern side of the street during this period, including Clarendon House and Burlington House in 1664. Berkeley House, constructed around the same time as Clarendon House, was destroyed by a fire in 1733 and rebuilt as Devonshire House in 1737 by William Cavendish, 3rd Duke of Devonshire. It was later used as the main headquarters for the Whig party. Burlington House has since been home to several noted societies, including the Royal Academy of Arts, the Geological Society of London, the Linnean Society, and the Royal Astronomical Society. Several members of the Rothschild family had mansions at the western end of the street. St James's Church was consecrated in 1684 and the surrounding area became St James Parish. The Old White Horse Cellar, at No. 155, was one of the most famous coaching inns in England by the late 18th century, by which time the street had become a favoured location for booksellers. The Bath Hotel emerged around 1790, and Walsingham House was built in 1887. Both the Bath and the Walsingham were purchased and demolished, and the prestigious Ritz Hotel built on their site in 1906. Piccadilly Circus station, at the east end of the street, was opened in 1906 and rebuilt to designs by Charles Holden between 1925 and 1928. The clothing store Simpson's was established at Nos. 203–206 Piccadilly by Alec Simpson in 1936. During the 20th century, Piccadilly became known as a place to acquire heroin, and was notorious in the 1960s as the centre of London's illegal drug trade. Today, it is regarded as one of London's principal shopping streets. Its landmarks include the Ritz, Park Lane, Athenaeum and Intercontinental hotels, Fortnum & Mason, the Royal Academy, the RAF Club, Hatchards, the Embassy of Japan and the High Commission of Malta. Piccadilly has inspired several works of fiction, including Oscar Wilde's The Importance of Being Earnest and the work of P. G. Wodehouse. It is one of a group of squares on the London Monopoly board. History Early history The street has been part of a main road for centuries, although there is no evidence that it was part of a Roman road, unlike Oxford Street further north. In the Middle Ages it was known as "the road to Reading" or "the way from Colnbrook". During the Tudor period, relatively settled conditions made expansion beyond London's city walls a safer venture. Property speculation became a lucrative enterprise, and developments grew so rapidly that the threat of disease and disorder prompted the government to ban developments. Owing to the momentum of growth, the laws had little real effect. A plot of land bounded by Coventry, Sherwood, Glasshouse and Rupert streets and the line of Smith's Court was granted by Elizabeth I to William Dodington, a gentleman of London, in 1559–60. A year or so later it was owned by a brewer, Thomas Wilson of St Botolph-without-Aldgate. The grant did not include a small parcel of land, acres in area, on the east of what is now Great Windmill Street. That plot may have never belonged to the Crown, and was owned by Anthony Cotton in the reign of Henry VIII. John Cotton granted it to John Golightly in 1547, and his descendants sold it to a tailor, Robert Baker, in 1611–12. Six or seven years later, Baker bought 22 acres of Wilson's land, thanks largely to money from his second marriage. Baker became financially successful by making and selling fashionable piccadills. Shortly after purchasing the land, he enclosed it (the parishioners had Lammas grazing rights) and erected several dwellings, including a residence and shop for himself; within two years his house was known as Pickadilly Hall. A map published by Faithorne in 1658 describes the street as "the way from Knightsbridge to Piccadilly Hall". A nearby gaming house, known as Shaver's Hall and nicknamed "Tart Hall" or "Pickadell Hall", was popular with the gentry of London. Lord Dell lost £3,000 gambling at cards there in 1641. After Robert Baker's death in 1623 and the death of his eldest son Samuel shortly afterward, his widow and her father purchased the wardship of their surviving children; the death of the next eldest son, Robert, in 1630, allowed them to effectively control the estate. Their only daughter died, and her widower Sir Henry Oxenden retained an interest in the land. Several relatives claimed it, but after Mary Baker's death in about 1665, the estate reverted to the Crown. A great-nephew, John Baker, obtained possession of part of it, but squabbled over the lands with his cousin, James Baker; trying to play one another off, they paid or granted rights to Oxenden and a speculator, Colonel Thomas Panton, eventually losing out to them. By the 1670s, Panton was developing the lands; despite the claims of some distantly-related Bakers, he steadily built them up. Later 17th century Piccadilly was named Portugal Street in 1663 after Catherine of Braganza, wife of Charles II. Its importance to traffic increased after an earlier road from Charing Cross to Hyde Park Corner was closed to allow the creation of Green Park in 1668. After the restoration of the English monarchy in 1660, Charles II encouraged the development of Portugal Street and the area to the north (Mayfair), and they became fashionable residential localities. Some of the grandest mansions in London were built on the northern side of the street. Edward Hyde, 1st Earl of Clarendon and close political adviser to the king, purchased land for a house; Clarendon House (now the location of Albemarle Street) was built in 1664, and the earl sold the surplus land partly to Sir John Denham, who built what later became Burlington House. Denham chose the location because it was on the outskirts of London surrounded by fields. The house was first used to house the poor, before being reconstructed by the third Earl of Burlington in 1718. Berkeley House was constructed around the same time as Clarendon House. It was destroyed by a fire in 1733, and rebuilt as Devonshire House in 1737 by William Cavendish, 3rd Duke of Devonshire, and was subsequently used as the headquarters for the Whig party. Devonshire House survived until 1921, before being sold for redevelopment by Edward Cavendish, 10th Duke of Devonshire for £1 million. Burlington House has since been home to the Royal Academy of Arts, the Geological Society of London, the Linnean Society of London, the Royal Astronomical Society, the British Astronomical Association, the Society of Antiquaries of London and the Royal Society of Chemistry. The land to the south of Piccadilly was leased to trustees of the Earl of St Albans in 1661 for a thirty-year term, subsequently extended to 1740. Nos. 162–165 were granted freehold by the king to Sir Edward Villiers in 1674. The White Bear Inn had been established between what is now No. 221 Piccadilly and the parallel Jermyn Street since 1685. It remained in use throughout the 18th century before being demolished in 1870 to make way for a restaurant. St James's Church was first proposed in 1664, when residents wanted the area to become a separate parish from St Martin in the Fields. After several Bill readings, construction began in 1676. The building was designed by Christopher Wren and cost around £5,000. It was consecrated in 1684, when the surrounding area became St James Parish. By 1680, most of the original residential properties along Portugal Street had been demolished or built over. The name Piccadilly was applied to part of the street east of Swallow Street by 1673, and eventually became the de facto name for the entire length of Portugal Street. A plan of the area around St James Parish in 1720 describes the road as "Portugal Street aka Piccadilly". John Rocque's Map of London, published in 1746, refers to the entire street as Piccadilly. 18th–19th centuries Piccadilly was increasingly developed, and by the middle of the 18th century it was continuously built on as far as Hyde Park Corner. The development of St James's and Mayfair, in particular, made Piccadilly one of the busiest roads in London. Hugh Mason and William Fortnum started the Fortnum & Mason partnership on Piccadilly in 1705, selling recycled candles from Buckingham Palace. By 1788, the store sold poultry, potted meats, lobsters and prawns, savoury patties, Scotch eggs, and fresh and dried fruits. The street acquired a reputation for numerous inns and bars during this period. The Old White Horse Cellar, at No. 155, was one of the most famous coaching inns in England but was later destroyed. The Black Bear and White Bear (originally the Fleece) public houses were nearly opposite each other, although the former was demolished in about 1820. Also of note were the Hercules' Pillars, just west of Hamilton Place, the Triumphant Car, which was popular with soldiers, and the White Horse and Half Moon. The Bath Hotel emerged around 1790 and Walsingham House was built in 1887. The Bath and the Walsingham were demolished when the Ritz Hotel opened on the site in 1906. No. 106, on the corner of Piccadilly and Brick Street, was built for Hugh Hunlock in 1761. It was subsequently owned by the 6th Earl of Coventry who remodelled it around 1765; most of the architecture from this renovation has survived. In 1869, it became home to the St James's Club, a gentleman's club that remained there until 1978. The building is now the London campus of the Limkokwing University of Creative Technology. Several members of the Rothschild family had mansions at the western end of the street. Nathan Mayer Rothschild moved his banking premises to No. 107 in 1825, and the construction of other large buildings, complete with ballrooms and marble staircases, led to the street being colloquially referred to as Rothschild Row. Ferdinand James von Rothschild lived at No. 143 with his wife Evelina while Lionel de Rothschild lived at No. 148. Melbourne House was designed by William Chambers for Peniston Lamb, 1st Viscount Melbourne and built between 1770 and 1774. It was converted to apartments in 1802, and is now the Albany. The house has been the residence for the British Prime Ministers William Ewart Gladstone and Edward Heath. St James's Hall was designed by Owen Jones and built between 1857 and 1858. Charles Dickens gave several readings of his novels in the hall, including Great Expectations and Oliver Twist. The hall hosted performances from Antonín Dvořák, Edvard Grieg and Pyotr Ilyich Tchaikovsky. It was demolished in 1905, and replaced by the Piccadilly Hotel. In the late 18th century, Piccadilly was a favoured place for booksellers. In 1765, John Almon opened a shop in No. 178, which was frequented by Lord Temple and other Whigs. John Stockdale opened a shop on No. 181 in 1781. The business continued after his death in 1810, and was run by his family until 1835. Hatchards, now the oldest surviving bookshop in Britain, was started by John Hatchard at No. 173 in 1797; it moved to the current location at No. 189-90 (now No. 187) in 1801. Aldine Press moved to Piccadilly from Chancery Lane in 1842, and remained there until 1894. The Egyptian Hall at No. 170, designed in 1812 by P. F. Robinson for W. Bullock of Liverpool, was modelled on Ancient Egyptian architecture, particularly the Great Temple of Dendera (Tentyra). One author described it as "one of the strangest places Piccadilly ever knew". It was a venue for exhibitions by the Society of Painters in Water Colours and the Society of Female Artists during the 19th century. It contained numerous Egyptian antiquaries; at an auction in June 1822, two "imperfect" Sekhmet statues were sold for £380, and a flawless one went for £300. The premises at 190–195, built in 1881–1883, housing the Royal Institute of Painters in Water Colours and known as the "Royal Institute Galleries", are grade II listed. Number 195 is now home to BAFTA, 20th–21st centuries By the 1920s, most old buildings on the street had been demolished or were in institutional use; traffic noise had driven away residents, but a few residential properties remained. Albert, Duke of York lived at No. 145 at the time of his accession as King George VI in 1936. The clothing store Simpson's was established at 203 - 206 Piccadilly by Alec Simpson in 1936, providing factory-made men's clothing. The premises were designed by the architect Joseph Amberton in a style that mixed art deco and Bauhaus school design and an influence from Louis Sullivan. On opening, it claimed to be the largest menswear store in London. It closed in January 1999; its premises are currently the flagship shop of the booksellers Waterstones. During the 20th century, Piccadilly became known as a place to acquire heroin. Jazz trumpeter Dizzy Reece recalled people queuing outside Piccadilly's branch of Boots for heroin pills in the late 1940s. By the 1960s, the street and surrounding area were notorious as the centre of London's illegal drug trade, where heroin and cocaine could be purchased on the black market from unscrupulous chemists. By 1982, up to 20 people could be seen queueing at a chemist dealing in illegal drugs in nearby Shaftesbury Avenue. No. 144 was occupied by squatters in 1968, taking advantage of a law that allowed disused buildings to be used for emergency shelter for the homeless. The radical squatting movement that resulted foundered soon afterward, owing to the rise of drug dealers and Hells Angels occupying the site. An eviction took place on 21 September 1969; the events resulted in the licensing of squatting organisations that could take over empty premises to use as homeless shelters. In 1983, A. Burr of the British Journal of Addiction published an article on "The Piccadilly Drug Scene", in which the author discussed the regular presence of known dealers and easy accessibility of drugs. Today, Piccadilly is regarded as one of London's principal shopping streets, hosting several famous shops. The Ritz Hotel, Park Lane Hotel, Athenaeum Hotel and Intercontinental Hotel are located on the street, along with other luxury hotels and offices. During the 20th century, it had been an established area for gentlemen's clubs; this usage has sharply declined, and only the Cavalry and Guards Club and the Royal Air Force Club remain. Transport Piccadilly is a major thoroughfare in the West End of London and has several major road junctions. To the east, Piccadilly Circus opened in 1819 connecting it to Regent Street. It has become one of the most recognised landmarks in London, particularly after a statue of Eros was constructed on the junction in 1893, and the erection of large electric billboards in 1923. At the western end of Piccadilly is Hyde Park Corner, and the street has a major road junction with St James's Street and other significant junctions at Albemarle Street, Bond Street and Dover Street. The road is part of the A4 connecting central London to Hammersmith, Earl's Court, Heathrow Airport and the M4 motorway. Congestion along the road has been reported since the mid-19th century, leading to its progressive widening and removing the northern portions of Green Park. Traffic signals were installed in the 1930s. In the late 1950s, the Ministry of Transport remodelled Hyde Park Corner at the western end to form a major traffic gyratory system, including enlargement of Park Lane. It opened on 17 October 1962 at a cost of £5 million. The London bus routes 9, 14, 19, 22, 38, N9, N19, N22, N38 and N97 all run along Piccadilly. In 1972, a westbound bus lane was introduced between Piccadilly Circus and St James's Street. In November 1976 an eastbound bus lane was introduced between Old Park Lane and Berkeley Street. Part of the Piccadilly line on the London Underground travels under the street. Green Park, Hyde Park Corner, and Piccadilly Circus stations (which are all on the Piccadilly line) have entrances in or near Piccadilly. Down Street station also served the western end of the street from 1907 until it closed in 1932 because of low usage. Cultural references The music hall song "It's a Long Way to Tipperary" mentions Piccadilly and Leicester Square in its lyrics. It was written in 1912 about an Irishman living in London, but became popular after being adopted by the mostly Irish Connaught Rangers during World War I. The street is mentioned in Gilbert and Sullivan's 1881 operetta Patience, in the lyrics of the song "If You're Anxious For To Shine". One of the major hit songs of the Edwardian musical play The Arcadians (1909) which enjoyed long runs in the West End of London and on New York's Broadway is "All down Piccadilly" (Simplicitas and Chorus, Act III, revised version), with music by Lionel Monckton who also co-wrote the words with Arthur Wimperis. Piccadilly is mentioned in several works of fiction. E. W. Hornung's "gentleman thief" Raffles lives at the Albany, as does Jack Worthing from Oscar Wilde's The Importance of Being Earnest. According to author Mary C King, Wilde chose the street because of its resemblance to the Spanish word peccadillo, meaning "slashed" or "pierced". In Evelyn Waugh's novel Brideshead Revisited, the mansion Marchmain House, supposedly located in a cul-de-sac off St James's near Piccadilly, is demolished and replaced with flats. In the 1981 Granada Television dramatisation, Bridgewater House in Cleveland Row was used as the exterior of Marchmain House. In Bram Stoker's novel Dracula, Jonathan Harker is astonished to see the Count in Piccadilly, which sets off a chain of events that leads to the formation of the group of vampire hunters. Later, Dracula is confronted by the vampire hunters in his house in Piccadilly, before making his escape. In Arthur Machen's 1894 novella The Great God Pan, Helen Vaughan, the satanic villainess and offspring of Pan, lives off Piccadilly in the pseudonymous Ashley Street. Margery Allingham's fictional detective Albert Campion has a flat at 17A Bottle Street, Piccadilly, over a police station, although Bottle Street is equally fictitious. Several P.G. Wodehouse novels use the setting of Piccadilly as the playground of the rich, idle bachelor in the inter-war period of the 20th century. Notable instances are present in the characters of Bertie Wooster and his Drones Club companions in the Jeeves stories, and the character of James Crocker in the story "Piccadilly Jim". Dorothy Sayers' fictional detective Lord Peter Wimsey is described as living at 110A Piccadilly in the inter-war period. The street is a square on the British Monopoly board, forming a set with Leicester Square and Coventry Street. When a European Union version of the game was produced in 1992, Piccadilly was one of three London streets selected, along with Oxford Street and Park Lane. In 1996, Latvian singer Laima Vaikule released an album titled Ya vyshla na Pikadilli ("I Went Out on Piccadilly"). In 2019, Call of Duty: Modern Warfare featured a game level designed around the street. See also Bentley & Skinner jewellers Bomber Command Memorial British Academy of Film and Television Arts (BAFTA) Burlington Arcade Criterion Theatre Egyptian Hall Embassy of Japan Fortnum & Mason Hatchards Le Méridien Piccadilly Hotel Gloucester House, accommodating Hard Rock Cafe (their first restaurant) High Commission of Malta, London Prince's Arcade Piccadilly Arcade Piccadilly (movie) The Ritz Hotel London References Notes Citations Sources Further reading External links The Early History of Piccadilly – from the Survey of London An article from the International Herald Tribune about the closing of Simpsons, its history and place on Piccadilly The Lights of Piccadilly Mayfair Streets in the City of Westminster Shopping streets in London A4 road (England)	[ 0.27450811862945557, -0.5338859558105469, 0.5058678984642029, -0.48900511860847473, 0.07710380107164383, 0.34077221155166626, 0.40547075867652893, 0.3127100467681885, -0.06598556786775589, -0.34610307216644287, 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229184	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brimstone	Brimstone	Brimstone is an older name for sulfur. It may also refer to: Arts and entertainment Brimstone (1949 film), an American Western Brimstone (2016 film), a western thriller Brimstone (TV series), a short-lived supernatural TV series that aired in 1998–1999 "Brimstone", a second season episode of Superboy Brimstone (DC Comics), several fictional characters Brimstone (Parker novel), a 2009 Western novel by Robert B. Parker Brimstone (Preston and Child novel), a 2004 novel by Douglas Preston and Lincoln Child A character in the Daughter of Smoke and Bone book series by Laini Taylor "Brimstone", a song from the album The Valley (2019) by Whitechapel A playable character in the video game Valorant by Riot Games Geography Brimstone, Ontario, Canada, a community Brimstone Creek, New York, United States Brimstone Peak (South Shetland Islands) Brimstone Peak (Victoria Land), Antarctica Brimstone Hill, on the island of Saint Kitts - see Brimstone Hill Fortress National Park Species Brimstone canary, in the finch family Brimstone moth, a moth of the family Geometridae Gonepteryx, a genus of butterflies commonly known as the brimstones Gonepteryx rhamni, a species of Gonepteryx commonly known as the brimstone or common brimstone Other uses Brimstone (missile), a surface- or air-launched weapon system Brimstone Cup, a soccer trophy awarded to the yearly winner of the Major League Soccer rivalry between Chicago Fire FC and FC Dallas Aechmea 'Brimstone', a hybrid cultivar See also Fire and Brimstone (disambiguation)	[ -0.09886244684457779, 0.934636116027832, -0.6503722071647644, -0.2836892902851105, -0.39165499806404114, 0.004072625655680895, 0.7893756031990051, 0.2237781286239624, 0.22406402230262756, -0.10429517179727554, -0.13250890374183655, 0.1456345170736313, -0.21426132321357727, 0.8632209300994873, 0.12264449894428253, 0.3390793800354004, -0.043565671890974045, 0.8022855520248413, 0.384967565536499, -0.2534855902194977, -0.22880405187606812, 0.15620604157447815, 0.2113354206085205, -0.6068984270095825, 0.13569578528404236, -0.03458718955516815, 0.12841492891311646, -0.17455559968948364, -0.11108248680830002, -0.0009281325619667768, -0.18556787073612213, 0.6452280879020691, -0.44297927618026733, -0.4086165726184845, 0.302303284406662, 0.3601137399673462, 0.1081162691116333, -0.1066916212439537, -0.048586685210466385, -0.6359882950782776, -0.08691687881946564, 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229185	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List%20of%20Finnish%20municipalities	List of Finnish municipalities	This is a listing in alphabetical order of the 309 municipalities in Finland as of 2021. Note that there are 114 municipalities that have both a Finnish and a Swedish name. Those municipalities are listed by the name in the local majority language, with the name in the other national language provided in parenthesis. Finnish is the majority language in 99 of those 114 municipalities, while Swedish is the majority language in 15 of them. The four municipalities that are wholly or partly within the Sami native region have their names given also in the local Sami languages (Inari Sami, Skolt Sami and Northern Sami in the case of Inari; only Northern Sami in the other cases). References External links Finland Municipalities	[ 0.45567357540130615, 0.2946018576622009, -0.27344807982444763, 0.3888615369796753, -0.6361181735992432, 0.022886009886860847, 0.8064548969268799, 0.364288866519928, -0.8021993041038513, -0.3523058295249939, -0.04648776724934578, -0.17731420695781708, -0.2587452530860901, 0.46918585896492004, -0.04388118162751198, 0.3155776858329773, 0.3329509496688843, 1.099290132522583, 0.396515816450119, 0.04120637848973274, -0.26519379019737244, 0.10450895875692368, 0.44589224457740784, 0.15314020216464996, -0.14945104718208313, 0.20754000544548035, 0.7665281891822815, 0.19651901721954346, -0.5284573435783386, 0.10222304612398148, -0.2747798264026642, 1.2531696557998657, -0.21148031949996948, -0.04533430561423302, 0.42520010471343994, -0.5091082453727722, 0.3712370693683624, -0.7858797311782837, 0.3370300829410553, -0.01152156200259924, -0.6860482692718506, -0.30243080854415894, -0.12651409208774567, 0.3429587185382843, 0.19295890629291534, 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229187	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nicholas%20Breton	Nicholas Breton	Nicholas Breton (also Britton or Brittaine) (c. 1545/53 – c. 1625/6) was a poet and prose writer of the English Renaissance. Life Nicholas belonged to an old family settled at Layer Breton, Essex. His father, William Breton, a London merchant who had made a considerable fortune, died in 1559, and his widow Elizabeth (née Bacon) married the poet George Gascoigne before her sons had attained their majority. Nicholas was probably born at the "capitall mansion house" in Red Cross Street, in the parish of St Giles without Cripplegate, mentioned in his father's will. There is no official record of his residence at the university, but the diary of the Rev. Richard Madox tells us that he was at Antwerp in 1583 and was "once of Oriel College." He may have been the poet named "Mr Breton" who visited the court of James VI of Scotland in 1588 and received a gift of £160 Scots. He married Ann Sutton in 1593, and had a family. He is supposed to have died shortly after the publication of his last work, Fantastickes (1626). Breton found a patron in Mary, countess of Pembroke, and wrote much in her honour until 1601, when she seems to have withdrawn her favour. Some of the letters signed N.B. in A Poste with a Packet of Mad Letters (1603, enlarged 1637) may contain autobiographical details; the nineteenth letter of the second part contains a general complaint of many griefs, and proceeds as follows: Hath another been wounded in the warres, fared hard, lain in a cold bed many a bitter storme, and beene at many a hard banquet? all these have I; another imprisoned? so have I; another long been sicke? so have I; another plagued with an unquiet life? so have I; another indebted to his hearts griefe, and faine would pay and cannot? so am I. Works Breton was a prolific author of considerable versatility and gift, popular with his contemporaries, but forgotten by the next generation. His work consists of religious and pastoral poems, satires, and a number of miscellaneous prose tracts. His religious poems are sometimes wearisome by their excess of fluency and sweetness, but they are evidently the expression of a devout and earnest mind. His lyrics are pure and fresh, and his romances, though full of conceits, are pleasant reading, remarkably free from grossness. His praise of the Virgin and his references to Mary Magdalene have suggested that he was a Roman Catholic, but his prose writings abundantly prove that he was an ardent Anglican. Breton had little gift for satire, and his best work is to be found in his pastoral poetry. His Passionate Shepheard (1604) is full of sunshine and fresh air, and of unaffected gaiety. The third pastoral in this book—"Who can live in heart so glad / As the merrie country lad"—is well known; with some other of Breton's daintiest poems, among them the lullaby, "Come little babe, come silly soule," (This poem, however, comes from The Arbor of Amorous Devises, which is only in part Breton's work.) —it is incorporated in A. H. Bullen's Lyrics from Elizabethan Romances (1890). Breton's keen observation of country life appears also in his prose idyll, Wits Trenckrnour, "a conference betwixt a scholler and an angler," and in his Fantastickes, a series of short prose pictures of the months, the Christian festivals and the hours, which throw much light on the customs of the times. The printed editions of most of Breton's books are very rare and have great bibliographical value. His works, with the exception of some belonging to private owners, were collected by A. B. Grosart in the Chertsey Worthies Library (1879) with an elaborate introduction quoting the documents for the poet's history. Verse Breton's poetical works, the titles of which are here somewhat abbreviated, include: The Workes of a Young Wit (1577) A Floorish upon Fancie (1577) The Pilgrimage to Paradise (1592), with a prefatory letter by John Case The Countess of Penbrook's Passion (manuscript), first printed by JO Halliwell-Phillipps in 1853 Pasquil's Fooles cappe (entered at Stationers' Hall in 1600) Pasquil's Mistresse (1600) Pasquil's Passe and Passeth Not (1600) Melancholike Humours (1600) – reprinted by Scholartis Press London. 1929. Marie Magdalen's Love: a Solemne Passion of the Soules Love (1595), the first part of which, a prose treatise, is probably by another hand; the second part, a poem in six-lined stanza, is certainly by Breton A Divine Poem, including "The Ravisht Soul" and "The Blessed Weeper" (1601) An Excellent Poem, upon the Longing of a Blessed heart (1601) The Soules Heavenly Exercise (1601) The Soules Harmony (1602) Olde Madcappe newe Gaily mawfrey (1602) The Mother's Blessing (1602) A True Description of Unthankfulnesse (1602) The Passionate Shepheard (1604) The Souies Immortail Crowne (1605) The Honour of Valour (1605) An Invective against Treason; I would and I would not (1614) Bryton's Bowre of Delights (1591), edited by Dr Grosart in 1893, an unauthorised publication which contained some poems disclaimed by Breton The Arbor of Amorous Devises (entered at Stationers' Hall, 1594), only in part Breton's Contributions to England's Helicon (1600) and other verse miscellanies. Prose Auspicante Jehoua Wit's Trenchmour (1597) The Wil of Wit (1599) Strange Fortunes of Two Excellent Princes Crossing of Proverbs Figure of Foure Wonders Worth Hearing A Poste with a Packet of Mad Letters (1602–6) A Dialogue of Pithe Grimello's Fortunes (1603) [A Mad World My Masters, Mistake Me Not; Or] A Merrie Dialogue Betwixt the Taker and Mistaker (1603) Olde Man's Lesson I Pray You be Not Angrie A Murmurer Divine Considerations Wit's Private Wealth Characters upon Essaies Good and Bad Strange News out of Divers Countries (1622) Fantasticks Courtier and Countryman Character of Queen Elizabeth Mary Magdalen's Lamentations (1604) and The Passion of a Discontented Mind (1601) are sometimes erroneously ascribed to Breton Sir Philip Sidney's Ourania by N. B. (1606) Footnotes References External links The Works in Prose and Verse of Nicholas Breton … in Two Volumes. Alexander B. Grosart (ed.) Edinburgh University Press, 1879. 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229188	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Piccadilly%20Circus	Piccadilly Circus	Piccadilly Circus is a road junction and public space of London's West End in the City of Westminster. It was built in 1819 to connect Regent Street with Piccadilly. In this context, a circus, from the Latin word meaning "circle", is a round open space at a street junction. The Circus now connects Piccadilly, Regent Street, Shaftesbury Avenue, the Haymarket, Coventry Street (onwards to Leicester Square) and Glasshouse Street. It is close to major shopping and entertainment areas in the West End. Its status as a major traffic junction has made Piccadilly Circus a busy meeting place and a tourist attraction in its own right. The Circus is particularly known for its video display and neon signs mounted on the corner building on the northern side, as well as the Shaftesbury Memorial Fountain and statue of Anteros (which is popularly, though mistakenly, believed to be of Eros). It is surrounded by several notable buildings, including the London Pavilion and Criterion Theatre. Underneath the plaza is Piccadilly Circus Underground station, part of the London Underground system. It is similar to New York City's Times Square. History Piccadilly Circus connects to Piccadilly, a thoroughfare whose name first appeared in 1626 as Piccadilly Hall, named after a house belonging to one Robert Baker, a tailor famous for selling piccadills, or piccadillies, a term used for various kinds of collars. The street was known as Portugal Street in 1692 in honour of Catherine of Braganza, the queen consort of King Charles II but was known as Piccadilly by 1743. Piccadilly Circus was created in 1819, at the junction with Regent Street, which was then being built under the planning of John Nash on the site of a house and garden belonging to a Lady Hutton; the intersection was then known as Regent Circus South (just as Oxford Circus was known as Regent Circus North) and it did not begin to be known as Piccadilly Circus until the mid 1880s, with the rebuilding of the Regent Street Quadrant and the construction of Shaftesbury Avenue. In the same period the circus lost its circular form. The junction has been a very busy traffic interchange since construction, as it lies at the centre of Theatreland and handles exit traffic from Piccadilly, which Charles Dickens Jr. described in 1879: "Piccadilly, the great thoroughfare leading from the Haymarket and Regent-street westward to Hyde Park-corner, is the nearest approach to the Parisian boulevard of which London can boast." Piccadilly Circus tube station was opened on 10 March 1906, on the Bakerloo line, and on the Piccadilly line in December of that year. In 1928, the station was extensively rebuilt to handle an increase in traffic. The junction's first electric advertisements appeared in 1910, and, from 1923, electric billboards were set up on the facade of the London Pavilion. Electric street lamps, however, did not replace the gas ones until 1932. The circus became a one-way roundabout on 19 July 1926. Traffic lights were first installed on 3 August 1926. During World War II many servicemen's clubs in the West End served American soldiers based in Britain. So many prostitutes roamed the area approaching the soldiers that they received the nickname "Piccadilly Commandos", and both Scotland Yard and the Foreign Office discussed possible damage to Anglo-American relations. At the start of the 1960s, it was determined that the Circus needed to be redeveloped to allow for greater traffic flow. In 1962, Lord Holford presented a plan which would have created a "double-decker" Piccadilly Circus; the upper deck would have been an elevated pedestrian concourse linking the buildings around the perimeter of the Circus, with the lower deck being solely for traffic, most of the ground-level pedestrian areas having been removed to allow for greater vehicle flow. This concept was kept alive throughout the rest of the 1960s. A final scheme in 1972 proposed three octagonal towers (the highest tall) to replace the Trocadero, the Criterion and the "Monico" buildings. The plans were permanently rejected by Sir Keith Joseph and Ernest Marples; the key reason given was that Holford's scheme only allowed for a 20% increase in traffic, and the Government required 50%. The Holford plan is referenced in the short-form documentary film "Goodbye, Piccadilly", produced by the Rank Organisation in 1967 as part of their Look at Life series when it was still seriously expected that Holford's recommendations would be acted upon. Piccadilly Circus has since escaped major redevelopment, apart from extensive ground-level pedestrianisation around its south side in the 1980s. The Circus has been targeted by Irish republican terrorists multiple times. On 24 June 1939 an explosion occurred, although no injuries were caused. On 25 November 1974 a bomb injured 16 people. A 2 lb bomb exploded on 6 October 1992, injuring five people. The Shaftesbury Memorial Fountain in Piccadilly Circus was erected in 1893 to commemorate the philanthropic works of Anthony Ashley Cooper, 7th Earl of Shaftesbury. It was removed from the Circus twice and moved from the centre once. The first time was in 1922, so that Charles Holden's new tube station could be built directly below it. The fountain returned in 1931. During the Second World War, the fountain was removed for the second time and replaced by advertising hoardings. It was returned again in 1948. When the Circus underwent reconstruction work in the late 1980s, the entire fountain was moved from the centre of the junction at the beginning of Shaftesbury Avenue to its present position at the southwestern corner. Location and sights Piccadilly Circus is surrounded by tourist attractions, including the Shaftesbury Memorial, Criterion Theatre, London Pavilion and retail stores. Nightclubs, restaurants and bars are located in the area and neighbouring Soho, including the former Chinawhite club. Illuminated signs Piccadilly Circus was surrounded by illuminated advertising hoardings on buildings, starting in 1908 with a Perrier sign, but only one building now carries them, the one in the northwestern corner between Shaftesbury Avenue and Glasshouse Street. The site is unnamed (usually referred to as "Monico" after the Café Monico, which used to be on the site); its addresses are 44/48 Regent Street, 1/6 Sherwood Street, 17/22 Denman Street and 1/17 Shaftesbury Avenue, and it has been owned by property investor Land Securities Group since the 1970s. The earliest signs used incandescent light bulbs; these were replaced with neon lights and with moving signs (there was a large Guinness clock at one time). The first Neon sign was for the British meat extract Bovril. From December 1998, digital projectors were used for the Coke sign, the square's first digital billboard, while in the 2000s there was a gradual move to LED displays, which completely replaced neon lamps by 2011. The number of signs has reduced over the years as the rental costs have increased, and in January 2017 the six remaining advertising screens were switched off as part of their combination into one large ultra-high definition curved Daktronics display, turning the signs off during renovation for the longest time since the 1940s. On 26 October 2017, the new screen was switched on for the first time. Until the 2017 refurbishment, the site had six LED advertising screens above three large retail units facing Piccadilly Circus on the north side, occupied by Boots, Gap and a mix of smaller retail, restaurant and office premises fronting the other streets. A Burger King located under the Samsung advert, which had been a Wimpy Bar until 1989, closed in early 2008 and was converted into a Barclays Bank. Coca-Cola has had a sign at Piccadilly Circus since 1954. In September 2003, the previous digital projector board and the site that had been occupied by Nescafé was replaced with a state-of-the-art LED video display that curves round with the building. Before Nescafé, a neon advertisement for Foster's occupied the spot from 1987 until 1999, and from 1978 to 1987 it was used by Philips Electronics. For several months in 2002, the Nescafé sign was replaced by a sign featuring the quote "Imagine all the people living life in peace" by Beatle John Lennon. This was paid for by his widow Yoko Ono, who spent an estimated £150,000 to display an advert at this location. Coca-Cola, Diet Coke, Coca-Cola Zero, Fanta, Sprite and Vitamin Water have all been advertised in the space. Hyundai Motors sign launched on 29 September 2011. It replaced a sign for Sanyo which had occupied the space since around early 1988 (slightly modified in 2004), the last to be run using neon lights rather than Hyundai's computerised LED screen. Earlier Sanyo signs with older logos had occupied the position since 1978, although these were only half the size of the later space. McDonald's added its sign in 1987, replacing one for BASF. The sign was changed from neon to LED in 2001. A bigger, brighter screen was installed by Daktronics in 2008. Samsung added its sign in November 1994, the space having been previously occupied by Canon Inc. (1978–84) and Panasonic (1984–94). The sign was changed from neon to LED in summer 2005. The screen was upgraded and improved in autumn 2011. L'Oreal, Hunter Original and eBay both had signs in the Piccadilly circus billboards since October 2017. One Piccadilly, the highest resolution of all the LED displays was installed by Daktronics, in late 2013, underneath the Samsung and McDonald's signs. It allowed other companies to advertise for both short- and long-term leases, increasing the amount of advertising space but using the same screen for multiple brands. Prior to this an earlier, smaller LED screen called Piccadilly Lite occupied the space from 3 December 2007 to 2013. The space has also been occupied by JVC (1978–84), Carlsberg (1984–2003) and Budweiser (2003–07). The Curve, a similar space to One Piccadilly, was added in 2015, replacing a space previously occupied by Schweppes (1920–61), BP (1961–67), Cinzano (1967–78), Fujifilm (1978–86), Kodak (1986–90) and TDK (1990–2015). Burberry was using the space as of December 2015. LG was added in February 2007 on the roof of Coventry House, which diagonally faces Piccadilly Circus. Its sign is a large LED video advertising display for LGE, the British arm of the South Korean electronics group. The new display also incorporates a scrolling ticker of Sky News headlines. Before LG, Vodafone had a neon sign installed on that spot, which displayed both its logo and personal messages that could be submitted on a special website and displayed at a certain time and date. On special occasions the lights are switched off, such as the deaths of Winston Churchill in 1965 and Diana, Princess of Wales in 1997. On 21 June 2007, they were switched off for one hour as part of the Lights Out London campaign. Other companies and brands that have had signs on the site were Bovril, Volkswagen, Max Factor, Wrigley's Spearmint, Skol, Air India and Gold Flake (as Will's Gold Flake Cigarettes). Shaftesbury Memorial and the statue of Anteros At the southeastern side of the Circus, moved after World War II from its original position in the centre, stands the Shaftesbury Memorial Fountain, erected in 1892–1893 to commemorate the philanthropic works of Lord Shaftesbury, a Victorian politician, philanthropist and social reformer. The subject of the Memorial is the Greek god Anteros and was given the name The Angel of Christian Charity but is generally mistaken for his brother Eros. Criterion Theatre The Criterion Theatre, a Grade II* listed building, stands on the south side of Piccadilly Circus. Apart from the box office area, the entire theatre, with nearly 600 seats, is underground and is reached by descending a tiled stairway. Columns are used to support both the dress circle and the upper circle, restricting the views of many of the seats inside. The theatre was designed by Thomas Verity and opened as a theatre on 21 March 1874, although original plans were for it to become a concert hall. In 1883, it was forced to close to improve ventilation and to replace gaslights with electric lights and was reopened the following year. The theatre closed in 1989 and was extensively renovated, reopening in October 1992. London Pavilion On the northeastern side of Piccadilly Circus, on the corner between Shaftesbury Avenue and Coventry Street, is the London Pavilion. The first building bearing the name was built in 1859 and was a music hall. In 1885, Shaftesbury Avenue was built through the former site of the Pavilion, and a new London Pavilion was constructed, which also served as a music hall. In 1924 electric billboards were erected on the side of the building. In 1934, the building underwent significant structural alteration and was converted into a cinema. In 1986, the building was rebuilt, preserving the 1885 facade, and converted into a shopping arcade. In 2000, the building was connected to the neighbouring Trocadero Centre, and signage on the building was altered in 2003 to read "London Trocadero". The basement of the building connects with the Underground station. Major shops The former Swan & Edgar department store on the west side of the circus between Piccadilly and Regent Street was built in 1928–29 to a design by Reginald Blomfield. Since the closure of the department store in the early 1980s, the building has been successively the flagship London store of music chains Tower Records, Virgin Megastore and Zavvi. The current occupier is clothing brand The Sting. Lillywhites is a major retailer of sporting goods located on the corner of the circus and Lower Regent Street, next to the Shaftesbury fountain. It moved to its present site in 1925. Lillywhites is popular with tourists, and they regularly offer sale items, including international football jerseys up to 90% off. Nearby Fortnum & Mason is often considered to be part of the Piccadilly Circus shopping area and is known for its expansive food hall. County Fire Office Dominating the north side of the circus, on the corner of Glasshouse Street, is the County Fire Office building, with a statue of Britannia on the roof. The original building was designed by John Nash as the extreme southern end of his Regent Street Quadrant. Its dramatic façade was clearly influenced by Inigo Jones's old Somerset House. Although Robert Abraham was the County Fire Insurance Company's architect, it was probably Nash who was instrumental in choosing the design. In 1924 the old County Fire Office was demolished and replaced with a similar but much coarser building designed by Reginald Blomfield, but retaining the statue of Britannia. During the London Blitz it was the only building in the Circus to be damaged, with a few window panes blown out. The building is Grade II listed. Underground station and the Bakerloo and Piccadilly lines The Piccadilly Circus station on the London Underground is located directly beneath Piccadilly Circus itself, with entrances at every corner. It is one of the few stations which have no associated buildings above ground and is fully underground. The below ground concourse and subway entrances are Grade II listed. The station is on the Piccadilly line between Green Park and Leicester Square, and the Bakerloo line between Charing Cross and Oxford Circus. Demonstrations The Circus' status as a high-profile public space has made it the destination for numerous political demonstrations, including the February 15, 2003 anti-war protest and the "Carnival Against Capitalism" protest against the 39th G8 summit in 2013. In popular culture The phrase it's like Piccadilly Circus is commonly used in the UK to refer to a place or situation which is extremely busy with people. It has been said that a person who stays long enough at Piccadilly Circus will eventually bump into everyone they know. Probably because of this connection, during World War II, "Piccadilly Circus" was the code name given to the Allies' D-Day invasion fleet's assembly location in the English Channel. Piccadilly Circus has inspired artists and musicians. Piccadilly Circus (1912) is the name and subject of a painting by British artist Charles Ginner, part of the Tate Britain collection. Sculptor Paul McCarthy also has a 320-page two-volume edition of video stills by the name of Piccadilly Circus. In the lyrics of their song "Mother Goose", on the Aqualung album from 1971, the band Jethro Tull tells "And a foreign student said to me: 'was it really true there were elephants, lions too, in Picadilly Circus?'". Bob Marley mentioned Piccadilly Circus in his song "Kinky Reggae", on the Catch a Fire album from 1973. L. S. Lowry R.A painting Piccadilly Circus, London (1960), part of Lord Charles Forte's collection for almost three decades, sold for £5,641,250 when auctioned for the first time at Christie's 20th Century British & Irish Art sale on 16 November 2011. Contemporary British painter Carl Randall's painting 'Piccadilly Circus' (2017) is a large monochrome canvas depicting the area at night with crowds, the making of which involved painting over 70 portraits from life. In Call of Duty: Modern Warfare (2019), the second campaign mission takes place in Piccadilly Circus, where the game has the player intervene during a terrorist attack by the fictional terrorist group Al-Qatala. There is also a multiplayer map called Piccadilly, which appears to take place in the aftermath of the terrorist attack. CIRCA CIRCA is an art platform based in London's Piccadilly Circus. Founded in October 2020, they commission and stream a monthly programme of art and culture, every evening at 20:21, across a global network of billboards in London, Tokyo and Seoul. Established in 2020 by British-Irish artist Josef O'Connor, the daily and free public art programme pauses the world famous advertisements in Piccadilly Circus and across a global network of screens for three minutes every evening. They commission new work to fill the space that considers the world in response to the present year: circa 2020, 2021, etc. It is the largest digital art exhibition in Europe. ‘I first had the idea when I was 19, but it was only about three years ago that I acted on it and reached out to the screen owner, Landsec, via Twitter. I was inspired by Piccadilly’s kinetic architecture – how it morphed and changed with time to reflect the world – from neon lights in 1908 to the iconic red and white Sanyo sign in the 1990s, etc. You could accurately guess the decade by just looking at a photo or postcard of the landmark. This inspired the concept for Circa, to pause time and commission artists to create new work that considers the world around them, circa 2020/21, etc.’ The first artist to fill the three-minute daily slot was Ai Weiwei, who is quoted as saying in an interview with The Art Newspaper that "CIRCA 20:20 offers a very important platform for artists to exercise their practice and to reach out to a greater public”. Other notable artists and curators whose works have been exhibited as part of the CIRCA programme include Cauleen Smith, Eddie Peake, Patti Smith, James Barnor curated by Hans Ulrich Obrist,Vivienne Westwood David Hockney, Alvaro Barrington and Anne Imhof. Each commission for the project is approved by an independent council chaired by the British independent curator and ex-director and chief curator of The Royal Academy, Norman Rosenthal. Other members include the Ghanaian-British architect Sir David Adjaye, Sarah Barker, Ramita Navai, Greg Sanderson and Patrick Morey-Burrows. The art platform is recognised for repositioning Piccadilly Circus as a destination for art and culture. Most notably, in 2020 Ai Weiwei set a record on Piccadilly Lights as his film 'CIRCA 20:20' became the longest-ever single piece of content to be displayed on the giant illuminated billboard in Piccadilly Circus. His film ran for just over an hour, pausing the regular advertisements at precisely 20:20 GMT, joining together the 30 parts of his month-long CIRCA residency. On 1 January 2021, CIRCA commissioned two live performances from Patti Smith to help put an end to 2020 and beckon in the new year. The New Years Eve screening in Piccadilly Circus was eventually cancelled due to COVID-19 restrictions but the performance was still broadcast for free via the CIRCA YouTube Channel on 31 December to an audience of over 1.5million people around the world. CIRCA and Serpentine Galleries collaborative presentation of James Barnor’s work in April 2021 completed a journey that began more than half a century ago, when Barnor photographed BBC Africa Service presenter Mike Eghan against the backdrop of Piccadilly Circus’s neon signs in 1967. The iconic image is held within the Tate collection and was the inspiration behind Ferdinando Verderi’s Italian Vogue cover, with Barnor remote-shooting model Adwoa Aboah standing in the exact same location to create a present reflection on the past. To celebrate her 80th Birthday, British fashion designer Vivienne Westwood was commissioned by CIRCA to present a new video work in Piccadilly Circus created with her brother titled 'Don't Buy a Bomb' an 'anti-war' message presented for ten minutes on the Piccadilly Lights screen. In the ten-minute film, the punk icon performed a rewritten rendition of ‘Without You’ from My Fair Lady to offer a stark warning of societal indifference to the looming environmental catastrophes, a cry against the arms trade, and its link to climate change. “I have a plan 2 save the World. Capitalism is a war economy + war is the biggest polluter, therefore Stop War + change economy 2 fair distribution of wealth at the same time: NO MANS LAND. Let’s be clear, U + I can’t stop war just like that. But we can stop arms production + that would halt climate change cc + financial Crash. Long term this will stop war,” In May 2021, British artist David Hockney's 2.5minute iPad drawing of a sunrise titled “Remember you cannot look at the sun or death for very long,” was broadcast by CIRCA across digital billboard screens in London's Piccadilly Circus, New York's Times Square and prominent locations in Los Angeles, Tokyo and the largest outdoor screen in Seoul. See also Cambridge Circus, London Chinawhite (nightclub) Oxford Circus Punto Obelisco (Obelisk Point, Buenos Aires) Shaftesbury Avenue Shibuya Crossing, noted public space and crossroads in Tokyo Times Square, a noted road junction and public space in New York Yonge-Dundas Square, a major public square with commercial signage in Toronto Notes References Citations Sources Books Harris, C. M. What's in a name? The origins of the names of all stations in current use on the London Underground and Docklands Light rail with their opening dates. Midas Books and London Transport, fourth edition, 2001. . Lange, D. The Queen's London: A Pictorial and Descriptive Record of the Streets, Buildings, Parks and Scenery of the Great Metropolis. Cassell and Company, London, 1896. Marshall, Prince Wheels of London; The story of London's street transport. The Sunday Times Magazine, 1972. . Mills, Anthony David Dictionary of London Place Names. Oxford University Press, 2001. . Piccadilly Circus: From Controversy to Reconstruction. Greater London Council, 1980. . Articles and websites Hadley, P. "Piccadilly Circus, How a typical 1906 London tube station was built", Underground News 412, April 1996. Jacob, S. "Review: Piccadilly Circus", Icon Magazine, November 2003. "London lights out for environment", News. BBC.co.uk, 22 June 2007 External links Piccadilly.london Things to do in Piccadilly area Theatre History This is London theatre guide to Criterion Theatre Metallurgical study of the statue of Eros following restoration in 1990 Map from www.streetmap.co.uk Aerial photo from maps.google.com London Landscape TV episode (5 mins) about Piccadilly Circus The Lights of Piccadilly Busking venues Entertainment districts in the United Kingdom Road junctions in London Streets in the City of Westminster Tourist attractions in London A4 road (England)	[ 0.18102717399597168, -0.3978164494037628, 0.5459123849868774, -0.4420507848262787, 0.08563422411680222, 0.29542112350463867, 0.5033889412879944, 0.38646242022514343, -0.3835064768791199, -0.3517308831214905, -0.3426973521709442, -0.601924479007721, -0.38859909772872925, 0.1672494113445282, -0.050916098058223724, 0.02057979442179203, -0.4481255114078522, -0.2416563183069229, 0.3620447814464569, -0.23733973503112793, 0.33099815249443054, 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229189	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Regent%20Street	Regent Street	Regent Street is a major shopping street in the West End of London. It is named after George, the Prince Regent (later George IV) and was laid out under the direction of the architect John Nash and James Burton. It runs from Waterloo Place in St James's at the southern end, through Piccadilly Circus and Oxford Circus, to All Souls Church. From there Langham Place and Portland Place continue the route to Regent's Park. The street's layout was completed in 1825 and was an early example of town planning in England, replacing earlier roads including Swallow Street. Nash and Burton's street layout has survived, although all the original buildings except All Souls Church have been replaced following reconstruction in the late 19th century. The street is known for its flagship retail stores, including Liberty, Hamleys, Jaeger and the Apple Store. The Royal Polytechnic Institution, now the University of Westminster, has been based on Regent Street since 1838. Route Regent Street is approximately long and begins at a junction with Charles II Street as a continuation of Waterloo Place. It runs north to Piccadilly Circus, where it turns left before curving round the Quadrant to head north again, meeting Oxford Street at Oxford Circus. It ends at a junction with Cavendish Place and Mortimer Street near the BBC Broadcasting House, with the road ahead being Langham Place, followed by Portland Place. The southern section of the road is one-way northbound and part of the A4, a major road through West London. From Piccadilly Circus northwards, it is numbered A4201, though in common with roads inside the London congestion charging zone, the number does not appear on signs. Nearby tube stations are Charing Cross, Piccadilly Circus and Oxford Circus; the lattermost being one of the busiest underground stations in London, and is where three main lines (Central, Bakerloo and Victoria) meet. Several bus routes, such as 6, 12, and 13, run along Regent Street. History Beginnings: 1811–1825 Regent Street was one of the first planned developments of London. An ordered structure of London streets, replacing the mediaeval layout, had been planned since just after the Great Fire of London (1666) when Sir Christopher Wren and John Evelyn drew plans for rebuilding the city on the classical formal model. After a lack of progress, houses were rebuilt on the old street network anyway. In 1766, John Gwynn complained in London and Westminster Improved that there was a lack of planning throughout the West End and that it would be useful to construct a thoroughfare linking Marylebone Park (now Regent's Park) with the Prince Regent's Carlton House. John Fordyce was appointed as Surveyor-General to the First Commissioner of Woods and Forests in 1793 and concluded that there should be a suitable road in place by 1811, when the lease for Marylebone Park ran out and ownership reverted to the Crown. It was hoped the road could link Pall Mall and the Haymarket, which had declined and became downmarket. A further problem was increased congestion around Charing Cross, which would benefit from road improvements. The street was designed by John Nash (who had been appointed to the Office of Woods and Forests in 1806 and previously served as an adviser to the Prince Regent) and by developer James Burton. Nash proposed his own plans for the street in 1810 following the death of Fordyce, envisioning broad, architecturally distinguished thoroughfares and public spaces, and planned to construct a straight boulevard as seen in French cities, but this was not possible because of land ownership issues. Nash's final design resulted in a road situated further west than on previous plans, and Nash believed the road would run down a de facto line separating the upper classes and nobility in Mayfair with the working class in Soho. The construction of the northern section of the New Street involved demolishing most of the existing Swallow Street, which had become run down and was an ideal candidate for regeneration. The road was designed to curve east between Oxford Street and Piccadilly so that it did not meet St James's Square, and the circuses allowed visual continuity down the street. The central section, known as the Quadrant, was designed for "shops appropriated to articles of fashion and taste," and was Nash's centrepiece for the street. It was built with a colonnade of cast-iron columns, allowing commuters to walk along the street without having to face bad weather. The buildings along the Quadrant had different facades, a deliberate choice by Nash to break away from the uniform design of the previous century and a pragmatic means of using what building materials were available and what clients wanted. The road was planned to end outside Carlton House in Pall Mall, the residence of the Prince of Wales. Nash insisted that businesses on the street would be of high-quality to rival nearby Bond Street; common trades such as butchers or greengrocers were not allowed. The design was adopted by an Act of Parliament in 1813, which permitted the commissioners to borrow £600,000 for building and construction. The street was intended for commercial purposes and it was expected that most of the income would come from private capital. Nash took responsibility for design and valuation of all properties. Construction of the road required demolishing numerous properties, disrupting trade and polluting the air with dust. Existing tenants had first offer to purchase leases on the new properties. The Treasury supported the proposal because, in the aftermath of the Napoleonic Wars, there was an urgent need for the government to create jobs. Government expenditure was low because the design relied heavily on private developers, such as Nash himself. The buildings were let on 99-year leases, as was common at the time, and income could be recouped in the form of ground rent. James Burton James Burton, the pre-eminent Georgian London property developer, designed and constructed 191 of the houses of Regent Street, and their joining archways. Five of the largest blocks of Regent Street were purchased by Burton in 1817. Burton's houses on Regent Street are No. 4 to No. 12; No. 17 to No. 25; No. 106 to No. 128; No. 132 to No. 154; No. 133 to No. 167; No. 171 to No. 195; and No. 295 to No. 319. These were built, together with Carlton Chambers, between 1817 and 1820. Burton also built between Leicester Street and No. 129 Swallow Street in 1820. Burton built the east side of Regent Street in 1821, and the west side of Regent Street, specifically the part between the Quadrant and Oxford Street, and its archways, in 1822. Burton built north of Old Burlington Street, and the east side of the street between Chapel Court and the entrance to the King Street Chapel SW1, in 1822. Burton also designed and built Regent Street St. James (Lower Regent Street), and Waterloo Place, St. James's, whose facades he modelled on those of the Place Vendome in Paris, between 1815 and 1816. Other architects The vast majority of the street was designed by Nash or Burton. However, a few buildings were designed by Charles Robert Cockerell, Sir John Soane, or others. By 1819, the Crown was receiving regular rent and the street was becoming established. At first, it was named New Street and became a dividing line between Soho, which had declined socially and economically, and the fashionable squares and streets of Mayfair to the west. Carlton House was demolished after completion of the works in 1829 and was replaced by Carlton House Terrace, designed by Nash and the son of James Burton, Decimus Burton. Regent Street was the first shopping area in Britain to support late night opening in 1850, when shopkeepers agreed to keep stores open until 7pm. Rebuilding: 1895–1927 During the 19th century, Regent Street became established as the "centre of fashion." Shops expanded into multiple properties, selling imported and exotic products to appeal to niche consumers. By the end of the century, fashions had changed and the original buildings were small and old fashioned, restricting trade. The colonnade constructed by Nash was demolished in the mid-19th century for fear it might attract "doubtful characters." Other buildings were not up to modern building standards; some had been extended and were structurally suspect. As the 99-year leases came to an end, Regent Street was redeveloped between 1895 and 1927 under the control of the Office of Woods, Forests and Land Revenues (now known as the Crown Estate). The modern Regent Street is the result of this redevelopment. No original structures survive except south of Oxford Circus for some Nash-designed sewers. The current design is an example of the Beaux Arts approach to urban design: an assembly of separate buildings on a grand scale, designed to harmonise and produce an impressive overall effect. Strict rules governed the reconstruction. Each block had to be designed with a continuous unifying street façade and finished in Portland stone. The first redevelopment was Regent House, just south of Oxford Circus. The stylistic tone for the rebuilding was set by Sir Reginald Blomfield's Quadrant. The architect Norman Shaw, then aged 73, was brought in to draw up proposals for the Circus and the Quadrant after early plans were considered unsatisfactory. His scheme was approved in principle but subject to indecision and dispute, both on property acquisition and retailers' demand for bigger display windows. Shaw's design for the Piccadilly Hotel was completed in 1908 with modifications, while the Quadrant was rebuilt by Blomfield, adapting Shaw's designs. The work started in 1923 and was completed by 1928. Significantly, no accommodation was built above any of the retail properties, contributing to the demise of the West End as a place of residence. A limited number of architects were responsible for the redesigned street, including Sir John James Burnet, Arthur Joseph Davis and Henry Tanner. The Work was delayed by World War I and not finished until 1927. Its completion was marked by King George V and Queen Mary driving in state along its length. The only remaining Nash building is All Souls Church and all the buildings on the street are at least Grade II listed. All the properties are in the Regent Street Conservation Area. Crown Estate redevelopment By the 1970s, Regent Street had started to decline because of under-investment and competition from neighbouring areas such as Oxford Street or shopping centres away from Central London. In 2002, the Crown Estate, which owns most of Regent Street on behalf of the Queen, started a major redevelopment programme. In 2013 the Estate sold a quarter of the Regent Street Quadrant 3 building to the Norwegian Oil Fund, while later that year, Hackett London bought the lease for the Ferrari store on Regent Street for £4m. Smaller shops have been replaced by larger units; the street is now the flagship location of several major brands, including Apple and Banana Republic. The largest part of the plan was the reconstruction of the Quadrant close to Piccadilly Circus, which was completed in 2011. It offers of office space spanning over seven floors. Two Art Deco-designed restaurants have also been restored, and the development includes a small number of apartments. The Crown Estate moved its own headquarters from Carlton House Terrace to Regent Street in 2006. Properties Retail The department store Dickins and Jones was established at No. 54 Oxford Street as Dickins and Smith before moving to Nos. 232–234 Regent Street in 1835. It was renamed to Dickins and Jones in the 1890s after John Pritchard Jones became a business partner, and by the turn of the 20th century employed over 200 people. It became part of the Harrods group in 1914, and expanded to cover Nos. 224–244 in 1922, in a new building designed by Sir Henry Tanner. In 1959, House of Fraser took over the store by buying the Harrods group. In 2005, House of Fraser announced that the store would close the following year, after it had been making a loss for several years and not kept up with more fashion-conscious department stores elsewhere. The building has been redeveloped with small shop units on the lower floors and flats and offices above. The Liberty department store is based at Nos. 210–220. It was founded by entrepreneur Arthur Lasenby Liberty, who had been inspired by the 1862 International Exhibition and wanted to open an oriental warehouse. He opened his first shop, East India House in 1875 at No. 218a, selling silk garments and various oriental goods. The shop expanded into other properties on Regent Street in the 1880s, separated by a jeweller's shop which was bridged by a double staircase called the "Camel's Back." Liberty later took over all of Nos. 140–150 Regent Street. In 1925, this complex was replaced by two new buildings, and a mock tudor building (built by architects Edwin T. Hall and his son Edwin S. Hall, constructed from the timbers of two ships, , and on neighbouring Great Marlborough Street connected by a footbridge over Kingly Street, which separates the properties. The toy store Hamleys is at No. 188 Regent Street, just south of Oxford Circus. It was founded as Noah's Ark at No. 231 High Holborn in 1760. An additional branch opened at Nos. 64–66 Regent Street in 1881, while the original High Holborn building burned down in 1901, moving to Nos. 86–87. The store was frequently the first to market the latest games and toys, and became a strong seller of table tennis equipment in the late 19th century, allowing the sport to become popular. The business moved to Nos. 200–202, and moved to the current address in 1981. It claims to be the largest toy shop in the world. The main London branch of the clothing store Jaeger is at Nos. 200–206 Regent Street. It was founded in 1884 by Lewis Tomalin, who was inspired by naturalist Gustav Jäger's pioneering use of anti-animal fibre-based clothing. The first shop, on Fore Street, had "Doctor Jaeger's Sanitary Woollen System" inscribed above the door. Oscar Wilde was a regular visitor to the shop. Henry Morton Stanley is known to have worn Jaeger clothing during his search for Dr. David Livingstone in Africa, as is Robert Falcon Scott on his fated trip to the South Pole. The company moved to Regent Street in 1935. The Apple Store opened on Regent Street on 20 November 2004. At the time, this was the first such store in Europe, with the others being in the United States and Japan. It was the largest Apple store worldwide until the opening of an even larger store in Covent Garden in August 2010. The building that houses the store is a grade II listed building built in 1898 for Venetian mosaicist Antonio Salviati. Austin Reed's flagship store was at Nos. 103–113 Regent Street for more than 85 years. It had an atrium at its centre, housing glass lifts allowing viewing across all floors. The lower ground floor sold womenswear and also housed Austin's, the refurbished Art Deco Barber Shop. In May 2011, the British fashion retailer Superdry announced it would move into the building, paying £12m for the lease. In return, Austin Reed moved to a former Aquascutum shop on the other side of the road. In 2016, Austin Reed filed for administration, ending over 100 years' presence on Regent Street. In 2017, Microsoft announced plans to open a flagship retail store on Regent Street. In 2020, the store closed as part of the company's move towards online only trading. Broadcasting Immediately north of Regent Street is the BBC's headquarters, Broadcasting House, whose front entrance is in Langham Place. Several national radio stations are broadcast from this building. The site had formerly been a building on the gardens of Foley House designed by James Wyatt and called Wyatt's House. It was demolished in 1928 (with much of the fixtures ending up in the Victoria and Albert Museum) to construct Broadcasting House. Construction was challenging because the building had to be visually similar to other properties on Regent Street, yet also contain over twenty soundproofed studios. The exterior is built of Portland stone and above the front entrance is a sculpture by Eric Gill. Broadcasting House was first used by the BBC on 2 May 1932, and total construction costs were £350,000. It was too small for all services, and St George's Hall, next to All Souls, was used for variety broadcasts until it was demolished during the Blitz. On 15 October 1940, the building took a direct hit, killing seven people, and later that year a landmine exploded on Portland Place, causing widespread fires in Broadcasting House. Despite the damage, it survived the war and became one of the best known buildings associated with radio broadcasting. Subsequently, the BBC expanded with additional studios at Maida Vale, followed by the former headquarters of BBC Television, BBC Television Centre at Wood Lane. In the 2000s, Broadcasting House was expanded to include a new wing and modernise the site, replacing earlier extensions. It was designed by MacCormac Jamieson Prichard. Originally named the Egton House, it was renamed to the John Peel Wing in 2012, in memory of the radio broadcaster. The Paris Theatre was located in a converted cinema in Lower Regent Street, near other BBC buildings. Several rock groups performed live concerts here, including The Beatles, Queen and Pink Floyd, which were simultaneously recorded for broadcast. The BBC stopped using the theatre in 1995. University of Westminster The University of Westminster's main campus at No. 309 Regent Street was founded in 1838 under George Cayley and rebuilt under Quintin Hogg in 1911. It is one of the oldest educational institutions in Central London. Historically, the university was once also titled as the Royal Polytechnic Institution (after a royal charter had been formally received in August 1839 and Prince Albert became a patron to the institution). It has also been called "The Polytechnic at Regent Street" and the Polytechnic of Central London (PCL). The university houses the Regent Street Cinema which acted as a platform for major scientists, artists and authors such as Charles Dickens, John Henry Pepper, and The Lumière Brothers (Auguste and Louis Lumière) where public and private screenings of Cinématographe were shown to an audience. The cinema was restored and reopened to the public in May 2015. Other All Souls Church is at the top of Regent Street next to Broadcasting House. It was built in 1823 out of Bath stone and consecrated in 1824, and is the only surviving building in Regent Street that was designed by John Nash. The Café Royal, located at 68 Regent Street in the Quadrant, was opened in 1865 by Daniel Nicols and became an institution of London high society. In 1895 Oscar Wilde argued with Frank Harris in the café about his proposal to sue the Marquess of Queensberry for libel over Wilde's alleged homosexuality. Wilde went ahead with the trial, which ultimately led to his own arrest and imprisonment. The present building, by Sir Reginald Blomfield, dates from 1928 and is Grade II listed. It was closed in 2008 and the building which houses the café was bought by a subsidiary of Alrov Group, as a part of Crown Estate's plans to redevelop this part of Regent Street. It is the oldest shop on Regent Street. Events Regent Street is home to several events throughout the year. The Regent Street Festival happens annually, and during this time, the street is closed to traffic. In September, there is a series of fashion-related events, dubbed as Fashion and Design Month (FDM), which has been running since 2015. In an interview with David Shaw, the head of the Regent Street Portfolio, he said that for FDM 2016, they worked with many "talented individuals across a variety of events, combining creative talent with our established stores." There have been Christmas lights on Regent Street in various forms since 1882. The current regular displays date from 1948, when the Regent Street Association decorated the street with trees. Since 1954, the Regent Street Association have arranged annual Christmas lights. There is a different display every year and the switching on ceremony occurs during November. On 6 July 2004, half a million people crowded into Regent Street and the surrounding streets to watch a parade of Formula One cars. In 2016, the sport's chief manager, Bernie Ecclestone, speculated that a London Grand Prix may potentially happen in the future, including Regent Street as a part of the circuit. Cultural references The character Lord Frederick Verisopht in Charles Dickens' Nicholas Nickelby lived in an apartment in Regent Street. This reflected the nature of the street in the mid-19th century when it was still a fashionable residence for the upper class. In August 1839, the first British commercial production of daguerreotype photographs were carried out in a property on Regent Street, shortly after the process had been publicly documented. Regent Street is a location on the British version of Monopoly as a group of three green squares with Oxford Street and Bond Street. The three properties are grouped together as they are all known for their retail and commercial backgrounds. The Langham Hotel on Regent Street is mentioned in several of Arthur Conan Doyle's Sherlock Holmes stories, including "The Sign of Four", "A Scandal in Bohemia" and "The Disappearance of Lady Frances Carfax". In The Hound of the Baskervilles (chapter 4), Holmes and Watson attempt to follow Stapleton down Regent Street. Offshoot crescent road Heddon Street was the location for the cover photography for 1972 David Bowie album The Rise and Fall of Ziggy Stardust and the Spiders from Mars. A blue plaque has been placed to mark the spot where Bowie posed for the front cover. See also List of eponymous roads in London New Regent Street in Christchurch, New Zealand References Notes Citations Sources Further reading . (bird's eye view) The Architecture of Regent Street, The Crown Estate, London, 2005. 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229191	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oxford%20Circus	Oxford Circus	Oxford Circus is a road junction connecting Oxford Street and Regent Street in the West End of London. It is also the entrance to Oxford Circus tube station. The junction opened in 1819 as part of the Regent Street development under John Nash, and was originally known as Regent Circus North. After the original lease expired, it was redesigned around a series of four quadrant buildings by Henry Tanner between 1913 and 1928, the north-eastern of which has been used by Peter Robinson, Topshop, the BBC and the London Co-operative Society; these are now Grade II listed buildings. Oxford Circus remains a busy junction for traffic, and a £5 million upgrade for pedestrians opened in 2009. It has also attracted attention as a place for demonstrations and protests, including several by Extinction Rebellion. History 19th century The junction was designed as part of John Nash's work on Regent Street. Circuses had become popular in English architecture after George Dance the Younger had popularised them in the Minories in East London. Nash wanted to use extra land space so that vehicles could move around one another when turning, with a concave layout attracting shopkeepers and increasing the potential for land value. He originally intended the circus to be colonnaded, but when the New Street Bill was proposed to parliament, it was rejected, with one MP fearing the circus would "be a nuisance by day and something worse by night". He redesigned the circus so that the new Regent Street would meet the established Oxford Street at a near right-angle, with a smaller diameter reducing its land intake. Parliament approved the design in 1813. Construction of the circus began in 1816, with Nash working in association with Samuel Baxter. Work was complicated by the compulsory purchase of properties along Oxford Street. Eight houses on the north side and eleven on the south were demolished to make way for the junction. To avoid legal challenges, Nash attempted to rehouse existing tenants in the new buildings around the circus wherever possible. After John Richardson, proprietor of Richardson's silk shop on 118 Oxford Street died, Nash ensured his widow and surviving family and employees were all housed in a building on the circus's north-eastern section. After the family complained and demanded changes, Nash worked with Baxter to try to accommodate them as much as possible. Most buildings around the circus were designed in a more disciplined manner than some of Nash's later work, and were based on Palladian architecture. They featured fluted Corinthian pilasters and artificial stone capitals. The pilaster order continued down Regent Street. The circus opened officially in November 1819. It was originally known as Regent Circus North, with the corresponding Piccadilly Circus named Regent Circus South. However, unlike Piccadilly Circus, Oxford Circus had no decorations and was designed as a straightforward traffic crossing. Fellow architect James Elmes described Nash's work on the circus as giving "an air of grandeur" and "as elegant in form as it is useful in application". The current name began to be used around 1836. In 1842, the MP Joseph Hume proposed a commemorative obelisk should be constructed in the middle of the circus. Construction began in December 1842, but was quickly disrupted and abandoned after the Marylebone parish vestry realised they only had authority to clean and maintain the circus, and not to construct anything on top of it. The obelisk was eventually built in 1850 at Nunhead Cemetery to a slightly different design. In the Victorian era, mourning was elaborate and expensive. This area had mourning warehouses, selling the clothes, fabrics and accessories required for this. The most important of these was the London General Mourning Warehouse , commonly known as Jay's. This was founded in Regent Street in 1841 and expanded north so that it occupied all of the SW quadrant of the circus by 1880. 20th century The lease on the four quadrants around the interchange was due to expire in 1917, and it was determined they would need to be rebuilt. In 1904, the Commissioners of Woods and Forests outlined a plan to redevelop Regent Street, including Oxford Circus. In 1909, they invited proposals to redevelop the site. The new design was awarded in October 1910 to Henry Tanner, who saw off several rival designs, and was built in stages between 1913 and 1928. Tanner's design was inspired by 18th-century French architecture, particularly that of Ange-Jacques Gabriel. Each quadrant was designed to be symmetrical with the others. The south-eastern quadrant was completed first in 1913, before work stopped at the beginning of World War I. The north-western quadrant opened in May 1922 as the London premises for the Magasins du Louvre. The store was never popular and closed in 1930. The south-western quadrant followed in 1925 and the north-eastern in 1928. The new north-eastern quadrant was originally occupied by the Peter Robinson department store. An extension to the store was added to the original quadrant building in 1924. During World War II, it was badly damaged by bombs in September 1940 but survived owing to its steel frame construction and was quickly repaired to a high standard. The BBC requisitioned part of the block and it saw significant use in overseas broadcasting during the war. It was sold to the London Co-operative Society in 1944. Through a series of buyouts and mergers, Peter Robinson became Topshop, which occupied the site until January 2021, after it went into liquidation. It was the flagship store of the franchise, covering four floors and attracting around 28,000 shoppers a day, half of whom would buy something. The buildings are constructed of Portland stone with a cladding steel frame and slate roofs. They have been Grade II listed since 1973. Tube station The tube station opened on 30 July 1900 when the first section of the Central line opened. A connection to the Bakerloo line opened on 10 March 1906; the station was modified below ground to accommodate this. For five years from 1963 as part of connecting the tube station to the Victoria line, the road surface was carried on a temporary 850-ton umbrella bridge, accommodating all four directions of travel while work continued underneath. This was dismantled on 12 April 1968. In 1976, a bomb planted by the Provisional IRA was detected at the station and successfully defused. The station was badly damaged by fire in November 1984, but there were no fatalities. Traffic Oxford Circus is one of the busiest pedestrian crossings in London. In 1924, shipbuilder Alfred Yarrow proposed building a grade-separated junction to segregate traffic, paid for by his own funds. The offer was turned down by Westminster City Council. In 1935, Westminster City Council proposed fitting pedestrian guard rails at the junction, restricting crossing in order to improve safety. At the end of the 2000s, Oxford Circus had the highest pedestrian volumes recorded anywhere in London. At the busiest times, over 40,000 pedestrians per hour pass through the junction, including those accessing the tube station. The average traffic flow is around 2,000 vehicles per hour during the week, and the junction operates at near capacity for most of the day with regular queues, particularly west along Oxford Street. 24 bus routes pass through Oxford Circus, and over 400 buses cross the junction on an average weekday. There are bus stops within on every arm of the crossing. In 2009, Transport for London redesigned the intersection to facilitate a pedestrian scramble. The crossing opened in November and cost around £5 million. It was inspired by street crossings in Tokyo, and opened by the Mayor of London, Boris Johnson, who called the scheme "a triumph for British engineering, Japanese innovation and good old fashioned common sense". The scheme added an additional of pedestrian space and removed the guard rail, adding 70% more capacity to the crossing. Events In February 1872, a tripartite arch made of flowers and decorated with flags was erected in the middle of Oxford Circus, to commemorate the Prince of Wales's recovery from typhoid fever. Queen Victoria passed along the parade with the Prince to a crowd of cheering children. On 20 December 1938, 50 people took part in an unemployment protest staged in Oxford Circus. Campaigners threw themselves into the road shouting "We want work, we want bread", before being restrained by police. On 1 May 2001, an anti-capitalism demonstration converging on Oxford Circus broke into violence. Police attempted to contain the crowd in the circus, but 50–60 demonstrators broke free and started destroying property and set fire to a nearby shop. Along with 3,000 others, Lois Austin was kept kettled in the circus for around 7 hours. She later appealed to the European Court of Human Rights. On 26 March 2011, around 500,000 protested against government public service cuts in London. At Oxford Circus, they clashed with riot police. On Black Friday, 24 November 2017, the Oxford Circus panic broke out after a fight in Oxford Circus tube station turned into a mass stampede. The area was busy and commuters and shoppers took refuge in shops. The Metropolitan Police later announced it would stand down the response. In April 2019, the environmental group Extinction Rebellion protested by blockading Oxford Circus. Protesters chained themselves to the road, and the Metropolitan Police drafted additional police officers to help clear the area, who helped tear down a pink boat named after the environmental activist Berta Cáceres. In October, protesters erected a giant wooden pyramid structure in the centre of the circus, which had to be dismantled by a JCB. In August 2019, a protest against the imprisonment of far-right extremist Tommy Robinson at the circus descended into violence. A man was arrested for actual bodily harm. 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229192	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geoffrey%20Dearmer	Geoffrey Dearmer	Geoffrey Dearmer (21 March 1893 – 18 August 1996) was a British poet. He was the son of Anglican liturgist and hymnologist Percy Dearmer and the artist and writer Mabel Dearmer. School and university life Stephen Gwynn, a writer closely associated with Dearmer's family, recorded that Dearmer had disliked school but blossomed at university: I have seen a boy who was consistently and persistently and indomitably unhappy during all the phases of his school life, turn into a creature radiant, walking on air, swimming in felicity, from the moment that he became an undergraduate. Bliss lasted for two years and then there was trouble about exams: but Geoffrey Dearmer – for he is my example – had got as much as anyone I ever knew of the real Oxford teaching, which is given by the atmosphere and surroundings and associations and companionships of the place. Service in the First World War Dearmer served first (in 1915) with the Royal Fusiliers at Gallipoli, where his younger brother, Christopher, a pilot with RNAS, had been recently killed in action, and then with the Royal Army Service Corps on the Western Front in France. Dearmer's mother, Mabel, died in Serbia while serving as a paramedic with a Red Cross ambulance unit, for which her husband, the Revd Percy Dearmer, was acting as chaplain. Dearmer was appointed a lieutenant in the Royal Victorian Order (RVO). Civilian career From 1936 to 1958 Dearmer was Examiner of Plays in the Lord Chamberlain's office. Simultaneously he served as Editor of the BBC radio Children's Hour programme. Legacy Dearmer died at the age of 103. The Geoffrey Dearmer Award for new poets was founded in his memory in 1998. Poetic works Many of Dearmer's war poems dealt with the overall brutality of war and violence, to which he was a direct eyewitness. These poems enjoyed a brief popularity during and immediately after World War I but were later overshadowed by the starker works of other war poets such as Wilfred Owen and Siegfried Sassoon. Dearmer's poems were never infused with anger or despair and often revealed his unshakable Christian faith. "Turkish Trench Dog" Night held me as I crawled and scrambled near The Turkish lines. Above, the mocking stars Silvered the curving parapet, and clear Cloud-latticed beams o'erflecked the land with bars. I, crouching, lay between Tense-listening armies peering through the night, Twin giants bound by tentaclesn unseen. Here in dim-shadowed light I saw him, as a sudden movement turned His eyes towards me, glowing eyes that burned A moment ere his snuffling muzzle found My trail; and then, as serpents mesmerise, He chained me with those unrelenting eyes, That muscle-sliding rhythm, knit and bound In spare-limbed symmetry, those perfect jaws And soft-approaching pitter-patter claws. Nearer and nearer like a wolf he crept - That moment had my swift revolver leapt - But terror seized me, terror born of shame Brought flooding revelation. For he came As one who offers comradeship deserved, An open ally of the human race, And, sniffing at my prostrate form unnerved, He licked my face! Dearmer was also a poet of nature. A critic who knew him well rated his garden poetry as highly as his war poems, quoting these lines as an example: The fields were loud with bees And drowsy with the wind-tossed meadow-sweet. From bowing trees Fell chatter, and above the garden wall Wide sunflowers beamed at spearing hollyhocks That dared the wind and scorned the clustered stocks And bore their laddered blooms high over all. Collections Poems, 1918 A Day's Delight, 1923 A Pilgrim's Song, John Murray, 1993 References External links Article about Dearmer in Dutch Daily NRC Handelsblad 1893 births 1996 deaths British poets English centenarians British World War I poets 20th-century British male writers Royal Fusiliers officers British Army personnel of World War I Lieutenants of the Royal Victorian Order British male poets Royal Army Service Corps officers Men centenarians	[ -0.41047048568725586, 0.46170321106910706, -0.7699970006942749, -0.6412467360496521, -0.4857715368270874, 0.8679749965667725, 0.6795715689659119, 0.1372818499803543, 0.09558367729187012, -0.14670446515083313, -0.3361901640892029, -0.0682789534330368, -0.17101018130779266, 0.3271453082561493, -0.005475746933370829, -0.10484304279088974, -0.5392587780952454, -0.45853739976882935, 0.09380126744508743, -0.19517959654331207, -0.25686928629875183, 0.0015289742732420564, 0.30223923921585083, 0.16863667964935303, -0.06422055512666702, 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229193	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Swimming%20at%20the%201900%20Summer%20Olympics	Swimming at the 1900 Summer Olympics	At the 1900 Summer Olympics in Paris, seven swimming events were contested. Only men competed in the swimming competition. There was a total of 76 participants from 12 countries competing. The games are referenced in Yann Martel's 2001 novel Life of Pi. As with the rowing events, swimming took place on the Seine between the Courbevoie Bridge and the Asnières Bridge. Medal table Medal summary Participating nations A total of 76 swimmers from 12 nations competed at the Paris Games: Notes References 1900 Summer Olympics events 1900 1900 in swimming	[ 0.04684139043092728, -0.4733705520629883, -0.8563173413276672, 0.8898070454597473, -0.5754311084747314, 0.08746453374624252, 0.6402653455734253, 0.08419021219015121, -0.7951361536979675, -0.7092375159263611, 0.4401349723339081, 0.055755533277988434, -0.1197386309504509, 0.10240945219993591, 0.21180406212806702, 0.59536212682724, 0.9342749118804932, -0.41584470868110657, 0.8262142539024353, 0.20448389649391174, -0.348231703042984, 0.2665768563747406, 0.23299233615398407, 0.16139720380306244, -0.4422954022884369, -0.08992712944746017, 0.5387877225875854, 0.1542983204126358, 0.7345477342605591, -0.8599746823310852, 0.43594852089881897, 0.22707238793373108, -0.31082066893577576, 0.1266554743051529, -0.48068949580192566, -0.9769579768180847, -0.3753451406955719, -0.3724643886089325, -0.1766921728849411, 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229194	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cello%20Suites%20%28Bach%29	Cello Suites (Bach)	The six Cello Suites, BWV 1007–1012, are suites for unaccompanied cello by Johann Sebastian Bach. They are some of the most frequently performed solo compositions ever written for cello. Bach most likely composed them during the period 1717–23, when he served as Kapellmeister in Köthen. The title given on the cover of the Anna Magdalena Bach manuscript was Suites à Violoncello Solo senza Basso (Suites for cello solo without bass). As usual in a Baroque musical suite, after the prelude which begins each suite, all the other movements are based around baroque dance types; the cello suites are structured in six movements each: prelude, allemande, courante, sarabande, two minuets or two bourrées or two gavottes, and a final gigue. Gary S. Dalkin of MusicWeb International called Bach's cello suites "among the most profound of all classical music works" and Wilfrid Mellers described them in 1980 as "Monophonic music wherein a man has created a dance of God". Due to the works' technical demands, étude-like nature, and difficulty in interpretation because of the non-annotated nature of the surviving copies, the cello suites were little known and rarely publicly performed until they were recorded by Pablo Casals in the early 20th century. They have since been performed and recorded by many renowned cellists and have been transcribed for numerous other instruments; they are considered some of Bach's greatest musical achievements. History An exact chronology of the suites (regarding both the order in which the suites were composed and whether they were composed before or after the solo violin sonatas) cannot be completely established. Scholars generally believe that—based on a comparative analysis of the styles of the sets of works—the cello suites arose first, effectively dating the suites earlier than 1720, the year on the title page of Bach's autograph of the violin sonatas. The suites were not widely known before the early 20th century. It was Pablo Casals who first began to popularize the suites, after discovering Friedrich Grützmacher's edition in a thrift shop in Barcelona in 1889 when he was 13. Although Casals performed the suites publicly, it was not until 1936, when he was 60 years old, that he agreed to record them, beginning with Suites Nos. 2 and 3, at Abbey Road Studios in London. The other four were recorded in Paris: 1 and 6 in June 1938, and 4 and 5 in June 1939. Casals became the first to record all six suites; his recordings are still available and respected today. In 2019, the Casals recording was selected by the Library of Congress for preservation in the National Recording Registry as "culturally, historically, or aesthetically significant". The suites have since been performed and recorded by many cellists. Yo-Yo Ma won the 1985 Grammy Award for Best Instrumental Soloist Performance for his album Six Unaccompanied Cello Suites. János Starker won the 1998 Grammy Award for Best Instrumental Soloist Performance for his fifth recording of Six Unaccompanied Cello Suites. Manuscript Unlike with Bach's solo violin sonatas, no autograph manuscript of the Cello Suites survives, making it impossible to produce modern urtext performing editions. Analysis of secondary sources, including a hand-written copy by Bach's second wife, Anna Magdalena, has produced presumably authentic editions, although critically deficient in the placement of slurs and other articulations, and devoid of basic performance markings such as bowings and dynamics. As a result, the texts present performers with numerous problems of interpretation. German cellist Michael Bach has stated that he believes the manuscripts of the suites by Anna Magdalena Bach are accurate. According to his analysis, the unexpected positioning of the slurs corresponds closely to the harmonic development, which confirm his theory. His theory is not universally accepted. The most recent studies into the relationships among the four manuscripts shows that Anna Magdalena Bach's manuscript almost certainly was not copied directly from her husband's holograph, but from a lost intervening source. If confirmed, the slurs in the manuscript would not come from Bach himself, and would not be clues to their interpretation. Recent research has suggested that the suites were not necessarily written for the familiar cello played between the legs (da gamba), but an instrument played rather like a violin, on the shoulder (). Variations in the terminology used to refer to musical instruments during this period have led to modern confusion, and the discussion continues about what instrument "Bach intended", and even whether he intended any instrument in particular. Sigiswald Kuijken and Ryo Terakado have both recorded the complete suites on this "new" instrument, known today as a violoncello or viola da spalla; reproductions of the instrument have been made by luthier Dmitry Badiarov. Editions The cellist Edmund Kurtz published an edition in 1983, which he based on facsimiles of the manuscript by Anna Magdalena Bach, placing them opposite each printed page. It was described as "the most important edition of the greatest music ever written for the instrument". Arrangements Bach transcribed at least one of the suites, Suite No. 5 in C minor, for lute. An autograph manuscript of this version exists as BWV 995. Using the Bach edition prepared by cellist Johann Friedrich Dotzauer and published by Breitkopf & Härtel in 1826, Robert Schumann wrote arrangements with piano accompaniment for all six Bach cello suites. Schumann's publisher accepted his arrangements of the Bach violin sonatas in 1854, but rejected his Bach cello-suite arrangements. His only cello-suite arrangement surviving is the one for Suite No. 3, discovered in 1981 by musicologist Joachim Draheim in an 1863 transcription by cellist Julius Goltermann. It is believed that Schumann's widow Clara Schumann, along with violinist Joseph Joachim, destroyed his Bach cello-arrangement manuscripts sometime after 1860, when Joachim declared them substandard. Writing in 2011, Fanfare reviewer James A. Altena agreed with that critique, calling the surviving Bach-Schumann cello/piano arrangement "a musical duckbilled platypus, an extreme oddity of sustained interest only to 19th-century musicologists". Joachim Raff, in 1868 while working on his own suites for solo piano and for other ensembles, made arrangements of the suites for piano solo, published from 1869 to 1871 by Rieter-Biedermann. In 1923, Leopold Godowsky composed piano transcriptions of Suites Nos. 2, 3, and 5, in full counterpoint for solo piano, subtitling them "very freely transcribed and adapted for piano". The cello suites have been transcribed for numerous solo instruments, including the violin, viola, double bass, viola da gamba, mandolin, piano, marimba, classical guitar, recorder, flute, electric bass, horn, saxophone, clarinet, bassoon, trumpet, trombone, euphonium, tuba, ukulele, and charango. They have been transcribed and arranged for orchestra as well. Structure The suites are in six movements each, and have the following structure and order of movements. Prelude Allemande Courante Sarabande Galanteries: two minuets in each of Suite Nos. 1 and 2; two bourrées in each of Suite Nos. 3 and 4; two gavottes in each of Suite Nos. 5 and 6 Gigue Scholars believe that Bach intended the works to be considered as a systematically conceived cycle, rather than an arbitrary series of pieces. Compared to Bach's other suite collections, the cello suites are the most consistent in order of their movements. In addition, to achieve a symmetrical design and go beyond the traditional layout, Bach inserted intermezzo or galanterie movements in the form of pairs between the sarabande and the gigue. Only five movements in the entire set of suites are completely non-chordal, meaning that they consist only of a single melodic line. These are the second minuet of Suite No. 1, the second minuet of Suite No. 2, the second bourrée of Suite No. 3, the gigue of Suite No. 4, and the sarabande of Suite No. 5. The second gavotte of Suite No. 5 has but one unison chord (the same note played on two strings at the same time), but only in the original scordatura version of the suite; in the standard tuning version it is completely free of chords. It was recently showed (2019-2022) by G.P. Orefice with his arrangements that an unnoticed double canon structure (for 3 voices) works for all of the movements of all of the Suites, that can be due to the specific hearing of the great organ player J.S. Bach used to experience the music in churces with many echoes. This structure clearly imposes some revisions of the original missed parts and uncoherent amendements and suggests a more constant speed interpretation while playing the Suites following Bach's mind. A second important unveilement is that in each of the Suites there is an unique movement that has got a five voices canon structure, a different movement for each Suite: the Preludium of the 4th, the Allemande of the 1rst, the Courante of the 5th, the Sarabande of the 2nd, the two Bourrées of the 3rd, the Gigue of the 6th; taking into account the couple of Bourrées we get seven movements building a sorte of seventh Suite for five cellos, that can be freely be found on IMSLP among the arrangements. This fact implies that J.S. Bach composed the Suites as unique coherent work, that there are only six Suites, none was missed by Anna Magdalena, and that all were first composed for the same instrument. Many work is still required to detail the contents of the 4th, 5th and 6th Suite and to discover further hidden aspects. Suite No. 1 in G major, BWV 1007 The prelude, mainly consisting of arpeggiated chords, is the best known movement from the entire set of suites and is regularly heard on television and in films. It was recently explained by G.P. Orefice that the Prelude and all of the dances have a hidden double canon structure (for three cellos) and that the Allemande hides the complexity of a canon for five cellos. However the Gigue works as canon for just two cellos, this limited structure shall be inquired. Prelude Allemande Courante Sarabande Minuet I / II Gigue Suite No. 2 in D minor, BWV 1008 The Prelude consists of two parts, the first of which has a strong recurring theme that is immediately introduced in the beginning. The second part is a scale-based cadenza movement that leads to the final, powerful chords. The subsequent allemande contains short cadenzas that stray away from this otherwise very strict dance form. The first minuet contains demanding chord shiftings and string crossings. It was recently explained by G.P.Orefice in his arrangements that the Prelude and all of the dances have a hidden double canon structure (for three cellos) and that the Sarabande hides the complexity of a canon for five cellos. This hidden form implies that the chords of the Prelude have to be developed, as it has been done by several cellists/editors, but the three voices canon properties should be respected. The second and the fifth Suites may have been composed after Bach's first wife death as mourning pieces.. Prelude Allemande Courante Sarabande Minuet I / II Gigue Suite No. 3 in C major, BWV 1009 The Prelude of this suite consists of an A–B–A–C form, with A being a scale-based movement that eventually dissolves into an energetic arpeggio part; and B, a section of demanding chords. It then returns to the scale theme, and ends with a powerful and surprising chord movement. The allemande is the only movement in the suites that has an up-beat consisting of three semiquavers instead of just one, which is the standard form. The second bourrée, though in C minor, has a two-flat (or G minor) key signature. This notation, common in pre-Classical music, is sometimes known as a partial key signature. The first and second bourrée of the third suite are sometimes used as solo material for other bass instruments such as the tuba, euphonium, trombone and bassoon. It was recently explained by G.P.Orefice that the Prelude and all of the dances have a hidden double canon structure (for three cellos) and that the two Bourrées hide the complexity of a canon for five cellos. Prelude Allemande Courante Sarabande Bourrée I / II Gigue Suite No. 4 in E major, BWV 1010 Suite No. 4 is one of the most technically demanding of the suites, as E is an uncomfortable key on the cello and requires many extended left hand positions. The key is also difficult on cello due to the lack of resonant open strings. The prelude primarily consists of a difficult flowing quaver movement that leaves room for a cadenza before returning to its original theme. The Prelude belongs to the pieces with a hidden five voices canon structure. The very peaceful sarabande is quite obscure about the stressed second beat, which is the basic characteristic of the dance, since, in this particular sarabande, almost every first beat contains a chord, whereas the second beat most often does not. Prelude Allemande Courante Sarabande Bourrée I / II Gigue Suite No. 5 in C minor, BWV 1011 Suite No. 5 was originally written in scordatura with the A-string tuned down to G, but nowadays a version for standard tuning is included in almost every printed edition of the suites along with the original version. Some chords must be simplified when playing with standard tuning, but some melodic lines become easier as well. The Prelude is written in an A–B form, and is a French overture. It begins with a slow, emotional movement that explores the deep range of the cello. After that comes a fast and very demanding single-line fugue that leads to the powerful end. This suite is most famous for its intimate sarabande, which is one of the few movements in the six suites that doesn't contain any double stops (chords). Mstislav Rostropovich described it as the essence of Bach's genius. Paul Tortelier viewed it as an extension of silence. Rostropovich, extending Tortelier's "silence" to an extreme, would sometimes play the Sarabande as a recital encore at a metronome marking of 32 or slower, one note per beat, with no vibrato and no slurs, each note standing alone in a "well of silence". Yo-Yo Ma played this movement on September 11, 2002 at the site of the World Trade Center, while the names of the dead were read on the first anniversary of remembrance of the attack. The fifth suite is also exceptional as its courante and gigue are in the French style, rather than in the Italian form of the other five suites. The Courante belongs to the pieces with a hidden five voices canon structure. An autograph manuscript of Bach's lute version of this suite exists as BWV 995. Prelude Allemande Courante Sarabande Gavotte I / II Gigue Suite No. 6 in D major, BWV 1012 It is widely believed that Suite No. 6 was composed specifically for a five-stringed violoncello piccolo, a smaller cello, roughly normal cello size with a fifth upper string tuned to E, a perfect fifth above the otherwise top string. However, some say there is no substantial evidence to support this claim: whilst three of the sources inform the player that it is written for an instrument à cinq cordes, only Anna Magdalena Bach's manuscript indicates the tunings of the strings, and the other sources do not mention any intended instrument at all. Other possible instruments for the suite include a cello da spalla, a version of the violoncello piccolo played on the shoulder like a viola, as well as a viola with a fifth string tuned to E, called a viola pomposa. As the range required in this piece is very large, the suite was probably intended for a larger instrument, although it is conceivable that Bach—who was fond of the viola—may have performed the work himself on an arm-held violoncello piccolo. However, it is equally likely that beyond hinting the number of strings, Bach did not intend any specific instrument at all as the construction of instruments in the early 18th century was highly variable. Cellists playing this suite on a modern four-string cello encounter difficulties as they are forced to use very high positions to reach many of the notes. Performers specialising in early music and using authentic instruments generally use the five-string cello for this suite. The approach of Watson Forbes, in his transcription of this suite for viola, was to transpose the entire suite to G major, avoiding "a tone colour which is not very suitable for this type of music" and making most of the original chords playable on a four-stringed instrument. This suite is written in much more free form than the others, containing more cadenza-like movements and virtuosic passages. It is also the only one of the suites that is partly notated in the alto and soprano clefs (modern editions use tenor and treble clefs), which are not needed for the others since they never go above the note G4 (G above middle C). The Gigue, the final piece of all of the six Suites, closes the serie of pieces with a hidden five voices canon structure, and can even be seen as canon for seven cellos, that cannot however be appreciated as it becomes to complex to be properly listened. Mstislav Rostropovich called Suite No. 6 "a symphony for solo cello" and characterised its D major tonality as evoking joy and triumph. Prelude Allemande Courante Sarabande Gavotte I / II Gigue Refuted speculations about Anna Magdalena Bach Professor Martin Jarvis of Charles Darwin University School of Music, in Darwin, Australia, speculated in 2006 that Anna Magdalena may have been the composer of several musical pieces attributed to her husband. Jarvis proposes that Anna Magdalena wrote the six Cello Suites and was involved in composing the aria from the Goldberg Variations (BWV 988). Musicologists, critics, and performers, however, pointing to the thinness of evidence of this proposition, and the extant evidence that supports Johann Sebastian Bach's authorship, remain skeptical of the claim. References External links Anna Magdalena's manuscript Manuscript Sources Johann Sebastian Bach at Grove Music Online The Cello Suites of Bach: History – Analysis – Detailed Interpretation – Program Notes – Audio – Video – Comprehensive analysis and notes on interpretation by cellist Georg Mertens Audio, commentary, analysis, and history from Stanford University History, Baroque Cello, Editions, Recordings, Interpretation jsbachcellosuites.com Cello Suite No. 1, Cello Suite No. 2, Cello Suite No. 3, Cello Suite No. 4, Cello Suite No. 5 and Cello Suite No. 6: performances by the Netherlands Bach Society (video and background information) MIDI Sequences Musical scores and MIDI files at the Mutopia Project Suites by Johann Sebastian Bach Solo cello pieces 1710s works 1720s works	[ -0.7514215707778931, 0.32223498821258545, 0.5601539611816406, -0.1902216523885727, 0.4679756760597229, 0.21022836863994598, 0.4887438714504242, -0.2758156955242157, -0.8116346597671509, -0.5747913718223572, 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229195	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oxford%20Street	Oxford Street	Oxford Street is a major road in the City of Westminster in the West End of London, running from Tottenham Court Road to Marble Arch via Oxford Circus. It is Europe's busiest shopping street, with around half a million daily visitors, and as of 2012 had approximately 300 shops. It is designated as part of the A40, a major road between London and Fishguard, though it is not signed as such, and traffic is regularly restricted to buses and taxis. The road was originally part of the Via Trinobantina, a Roman road between Essex and Hampshire via London. It was known as Tyburn Road through the Middle Ages when it was notorious for public hangings of prisoners at Tyburn Gallows. It became known as Oxford Road and then Oxford Street in the 18th century, and began to change from residential to commercial and retail use by the late 19th century, attracting street traders, confidence tricksters and prostitution. The first department stores in the UK opened in the early 20th century, including Selfridges, John Lewis & Partners and HMV. Unlike nearby shopping streets such as Bond Street, it has retained an element of downmarket trading alongside more prestigious retail stores. The street suffered heavy bombing during World War II, and several longstanding stores including John Lewis & Partners were completely destroyed and rebuilt from scratch. Despite competition from other shopping centres such as Westfield Stratford City and the Brent Cross Shopping Centre, Oxford Street remains in high demand as a retail location, with several chains having their flagship stores on the street, and has a number of listed buildings. The annual switching on of Christmas lights by a celebrity has been a popular event since 1959. As a popular retail area and main thoroughfare for London buses and taxis, Oxford Street has suffered from traffic congestion, pedestrian congestion, a poor safety record and pollution. Various traffic management schemes have been implemented by Transport for London (TfL), including a ban on private vehicles during daytime hours on weekdays and Saturdays, and improved pedestrian crossings. Location Oxford Street runs for approximately and is entirely within the City of Westminster. The road begins at St Giles Circus as a westward continuation of New Oxford Street, meeting Charing Cross Road, Tottenham Court Road (next to Tottenham Court Road station). It runs past Rathbone Place, Wardour Street and Great Portland Street to Oxford Circus, where it meets Regent Street. From there it continues past New Bond Street, Bond Street station and Vere Street, ending at Marble Arch. The route continues as Bayswater Road and Holland Park Avenue towards Shepherd's Bush. The road is within the London Congestion Charging Zone. It is part of the A40, most of which is a trunk road running from London to Fishguard (via Oxford, Cheltenham, Brecon and Haverfordwest). Like many roads in Central London that are no longer through routes, it is not signposted with that number. Numerous bus routes run along Oxford Street, including the 55, 73, 94, 98, 159, 390 and Night Buses N8, N55, N73, N98 and N207. History Early history Oxford Street follows the route of a Roman road, the Via Trinobantina, which linked Calleva Atrebatum (near Silchester, Hampshire) with Camulodunum (now Colchester) via London and became one of the major routes in and out of the city. Between the 12th century and 1782, it was variously known as Tyburn Road (after the River Tyburn that crossed it north to south), Uxbridge Road (the name still used for the road between Shepherd's Bush and Uxbridge), Worcester Road and Oxford Road. At the western end, the road met the Tyburn gallows next to Marble Arch. On Ralph Aggas' "Plan of London", published in the 16th century, the road is described partly as "The Waye to Uxbridge" followed by "Oxford Road", showing rural farmland at the present junction of Oxford Street and Rathbone Place. By 1678 it was known as the "King's Highway", and the "Road To Oxford" by 1682. Though a major coaching route, there were several obstacles along it, including the bridge over the Tyburn. A turnpike trust was established in the 1730s to improve upkeep of the road. It became notorious as the route taken by prisoners on their final journey from Newgate Prison to the gallows at Tyburn. Spectators jeered as the prisoners were carted along the road, and could buy rope used in the executions from the hangman in taverns. By about 1729, the road had become known as Oxford Street. Development began in the 18th century after many surrounding fields were purchased by the Earl of Oxford. In 1739, a local gardener, Thomas Huddle, built property on the north side. John Rocque's Map of London, published in 1746, shows urban buildings as far as North Audley Street, but only intermittent rural property beyond. Buildings were erected on the corner of Oxford Street and Davies Street in the 1750s. Further development occurred between 1763 and 1793. The Pantheon, a place for public entertainment, opened at No. 173 in 1772. The street became popular for entertainment including bear-baiters, theatres and public houses. However, it was not attractive to the middle and upper classes due to the nearby Tyburn gallows and the notorious St Giles rookery, or slum. The gallows were removed in 1783, and by the end of the century, Oxford Street was built up from St Giles Circus to Park Lane, containing a mix of residential houses and entertainment. The site of the Princess's Theatre that opened in 1840 is now occupied by Oxford Walk shopping area. Oxford Circus was designed as part of the development of Regent Street by the architect John Nash in 1810. The four quadrants of the circus were designed by Sir Henry Tanner and constructed between 1913 and 1928. Retail development Oxford Street changed in character from residential to retail towards the end of the 19th century. Drapers, cobblers and furniture stores opened shops on the street, and some expanded into the first department stores. Street vendors sold tourist souvenirs during this time. A plan in Tallis's London Street Views, published in the late 1830s, remarks that almost all the street, save for the far western end, was primarily retail. John Lewis started in 1864 in small shop at No. 132, while Selfridges opened on 15 March 1909 at No. 400. Most of the southern side west of Davies Street was completely rebuilt between 1865 and 1890, allowing a more uniform freehold ownership. By the 1930s the street was almost entirely retail, a state that still obtains today. However, unlike nearby streets such as Bond Street and Park Lane, there remained a seedy element including street traders and prostitutes. During the Second World War, Oxford Street was bombed several times. Overnight and in the early hours of 17 to 18 September 1940, 268 Heinkel He 111 and Dornier Do 17 bombers targeted the West End, particularly Oxford Street. Many buildings were damaged, either from direct hits or subsequent fires, including four department stores: John Lewis, Selfridges, Bourne & Hollingsworth and Peter Robinson. George Orwell wrote in his diary for 24 September that Oxford Street was "completely empty of traffic, and only a few pedestrians", and saw "innumerable fragments of broken glass". John Lewis caught fire again on 25 September and was reduced to a shell. It remained a bomb site for the remainder of the war and beyond, finally being demolished and rebuilt between 1958 and 1960. Peter Robinson partially reopened on 22 September, though the main storefront remained boarded up. The basement was converted into studios for the BBC Eastern Service. Orwell made several broadcasts here from 1941 to 1943. Selfridges was bombed again on 17 April 1941, suffering further damage, including the destruction of the Palm Court Restaurant. The basement was converted to a communications base, with a dedicated line run along Oxford Street to Whitehall allowing British Prime Minister Winston Churchill to make secure and direct telephone calls to the US President Franklin D. Roosevelt. The store was damaged again on 6 December 1944 after a V2 rocket exploded on nearby Duke Street, causing its Christmas tree displays to collapse into the street outside. Damage was repaired, and the shop reopened the following day. Post-war In September 1973 a shopping-bag bomb was detonated by the Irish Republican Army (IRA) at the offices of the Prudential Assurance Company, injuring six people. A second bomb was detonated by the IRA next to Selfridges in December 1974, injuring three people and causing £1.5 million worth of damage. Oxford Street was again targeted by the IRA in August 1975; an undiscovered bomb that had been booby trapped exploded without any injuries. On 26 October 1981 Kenneth Howorth, an explosives officer with the Metropolitan Police, was killed while defusing a bomb planted by the IRA in the basement toilet of a Wimpy Bar on Oxford Street. The IRA also detonated a bomb at the John Lewis department store in December 1992, along with another in nearby Cavendish Square, injuring four people. The human billboard Stanley Green began selling on Oxford Street in 1968, advertising his belief in the link of proteins to sexual libido and the dangers therein. He regularly patrolled the street with a placard headlined "less passion from less protein", and advertised his pamphlet Eight Passion Proteins with Care until his death in 1993. His placards are now housed in the British Museum. Centre Point, just beyond the eastern end of Oxford Street next to Tottenham Court Road station, was designed by property developer Harry Hyams and opened in 1966. It failed to find a suitable tenant and remained empty for many years before being occupied by squatters who used it as a centre of protest against the lack of suitable accommodation in central London. In 2015, building work began to convert it into residential flats, with development expected to finish in 2017. Buildings Oxford Street is home to a number of major department stores and flagship retail outlets, containing over 300 shops as of 2012. It is the most frequently visited shopping street in Inner London, attracting over half a million daily visitors in 2014, and is one of the most popular destinations in London for tourists, with an annual estimated turnover of over £1 billion. It forms part of a shopping district in the West End of London, along with other streets including Covent Garden, Bond Street and Piccadilly. The New West End Company, formerly the Oxford Street Association, oversees stores and trade along the street; its objective is to make the place safe and desirable for shoppers. The group has been critical of overcrowding and the quality of shops and has clamped down on abusive traders, who were then refused licences. Several British retail chains regard their Oxford Street branch as the flagship store. Marshall & Snelgrove opened in 1870; in 1919 it merged with Debenhams, which had opened in nearby Wigmore Street in 1778. The company was owned by Burton between 1985 and 1998. The London flagship store of House of Fraser began as D. H. Evans in 1879, and moved to its current premises in 1935. It was the first department store in the UK with escalators serving every floor. Selfridges, Oxford Street, the second-largest department store in the UK and the flagship of the Selfridges chain, has been in Oxford Street since 1909. Marks & Spencer has two stores on Oxford Street. The first, Marks & Spencer Marble Arch, is at the junction with Orchard Street. A second branch is between Regent Street and Tottenham Court Road, on the former site of the Pantheon. The music retailer HMV was opened at No. 363 Oxford Street in 1921 by Sir Edward Elgar. The Beatles made their first recording in London in 1962, when they cut a 78 rpm demo disc in the store. A larger store at No. 150 was opened in 1986 by Bob Geldof, and was the largest music shop in the world, at . As well as music and video retail, the premises supported live gigs in the store. Because of financial difficulties, the store closed in 2014, with all retail moving to No. 363. The 100 Club, in the basement of No. 100, has been run as a live music venue since 24 October 1942. It was thought to be safe from bombing threats because of its underground location, and played host to jazz musicians, including Glenn Miller. It was renamed the London Jazz Club in 1948, and subsequently the Humphrey Lyttelton Club after he took over the lease in the 1950s. Louis Armstrong played at the venue during this time. It became a key venue for the trad jazz revival, hosting gigs by Chris Barber and Acker Bilk. It was renamed the 100 Club in 1964 after Roger Horton bought a stake, adding an alcohol licence for the first time. The venue hosted gigs by several British rock bands, including the Who, the Kinks and the Animals. It was an important venue for punk rock in the UK and hosted the first British punk festival on 21 September 1976, featuring the Sex Pistols, the Damned and the Buzzcocks. The Tottenham is a Grade II* listed pub at No. 6 Oxford Street, near Tottenham Court Road. It was built in the mid-19th century and is the last remaining pub in the street, which once had 20. The London College of Fashion has an Oxford Street campus on John Prince's Street near Oxford Circus. The college is part of the University of the Arts London, formerly the London Institute. The cosmetics retailer Lush opened a store in 2015. Measuring and containing three floors, it is the company's largest retail premises. Transport links Oxford Street is served by major bus routes and by four tube stations of the London Underground. From Marble Arch eastwards, the stations are: Marble Arch, on the Central line Bond Street, on the Central line and Jubilee line Oxford Circus, on the Central line, Bakerloo line and Victoria line Tottenham Court Road, on the Central line and Northern line The four stations serve an average of 100 million passengers every year, with Oxford Circus being the busiest. Crossrail, a major project involving an east–west rail route across London, will have two stations serving Oxford Street, at Bond Street and Tottenham Court Road. Each station will be "double-ended", with exits through the existing tube station and also some distance away: to the east of Bond Street, in Hanover Square near Oxford Circus; to the west of Tottenham Court Road, in Dean Street. Traffic Oxford Street has been ranked as the most important retail location in Britain and the busiest shopping street in Europe. The pavements are congested because of shoppers and tourists, many of whom arrive at a tube station, and the roadway is regularly blocked by buses. There is heavy competition between foot and bus traffic on Oxford Street, which is the main east–west bus corridor through Central London. Around 175,000 people get on or off a bus on Oxford Street every day, along with 43,000 further through passengers. Taxis are popular, particularly along the stretch between Oxford Circus and Selfridges. Between 2009 and 2012, there were 71 accidents involving traffic and pedestrians. In 2016, a report suggested buses generally did not travel faster than , compared to a typical pedestrian speed of . There have been several proposals to reduce congestion on Oxford Street. Horse-drawn vehicles were banned in 1931, and traffic signals were installed the same year. To prevent congestion of buses, most of Oxford Street is designated a bus lane during peak hours and private vehicles are banned. This is only open to buses, taxis and two-wheeled vehicles between 7:00am and 7:00pm on all days except Sundays. The ban was introduced experimentally in June 1972 and was considered a success, with an estimated increase of £250,000 in retail sales. However, the area is popular with unregulated rickshaws, which are a major cause of congestion in the area. Their slow speed, coupled with the narrowness of the street (buses are unable to pass them, causing long traffic queues), only adds to the traffic woes. In 2009, a new diagonal crossing opened at Oxford Circus, allowing pedestrians to cross from one corner of Oxford Street to the opposite without needing to cross twice or use an underpass. This doubles the pedestrian capacity at the junction. Pedestrianisation From 2005 to 2012, Oxford Street was closed to motor traffic on VIP Day, (Very Important Pedestrians), a Saturday before Christmas. The scheme was popular and boosted sales by over £17m in 2012 but in 2013, the New West End Company announced that the scheme would not go ahead as it wanted to do "something new". In 2014, Liberal Democrat members of the London Assembly proposed the street be pedestrianised by 2020. In 2006, the New West End Company and the Mayor of London, Ken Livingstone, proposed to pedestrianise the street with a tram service running end to end. The next Mayor, Boris Johnson, elected in 2008, announced that the scheme was not cost-effective, was too disruptive and would not go ahead. In response to a request from Johnson, Transport for London (TfL) reduced bus flow by 10% in both 2009 and 2010. The New West End Company called for a 33% reduction in bus movements. In 2014, TfL suggested that pedestrianisation may not be a suitable long-term measure due to Crossrail reducing the demand for bus services on the street and proposed banning all traffic except buses and cycles during peak shopping times. Optimisation of traffic signals, including pedestrian countdown signals, was also proposed. TfL is concerned that long-term traffic problems may affect trade in the area, which competes with shopping centres such as Westfield London, Westfield Stratford City and the Brent Cross Shopping Centre. In 2015, while campaigning for election as London Mayor, Labour's Sadiq Khan favoured pedestrianisation, which was supported by other parties. After winning the election, he pledged the street would be completely pedestrianised by 2020. In 2017, the project was brought forward to be completed by the end of the following year. The plan has been disapproved by local residents, Westminster City Council and the Fitzrovia Business Association. Pollution In 2014, a report by a scientist at King's College London showed that Oxford Street had the world's highest concentration of nitrogen dioxide pollution, at 135 micrograms per cubic metre of air (μg/m3). The figure was an average that included night-time, when traffic was much lower. At peak times during the day, levels up to 463 μg/m3 were recorded – over 11 times the permitted EU maximum of 40 μg/m3. Because of diesel-powered traffic (buses and taxis), annual average nitrogen dioxide concentrations are around 180 μg/m3. This is 4.5 times the EU target of 40 μg/m3 (Council Directive 1999/30/EC). Crime Oxford Street has suffered from high crime rates. In 2005, an internal Metropolitan Police report named it as the most dangerous street in Central London. In 2012, an analysis of crime statistics revealed that Oxford Street was the shopping destination most surrounded by crime in the UK. During 2011, there were 656 vehicle crimes, 915 robberies, 2,597 violent crimes and 5,039 reported instances of anti-social behaviour. In 2014, the United Arab Emirates issued a travel advisory, warning Emirati citizens to avoid Oxford Street and other areas of Central London such as Bond Street and Piccadilly due to "pickpocketing, fraud and theft". The advent of closed-circuit television has reduced the area's attraction to scam artists and illegal street traders. In 2021, police seized 17,500 items including fake designer goods, unsafe toys and incorrectly-labelled nicotine products as part of Operation Jade. 4,000 items were removed from an unregistered food trader, including two bags with a quantity of Tetrahydrocannabinol over the legal limit. Trading Standards also took 11,000 goods and 2,500 souvenirs from unlicensed businesses and street traders. Christmas lights Every Christmas, Oxford Street is decorated with festive lights. The tradition of Christmas lights began in 1959, five years after neighbouring Regent Street. There were no light displays in 1976 or 1977 because of economic recession, but the lights returned in 1978 when Oxford Street organised a laser display, and have continued every year since. Current practice involves a celebrity turning the lights on in mid- to late-November, and the lights remain until 6 January (Twelfth Night). The festivities were postponed in 1963 because of the assassination of John F. Kennedy and in 1989 to fit with Kylie Minogue's touring commitments. In 2015, the lights were switched on earlier, on Sunday 1 November, resulting in an unusual closure of the street to all traffic. In 2020, the lights honoured volunteers who had helped London residents through the ongoing COVID-19 pandemic. Listed buildings Oxford Street has several Grade II listed buildings. In addition, the façades to Oxford Circus tube station are also listed. Cultural references Oxford Street is mentioned in several Charles Dickens novels. In A Tale of Two Cities, as Oxford Road, it is described as having "very few buildings", though it was heavily built up by the late 18th century. It is also mentioned in Sketches by Boz and Bleak House. Oxford Street is one of the London poet Letitia Elizabeth Landon's Scenes in London. In this poem the busy bustle of commercial life is interrupted by and contrasted with the procession of a military funeral. The street is a square on the British Monopoly game board, part of the green set (together with Regent Street and Bond Street). The streets were grouped together as they are all primarily retail areas. In 1991, music manager and entrepreneur Malcolm McLaren produced The Ghosts of Oxford Street, a musical documentary about life and history in the local area. 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229196	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gigue	Gigue	The gigue (; ) or giga () is a lively baroque dance originating from the English jig. It was imported into France in the mid-17th century and usually appears at the end of a suite. The gigue was probably never a court dance, but it was danced by nobility on social occasions and several court composers wrote gigues. A gigue is usually in or in one of its compound metre derivatives, such as , , or , although there are some gigues written in other metres, as for example the gigue from Johann Sebastian Bach's first French Suite (BWV 812), which is written in and has a distinctive strutting "dotted" rhythm. It often has a contrapuntal texture as well as often having accents on the third beats in the bar, making the gigue a lively folk dance. In early French theatre, it was customary to end a play's performance with a gigue, complete with music and dancing. A gigue, like other Baroque dances, consists of two sections. Etymology An early Italian dance called the giga probably derives its name from a small accompanying stringed instrument called the giga. Historians, such as Charles Read Baskerville, claim that use of the word in relation to dancing took place in England prior to such usage on the Continent. Giga probably has a separate etymology. Cultural references Jonathan Littell's novel The Kindly Ones is structured in different parts, each one of these named after a Baroque dance, the last part being called Gigue. See also Jig (folk dance) Loure (slow gigue) References Further reading Simone Voyer, La Gigue, Québec: GID, 2003 Baroque dance European dances Baroque music Dance forms in classical music	[ -0.43011045455932617, -0.42458945512771606, 0.3982071876525879, 0.051911696791648865, -0.049231987446546555, 0.33496329188346863, 0.18108949065208435, 0.48079752922058105, -0.7859154939651489, -0.19489726424217224, 0.09195812791585922, 0.3015115559101105, -0.07700583338737488, 0.13204331696033478, -0.9171600341796875, 0.6370403170585632, 0.5470498204231262, -0.3744592070579529, 0.24806486070156097, -0.6330012083053589, -0.3277532160282135, -0.16741451621055603, 0.02663424424827099, -0.2576482594013214, 0.4741215109825134, 0.13677553832530975, -0.1126435250043869, 0.5828864574432373, -0.031916894018650055, -0.10057263821363449, -0.20229925215244293, 0.602593719959259, 0.3421717584133148, -0.2974929213523865, 0.261057585477829, 0.3066547214984894, -0.3135744333267212, -0.4313354194164276, 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229198	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Haruki%20Murakami	Haruki Murakami	is a Japanese writer. His novels, essays, and short stories have been bestsellers in Japan as well as internationally, with his work translated into 50 languages and selling millions of copies outside Japan. He has received numerous awards for his work, including the Gunzou Prize for New Writers, the World Fantasy Award, the Frank O'Connor International Short Story Award, the Franz Kafka Prize, and the Jerusalem Prize. Growing up in Kobe before moving to Tokyo to attend Waseda University, he published his first novel Hear the Wind Sing (1979) after working as the owner of a small jazz bar for seven years. His notable works include the novels Norwegian Wood (1987), The Wind-Up Bird Chronicle (1994–95), Kafka on the Shore (2002), and 1Q84 (2009–10), with 1Q84 ranked as the best work of Japan's Heisei era (1989-2019) by the national newspaper Asahi Shimbun survey of literary experts. His work spans genres including science fiction, fantasy, and crime fiction, and has become known for its use of magical realist elements. His official website lists Raymond Chandler, Kurt Vonnegut, and Richard Brautigan as key inspirations to his work, while Murakami himself has cited Kazuo Ishiguro, Cormac McCarthy, and Dag Solstad as his favourite currently active writers. Murakami has also published five short story collections, including his most recently published work, First Person Singular (2020), and non-fiction works including Underground (1997), inspired by personal interviews Murakami conducted with victims of the Tokyo subway sarin attack, and What I Talk About When I Talk About Running (2007), a series of personal essays about his experience as a marathon runner. His fiction has polarized literary critics and the reading public. He has sometimes been criticised by Japan's literary establishment as un-Japanese, leading to Murakami's recalling that he was a "black sheep in the Japanese literary world". Meanwhile, Murakami has been described by Gary Fisketjon, the editor of Murakami's collection The Elephant Vanishes (1993), as a "truly extraordinary writer", while Steven Poole of The Guardian praised Murakami as "among the world's greatest living novelists" for his oeuvre and achievements. Biography Murakami was born in Kyoto, Japan, during the post-World War II baby boom and raised in Nishinomiya, Ashiya and Kobe. He is an only child. His father was the son of a Buddhist priest, and his mother is the daughter of an Osaka merchant. Both taught Japanese literature. His father was involved in the Second Sino-Japanese War, and was deeply traumatized by it, which would, in turn, affect Murakami. Since childhood, Murakami, like Kōbō Abe, has been heavily influenced by Western culture, particularly Western as well as Russian music and literature. He grew up reading a wide range of works by European and American writers, such as Franz Kafka, Gustave Flaubert, Charles Dickens, Kurt Vonnegut, Fyodor Dostoyevsky, Richard Brautigan and Jack Kerouac. These Western influences distinguish Murakami from the majority of other Japanese writers. Murakami studied drama at Waseda University in Tokyo, where he met Yoko, now his wife. His first job was at a record store. Shortly before finishing his studies, Murakami opened a coffee house and jazz bar, Peter Cat, in Kokubunji, Tokyo, which he ran with his wife, from 1974 to 1981. The couple decided not to have children. Murakami is an experienced marathon runner and triathlon enthusiast, though he did not start running until he was 33 years old, after he began as a way to stay healthy despite the hours spent at his desk writing. On June 23, 1996, he completed his first ultramarathon, a 100 km race around Lake Saroma in Hokkaido, Japan. He discusses his relationship with running in his 2008 memoir What I Talk About When I Talk About Running. Writing career Trilogy of the Rat Murakami began to write fiction when he was 29. "Before that," he said, "I didn't write anything. I was just one of those ordinary people. I was running a jazz club, and I didn't create anything at all." He was inspired to write his first novel, Hear the Wind Sing (1979), while watching a baseball game. He described the moment he realized he could write as a "warm sensation" he could still feel in his heart. He went home and began writing that night. Murakami worked on Hear the Wind Sing for ten months in very brief stretches, during nights, after working days at the bar. He completed the novel and sent it to the only literary contest that would accept a work of that length, winning first prize. Murakami's initial success with Hear the Wind Sing encouraged him to continue writing. A year later, he published a sequel, Pinball, 1973. In 1982, he published A Wild Sheep Chase, a critical success. Hear the Wind Sing, Pinball, 1973, and A Wild Sheep Chase form the Trilogy of the Rat (a sequel, Dance, Dance, Dance, was written later but is not considered part of the series), centered on the same unnamed narrator and his friend, "the Rat". The first two novels were not widely available in English translation outside Japan until 2015, although an English edition, translated by Alfred Birnbaum with extensive notes, had been published by Kodansha as part of a series intended for Japanese students of English. Murakami considers his first two novels to be "immature" and "flimsy", and has not been eager to have them translated into English. A Wild Sheep Chase, he says, was "the first book where I could feel a kind of sensation, the joy of telling a story. When you read a good story, you just keep reading. When I write a good story, I just keep writing." Wider recognition In 1985, Murakami wrote Hard-Boiled Wonderland and the End of the World, a dream-like fantasy that took the magical elements of his work to a new extreme. Murakami achieved a major breakthrough and national recognition in 1987 with the publication of Norwegian Wood, a nostalgic story of loss and sexuality. It sold millions of copies among young Japanese. Norwegian Wood propelled the barely known Murakami into the spotlight. He was mobbed at airports and other public places, leading to his departure from Japan in 1986. Murakami traveled through Europe, lived in the United States and currently resides in Oiso, Kanagawa, with an office in Tokyo. Murakami was a writing fellow at Princeton University in Princeton, New Jersey, Tufts University in Medford, Massachusetts, and Harvard University in Cambridge, Massachusetts. During this time he wrote South of the Border, West of the Sun and The Wind-Up Bird Chronicle. From "detachment" to "commitment" The Wind-Up Bird Chronicle (1995) fuses the realistic and fantastic and contains elements of physical violence. It is also more socially conscious than his previous work, dealing in part with the difficult topic of war crimes in Manchukuo (Northeast China). The novel won the Yomiuri Prize, awarded by one of Murakami's harshest former critics, Kenzaburō Ōe, who himself won the Nobel Prize for Literature in 1994. The processing of collective trauma soon became an important theme in Murakami's writing, which had previously been more personal in nature. Murakami returned to Japan in the aftermath of the Kobe earthquake and the Aum Shinrikyo gas attack. He came to terms with these events with his first work of non-fiction, Underground, and the short story collection After the Quake. Underground consists largely of interviews of victims of the gas attacks in the Tokyo subway system. Murakami himself mentions that he changed his position from one of "detachment" to one of "commitment" after staying in the United States in 1991. "His early books, he said, originated in an individual darkness, while his later works tap into the darkness found in society and history," wrote Wendy Edelstein in an article for UC Berkeley News. English translations of many of his short stories written between 1983 and 1990 have been collected in The Elephant Vanishes. Murakami has also translated many works of F. Scott Fitzgerald, Raymond Carver, Truman Capote, John Irving, and Paul Theroux, among others, into Japanese. Murakami took an active role in translation of his work into English, encouraging "adaptations" of his texts to American reality rather than direct translation. Some of his works that appeared in German turned out to be translations from English rather than Japanese (South of the Border, West of the Sun, 2000; The Wind-Up Bird Chronicle, 2000s), encouraged by Murakami himself. Both were later re-translated from Japanese. Since 1999 Sputnik Sweetheart was first published in 1999, followed by Kafka on the Shore in 2002, with the English translation following in 2005. Kafka on the Shore won the World Fantasy Award for Novels in 2006. The English version of his novel After Dark was released in May 2007. It was chosen by The New York Times as a "notable book of the year". In late 2005, Murakami published a collection of short stories titled Tōkyō Kitanshū, or 東京奇譚集, which translates loosely as "Mysteries of Tokyo". A collection of the English versions of twenty-four short stories, titled Blind Willow, Sleeping Woman, was published in August 2006. This collection includes both older works from the 1980s as well as some of Murakami's more recent short stories, including all five that appear in Tōkyō Kitanshū. In 2002, Murakami published the anthology Birthday Stories, which collects short stories on the theme of birthdays. The collection includes work by Russell Banks, Ethan Canin, Raymond Carver, David Foster Wallace, Denis Johnson, Claire Keegan, Andrea Lee, Daniel Lyons, Lynda Sexson, Paul Theroux, and William Trevor, as well as a story by Murakami himself. What I Talk About When I Talk About Running, containing tales about his experience as a marathon runner and a triathlete, was published in Japan in 2007, with English translations released in the U.K. and the U.S. in 2008. The title is a play on that of Raymond Carver's short story collection, What We Talk About When We Talk About Love. Shinchosha Publishing published Murakami's novel 1Q84 in Japan on May 29, 2009. 1Q84 is pronounced "ichi kyū hachi yon", the same as 1984, as 9 is also pronounced "kyū" in Japanese. The book was longlisted for the Man Asian Literary Prize in 2011. However, after the 2012 anti-Japanese demonstrations in China, Murakami's books were removed from sale there, along with those of other Japanese authors. Murakami criticized the China–Japan political territorial dispute, characterizing the overwrought nationalistic response as "cheap liquor" which politicians were giving to the public. In April 2013, he published his novel Colorless Tsukuru Tazaki and His Years of Pilgrimage. It became an international bestseller but received mixed reviews. Killing Commendatore (Kishidancho Goroshi) is Murakami's most recent work as of 2018. Published in Japan on February 24, 2017 and in the US in October 2018, the novel is a historical fiction that has caused controversy in Hong Kong. The novel was labeled under "Class II – indecent" in Hong Kong. This classification led to mass amounts of censorship. The publisher must not distribute the book to people under the age of 18, and must have a warning label printed on the cover. Writing style Most of Haruki Murakami's works use first-person narrative in the tradition of the Japanese I Novel. He states that because family plays a significant role in traditional Japanese literature, any main character who is independent becomes a man who values freedom and solitude over intimacy. Also notable is Murakami's unique humor, as seen in his 2000 short story collection, After the Quake. In the story "Superfrog Saves Tokyo", the protagonist is confronted with a 6-foot tall frog that talks about the destruction of Tokyo over a cup of tea. In spite of the story's sober tone, Murakami feels the reader should be entertained once the seriousness of a subject has been broached. Another notable feature of Murakami's stories are the comments that come from the main characters as to how strange the story presents itself. Murakami explains that his characters experience what he experiences as he writes, which could be compared to a movie set where the walls and props are all fake. He has further compared the process of writing to movies: "That is one of the joys of writing fiction—I'm making my own film made just for myself." Many of his novels have themes and titles that evoke classical music, such as the three books making up The Wind-Up Bird Chronicle: The Thieving Magpie (after Rossini's opera), Bird as Prophet (after a piano piece by Robert Schumann usually known in English as The Prophet Bird), and The Bird-Catcher (a character in Mozart's opera The Magic Flute). Some of his novels take their titles from songs: Dance, Dance, Dance (after The Dells' 1957 B-side song, although it is often thought it was titled after the Beach Boys' 1964 tune), Norwegian Wood (after The Beatles' song) and South of the Border, West of the Sun (after the song "South of the Border"). Some analyses see aspects of shamanism in his writing. In a 2000 article, Susan Fisher connected Japanese folk religion or Japanese shamanism with some elements of The Wind-Up Bird Chronicle, such as a descent into a dry well. At an October 2013 symposium held at the University of Hawaii, associate professor of Japanese Nobuko Ochner opined "there were many descriptions of traveling in a parallel world as well as characters who have some connection to shamanism" in Murakami's works. Recognition Prizes for books 1979: Gunzo Award (best first novel) for Hear the Wind Sing 1982: Noma Literary Prize (best newcomer) for A Wild Sheep Chase 1985: Tanizaki Prize for Hard-Boiled Wonderland and the End of the World 1995: Yomiuri Prize (best novel) for The Wind-Up Bird Chronicle 1999: Kuwabara Takeo Prize for Underground 2006: World Fantasy Award (best novel) for Kafka on the Shore 2006: Frank O'Connor International Short Story Award for Blind Willow, Sleeping Woman 2016: Hans Christian Andersen Literature Award 2018: America Award in Literature for a lifetime contribution to international writing Murakami was also awarded the 2007 Kiriyama Prize for Fiction for his collection of short stories Blind Willow, Sleeping Woman, but according to the prize's official website, Murakami "declined to accept the award for reasons of personal principle". Personal prizes In 2006, Murakami became the sixth recipient of the Franz Kafka Prize. In September 2007, he received an honorary doctorate of Letters from the University of Liège, one from Princeton University in June 2008, and one from Tufts University in May 2014. In January 2009, Murakami received the Jerusalem Prize, a biennial literary award given to writers whose work deals with themes of human freedom, society, politics, and government. There were protests in Japan and elsewhere against his attending the February award ceremony in Israel, including threats to boycott his work as a response against Israel's recent bombing of the Gaza. Murakami chose to attend the ceremony, but gave a speech to the gathered Israeli dignitaries harshly criticizing Israeli policies. Murakami said, "Each of us possesses a tangible living soul. The system has no such thing. We must not allow the system to exploit us." In 2011, Murakami donated his €80,000 winnings from the International Catalunya Prize (from the Generalitat de Catalunya) to the victims of the March 11 earthquake and tsunami, and to those affected by the Fukushima nuclear disaster. Accepting the award, he said in his speech that the situation at the Fukushima plant was "the second major nuclear disaster that the Japanese people have experienced ... however, this time it was not a bomb being dropped upon us, but a mistake committed by our very own hands". According to Murakami, the Japanese people should have rejected nuclear power after having "learned through the sacrifice of the hibakusha just how badly radiation leaves scars on the world and human wellbeing". In recent years, Haruki Murakami has often been mentioned as a possible recipient of the Nobel Prize in Literature. Nonetheless, since all nomination records are sealed for 50 years from the awarding of the prize, it is pure speculation. When asked about the possibility of being awarded the Nobel Prize, Murakami responded with a laugh saying "No, I don't want prizes. That means you're finished." In October 2014, he was awarded the Welt-Literaturpreis. In April 2015, Murakami was named one of the TIME 100's most influential people. In November 2016, he was awarded the Danish Hans Christian Andersen Literature Award, an award previously won by British author JK Rowling. In 2018 he was nominated for the New Academy Prize in Literature. He requested that his nomination be withdrawn, saying he wanted to "concentrate on writing, away from media attention." Archives In 2018 Waseda University in Tokyo agreed to house the archives of Haruki Murakami, including his manuscripts, source documents, and music collection. The collection is intended to be open to scholars, and is set to open in October 2021. In September 2021, architect Kengo Kuma announced the opening of a library dedicated entirely to Murakami's works at Waseda University. It will include more than 3,000 works by Murakami, including translations into more than 50 other languages. Films and other adaptations Murakami's first novel, Hear the Wind Sing (Kaze no uta o kike), was adapted by Japanese director Kazuki Ōmori. The film was released in 1981 and distributed by Art Theatre Guild. Naoto Yamakawa directed two short films, Attack on the Bakery (released in 1982) and A Girl, She is 100 Percent (released in 1983), based on Murakami's short stories "Bakery Attack" and "On Seeing the 100% Perfect Girl One Beautiful April Morning", respectively. Japanese director Jun Ichikawa adapted Murakami's short story "Tony Takitani" into a 75-minute feature. The film played at various film festivals and was released in New York and Los Angeles on July 29, 2005. The original short story, translated into English by Jay Rubin, is available in the April 15, 2002 issue of The New Yorker, as a stand-alone book published by Cloverfield Press, and part of Blind Willow, Sleeping Woman by Knopf. In 1998, the German film The Polar Bear (), written and directed by Granz Henman, used elements of Murakami's short story "The Second Bakery Attack" in three intersecting story lines. "The Second Bakery Attack" was also adapted as a short film in 2010, directed by Carlos Cuarón, starring Kirsten Dunst. Murakami's work was also adapted for the stage in a 2003 play entitled The Elephant Vanishes, co-produced by Britain's Complicite company and Japan's Setagaya Public Theatre. The production, directed by Simon McBurney, adapted three of Murakami's short stories and received acclaim for its unique blending of multimedia (video, music, and innovative sound design) with actor-driven physical theater (mime, dance, and even acrobatic wire work). On tour, the play was performed in Japanese, with supertitle translations for European and American audiences. Two stories from Murakami's book After The Quake"Honey Pie" and "Superfrog Saves Tokyo"have been adapted for the stage and directed by Frank Galati. Entitled after the quake, the play was first performed at the Steppenwolf Theatre Company in association with La Jolla Playhouse, and opened on October 12, 2007, at Berkeley Repertory Theatre. In 2008, Galati also adapted and directed a theatrical version of Kafka on the Shore, which first ran at Chicago's Steppenwolf Theatre Company from September to November. On Max Richter's 2006 album Songs from Before, Robert Wyatt reads passages from Murakami's novels. In 2007, Robert Logevall adapted "All God's Children Can Dance" into a film, with a soundtrack composed by American jam band Sound Tribe Sector 9. In 2008, Tom Flint adapted "On Seeing the 100% Perfect Girl One Beautiful April Morning" into a short film. The film was screened at the 2008 CON-CAN Movie Festival. The film was viewed, voted, and commented upon as part of the audience award for the movie festival. It was announced in July 2008 that French-Vietnamese director Tran Anh Hung would direct an adaptation of Murakami's novel Norwegian Wood. The film was released in Japan on December 11, 2010. In 2010, Stephen Earnhart adapted The Wind-Up Bird Chronicle into a two-hour multimedia stage presentation. The show opened January 12, 2010, as part of the Public Theater's "Under the Radar" festival at the Ohio Theater in New York City, presented in association with The Asia Society and the Baryshnikov Arts Center. The show had its world premiere at the Edinburgh International Festival on August 21, 2011. The presentation incorporates live actors, video projection, traditional Japanese puppetry, and immersive soundscapes to render the surreal landscape of the original work. "Memoranda", a 2017 video game had been inspired by several Murakami short stories, mainly from Blind Willow, Sleeping Woman and The Elephant Vanishes, and features several Murakami characters, including Mizuki Ando. In 2018, "Barn Burning" from Murakami's short story collection The Elephant Vanishes was adapted into a film titled Burning by director Lee Chang-dong. The film was awarded the FIPRESCI International Critics’ Prize for best film, receiving the highest score to date. It was also South Korea’s submission for the Academy Award for Best International Feature Film in 2019. A film based on the short story "Drive My Car" premiered at the 2021 Cannes Film Festival, where it won Best Screenplay, the FIPRESCI Prize, and the Prize of the Ecumenical Jury. The film went on to be nominated for four Academy Awards: Best Picture, Best Director, Best Adapted Screenplay, and Best International Feature. Directed by Ryusuke Hamaguchi, it also takes inspiration from "Scheherazade" and "Kino," two other stories in the collection Men Without Women. Personal life After receiving the Gunzo Award for his 1979 literary work Hear the Wind Sing, Murakami did not aspire to meet other writers. Aside from Sarah Lawrence's Mary Morris, whom he briefly mentions in his memoir What I Talk About When I Talk About Running alongside Joyce Carol Oates and Toni Morrison, Murakami was never a part of a community of writers, his reason being that he was a loner and was never fond of groups, schools, and literary circles. When working on a book, Murakami states that he relies on his wife, who is always his first reader. While he never acquainted himself with many writers, among the contemporary writers, he enjoys the work of Kazuo Ishiguro, Cormac McCarthy, Lee Child and Dag Solstad. While he does not read much contemporary Japanese literature, Murakami enjoys the works of Ryū Murakami and Banana Yoshimoto. Haruki Murakami is a fan of crime novels. During his high school days while living in Kōbe, he would buy paperbacks from second hand book stores and learned to read English. The first book that he read in English was The Name is Archer, written by Ross Macdonald in 1955. Other writers he was interested in included Leo Tolstoy and Fyodor Dostoyevsky. Murakami also has a passion for listening to music, especially classical and jazz. When he was around 15, he began to develop an interest in jazz after attending an Art Blakey and the Jazz Messengers concert in Kobe. He later opened the Peter Cat, a coffeehouse and jazz bar. Murakami has said that music, like writing, is a mental journey. At one time he aspired to be a musician, but because he could not play instruments well he decided to become a writer instead. In an interview with The Guardian, Murakami stated his belief that his surreal books appeal to people especially in times of turmoil and political chaos. He stated that "I was so popular in the 1990s in Russia, at the time they were changing from the Soviet Union – there was big confusion, and people in confusion like my books" and “In Germany, when the Berlin Wall fell down, there was confusion – and people liked my books.” Political views Murakami stated that it is natural for China and the Koreas to continue to feel resentment towards Japan for its wartime aggressions. "Fundamentally, Japanese people tend not to have an idea that they were also assailants, and the tendency is getting clearer," he said. In another interview, Murakami stated: "The issue of historical understanding carries great significance, and I believe it is important that Japan makes straightforward apologies. I think that is all Japan can do – apologise until the countries say: 'We don't necessarily get over it completely, but you have apologised enough. Alright, let's leave it now.'" In August 2021, during one of his radio shows, Murakami criticized prime minister Yoshihide Suga over the handling of the COVID-19 pandemic in Japan. Murakami quoted Suga as saying "an exit is now in our sight after a long tunnel" and added, in criticism, that "If he really saw an exit, his eyes must be extremely good for his age. I’m of the same age as Mr. Suga, but I don’t see any exit at all." Bibliography This is an incomplete bibliography as not all works published by Murakami in Japanese have been translated into English. Kanji titles are given with Hepburn romanization. (Original titles entirely in transcribed English are given as "katakana / romaji = English".) Novels Short stories Collections List of stories Essays and nonfiction Murakami has published more than 40 books of non-fiction. Among them are: Other books include: See also Japanese literature Surrealism Weird fiction References Further reading Pintor, Ivan. "David Lynch y Haruki Murakami, la llama en el umbral", in: VV.AA., Universo Lynch. Internacional Sitges Film Festival-Calamar 2007 () Rubin, Jay. Haruki Murakami and the Music of Words. Harvill Press, 2002 () Strecher, Matthew Carl. The Wind-Up Bird Chronicle Readers Guide. Continuum Pubublishing Group, 2002 () Strecher, Matthew Carl. Dances with Sheep: The Quest for Identity in the Fiction of Murakami Haruki. University of Michigan/Monographs in Japanese Studies, 2001 () Suter, Rebecca. The Japanization of Modernity: Murakami Haruki Between Japan and the United States. Harvard University Asian Center, 2008. () External links Haruki Murakami at Random House Haruki Murakami at The New Yorker (online essays, stories, excerpts) Haruki Murakami at The New York Times (articles about, interviews with) Haruki Murakami at Complete Review (international meta-reviews) Haruki Murakami at The Encyclopedia of Science Fiction Interviews "Haruki Murakami: The Outsider" (by Laura Miller and Don George), Salon, December 1997 (about Wind-Up Bird and Underground) "Haruki Murakami, The Art of Fiction No. 182" (by John Wray), The Paris Review, Summer 2004 Articles "The reception of Murakami Haruki in Taiwan" (PDF), Yale University "Haruki Murakami: How a Japanese writer conquered the world" (by Stephanie Hegarty), BBC News, October 17, 2011 "The 10 Best Haruki Murakami Books" (by Murakami scholar Matthew C. Strecher), Publishers Weekly, August 8, 2014 Multimedia Video about Murakami's life and work at Psychology Today's blog The Literary Mind 1949 births 20th-century Japanese novelists 20th-century Japanese translators 21st-century Japanese translators 21st-century Japanese novelists English–Japanese translators Japanese essayists Japanese male short story writers Japanese psychological fiction writers Japanese science fiction writers Japanese ultramarathon runners Jerusalem Prize recipients Literary translators Living people Magic realism writers Male ultramarathon runners Order of Arts and Letters of Spain recipients Postmodern writers Princeton University faculty Tufts University faculty Waseda University alumni Winners of the Yomiuri Prize World Fantasy Award-winning writers Writers from Kyoto Weird fiction writers Progressivism in Japan	[ -0.47425779700279236, -0.11605294793844223, -0.5164831876754761, -0.2954357862472534, -0.5004512667655945, 0.28306758403778076, 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229201	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Karl%20Barth	Karl Barth	Karl Barth (; ; – ) was a Swiss Calvinist theologian. Barth is well-known in theology for his landmark commentary The Epistle to the Romans (1921), his involvement in the Confessing Church, including his authorship of the Barmen Declaration, and especially his unfinished multi-volume theological summa the Church Dogmatics (published between 1932–1967). Barth's influence expanded well beyond the academic realm to mainstream culture, leading him to be featured on the cover of Time on 20 April 1962. Like many Protestant theologians of his generation, Barth was educated in a liberal theology influenced by Adolf von Harnack, Friedrich Schleiermacher and others. His pastoral career began in the rural Swiss town of Safenwil, where he was known as the "Red Pastor from Safenwil". There he became increasingly disillusioned with the liberal Christianity in which he had been trained. This led him to write the first edition of his The Epistle to the Romans (1919) (a.k.a. Romans I), in which he resolved to read the New Testament differently. Barth began to gain substantial worldwide acclaim with the publication in 1921 of the second edition of his commentary on The Epistle to the Romans (1921), in which he openly broke from liberal theology. He influenced many significant theologians such as Dietrich Bonhoeffer who supported the Confessing Church, and Jürgen Moltmann, Helmut Gollwitzer, James H. Cone, Wolfhart Pannenberg, Rudolf Bultmann, Thomas F. Torrance, Hans Küng, and also Reinhold Niebuhr, Jacques Ellul, and novelists such as Flannery O'Connor, John Updike, and Miklós Szentkuthy. Among many other areas, Barth has also had a profound influence on modern Christian ethics. He has influenced the work of ethicists such as Stanley Hauerwas, John Howard Yoder, Jacques Ellul and Oliver O'Donovan. Early life and education Karl Barth was born on 10 May 1886, in Basel, Switzerland, to Johann Friedrich "Fritz" Barth (1852–1912) and Anna Katharina (Sartorius) Barth (1863–1938). Karl had two younger brothers, Peter Barth (1888–1940) and Heinrich Barth (1890–1965), and two sisters, Katharina and Gertrude. Fritz Barth was a theology professor and pastor and desired for Karl to follow his positive line of Christianity, which clashed with Karl's desire to receive a liberal Protestant education. Karl began his student career at the University of Bern, and then transferred to the University of Berlin to study under Adolf von Harnack, and then transferred briefly to the University of Tübingen before finally in Marburg to study under Wilhelm Herrmann (1846–1922). From 1911 to 1921, Barth served as a Reformed pastor in the village of Safenwil in the canton of Aargau. In 1913 he married Nelly Hoffmann, a talented violinist. They had a daughter and four sons, one of whom was the New Testament scholar Markus Barth (6 October 1915 – 1 July 1994). Later he was professor of theology in Göttingen (1921–1925), Münster (1925–1930) and Bonn (1930–1935), in Germany. While serving at Göttingen he met Charlotte von Kirschbaum, who became his long-time secretary and assistant; she played a large role in the writing of his epic, the Church Dogmatics. He was deported from Germany in 1935 after he refused to sign (without modification) the Oath of Loyalty to Adolf Hitler and went back to Switzerland and became a professor in Basel (1935–1962). Break from liberalism In August 1914, Karl Barth was dismayed to learn that his venerated teachers including Adolf von Harnack had signed the "Manifesto of the Ninety-Three German Intellectuals to the Civilized World"; as a result, Barth concluded he could not follow their understanding of the Bible and history any longer. The Epistle to the Romans Barth first began his commentary The Epistle to the Romans () in the summer of 1916 while he was still a pastor in Safenwil, with the first edition appearing in December 1918 (but with a publication date of 1919). On the strength of the first edition of the commentary, Barth was invited to teach at the University of Göttingen. Barth decided around October 1920 that he was dissatisfied with the first edition and heavily revised it the following eleven months, finishing the second edition around September 1921. Particularly in the thoroughly re-written second edition of 1922, Barth argued that the God who is revealed in the life, death, and resurrection of Jesus challenges and overthrows any attempt to ally God with human cultures, achievements, or possessions. The book's popularity led to its republication and reprinting in several languages. Barmen Declaration In 1934, as the Protestant Church attempted to come to terms with the Third Reich, Barth was largely responsible for the writing of the Barmen Declaration (). This declaration rejected the influence of Nazism on German Christianity by arguing that the Church's allegiance to the God of Jesus Christ should give it the impetus and resources to resist the influence of other lords, such as the German , Adolf Hitler. Barth mailed this declaration to Hitler personally. This was one of the founding documents of the Confessing Church and Barth was elected a member of its leadership council, the Bruderrat. He was forced to resign from his professorship at the University of Bonn in 1935 for refusing to swear an oath to Hitler. Barth then returned to his native Switzerland, where he assumed a chair in systematic theology at the University of Basel. In the course of his appointment, he was required to answer a routine question asked of all Swiss civil servants: whether he supported the national defense. His answer was, "Yes, especially on the northern border!" The newspaper Neue Zürcher Zeitung carried his 1936 criticism of the philosopher Martin Heidegger for his support of the Nazis. In 1938 he wrote a letter to a Czech colleague Josef Hromádka in which he declared that soldiers who fought against the Third Reich were serving a Christian cause. Church Dogmatics Barth's theology found its most sustained and compelling expression in his five-volume magnum opus, the Church Dogmatics (). Widely regarded as an important theological work, the Church Dogmatics represents the pinnacle of Barth's achievement as a theologian. Church Dogmatics runs to over six million words and 9,000 pages – one of the longest works of systematic theology ever written. The Church Dogmatics is in five volumes: the Doctrine of the Word of God, the Doctrine of God, the Doctrine of Creation, the Doctrine of Reconciliation and the Doctrine of Redemption. Barth's planned fifth volume was never written and the fourth volume's final part-volume was unfinished. Later life and death [[File:Karl Barth Letters 1961-1968.jpg\|thumb\|Photo of Barth on the jacket cover of Karl Barth Letters]] After the end of the Second World War, Barth became an important voice in support both of German penitence and of reconciliation with churches abroad. Together with Hans Iwand, he authored the Darmstadt Statement in 1947 – a more concrete statement of German guilt and responsibility for the Third Reich and Second World War than the 1945 Stuttgart Declaration of Guilt. In it, he made the point that the Church's willingness to side with anti-socialist and conservative forces had led to its susceptibility for National Socialist ideology. In the context of the developing Cold War, that controversial statement was rejected by anti-Communists in the West who supported the CDU course of re-militarization, as well as by East German dissidents who believed that it did not sufficiently depict the dangers of Communism. He was elected a Foreign Honorary Member of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences in 1950. In the 1950s, Barth sympathized with the peace movement and opposed German rearmament. Barth wrote a 1960 article for The Christian Century regarding the "East–West question" in which he denied any inclination toward Eastern communism and stated he did not wish to live under Communism or wish anyone to be forced to do so; he acknowledged a fundamental disagreement with most of those around him, writing: "I do not comprehend how either politics or Christianity require [sic] or even permit such a disinclination to lead to the conclusions which the West has drawn with increasing sharpness in the past 15 years. I regard anticommunism as a matter of principle an evil even greater than communism itself." In 1962, Barth visited the United States and lectured at Princeton Theological Seminary, the University of Chicago, the Union Theological Seminary and the San Francisco Theological Seminary. He was invited to be a guest at the Second Vatican Council. At the time Barth's health did not permit him to attend. However, he was able to visit the Vatican and be a guest of the pope in 1967, after which he wrote the small volume (At the Threshold of the Apostles). Barth was featured on the cover of the 20 April 1962 issue of Time magazine, an indication that his influence had reached out of academic and ecclesiastical circles and into mainstream American religious culture. Pope Pius XII is often claimed to have said Barth was "the greatest theologian since Thomas Aquinas," though Fergus Kerr observes that "there is never chapter and verse for the quotation" and it is sometimes attributed to Pope Paul VI instead. Barth died on 10 December 1968, at his home in Basel, Switzerland. The evening before his death, he had encouraged his lifelong friend Eduard Thurneysen that he should not be downhearted, "For things are ruled, not just in Moscow or in Washington or in Peking, but things are ruled – even here on earth—entirely from above, from heaven above.” Theology Karl Barth's most significant theological work is his summa theology titled the Church Dogmatics, which contains Barth's doctrine of the word of God, doctrine of God, doctrine of reconciliation and doctrine of redemption. Barth is most well known for reorienting all theological discussion around Jesus. Trinitarian focus One major objective of Barth is to recover the doctrine of the Trinity in theology from its putative loss in liberalism. His argument follows from the idea that God is the object of God's own self-knowledge, and revelation in the Bible means the self-unveiling to humanity of the God who cannot be discovered by humanity simply through its own intuition. God's revelation comes to man 'vertically from above' (). Election One of the most influential and controversial features of Barth's Dogmatics was his doctrine of election (Church Dogmatics II/2). Barth's theology entails a rejection of the idea that God chose each person to either be saved or damned based on purposes of the Divine will, and it was impossible to know why God chose some and not others. Barth's doctrine of election involves a firm rejection of the notion of an eternal, hidden decree. In keeping with his Christo-centric methodology, Barth argues that to ascribe the salvation or damnation of humanity to an abstract absolute decree is to make some part of God more final and definitive than God's saving act in Jesus Christ. God's absolute decree, if one may speak of such a thing, is God's gracious decision to be for humanity in the person of Jesus Christ. Drawing from the earlier Reformed tradition, Barth retains the notion of double predestination but makes Jesus himself the object of both divine election and reprobation simultaneously; Jesus embodies both God's election of humanity and God's rejection of human sin. While some regard this revision of the doctrine of election as an improvement on the Augustinian-Calvinist doctrine of the predestination of individuals, critics, namely Brunner, have charged that Barth's view amounts to a soft universalism, thereby departing from Augustinian-Calvinism. Barth's doctrine of objective atonement develops as he distances himself from Anselm of Canterbury's doctrine of the atonement. In The Epistle to the Romans, Barth endorses Anselm's idea that God who is robbed of his honor must punish those who robbed him. In Church Dogmatics I/2, Barth advocates divine freedom in the incarnation with the support of Anselm's . Barth holds that Anselm's doctrine of the atonement preserves both God's freedom and the necessity of Christ's incarnation. The positive endorsement of Anselmian motives in continues in Church Dogmatics II/1. Barth maintains with Anselm that the sin of humanity cannot be removed by the merciful act of divine forgiveness alone. In Church Dogmatics IV/1, however, Barth's doctrine of the atonement diverges from that of Anselm. By over-christologizing the doctrine, Barth completes his formulation of objective atonement. He finalizes the necessity of God's mercy at the place where Anselm firmly establishes the dignity and freedom of the will of God. In Barth's view, God's mercy is identified with God's righteousness in a distinctive way where God's mercy always takes the initiative. The change in Barth's reception of Anselm's doctrine of the atonement is, therefore, alleged to show that Barth's doctrine entails support for universalism. Salvation Barth argued that previous perspectives on sin and salvation, influenced by strict Calvinist thinking, sometimes misled Christians into thinking that predestination set up humanity such that the vast majority of human beings were foreseen to disobey and reject God, with damnation coming to them as a matter of fate. Barth's view of salvation is centrally Christological, with his writings stating that in Jesus Christ the reconciliation of all of mankind to God has essentially already taken place and that through Christ man is already elect and justified. Karl Barth denied that he was a Universalist. However, Barth asserted that eternal salvation for everyone, even those that reject God, is a possibility that is not just an open question but should be hoped for by Christians as a matter of grace; specifically, he wrote, "Even though theological consistency might seem to lead our thoughts and utterances most clearly in this direction, we must not arrogate to ourselves that which can be given and received only as a free gift", just hoping for total reconciliation. Barth, in the words of a later scholar, went a "significant step beyond traditional theology" in that he argued against more conservative strains of Protestant Christianity in which damnation is seen as an absolute certainty for many or most people. To Barth, Christ's grace is central. Understanding of Mary Unlike many Protestant theologians, Barth wrote on the topic of Mariology (the theological study of Mary). Barth's views on the subject agreed with much Catholic dogma but he disagreed with the Catholic veneration of Mary. Aware of the common dogmatic tradition of the early Church, Barth fully accepted the dogma of Mary as the Mother of God, seeing a rejection of that title equivalent to rejecting the doctrine that Christ's human and divine natures are inseparable (contra the Nestorian heresy). Through Mary, Jesus belongs to the human race. Through Jesus, Mary is Mother of God. Examples of Karl Barth's contributions to theology Some theologians have suggested that Karl Barth's greatest contributions to theology may be summarized on one sheet of paper, but others have argued that is impossible to reduce his published works in such a way. Some of Karl Barth's best ideas include the following loci: Threefold Word of God (cf. CD I/1, CD I/2 19–21) Doctrine of Election: The Electing and Elected Jesus Christ (c.f CD II/2, 33) No to Natural Revelation (cf. Doctrine of God, CD II/1, CD IV/3.1, and the Barmen Declaration). Creation as the exterior basis of the covenant and Covenant as the interior basis of creation (cf. CD III/1) Christian Anthropology: Soul of my Body (cf. CD III/2) The Judge Judged in our Place. (cf. CD IV/1) Charlotte von Kirschbaum Charlotte von Kirschbaum was Barth's theological academic colleague for more than three decades.Stephen J. Plant, "When Karl met Lollo: the origins and consequences of Karl Barth's relationship with Charlotte von Kirschbaum." Scottish Journal of Theology 72.2 (2019): 127-145 online. George Hunsinger summarizes the influence of von Kirschbaum on Barth's work: "As his unique student, critic, researcher, adviser, collaborator, companion, assistant, spokesperson, and confidante, Charlotte von Kirschbaum was indispensable to him. He could not have been what he was, or have done what he did, without her." In 2017 Christiane Tietz examines intimate letters written by Barth, Charlotte von Kirschbaum, and Nelly Barth, which discuss the complicated relationship between all three individuals that occurred over the span of 40 years. The letters between von Kirschbaum and Barth from 1925 to 1935 made public "the deep, intense, and overwhelming love between these two human beings," through the lengthy period in which Barth lived in the same house as both his wife and von Kirschaum. In them, Barth describes a permanent conflict between his marriage and his affections for von Kirschaum: "The way I am, I never could and still cannot deny either the reality of my marriage or the reality of my love. It is true that I am married, that I am a father and a grandfather. It is also true that I love. And it is true, that these two facts don’t match. This is why we after some hesitation at the beginning decided not to solve the problem with a separation on one or the other side." In literature In John Updike's Roger's Version, Roger Lambert is a professor of religion. Lambert is influenced by the works of Karl Barth. That is the primary reason that he rejects his student's attempt to use computational methods to understand God. Harry Mulisch's The Discovery of Heaven makes mentions of Barth's Church Dogmatics, as does David Markson's The Last Novel. In the case of Mulisch and Markson, it is the ambitious nature of the Church Dogmatics that seems to be of significance. In the case of Updike, it is the emphasis on the idea of God as "Wholly Other" that is emphasized. In Marilynne Robinson's Gilead, the preacher John Ames reveres Barth's "Epistle to the Romans" and refers to it as his favorite book other than the Bible. Whittaker Chambers cites Barth in nearly all his books: Witness (p. 507), Cold Friday (p. 194), and Odyssey of a Friend (pp. 201, 231). In Flannery O'Connor's letter to Brainard Cheney, she said "I distrust folks who have ugly things to say about Karl Barth. I like old Barth. He throws the furniture around." Center for Barth Studies Princeton Theological Seminary, where Barth lectured in 1962, houses the Center for Barth Studies, which is dedicated to supporting scholarship related to the life and theology of Karl Barth. The Barth Center was established in 1997 and sponsors seminars, conferences, and other events. It also holds the Karl Barth Research Collection, the largest in the world, which contains nearly all of Barth's works in English and German, several first editions of his works, and an original handwritten manuscript by Barth.Center for Barth Studies website – http://barth.ptsem.edu Writings The Epistle to the Romans (, 1st ed., 1919) The Epistle to the Romans (, 1922). E. C. Hoskyns, trans. London: Oxford University Press, 1933, 1968 The Word of God and The Word of Man (, 1928). New York: Harper & Bros, 1957. ; The Word of God and Theology. Amy Marga, trans. New York: T & T Clark, 2011. Preaching Through the Christian Year. H. Wells and J. McTavish, eds. Edinburgh: T. & T. Clark, 1978. God Here and Now. London: Routledge, 1964. Fides Quaerens Intellectum: Anselm's Proof of the Existence of God in the Context of His Theological Scheme (written in 1931). I. W. Robertson, trans. London: SCM, 1960; reprinted by Pickwick Publications (1985) Church and State. G.R. Howe, trans. London: SCM, 1939. The Church and the War. A. H. Froendt, trans. New York: Macmillan, 1944. Prayer according to the Catechisms of the Reformation. S.F. Terrien, trans. Philadelphia: Westminster, 1952 (Also published as: Prayer and Preaching. London: SCM, 1964). The Humanity of God, J.N. Thomas and T. Wieser, trans. Richmond, VA: John Knox Press, 1960. Evangelical Theology: An Introduction. Grand Rapids, MI: Eerdmans, 1963. The Christian Life. Church Dogmatics IV/4: Lecture Fragments. Grand Rapids, MI: Eerdmans, 1981. , The Word in this World: Two Sermons by Karl Barth. Edited by Kurt I. Johanson. Regent Publishing (Vancouver, BC, Canada): 2007 "No Angels of Darkness and Light," The Christian Century, 20 January 1960, p. 72 (reprinted in Contemporary Moral Issues. H. K. Girvetz, ed. Belmont, CA: Wadsworth, 1963. pp. 6–8). The Göttingen Dogmatics: Instruction in the Christian Religion, vol. 1. G.W. Bromiley, trans. Grand Rapids, MI: Eerdmans, 1991. Dogmatics in Outline (1947 lectures), Harper Perennial, 1959, A Unique Time of God: Karl Barth's WWI Sermons, William Klempa, editor. Louisville, KY: Westminster John Knox Press.On Religion. Edited and translated by Garrett Green. London: T & T Clark, 2006. The Church Dogmatics in English translation Volume I Part 1: Doctrine of the Word of God: Prolegomena to Church Dogmatics, hardcover: , softcover: (German: 1932) Volume I Part 2: Doctrine of the Word of God, hardcover: , softcover: (German: 1938) Volume II Part 1: The Doctrine of God: The Knowledge of God; The Reality of God, hardcover: , softcover: (German: 1940) Volume II Part 2: The Doctrine of God: The Election of God; The Command of God, hardcover: , softcover: (German: 1942) Volume III Part 1: The Doctrine of Creation: The Work of Creation, hardcover: , softcover: (German: 1945) Volume III Part 2: The Doctrine of Creation: The Creature, hardcover: , softcover: (German: 1948) Volume III Part 3: The Doctrine of Creation: The Creator and His Creature, hardcover: , softcover: (German: 1950) Volume III Part 4: The Doctrine of Creation: The Command of God the Creator, hardcover: , softcover: (German: 1951) Volume IV Part 1: The Doctrine of Reconciliation, hardcover: , softcover: (German: 1953) Volume IV Part 2: Doctrine of Reconciliation: Jesus Christ the Servant As Lord, hardcover: , softcover: (German: 1955) Volume IV Part 3, first half: Doctrine of Reconciliation: Jesus Christ the True Witness, hardcover: , softcover: (German: 1959) Volume IV Part 3, second half: Doctrine of Reconciliation: Jesus Christ the True Witness, hardcover: , softcover: (German: 1959) Volume IV Part 4 (unfinished): Doctrine of Reconciliation: The Foundation of the Christian Life (Baptism), hardcover: , softcover: (German: 1967) Volume V: Church Dogmatics: Contents and Indexes, hardcover: , softcover: Church Dogmatics, 14 volume set, softcover, Church Dogmatics: A Selection, with intro. by H. Gollwitzer, 1961, Westminster John Knox Press 1994, Church Dogmatics, dual language German and English, books with CD-ROM, Church Dogmatics, dual language German and English, CD-ROM only, Audio Evangelical Theology, American lectures 1962 – given by Barth in Chicago, Illinois and Princeton, New Jersey, and See also Neo-orthodoxy References Sources Bradshaw, Timothy. 1988. Trinity and Ontology: A Comparative Study of the Theologies of Karl Barth and Wolfhart Pannenberg. Rutherford House Books, reprint, Lewiston; Lampeter: Edwin Mellen Press for Rutherford House, Edinburgh, 1992. Bromiley, Geoffrey William. An introduction to the theology of Karl Barth. Grand Rapids, Mich. : William B. Eerdmans, 1979. Buclin, Hadrien, Entre culture du consensus et critique sociale. Les intellectuels de gauche dans la Suisse de l'après-guerre, Thèse de doctorat, Université de Lausanne, 2015. Busch, Eberhard. Karl Barth: His Life from Letters and Autobiographical Texts. Minneapolis: Fortress Press, 1976. . Chung, Paul S. Karl Barth: God's Word in Action. James Clarke & Co, Cambridge (2008), . Chung, Sung Wook. Admiration and Challenge: Karl Barth's Theological Relationship with John Calvin. New York: Peter Lang, 2002. . Chung, Sung Wook, ed. Karl Barth and Evangelical Theology: Convergences and Divergences. Grand Rapids, MI: Baker Academic, 2008.. Clark, Gordon. Karl Barth's Theological Method. Trinity Foundation (1997, 2nd ed.), 1963. . Fiddes, Paul. 'The status of women in the thought of Karl Barth', in Janet Martin Soskice, ed., After Eve [alternative title After Eve: women, theology and the Christian tradition], 1990, pp. 138–55. Marshall Pickering Fink, Heinrich. "Karl Barth und die Bewegung Freies Deutschland in der Schweiz." [Doctoral dissertation.] "Karl Barth und die Bewegung Freies Deutschland in der Schweiz : Dissertation zur Erlangung des akademischen Grades doctor scientiae theologiae (Dr.sc.theol.), vorgelegt dem Senat des Wissenschaftlichen Rates der Humboldt-Universitaaet zu Berlin." Berlin, H. Fink [Selfpublisher], 1978. Galli, Mark (2000). "Neo-Orthodoxy: Karl Barth". Christianity Today. Gherardini, Brunero. "A domanda risponde. In dialogo con Karl Barth sulle sue 'Domande a Roma' (A Question Answered. In Dialogue with Karl Barth on His 'Questions in Rome')". Frigento (Italy): Casa Mariana Editrice, 2011. . Gorringe, Timothy. Karl Barth: Against Hegemony. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1999. Hunsinger, George. How to Read Karl Barth: The Shape of His Theology. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1993. Jae Jin Kim. , Lit Verlag, 1992. Mangina, Joseph L. Karl Barth: Theologian of Christian Witness. Louisville: Westminster John Knox, 2004. McCormack, Bruce. Karl Barth's Critically Realistic Dialectical Theology: Its Genesis and Development, 1909–1936. Oxford University Press, USA (27 March 1997), McKenny, Gerald. "The Analogy of Grace: Karl Barth's Moral Theology." Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2010. . Oakes, Kenneth. Karl Barth on Theology and Philosophy. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2012. Oakes, Kenneth. Reading Karl Barth: A Companion to Karl Barth's Epistle to the Romans. Eugene: Cascade, 2011. Webster, John. Barth. 2nd ed., London: Continuum, 2004. Webster, John, ed. The Cambridge Companion to Karl Barth''. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2000. External links . Complete bibliography of literature by and about Karl Barth. Karl Barth-Archiv Primer on Karl Barth's Church Dogmatics One Year With Karl Barth A year-long project promoting discussion and application of Barth's Church Dogmatics. Article on Barth and Visual Art Karl Barth: Courageous theologian article from Christianity Today Karl Barth Hub to organizations and resources associated with Karl Barth 1886 births 1968 deaths People from Basel-Stadt University of Göttingen faculty University of Bonn faculty University of Münster faculty Duke University faculty Swiss Christian socialists Christian ethicists Anglican saints Fellows of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences Existentialist theologians Calvinist and Reformed Christian socialists Swiss Protestants Christian socialist theologians Filioque 20th-century Protestant theologians Protestants in the German Resistance	[ 0.04242778569459915, 0.6690677404403687, -0.8398163914680481, -0.6517325043678284, -0.4030299782752991, 0.922095537185669, 1.2827763557434082, -0.06550654023885727, -0.25905776023864746, -0.41992083191871643, -0.050152622163295746, -0.06913525611162186, 0.09256605058908463, 0.2316405475139618, -0.10957209020853043, 0.18245291709899902, 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229205	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pernilla%20Wahlgren	Pernilla Wahlgren	Pernilla Nina Elisabeth Wahlgren (born 24 December 1967 in Gustavsberg) is a Swedish singer and actress. She has sung in Melodifestivalen several times; her 1985 entry titled "Piccadilly Circus" became popular and successful. She has acted in several plays and films, playing roles including Esmeralda in the Academy Award-winning Fanny and Alexander. She has twice received the Guldmasken award for her work in theater. Career Acting Wahlgren's first acting job, at the age of four, was alongside her mother in the television play Den längsta dagen (). She attended Adolf Fredrik's Music School and was also part of the Saltsjöbaden theater. After playing a small role in Lilla prinsen () at Saltsjöbaden's theater, and in the face of stiff competition, Wahlgren got the title role in the musical Annie at Folkan, Stockholm. She then played Esmeralda in Ingmar Bergman's film Fanny and Alexander. In 1982, she joined the cast of the Swedish production of The Sound of Music, in which she played Louise. At Folkan, she also had parts in Karlsson på taket (Karlsson-on-the-Roof), Mio, min Mio (Mio in the Land of Faraway), Snövit (Snow White) and Ringens hemlighet (). Wahlgren played Annika in the musical version of Pippi Longstocking at Folket in Stockholm; for the two final performances she replaced Siw Malmkvist in the role of Pippi, for which she received positive reviews. In her youth and as an adult Wahlgren portrayed Pippi Longstocking several times. Wahlgren appeared in an episode of Nygammalt in 1983 and an episode of Razzel in October 1984, where she performed her debut single, "Nu har det tänt". She has also appeared in film and television productions including Bo Widerberg's 1986 production of Ormens väg på hälleberget (The Serpent's Way) and Snoken in 1995. Wahlgren has appeared in theatrical comedies in Stockholm, including Parneviks cirkusparty (), Spanska flugan () and Bubbel trubbel (). She has twice been nominated for the Guldmasken theater award; first for her role in Charleys tant () at the Intiman Theater, and then for her part in Kärlek & lavemang () at Fredriksdalsteatern in Helsingborg. She has also appeared in musical roles in Annie Get Your Gun, Grease, The Wizard of Oz, Cats and Nils Karlsson Pyssling. On 29 September 2007, The Sound of Music premièred at the Göta Lejon theater in Stockholm, where Wahlgren played in a cast that included Tommy Nilsson. In 2013, she had a role in the musical Priscilla, Queen of the Desert at Göta Lejon. Between 2018 and 2019, Wahlgren acted in her own stage show celebrating 40-years as a singer and actress, called Kort, glad och tacksam (). Her second stage show, a continuation of Kort, glad och tacksam, called Pernilla Wahlgren har Hybris (), wrote and directed by Edward af Sillén, premiered in 2020. Music In the mid-to-late 1980s, Wahlgren developed a pop music career, touring several times and releasing studio albums. Her songs include: "Svindlande affärer", "I Need Your Love", "Every Time When We're Together" and "Running for Cover". In August 2006, she released the album Beautiful Day; the debut single from the album, "Talking to an Angel", was certified gold and the track "Come Inside My World" became the theme to TV4's entertainment program Förkväll. Melodifestivalen Wahlgren's musical breakthrough came when she participated in Melodifestivalen 1985. Her song "Piccadilly Circus" became a public favorite, but she was placed fourth in the competition. Wahlgren participated in Melodifestivalen 1991 with the song "Tvillingsjäl", which did not make it to the second round of voting. In 2003, she again took part in Melodifestivalen, this time with Jan Johansen; they achieved second place with the song "Let Your Spirit Fly". In 2010, Wahlgren again participated in Melodifestivalen, with the song "Jag vill om du vågar". Her 2013 entry was with Jenny Silver and Hanna Hedlund as part of the band Swedish House Wives performing the song "On Top of the World". Television Wahlgren has been a television presenter for several shows, including Scenen är din, Söndagsöppet (both on SVT), Småstjärnorna and Baby Boom (both on TV4). She and her brother Niclas also presented the children's show Nicke & Nilla on TV4. Wahlgren had a role in the 1995 series Snoken on SVT. She also dubbed several children's films, such as The Lego Movie (as the voice for Princess Unikitty), and voiced Misty, Melody and Delia Ketchum in several Pokémon films). From 2016, she has participated in the reality series Wahlgrens värld (Wahlgren's World) which is broadcast on Kanal 5 and documents her life. The series was continued with a third and fourth season in 2018; a fifth and sixth season were broadcast in 2019. In 2019, Wahlgren had a leading role as Santas wife in Sveriges Television's Christmas calendar, Panik i tomteverkstan, opposite Per Andersson. Personal life Wahlgren was born to actors Christina Schollin and Hans Wahlgren on Christmas Eve. She has three brothers: actor and singer Niclas, actor Linus, and broker and firefighter Peter. She was married to dancer and composer Emilio Ingrosso from 1993 to 2002; they have three children—Oliver Ingrosso (born 1989), a DJ, music producer and actor; Bianca Ingrosso (born 1994), a blogger and singer; and Benjamin Ingrosso (born 1997), a singer, artist and songwriter. Pernilla also has a son, Theo (born 2007), with Joachim Lennholm. In an episode of Vem tror du att du är? (Who do you think You Are?) broadcast on SVT in 2011 it was revealed to Wahlgren that she was of Italian descent on her father's side of the family. Discography Studio albums Source: Pernilla Wahlgren (album) (1985) Attractive (1986) Pure Dynamite (1987) Flashback (1989) I Myself and Me (1992) Flashback Number Four (1995) (Best of) Pernilla Wahlgren (1995) (Re-issue) Beautiful Day (2006) Holiday with You (2012) Singles References External links 1967 births Living people People from Värmdö Municipality Melodifestivalen contestants Swedish musical theatre actresses English-language singers from Sweden 20th-century Swedish actresses 21st-century Swedish actresses 20th-century Swedish women singers Swedish people of Italian descent 21st-century Swedish women singers	[ -0.4893656373023987, -0.36279669404029846, 0.20019370317459106, -0.6262362599372864, -0.3317164182662964, 1.104743242263794, 1.3524556159973145, -0.2690511643886566, -0.6986997127532959, 0.28066354990005493, -0.0215318463742733, 0.398916095495224, -0.23460280895233154, 0.14296947419643402, -0.21853163838386536, 0.09608688205480576, 0.32530584931373596, 1.2808119058609009, 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229206	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tennis%20at%20the%201900%20Summer%20Olympics	Tennis at the 1900 Summer Olympics	Four tennis events were contested at the 1900 Summer Olympics in Paris, France. These were played at the Cercle des Sports de l'Île de Puteaux. All four events were won by Great Britain. 26 tennis players from 4 nations competed, with over half from the host nation of France. The field was small but of high quality, particularly with the top British players present. The Doherty brothers, Reginald and Laurence, were the premier players; they won the men's doubles together, Laurence won the men's singles (after Reginald withdrew rather than play his brother in the semifinals), and Reginald partnered with Charlotte Cooper to take gold in the mixed doubles. The tournament organization was uncertain, with no venue guaranteed until 5 days before the events began. The ten-court l'Île de Puteaux club eventually agreed to host the tournaments. Five of the courts were used, with court #5 the primary one. Medal summary Events Medal table Participating nations A total of 26 players from 4 nations competed at the Paris Games: Non-Olympic events In addition to the four events recognized as Olympic competitions, there were other tennis events conducted at the l'Île de Puteaux club during the week of the Olympic events. These included handicap events and a professional round-robin men's singles tournament. References International Olympic Committee medal winners database De Wael, Herman. Herman's Full Olympians: "Tennis 1900". Accessed 10 March 2006. Available electronically at . 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229208	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/George%20Gascoigne	George Gascoigne	George Gascoigne (c. 15357 October 1577) was an English poet, soldier and unsuccessful courtier. He is considered the most important poet of the early Elizabethan era, following Sir Thomas Wyatt and Henry Howard, Earl of Surrey and leading to the emergence of Philip Sidney. He was the first poet to deify Queen Elizabeth I, in effect establishing her cult as a virgin goddess married to her kingdom and subjects. His most noted works include A Discourse of the Adventures of Master FJ (1573), an account of courtly intrigue and one of the earliest English prose fictions; The Supposes, (performed in 1566, printed in 1573), an early translation of Ariosto and the first comedy written in English prose, which was used by Shakespeare as a source for The Taming of the Shrew;<ref>The Cambridge History of English and American Literature in 18 Volumes (1907–21)Volume V. The Drama to 1642, Part One. http://www.bartleby.com/215/0521.html</ref> the frequently anthologised short poem "Gascoignes wodmanship" (1573) and "Certayne Notes of Instruction concerning the making of verse or ryme in English" (1575), the first essay on English versification. Early life The eldest son of Sir John Gascoigne of Cardington, Bedfordshire, Gascoigne was educated at Trinity College, Cambridge, and on leaving the university is supposed to have joined the Middle Temple. He became a member of Gray's Inn in 1555. He has been identified without much show of evidence with a lawyer named Gastone who was in prison in 1548 under very discreditable circumstances. There is no doubt that his escapades were notorious, and that he was imprisoned for debt. George Whetstone says that Sir John Gascoigne disinherited his son on account of his follies, but by his own account he was obliged to sell his patrimony to pay the debts contracted at court. He was MP for Bedford in 1557–1558 and 1558–1559, but when he presented himself in 1572 for election at Midhurst he was refused on the charges of being "a defamed person and noted for manslaughter", "a common Rymer and a deviser of slaunderous Pasquelles", "a notorious rufilanne", and a constantly indebted atheist. His poems, with the exception of some commendatory verses, were not published before 1572, but they may have circulated in manuscript before that date. He tells us that his friends at Gray's Inn importuned him to write on Latin themes set by them, and that two of his plays were acted there. He repaired his fortunes by marrying the wealthy widow of William Breton, thus becoming stepfather to the poet, Nicholas Breton. In 1568 an inquiry into the disposition of William Breton's property with a view to the protection of the children's rights was instituted before the Lord Mayor, but the matter was probably settled in a friendly manner, for Gascoigne continued to hold the Breton Walthamstow estate, which he had from his wife, until his death. Plays at Gray's Inn Gascoigne translated two plays performed in 1566 at Gray's Inn, the most aristocratic of the Renaissance London Inns of Court: the prose comedy Supposes based on Ariosto's Suppositi, and Jocasta, a tragedy in blank verse which is said to have derived from Euripides's Phoenissae, but appears more directly as a translation from the Italian of Lodovico Dolce's Giocasta. A Hundreth Sundry Flowres (1573) and Posies of Gascoigne (1575) Gascoigne's best known and controversial work was originally published in 1573 under the title by London printer Richarde Smith. The book purports to be an anthology of courtly poets, gathered and edited by Gascoigne and two other editors known only by the initials "H.W." and "G.T." The book's content is throughout suggestive of courtly scandal, and the aura of scandal is skilfully elaborated through the effective use of initials and posies—Latin or English tags supposed to denote particular authors—in place of the real names of actual or alleged authors. Judged to be offensive, the book was "seized by Her Majesty's High Commissioners." Gascoigne republished the book with certain additions and deletions two years later under the alternative title, The Posies of George Gascoigne, Esquire. The new edition contains three new dedicatory epistles, signed by Gascoigne, which apologise for the offence that the original edition had caused. This effort failed, however, as the book was also ruled offensive and likewise seized. At war in the Netherlands When Gascoigne sailed as a soldier of fortune to the Low Countries in 1572, his ship was driven by stress of weather to Brielle, which luckily for him had just fallen into the hands of the Dutch. He obtained a captain's commission, and took an active part in the campaigns of the next two years including the Middelburg siege, during which he acquired a profound dislike of the Dutch, and a great admiration for William of Orange, who had personally intervened on his behalf in a quarrel with his colonel, and secured him against the suspicion caused by his clandestine visits to a lady at the Hague. Taken prisoner after the evacuation of Valkenburg by English troops during the Siege of Leiden, he was sent to England in the autumn of 1574. He dedicated to Lord Grey de Wilton the story of his adventures, The Fruites of Warres (printed in the edition of 1575) and Gascoigne's Voyage into Hollande. In 1575 he had a share in devising the masques, published in the next year as The Princely Pleasures at the Courte at Kenelworth, which celebrated the queen's visit to the Earl of Leicester. At Woodstock in 1575 he delivered a prose speech before Elizabeth, and was present at a reading of the Pleasant Tale of Hemetes the Hermit, a brief romance, probably written by the queen's host, Sir Henry Lee. At the queen's annual gift exchange with members of her court the following New Year's, Gascoigne gave her a manuscript of Hemetes which he had translated into Latin, Italian, and French. Its frontispiece shows the Queen rewarding the kneeling poet with an accolade and a purse; its motto, "Tam Marti, quam Mercurio", indicates that he will serve her as a soldier, as a scholar-poet, or as both. He also drew three emblems, with accompanying text in the three other languages. He also translated Jacques du Fouilloux's La Venerie (1561) into English as The Noble Arte of Venerie or Hunting (1575) which was printed together with George Turberville's The Book of Falconrie or Hawking and is thus sometimes misattributed to Turberville though in fact it was a work by Gascoigne. Later writings and influences Most of his works were published during the last years of his life after his return from the wars. He died in Stamford on 7 October 1577 and was buried on 13 October in the churchyard of St Mary's Church, Stamford. Gascoigne's theory of metrical composition is explained in a short critical treatise, "Certayne Notes of Instruction concerning the making of verse or ryme in English, written at the request of Master Edouardo Donati," prefixed to his Posies (1575). He acknowledged Chaucer as his master, and differed from the earlier poets of the school of Surrey and Wyatt chiefly in the greater smoothness and sweetness of his verse. See also Canons of Elizabethan poetry Good Morrowe, poem by Gascoigne set to music by Sir Edward Elgar, 1929 Gillian Austen, George Gascoigne [Studies in Renaissance Literature, 24], D.S. Brewer, 2008 G.W. Pigman, George Gascoigne, A Hundredth Sundrie Flowres 1573, Oxford, 2000 Ronald Binns, Gascoigne: The Life of a Tudor Poet, York: Zoilus Press, 2021 Notes References Cunliffe, John W. George Gascoigne: The Posies. (originally published 1907, reprinted by Greenwood Press, 1969). Cunliffe, John. W. Supposes and Jocasta: Two Plays Translated from the Italian, the first by Geo. Gascoigne and the second by Geo. Gascoigne and F. Kwinwelmersh (Boston: D.C. Heath & Co., 1906). Prouty, C.T. George Gascoigne's A Hundredth Sundrie Flowres. (Columbia: University of Missouri, 1942). Ward, B.M. A Hundredth Sundrie Flowres From the Original Edition of 1573. (1928; reprinted with supplementary materials under the editorship of Ruth Loyd Miller, Minos Publish Co., 1975). Attribution External links The Works of George Gascoigne at Luminarium The Gascoigne Seminar "is a discussion list for scholars working on George Gascoigne and other early Elizabethan writers, to facilitate the exchange of ideas about the generation at the very beginning of the English literary renaissance.” ‘Gascoigne, George’, Encyclopædia Britannica'', 11th edn, 29 vols (Cambridge: at the University Press) XI (1910), pp. 493–4. 1530s births 1577 deaths Alumni of Trinity College, Cambridge 16th-century English poets People from Bedford English prisoners and detainees English MPs 1558 English MPs 1559 English male poets Members of Gray's Inn People from Cardington, Bedfordshire	[ -0.5617074966430664, 0.6283605098724365, -0.861707329750061, -0.03701081499457359, -0.31795361638069153, 0.41592246294021606, 0.866946280002594, 0.37443310022354126, -0.5060197710990906, -0.387503445148468, -0.2620258331298828, -0.33775240182876587, -0.3734656870365143, 0.7167927026748657, 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229209	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hungerford%20massacre	Hungerford massacre	The Hungerford massacre was a spree shooting in Hungerford, England, United Kingdom, on 19 August 1987, when 27-year-old Michael Ryan shot dead sixteen people, including an unarmed police officer and his own mother, before shooting himself. The shootings, committed using a handgun and two semi-automatic rifles, occurred at several locations, including a school he had once attended. Fifteen other people were also shot but survived. No firm motive for the killings has ever been established. A report on the massacre was commissioned by Home Secretary Douglas Hurd. The Firearms (Amendment) Act 1988 was passed in the wake of the incident, which bans the ownership of semi-automatic centre-fire rifles and restricts the use of shotguns with a capacity of more than three cartridges. The shootings remain one of the deadliest firearms incidents in British history. Perpetrator Michael Robert Ryan was born on 18 May 1960 at Savernake Hospital in Marlborough, Wiltshire, the only child of Alfred and Dorothy Ryan. His father, Alfred Henry Ryan, was 55 years old when Michael was born. He had worked for a local government agency as a building inspector, and died from cancer age the age of 80, two years before the massacre. Ryan's mother, Dorothy, was 20 years Alfred's junior and worked as a school dinner lady before taking employment at Elcot Park Hotel as a waitress. In April 1987, Ryan began employment as a labourer working on footpaths and fences near the River Thames, approximately from Hungerford. He left the job in July, and returned to claiming unemployment benefits. Firearms ownership Ryan was issued a shotgun certificate on 2 February 1978, and on 11 December 1986 he was granted a firearms certificate covering the ownership of two pistols. The licence only permitted Ryan to use the weapons at approved ranges; his application stated that he would use them at a target shooting facility in Abingdon and he was a member of a rifle club in Devizes. He later applied to have the certificate amended to cover a third pistol, as he intended to sell one of the two he had acquired since the granting of the certificate (a Smith & Wesson .38-caliber revolver) and to buy two more. This was approved on 30 April 1987. On 14 July, he applied for another variation, to cover two semi-automatic rifles, which was approved on 30 July. At the time of the massacre, he was licensed to possess eight firearms, which he purchased between 17 December 1986 and 8 August 1987: Beretta 9mm pistol Zabala shotgun Browning shotgun Bernardelli .22 pistol CZ ORSO self-loading .32 ACP pistol Norinco Type 56 7.62×39mm semi-automatic rifle Underwood Carbine .30 rifle Ryan used the Beretta pistol, the Norinco, and the Carbine in the massacre. The CZ pistol was being repaired by a dealer at the time, and he had sold the Bernardelli shortly before the shootings. The Norinco was purchased from firearms dealer Mick Ranger. Ryan showed some of his firearms – as well as improvised explosive devices – to his colleagues at his labouring job. As well as his target practice at legitimate venues, Ryan used a large road sign at the junction of the M4 and the A338. Health Following Ryan's death, his mental health came under analysis. John Hamilton, the medical director of Broadmoor Hospital, stated that "Ryan was most likely to be suffering from acute schizophrenia. He might have had a reason for doing what he did, but it was likely to be bizarre and peculiar to him." Jim Higgins, a consultant forensic psychiatrist, suspected that Ryan was psychotic, describing how "matricide is the schizophrenic crime." A psychologist in BBC One's The Hungerford Massacre documentary described how Ryan had "anger and contempt for ordinary life". Shootings Wiltshire The first shooting occurred in Savernake Forest, Wiltshire, to the west of Hungerford. At 12:30 BST, 35-year-old Susan Godfrey and her two pre-school children had come to the area from Burghfield Common near Reading for a family picnic. Ryan, openly armed, approached the family and Susan placed the children in her car. After abducting her at gunpoint, Ryan walked Godfrey into the forest. He had placed down a groundsheet; a police report identified the possibility that Ryan may have intended to rape Godfrey. Ryan shot her 13 times, and her body was found approximately from the groundsheet; there was no evidence of sexual assault. Godfrey's children were found by a woman walking in the woods. Ryan left the forest and drove east on the A4, stopping to fill both his car and a petrol can at the Golden Arrow petrol station in Froxfield. After another customer at the station left, Ryan shot at the cashier from the forecourt. He entered the store and attempted to shoot her at point-blank range; this failed when his gun apparently jammed. He left the petrol station and the cashier telephoned 999; this call had been preceded by another emergency call, possibly by a member of the public who believed they saw an armed robbery at the petrol station. Thames Valley Police sent three patrol cars along the A4 to investigate. Hungerford South View and Fairview Road After leaving Froxfield, Ryan returned to his home on South View, Hungerford, Berkshire. Arriving there shortly after 12:45, he was seen by neighbours who described him as looking upset. Soon after entering his house, one of the witnesses heard gunshots; Ryan had shot the two family dogs. He exited the house with equipment such as ammunition, survival equipment, and a flak jacket. He failed to start his car, and instead returned to the house and set the living room alight using the petrol he purchased from Froxfield; the resultant fire destroyed the house and three adjacent properties. Leaving the house, he headed east on South View towards school playing fields. En route he shot and killed two of his neighbours, Roland and Sheila Mason. Fourteen-year-old Lisa Mildenhall, who also lived nearby, heard the noise and went to see what it was; Ryan shot her four times in the legs. She sought first aid from her mother and another nearby resident and survived. Ryan was chastised by 77-year-old Dorothy Smith for "scaring everybody to death" for making noise, although he did not shoot her. Ryan then wounded Marjorie Jackson, one of the people who had seen him arrive home, in her back. She telephoned her friend George White for help, and asked him to collect her husband Ivor from work in Newbury. Past the playing fields, Ryan entered the town's common. He shot and killed 51-year-old Kenneth Clements who had been walking his dog with his family; the family escaped without injury. At this time, approximately 12:50, police had linked the incident in Froxfield to the many calls they received in Hungerford and instead focused on South View. Ryan returned to South View from the common, and the first police officers to arrive aimed to close both ends of the road to contain a possible gunman. These officers were unarmed, and when Ryan saw the police response he shot one of the officers, PC Roger Brereton, in the chest. Brereton, who was in his patrol car, crashed into a telegraph pole. At 12:58, Ryan shot and killed him while he was using his radio to report an active shooter. Still on South View, Ryan next shot at Linda Chapman and her daughter Alison, who had just turned onto the lane in their Volvo. Both were struck, although Linda was able to reverse the car out of the road. Ryan next opened fire on Linda Bright and Hazel Haslett in an ambulance that was responding to 999 calls on South View. Both Bright and Haslett escaped without major injury. After this, two of Brereton's colleagues securing the east end of South View came upon Robert, Kenneth Clements's son, who informed them that the shooter had continued west on South View. Heading to investigate, Ryan shot at the constables; one took shelter in a house and the other – with Robert Clements – drove across the common to safety. At 13:12, this officer radioed to request support from Thames Valley Police's Tactical Firearms Unit (TFU) having seen the firearms Ryan was using. The TFU was on a training exercise some from Hungerford, and would not have all its members respond until 14:20. The officer, PC Jeremy Wood, set up a makeshift command post on the common, approximately from South View. Ryan next shot at George White, who had returned from Newbury having collected Marjorie Jackson's husband Ivor from work. Driving his Toyota into South View, Ryan shot and killed White instantly and caused severe injuries to Ivor Jackson who feigned death and survived his injuries. Ryan then walked to the junction of South View and Fairview Road, where he shot and killed 84-year-old Abdul Khan who was tending his garden. After firing at and injuring a pedestrian on Fairview Road, Ryan headed back towards the common. One of the police officers in attendance, PC Bernard Maggs, made another 999 call but by this point the telephone network had reached its capacity. On South View, Ryan's mother Dorothy returned in her car to see him armed; she shouted for him to stop before he shot her four times with his Beretta, twice at point-blank range. On heading towards the common, a resident of a parallel street shouted at Ryan to "kindly stop that racket"; he responded by shooting her in the groin. At 13:18 PC Wood was joined by two armed police officers at the command post on the common. Two minutes later, they saw Ryan at the War Memorial Recreation Grounds on the edge of the common. Hungerford Common and town centre Near the War Memorial Recreation Grounds, Ryan shot 26-year-old Francis Butler as he walked his dog. At this point, he discarded the Carbine, it having been useless since jamming in Froxfield. A witness gave Butler first aid, but he died before an ambulance arrived. Ryan next shot at, but missed, teenager Andrew Cadle, who was on his bicycle. On reaching Bulpit Lane, Ryan killed taxi driver Marcus Barnard who was en route home to see family between fares. Ryan headed north on Priory Avenue, where he shot and injured John Storms who was parked in his van. By this time, police had set up road diversions and some of Ryan's victims were drivers affected by these change of routes. Douglas and Kathleen Wainwright, visiting their son on Priory Avenue, were forced to approach from the south, where Ryan was. Approximately from their destination, Ryan shot Douglas dead and injured Kathleen before non-fatally shooting at two other drivers. A van entered Priory Avenue, and the occupants – Eric Vardy and Stephen Ball – were shot at; Vardy was killed. At 13:30, Ryan headed south-west towards Priory Road, shooting at houses as he passed them. Using the Beretta, he shot at a passing car and fatally injured the driver, 22-year-old Sandra Hill. After shooting Hill, Ryan shot his way into a house further down Priory Road and shot the occupants, 66-year-old Jack Gibbs and his 62-year-old wife Myrtle. Jack was killed instantly, and Myrtle died two days later at the Princess Margaret Hospital in Swindon. From the house, Ryan shot at neighbouring houses and caused injury to the occupants. Ryan continued south on Priory Road where he shot once at a car driven by 34-year-old Ian Playle, who was fatally struck in the neck. His wife and their two children escaped injury; Playle died at the Radcliffe Infirmary in Oxford two days later. At 13:45 the police helicopter arrived and broadcast warnings to the public. One Hungerford resident heard the warning before heading to Priory Road to check on his grandchildren; he took them indoors to safety before being non-fatally shot in both the shoulder and the eye. Ryan continued south east on Priory Road, firing at a house before reaching John O'Gaunt School. Suicide Ryan was seen approaching the school where he had formerly been a pupil, although his precise location after approximately 13:50 was unknown. At this point, the TFU secured gardens and houses in the area before surrounding the school at approximately 16:00. At 16:40 they heard a gunshot within a school building and more officers went to the scene; the police first saw Ryan at the school at 17:26, shortly after he had thrown his Norinco out of a third-floor window. Ryan became engaged in conversation with a sergeant within the TFU and informed them of his arsenal and ammunition, claiming that he had a grenade as well as the Beretta. He said that he would not exit the building until the police informed him of the welfare of his mother, and stated that "Hungerford must be a bit of a mess". The sergeant said he understood Ryan when he claimed that his mother's death was "a mistake"; Ryan reportedly replied, "How can you understand? I wish I had stayed in bed." He later shouted, "It's funny. I killed all those people, but I haven't the guts to blow my own brains out." At 18:52, after a few minutes of silence, a muffled shot was heard from the school building; Ryan was subsequently unresponsive to police. Shortly after 20:00, armed police entered a barricaded school room to find Ryan below the window having shot himself in the right temple. Police response Hungerford was policed by two sergeants and twelve constables, and on the morning of 19 August 1987 the duty cover for the section consisted of one sergeant, two patrol constables and one station duty officer. A number of factors hampered the police response: The telephone exchange could not handle the number of 999 calls made by witnesses. The Thames Valley firearms squad were training away. The police helicopter was in for repair, though it was eventually deployed. Only two phone lines were in operation at the local police station, which was undergoing renovation. Official report The Hungerford Report was commissioned by Home Secretary Douglas Hurd from the Chief Constable of Thames Valley Police, Colin Smith. Ryan's collection of weapons had been legally licensed, according to the Report. The Firearms (Amendment) Act 1988, which was passed in the wake of the massacre, bans the ownership of semi-automatic centre-fire rifles and restricts the use of shotguns with a capacity of more than three cartridges (in magazine plus the breech). Notoriety The Hungerford massacre remains, along with the 1996 Dunblane school massacre and the 2010 Cumbria shootings, one of the deadliest mass shootings in the UK. In the days following the massacre, the British tabloid press was filled with stories about Ryan's life; biographies stated that he had a near-obsessive fascination with firearms, watched violent videos, and possessed magazines about survival skills and firearms, including Soldier of Fortune. Cultural references In books J. G. Ballard's novel, Running Wild, centres on the fictitious Richard Greville, a Deputy Psychiatric Advisor with the Metropolitan Police Service who authored "an unpopular minority report on the Hungerford killings" and is sent to investigate mass murder in a gated community The Hungerford massacre inspired Christopher Priest's 1998 novel The Extremes In music "Sulk", the penultimate track on Radiohead's album The Bends, was written as a response to the massacre In television In 2004, the BBC produced a documentary on the massacre See also List of massacres in Great Britain List of rampage killers Hoddle Street massacre Port Arthur massacre (Australia), a similar spree killing in Australia in 1996 which prompted similar gun law reforms Ughill Hall shootings, which occurred eleven months earlier in Sheffield Southcliffe Footnotes References Sources 1987 in England 1987 mass shootings 1987 murders in the United Kingdom 1980s in Berkshire 1980s mass shootings in the United Kingdom Massacres 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229210	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Enzkreis	Enzkreis	Enzkreis is a Landkreis (district) in the northwest of Baden-Württemberg, Germany. Neighboring districts are (from west clockwise) Karlsruhe, Heilbronn, Ludwigsburg, Böblingen and Calw. The district-free Pforzheim area in the south is nearly completely surrounded by Enz. History The district was created in 1973, when the previous district Pforzheim was merged with parts of the neighboring districts Vaihingen, Leonberg and Calw. Some part of the district Pforzheim was included into the city Pforzheim. The district Pforzheim dates back to 1939, when the Bezirksamt Pforzheim was split into the district and the district-free city. Geography The south of the Enz district covers the northern part of the Black Forest. In the north-west of the district is the Kraichgau, a mainly agricultural area. The main river is the Enz, a tributary of the Neckar. International relations Twin towns — Sister cities Since March 1993 the district has an official partnership with the Italian province Reggio Emilia. Since 1996 the district has a partnership with the Polish city Mysłowice. As two municipalities left the city in a communal reform in 1995, the partnership also includes Imielin and Chelm Slaski. In March 2001 the Enz district together with the city Pforzheim started a friendship with the Hungarian Komitat Györ-Moson-Sopron. Coat of arms The four diamonds in the coat of arms represent the four historic territories covered by the district: the Black Forest, the Heckengäu, Kraichgau and Stromberg. The wavy line in the middle represent the river Enz, which also gave the name to the district. 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229212	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alexander%20Mackenzie%20%28explorer%29	Alexander Mackenzie (explorer)	Sir Alexander Mackenzie (or MacKenzie, ; – 12 March 1820) was a Scottish explorer known for accomplishing the first east to west crossing of America north of Mexico in 1793, which preceded the Lewis and Clark Expedition by 12 years. The Mackenzie River is named after him. Early life Mackenzie was born in House in Stornoway in Lewis. He was the third of the four children born to Kenneth 'Corc' Mackenzie (1731–1780) and his wife Isabella MacIver, from another prominent mercantile family in Stornoway. When only 14 years old, Mackenzie's father served as an ensign to protect Stornoway during the Jacobite rising of 1745. He later became a merchant and held the tack of Melbost; his grandfather being a younger brother of Murdoch Mackenzie, 6th Laird of Fairburn. Educated at the same school as Colin Mackenzie, the army officer and first Surveyor General of India, he sailed to New York City with his father to join an uncle, John Mackenzie, in 1774, after his mother died in Scotland. In 1776, during the American War of Independence, his father and uncle resumed their military duties and joined the King's Royal Regiment of New York as lieutenants. By 1778, for his safety as a son of loyalists, young Mackenzie was sent, or went accompanied by two aunts, to Montreal. By 1779 (a year before his father's death at Carleton Island), Mackenzie had a secured apprenticeship with Finlay, Gregory & Co., one of the most influential fur trading companies in Montreal, which was later administered by Archibald Norman McLeod. In 1787, the company merged with the North West Company. Explorations 1789 Mackenzie River expedition to the Arctic Ocean On behalf of the North West Company, Mackenzie travelled to Lake Athabasca where, in 1788, he was one of the founders of Fort Chipewyan. He had been sent to replace Peter Pond, a partner in the North West Company. From Pond, he learned that the First Nations people understood that the local rivers flowed to the north-west. Thinking that it would lead to Cook Inlet in Alaska, he set out by canoe on the river known to the local Dene First Nations people as the Dehcho (Mackenzie River), on 3 July 1789. On 14 July he reached the Arctic Ocean, rather than the Pacific. Later, in a letter to his cousin Roderick, he called the waterway "the River Disappointment," since the river did not prove to be the Northwest Passage, as he had hoped. In fact the story is probably apocryphal, as Mackenzie's own and contemporary records merely refer to it as the "Grand River." The river came to be known as the Mackenzie River in his honour. 1792–93 Peace River expedition to the Pacific Ocean In 1791, Mackenzie returned to Great Britain to study the new advance in the measurement of longitude. Upon his return to Canada in 1792, he set out once again to find a route to the Pacific. Accompanied by two native guides (one named Cancre), his cousin, Alexander MacKay, six Canadian voyageurs (Joseph Landry, Charles Ducette, François Beaulieu, Baptiste Bisson, Francois Courtois, Jacques Beauchamp), and a dog simply referred to as "our dog", Mackenzie left Fort Chipewyan on 10 October 1792, and travelled via the Pine River to the Peace River. From there he travelled to a fork on the Peace River arriving 1 November where he and his cohorts built a fortification that they resided in over the winter. This later became known as Fort Fork. Mackenzie left Fort Fork on 9 May 1793, following the route of the Peace River. He crossed the Great Divide and found the upper reaches of the Fraser River, but was warned by the local natives that the Fraser Canyon to the south was unnavigable and populated by belligerent tribes. He was instead directed to follow a grease trail by ascending the West Road River, crossing over the Coast Mountains and descending the Bella Coola River to the sea. He followed this advice and reached the Pacific coast on 20 July 1793, at Bella Coola, British Columbia, on North Bentinck Arm, an inlet of the Pacific Ocean. Having done this, he had completed the first recorded transcontinental crossing of North America north of Mexico, 12 years before Lewis and Clark. He had unknowingly missed meeting George Vancouver at Bella Coola by 48 days. He had wanted to continue westward out of a desire to reach the open ocean, but was stopped by the hostility of the Heiltsuk people. Hemmed in by Heiltsuk war canoes, he wrote a message on a rock near the water's edge of Dean Channel, using a reddish paint made of vermilion and bear grease, and turned back east. The inscription read: "Alex MacKenzie / from Canada / by land / 22d July 1793" (at the time the name Canada was an informal term for the former French territory in what is now southern Quebec and Ontario). The words were later inscribed permanently by surveyors. The site is now Sir Alexander Mackenzie Provincial Park and is designated a First Crossing of North America National Historic Site. In 2016, Mackenzie was named a National Historic Person. In his journal Mackenzie recorded the Carrier language for the first time. Later life and family In 1801, the journals of Mackenzie's exploratory journeys were published. He was knighted in the following year. He served in the Legislature of Lower Canada for Huntingdon County, from 1804 to 1808. In 1812 Mackenzie, then aged 48, returned to Scotland, where he married 14-year-old Geddes Mackenzie, twin heiress of Avoch. They had two sons and a daughter. Her grandfather, Captain John Mackenzie of Castle Leod (great-grandson of George Mackenzie, 2nd Earl of Seaforth), purchased the estate of Avoch with money left to him by his first cousin and brother-in-law, Admiral George Geddes Mackenzie. Lady Mackenzie's father was a first cousin of the father of George Simpson, Governor of the Hudson's Bay Company. The Mackenzies lived between Avoch and London. He died in 1820 of Bright's disease, at an age of 56 (his exact date of birth unknown). He is buried at Avoch on the Black Isle. Legacy The Mackenzie River is named for him, as is Mackenzie Bay, and the municipality of Mackenzie, British Columbia. There are a number of schools in Canada named after him, such as Sir Alexander Mackenzie Senior Public School in Toronto, Sir Alexander Mackenzie Elementary School in Vancouver, and Sir Alexander Mackenzie Elementary School in St. Albert. He is referenced in the 1981 folk song "Northwest Passage" by Stan Rogers. The Alexander Mackenzie rose (Explorer Series), developed in 1985 by Agriculture and Agri-Food Canada, was named in his honour. Between 1989 and 1993, the Mackenzie Bicentennial Sea-to-Sea Expeditions of Lakehead University attempted a segmented re-enactment of the journey between Montreal and Bella Coola, British Columbia, but was unable to complete the final overland Grease Trail when its First Nation owners refused permission. References Bibliography Wade, Mark S. (1927). "Mackenzie of Canada". William Blackwood & Sons Ltd., Edinburgh & London 1927 ; complete online transcription. External links 18th-century explorers 1764 births 1820 deaths Burials in Highland (council area) Deaths from nephritis Explorers of Canada Explorers of the Arctic Knights Bachelor Members of the Legislative Assembly of Lower Canada North West Company North West Company people People from Stornoway Persons of National Historic Significance (Canada) Scottish explorers of North America	[ -0.5238728523254395, 0.5780027508735657, 0.48050597310066223, 0.3775169551372528, 0.6830312609672546, -0.1619417518377304, 0.7324275970458984, 0.4669143855571747, -0.09422885626554489, -0.49506422877311707, -0.11047527194023132, -0.2293216437101364, 0.17606878280639648, 0.9874089360237122, -0.5420987606048584, 0.6157019734382629, -0.022791048511862755, 0.07903978228569031, -0.5232989192008972, -0.667321503162384, -0.4719906151294708, -0.30017930269241333, 0.42973968386650085, -0.0035176100209355354, 0.4978632628917694, -0.14192400872707367, 0.27395838499069214, -0.40650540590286255, -0.306518018245697, 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229214	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nemesis%20%28Nobel%20play%29	Nemesis (Nobel play)	Nemesis is a tragedy in four acts written by Alfred Nobel, who founded the Nobel Prizes. The play, which is in prose, was written shortly before his death in 1896 and printed while he was dying. Following Nobel's death the entire printed edition was destroyed, except for three copies. The first surviving edition (bilingual Swedish–Esperanto) was published in Sweden in 2003. It has been translated to Slovenian via the Esperanto version. Since 2005 it exists in Italian. In 2008 it was translated into French and Spanish and in 2010 it was published in a bilingual Russian–Esperanto edition. The first, and so far the only, production was at the Intima theatre in Stockholm in 2005. The play is based on the story of Beatrice Cenci, an Italian noblewoman, who was executed after a plot to murder her father in 1599. References 1896 plays Alfred Nobel Swedish plays Plays set in the 16th century Plays set in Italy Plays based on real people Cultural depictions of Beatrice Cenci	[ -0.31655511260032654, 0.2466079741716385, -0.1748061329126358, 0.007370342500507832, -0.13237707316875458, 0.6830677390098572, 0.6470466256141663, -0.08506298810243607, -0.3135210871696472, -0.4816296100616455, -0.0054743411019444466, -0.20162333548069, -0.49761447310447693, 0.465879887342453, -0.28231221437454224, 0.33173540234565735, -0.03735130652785301, 0.04103634133934975, -0.3906613290309906, -0.15507346391677856, 0.15058672428131104, 0.32671865820884705, 1.0703486204147339, 0.0991768091917038, 0.3146848678588867, 0.2483447939157486, 0.3238745331764221, 0.1533985137939453, 0.009576833806931973, 0.39776119589805603, -0.25794661045074463, 0.35480642318725586, -0.07944906502962112, -0.346427321434021, -0.5019733309745789, -0.1994561403989792, -0.4104905426502228, 0.5585060715675354, 0.08689025044441223, 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229216	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Francis%20Quarles	Francis Quarles	Francis Quarles (about 8 May 1592 – 8 September 1644) was an English poet most notable for his emblem book aptly entitled Emblems. Early life Francis Quarles was born in Romford, Essex, and baptised there on 8 May 1592. His family had a long history of royal service. His great-grandfather, George Quarles, was Auditor to King Henry VIII, and his father, James Quarles, held places under Queen Elizabeth and James I, for which he was rewarded with an estate called Stewards in Romford. His mother, Joan Dalton, was the daughter and heiress of Eldred Dalton of Mores Place, Hadham. There were eight children in the family; the eldest, Sir Robert Quarles, was knighted by James I in 1608. Francis Quarles was entered at Christ's College, Cambridge, in 1608, and subsequently joined Lincoln's Inn to read for the bar. In 1613, when Princess Elizabeth married Frederick V of the Electoral Palatinate, Quarles was made her cupbearer and went with her to the continent, remaining in post for some years. Career Some time before 1629, Quarles was appointed as secretary to James Ussher, Archbishop of Armagh and primate of all Ireland. About 1633, Quarles returned to England, and spent the next two years in the preparation of his Emblems. In 1639 he was made city chronologer, a post in which Ben Jonson and Thomas Middleton had preceded him. At the outbreak of the Civil War, he took the Royalist side, drawing up three pamphlets in 1644 in support of the king's cause. It is said that his house was searched and his papers destroyed by the Parliamentarians in consequence of these publications. Quarles married Ursula Woodgate in 1618, by whom he had eighteen children. His son, John Quarles (1624–1665), was exiled to Flanders for his Royalist sympathies and was the author of Fons Lachrymarum (1648) and other poems. The work by which Quarles is best known, the Emblems, was originally published in 1634, with grotesque illustrations engraved by William Marshall and others. The forty-five prints in the last three books are borrowed from the designs by Boetius à Bolswert for the Pia Desideria (Antwerp, 1624) of Herman Hugo. Each "emblem" consists of a paraphrase from a passage of Scripture, expressed in ornate and metaphorical language, followed by passages from the Christian Fathers, and concluding with an epigram of four lines. The Emblems was immensely popular with readers, but the critics of the 17th and 18th centuries had no mercy on Quarles. Sir John Suckling in his Sessions of the Poets disrespectfully alluded to him as he "that makes God speak so big in's poetry." Pope in the Dunciad spoke of the Emblems, "Where the pictures for the page atone And Quarles is saved by beauties not his own." Works The works of Quarles include: A Feast for Wormes. Set forth in a Poeme of the History of Jonah (1620), which contains other scriptural paraphrases, besides the one that furnishes the title; Hadassa; or the History of Queene Ester (1621) Job Militant, with Meditations Divine and Moral (1624) Sions Elegies, wept by Jeremie the Prophet (1624) Sions Sonets sung by Solomon the King (1624), a paraphrase of the Canticles The Historie of Samson (1631) Alphabet of Elegies upon ... Dr Aylmer (1625) Argalus and Parthenia (1629), the subject of which is borrowed from Sir Philip Sidney's Arcadia four books of Divine Fancies digested into Epigrams, Meditations and Observations (1632) a reissue of his scriptural paraphrases and the Alphabet of Elegies as Divine Poems (1633) Hieroglyphikes of the Life of Man (1638) Memorials Upon the Death of Sir Robert Quarles, Knight (1639), in honor of his brother Enchyridion, containing Institutions Divine and Moral (1640–41), a collection of four "centuries" of miscellaneous aphorisms Observations concerning Princes and States upon Peace and Warre (1642) Boanerges and Barnabas—Wine and Oyle for ... afflicted Soules (1644–46), collection of miscellaneous reflections three violent Royalist tracts (1644), The Loyal Convert, The Whipper Whipt, and The New Distemper, reissued in one volume in 1645 with the title of The Profest Royalist his quarrel with the Times, and some elegies Solomon's Recantation ... (1645), which contains a memoir by his widow The Shepheards' Oracles (1646) a second part of Boanerges and Barnabas (1646) a broadside entitled A Direfull Anathema against Peace-haters (1647) an interlude, The Virgin Widow (1649). An edition of the Emblems (Edinburgh, 1857) was embellished with new illustrations by CH Bennett and WA Rogers These are reproduced in the complete edition (1874) of Quarles included in the "Chertsey Worthies Library" by Dr AB Grosart, who provides an introductory memoir and an appreciation of Quarles's value as a poet. Descendants Among Quarles’s many descendants, Charles Henry Langston and John Mercer Langston were American abolitionists who pressed for greater freedom and suffrages among the African Americans in the 19th century. Charles Henry Langston's grandson Langston Hughes became a celebrated author and poet during the Harlem Renaissance. References Bibliography Karl Josef Höltgen, 'Francis Quarles and the Low Countries', in Bart Westerweel (Ed.), Anglo-Dutch Relations in the Field of the Emblem: Symbola et Emblemata Volume VII (Brill: Leiden, New York & Köln 1997), 123–148. Wagner, Jean, Black poets of the United States: from Paul Laurence Dunbar to Langston Hughes, University of Illinois Press, 1973, Henry David Thoreau, 'Walden', "And as he spake, his wings would now and then/Spread, as he meant to fly, then close again". 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229218	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Acker%20Bilk	Acker Bilk	Bernard Stanley Bilk, (28 January 1929 – 2 November 2014), known professionally as Acker Bilk, was a British clarinetist and vocalist known for his breathy, vibrato-rich, lower-register style, and distinctive appearance – of goatee, bowler hat and striped waistcoat. Bilk's 1962 instrumental tune "Stranger on the Shore" became the UK's biggest selling single of 1962. It spent more than 50 weeks on the UK charts, peaking at number two, and was the second No. 1 single in the United States by a British artist. Early life Bilk was born in Pensford, Somerset, in 1929. He earned the nickname "Acker" from the Somerset slang for "friend" or "mate". His parents tried to teach him the piano but, as a boy, Bilk found it restricted his love of outdoor activities, including football. He lost two front teeth in a school fight and half a finger in a sledging accident, both of which he said affected his eventual clarinet style. On leaving school Bilk joined the workforce of W.D. & H.O. Wills's cigarette factory in Bristol; he stayed there for three years, putting tobacco in the cooling room and then pushing tobacco through a blower. He then undertook three years of National Service with the Royal Engineers in the Suez Canal Zone. He learned the clarinet there after his sapper friend, John A. Britten, gave him one bought at a bazaar and for which Britten had no use. The clarinet had no reed, so Britten fashioned a makeshift one for the instrument from scrap wood. Bilk later borrowed a better instrument from the army and kept it after demobilisation. After National Service, Bilk joined his uncle's blacksmith business and qualified in the trade. Career Bilk played with friends on the Bristol jazz circuit and in 1951 moved to London to play with Ken Colyer's band. Bilk disliked London, so returned west and formed his own band in Pensford called the Chew Valley Jazzmen, which was renamed the Bristol Paramount Jazz Band when they moved to London in 1951. Their agent then booked them for a six-week gig in Düsseldorf, Germany, playing in a beer bar seven hours a night, seven nights a week. During this time, Bilk and the band developed their distinctive style and appearance, complete with striped waistcoats and bowler hats. After returning from Germany, Bilk became based in Plaistow, London, and his band played in London jazz clubs. It was from here that Bilk became part of the boom in trad jazz in the United Kingdom in the late 1950s. In 1960, their single "Summer Set" (a pun on their home county), co-written by Bilk and pianist Dave Collett, reached number five on the UK Singles Chart, and began a run of 11 chart hit singles. ("Summer Set" was also used prominently in Daniel Farson's controversial 1960 television documentary Living for Kicks, a portrait of British teenage life at the time). In 1961 "Acker Bilk and His Paramount Jazz Band" appeared at the Royal Variety Performance. Bilk was not an internationally known musician until 1962, when the experimental use of a string ensemble on one of his albums and the inclusion of a composition of his own as its keynote piece won him an audience outside the UK. He had composed a melody, entitled "Jenny" after his daughter, but was asked to change the title to "Stranger on the Shore" for use in a British television series of the same name. He went on to record it as the title track of a new album in which his deep and quavering clarinet was backed by the Leon Young String Chorale. The single was not only a big hit in the United Kingdom, where it stayed on the charts for 55 weeks, helped by Bilk being the subject of the TV show This Is Your Life, but also topped the American charts. As a result, Bilk was the second British artist to have a single in the number-one position on the Billboard Hot 100 singles chart. (Vera Lynn was the first, with "Auf Wiederseh'n Sweetheart" in 1952.) "Stranger on the Shore" sold over one million copies, and was awarded a gold disc. At the height of his career, Bilk's public relations workers were known as the "Bilk Marketing Board", a pun on the Milk Marketing Board. At the height of his international fame in 1962, he appeared in two theatrical motion pictures. It's Trad, Dad! (released in the United States by Columbia Pictures as Ring-a-Ding Rhythm) was a Richard Lester musical combining dixieland and rock-and-roll specialties; "Mr. Acker Bilk" and his band were the best represented, with three songs and a speaking role for Bilk. The second picture, Band of Thieves, was a comedy starring "Mr. Acker Bilk" and his group as musicians in prison. His music was also heard on the soundtracks to films such as Bitter Harvest (1963), West 11 (1963), and the musical comedy It's All Over Town (1964). He also played a cameo role in the latter film. Bilk's success tapered off when British rock and roll made its big international impact beginning in 1964 and he shifted direction to the cabaret circuit. However, he did record a series of well-regarded albums in the mid-1960s. Three of them, including the 1965 collaboration Together, with the Danish jazz pianist and composer Bent Fabric ("The Alley Cat"), were also released successfully in the United States on the Atlantic Records subsidiary Atco. In 1968 the album Blue Acker, produced by Denis Preston and with arrangements by Stan Tracey, illustrated that Bilk remained highly regarded as a musician, even by those (like Tracey) on the "modern jazz" side of things. Duncan Heining rates it as "one of the highlights of British jazz of the period". Bilk finally had another chart success in 1976 with "Aria", which went to number five in the United Kingdom. In May 1977 Bilk and his Paramount Jazz Band provided the interval act for the Eurovision Song Contest. His last chart appearance was in 1978, when the TV-promoted album released on Pye/Warwick, Evergreen, reached 17 in a 14-week album chart run. In the early 1980s, Bilk and his signature hit were newly familiar, due to "Stranger on the Shore" being used in the soundtrack to Sweet Dreams, the film biography of country music singer Patsy Cline. "Aria" featured as a central musical motif in the 2012 Polish film . Bilk continued to tour with his Paramount Jazz Band, as well as performing concerts with his two contemporaries, Chris Barber and Kenny Ball, both of whom were born in 1930, as "The 3Bs". Bilk also provided vocals on many of his tracks, including on "I'm an Old Cowhand", "The Folks Who Live on the Hill", "White Cliffs of Dover", "Travellin On" and "That's My Home". He was appointed MBE in 2001. In 2005 he was awarded the BBC Jazz Awards' "Gold Award". One of his recordings was with the Chris Barber band, sharing the clarinet spot with the band's regular reedsmen, John Crocker and Ian Wheeler. Bilk made a CD with Wally Fawkes for the Lake label in 2002. He appeared on three albums by Van Morrison: Down the Road; What's Wrong With This Picture?; and Born to Sing: No Plan B. In 2012 Bilk said that, after 50 years, he was "fed up" with playing his most famous tune, "Stranger on the Shore". Bilk died in Bath, Somerset, on 2 November 2014, at the age of 85. He was survived by his wife and two children. Bilk's last recorded interview was for Cornish community station Penwith Radio (now Coast FM) and was broadcast on Sunday 16 November 2014 at 9:00 pm. Personal life Bilk married his childhood sweetheart, Jean Hawkins, whom he met in the same class at school. The couple had two children: Jenny and Pete. After living near London in Potters Bar for many years the couple retired to Pensford. In 1997, Bilk was diagnosed with throat cancer, which was treated through surgery and then followed by daily radiation therapy at Bristol Haematology and Oncology Centre. Subsequently, he had eight keyhole operations for bladder cancer and suffered a minor stroke. Other interests Bilk was part of a consortium which took over the Oxford Cheetahs speedway team in 1972. They were rebranded as Oxford Rebels as part of the takeover. Legacy Bilk has been described as the "Great Master of the Clarinet". "Stranger on the Shore" – which he was once quoted as calling "my old-age pension" – remains a standard of jazz and popular music alike. Discography Albums EPs Singles See also West Country dialects Django Reinhardt, another influential jazz musician with finger-damage who was still able to become a virtuoso on his instrument References External links Official site On being appointed an honorary Master of Arts at Bristol University 1929 births 2014 deaths Musicians from Somerset People from Bath and North East Somerset British expatriates in Germany 20th-century British male musicians 20th-century clarinetists 20th-century British musicians 21st-century British male musicians 21st-century clarinetists 21st-century British musicians Atco Records artists British blacksmiths Dixieland clarinetists British jazz clarinetists British jazz musicians Members of the Order of the British Empire Royal Engineers soldiers Stomp Off artists Pye Records artists Columbia Records artists	[ -0.17191924154758453, 0.1652555763721466, -0.33959490060806274, -0.552450954914093, -0.18518832325935364, 0.939600944519043, 0.03452925384044647, 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229219	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eric%20Wilson	Eric Wilson	Eric Wilson may refer to: Authors Eric Wilson (suspense writer), American author Eric Wilson (author) (born 1940), Canadian author Sports Eric Wilson (athlete) (1900–1985), American athlete Eric Wilson (linebacker, born 1962) (born 1962), former American football player for the Buffalo Bills and Washington Redskins Eric Wilson (linebacker, born 1994) (born 1994), American football player Eric Wilson (Australian footballer) (born 1945), Australian rules footballer Eric Wilson (Canadian football) (born 1978), defensive tackle for the Montreal Alouettes Others Eric Wilson (artist) (1911–1946), Australian painter Eric Wilson (bassist) (born 1970), member of Sublime Eric Charles Twelves Wilson (1912–2008), recipient of the Victoria Cross Eric Wilson, keyboardist and member of Wild Cub Eric C. Wilson, one of the Norfolk Four, a group of men who are believed to be wrongfully convicted in a rape/murder in Norfolk, Virginia Eric Wilson, murder victim and subject of the documentary Just Another Missing Kid	[ 0.38603222370147705, 0.7632256746292114, -0.43116259574890137, -0.39113593101501465, -0.13211460411548615, 0.5844303369522095, 0.8695977330207825, -0.1400126814842224, -0.7170672416687012, -0.07557982206344604, -0.11049585789442062, 0.027120769023895264, -0.36164340376853943, -0.37184691429138184, 0.09106005728244781, 0.8462859988212585, -0.14960026741027832, 0.4462830424308777, -0.3835563063621521, -0.4635164141654968, -0.025419125333428383, -0.278189480304718, 0.6453670263290405, 0.11444311589002609, 0.1501392275094986, 0.39226874709129333, 0.1044517308473587, 0.23983228206634521, 0.30542364716529846, 0.8135663270950317, 0.03234533965587616, 0.375979483127594, 0.662696897983551, -0.504491925239563, -0.3035561740398407, 0.23743979632854462, -0.019826430827379227, 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229224	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Old%20Left	Old Left	The Old Left was the pre-1960s left-wing in the Western world, the earlier leftist or Marxist movements that had often taken a more vanguardist approach to social justice and focused mostly on labor unionization and questions of social class in the West. Social policy Unlike the New Left, the Old Left puts less emphasis on social issues such as abortion, drugs, feminism, gay rights, gender roles, immigration and abolition of the capital punishment. Since the mid-1970s with the advent of revisionist movements such as Eurocommunism (and earlier in the Anglosphere, the New Left), some parties on the far-left in the West have begun to adopt homosexual rights from the New Left as part of their platform while parties in the East such as the Communist Party of Greece and the Communist Party of the Russian Federation have rejected this move and continue to focus exclusively on working class as the Old Left. The party voted against the Civil Partnerships Bill proposed by Syriza, responding: "With the formation of a socialist-communist society, a new type of partnership will undoubtedly be formed—a relatively stable heterosexual relationship and reproduction". Militant was a Trotskyist entryist group in the British Labour Party, based around the Militant newspaper launched in 1964. According to Michael Crick, its politics were influenced by Karl Marx, Friedrich Engels, Vladimir Lenin and Leon Trotsky and "virtually nobody else". Militant has been cited as an example left-wing opposition to feminism and gay rights initiatives within the labour movement in the early 1980s, specifically within the context of reaction to the financial support given to gay rights groups by the Greater London Council under the leadership of Ken Livingstone. While Militant was present in Labour Party women's sections, claiming forty delegates attended the Labour Party women's conference in 1981, it opposed feminism which declared that men were the enemy, or the cause of women's oppression. Immigration The Old Left sometimes took a stance hostile to immigration, promoting policies that would preserve the ethnic homogeneity of the country. Australian Prime Minister John Curtin, who was part of the Australian Labour Party, reinforced the White Australia Policy and said the following in his defense: "This country shall remain forever the home of the descendants of those people who came here in peace in order to establish in the South Seas an outpost of the British race." Arthur Calwell, another old-leftist who led the Australian Labour Party in the 1960s strongly defended the White Australia Policy and said the following: "I am proud of my white skin, just as a Chinese is proud of his yellow skin, a Japanese of his brown skin, and the Indians of their various hues from black to coffee-coloured. Anybody who is not proud of his race is not a man at all. And any man who tries to stigmatize the Australian community as racist because they want to preserve this country for the white race is doing our nation great harm... I reject, in conscience, the idea that Australia should or ever can become a multi-racial society and survive." Left-wing laborers perceived unrestricted immigration as a ploy by owners to drive down wages, resulting in the leadership of labor unions often being skeptical of expanded immigration. As late as 2015, Bernie Sanders criticized open borders a "Koch brothers proposal," although he later switched to the more New Left position welcoming to immigration.Bernie Sanders's fear of immigrant labor is ugly — and wrongheaded Homosexuality Communist leaders and intellectuals took many different positions on LGBT rights issues. Marx and Engels wrote little on the subject; Marx in particular commented rarely on sexuality in general. Writing for Political Affairs, Norman Markowitz writes: "Here, to be frank, one finds from Marx a refusal to entertain the subject, and from Engels open hostility to the individuals involved". This is because in private Engels criticized male homosexuality and related it to ancient Greek pederasty, saying that "[the ancient Greeks] fell into the abominable practice of sodomy [Knabenliebe, meaning "boylove" or pederasty] and degraded alike their gods and themselves with the myth of Ganymede". Engels also said that the pro-pederast movement "cannot fail to triumph. Guerre aux cons, paix aus trous-de-cul [war on the cunts, peace to the arse-holes] will now be the slogan". Engels also referred to Dr. Karl Boruttau as a Schwanzschwulen ("faggotty prick") in private. The Encyclopedia of Homosexuality volume two is unequivocal on Marx and Engels view of homosexuality, stating: "There can be little doubt that, as far as they thought of the matter at all, Marx and Engels were personally homo-phobic, as shown by an acerbic 1869 exchange of letter on Jean-Baptiste von Schweitzer, a German socialist rival. Schweitzer had been arrested in a park on a morals charge and not only did Marx and Engels refuse to join a committee defending him, they resorted to the cheapest form of bathroom humor in their private comments about the affair". In 1933, Joseph Stalin added Article 121 to the entire Soviet Union criminal code, which made male homosexuality a crime punishable by up to five years in prison with hard labor. The precise reason for Article 121 is in some dispute among historians. The few official government statements made about the law tended to confuse homosexuality with pedophilia and was tied up with a belief that homosexuality was only practiced among fascists or the aristocracy. The law remained intact until after the dissolution of the Soviet Union and was repealed in 1993. Gay men were sometimes denied membership or expelled from Communist parties across the globe during the 20th century as most Communist parties followed the social precedents set by the Soviet Union. The West was less beholden to Soviet ideas. Notable Western gay members of Communist parties included Mark Ashton, founder of Lesbians and Gays Support the Miners and LGBT rights advocate, a member of the Communist Party of Great Britain; and Harry Hay, a gay rights activist, labor advocate, Native American civil rights campaigner, Mattachine Society founder, co-founder of Los Angeles Gay Liberation Front, a member of the Communist Party USA The Party of Socialists of the Republic of Moldova is a party which strongly opposes LGBT rights in Moldova and works with nationalist, right-wing and religious movements to counter the "promotion of vice spread with the help of the US in Moldova". The Communist Party of the Russian Federation supported an anti-gay law Transformation into the New Left The New Left arose first among dissenting intellectuals and campus groups in the United Kingdom and later alongside campus in the United States and in the Western bloc. The German critical theorist Herbert Marcuse is referred to as the "Father of the New Left". Marcuse rejected the theory of class struggle and the Marxist concern with labor. According to Leszek Kołakowski, Marcuse argued that since "all questions of material existence have been solved, moral commands and prohibitions are no longer relevant". He regarded the realization of man's erotic nature as the true liberation of humanity, which inspired the utopias of Jerry Rubin and others. Between 1943 and 1950, Marcuse worked in U.S. Government service for the Office of Strategic Services (predecessor of the Central Intelligence Agency) and criticized the ideology of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union in the book Soviet Marxism: A Critical Analysis (1958). After his studies, in the 1960s and the 1970s he became known as the pre-eminent theorist of the New Left and the student movements of West Germany, France and the United States. Parties that subscribe to the Old Left Communist Party of Greece (since 1918) Portuguese Communist Party (since 1921) Communist Party (Italy) (since 2009) Communist Party of the Russian Federation (since 1993) Communist Party of Ukraine (since 1993) Communist Party of Belarus (since 1996) People's Party of Kazakhstan (since 2004) Communist Party of South Ossetia (since 1993) Party of Communists of Kyrgyzstan (since 1992) Communist Party of Tajikistan (since 1918) Party of Socialists of the Republic of Moldova (since 1997) Polish Communist Party (2002) Party of the Bulgarian Communists (since 1999) Hungarian Workers' Party (since 1989) Communist Party of Bohemia and Moravia (since 1990) Communist Party of Albania (1991) Communitarian Party of Romania (since 2010) Workers Party of Britain (since 2019) Communist Party of Britain Communist Party (Sweden) Communist Party of Great Britain (Marxist–Leninist) Communists of Russia (since 2009) See also Left-wing politics Left-wing populism New Left Old Right (disambiguation) Paleoism (disambiguation) References Communism Left-wing politics Political ideologies Socialism	[ -0.4232483208179474, -0.527594268321991, 0.0021474987734109163, 0.2157524675130844, -0.45096126198768616, -0.08303597569465637, -0.5200600624084473, 0.8067197799682617, 0.12069017440080643, -0.23717114329338074, -0.14803814888000488, 0.4845713973045349, -0.08965478092432022, 0.5218809843063354, -0.016325686126947403, 0.49323734641075134, 0.20117007195949554, -0.5322299599647522, -0.30950507521629333, -0.18357188999652863, -0.3421691358089447, 0.17499028146266937, 0.4155605435371399, 0.02235320582985878, 0.2973586916923523, -0.627828061580658, 0.43259739875793457, -0.6664882898330688, -0.34406042098999023, 0.19088593125343323, -0.07165086269378662, 0.14781466126441956, -0.2404569536447525, -0.14744916558265686, -0.33572542667388916, 0.045470934361219406, -0.16035196185112, -0.1092032790184021, -0.29335352778434753, 0.022466665133833885, -0.449851393699646, 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229226	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kempley	Kempley	Kempley is a parish and village in the Forest of Dean of Gloucestershire, England, close to the border with Herefordshire. It lies northwest of Gloucester and of Hereford. The nearest market towns of Newent and Ledbury are and miles respectively. The village maintains the Kempley Tardis (a redundant telephone box) - a National Lottery funded project supported by English Heritage. The project, which is run by the Friends of Kempley Churches, aims to archive and document the entire social, economic and cultural history of the village. In March 1994 fields near the village were found to contain the remains of two of the victims of serial killer Fred West. The small parish (280 residents) has two notable churches, one dedicated to St Mary and another to St Edward the Confessor. St Mary's Church St Mary's Church, Kempley has in its chancel "the most complete set of Romanesque frescos in northern Europe", including the Christ in Majesty painting created in about 1120. On the walls of the nave are further images, including a wheel of life, showing the life cycle of man. These are worked in tempera painted on dry lime mortar, unlike those in the chancel which are true frescoes. St Mary's Church is owned by English Heritage and maintained by The Friends of Kempley Churches.(Location: ) The Church has the oldest roof of any building in Britain, dating from 1120-1150 and has an unusually well-preserved interior. In the early months of the year, from late February to early March, the churchyard is very beautiful, often being covered in wild daffodils. St Edward's Church The Church of St Edward (1903), described by Betjeman as "a mini-cathedral of the Arts and Crafts movement", was built from local materials by local labour, under the direction of Randall Wells, clerk of works at All Saints' Church, Brockhampton. The church was planned by the Lord of the Manor and major landowner, William Lygon, 7th Earl Beauchamp, because St Mary's was too far away from the main centres of population in the parish at Kempley Green and Fishpool, and liable to flooding. The walls of the church are in Forest of Dean red sandstone. References External links The Kempley Tardis Project St Mary's Church Virtual Tour Information about the Christ in Majesty painting The Three Marys (Maries) at the Sepulchre Photos of Kempley and surrounding area on geograph.org.uk Forest of Dean Villages in Gloucestershire	[ 0.0271078422665596, 0.1118425577878952, -0.06353628635406494, -0.5341654419898987, -0.0674680843949318, 0.413222998380661, 0.2630079388618469, -0.3150259852409363, -0.49749186635017395, -0.18604452908039093, -0.2768828570842743, 0.040921296924352646, 0.2762633264064789, 0.31955215334892273, -1.1846052408218384, 0.30164092779159546, 0.1343197077512741, 0.43575435876846313, 0.3118267357349396, -1.194794774055481, 0.13087224960327148, -0.46459296345710754, -0.7258650064468384, 0.4556938111782074, 0.06766299158334732, 0.08628028631210327, 0.383544921875, -0.2044813334941864, -0.04255509376525879, -0.3611132502555847, -0.18255646526813507, 0.6761923432350159, 0.3780019283294678, 0.21968209743499756, 0.6155087947845459, 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229227	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thomas%20Picton	Thomas Picton	Lieutenant-General Sir Thomas Picton (24 August 175818 June 1815) was a Welsh officer of the British Army who fought in the Napoleonic Wars. According to the historian Alessandro Barbero, Picton was "respected for his courage and feared for his irascible temperament". The Duke of Wellington called him "a rough foul-mouthed devil as ever lived", but found him capable. Picton came to public attention initially for his alleged cruelty during his governorship (1797–1803) of Trinidad, as a result of which he was put on trial in England for approving the illegal torture of a 14-year-old girl, Luisa Calderón. Though initially convicted, Picton later had the conviction overturned arguing that Trinidad was subject to Spanish law, which permitted the use of torture. Controversy over the torture and Picton's role in the colonial slave trade continued. In 2020, Cardiff council voted to remove Picton's statue in the "Heroes of Wales" gallery in Cardiff City Hall. He is chiefly remembered for his exploits under Wellington in the Iberian Peninsular War of 1807–1814, during which he fought in many engagements, displaying great bravery and persistence. He was killed in 1815 fighting at the Battle of Waterloo, during a crucial bayonet charge in which his division stopped d'Erlon's corps' attack against the allied centre left. He was the most senior officer to die at Waterloo. He was a sitting Member of Parliament at the time of his death. Early life Thomas Picton was the seventh of 12 children of Thomas Picton (1723–1790) of Poyston Hall, Pembrokeshire, Wales, and his wife, Cecil née Powell (1728–1806). He was born in Haverfordwest, Pembrokeshire on (probably) 24 August 1758. In 1771 he obtained an ensign's commission in the 12th Regiment of Foot, but he did not join until two years later. The regiment was then stationed at Gibraltar, where he remained until he was made captain in the 75th Foot in January 1778, at which point he then returned to Britain. The regiment was disbanded five years later, and Picton quelled a mutiny amongst the men by his prompt personal action and courage, and was promised the rank of major as a reward. He did not receive it, and after living in retirement on his father's estate for nearly 12 years, he went out to the West Indies in 1794 on the strength of a slight acquaintance with Sir John Vaughan, the commander-in-chief, who made him his aide-de-camp and gave him a captaincy in the 17th foot. Shortly afterwards he was promoted major in the 58th foot. Career in the New World Under Sir Ralph Abercromby, who succeeded Vaughan in 1795, he was present at the capture of Saint Lucia (after which he was promoted to lieutenant colonel of the 56th Foot) and then that of St Vincent. After the reduction of Trinidad in 1797, Abercromby made Picton governor of the island. For the next 5 years he held the island with a garrison he considered inadequate against the threats of internal unrest and of reconquest by the Spanish. He ensured order by vigorous action, viewed variously as rough-and-ready justice or as arbitrary brutality. Picton was also accused of the execution of a dozen slaves. And the trade in captive humans was partly behind his considerable fortune. Historian Chris Evans said "Delinquents who were sent for immediate execution might consider themselves lucky; others had to endure mutilation and torture." In October 1801 he was gazetted to the local rank of brigadier-general. During the negotiations leading to the Peace of Amiens of 1802, many of the British inhabitants petitioned against the return of the island to Spain; this together with Picton's and Abercromby's representations, ensured the retention of Trinidad as a British possession. By then, reports of arbitrariness and brutality associated with his governorship had led to a demand at home for his removal. Picton was also making money from speculation in land and slaves and his free coloured mistress and mother of four of his children, Rosetta Smith, was believed to be corruptly influencing his decisions. Furthermore, Trinidad no longer faced any external threat, the Pitt ministry had fallen and the new Addington administration did not want Trinidad to develop the plantation economy Picton favoured. In 1802, William Fullarton (1754–1808) was appointed as the Senior Member of a commission to govern the island, Samuel Hood became the second member, and Picton himself the junior. Fullarton had a very different background from Picton. He came from a wealthy and long-established Scots land-owning family and was a Whig MP, a Fellow of the Royal Society, an improving landlord, and a patron of Robert Burns. He had been a junior diplomat, before raising a regiment in the course of the American War of Independence of which he naturally became the Colonel. He ended that war in India commanding an army of 14,000 men in operations against Tippu Sultan. Afterwards he had written an influential pamphlet arguing that the East India Company had brought trouble on itself by its unprincipled treatment of native princes and native subjects, and that a more humane policy would be preferable rather than "let them hate so long as they fear" (a favourite motto of Caligula). Picton's policy with respect to various sections of the island population had effectively been "let them hate so long as they fear" and he and Fullarton rapidly fell out. (This, of itself, further worsened the rift: Fullarton's Indian pamphlet had also reported adversely on conflicts of interest and dissension between the English having weakened their ability to govern well, to negotiate effectively, and to effectively defend their possessions.) Fullarton commenced a series of open enquiries on allegations against Picton and reported his unfavourable views on Picton's past actions at length to meetings of the commission. Picton thereupon tendered his resignation on 31 May 1803. Arrest and trials Picton joined Hood in military operations in Saint Lucia and Tobago, before returning to Britain to face charges brought by Fullarton. In December 1803 he was arrested by order of the Privy Council and promptly released on bail set at £40,000. The Privy Council dealt with the majority of the charges against Picton. Those charges related principally to accusations of excessive cruelty in the detection and punishment of practitioners of obeah, severity to slaves, and of execution of suspects out of hand without due process. Only the latter class of charge seems to have seriously worried the Privy Council, and here Picton's argument that either the laws of Trinidad (then still the laws of the former Spanish colonial power: Abercromby had specifically instructed Picton to conduct himself according to those laws) or "the state of the garrison" (martial law) justified the immediate execution in the cases specified eventually carried the day. Picton was, however, tried in the Court of King's Bench before Lord Ellenborough in 1806 on a single charge: the misdemeanour of having in 1801 caused torture to be unlawfully inflicted to extract a confession from Luisa Calderón, a young free mulatto girl suspected of assisting one of her lovers to burgle the house of the man with whom she was living, making off with about £500. Torture (but not the specific form) had been requested in writing by a local magistrate and approved in writing by Picton. The torture applied ("picketing") was a version of a British military punishment and consisted in principle of compelling the trussed up suspect to stand on one toe on a flat-headed peg for one hour on many occasions within a span of a few days. Calderón was subjected to one session of 55 minutes, and a second of 25 minutes the following day. The young girl was suspended by one arm on a pulley rope set in the ceiling and lowered onto a peg in the floor, bare foot first. This continued until her entire body weight rested on the peg. She did not confess and was imprisoned for a further eight months before being released. The period between Picton's return and the trial had seen a pamphlet war between the rival camps, and the widespread sale of engravings showing a curious British public what an attractive 14-year-old mulatto girl being trussed up and tortured in a state of semi-undress might look like. At the trial, Luisa Calderón gave evidence in person ("Her appearance was extremely interesting, and her countenance, which was that of a mulatto, extremely prepossessing and agreeable") of the nature and duration of her picketing. The legal arguments, however, revolved on whether Spanish law permitted torture of suspects. On the evidence presented by the prosecution and with Picton's defence being damaged by the cross-examination of his witnesses ("Mr Bourville was examined relative to the nature of the office of alkald, or justice at Trinidad. On his cross examination by William Garrow, he said, the first introduction of torture was by General Picton." ... "Mr Gloucester, the Attorney-General at Trinidad, verified several books as books of authority, in which it was expressly laid down, that by the Spanish law torture might be inflicted; these books were, the Borvillia, the Curia Phillipion, and the Elesando. On his cross-examination he admitted that the Caedula and Raecopilazione were also books of authority. They contained a code expressly applicable to the Spanish West India Islands, and there was not a word about torture in them"), the jury decided that it did not and found Picton guilty. Picton promptly sought a retrial, which he got in 1808. At this, Picton's counsel stressed that the use of torture had been requested by the local magistrate, that there were copious authorities showing its legality under Spanish law, and that Calderón had been old enough to be legally tortured. Against the argument that torture was legal under the laws of Spain, but nowhere authorised by those of its colonies, he presented a considerable body of depositions from inhabitants of Trinidad showing that torture had frequently been resorted to by magistrates in the last years of Spanish occupation. The jury found that torture was authorised by the law of the island at the time of the cession, and that the defendant acted without malice, further than making an order which he thought himself bound to comply with. They therefore reversed the verdict of the earlier trial but asked for the full court to consider the further argument of the prosecution that torture of a free person was so repugnant to the laws of England that Picton must have known he could not permit it, whatever Spanish law authorised. The court ordered that Picton's obligations to the court be postponed until the court could consider the matter further but no judgment was ever delivered. Friends of Picton in the military and among slave owners subscribed towards his legal expenses. Picton contributed the same sum to a relief fund after a widespread fire in Port of Spain. He had meanwhile been promoted major-general, and in 1809 he had been governor of Flushing in the Netherlands during the Walcheren expedition. European military service In 1810, at Wellington's request, Picton was appointed to command a division in Spain. Wellington recalled that he had been recommended by General Miranda, who considered him "extremely clever", but also did not trust him, because "he has so much vanity that if you sent him out to the Caraccas or the West India Islands, he would attempt to become the prince of them". Wellington commented when he met Picton, For the remaining years of the Peninsular War, Picton was one of Wellington's principal subordinates. The commander-in-chief never reposed in him the confidence that he gave to Beresford, Hill and Robert Craufurd but in the resolute, thorough and punctual execution of a well-defined task Picton had no superior in the army. His debut, owing partly to his naturally stern and now embittered temper, and partly to the difficult position in which he was placed, was unfortunate. On the River Coa in July 1810 Craufurd's division became involved in an action, and Picton, his nearest neighbour, refused to support him, as Wellington's direct orders were to avoid an engagement. Shortly after this, however, at Busaco, Picton succeeded in driving French forces across a ravine in considerable disorder. After the winter in the lines of Torres Vedras, he added to his reputation and to that of his division, the "Fighting" 3rd, at the Battle of Fuentes de Onoro. In September he was given the local rank of lieutenant-general, and in the same month the division won great glory by its rapid and orderly retirement under severe pressure from the French cavalry at the engagement at El Bodon. In October Picton was appointed to the colonelcy of the 77th Regiment of Foot. In the first operations of 1812 Picton and Craufurd, side by side, stormed the two breaches of Ciudad Rodrigo. Both Craufurd and Picton's second in command, Major-General Henry MacKinnon, were mortally wounded in the engagement. At Badajoz, a month later, the successful storming of the fortress was due to his daring self-reliance and penetration in converting the secondary attack on the castle, delivered by the 3rd Division, into a real one. He was himself wounded in this terrible engagement, but would not leave the ramparts, and the day after, having recently inherited a fortune, he gave every survivor of his command a guinea. His wound, and an attack of fever, compelled him to return to Britain to recoup his health, but he reappeared at the front in April 1813. While in Britain he was invested with the collar and badge of a Knight of the Order of the Bath by the Prince Regent George, and in June he was made a lieutenant-general in the army. At this time, Picton purchased the Iscoed estate in Carmarthenshire, and was returned triumphantly as Member of Parliament for Pembroke Boroughs at a by-election on 19 March 1813. At the Battle of Vitoria, Picton led his division across a key bridge under heavy fire. According to Picton, the enemy responded by pummeling the 3rd with 40 to 50 cannon and a counter-attack on their right flank (which was still open because they had captured the bridge so quickly) causing the 3rd to lose 1,800 men (over one third of all Allied losses at the battle) as they held their ground. The conduct of the 3rd division under his leadership at Vittoria and in the engagements in the Pyrenees raised his reputation as a resolute and skilful fighting general to a still higher point. Early in 1814 he was offered, but after consulting Wellington declined, the command of the British forces operating on the side of Catalonia. On the break-up of the division the officers presented Picton with a valuable service of plate, and on 24 June 1814 he received for the seventh time the thanks of the House of Commons for his great services. Somewhat to his disappointment he was not included amongst the generals who were raised to the peerage, but early in 1815 he was made a G.C.B. Death When Napoleon returned from Elba, Picton, at Wellington's request, accepted a high command in the Anglo-Dutch army, and was appointed commander of the 5th Infantry Division. Along with every other senior officer in the army, he was invited to the Duchess of Richmond's Ball that was held on 15 June. On 18 June, at Waterloo, when Napoleon sent in the Comte d'Erlon's Corps to attack the Anglo-allied centre near La Haye Sainte at 13:30, Picton launched a bayonet charge on the advancing French column. While repulsing the attack with impetuous valour – his last words were "Charge! Charge! Hurrah! Hurrah!" – he was shot through the temple by a musket ball. Announcing his death, Wellington wrote to the Minister of War, Lord Bathurst: On subsequent examination, Picton's body was found to have suffered a serious musket ball wound to the hip at Quatre Bras on the 16th. Apart from his servant, he had told no one, nor had he consulted a surgeon, choosing instead to bandage the wound himself. His body arrived in Deal in Kent on 25June to a salute from the guns of the ships moored in The Downs. It reached Canterbury the same evening and was deposited in a room at the Fountain Inn where Picton had dined on his way to the Continent. At 6:00 am on 26June, to the strains of the "Dead March" in Saul, the funeral procession accompanied by the 52nd Regiment of Foot with reversed arms moved off towards London where it arrived on 3July. Burial and monuments He was interred in the family vault at St George's, Hanover Square. A public monument was erected to his memory in St Paul's Cathedral, by order of Parliament, and in 1823 another Picton Monument was erected at Carmarthen by subscription, the king contributing a hundred guineas. On 8 June 1859, his body was re-interred in St Paul's Cathedral, lying close to the body of the Duke of Wellington. He is memorialised in St Michael's Church, Rudbaxton in Pembrokeshire, the parish in which he grew up. There is also a monument on the battlefield of Waterloo. Namings in his honour Places The town of Picton in Prince Edward County, Ontario, Canada The town of Picton, New Zealand Picton, New South Wales, a town named by Picton's military colleague, Lachlan Macquarie Picton Junction, Western Australia was named by Waterloo veterans who settled the southwest of Western Australia Picton Island, at the east entrance of the Beagle Channel in South America; named by Robert Fitzroy and Phillip Parker King Roads Picton Street, Griffithstown, Wales Picton Terrace, Blaenau Ffestiniog, Wales Picton Terrace, Carmarthen, Wales Picton Road, New South Wales, a highway in Australia Picton Street, Montpelier, Bristol. In 1783, while still a captain, Picton endeared himself to Bristolians by facing the rebellious 75th Battalion on College Green, Bristol and averting a military mutiny. There is also a fine double-bayed villa in the street named Picton Lodge. Picton Street, Port of Spain, Trinidad and Tobago. Public houses The General Picton Inn in Porthcawl The General Picton in Picton Place, Nantyffyllon, Maesteg. The sign bears an image of Sir Thomas. The area also contains a Picton Street named after him; he owned a large amount of land in the area. The Picton is a public house in Commercial Road, Newport. The sign depicts Sir Thomas in military uniform resting the blade of his sword upon his left shoulder. Other Picton Barracks, Bulford Camp, Wiltshire – the headquarters of the British Army's 3rd Division since 1992 – World War 1, Royal Navy monitor The Rhymney Brewery in Rhymney, South Wales, produces a "real ale" (classic cask bitter) named General Picton The Picton, a boys' boarding house at Wellington College, Berkshire, an independent school The Rhymney Brewery in Rhymney, South Wales, produces a "real ale" (classic cask bitter) named General Picton Picton House, a house at Haverfordwest Grammar School (closed 1978), Picton's old school in Haverfordwest, Pembrokeshire Sir Thomas Picton School (Ysgol Sir Thomas Picton), a mixed comprehensive school in Haverfordwest, Pembrokeshire, Wales – closed 2018. Picton Arcade, Swansea. A covered city centre shopping area linking the Kingsway and Oxford Street. Picton House, Humphreys Estate, Gibraltar. In fiction In the 1970 Soviet-Italian film, Waterloo, Picton was played by the English actor Jack Hawkins. Picton's trial is depicted in episode three of the third series of the 2011 television series Garrow's Law; Picton is played by Patrick Baladi. Likenesses Oil portrait (c1812) of Sir Thomas Picton by Sir Martin Archer Shee, in the National Portrait Gallery. Oil portrait (c1815) by Sir William Beechey, at Apsley House, London. Bust (1816) by Sebastian Gahagan, in St Paul's Cathedral. Lithograph by anonymous artist of Sir Thomas Picton on horseback (1815), in the National Portrait Gallery. Serravezza marble statue (1916) of Sir Thomas Picton by Thomas Mewburn Crook in Cardiff City Hall, one of a series entitled "Heroes of Wales". In June 2020, in the wake of the George Floyd protests and the toppling of the statue of Edward Colston in Bristol, the Lord Mayor of Cardiff, Dan De'Ath, and the leader of Cardiff Council, Huw Thomas, supported calls to remove the City Hall statue on account of Picton's links to slavery. In July, the Council voted to remove the statue. In November 2021, the Amgueddfa Cymru – National Museum Wales removed his portrait which had been in the museum since 1907 due to his ties with slavery in Trinidad. See also Picton's monument References Bibliography External links www.napoleonguide.com Picton BBC: Picton past examined narrative – not transcript – of Picton's King's Bench trial Political summary \|- 1758 births 1815 deaths People from Haverfordwest British Army generals British military personnel killed in action in the Napoleonic Wars British Army personnel of the Napoleonic Wars British Army commanders of the Napoleonic Wars Gordon Highlanders officers Suffolk Regiment officers Royal Leicestershire Regiment officers 56th Regiment of Foot officers Welsh army officers Knights Grand Cross of the Order of the Bath Governors of British Trinidad Governors of British Tobago Welsh military personnel Members of the Parliament of the United Kingdom for Welsh constituencies UK MPs 1812–1818	[ -0.44754451513290405, 0.25310850143432617, -0.7087262868881226, -0.23991794884204865, 0.33659425377845764, 1.301061749458313, 0.5160307884216309, 0.2225918471813202, -0.20145030319690704, 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229229	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bud%20Gaugh	Bud Gaugh	Floyd I. "Bud" Gaugh IV (born October 2, 1967) is an American drummer who played in the bands Sublime (1988–1996), Long Beach Dub Allstars (1997–2002), Eyes Adrift (2002–2003), Volcano (2004), and Sublime with Rome (2009–2011), as well as Phil & the Blanx, Del Mar, and Jelly of the Month Club. Biography Gaugh started his drumming career in high school playing snare with the Long Beach Junior Concert Band. He met bassist Eric Wilson in 1979 and later started their first garage punk band, which was named The Juice Bros. They became founding members of Sublime in 1986. Around 1990, according to Marshall Goodman, Gaugh left the band due to some unknown reasons. Gaugh would not be the primary drummer on the 40 oz. to Freedom record or be a part of the two tours that followed its release in 1992. Gaugh would rejoin the band sometime shortly after for Robbin’ the Hood, which was released in 1994. In 1996, Sublime disbanded due to the death of lead singer Bradley Nowell from a heroin overdose. The Long Beach Dub Allstars then formed in 1997. Their first album, released in 1999, was called Right Back. Gaugh played drums in the Eyes Adrift with Krist Novoselic and Curt Kirkwood. After Eyes Adrift disbanded, he went on to form Volcano with Kirkwood. Since Eyes Adrift, Gaugh now spends his time at his home in Nevada, snowboarding, skating, skiing and kayaking in Colorado and Lake Tahoe. It was announced in early 2009 that Gaugh would be reuniting with Sublime at Cantina Los Tres Hombres in Sparks, Nevada, on February 28, with new frontman and guitarist Rome Ramirez in the place of Bradley Nowell. Following positive response, the band decided to reunite properly in August 2009 for a possible tour and new album. However, not long after the October 2009 performance at Cypress Hill's Smokeout Festival, a Los Angeles judge banned the new lineup from using the Sublime name, and the band was forced to change its name. The new lineup of Eric Wilson, Bud Gaugh, and Rome Ramirez performed together as Sublime with Rome. A debut album, Yours Truly, was released on July 12, 2011. Gaugh left Sublime with Rome on December 10, 2011. He was replaced by Josh Freese. On January 12, 2012, in an interview posted on budztv.com, Gaugh expressed regrets about touring and recording with Sublime with Rome, stating, "In hindsight I would not have used the name. I didn't want to in the first place, I was talked into it and I would like to apologize to certain people and the fans for trying to justify or talk them into it as well." When asked how it felt to play Sublime songs again, Gaugh said, "It was really good for the first few months; after that, it just felt wrong. Not playing the songs but playing them with the name Sublime, without Brad." When asked if he saw the band reuniting in the future Gaugh replied, "No, I am done with SWR. I would be into playing music with Eric Wilson, however." In 2016, Gaugh appeared on an episode of Finding Bigfoot, where he and long time friend James "Bobo" Fay explore the wilderness in search of the elusive beast. Discography Sublime Jah Won't Pay the Bills (1991) 40oz. to Freedom (1992) Robbin' the Hood (1994) Sublime (1996) Second-hand Smoke (1997) Stand by Your Van (1998) Sublime Acoustic: Bradley Nowell & Friends (1998) Everything Under the Sun: Rarities (2006) Long Beach Dub All-Stars Right Back (1999) Wonders of the World (2001) Eyes Adrift Eyes Adrift (2003) Volcano Volcano (2004) Del Mar Demo (2007) After The Quake (2009) Sublime with Rome Yours Truly (2011) Jelly of the Month Club Introducing the Jelly of the Month Club (2013) Enjoy the Show (2018) References External links Official site Myspace site Del Mar article 1967 births Living people Musicians from Long Beach, California American punk rock drummers American male drummers Sublime (band) members 20th-century American drummers Eyes Adrift members Long Beach Dub Allstars members Volcano (supergroup) members Sublime with Rome members	[ -0.46568363904953003, 0.4482197165489197, 0.20454715192317963, -0.560502290725708, 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229234	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vergn%C3%BCgte%20Ruh%2C%20beliebte%20Seelenlust%2C%20BWV%20170	Vergnügte Ruh, beliebte Seelenlust, BWV 170	Johann Sebastian Bach composed the church cantata (Delightful rest, beloved pleasure of the soul), 170 in Leipzig for the sixth Sunday after Trinity. It is a solo cantata for alto which he first performed on 28 July 1726. History and words Bach composed the cantata in Leipzig for the Sixth Sunday after Trinity. The prescribed readings for the Sunday are from the Epistle to the Romans, "By Christ's death we are dead for sin" (), and from the Gospel of Matthew a passage from the Sermon on the Mount about better justice than the justice of merely observing laws and rules (). The text of the cantata is drawn from Georg Christian Lehms' (1711) and speaks of the desire to lead a virtuous life and so enter heaven and avoid hell. Bach first performed the cantata on 28 July 1726. Its brevity, compared to the cantatas in two parts written before and after, such as , can be explained assuming that in the same service another cantata Ich will meinen Geist in euch geben, JLB 7, by Johann Ludwig Bach was also performed. It is regarded as part of Bach's third cantata cycle. Bach performed it again around 1746. Bach's son Wilhelm Friedemann Bach performed the first movement around 1752 in Halle. Scoring and structure The cantata is one of three Bach cantatas written in Leipzig in the summer and fall of 1726, in which an alto soloist is the only singer, the others being , and . It seems likely that Bach had a capable alto singer at his disposal during this period. Bach structured the cantata in five movements, alternating arias and recitatives. He scored the work for an alto soloist and a small ensemble of oboe d'amore (Oa), two violins (Vl), viola (Va), obbligato organ (Org) and basso continuo (BC). The duration of the cantata is given as 24 minutes. In the following table of the movements, the scoring follows the Neue Bach-Ausgabe. The keys and time signatures are taken from Alfred Dürr, using the symbol for common time (4/4). Music The first aria is a da capo aria in a pastoral rhythm. The musicologist Julian Mincham notes: "The first stanza is enigmatically poetic and its essence is an evocation of that peace and inner contentment". The Bach scholar Alfred Dürr describes the mood as contemplative, and the melody of the voice as expansive, on a background of repeated quavers in the instruments. The first recitative is secco, only accompanied by the continuo. The second aria is set without continuo, rare in Bach's compositions, and symbolic of the lack of direction in the lives of those who ignore the word of God, as spoken about in the text. The organ plays the upper parts, which the violins and viola in unison form the lowest part. The second recitative is accompanied by the strings and continuo. The strings play mostly long chords but illustrate the words "" (to live with God, whose name is love) by more lively movement. The final aria is a triumphant song of turning away from the world and desiring heaven. The words "" (I feel revulsion) are expressed by an unusual tritone opening the melody. The voice is ornamented by figuration in the organ, which Bach set for flauto traverso for a performance in his last years. Recordings Notable singers in the alto range recorded the cantata, male (as in Bach's time, also called altus or countertenor) and female (contralto or mezzo-soprano), including Alfred Deller, Maureen Forrester, René Jacobs, Julia Hamari, Paul Esswood, Jochen Kowalski, Nathalie Stutzmann, Andreas Scholl, Michael Chance, Guillemette Laurens, Magdalena Kožená and Robin Blaze. J. S. Bach: Cantatas BWV 170 & BWV 189, Elisabeth Höngen, Bavarian State Orchestra, conductor Fritz Lehmann, American Decca / Deutsche Grammophon, Archiv 1951 J. S. Bach: Cantatas – Kantaten, Janet Baker, Academy of St Martin in the Fields, conductor Neville Marriner, Decca 1966 J. S. Bach: Complete Cantatas Vol. 16, Bogna Bartosz, Amsterdam Baroque Orchestra, conductor Ton Koopman, Antoine Marchand 2003 Lamento, Magdalena Kožená, Musica Antiqua Köln, conductor Reinhard Goebel, Archiv Produktion 2005 Bach: Sacred Arias and Cantatas, David Daniels, The English Concert, conductor Harry Bicket, Virgin Classics 2008 J. S. Bach: Solo Cantatas, Bernarda Fink, Freiburg Baroque Orchestra, conductor Petra Müllejans, Harmonia Mundi 2009 J. S. Bach: Cantatas BWV 54, 82 & 170, Iestyn Davies (countertenor), Jonathan Cohen, Arcangelo, Hyperion 2017 References Cited sources Bach Digital Books Online sources External links Cantata BWV 170 Vergnügte Ruh, beliebte Seelenlust history, scoring, sources for text and music, translations to various languages, discography, discussion, Bach Cantatas Website BWV 170 Vergnügte Ruh, beliebte Seelenlust English translation, University of Vermont Vergnügte Ruh, beliebte Seelenlust, BWV 170: performance by the Netherlands Bach Society (video and background information) Church cantatas by Johann Sebastian Bach 1726 compositions	[ -0.45948994159698486, 0.46200627088546753, 0.5940046906471252, -0.48755937814712524, -0.038118474185466766, 0.16178260743618011, 1.057236671447754, 0.11111786216497421, -0.0824623629450798, -0.7252334952354431, -0.2788998484611511, 0.25897595286369324, 0.14906156063079834, 0.42686647176742554, -0.3438240587711334, 0.6985795497894287, 0.7752646207809448, 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229235	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stepmother	Stepmother	A stepmother is a woman who enters one's family by being in a relationship with one's parent. Children from her spouse's previous unions (to whom she is not otherwise related) are known as her stepchildren. Culture Step parents (mainly stepmothers) may also face some societal challenges due to the stigma surrounding the "evil stepmother" character. Morello notes that the introduction of the "evil stepmother" character in the past is problematic to stepparents today, as it has created a stigma towards stepmothers. The presence of this stigma can have a negative impact on stepmothers' self-esteem. Fiction In fiction, stepmothers are often portrayed as being wicked and evil. The character of the wicked stepmother features heavily in fairy tales; the most famous examples are Cinderella, Snow White and Hansel and Gretel. Stepdaughters are her most common victim, and then stepdaughter/stepson pairs, but stepsons also are victims as in The Juniper Tree—sometimes, as in East of the Sun and West of the Moon, because he refused to marry his stepsister as she wished, or, indeed, they may make their stepdaughters-in-law their victims, as in The Boys with the Golden Stars. In some fairy tales, such as Giambattista Basile's La Gatta Cennerentola or the Danish Green Knight, the stepmother wins the marriage by ingratiating herself with the stepdaughter, and once she obtains it, becomes cruel. In some fairy tales, the stepdaughter's escape by marrying does not free her from her stepmother. After the birth of the stepdaughter's first child, the stepmother may attempt to murder the new mother and replace her with her own daughter—thus making her the stepmother to the next generation. Such a replacement occurs in The Wonderful Birch, Brother and Sister, and The Three Little Men in the Wood; only by foiling the stepmother's plot (and usually executing her), is the story brought to a happy ending. In the Korean Folktale Janghwa Hongryeon jeon, the stepmother kills her own stepdaughters. In many stories with evil stepmothers, the hostility between the stepmother and the stepchild is underscored by having the child succeed through aid from the dead mother. This motif occurs from Norse mythology, where Svipdagr rouses his mother Gróa from the grave so as to learn from her how to accomplish a task his stepmother set, to fairy tales such as the Brothers Grimm version of Cinderella, where Aschenputtel receives her clothing from a tree growing on her mother's grave, the Russian Vasilissa the Beautiful, where Vasilissa is aided by a doll her mother gave, and her mother's blessing, and the Malay Bawang Putih Bawang Merah, where the heroine's mother comes back as fish to protect her. The notion of the word stepmother being descriptive of an intrinsically unkind parent is suggested by peculiar wording in John Gamble's "An Irish Wake" (1826). He writes of a woman soon to die, who instructs her successor to "be kind to my children." Gamble writes that the injunction was forgotten and that she "proved a very step-mother." Fairy tales can have variants where one tale has an evil mother and the other an evil stepmother: in The Six Swans by the Brothers Grimm and also in The Wild Swans by Hans Christian Andersen, the heroine is persecuted by her husband's mother and in another one by her stepmother, and in The Twelve Wild Ducks, by his stepmother. Sometimes this appears to be a deliberate switch: The Brothers Grimm, having put in their first editions versions of Snow White and Hansel and Gretel where the villain was the biological mother, altered it to a stepmother in later editions, perhaps to mitigate the story's violence. Another reason for the change from a villainous mother to a villainous stepmother may have been the belief that mothers were sacred, as well as the belief that people would not believe that a mother could harbor such ill-will and animosity toward their child. The Icelandic fairy tale The Horse Gullfaxi and the Sword Gunnfoder features a good stepmother, who indeed aids the prince like a fairy godmother, but this figure is very rare in fairy tales. The stepmother may be identified with other evils the characters meet. For instance, both the stepmother and the witch in Hansel and Gretel are deeply concerned with food, the stepmother to avoid hunger, the witch with her house built of food and her desire to eat the children, and when the children kill the witch and return home, their stepmother has mysteriously died. This hostility from the stepmother and tenderness from the true mother has been interpreted in varying ways. A psychological interpretation, by Bruno Bettelheim, describes it as "splitting" the actual mother in an ideal mother and a false mother that contains what the child dislikes in the actual mother. However, historically, many women died in childbirth, their husbands remarried, and the new stepmothers competed with the children of the first marriage for resources; the tales can be interpreted as factual conflicts from history. In some fairy tales, such as The Juniper Tree, the stepmother's hostility is overtly the desire to secure the inheritance of her children. Stepmothers also make many appearances in Chinese tales of family. Wicked stepmothers are common. In Classic of Filial Piety, Guo Jujing told the story of Min Ziqian, who had lost his mother at a young age. His stepmother had two more sons and saw to it that they were warmly dressed in winter but neglected her stepson. When her husband discovered this, he decided to divorce her. His son interceded, on the ground that she neglected only him, but when they had no mother, all three sons would be neglected. His father relented, and the stepmother henceforth took care of all three children. For this, he was held up as a model of filial piety. Conversely, the exemplary stepmother prefers the stepson to her own child, in recognition that his seniority makes him superior. The "righteous stepmother of Qi", faced with her son and stepson having been found by a murdered man, and both having confessed to shield the other, argues for her son's execution because her husband had ordered her to look after her stepson, and her son is the junior brother; the king pardoned them both for her devotion to duty. The ubiquity of the wicked stepmother has made it a frequent theme of revisionist fairy tale fantasy. This can range from Tanith Lee's Red as Blood, where the stepmother queen is desperately trying to protect the land from her evil stepdaughter's magic, to Diana Wynne Jones's Howl's Moving Castle, where, although it is known that stepmothers are evil, the actual stepmother is guilty of nothing more than some carelessness, to Erma Bombeck's retelling where Cinderella is lazy and a liar. More subtly, Piers Anthony depicted the Princess Threnody as being cursed by her stepmother in Crewel Lye: A Caustic Yarn: if she ever entered Castle Roogna, it would fall down. But Threnody explains that her presence at the castle caused her father to dote on her and neglect his duties to the destruction of the kingdom; her stepmother had merely made her destructive potential literal, and forced her to confront what she was doing. The character of the evil stepmother can also be found in the genre of young adult fiction or young adult social problem novels. In Lisa Heathfield's Paper Butterflies. the protagonist June suffers horrific abuse at the hands of her stepmother, a fact that she conceals from her father. Despite many examples of evil or cruel stepmothers, loving stepmothers also exist in fiction. In Kevin and Kell, Kell is portrayed as loving her stepdaughter Lindesfarne, whom her husband Kevin had adopted during his previous marriage. Likewise, Lindesfarne considers Kell her mother, and has a considerably more favorable view of her than Angelique, Kevin's ex-wife and her adoptive mother, due to feeling neglected by Angelique during her childhood. The Disney film Enchanted also makes references to the "evil stepmother" belief, as the villainess is a stepmother, but her wickedness comes from her selfishness and power hungriness rather than the simple fact she is a stepmother. When a little girl tells the heroine Giselle that all stepmothers are evil, Giselle reminds her that she personally knows some wonderful women who were good stepmothers, and the fact a woman is a stepmother does not suddenly change her personality. This is shown later on when Giselle marries that girl's father, who had her from a previous marriage, thus becoming a stepmother herself. As Giselle is a sweet and caring woman, she makes a good wife and stepmother. However, it is notable that during much of that film, Giselle was more of an older sister figure than a maternal figure to that little girl. In the movie Nanny McPhee a group of children worry that their father will remarry, believing from their fairy tales that all stepmothers are an "evil breed." Although they help their father marry again to help keep the family together, their soon-to-be stepmother is very cruel, as they suspected. When the wedding to her is called off, the father decides to marry the much kinder scullery maid, causing one child to comment that the evil stepmother personification does not apply to her. Stepmother relationships are often examined in soap operas. An example of this is the long-running rivalry between Victoria Lord Banks and stepmother Dorian Lord on the American soap opera One Life to Live. In contrast to many other Disney-related media, the animated series Phineas and Ferb features a stepfamily in which both parents get along well with their three children (avoiding the normal tropes of evil stepparents). In television, Drake & Josh features a stepfamily in which both parents usually get along well with their three children. In the series The Adventures of Shirley Holmes, one episode featured a princess who was the heir to the throne of her country and feared that her stepmother wanted to have her assassinated as her own son was next in line after her stepdaughter. The episode concludes the revelation that her stepmother actually wanted her stepdaughter to inherit the throne and had attempted to thwart actual assassins who did not want a woman to rule their country. In Sofia the First, Sofia's mother Miranda became stepmother to Prince James and Princess Amber, she acknowledged there weren't many tales featuring loving and kind stepmothers. This is another example of a well-blended family. Classical Literature Greek Alcestis (play) 438 BCE: The dying biological mother requests that her husband not remarry, for fear of her children being mistreated by a stepmother. Hippolytus 428 BCE: The stepmother commits suicide to prevent herself from following through on her lust for her stepson and leaves a note falsely claiming that the stepson had raped her. 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229236	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Frankfurt%20School	Frankfurt School	The Frankfurt School () was a school of social theory and critical philosophy associated with the Institute for Social Research, at Goethe University Frankfurt in 1929. Founded in the Weimar Republic (1918–1933), during the European interwar period (1918–1939), the Frankfurt School comprised intellectuals, academics, and political dissidents dissatisfied with the contemporary socio-economic systems (capitalist, fascist, communist) of the 1930s. The Frankfurt theorists proposed that social theory was inadequate for explaining the turbulent political factionalism and reactionary politics occurring in 20th century liberal capitalist societies. Critical of both capitalism and of Marxism–Leninism as philosophically inflexible systems of social organization, the School's critical theory research indicated alternative paths to realizing the social development of a society and a nation. The Frankfurt School perspective of critical investigation (open-ended and self-critical) is based upon Freudian, Marxist and Hegelian premises of idealist philosophy. To fill the omissions of 19th-century classical Marxism, which did not address 20th-century social problems, they applied the methods of antipositivist sociology, of psychoanalysis, and of existentialism. The School's sociologic works derived from syntheses of the thematically pertinent works of Immanuel Kant, Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel, and Karl Marx, of Sigmund Freud and Max Weber, and of Georg Simmel and Georg Lukács. Like Karl Marx, the Frankfurt School concerned themselves with the conditions (political, economic, societal) that allow for social change realized by way of rational social institutions. Their emphasis on the critical component of social theory derived from their attempts to overcome the ideological limitations of positivism, materialism, and determinism by returning to the critical philosophy of Kant and his successors in German idealism – principally the philosophy of Hegel, which emphasized dialectic and contradiction as intellectual properties inherent to the human grasp of material reality. Since the 1960s, the critical-theory work of the Institute for Social Research has been guided by Jürgen Habermas's work in communicative rationality, linguistic intersubjectivity, and "the philosophical discourse of modernity." Critical theorists Raymond Geuss and Nikolas Kompridis have opposed Habermas's propositions, claiming he has undermined the original social-change purposes of critical-theory-problems, such as what should reason mean; analysis of the conditions necessary to realize social emancipation; and critiques of contemporary capitalism. History Institute for Social Research The term "Frankfurt School" describes the works of scholarship and the intellectuals who were the Institute for Social Research (Institut für Sozialforschung), an adjunct organization at Goethe University Frankfurt, founded in 1923, by Carl Grünberg, a Marxist professor of law at the University of Vienna. It was the first Marxist research center at a German university and was funded through the largesse of the wealthy student Felix Weil (1898–1975). Weil's doctoral dissertation dealt with the practical problems of implementing socialism. In 1922, he organized the First Marxist Workweek (Erste Marxistische Arbeitswoche) in effort to synthesize different trends of Marxism into a coherent, practical philosophy; the first symposium included György Lukács, Karl Korsch, Karl August Wittfogel and Friedrich Pollock. The success of the First Marxist Workweek prompted the formal establishment of a permanent institute for social research, and Weil negotiated with the Ministry of Education for a university professor to be director of the Institute for Social Research, thereby, formally ensuring that the Frankfurt School would be a university institution. Korsch and Lukács participated in the Arbeitswoche, which included the study of Marxism and Philosophy (1923), by Karl Korsch, but their Communist Party membership precluded their active participation in the Institute for Social Research (Frankfurt School); yet Korsch participated in the School's publishing venture. Moreover, the political correctness by which the Communists compelled Lukács to repudiate his book History and Class Consciousness (1923) indicated that political, ideological, and intellectual independence from the communist party was a necessary work condition for realizing the production of knowledge. The philosophical tradition of the Frankfurt School – the multi-disciplinary integration of the social sciences – is associated with the philosopher Max Horkheimer, who became the director in 1930, and recruited intellectuals such as Theodor W. Adorno (philosopher, sociologist, musicologist), Erich Fromm (psychoanalyst), and Herbert Marcuse (philosopher). European interwar period (1918–39) In the Weimar Republic (1918–33), the continual political turmoils of the interwar years (1918–39) much affected the development of the critical theory philosophy of the Frankfurt School. The scholars were especially influenced by the Communists’ failed German Revolution of 1918–19 (which Marx predicted) and by the rise of Nazism (1933–45), a German form of fascism. To explain such reactionary politics, the Frankfurt scholars applied critical selections of Marxist philosophy to interpret, illuminate, and explain the origins and causes of reactionary socio-economics in 20th-century Europe (a type of political economy unknown to Marx in the 19th century). The School's further intellectual development derived from the publication, in the 1930s, of the Economic and Philosophical Manuscripts of 1844 (1932) and The German Ideology (1932), in which Karl Marx showed logical continuity with Hegelianism as the basis of Marxist philosophy. As the anti-intellectual threat of Nazism increased to political violence, the founders decided to move the Institute for Social Research out of Nazi Germany (1933–45). Soon after Adolf Hitler's rise to power in 1933, the Institute first moved from Frankfurt to Geneva, and then to New York City, in 1935, where the Frankfurt School joined Columbia University. The School's journal, the Zeitschrift für Sozialforschung ("Magazine of Social Research"), was renamed "Studies in Philosophy and Social Science". Thence began the period of the School's important work in Marxist critical theory; the scholarship and the investigational method gained acceptance among the academy, in the U.S and in the U.K. By the 1950s, the paths of scholarship led Horkheimer, Adorno, and Pollock to return to West Germany, whilst Marcuse, Löwenthal, and Kirchheimer remained in the U.S. In 1953, the Institute for Social Research (Frankfurt School) was formally re-established in Frankfurt, West Germany. Theorists As a term, the Frankfurt School usually includes the intellectuals Max Horkheimer, Theodor Adorno, Herbert Marcuse, Leo Löwenthal and Friedrich Pollock. Initially within the FS's inner circle, Jürgen Habermas was the first to diverge from Horkheimer's research program. Critical theory The works of the Frankfurt School are understood in the context of the intellectual and practical objectives of critical theory. In Traditional and Critical Theory (1937), Max Horkheimer defined critical theory as social critique meant to effect sociologic change and realize intellectual emancipation, by way of enlightenment that is not dogmatic in its assumptions. Critical theory analyzes the true significance of the ruling understandings (the dominant ideology) generated in bourgeois society in order to show that the dominant ideology misrepresents how human relations occur in the real world and how capitalism justifies and legitimates the domination of people. In the praxis of cultural hegemony, the dominant ideology is a ruling-class narrative story, which explains that what is occurring in society is the norm. Nonetheless, the story told through the ruling understandings conceals as much as it reveals about society. The task of the Frankfurt School was sociological analysis and interpretation of the areas of social-relation that Marx did not discuss in the 19th century – especially the base and superstructure aspects of a capitalist society. Horkheimer opposed critical theory to traditional theory, wherein the word theory is applied in the positivistic sense of scientism, in the sense of a purely observational mode, which finds and establishes scientific law (generalizations) about the real world. Social sciences differ from natural sciences because their scientific generalizations cannot be readily derived from experience. The researcher's understanding of a social experience is always filtered through biases in the researcher's mind. The researcher does not understand is that he or she operates within an historical and ideological context. The results for the theory being tested would conform to the ideas of the researcher rather than the facts of the experience proper; in Traditional and Critical Theory (1937), Horkheimer said: For Horkheimer, the methods of investigation applicable to the social sciences cannot imitate the scientific method applicable to the natural sciences. In that vein, the theoretical approaches of positivism and pragmatism, of neo-Kantianism and phenomenology failed to surpass the ideological constraints that restricted their application to social science, because of the inherent logico–mathematic prejudice that separates theory from actual life, i.e. such methods of investigation seek a logic that is always true, and independent of and without consideration for continuing human activity in the field under study. He felt that the appropriate response to such a dilemma was the development of a critical theory of Marxism. Horkheimer believed the problem was epistemological saying "we should reconsider not merely the scientist, but the knowing individual, in general." Unlike Orthodox Marxism, which applies a template to critique and to action, critical theory is self-critical, with no claim to the universality of absolute truth. As such, it does not grant primacy to matter (materialism) or consciousness (idealism), because each epistemology distorts the reality under study to the benefit of a small group. In practice, critical theory is outside the philosophical strictures of traditional theory; however, as a way of thinking and of recovering humanity's self-knowledge, critical theory draws investigational resources and methods from Marxism. Dialectical method The Frankfurt School reformulated dialectics into a concrete method of investigation, derived from the Hegelian philosophy that an idea will pass over into its own negation, as the result of conflict between the inherently contradictory aspects of the idea. In opposition to previous modes of reasoning, which viewed things in abstraction, each by itself and as though endowed with fixed properties, Hegelian dialectics considers ideas according to their movement and change in time, according to their interrelations and interactions. In Hegel's perspective, human history proceeds and evolves in a dialectical manner: the present embodies the rational Aufheben (sublation), the synthesis of past contradictions. It is an intelligible process of human activity, the , which is the Idea of Progress towards a specific human condition – the realization of human freedom through rationality. However, the Problem of future contingents (considerations about the future) did not interest Hegel, for whom philosophy cannot be prescriptive and normative, because philosophy understands only in hindsight. The study of history is limited to descriptions of past and present human realities. For Hegel and his successors (the Right Hegelians), dialectics inevitably lead to approval of the status quo – as such, dialectical philosophy justifies the bases of Christian theology and of the Prussian state. Karl Marx and the Young Hegelians strongly criticized that perspective; Hegel had over-reached in his abstract conception of "absolute Reason" and had failed to notice the "real"— i.e. and – life conditions of the proletariat. Marx inverted Hegel's idealist dialectics and advanced his own theory of dialectical materialism, arguing that "it is not the consciousness of men that determines their being, but that their social being that determines their consciousness." Marx's theory follows a materialist conception of history and geographic space, where the development of the productive forces is the primary motive force for historical change. The social and material contradictions inherent to capitalism lead to its negation – thereby replacing capitalism with Communism, a new, rational form of society. Marx used dialectical analysis to uncover the contradictions in the predominant ideas of society, and in the social relations to which they are linked – exposing the underlying struggle between opposing forces. Only by becoming aware of the dialectic (i.e. class consciousness) of such opposing forces in a struggle for power can men and women intellectually liberate themselves, and change the existing social order through social progress. The Frankfurt School understood that a dialectical method could only be adopted ; if they adopted a self-correcting method – a dialectical method that would enable the correction of previous, false interpretations of the dialectical investigation. Accordingly, critical theory rejected the historicism and materialism of Orthodox Marxism. The epistemological aspects of the Frankfurt School are linked to the presence of Karl Popper on the scene of philosophical and scientific thought of the 20th century. Popper's response to philosophy indicates a link between critical theory and the crisis of scientific thought in the face of falsificationism. The boundaries of social disciplines are also involved in the revision of the debate on critical knowledge and dialectical reason. The bequests of authors such as Adorno, Hans Albert and Jurgen Habermas are also the text of the debate, culminating with the affirmation of the second Methodenstreit (See Guglielmo Rinzivillo, Passato e presente nello sviluppo della teoria critica della società su "Sociologia. Rivista Quadrimestrale di Scienze Storiche e Sociali", Anno LIV, N. 1, 2020, pp. 77–98; idem Second Part su "Sociologia. Rivista Quadrimestrale di Scienze Storiche e Sociali", Anno LIV, N. 2, 2020, pp. 89–108). Critique of Western civilization Dialectic of Enlightenment and Minima Moralia The second phase of Frankfurt School critical theory centres principally on two works: Adorno and Horkheimer's Dialectic of Enlightenment (1944) and Adorno's Minima Moralia (1951). The authors wrote both works during the institute's exile in America. While retaining much of a Marxian analysis, these works critical shifted emphasis from a critique of capitalism to a critique of Western civilization, as seen in Dialectic of Enlightenment, which uses the Odyssey as a paradigm for their analysis of bourgeois consciousness. In these works, Horkheimer and Adorno present many themes that have come to dominate social thought. Their exposition of the domination of nature as a central characteristic of instrumental rationality in Western civilization was made long before ecology and environmentalism became popular concerns. The analysis of reason now goes one stage further: The rationality of Western civilization appears as a fusion of domination and technological rationality, bringing all of external and internal nature under the power of the human subject. In the process the subject gets swallowed up and no social force analogous to the proletariat can be identified that enables the subject to emancipate itself. Hence the subtitle of Minima Moralia: "Reflections from Damaged Life". In Adorno's words: Consequently, at a time when it appears that reality itself has become the basis for ideology, the greatest contribution that critical theory can make is to explore the dialectical contradictions of individual subjective experience on the one hand, and to preserve the truth of theory on the other. Even dialectical progress is put into doubt: "its truth or untruth is not inherent in the method itself, but in its intention in the historical process." This intention must be oriented toward integral freedom and happiness: "The only philosophy which can be responsibly practiced in face of despair is the attempt to contemplate all things as they would present themselves from the standpoint of redemption." Adorno distanced himself from the "optimism" of orthodox Marxism: "beside the demand thus placed on thought, the question of the reality or unreality of redemption [i.e. human emancipation] itself hardly matters." From a sociological point of view, Horkheimer's and Adorno's works contain an ambivalence concerning the ultimate source or foundation of social domination, an ambivalence that gave rise to the "pessimism" of the new critical theory over the possibility of human emancipation and freedom. This ambivalence was rooted in the historical circumstances in which the work was originally produced, in particular, the rise of National Socialism, state capitalism, and mass culture as entirely new forms of social domination that could not be adequately explained within the terms of traditional Marxist sociology. For Adorno and Horkheimer, state intervention in the economy had effectively abolished the tension in capitalism between the "relations of production" and "material productive forces of society"—a tension that, according to traditional Marxist theory, constituted the primary contradiction within capitalism. The previously "free" market (as an "unconscious" mechanism for the distribution of goods) and "irrevocable" private property of Marx's epoch gradually have been replaced by the more central role of management hierarchies at the firm level and macroeconomic interventions at the state level in contemporary Western societies. The dialectic through which Marx predicted the emancipation of modern society is suppressed, effectively being subjugated to a positivist rationality of domination. About this second "phase" of the Frankfurt School, philosopher and critical theorist Nikolas Kompridis wrote: Kompridis argues that this "sceptical cul-de-sac" was arrived at with "a lot of help from the once unspeakable and unprecedented barbarity of European fascism," and could not be gotten out of without "some well-marked [exit or] , showing the way out of the ever-recurring nightmare in which Enlightenment hopes and Holocaust horrors are fatally entangled." However, this , according to Kompridis, would not come until later – purportedly in the form of Jürgen Habermas's work on the intersubjective bases of communicative rationality. Philosophy of music Adorno, a trained classical pianist, wrote The Philosophy of Modern Music (1949), in which he polemicized against popular music―because it has become part of the culture industry of advanced capitalist society and the false consciousness that contributes to social domination. He argued that radical art and music may preserve the truth by capturing the reality of human suffering. Hence: This view of modern art as producing truth only through the negation of traditional aesthetic form and traditional norms of beauty because they have become ideological is characteristic of Adorno and of the Frankfurt School generally. It has been criticized by those who do not share its conception of modern society as a false totality that renders obsolete traditional conceptions and images of beauty and harmony. In particular, Adorno despised jazz and popular music, viewing it as part of the culture industry, that contributes to the present sustainability of capitalism by rendering it "aesthetically pleasing" and "agreeable". The British philosopher Roger Scruton saw Adorno as producing "reams of turgid nonsense devoted to showing that the American people are just as alienated as Marxism requires them to be, and that their cheerful life-affirming music is a 'fetishized' commodity, expressive of their deep spiritual enslavement to the capitalist machine." Criticism Critics have highlighted several aspects of Critical theory: the alleged comfort of the early Frankfurt school theorists, the lack of a promise of a better future in Adorno and Horkheimer's works, or the undue emphasis on psychiatric categories in their political criticism. Habermas's "reformulation of critical theory" has been criticized, as well as the Frankfurt School's analysis of popular culture. In The Theory of the Novel (1971), Georg Lukács criticized the "leading German intelligentsia", including some members of the Frankfurt School (Adorno is named explicitly), as inhabiting the Grand Hotel Abyss, a metaphorical place from which the theorists comfortably analyze the abyss, the world beyond. Lukács described this contradictory situation as follows: They inhabit "a beautiful hotel, equipped with every comfort, on the edge of an abyss, of nothingness, of absurdity. And the daily contemplation of the abyss, between excellent meals or artistic entertainments, can only heighten the enjoyment of the subtle comforts offered." The seeming lack of a promise of a better future and the lack of a positive outlook on society in the works of Adorno and Horkheimer was criticized by Karl Popper in his "Addendum 1974: The Frankfurt School" (1994). For Popper, "Marx's own condemnation of our society makes sense. For Marx's theory contains the promise of a better future." Any theory becomes "vacuous and irresponsible" if the promise of a better future is omitted or not present in the theory. Habermas's "reformulation of critical theory" has been accused by philosopher Nikolas Kompridis as solving "too well, the dilemmas of the philosophy of the subject and the problem of modernity's self-reassurance", while creating a self-understanding of critical theory that is too close to liberal theories of justice and the normative order of society. He contended that, while "this has produced an important contemporary variant of liberal theories of justice, different enough to be a challenge to liberal theory, but not enough to preserve sufficient continuity with critical theory's past, it severely weakened the identity of critical theory and inadvertently initiated its premature dissolution." The historian Christopher Lasch criticized the Frankfurt School for their initial tendency to "automatically" reject opposing political criticisms, based upon "psychiatric" grounds: "This procedure excused them from the difficult work of judgment and argumentation. Instead of arguing with opponents, they simply dismissed them on psychiatric grounds." During the 1980s, anti-authoritarian socialists in the United Kingdom and New Zealand criticized the rigid and determinist view of popular culture deployed within the Frankfurt School theories of capitalist culture, which precluded any prefigurative role for social critique within such work. They argued that EC Comics often did contain such cultural critiques. See also References Further reading Arato, Andrew and Eike Gebhardt, Eds. The Essential Frankfurt School Reader. New York: Continuum, 1982. Bernstein, Jay (ed.). The Frankfurt School: Critical Assessments I–VI. New York: Routledge, 1994. Benhabib, Seyla. Critique, Norm, and Utopia: A Study of the Foundations of Critical Theory. New York: Columbia University Press, 1986. Bottomore, Tom. The Frankfurt School and its Critics. New York: Routledge, 2002. Bronner, Stephen Eric and Douglas MacKay Kellner (eds.). Critical Theory and Society: A Reader. New York: Routledge, 1989. Brosio, Richard A. The Frankfurt School: An Analysis of the Contradictions and Crises of Liberal Capitalist Societies. 1980. Crone, Michael (ed.): Vertreter der Frankfurter Schule in den Hörfunkprogrammen 1950–1992. Hessischer Rundfunk, Frankfurt am Main 1992. (Bibliography.) Friedman, George. The Political Philosophy of the Frankfurt School. Ithaca, New York: Cornell University Press, 1981. Gerhardt, Christina. "Frankfurt School". The International Encyclopedia of Revolution and Protest, 1500 to the Present. 8 vols. Ed. Immanuel Ness. Malden, Mass.: Blackwell, 2009. 12–13. Held, David. Introduction to Critical Theory: Horkheimer to Habermas. Berkeley: University of California Press, 1980. Jay, Martin. The Dialectical Imagination: A History of the Frankfurt School and the Institute for Social Research 1923–1950. Berkeley, California: University of California Press. 1996. Kompridis, Nikolas. Critique and Disclosure: Critical Theory between Past and Future. Cambridge, Massachusetts: MIT Press, 2006. Postone, Moishe. Time, Labor, and Social Domination: A Reinterpretation of Marx's Critical Theory. Cambridge, Massachusetts: Cambridge University Press, 1993. Schwartz, Frederic J. Blind Spots: Critical Theory and the History of Art in Twentieth-Century Germany. New Haven, Connecticut: Yale University Press, 2005. Shapiro, Jeremy J. "The Critical Theory of Frankfurt". Times Literary Supplement 3 (4 October 1974) 787. Scheuerman, William E. Frankfurt School Perspectives on Globalization, Democracy, and the Law. 3rd ed. New York: Routledge, 2008. Wiggershaus, Rolf. The Frankfurt School: Its History, Theories and Political Significance. Cambridge, Massachusetts: MIT Press, 1995. Wheatland, Thomas. The Frankfurt School in Exile. Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 2009. External links Official website of the Institute for Social Research at the University of Frankfurt Gerhardt, Christina. "Frankfurt School (Jewish émigrés)." The International Encyclopedia of Revolution and Protest. Ness, Immanuel (ed). Blackwell Publishing, 2009. Blackwell Reference Online. 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229247	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vuk%20Karad%C5%BEi%C4%87	Vuk Karadžić	Vuk Stefanović Karadžić (, ; 6 November 1787 (26 October OS)7 February 1864) was a Serbian philologist, anthropologist and linguist. He was one of the most important reformers of the modern Serbian language. For his collection and preservation of Serbian folktales, Encyclopædia Britannica labelled him "the father of Serbian folk-literature scholarship." He was also the author of the first Serbian dictionary in the new reformed language. In addition, he translated the New Testament into the reformed form of the Serbian spelling and language. He was well known abroad and familiar to Jacob Grimm, Johann Wolfgang von Goethe and historian Leopold von Ranke. Karadžić was the primary source for Ranke's Die serbische Revolution ("The Serbian Revolution"), written in 1829. Biography Early life Vuk Karadžić was born to a Serbian family of Stefan and Jegda (née Zrnić) in the village of Tršić, near Loznica, which was in the Ottoman Empire (now in Serbia). His family settled from Drobnjaci, and his mother was born in Ozrinići, Nikšić (in present-day Montenegro.) His family had a low infant survival rate, thus he was named Vuk ("wolf") so that witches and evil spirits would not hurt him (the name was traditionally given to strengthen the bearer). Education Karadžić was fortunate to be a relative of Jevta Savić Čotrić, the only literate person in the area at the time, who taught him how to read and write. Karadžić continued his education in the Tronoša Monastery in Loznica. As a boy he learned calligraphy there, using a reed instead of a pen and a solution of gunpowder for ink. In lieu of proper writing paper, he was lucky if he could get cartridge wrappings. Throughout the whole region, regular schooling was not widespread at that time and his father at first did not allow him to go to Austria. Since most of the time, while in the monastery Karadžić was forced to pasture the livestock instead of studying, his father brought him back home. Meanwhile, the First Serbian uprising seeking to overthrow the Ottomans began in 1804. After unsuccessful attempts to enroll in the gymnasium at Sremski Karlovci, for which 19-year-old Karadžić was too old, he left for Petrinja where he spent a few months learning Latin and German. Later on, he met highly respected scholar Dositej Obradović in Belgrade, which was now in the hands of the Revolutionary Serbia, to ask Obradović to support his studies. Unfortunately, Obradović dismissed him. Disappointed, Karadžić left for Jadar and began working as a scribe for Jakov Nenadović and sometime later for Jevta Savić Čotrić as a customs officer all during the time of the War of Independence (1804-1813). After the founding of Belgrade's Grande école (University of Belgrade), Karadžić became one of its students. Later life and death Soon afterwards, he grew ill and left for medical treatment in Pest and Novi Sad, but was unable to receive treatment for his leg. It was rumored that Karadžić deliberately refused to undergo amputation, instead deciding to make do with a prosthetic wooden pegleg, of which there were several sarcastic references in some of his works. Karadžić returned to Serbia by 1810, and as unfit for military service, he served as the secretary for commanders Ćurčija and Hajduk-Veljko. His experiences would later give rise to two books. With the Ottoman defeat of the Serbian rebels in 1813, he left for Vienna and later met Jernej Kopitar, an experienced linguist with a strong interest in secular Slavistics. Kopitar's influence helped Karadžić with his struggle in reforming the Serbian language and its orthography. Another important influence on his linguistic work was Sava Mrkalj. In 1814 and 1815, Karadžić published two volumes of Serbian Folk Songs, which afterwards increased to four, then to six, and finally to nine tomes. In enlarged editions, these admirable songs drew towards themselves the attention of all literary Europe and America. Goethe characterized some of them as "excellent and worthy of comparison with Solomon's Song of Songs." In 1824, he sent a copy of his folksong collection to Jacob Grimm, who was enthralled particularly by The Building of Skadar which Karadžić recorded from singing of Old Rashko. Grimm translated it into German and the song was noted and admired for many generations to come. Grimm compared them with the noblest flowers of Homeric poetry, and of The Building of Skadar he said: "one of the most touching poems of all nations and all times." The founders of the Romantic School in France, Charles Nodier, Prosper Mérimée, Lamartine, Gerard de Nerval, and Claude Fauriel translated a goodly number of them, and they also attracted the attention of Russian Alexander Pushkin, Finnish national poet Johan Ludwig Runeberg, Czech Samuel Roznay, Pole Kazimierz Brodzinski, English writers Walter Scott, Owen Meredith, and John Bowring, among others. Karadžić continued collecting song well into the 1830s. He arrived in Montenegro in the fall of 1834. Infirm, he descended to the Bay of Kotor to winter there, and returned in the spring of 1835. It was there that Karadžić met Vuk Vrčević, an aspiring littérateur, born in Risan. From then on Vrčević became Karadžić's faithful and loyal collaborator who collected folk songs and tales and sent them to his address in Vienna for many years to come. Another equally diligent collaborator of Vuk Karadžić was another namesake from Boka Kotorska the Priest Vuk Popović. Both Vrčević and Popović were steadily and unselfishly involved in the gathering of the ethnographic, folklore and lexical material for Karadžić. Later, other collaborators joined Karadžić, including Milan Đ. Milićević. The majority of Karadžić's works were banned from publishing in Serbia and Austria during the rule of Prince Miloš Obrenović. As observed from a political point of view, Obrenović saw the works of Karadžić as a potential hazard due to a number of apparent reasons, one of which was the possibility that the content of some of the works, although purely poetic in nature, was capable of creating a certain sense of patriotism and a desire for freedom and independence, which very likely might have driven the populace to take up arms against the Turks. This, in turn, would prove detrimental to Prince Miloš's politics toward the Ottoman Empire, with whom he had recently forged an uneasy peace. In Montenegro, however, Njegoš's printing press operated without the archaic letter known as the "hard sign". Prince Miloš was to resent Njegoš's abandonment of the hard sign, over which, at that time, furious intellectual battles were being waged, with ecclesiastical hierarchy involved as well. Karadžić's works, however, did receive high praise and recognition elsewhere, especially in Russian Empire. In addition to this, Karadžić was granted a full pension from the Emperor of All Russia in 1826. He died in Vienna, and was survived by his daughter Mina Karadžić, who was a painter and writer, and by his son Dimitrije Karadžić, a military officer. His remains were relocated to Belgrade in 1897 and buried with great honours next to the grave of Dositej Obradović, in front of St. Michael's Cathedral (Belgrade). Work Linguistic reforms During the latter part of the eighteenth- and the beginning of the nineteenth century, most nations in Western and Eastern Europe underwent a period of language reforms with Germany's Johann Christoph Gottsched and Johann Christoph Adelung, Norway's Aasmund Olavsson Vinje, Ivar Aasen, and Knud Knudson, Sweden's Carl Gustaf af Leopold, Italy's Alessandro Manzoni, Spain's Andrés Bello, Greece's Adamantios Korais, Russia's Yakov Grot and others. At about the same period, Vuk Karadžić reformed the Serbian literary language and standardized the Serbian Cyrillic alphabet by following strict phonemic principles on the Johann Christoph Adelung' model and Jan Hus' Czech alphabet. Karadžić's reforms of the Serbian literary language modernized it and distanced it from Serbian and Russian Church Slavonic and brought it closer to common folk speech. Because the Slavonic-Serbian written language of the early 19th century contained many words connected to the Orthodox church and a large number of loanwords from Russian Church Slavonic, Karadžić proposed to abandon this written language and to create a new one, based on the Eastern Herzegovina dialect which he spoke. For the Serbian clergy with a base in the area around modern Novi Sad, grammar and vocabulary of Eastern Herzegovinian dialect was almost a foreign tongue and the clergy could not take seriously Karadžić's insistence on basing the new language on the Eastern Herzegovinian dialect. Karadžić was, together with Đuro Daničić, the main Serbian signatory to the Vienna Literary Agreement of 1850 which, encouraged by Austrian authorities, laid the foundation for the Serbo-Croatian language; Karadžić himself only ever referred to the language as "Serbian". Karadžić also translated the New Testament into Serbian, which was published in 1847. The Vukovian effort of language standardization lasted the remainder of the century. Before then the Serbs had achieved a fully independent state (1878), and a flourishing national culture based in Belgrade and Novi Sad. Despite the Vienna agreement, the Serbs had by this time developed an Ekavian pronunciation, which was the native speech of their two cultural capitals as well as the great majority of the Serbian population. Karadžić held the view that all South Slavs that speak the Shtokavian dialect were Serbs or of Serbian origin and considered all of them to speak the Serbian language, which is today a matter of dispute among scientists. However, Karadžić wrote later that he gave up this view because he saw that the Croats of his time did not agree with it, and he switched to the definition of the Serbian nation based on Orthodoxy and the Croatian nation based on Catholicism. Literature In addition to his linguistic reforms, Karadžić also contributed to folk literature, using peasant culture as the foundation. Because of his peasant upbringing, he closely associated with the oral literature of the peasants, compiling it to use in his collection of folk songs, tales, and proverbs. While Karadžić hardly considered peasant life romantic, he regarded it as an integral part of Serbian culture. He collected several volumes of folk prose and poetry, including a book of over 100 lyrical and epic songs learned as a child and written down from memory. He also published the first dictionary of vernacular Serbian. For his work he received little financial aid, at times living in poverty, though in the very last 9 years he did receive a pension from prince Miloš Obrenović. In some cases Karadžić hid the fact that he had not only collected folk poetry by recording the oral literature but transcribed it from manuscript songbooks of other collectors from Syrmia. His work had a chief role in establishing the importance of the Kosovo Myth in Serbian national identity and history. Karadžić collected traditional epic poems related to the topic of the Battle of Kosovo and released the so-called "Kosovo cycle", which became the final version of the transformation of the myth. He mostly published oral songs, with special reference to the heroic deeds of Prince Marko and the Kosovo Battle-related events, just like the singers sang without changes or additions. Karadžić collected most of the poems about Prince Lazar near the monasteries on Fruška Gora, mostly because the seat of the Serbian Orthodox Church was moved there after the Great Migrations of the Serbs. Non-philological work Besides his greatest achievement on literary field, Karadžić gave his contribution to Serbian anthropology in combination with the ethnography of that time. He left notes on physical aspects of the human body alongside his ethnographic notes. He introduced a rich terminology on body parts (from head to toes) into the literary language. It should be mentioned that these terms are still used, both in science and everyday speech. He gave, among other things, his own interpretation of the connection between environment and inhabitants, with parts on nourishment, living conditions, hygiene, diseases and funeral customs. All in all this considerable contribution of Vuk Karadžić is not that famous or studied. Recognition and legacy Literary historian Jovan Deretić summarized his work as "During his fifty years of tireless activity, he accomplished as much as an entire academy of sciences." Karadžić was honored across Europe. He was chosen as a member of various European learned societies, including the Imperial Academy of Sciences in Vienna, Prussian Academy of Sciences and Russian Imperial Academy of Sciences. He received several honorary doctorates. and was decorated by Russian and Austro-Hungarian monarchs, Prussian king, Order of Prince Danilo I and Russian academy of science. UNESCO proclaimed 1987 the year of Vuk Karadzić. Karadžić was also named an honorary citizen of the city of Zagreb. On the 100th anniversary of Karadžić's death (in 1964) student work brigades on youth action "Tršić 64" raised an amphitheater with a stage that was needed for organizing the Vukov sabor, and students' Vukov sabor. In 1987 Tršić received a comprehensive overhaul as a cultural-historical monument. Also, the road from Karadžić's home to Tronoša monastery was built. Karadžić's birth house was declared Monument of Culture of Exceptional Importance in 1979, and it is protected by Republic of Serbia. Recently, rural tourism has become popular in Tršić, with many families converting their houses into buildings designed to accommodate guests. TV series based on his life were broadcast on Radio Television of Serbia. His portrait is often seen in Serbian schools. Federal Republic of Yugoslavia and Serbia and Montenegro awarded a state Order of Vuk Karadžić. Vuk's Foundation maintains the legacy of Vuk Stefanović Karadžić in Serbia and Serb diaspora as well. A student of primary (age six or seven to fourteen or fifteen) or secondary (age fourteen or fifteen to eighteen or nineteen) school in Serbia, that is awarded best grades for all subjects at the end of a school year, for each year in turn, is awarded at the end of his final year a "Vuk Karadžić diploma" and is known (in common speech) as "Vukovac", a name given to a member of an elite group of the highest performing students. Selected works Mala prostonarodna slaveno-serbska pesnarica, Vienna, 1814 Pismenica serbskoga jezika, Vienna, 1814 Narodna srbska pjesnarica II, Vienna, 1815 Srpski rječnik istolkovan njemačkim i latinskim riječma (Serbian Dictionary, paralleled with German and Latin words), Vienna, 1818 Narodne srpske pripovjetke, Vienna, 1821, supplemented edition, 1853 Narodne srpske pjesme I-V, Vienna and Leipzig, 1823–1864 Luke Milovanova Opit nastavlenja k Srbskoj sličnorečnosti i slogomjerju ili prosodii, Vienna, 1823 Mala srpska gramatika, Leipzig, 1824 Žizni i podvigi Knjaza Miloša Obrenovića, Saint Petersburg, 1825 Danica I-V, Vienna, 1826–1834 Žitije Đorđa Arsenijevića, Emanuela, Buda, 1827 Miloš Obrenović, knjaz Srbije ili gradja za srpsku istoriju našega vremena, Buda, 1828 Narodne srpske poslovice i druge različne, kao i one u običaj uzete riječi, Cetinje, 1836 Montenegro und die Montenegriner: ein Beitrag zur Kenntnis der europäischen Türkei und des serbischen Volkes, Stuttgart and Tübingen, 1837 Pisma Platonu Atanackoviću, Vienna, 1845 Kovčežić za istoriju, jezik i običaje Srba sva tri zakona, Vienna, 1849 Primeri Srpsko-slovenskog jezika, Vienna, 1857 Praviteljstvujušči sovjet serbski za vremena Kara-Đorđijeva, Vienna, 1860 Srpske narodne pjesme iz Hercegovine, Vienna, 1866 Život i običaji naroda srpskog, Vienna, 1867 Nemačko srpski rečnik, Vienna, 1872 Translations: New Testament, Vienna, 1847 Misquotes Although the above quotation is often attributed to Vuk Stefanović Karadžić in Serbia, it is in fact an orthographic principle devised by the German grammarian and philologist Johann Christoph Adelung. Karadžić merely used that principle to push through his language reform. The attribution of the quote to Karadžić is a common misconception in Serbia, Montenegro and the rest of the former Yugoslavia. Due to that fact, the entrance exam to the University of Belgrade Faculty of Philology occasionally contains a question on the authorship of the quote (as a sort of trick question). See also Vienna Literary Agreement Museum of Vuk and Dositej People closely related to Karadžić's work Živana Antonijević Tešan Podrugović Lukijan Mušicki Filip Višnjić Sima Milutinović Sarajlija Dimitrije Davidović Branko Radičević Petar II Petrović Njegoš Ljudevit Gaj Franz Miklosich Ivan Mažuranić Sava Mrkalj References Further reading Lockwood, Yvonne R. 1971. Vuk Stefanović Karadžić: Pioneer and Continuing Inspiration of Yugoslav Folkloristics. Western Folklore 30.1: pp. 19–32. Skerlić, Jovan, Istorija Nove Srpske Književnosti/History of New Serbian Literature (Belgrade, 1914, 1921) pages 239–276. Vuk, Karadzic. Works, book XVIII, Belgrade 1972. External links Biography Encyclopedia of World Biography from Bookrags.com Vuk's Foundation Vuk Karadžić online library at Project Rastko Jernej Kopitar as a strategist of Karadžić’s reform of the literary language PDF 1787 births 1864 deaths Belgrade Higher School faculty Burials at St. Michael's Cathedral (Belgrade) Creators of writing systems Drobnjaci History of the Serbo-Croatian language Language reformers Linguists from Serbia People from Loznica People of the First Serbian Uprising Serbian folklorists Serbian ethnographers Serbian people with disabilities Serbian studies Serbian writers Slavists Translators of the Bible into Serbian Collectors of fairy tales Serbian people of Montenegrin descent	[ -0.260985791683197, 0.6994938850402832, -0.6860974431037903, -0.06051803380250931, -0.17186717689037323, 0.9368618130683899, 1.4773149490356445, -0.08060754835605621, -0.2716955244541168, 0.031550679355859756, 0.14869308471679688, 0.19439122080802917, -0.6364371180534363, 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229249	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Edwin%20Anderson%20Jr.	Edwin Anderson Jr.	Edwin Alexander Anderson Jr. (16 July 1860 – 23 September 1933) was a United States Navy officer who received the Medal of Honor for actions during the 1914 American intervention at Veracruz. He retired from the Navy in 1924, as an admiral. Early life and career Anderson was born in Wilmington, North Carolina. He was appointed a cadet midshipman to the United States Naval Academy from the 3rd Congressional District of North Carolina, on 28 June 1878, and graduated with the Class of 1882, receiving his ensign's stripe on 1 July 1884, after the customary two-year's sea duty. Anderson advanced slowly up the promotion ladder, such advancements in those times being received on basis of seniority; he remained an ensign for ten years before becoming a lieutenant, junior grade. Detached from the cruiser , Anderson reported on board the cruiser on 28 January 1897, and was serving in that ship at the time of the outbreak of the Spanish–American War in the spring of 1898. Spanish–American War At that time, the United States Navy threw a blockade around Cuba. By early May 1898, Marblehead was operating off the south coast of Cuba, off the port of Cienfuegos—a cable terminus important to Spanish communications—in company with the converted yacht , the gunboat , the revenue cutter and the collier . To sever this vital link, Captain Bowman H. McCalla, senior officer in the group, planned an operation to cut the cable at Cienfuegos, designating Lieutenant Cameron McRae Winslow as the commanding officer, with Lieutenant, (jg) Anderson as his second-in-command. Winslow accordingly gave Anderson command of the sailing launches from Marblehead. After the guns of the two warships smashed Spanish positions ashore, the boats moved in to carry out the operation. Anderson's boat quickly snatched up the first cable and, assisted by Nashvilles boat, cut it. They soon grapneled a second cable and were in the process of cutting it, too, when the Spaniards opened a slow fire that soon grew to volley proportions, from rifles, automatic weapons and one-pounders. After a Spanish bullet felled the coxswain of Anderson's boat, Anderson took the helm and began steering the boat seaward, directing his men to keep down between the thwarts. The Spanish fire, however wounded three more men and holed the boat in many places. After the action, Anderson had nothing but praise for his sailors and marines, commending their intelligent and cheerful work in the exhausting labor of picking up and cutting the heavy cables, working even under heavy fire until ordered to stop. The operation proved successful in another aspect. The ships gunfire decimated a large Spanish force sent to the area to contest the operation. Subsequently, Anderson delivered the prize steamer Adula to Savannah, Georgia, in July 1898, and was given command of another Spanish prize, the gunboat . Recommended for advancement in grade for his heroism at Cienfuegos in August 1898, this advancement (five numbers in grade) came finally on 11 February 1901. Post-war advancement, Medal of Honor Anderson commanded the gunboat from 13 April 1901 – 24 December 1903, in the Philippines, and, later, in Hong Kong. During the remainder of the 1900s, Anderson advanced to commander; among his tours of duty included a stint at the Navy Recruiting Station, Cincinnati, Ohio, and at the Mare Island Navy Yard as ordnance officer before being given command of the gunboat in the autumn of 1910. He briefly commanded the battleship during the assemblage the fleet in New York City before being detached for duty as Captain of the Yard at the Philadelphia Navy Yard. Late in 1913, Anderson was given command of the battleship , and while in command of that ship, took part in the American intervention at Veracruz, Mexico, in April 1914. Given command of the Second Seaman Regiment, Anderson led that bluejacket landing force ashore and so distinguished himself in the fighting that followed that he received the Medal of Honor. Subsequently attending the Naval War College, Anderson served as Supervisor of Naval Auxiliary Reserves, Norfolk, and later as Commander, Squadron Three, Patrol Force, assigned defense duties out of Key West, Florida, during World War I, with as his flagship. He was promoted to rear admiral and took command of Squadron One, Patrol Force, Atlantic Fleet, for the duration of the First World War. Flag assignments Over the next few years, Anderson flew his flag as Commander Division 1, Cruiser Squadrons, Atlantic Fleet, and as Commandant, Sixth Naval district, headquartered at Charleston, South Carolina, before assuming command of United States Naval Forces in European Waters, with the rank of vice admiral. He was soon redesignated as Commander in Chief, Asiatic Fleet, however from 28 August 1922. Continued turmoil in China had occasioned the presence of substantial numbers of foreign warships in Chinese waters including the Asiatic Fleet. Anderson's ships carried out the usual kinds of peacetime operations ever ready to perform protective service for American nationals. During his tour, however the Fleet distinguished itself in quite an unexpected fashion. A severe earthquake rocked Japan, causing heavy damage to such cities as Tokyo and Yokohama. As Secretary of the Navy Edwin C. Denby reported in 1923, "One of the brightest pages in the history of the Navy has recently been written by the Asiatic Fleet in its mission of mercy to the stricken people of Japan." Admiral Anderson promptly placed his fleet at the disposal of the Japanese, immediately dispatched a division of destroyer from Chinese waters to Yokohama with medical supplies to render assistance. The ships of Destroyer Division 38, led by the destroyer , were in fact the first ships to render assistance to the city of Yokohama. All available naval vessels were laden with clothing, food, medicines, and supplies, and rushed to Japanese waters. Admiral Anderson himself arrived at Yokohama in his flagship the armored cruiser on the afternoon of September 1923. Within two weeks' time, the United States Ambassador in Japan, Cyrus E. Woods, could cable: I have been informed by the Foreign Office that food emergency has been met. Only problem remaining is question of distribution. This the Japanese with their organizing ability and their ability to recover from shock desire to handle themselves. It will gratify the American people to know that the prompt action of Admiral Anderson has had much to do with this. American Navy's assistance thoroughly appreciated by the men in the street as well as the Japanese government. I wish to emphasize that in this critical emergency the first assistance from the outside world since the catastrophe was brought by our Asiatic Fleet. Subsequently, the Japanese Ambassador to the United States, Masanao Hanihara, expressed gratitude for Admiral Anderson's "unflagging zeal and efficiency" that led to the "prompt and gallant assistance" that enabled the situation to be brought "well under control in a short time." Retirement and death Relieved by Admiral Thomas Washington on 11 October 1923, Anderson returned to the United States, and was placed on the retired list with the permanent rank of admiral on 23 March 1924. Anderson died at his home in Masonboro Sound, Wilmington, North Carolina on 23 September 1933. He was buried at Arlington National Cemetery, in Arlington, Virginia. Awards Medal of Honor Distinguished Service Medal Sampson Medal Spanish Campaign Medal Mexican Service Medal World War I Victory Medal Medal of Honor citation Rank and organization: Captain, U.S. Navy. Born: 16 July 1860, Wilmington N.C. Accredited to: North Carolina. G.O. No.: 177, 4 December 1915. Other Navy award: Distinguished Service Medal. Citation: For extraordinary heroism in battle, engagement of Vera Cruz, 22 April 1914, in command of the 2d Seaman Regiment. Marching his regiment across the open space in front of the Naval Academy and other buildings, Capt. Anderson unexpectedly met a heavy fire from riflemen, machineguns and 1-pounders, which caused part of his command to break and fall back, many casualties occurring amongst them at the time. His indifference to the heavy fire, to which he himself was exposed at the head of his regiment, showed him to be fearless and courageous in battle. Namesake A in the United States Navy, , was named in his honor, was sunk in 1946, during atomic bomb tests as part of Operation Crossroads. See also List of Medal of Honor recipients (Veracruz) References Bibliography External links Edwin A. 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229253	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dieffenbachia	Dieffenbachia	Dieffenbachia , commonly known as dumb cane, mother-in-law's tongue and leopard lily, is a genus of tropical flowering plants in the family Araceae. It is native to the New World Tropics from Mexico and the West Indies south to Argentina. Some species are widely cultivated as ornamental plants, especially as houseplants, and have become naturalized on a few tropical islands. Dieffenbachia is a perennial herbaceous plant with straight stem, simple and alternate leaves containing white spots and flecks, making it attractive as indoor foliage. Species in this genus are popular as houseplants because of their tolerance of shade. The English names, dumb cane and mother-in-law's tongue (also used for Sansevieria species) refer to the poisoning effect of raphides, which can cause temporary inability to speak. Dieffenbachia was named by Heinrich Wilhelm Schott, director of the Botanical Gardens in Vienna, to honor his head gardener Joseph Dieffenbach (1796–1863). Species The World Checklist of Selected Plant Families lists the following species: Dieffenbachia aglaonematifolia Engl. – Brazil, Paraguay; Corrientes + Misiones Provinces of Argentina Dieffenbachia antioquensis Linden ex Rafarin – Colombia Dieffenbachia aurantiaca Engl – Costa Rica, Panama Dieffenbachia beachiana Croat & Grayum – Costa Rica, Panama Dieffenbachia bowmannii Carrière – Colombia, northwestern Brazil Dieffenbachia brittonii Engl. – Colombia Dieffenbachia burgeri Croat & Grayum – Costa Rica Dieffenbachia cannifolia Engl. – Colombia, Ecuador, Peru Dieffenbachia concinna Croat & Grayum – Costa Rica, Nicaragua Dieffenbachia copensis Croat – Panama Dieffenbachia cordata Engl. – Peru Dieffenbachia costata Klotzsch ex Schott – Colombia, Ecuador, Peru Dieffenbachia crebripistillata Croat – Panama Dieffenbachia daguensis Engl. – Colombia, Ecuador Dieffenbachia davidsei Croat & Grayum – Costa Rica Dieffenbachia duidae (Steyerm.) G.S.Bunting – Venezuela, Guyana Dieffenbachia elegans A.M.E.Jonker & Jonker – Bolivia, northwestern Brazil, the Guianas Dieffenbachia enderi Engl. – Colombia Dieffenbachia fortunensis Croat – Panama Dieffenbachia fosteri Croat – Panama Dieffenbachia fournieri N.E.Br. – Colombia Dieffenbachia galdamesiae Croat – Panama Dieffenbachia gracilis Huber – Peru, northwestern Brazil Dieffenbachia grayumiana Croat – Costa Rica, Panama, Colombia Dieffenbachia hammelii Croat & Grayum – Costa Rica, Nicaragua Dieffenbachia herthae Diels – Ecuador Dieffenbachia horichii Croat & Grayum – Costa Rica Dieffenbachia humilis Poepp. – Bolivia, Peru, Ecuador, northwestern Brazil, the Guianas Dieffenbachia imperialis Linden & André – Peru Dieffenbachia isthmia Croat – Panama Dieffenbachia killipii Croat – Panama Dieffenbachia lancifolia Linden & André – Colombia Dieffenbachia leopoldii W.Bull – Colombia Dieffenbachia longispatha Engl. & K.Krause – Panama, Colombia Dieffenbachia lutheri Croat – Panama Dieffenbachia macrophylla Poepp. – Peru Dieffenbachia meleagris L.Linden & Rodigas – Ecuador Dieffenbachia nitidipetiolata Croat & Grayum – Panama Dieffenbachia obliqua Poepp. – Peru Dieffenbachia obscurinervia Croat – Panama Dieffenbachia oerstedii Schott – southern Mexico (Veracruz, Tabasco, Campeche, Oaxaca, Chiapas), Central America (all 7 countries), Colombia Dieffenbachia olbia L.Linden & Rodigas – Peru Dieffenbachia paludicola N.E.Br. ex Gleason – northwestern Brazil, the Guianas, Venezuela Dieffenbachia panamensis Croat – Panama Dieffenbachia parlatorei Linden & André – Colombia, Venezuela Dieffenbachia parvifolia Engl. – northwestern Brazil, Bolivia, Ecuador, Peru, Venezuela Dieffenbachia pittieri Engl. & K.Krause – Panama Dieffenbachia seguine (Jacq.) Schott – West Indies, south to Brazil and Bolivia (syn. Dieffenbachia maculata, Dieffenbachia picta) Dieffenbachia shuttleworthiana Regel – Colombia Dieffenbachia standleyi Croat – Honduras Dieffenbachia tonduzii Croat & Grayum – Nicaragua, Costa Rica, Panama, Colombia, Ecuador Dieffenbachia weberbaueri Engl. – Peru Dieffenbachia weirii Berk. – Colombia Dieffenbachia wendlandii Schott – southern Mexico (Querétaro, Veracruz, Oaxaca, Chiapas) south to Panama Dieffenbachia williamsii Croat – Bolivia Dieffenbachia wurdackii Croat – Peru Dieffenbachia includes a number of unresolved taxonomic names, such as Dieffenbachia amoena. Ecology In a survey which began in 1998, researchers in Costa Rica noticed that the strawberry poison frog Oophaga pumilio, deposited almost all (89%) of their tadpoles on the leaf axils of Dieffenbachia. As a result, the frog population fluctuated with the abundance of Dieffenbachia, especially in secondary forest. A majority of the plants were eradicated by 2012 when the surveyors returned to the same area, with only 28% of 2002 plant numbers remaining. Researchers concluded that the reason for the rapid decline in Dieffenbachia was due to increased abundance of the collared peccary Pecari tajacu in the La Selva Biological Station research area; a small pig-like animal which feeds on Dieffenbachia and other plants. Cultivation With a minimum temperature of , dieffenbachia must be grown indoors in temperate areas. They need light, but filtered sunlight through a window is usually sufficient. They also need moderately moist soil, which should be regularly fertilized with a proprietary houseplant fertilizer. Leaves will periodically roll up and fall off to make way for new leaves. Yellowing of the leaves is generally a sign of problematic conditions, such as a nutrient deficiency in the soil. Dieffenbachia respond well to hot temperatures and dry climates. Dieffenbachia prefer medium sunlight, moderately dry soil and average home temperatures of . Most require water about twice a week. As Dieffenbachia seguine comes from the tropical rain forest, it prefers to have moisture at its roots, as it grows all the time, it needs constant water, but with loose well aerated soils. The cultivars 'Camille' and 'Tropic Snow' have gained the Royal Horticultural Society's Award of Garden Merit. Toxicity The cells of the Dieffenbachia plant contain needle-shaped calcium oxalate crystals called raphides. If a leaf is chewed, these crystals can cause a temporary burning sensation and erythema. In rare cases, edema of tissues exposed to the plant has been reported. Mastication and ingestion generally result in only mild symptoms. With both children and pets, contact with dieffenbachia (typically from chewing) can cause a host of unpleasant symptoms, including intense numbing, oral irritation, excessive drooling, and localized swelling. However, these effects are rarely life-threatening. In most cases, symptoms are mild, and can be successfully treated with analgesic agents, antihistamines, or medical charcoal. Moreover, severe cases can occur if Dieffenbachia makes prolonged contact with oral mucosal tissue. In such cases, symptoms generally include severe pain which can last for several days to weeks. Hospitalization may be necessary if prolonged contact is made with the throat, in which severe swelling has the potential to affect breathing. Gastric evacuation or lavage is "seldom" indicated. In patients with exposure to toxic plants, 70% are children younger than 5 years. Stories that Dieffenbachia is a deadly poison are urban legends. References Sources Schott, H. W. and Kunst, W. Z. (1829). Für Liebhaber der Botanik. External links Encyclopædia Britannica Clemson Home & Garden Medline Plus: Dieffenbachia Botanical Online: Dieffenbachia Speedup Video – Dieffenbachia growth Aroideae Araceae genera Garden plants House plants Low light plants	[ -0.33302757143974304, 0.47315794229507446, -0.6212509274482727, -0.34633639454841614, -0.3867756128311157, 0.9870221614837646, 0.6910188794136047, 0.4702230989933014, -0.21196570992469788, -0.030500909313559532, -0.01963045261800289, -0.1119234636425972, -0.46656396985054016, 0.6287775039672852, 0.20794391632080078, 0.14572767913341522, 0.4960477948188782, 0.6553028225898743, -0.11731337755918503, -0.13451679050922394, -0.08669016510248184, -0.5684530735015869, 0.7134636640548706, -0.08684177696704865, 0.510915219783783, -0.5154578685760498, 0.7399814128875732, -0.16666445136070251, 0.7263591289520264, -0.3105730712413788, -0.1487804651260376, 0.5530897378921509, 0.39430439472198486, -0.4734242260456085, 0.20768749713897705, 0.4343040883541107, 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229254	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Calcium%20oxalate	Calcium oxalate	Calcium oxalate (in archaic terminology, oxalate of lime) is a calcium salt of oxalate with the chemical formula CaC2O4·(H2O)x, where x varies from 0 to 3. All forms are colorless or white. The monohydrate occurs naturally as the mineral whewellite, forming envelope-shaped crystals, known in plants as raphides. The rarer dihydrate (mineral: weddellite) and trihydrate (mineral: caoxite) are also recognized. Some foods have high quantities of calcium oxalates and can produce sores and numbing on ingestion and may even be fatal. Tribes with diets that depend highly on fruits and vegetables high in calcium oxalate s.a. in Micronesia reduce the level of it by boiling and cooking them. They are a constituent in 76% of human kidney stones. Calcium oxalate is also found in beerstone, a scale that forms on containers used in breweries. Occurrence Many plants accumulate calcium oxalate as it has been reported in more than 1000 different genera of plants. The calcium oxalate accumulation is linked to the detoxification of calcium (Ca2+) in the plant. The poisonous plant dumb cane (Dieffenbachia) contains the substance and on ingestion can prevent speech and be suffocating. It is also found in sorrel, rhubarb (in large quantities in the leaves), cinnamon, turmeric and in species of Oxalis, Araceae, Arum italicum, taro, kiwifruit, tea leaves, agaves, Virginia creeper (Parthenocissus quinquefolia), and Alocasia and in spinach in varying amounts. Plants of the genus Philodendron contain enough calcium oxalate that consumption of parts of the plant can result in uncomfortable symptoms. Insoluble calcium oxalate crystals are found in plant stems, roots, and leaves and produced in idioblasts. Vanilla plants exude calcium oxalates upon harvest of the orchid seed pods and may cause contact contact dermatitis. Calcium oxalate, as ‘beerstone’, is a brownish precipitate that tends to accumulate within vats, barrels, and other containers used in the brewing of beer. If not removed in a cleaning process, beerstone will leave an unsanitary surface that can harbour microorganisms. Beerstone is composed of calcium and magnesium salts and various organic compounds left over from the brewing process; it promotes the growth of unwanted microorganisms that can adversely affect or even ruin the flavour of a batch of beer. Calcium oxalate crystals in the urine are the most common constituent of human kidney stones, and calcium oxalate crystal formation is also one of the toxic effects of ethylene glycol poisoning. Chemical properties Calcium oxalate is a combination of calcium ions and the conjugate base of oxalic acid, the oxalate anion. Its aqueous solutions are slightly basic because of the basicity of the oxalate ion. The basicity of calcium oxalate is weaker than that of sodium oxalate, due to its lower solubility in water. Solid calcium oxalate hydrate has been characterized by X-ray crystallography. It is a coordination polymer. featuring planar oxalate anions linked to calcium, which also has water ligands. Medical significance Calcium oxalate can produce sores and numbing on ingestion and may even be fatal. Morphology and diagnosis The monohydrate and dihydrate can be distinguished by the shape of the respective crystals. Calcium oxalate dihydrate crystals are octahedral. A large portion of the crystals in a urine sediment will have this type of morphology, as they can grow at any pH and naturally occur in normal urine. Calcium oxalate monohydrate crystals vary in shape, and can be shaped like dumbbells, spindles, ovals, or picket fences, the last of which is most commonly seen due to ethylene glycol poisoning. Kidney stones About 76% of kidney stones are partially or entirely of the calcium oxalate type. They form when urine is persistently saturated with calcium and oxalate. Between 1% and 15% of people globally are affected by kidney stones at some point. In 2015, they caused about 16,000 deaths worldwide. Some of the oxalate in urine is produced by the body. Calcium and oxalate in the diet play a part but are not the only factors that affect the formation of calcium oxalate stones. Dietary oxalate is an organic ion found in many vegetables, fruits, and nuts. Calcium from bone may also play a role in kidney stone formation. Industrial applications Calcium oxalate is used in the manufacture of ceramic glazes. 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229257	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lyndon%20LaRouche	Lyndon LaRouche	Lyndon Hermyle LaRouche Jr. (September 8, 1922 – February 12, 2019) was an American political activist who founded the LaRouche movement and its main organization the National Caucus of Labor Committees (NCLC). Born in Rochester, New Hampshire, LaRouche became sympathetic to socialist and Marxist movements and ideals in his twenties during World War II and by the 1960s became engaged in increasingly smaller and more radical splinter groups. During the 1970s he created the foundation of the LaRouche Movement and became more engaged in conspiratorial beliefs and violent and/or illegal activities. In 1986, his movement reached its height in electoral success when Larouchite candidates won several Democratic primaries for state offices in Illinois. (The defeated mainstream Democratic candidates ran in the general election as members of the Illinois Solidarity Party; the Larouchite Democrats all finished a distant third.) Later in the 1980s, criminal investigations led to convictions of several LaRouche movement members, including LaRouche himself. He was sentenced to fifteen years imprisonment, but only served five years. LaRouche was a perennial candidate for President of the United States. He ran in every election from 1976 to 2004 as a candidate of third parties established by members of his movement. He also tried to gain the Democratic presidential nomination. In 1996, he got 5% of the total nationwide vote in Democratic primaries. In 2000, he received enough primary votes to qualify for delegates in some states, but ultimately was refused those delegates at the convention. Early life LaRouche was born in Rochester, New Hampshire, the oldest of three children of Jessie Lenore ( Weir) and Lyndon H. LaRouche, Sr. His paternal grandfather's family emigrated to the United States from Rimouski, Quebec, whereas his maternal grandfather was born in Scotland. His father worked for the United Shoe Machinery Corporation in Rochester before the family moved to Lynn, Massachusetts. His parents became Quakers after his father converted from Catholicism. They forbade him from fighting with other children, even in self-defense, which he said led to "years of hell" from bullies at school. As a result, he spent much of his time alone, taking long walks through the woods and identifying in his mind with great philosophers. He wrote that, between the ages of twelve and fourteen, he read philosophy extensively, embracing the ideas of Leibniz and rejecting those of Hume, Bacon, Hobbes, Locke, Berkeley, Rousseau, and Kant. He graduated from Lynn English High School in 1940. In the same year, the Lynn Quakers expelled his father from the group, for reportedly accusing other Quakers of misusing funds, while writing under the pen name Hezekiah Micajah Jones. LaRouche and his mother resigned in sympathy for his father. University studies, Marxism, marriage LaRouche attended Northeastern University in Boston and left in 1942. He later wrote that his teachers "lacked the competence to teach me on conditions I was willing to tolerate". As a Quaker, he was a conscientious objector (CO) during World War II and joined a Civilian Public Service camp. In 1944 he joined the United States Army as a non-combatant and served in India and Burma with medical units. He ultimately worked as an ordnance clerk at the end of the war. He described his decision to serve as one of the most important of his life. While in India he developed sympathy for the Indian independence movement. LaRouche wrote that many GIs feared they would be asked to support British forces in actions against Indian independence forces and characterized that prospect as "revolting to most of us". He discussed Marxism in the CO camp, and while traveling home on the SS General Bradley in 1946, he met Don Merrill, a fellow soldier, also from Lynn, who converted him to Trotskyism. Back in the U.S., he resumed his education at Northeastern University. He returned to Lynn in 1948 and the next year joined the Socialist Workers Party (SWP), adopting the name "Lyn Marcus" for his political work. He arrived in New York City in 1953, where he worked as a management consultant. In 1954 he married Janice Neuberger, a psychiatrist and member of the SWP. Their son, Daniel, was born in 1956. Career 1960s Teaching and the National Caucus of Labor Committees By 1961 the LaRouches were living on Central Park West in Manhattan, and LaRouche's activities were mostly focused on his career and not on the SWP. He and his wife separated in 1963, and he moved into a Greenwich Village apartment with another SWP member, Carol Schnitzer, also known as Larrabee. In 1964 he began an association with an SWP faction called the Revolutionary Tendency, a faction which was later expelled from the SWP, and came under the influence of British Trotskyist leader Gerry Healy. For six months, LaRouche worked with American Healyite leader Tim Wohlforth, who later wrote that LaRouche had a "gargantuan ego", and "a marvelous ability to place any world happening in a larger context, which seemed to give the event additional meaning, but his thinking was schematic, lacking factual detail and depth." Leaving Wohlforth's group, LaRouche briefly joined the rival Spartacist League before announcing his intention to build a new Fifth International. In 1967 LaRouche began teaching classes on Marx's dialectical materialism at New York City's Free School, and attracted a group of students from Columbia University and the City College of New York, recommending that they read Das Kapital, as well as Hegel, Kant, and Leibniz. During the 1968 Columbia University protests, he organized his supporters under the name National Caucus of Labor Committees (NCLC). The aim of the NCLC was to win control of the Students for a Democratic Society (SDS) branch—the university's main activist group—and build a political alliance between students, local residents, organized labor, and the Columbia faculty. By 1973 the NCLC had over 600 members in 25 cities—including West Berlin and Stockholm—and produced what LaRouche's biographer, Dennis King, called the most literate of the far-left papers, New Solidarity. The NCLC's internal activities became highly regimented over the next few years. Members gave up their jobs and devoted themselves to the group and its leader, believing it would soon take control of America's trade unions and overthrow the government. 1970s 1971: Intelligence network Robert J. Alexander writes that LaRouche first established an NCLC "intelligence network" in 1971. Members all over the world would send information to NCLC headquarters, which would distribute the information via briefings and other publications. LaRouche organized the network as a series of news services and magazines, which critics say was done to gain access to government officials under press cover. The publications included Executive Intelligence Review, founded in 1974. Other periodicals under his aegis included; New Solidarity, Fusion Magazine, 21st Century Science and Technology, and Campaigner Magazine. His news services and publishers included American System Publications, Campaigner Publications, New Solidarity International Press Service, and The New Benjamin Franklin House Publishing Company. LaRouche acknowledged in 1980 that his followers impersonated reporters and others, saying it had to be done for his security. In 1982, U.S. News and World Report sued New Solidarity International Press Service and Campaigner Publications for damages, alleging that members were impersonating its reporters in phone calls. U.S. sources told The Washington Post in 1985 that the LaRouche organization had assembled a worldwide network of government and military contacts, and that his researchers sometimes supplied information to government officials. Bobby Ray Inman, the CIA's deputy director in 1981 and 1982, said LaRouche and his wife had visited him, offering information about the West German Green Party. A CIA spokesman said LaRouche met Deputy Director John McMahon in 1983 to discuss one of LaRouche's trips overseas. An aide to Deputy Secretary of State William Clark said when LaRouche's associates discussed technology or economics, they made good sense and seemed to be qualified. Norman Bailey, formerly with the U.S. National Security Council, said in 1984 that LaRouche's staff comprised "one of the best private intelligence services in the world. ... They do know a lot of people around the world. They do get to talk to prime ministers and presidents." Several government officials feared a security leak from the government's ties with the movement. According to critics, the supposed behind-the-scenes processes were more often flights of fancy than inside information. Douglas Foster wrote in Mother Jones in 1982 that the briefings consisted of disinformation, "hate-filled" material about enemies, phony letters, intimidation, fake newspaper articles, and dirty tricks campaigns. Opponents were accused of being gay or Nazis, or were linked to murders, which the movement called "psywar techniques". From the 1970s through to the first decade of the 21st century, LaRouche founded several groups and companies. In addition to the National Caucus of Labor Committees, there was the Citizens Electoral Council (Australia), the National Democratic Policy Committee, the Fusion Energy Foundation, and the U.S. Labor Party. In 1984 he founded the Schiller Institute in Germany with his second wife, and three political parties there—the Europäische Arbeiterpartei, Patrioten für Deutschland, and Bürgerrechtsbewegung Solidarität—and in 2000 the Worldwide LaRouche Youth Movement. His printing services included Computron Technologies, Computype, World Composition Services, and PMR Printing Company, Inc, or PMR Associates. 1973: Political shift; "Operation Mop-Up" LaRouche wrote in his 1987 autobiography that violent altercations had begun in 1969 between his NCLC members and several New Left groups when Mark Rudd's faction began assaulting LaRouche's faction at Columbia University. Press accounts alleged that between April and September 1973, during what LaRouche called "Operation Mop-Up", NCLC members began physically attacking members of leftist groups that LaRouche classified as "left-protofascists"; an editorial in LaRouche's New Solidarity said of the Communist Party that the movement "must dispose of this stinking corpse". Armed with chains, bats, and martial-art nunchuk sticks, NCLC members assaulted Communist Party, SWP, and Progressive Labor Party members and Black Power activists on the streets and during meetings. At least 60 assaults were reported. The operation ended when police arrested several of LaRouche's followers; there were no convictions, and LaRouche maintained they had acted in self-defense. Journalist and LaRouche biographer Dennis King writes that the FBI may have tried to aggravate the strife, using measures such as anonymous mailings, to keep the groups at each other's throats. LaRouche said he met representatives of the Soviet Union at the United Nations in 1974 and 1975 to discuss attacks by the Communist Party USA on the NCLC and to propose a merger, but said he received no assistance from them. One FBI memo, obtained under the Freedom of Information Act, proposes assisting the CPUSA in an investigation "for the purpose of ultimately eliminating him [LaRouche] and the threat of the NCLC" (see image to left). LaRouche's critics such as Dennis King and Antony Lerman allege that in 1973 and with little warning, LaRouche adopted more extreme ideas, a process accompanied by a campaign of violence against his opponents on the left, and the development of conspiracy theories and paranoia about his personal safety. According to these accounts, he began to believe he was under threat of assassination from the Soviet Union, the CIA, Libya, drug dealers, and bankers. He also established a "Biological Holocaust Task Force", which, according to LaRouche, analyzed the public health consequences of International Monetary Fund (IMF) austerity policies toward impoverished nations in Africa, and predicted that epidemics of cholera as well as possibly entirely new diseases would strike Africa in the 1980s. 1973: U.S. Labor Party LaRouche founded the U.S. Labor Party in 1973 as the political arm of the NCLC. At first the party was "preaching Marxist revolution", but by 1977 they shifted from left-wing to right-wing politics. A two-part article in The New York Times in 1979 by Howard Blum and Paul L. Montgomery alleged that LaRouche had turned the party (at that point with 1,000 members in 37 offices in North America, and 26 in Europe and Latin America) into an extreme-right, antisemitic organization, despite the presence of Jewish members. LaRouche denied the newspaper's charges, and said he had filed a $100 million libel suit; his press secretary said the articles were intended to "set up a credible climate for an assassination hit". The Times alleged that members had taken courses in how to use knives and rifles; that a farm in upstate New York had been used for guerrilla training; and that several members had undergone a six-day anti-terrorist training course run by Mitchell WerBell III, an arms dealer and former member of the Office of Strategic Services, who said he had ties to the CIA. Journalists and publications the party regarded as unfriendly were harassed, and it published a list of potential assassins it saw as a threat. LaRouche expected members to devote themselves entirely to the party, and place their savings and possessions at its disposal, as well as take out loans on its behalf. Party officials would decide who each member should live with, and if someone left the movement, the remaining member was expected to live separately from the ex-member. LaRouche would question spouses about their partner's sexual habits, the Times said, and in one case reportedly ordered a member to stop having sex with his wife, because it was making him "politically impotent". 1973: "Ego-stripping" and "brainwashing" allegations LaRouche began writing in 1973 about the use of certain psychological techniques on recruits. In an article called "Beyond Psychoanalysis", he wrote that a worker's persona had to be stripped away to arrive at a state he called "little me", from which it would be possible to "rebuild their personalities around a new socialist identity", according to The Washington Post. The New York Times wrote that the first such session—which LaRouche called "ego-stripping"—involved a German member, Konstantin George, in the summer of 1973. LaRouche said that during the session he discovered that a plot to assassinate him had been implanted in George's mind. He recorded sessions with a 26-year-old British member, Chris White, who had moved to England with LaRouche's former partner, Carol Schnitzer. In December 1973 LaRouche asked the couple to return to the U.S. His followers sent tapes of the subsequent sessions with White to The New York Times as evidence of an assassination plot. According to the Times, "[t]here are sounds of weeping, and vomiting on the tapes, and Mr. White complains of being deprived of sleep, food and cigarettes. At one point someone says 'raise the voltage', but [LaRouche] says this was associated with the bright lights used in the questioning rather than an electric shock." The Times wrote: "Mr. White complains of a terrible pain in his arm, then LaRouche can be heard saying, 'That's not real. That's in the program'." LaRouche told the newspaper White had been "reduced to an eight-cycle infinite loop with look-up table, with homosexual bestiality". He said White had not been harmed and that a physician—a LaRouche movement member—had been present throughout. White ended up telling LaRouche he had been programmed by the CIA and British intelligence to set up LaRouche for assassination by Cuban exile frogmen. According to The Washington Post, "brainwashing hysteria" took hold of the movement. One activist said he attended meetings where members were writhing on the floor saying they needed de-programming. In two weeks in January 1974, the group issued 41 separate press releases about brainwashing. One activist, Alice Weitzman, expressed skepticism about the claims. 1974: Contacts with far right groups, intelligence gathering LaRouche established contacts with Willis Carto's Liberty Lobby and elements of the Ku Klux Klan in 1974. Frank Donner and Randall Rothenberg wrote that he made successful overtures to the Liberty Lobby and George Wallace's American Independent Party, adding that the "racist" policies of LaRouche's U.S. Labor Party endeared it to members of the Ku Klux Klan. George Michael, in Willis Carto and the American Far Right, says that LaRouche shared with the Liberty Lobby's Willis Carto an antipathy towards the Rockefeller family. The Liberty Lobby defended its alliance with LaRouche by saying the U.S. Labor Party had been able to "confuse, disorient, and disunify the Left". Gregory Rose, a former chief of counter-intelligence for LaRouche who became an FBI informant in 1973, said that while the LaRouche movement had extensive links to the Liberty Lobby, there was also copious evidence of a connection to the Soviet Union. George and Wilcox say neither connection amounted to much—they assert that LaRouche was "definitely not a Soviet agent" and state that while the contact with the Liberty Lobby is often used to imply links' and 'ties' between LaRouche and the extreme right", it was in fact transient and marked by mutual suspicion. The Liberty Lobby soon pronounced itself disillusioned with LaRouche, citing his movement's adherence to "basic socialist positions" and his softness on "the major Zionist groups" as fundamental points of difference. According to George and Wilcox, American neo-Nazi leaders expressed misgivings over the number of Jews and members of other minority groups in his organization, and did not consider LaRouche an ally. George Johnson, in Architects of Fear, similarly states that LaRouche's overtures to far right groups were pragmatic rather than sincere. A 1975 party memo spoke of uniting with these groups only to overthrow the established order, adding that once that goal had been accomplished, "eliminating our right-wing opposition will be comparatively easy". Howard Blum wrote in The New York Times that, from 1976 onwards, party members sent reports to the FBI and local police regarding members of left-wing organizations. In 1977, he wrote, commercial reports on U.S. anti-apartheid groups were prepared by LaRouche members for the South African government, student dissidents were reported to the Shah of Iran's Savak secret police, and the anti-nuclear movement was investigated on behalf of power companies. Johnson says the intelligence network was made up of "obnoxious devotees commandeering WATS lines and tricking bureaucrats into giving them information". By the late 1970s, members were exchanging almost daily information with Roy Frankhouser, a government informant and infiltrator of both far right and far left groups who was involved with the Ku Klux Klan and the American Nazi Party. The LaRouche organization believed Frankhouser to be a federal agent who had been assigned to infiltrate right-wing and left-wing groups, and that he had evidence that these groups were actually being manipulated or controlled by the FBI and other agencies. LaRouche and his associates considered Frankhouser to be a valuable intelligence contact, and took his links to extremist groups to be a cover for his intelligence work. Frankhouser played into these expectations, misrepresenting himself as a conduit for communications to LaRouche from "Mr. Ed", an alleged CIA contact who did not exist in reality. Blum wrote, at around this time, that LaRouche's Computron Technologies Corporation included Mobil Oil and Citibank among its clients, that his World Composition Services had one of the most advanced typesetting complexes in the city and had the Ford Foundation among its clients, and that his PMR Associates produced the party's publications and some high school newspapers. Around the same time, according to Blum, LaRouche was telling his membership several times a year that he was being targeted for assassination, including by the Queen of the United Kingdom, Zionist mobsters, the Council on Foreign Relations, the Justice Department, and the Mossad. LaRouche sued the City of New York in 1974, saying that CIA and British spies had brainwashed his associates into killing him. According to The Patriot-News of Harrisburg, Pennsylvania, LaRouche said he had been "threatened by Communists, Zionists, narcotics gangsters, the Rockefellers and international terrorists." LaRouche later said that, 1975–1976: presidential campaign In March 1975 Clarence M. Kelley, director of the FBI, testified before the House Appropriations Committee that LaRouche's NCLC was "a violence-oriented organization of 'revolutionary socialists' with a membership of nearly 1,000 in chapters in some 50 cities". He said that during the previous two years its members had been "involved in fights, beatings, using drugs, kidnappings, brainwashings, and at least one shooting. They are reported to be armed, to have received defensive training such as karate, and to attend cadre schools and training schools to learn military tactics". In 1975, under the name Lyn Marcus, LaRouche published Dialectical Economics: An Introduction to Marxist Political Economy, described by its only reviewer as "the most peculiar and idiosyncratic" introduction to economics he had ever seen. Mixing economics, history, anthropology, sociology and a surprisingly large helping of business administration, the work argued that most prominent Marxists had misunderstood Marx, and that bourgeois economics arose when philosophy took a wrong, reductionist turn under British empiricists like Locke and Hume. In 1976, LaRouche campaigned for the first time in a presidential election as a U.S. Labor Party candidate, polling 40,043 votes (0.05 percent). It was the first of eight consecutive presidential elections in which he took part between 1976 and 2004. It enabled him to attract $5.9 million in federal matching funds; candidates seeking their party's presidential nomination qualify for matching funds if they raise $5,000 in each of at least 20 states. His platform predicted financial disaster by 1980 accompanied by famine and the virtual extinction of the human race within 15 years, and proposed a debt moratorium; nationalization of banks; government investment in industry especially in the aerospace sector, and an "International Development Bank" to facilitate higher food production. When Legionnaires' disease appeared in the U.S. that year, he said it was a continuation of the swine flu outbreak, and that senators who opposed vaccination were suppressing the link as part of a "genocidal policy". His campaign included a paid half-hour television address, which allowed him to air his views before a national audience, something that became a regular feature of his later campaigns. There were protests about this, and about the involvement of the NCLC in public life generally. Writing in The Washington Post, Stephen Rosenfeld said LaRouche's ideas belonged to the radical right, neo-Nazi fringe, and that his main interests lay in disruption and disinformation; Rosenfeld called the NCLC one of the "chief polluters" of political democracy. Rosenfeld argued that the press should be "chary" of offering them print or air time: "A duplicitous violence-prone group with fascistic proclivities should not be presented to the public, unless there is reason to present it in those terms." LaRouche wrote in 1999 that this comment had "openly declared ... a policy of malicious lying" against him. 1977: Second marriage LaRouche married again in 1977. His wife, Helga Zepp, was then a leading activist in the West German branch of the movement. She went on to work closely with LaRouche for the rest of her career, standing for election in Germany in 1980 for his Europäische Arbeiterpartei (European Workers Party), and founding the Schiller Institute in Germany in 1984. 1980s National Democratic Policy Committee, "October Surprise" theory From the autumn of 1979, the LaRouche movement conducted most of its U.S. electoral activities as the National Democratic Policy Committee (NDPC), a political action committee. The name drew complaints from the Democratic Party's Democratic National Committee. Democratic Party leaders refused to recognize LaRouche as a party member, or to seat the few delegates he received in his seven primary campaigns as a Democrat. In its 2019 obituary of LaRouche, New York magazine reported that LaRouche's attempts to pose as a Democrat were originally an attempt at a spoiler operation to divide the opponents of Ronald Reagan. LaRouche's campaign platforms advocated a return to the Bretton Woods system, including a gold-based national and world monetary system; fixed exchange rates; and abolishing the International Monetary Fund. He supported the replacement of the central bank system, including the U.S. Federal Reserve System, with a national bank; a war on drug trafficking and prosecution of banks involved in money laundering; building a tunnel under the Bering Strait; the building of nuclear power plants; and a crash program to build particle-beam weapons and lasers, including support for elements of the Strategic Defense Initiative (SDI). He opposed the Soviet Union and supported a military build-up to prepare for imminent war; supported the screening and quarantine of AIDS patients; and opposed environmentalism, deregulation, outcome-based education, and abortion. In December 1980, LaRouche and his followers started what came to be known as the "October Surprise" allegation, namely that in October 1980 Ronald Reagan's campaign staff conspired with the Iranian government during the Iran hostage crisis to delay the release of 52 American hostages held in Iran, with the aim of helping Reagan win the 1980 United States presidential election against Jimmy Carter. The Iranians had agreed to this, according to the theory, in exchange for future weapons sales from the Reagan administration. The first publication of the story was in LaRouche's Executive Intelligence Review on December 2, 1980, followed by his New Solidarity on September 2, 1983, alleging that Henry Kissinger, one of LaRouche's regular targets, had met Iran's Ayatollah Beheshti in Paris, according to Iranian sources in Paris. The theory was later echoed by former Iranian President Abolhassan Banisadr and former Naval intelligence officer and National Security Council member Gary Sick. 1983: Move from New York to Loudoun County The Washington Post wrote that LaRouche and his wife moved in August 1983 from New York to a 13-room Georgian mansion on a 250-acre section of the Woodburn Estate, near Leesburg, Loudoun County, Virginia. The property was owned at the time by a company registered in Switzerland. Companies associated with LaRouche continued to buy property in the area, including part of Leesburg's industrial park, purchased by LaRouche's Lafayette/Leesburg Ltd. Partnership to develop a printing plant and office complex. Neighbors said they saw LaRouche guards in camouflage clothes carrying semi-automatic weapons, and the Post wrote that the house had sandbag-buttressed guard posts nearby, along with metal spikes in the driveway and concrete barriers on the road. One of his aides said LaRouche was safer in Loudoun County: "The terrorist organizations which have targeted Mr. LaRouche do not have bases of operations in Virginia." LaRouche said his new home meant a shorter commute to Washington. A former associate said the move also meant his members would be more isolated from friends and family than they had been in New York. According to the Post in 2004, local people who opposed him for any reason were accused in LaRouche publications of being communists, homosexuals, drug pushers, and terrorists. He reportedly accused the Leesburg Garden Club of being a nest of Soviet sympathizers, and a local lawyer who opposed LaRouche on a zoning matter went into hiding after threatening phone calls and a death threat. In leaflets supporting his application of concealed weapons permits for his bodyguards in Leesburg, Virginia, he wrote: Regarding LaRouche's paramilitary security force, armed with semi-automatic weapons, a spokesperson said that they were necessary, because LaRouche was the subject of "assassination conspiracies". 1984: Schiller Institute, television spots, contact with Reagan administration Helga Zepp-LaRouche founded the Schiller Institute in Germany in 1984. In the same year, LaRouche was able to raise enough money to purchase 14 television spots, at a cost of $330,000 each, in which he called Walter Mondale—the Democratic Party's presidential candidate—a Soviet agent of influence, triggering over 1,000 telephone complaints. On April 19, 1986, NBC's Saturday Night Live aired a sketch satirizing the ads, portraying the Queen of the United Kingdom and Henry Kissinger as drug dealers. LaRouche received 78,773 votes in the 1984 presidential election. In 1984, media reports stated that LaRouche and his aides had met Reagan administration officials, including Norman Bailey, senior director of international economic affairs for the National Security Council (NSC), and Richard Morris, special assistant to William P. Clark, Jr. There were also reported contacts with the Drug Enforcement Administration, the Defense Intelligence Agency, and the CIA. The LaRouche campaign said the reporting was full of errors. In 1984 two Pentagon officials spoke at a LaRouche rally in Virginia; a Defense Department spokesman said the Pentagon viewed LaRouche's group as a "conservative group ... very supportive of the administration." White House spokesman Larry Speakes said the Administration was "glad to talk to" any American citizen who might have information. According to Bailey, the contacts were broken off when they became public. Three years later, LaRouche blamed his criminal indictment on the NSC, saying he had been in conflict with Oliver North over LaRouche's opposition to the Nicaraguan Contras. According to a LaRouche publication, a court-ordered search of North's files produced a May 1986 telex from Iran–Contra defendant General Richard Secord, discussing the gathering of information to be used against LaRouche. King states that LaRouche's Executive Intelligence Review was the first to report on important details of the Iran–Contra affair, predicting that a major scandal was about to break months before mainstream media picked up on the story. Strategic Defense Initiative The LaRouche campaign supported Reagan's Strategic Defense Initiative (SDI). Dennis King wrote that LaRouche had been speculating about space-based weaponry as early as 1975. He set up the Fusion Energy Foundation, which held conferences and tried to cultivate scientists, with some success. In 1979, FEF representatives attended a Moscow conference on laser fusion. LaRouche began to promote the use of lasers and related technologies for both military and civilian purposes, calling for a "revolution in machine tools." According to King, LaRouche's associates had for some years been in contact with members of the Reagan administration about LaRouche's space-based weapons ideas. LaRouche proposed the development of defensive beam technologies as a policy that was in the interest of both the United States and the Soviet Union, as the alternative to an arms race in offensive weapons, and as a generator of spin-off economic benefits. Between February 1982 and February 1983, with the approval of the National Security Council, LaRouche met with Soviet embassy representative Evgeny Shershnev to discuss the proposal. During this period, Soviet economists also began to study LaRouche's economic forecasting model. However, following Reagan's public announcement of the SDI in March 1983, Soviet representatives broke off all contact with LaRouche and his representatives. Physicist Edward Teller, a proponent of SDI and X-ray lasers, told reporters in 1984 that he had been courted by LaRouche, but had kept his distance. LaRouche began calling his plan the "LaRouche-Teller proposal," though they had never met. Teller said LaRouche was "a poorly informed man with fantastic conceptions." LaRouche later attributed the collapse of the Soviet Union to its refusal to follow his advice to accept Reagan's offer to share the technology. Former Secretary of Defense Donald Rumsfeld reported in his 2011 memoir that at a 2001 dinner in Russia with leading officials, he was told by General Yuri Baluyevsky, then the second highest-ranking officer in the Russian military, that LaRouche was the brains behind SDI. Rumsfeld stated that he believed LaRouche had had no influence whatsoever on the program, and surmised that Baluyevsky must have obtained the information off the Internet. In 2012 the former head of the Russian bureau of Interpol, General Vladimir Ovchinsky, also described LaRouche as the man who proposed the SDI. 1984: NBC lawsuit In January 1984, NBC aired a news segment about LaRouche, and in March a "First Camera" report produced by Pat Lynch. In an article for the Columbia Journalism Review in 1985, Lynch wrote that the reports included the allegation that LaRouche was "the leader of a violence-prone, anti-Semitic cult that smeared its opponents and sued its critics." In interviews, former members of the movement gave details about their fundraising practices, and alleged that LaRouche had spoken about assassinating U.S. President Jimmy Carter. The reports said an investigation by the Internal Revenue Service would lead to an indictment, and quoted Irwin Suall, the Anti-Defamation League's fact-finding director, who called LaRouche a "small-time Hitler." After the broadcast, LaRouche members picketed NBC's office carrying signs saying "Lynch Pat Lynch," and the NBC switchboard said it received a death threat against her. Another NBC researcher said someone placed fliers around her parents' neighborhood saying she was running a call-girl ring from her parents' home. Lynch said LaRouche members began to impersonate her and her researchers in telephone calls, and called her "Fat Lynch" in their publications. LaRouche filed a defamation suit against NBC and the ADL, arguing that the programs were the result of a deliberate campaign of defamation against him. The judge ruled that NBC need not reveal its sources, and LaRouche lost the case. NBC won a countersuit, the jury awarding the network $3 million in damages, later reduced to $258,459, for misuse of libel law, in what was called one of the more celebrated countersuits by a libel defendant. LaRouche failed to pay the damages, pleading poverty, which the judge described as "completely lacking in credibility." LaRouche said he had been unaware since 1973 who paid the rent on the estate, or for his food, lodging, clothing, transportation, bodyguards, and lawyers. The judge fined him for failing to answer. After the judge signed an order to allow discovery of LaRouche's personal finances, a cashier's check was delivered to the court to end the case. When LaRouche appealed, the Fourth Circuit Court of Appeals, rejecting his arguments, set forth a three-pronged test, later called the "LaRouche test," to decide when anonymous sources must be named in libel cases. 1985–1986: PANIC, LaRouche's AIDS initiative LaRouche interpreted the AIDS pandemic as fulfillment of his 1973 prediction that an epidemic would strike humanity in the 1980s. According to Christopher Toumey, his subsequent campaign followed a familiar LaRouche pattern: challenging the scientific competence of government experts, and arguing that LaRouche had special scientific insights, and his own scientific associates were more competent than government scientists. LaRouche's view of AIDS agreed with orthodox medicine in that HIV caused AIDS, but differed from it in arguing that HIV spread like the cold virus or malaria, by way of casual contact and insect bites—which, if true, would make HIV-positive people extremely dangerous. He advocated testing anyone working in schools, restaurants, or healthcare, and quarantining those who tested positive. Some of LaRouche's views on AIDS were developed by John Seale, a British venereological physician who proposed that AIDS was created in a Soviet laboratory. Seale's highly speculative writings were published in three prestigious medical journals, lending these ideas some appearance of being hard science. LaRouche and his associates devised a "Biological Strategic Defense Initiative" that would cost $100 billion per annum, which they said would have to be directed by LaRouche. Toumey writes that those opposing the program, such as the World Health Organization and Centers for Disease Control, were accused of "viciously lying to the world," and of following an agenda of genocide and euthanasia. In 1986 LaRouche proposed that AIDS be added to California's List of Communicable Diseases. Sponsored by his "Prevent AIDS Now Initiative Committee" (PANIC), Proposition 64—or the "LaRouche initiative"—qualified for the California ballot in 1986, with the required signature gatherers mostly paid for by LaRouche's Campaigner Publications. Seale, presented as an AIDS expert by PANIC, supported the LaRouche initiative, but disagreed with several of LaRouche's views, including that HIV could be spread by insects, and described the group's political beliefs and conspiracy theories as "rather odd". According to David Kirp, professor of public policy at the University of California at Berkeley, the proposal would have required that 300,000 people in the area with HIV or AIDS be reported to public health authorities; might have removed over 100,000 of them from their jobs in schools, restaurants and agriculture; and would have forced 47,000 children to stay away from school. The proposal was opposed by leading scientists and local health officials as based on inaccurate scientific information and, as the public health schools put it, running "counter to all public health principles." It was defeated, reintroduced two years later, and defeated again, with two million votes in favor the first time, and 1.7 million the second. AIDS became a leading plank in LaRouche's platform during his 1988 presidential campaign. 1986: Electoral success in Illinois; press conference allegations In March 1986, Mark Fairchild and Janice Hart—LaRouche National Democratic Policy Committee candidates—won the Democratic primary for statewide offices in Illinois, gaining national attention for LaRouche. The Democratic gubernatorial candidate, Adlai Stevenson III, withdrew his nomination rather than run on the same slate as LaRouche members, and told reporters the party was "exploring every legal remedy to purge these bizarre and dangerous extremists from the Democratic ticket." A spokesman for the Democratic National Committee said it would have to do a better job of communicating to the electorate that LaRouche's National Democratic Policy Committee was unrelated to the Democratic Party. The New York Times wrote that Democratic Party officials were trying to identify LaRouche candidates in order to alert voters, and asked the LaRouche organization to release a full list of its candidates. A month later, LaRouche held a press conference to accuse the Soviet government, British government, drug dealers, international bankers, and journalists of being involved in multiple conspiracies. Flanked by bodyguards, he said: "If Abe Lincoln were alive, he'd probably be standing up here with me today," and that there was no criticism of him that did not originate "with the drug lobby or the Soviet operation ..." He said he had been in danger from Soviet assassins for over 13 years, and had to live in safe houses. He refused to answer a question from an NBC reporter, saying "How can I talk with a drug pusher like you?" He called the leadership of the United States "idiotic" and "berserk," and its foreign policy "criminal or insane." He warned of the imminent collapse of the banking system and accused banks of laundering drug money. Asked about the movement's finances, he said "I don't know. ... I'm not responsible, I'm not involved in that." 1986–1988: Raids and criminal convictions In October 1986, hundreds of state and federal officers raided LaRouche offices in Virginia and Massachusetts. A federal grand jury indicted LaRouche and twelve of his associates on credit card fraud and obstruction of justice. The charges stated that they had attempted to defraud people of millions of dollars, including several elderly people, by borrowing money they did not intend to repay. LaRouche disputed the charges, alleging that they were politically motivated. When LaRouche's "heavily fortified" estate was surrounded, he at first warned law-enforcement officials not to arrest him, saying that any attempt to do so would be an attempt to kill him. A spokesman would not rule out the use of violence against officials in response. While surrounded, LaRouche sent a telegram to President Ronald Reagan saying that an attempt to arrest him "would be an attempt to kill me. I will not submit passively to such an arrest, ... I will defend myself." In 1987, a number of LaRouche entities, including the Fusion Energy Foundation, were taken over through an involuntary bankruptcy proceeding. The government's use of a sealed order in this proceeding was regarded as a rare legal maneuver. On December 16, 1988, LaRouche was convicted of conspiracy to commit mail fraud involving more than $30 million in defaulted loans; eleven counts of actual mail fraud involving $294,000 in defaulted loans; and a single count of conspiring to defraud the U.S. Internal Revenue Service. He was sentenced to 15 years in federal prison, but was released on parole after serving five years on January 26, 1994. Thirteen associates were sentenced to prison terms ranging from one month to 77 years for mail fraud and conspiracy. The trial judge called LaRouche's claim of a political vendetta "arrant nonsense", and said "the idea that this organization is a sufficient threat to anything that would warrant the government bringing a prosecution to silence them just defies human experience." Defense lawyers filed unsuccessful appeals that challenged the conduct of the grand jury, the contempt fines, the execution of the search warrants, and various trial procedures. At least ten appeals were heard by the United States Court of Appeals, and three were heard by the U.S. Supreme Court. Former Attorney General Ramsey Clark joined the defense team for two appeals, writing that the case involved "a broader range of deliberate and systematic misconduct and abuse of power over a longer period of time in an effort to destroy a political movement and leader, than any other federal prosecution in my time or to my knowledge." In his 1988 autobiography, LaRouche says the raid on his operation was the work of Raisa Gorbachev. In an interview that same year, he said that the Soviet Union opposed him, because he had invented the Strategic Defense Initiative. "The Soviet government hated me for it. Gorbachev also hated my guts and called for my assassination and imprisonment and so forth." He asserted that he had survived these threats, because he had been protected by unnamed U.S. government officials. "Even when they don't like me, they consider me a national asset, and they don't like to have their national assets killed." LaRouche received 25,562 votes in the 1988 presidential election. 1989: Musical interests and Verdi tuning initiative LaRouche had an interest in classical music up to the period of Brahms. A motto of LaRouche's European Workers' Party, is "Think like Beethoven"; movement offices typically include a piano and posters of German composers, and members are known for their choral singing at protest events and for using satirical lyrics tailored to their targets. LaRouche abhorred popular music; he said in 1980, "Rock was not an accidental thing. This was done by people who set out in a deliberate way to subvert the United States. It was done by British intelligence", and wrote that the Beatles were "a product shaped according to British Psychological Warfare Division specifications." LaRouche movement members have protested at performances of Richard Wagner's operas, denouncing Wagner as an anti-Semite who found favor with the Nazis, and called a conductor "satanic", because he played contemporary music. In 1989 LaRouche advocated that classical orchestras should use a concert pitch based on A above middle C (A4) tuned to 432 Hz, which the Schiller Institute called the "Verdi pitch", a pitch that Verdi had suggested as optimal, though he also composed and conducted in other pitches such as the French official diapason normal of 435 Hz, including his Requiem in 1874. The Schiller Institute initiative attracted support from more than 300 opera stars, including Joan Sutherland, Plácido Domingo, and Luciano Pavarotti, who according to Opera Fanatic may or may not have been aware of LaRouche's politics. A spokesman for Domingo said Domingo had simply signed a questionnaire, had not been aware of its origins, and would not agree with LaRouche's politics. Renata Tebaldi and Piero Cappuccilli, who were running for the European Parliament on LaRouche's "Patriots for Italy" platform, attended Schiller Institute conferences as featured speakers. The discussions led to debates in the Italian parliament about reinstating "Verdi" legislation. LaRouche gave an interview to National Public Radio on the initiative from prison. The initiative was opposed by the editor of Opera Fanatic, Stefan Zucker, who objected to the establishment of a "pitch police," and argued that LaRouche was using the issue to gain credibility. 1990s Imprisonment, release on parole, attempts at exoneration, visits to Russia LaRouche began his jail sentence in 1989, serving it at the Federal Medical Center in Rochester, Minnesota. From there he ran for Congress in 1990, seeking to represent the 10th District of Virginia, but he received less than one percent of the vote. He ran for president again in 1992 with James Bevel as his running mate, a civil rights activist who had represented the LaRouche movement in its pursuit of the Franklin child prostitution ring allegations. It was only the second-ever campaign for president from prison. He received 26,334 votes, standing again as the "Economic Recovery" party. For a time he shared a cell with televangelist Jim Bakker. Bakker later wrote of his astonishment at LaRouche's detailed knowledge of the Bible. According to Bakker, LaRouche received a daily intelligence report by mail, and at times had information about news events days before they happened. Bakker also wrote that LaRouche believed their cell was bugged. In Bakker's view, "to say LaRouche was a little paranoid would be like saying that the Titanic had a little leak." Viktor Kuzin, a member of the Moscow City Council and a founder of the Democratic Union in Russia, travelled to Minnesota in 1993 to meet LaRouche in prison, and afterwards participated in international campaigns to exonerate LaRouche. An advertisement calling for exoneration was published in several U.S. newspapers, signed by Kuzin, Civil Rights attorney J. L. Chestnut, former Ugandan President Godfrey Binaisa, and others. Chestnut was interviewed in the Tuscaloosa News saying that when he met LaRouche, "I told him that he might as well be black and in Alabama." The exoneration campaigns garnered the support of a number of State Representatives and State Senators in the U.S., as well as a former justice of the Washington State Supreme Court. LaRouche was released on parole in January 1994, and returned to Loudoun County. The Washington Post wrote that he would be supervised by parole and probation officers until January 2004. Also in 1994, his followers joined members of the Nation of Islam to condemn the Anti-Defamation League for its alleged crimes against African Americans, reportedly one of several such meetings since 1992. The then former U.S. Attorney General Ramsey Clark wrote a letter in 1995 to then-Attorney General Janet Reno in which he said that the case against LaRouche involved "a broader range of deliberate and systematic misconduct and abuse of power over a longer period of time in an effort to destroy a political movement and leader, than any other federal prosecution in my time or to my knowledge". He asserted that, "The government, ex parte, sought and received an order effectively closing the doors of these publishing businesses, all of which were involved in First Amendment activities, effectively preventing the further repayment of their debts." He called the convictions "a tragic miscarriage of justice which at this time can only be corrected by an objective review and courageous action by the Department of Justice". The LaRouche movement organized two panels to review the cases: the Curtis Clark Commission, and the Mann-Chestnut hearings. Beginning in 1994, LaRouche made numerous visits to Russia, participating in conferences of the Vernadsky State Geological Museum of the Russian Academy of Sciences (RAS), the RAS Institute of the Far East, and other places. He addressed seminars at the RAS Institute of Economics, the RAS Institute of Oriental Studies. He spoke at hearings in the State Duma of the Russian Federation on measures to ensure the development of the Russian economy at the point of destabilization of the world financial system. Two of his books were translated into Russian. On September 18, 1996, a full-page advertisement appeared in the New Federalist, a LaRouche publication, as well as The Washington Post and Roll Call. Entitled "Officials Call for LaRouche's Exoneration", its signatories included Arturo Frondizi, former President of Argentina; figures from the 1960s American civil rights movement such as Amelia Boynton Robinson (a leader of the Larouche-affiliated Schiller Institute), James Bevel (a Larouche movement participant) and Rosa Parks; former Minnesota Senator and Democratic presidential candidate Eugene McCarthy; Mervyn Dymally, who chaired the Congressional Black Caucus; and artists such as classical vocalist William Warfield and violinist Norbert Brainin, former 1st Violin of the Amadeus Quartet. In 1996, LaRouche was invited to speak at a convention organized by the Nation of Islam's Louis Farrakhan and Ben Chavis, then of the National African American Leadership Summit. As soon as he began speaking, he was booed off the stage. In the 1996 Democratic Party presidential primaries, he received enough votes in Louisiana and Virginia to get one delegate from each state, but before the primaries began, the Democratic National Committee chair, Donald Fowler, ruled that LaRouche was not a "bona fide Democrat" because of his "expressed political beliefs ... which are explicitly racist and anti-Semitic," and because of his "past activities, including exploitation of and defrauding contributors and voters." Fowler instructed state parties to disregard votes for LaRouche. LaRouche opposed attempts to impeach President Bill Clinton, charging it was a plot by the British Intelligence to destabilize the U.S. Government. In 1996 he called for the impeachment of Pennsylvania governor Tom Ridge. Efforts to clear LaRouche's name continued, including in Australia, where the Parliament acknowledged receipt of 1,606 petition signatures in 1998. In 1999 China's press agency, the Xinhua News Agency, reported that LaRouche had criticized the Cox Report, a congressional investigation that accused the Chinese of stealing U.S. nuclear weapons secrets, calling it a "scientifically illiterate hoax." On October 13, 1999, during a press conference to announce his plans to run for president, he predicted the collapse of the world's financial system, stating, "There's nothing like it in this century. ... it is systematic, and therefore, inevitable." He said the U.S. and other nations had built the "biggest financial bubble in all history," which was close to bankruptcy. The Dot-com bubble popped a few months later, in early 2000. 2000s 2000–2003: Worldwide LaRouche Youth Movement, September 11 Attacks, presidential run LaRouche founded the Worldwide LaRouche Youth Movement (WLYM) in 2000, saying in 2004 that it had hundreds of members in the U.S. and a lesser number overseas. During the Democratic primaries in June 2000, he received 53,280 votes, or 22 percent of the total, in Arkansas. In 2002 LaRouche's Executive Intelligence Review argued that the September 11, 2001 attacks had been an "inside job" and "attempted coup d'etat", and that Iran was the first country to question it. The article received wide coverage in Iran, and was cited by senior Iranian government officials, including Akbar Hashemi Rafsanjani and Hassan Rouhani. Mahmoud Alinejad wrote that, in a subsequent telephone interview with the Voice of the Islamic Republic of Iran, LaRouche said the attacks had been organized by rogue elements inside the U.S., aiming to use the incident to promote a war against Islam, and that Israel was a dictatorial regime prepared to commit Nazi-style crimes against the Palestinians. In 2003 LaRouche was living in a "heavily guarded" rented house in Round Hill, Loudoun County, Virginia. LaRouche again entered the primary elections for the Democratic Party's nomination in 2004, setting a record for the number of consecutive presidential campaigns; Democratic Party officials distanced themselves from him and did not allow him to participate in candidate forum debates. He did not run in 2008. As during the preceding decade, LaRouche and his followers denied that human civilization had harmed the environment through DDT, chlorofluorocarbons, or carbon dioxide. According to Chip Berlet, "Pro-LaRouche publications have been at the forefront of denying the reality of global warming". 2003–2012: Overseas press coverage, financial crisis Iqbal Qazwini wrote in the Arabic-language daily Asharq Al-Awsat in 2003 that LaRouche was one of the first to predict the fall of the Berlin Wall in 1988 and German reunification. He said LaRouche had urged the West to pursue a policy of economic cooperation similar to the Marshall Plan for the advancement of the economy of the socialist countries. According to Qazwini, recent years have seen a proliferation of LaRouche's ideas in China and South Asia. Qazwini referred to him as the spiritual father of the revival of the new Silk Road or Eurasian Landbridge, which aims to link the continents through a network of ground transportation. In April 2005, Tang Yong of the People's Daily of China covered LaRouche's record of economic forecasting, and his warning that the present financial and currency system was already unsalvageable, thus it must be radically restructured, not just merely reformed. Later that year, the paper published an eight-part interview with LaRouche, covering his economic forecasts, his battles with the American media, and his assessment of the neoconservatives. The interviewer wrote that LaRouche was "quite famous in mainland China today," and seemed to be better known overseas than in America. In 2007, LaRouche began a national lobbying campaign to restore the Glass-Steagall Act, saying that it would be possible to save the U.S. banking system by reorganizing it under bankruptcy protection. Also during 2007 he proposed a "Homeowners and Bank Protection Act". This called for the establishment of a federal agency that would "place federal- and state-chartered banks under protection, freeze all existing home mortgages for a period of time, adjust mortgage values to fair prices, restructure existing mortgages at appropriate interest rates, and write off speculative debt obligations of mortgage-backed securities". The bill envisioned a foreclosure moratorium, allowing homeowners to make the equivalent of rental payments for an interim period, and an end to bank bail-outs, forcing banks to reorganize under bankruptcy laws. In Spring 2007 he was an honorary foreign guest at a ceremony in honor of the 80th birthday of Stanislav Menshikov at the Russian Academy of Sciences. 2009: U.S. health care reform During the discussion of U.S. health care reform in 2009, LaRouche advocated a single-payer health care bill and took exception to what he described as President Barack Obama's proposal that "independent boards of doctors and health care experts [should] make the life-and-death decisions of what care to provide, and what not, based on cost-effectiveness criteria." LaRouche said the proposed boards would amount to the same thing as the Nazis' Action T4 euthanasia program. A press release from his political action committee asserted: "Lyndon LaRouche and the LaRouchePAC are the source of the campaign to expose the Obama ‘health care’ policy as modeled on that of Hitler in 1939." Images at tables of volunteers compared Obama to Adolf Hitler, and at least one had a picture of Obama with a Hitler-style mustache. In Seattle, police were called twice in response to people threatening to attack the volunteers. During one widely reported public meeting, Congressman Barney Frank referred to the images as "vile, contemptible nonsense." Ideology and beliefs University of Notre Dame political philosophers Catherine Zuckert and Michael Zuckert write about LaRouche that "[I]t must be nearly unique in American politics that a presidential candidate ... makes the interpretation of Plato a major issue in his campaign." According to George Johnson, LaRouche saw history as a battle between Platonists, who believe in absolute truth, and Aristotelians, who rely on empirical data. Johnson characterizes LaRouche's views as follows: the Platonists include figures such as Beethoven, Mozart, Shakespeare, Leonardo da Vinci, and Leibniz. LaRouche believed that many of the world's ills result from the dominance of Aristotelianism as embraced by the empirical philosophers (such as Hobbes, Locke, Berkeley, and Hume), leading to a culture that favors the empirical over the metaphysical, embraces moral relativism, and seeks to keep the general population uninformed. Industry, technology, and classical music should be used to enlighten the world, LaRouche argued, whereas the Aristotelians use psychotherapy, drugs, rock music, jazz, environmentalism, and quantum theory to bring about a new Dark Age in which the world will be ruled by the oligarchs. Left and right are false distinctions for LaRouche; what matters is the Platonic versus Aristotelian outlook, a position that has led him to form relationships with groups as disparate as farmers, nuclear engineers, Black Muslims, Teamsters, and pro-life advocates. In Architects of Fear (1983), Johnson compares LaRouche's view to an Illuminati conspiracy theory; Johnson writes that after he wrote about LaRouche in The Minneapolis Star, LaRouche's followers denounced him as part of a conspiracy of elitists that began in ancient Egypt. However, according to LaRouche, Aristotelians are not necessarily in communication or coordination with one another: "From their standpoint, [they] are proceeding by instinct," LaRouche said. "If you're asking how their policy is developed—if there is an inside group sitting down and making plans—no, it doesn't work that way ... History doesn't function quite that consciously." Controversy Despite LaRouche's self-identification with the left and some left-wing policies, his critics have said that he had "fascistic tendencies", took positions on the far right, and created disinformation. Designation as a conspiracy theorist LaRouche was commonly regarded as a conspiracy theorist: for example, in his Fox News obituary. An article in the Southern Poverty Law Center website names him as "a fringe ideologue and conspiracy theorist whom Chip Berlet, senior analyst at Political Research Associates and an expert on the radical right calls "the man who brought us fascism wrapped in an American flag". An NPR obituary is titled Conspiracy Theorist And Frequent Presidential Candidate Lyndon LaRouche Dies At 96. The Washington Post obituary reports he was "often described as an extremist crank and fringe figure" and that he "built a worldwide following based on conspiracy theories, economic doom, anti-Semitism, homophobia and racism". Allegations of antisemitism LaRouche and his ideas have been called antisemitic since at least the mid-1970s by dozens of individuals and organizations in countries across Europe and North America. LaRouche and his followers have responded to these allegations by claiming that LaRouche has Jewish supporters and denied the accusations. Beginning in the mid-1970s, allegations began to appear saying that LaRouche had fascist and antisemitic tendencies. In 1977, LaRouche married his second wife, Helga Zepp-LaRouche, a German 27 years younger than himself. Her 1984 book, The Hitler Book, argues that "We need a movement that can finally free Germany from the control of the Versailles and Yalta treaties, thanks to which we have staggered from one catastrophe to another for an entire century." Helga founded the Schiller Institute, which has been accused of antisemitism by the Berliner Zeitung and Political Research Associates, a non-profit research group which studies right wing, white supremacist, and militia groups. LaRouche claimed that he was anti-Zionist, not antisemitic. When the Anti-Defamation League (ADL) accused LaRouche of antisemitism in 1979, he filed a $26-million libel suit; however, the case failed when Justice Michael Dontzin of the New York Supreme Court ruled that it was fair comment and that the facts "reasonably give rise" to that description. LaRouche started a campaign against the ADL and set up a group called "The Provisional Committee to Clean Up B'nai Brith." LaRouche said in 1986 that descriptions of him as a neo-fascist or anti-Semite stemmed from "the drug lobby or the Soviet operation—which is sometimes the same thing," and in 2006 wrote that "religious and racial hatred, such as antisemitism, or hatred against Islam, or, hatred of Christians, is, on record of known history, the most evil expression of criminality to be seen on the planet today." Antony Lerman wrote in 1988 that LaRouche used "the British" as a code word for "Jews," a theory also propounded by Dennis King, author of Lyndon LaRouche and the New American Fascism (1989). George Johnson argued that King's presentation failed to take into account that several members of LaRouche's inner circle were themselves Jewish. Daniel Pipes wrote in 1997 that LaRouche's references to the British really were to the British, though he agreed that an alleged British-Jewish alliance lay at the heart of LaRouche's conspiracism. It was reported in 1989 that many members of LaRouche's inner circle were Jewish. As of 2016, the Jewish Virtual Library states that "The international organization run by Lyndon LaRouche is a major source of such masked antisemitic theories globally. In the U.S. the LaRouchites spread these conspiracy theories in an alliance with aides to Minister Louis Farrakhan of the Nation of Islam. A series of LaRouchite pamphlets calls the neoconservative movement the "Children of Satan", which links Jewish neo-conservatives to the historic rhetoric of the blood libel. Allegations of racism Manning Marable of Columbia University wrote in 1998 that LaRouche tried in the mid-1980s to build bridges to the black community. Marable argued that most of the community was not fooled, and quoted the A. Philip Randolph Institute, an organization for African-American trade unionists, declaring that "LaRouche appeals to fear, hatred and ignorance. He seeks to exploit and exacerbate the anxieties and frustrations of Americans by offering an array of scapegoats and enemies: Jews, Zionists, international bankers, blacks, labor unions—much the way Hitler did in Germany." During LaRouche's slander suit against NBC in 1984, Roy Innis, leader of the Congress of Racial Equality, took the stand for LaRouche as a character witness, stating under oath that LaRouche's views on racism were "consistent with his own." Asked whether he had seen any indication of racism in LaRouche's associates, he replied that he had not. Disputed record as economist and forecaster LaRouche material frequently acclaims him as the world's greatest economist and the world's most successful forecaster. For example, his book title The Economics of the Noösphere: Why Lyndon LaRouche Is the World's Most Successful Economic Forecaster of the Past Four Decades. However, a website of disgruntled ex-movement leaders lists incorrect predictions of sudden world economic collapse, war or depression in the years 1956, 1961–1970, 1972, 1975–1992, and 1994–2011. Apart from the numerous failed predictions are claimed some successful predictions or proposals: the eventual reunification of Germany, the Star Wars initiative, the New Silk Road (claimed as a precursor to the Chinese One Belt One Road initiative.) Movement Estimates of the size of LaRouche's movement have varied over the years; most say there is a core membership of 500 to 2,000. The estimated 600 members in 1978 paid monthly dues of $24. Johnson wrote in 1983 that both the Fusion Energy Foundation and the National Democratic Policy Committee had attracted some 20,000 members, as well as 300,000 magazine subscribers. According to Christopher Toumey, LaRouche's charismatic authority within the movement was grounded on members' belief that he possessed a unique level of insight and expertise. He identified an emotionally charged issue, conducted in-depth research into it, and then proposed a simplistic solution, which usually involved restructuring of the economy or national security apparatus. He and the membership portrayed anyone opposing him as immoral and part of the conspiracy. Characterization as a cult The LaRouche movement, has been described as a cult or cult-like by critics and anti-cult organizations. A 1987 article by John Mintz in The Washington Post reported that members of the LaRouche movement lived hand-to-mouth in crowded apartments, with their basic needs paid for by the movement. They worked raising money or selling newspapers for LaRouche, doing research for him, or singing in a group choir, spending almost every waking hour together. The group is known for its caustic attacks on opponents and former members. It has justified what it refers to as "psywar techniques" as necessary to shake people up; Johnson in 1983 quoted a LaRouche associate: "We're not very nice, so we're hated. Why be nice? It's a cruel world. We're in a war and the human race is up for grabs". Charles Tate, a former long-term LaRouche associate, told The Washington Post in 1987 that members see themselves as not subject to the ordinary laws of society: "They feel that the continued existence of the human race is totally dependent on what they do in the organization, that nobody would be here without LaRouche. They feel justified in a peculiar way doing anything whatsoever." Death LaRouche's death was announced on the website of one of his organizations. He died on February 12, 2019, at age 96. Neither the place nor cause of his death was specified. Publications Marcus, Lyn. The third stage of imperialism. New York: West Village Committee for Independent Political Action, 1967. with Tony Papert. Mass action. SDS Regional Labor Committee,1968. The philosophy of Socialist education. New York: National Caucus of Labor Committees, 1969. with Uwe Henke von Parpart. Centrism as a social phenomenon: how not to build a revolutionary party. New York: National Caucus of SDS Labor Committees, 1970. Education, science and politics. New York: National Caucus of Labor Committees, 1972. The question of Stalinism today. New York: Campaigner Publications, 1975. How the International Development Bank will work. New York: Campaigner Publications, 1975. A presidential campaign white paper on agricultural production. New York: New Solidarity International Press Service, 1975. The Rothschilds, from Pitt to Rockefeller. 1976 Dialectical Economics An Introduction to Marxist Political Economy. New York: Heath, 1975. The Case of Walter Lippmann A Presidential Strategy. New York: Campaigner Publications, 1977. How to Defeat Liberalism and William F. Buckley 1980 Campaign Policy. New York: New Benjamin Franklin House Pub. Co, 1979. The Power of Reason: A Kind of Autobiography. New York: New Benjamin Franklin House Pub. House, 1979. Will the Soviets Rule During the 1980s?. New York: New Benjamin Franklin House Pub. Co, 1979. Basic Economics for Conservative Democrats. New York: New Benjamin Franklin House Pub. Co, 1980. What Every Conservative Should Know About Communism. New York: New Benjamin Franklin House Pub. Co, 1980. Why Revival of "SALT" Won't Stop War. New York: New Benjamin Franklin House Pub. Co, 1980. with David P. Goldman. The Ugly Truth About Milton Friedman. New York: New Benjamin Franklin House, 1980. Operation Juárez: Mexico/Ibero-America policy study. Executive Intelligence Review, 1982. There Are No Limits to Growth. New York: New Benjamin Franklin House, 1983. So, You Wish to Learn All About Economics? A Text on Elementary Mathematical Economics. New York: New Benjamin Franklin House, 1984. Imperialism The Final Stage of Bolshevism. New York: New Benjamin Franklin House, 1984. The Power of Reason, 1988: An Autobiography. Washington, D.C.: Executive Intelligence Review, 1987. In Defense of Common Sense. Washington, D.C.: Schiller Institute, 1989. The Science of Christian Economy. Washington, D.C.: Schiller Institute, 1991. with Paul Gallager. Cold Fusion: A Challenge to U.S. Science Policy. Washington, D.C.: Schiller Institute, 1992. Now, Are You Ready to Learn About Economics? Washington, D.C.: EIR News Service, 2000. The Economics of the Nöosphere Washington, D.C.: EIR News Service, 2001. References Bibliography Missing sources External links Lyndon LaRouche Political Action Committee website 1922 births 2019 deaths American anti-war activists American conscientious objectors American conspiracy theorists United States Army personnel of World War II American people convicted of fraud American people convicted of tax crimes American people of French-Canadian descent American people of Scottish descent Criminals from New Hampshire Former Marxists Former Quakers Energy economists LaRouche movement Members of the Civilian Public Service Members of the Socialist Workers Party (United States) Military personnel from New Hampshire New Hampshire politicians convicted of crimes Northeastern University alumni People from Rochester, New Hampshire Politicians from Lynn, Massachusetts U.S. Labor Party politicians Virginia Democrats Candidates in the 1976 United States presidential election Candidates in the 1980 United States presidential election Candidates in the 1984 United States presidential election Candidates in the 1988 United States presidential election Candidates in the 1992 United States presidential election Candidates in the 1996 United States presidential election Candidates in the 2000 United States presidential election Candidates in the 2004 United States presidential election 20th-century American politicians 21st-century American politicians United States Army soldiers	[ -0.7901577353477478, 0.8319467306137085, -0.5951656103134155, -0.1292707324028015, -0.3721727728843689, 0.7925860285758972, 0.10423222184181213, 0.791717529296875, -0.8203842043876648, -0.3628714382648468, -0.2056894749403, -0.0033368964213877916, -0.19380000233650208, -0.1695011854171753, 0.48193997144699097, 0.43968719244003296, -0.4762248992919922, 0.4710313081741333, -0.1515149474143982, -0.5049907565116882, 0.26521334052085876, 0.28063637018203735, 0.21444520354270935, -0.5446403622627258, 0.8401347994804382, 0.2090623378753662, 0.14004828035831451, 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229261	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sensible	Sensible	Sensible may refer to: Captain Sensible (born 1954), English rock guitarist French frigate Sensible (1788), a 32-gun Magicienne-class frigate Sensible Sentencing Trust, a lobby group Sensible Software, a defunct video game company Sensible, an album by Zayda y los Culpables See also Sense (disambiguation) Sensibility	[ -0.11475695669651031, -0.2105976641178131, -0.42842504382133484, -0.04099501669406891, -0.1469656080007553, 0.2151130884885788, -0.008321193046867847, -0.26472175121307373, -0.132317915558815, 0.3058868944644928, -0.026268135756254196, 0.7771326303482056, -0.4194774031639099, 0.056733522564172745, -0.002033925149589777, 0.13112814724445343, 0.015168910846114159, 0.14831431210041046, -0.6648059487342834, -0.0687752366065979, -0.10832100361585617, 0.378903329372406, 0.1520417034626007, -0.7188243865966797, 0.38273748755455017, 0.19898973405361176, 0.576817512512207, -0.1958448737859726, -0.4194733500480652, 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229262	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Blackbox	Blackbox	In Unix computing, Blackbox is a free and open-source stacking window manager for the X Window System. Blackbox has specific design goals, and some functionality is provided only through other applications. One example is the bbkeys hotkey application. Blackbox is written in C++ and contains completely original code. It was created by Bradley T. Hughes and is available under the MIT License. Blackbox has compliance with the Extended Window Manager Hints specification. The original author seems to have ceased updating the repository with the exception of a minor fix of compilation problems in 2015, leaving the last original version at 0.70.1. However an actively maintained fork by Brian Bidulock has been picked up by several Linux distributions in its place, and it is featured in pkgsrc. Despite that, some other Linux distributions still use the original source code, as does FreeBSD. Features Features of the Blackbox window manager include: A stacking window manager Written in C++ Freely available under the MIT license Compliance with the Extended Window Manager Hints Specification Title bars have minimize, maximize, and close buttons Support for simple themes Support for color changes No support for desktop shortcuts Compatibility with both KDE and GNOME Related projects There are a number of other window manager forks of Blackbox: Fluxbox Hackedbox Openbox (until version 3.0) Windows shell replacements Although they do not share the same codebase, these projects are also inspired by Blackbox. BB4Win (the first and most prominent clone/port of Blackbox on Windows) bbLean xoblite (has releases from 2021) bbZero (a branch of bbLean) See also Comparison of X window managers References External links Blackbox at Free Software Directory Articles containing video clips Free software programmed in C++ Free X window managers Software using the MIT license	[ 0.08747000992298126, 0.1675432175397873, -0.5495980381965637, -0.08543248474597931, 0.04381512105464935, -0.08929456770420074, -0.20506247878074646, 0.4535013437271118, -0.3298666775226593, -0.4115583896636963, -0.5378977060317993, 0.45404115319252014, -0.9498417377471924, 0.29403969645500183, 0.24810248613357544, -0.17104052007198334, 0.7227556705474854, 0.3197243809700012, -0.5667839050292969, -0.7742729187011719, 0.0735812559723854, -0.47004052996635437, -0.4893171787261963, -0.47184714674949646, 0.09100193530321121, 0.16319532692432404, 0.05281233415007591, -0.02928667888045311, -0.23292802274227142, 0.49691125750541687, 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229266	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Irving%20Kristol	Irving Kristol	Irving Kristol (; January 22, 1920 – September 18, 2009) was an American journalist who was dubbed the "godfather of neoconservatism". As a founder, editor, and contributor to various magazines, he played an influential role in the intellectual and political culture of the last half of the twentieth century. After his death, he was described by The Daily Telegraph as being "perhaps the most consequential public intellectual of the latter half of the [twentieth] century". Early life and education Kristol was born in Brooklyn, New York, the son of non-observant Jewish immigrants from Eastern Europe, Bessie (Mailman) and Joseph Kristol. He graduated from Boys High School in Brooklyn, New York in 1936 and received his B.A. from the City College of New York in 1940, where he majored in history and was part of a small, but vocal, Trotskyist anti-Soviet group who eventually became known as, The New York Intellectuals. It was at these meetings that Kristol met historian Gertrude Himmelfarb, whom he later married in 1942. They had two children, Elizabeth Nelson and Bill Kristol. Military service During World War II, he served in Europe in the 12th Armored Division as a combat infantryman. Career Kristol was affiliated with the Congress for Cultural Freedom. He wrote in Commentary magazine from 1947 to 1952 under the editor Elliot E. Cohen (not to be confused with Eliot A. Cohen, the writer of today's magazine). With Stephen Spender, he was co-founder of and contributor to the British-based Encounter from 1953 to 1958; editor of The Reporter from 1959 to 1960. He also was the executive vice-president of the publishing house, Basic Books, from 1961 to 1969, the Henry Luce Professor of Urban Values at New York University from 1969 to 1987, and co-founder and co-editor (first with Daniel Bell and then Nathan Glazer) of The Public Interest from 1965 to 2002. He was the founder and publisher of The National Interest from 1985 to 2002. Following Ramparts publication of information showing Central Intelligence Agency funding of the Congress for Cultural Freedom, which was widely reported elsewhere, Kristol left in the late 1960s and became affiliated with the American Enterprise Institute. Kristol was a fellow of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences, a member of the Council on Foreign Relations and a fellow emeritus at the American Enterprise Institute (having been an associate fellow from 1972, a senior fellow from 1977 and the John M. Olin Distinguished Fellow from 1988 to 1999). As a member of the board of contributors of The Wall Street Journal, he contributed a monthly column from 1972 to 1997. He served on the Council of the National Endowment for the Humanities from 1972 to 1977. In 1978, Kristol and William E. Simon founded The Institute For Education Affairs, which as a result of a merger with the Madison Center became the Madison Center for Educational Affairs in 1990. Death Kristol died from complications of lung cancer, aged 89, on September 18, 2009, at the Capital Hospice in Falls Church, Virginia. Selected awards and honors In July 2002, he received from President George W. Bush the Medal of Freedom, the nation's highest civilian honor. Ideas During the late 1960s up until the 1970s, neoconservatives were worried about the Cold War and that its liberalism was turning into radicalism, thus many neoconservatives including Irving Kristol, Norman Podhoretz and Daniel Patrick Moynihan wanted Democrats to continue on a strong anti-communist foreign policy. This foreign policy was to use Soviet human rights violations to attack the Soviet Union. This later led to Nixon's policies called détente. In 1973, Michael Harrington coined the term, "neo-conservatism", to describe those liberal intellectuals and political philosophers who were disaffected with the political and cultural attitudes dominating the Democratic Party and were moving toward a new form of conservatism. Intended by Harrington as a pejorative term, it was accepted by Kristol as an apt description of the ideas and policies exemplified by The Public Interest. Unlike liberals, for example, neo-conservatives rejected most of the Great Society programs sponsored by Lyndon B. Johnson and, unlike traditional conservatives, they supported the more limited welfare state instituted by Franklin D. Roosevelt. In February 1979, Kristol was featured on the cover of Esquire. The caption identified him as "the godfather of the most powerful new political force in America – Neo-conservatism". That year also saw the publication of the book, The Neo-conservatives: The Men Who Are Changing America's Politics. Like Harrington, the author, Peter Steinfels, was critical of neo-conservatism, but he was impressed by its growing political and intellectual influence. Kristol's response appeared under the title "Confessions of a True, Self-Confessed – Perhaps the Only – 'Neo-conservative'". Neo-conservatism, Kristol maintained, is not an ideology but a "persuasion", a way of thinking about politics rather than a compendium of principles and axioms. It is classical, rather than romantic, in temperament and practical and anti-utopian in policy. One of Kristol's most celebrated quips defines a neo-conservative as "a liberal who has been mugged by reality". These concepts lie at the core of neo-conservative philosophy to this day. While propounding the virtues of supply-side economics as the basis for the economic growth that is "a sine qua non for the survival of a modern democracy", he also insists that any economic philosophy has to be enlarged by "political philosophy, moral philosophy, and even religious thought", which were as much the sine qua non for a modern democracy. One of his early books, Two Cheers for Capitalism, asserts that capitalism, or more precisely, bourgeois capitalism, is worthy of two cheers. One cheer because "it works, in a quite simple, material sense" by improving the conditions of people; and a second cheer because it is "congenial to a large measure of personal liberty". He argues these are no small achievements and only capitalism has proved capable of providing them. However, it also imposes a great "psychic burden" upon the individual and the social order. Because it does not meet the individual's "'existential' human needs", it creates a "spiritual malaise" that threatens the legitimacy of that social order. As much as anything else, it is the withholding of that potential third cheer that is the distinctive mark of neo-conservatism as Kristol understood it. Articles “Other People's Nerve” (as William Ferry), Enquiry, May 1943. “James Burnham's 'The Machiavellians'" (as William Ferry), Enquiry, July 1943. (A review of The Machiavellians: Defenders of Freedom by James Burnham.) “Koestler: A Note on Confusion,” Politics, May 1944. “The Indefatigable Fabian,” New York Times Book Review, August 24, 1952. (A review of Beatrice Webb's Diaries: 1912–1924, edited by Margaret I. Cole.) "Men and Ideas: Niccolo Machiavelli," Encounter, December 1954. "American Intellectuals and Foreign Policy," Foreign Affairs, July 1967 (repr. in On the Democratic Idea in America). "Memoirs of a Cold Warrior," New York Times Magazine, February 11, 1968 (repr. in Reflections of a Neo-conservative). "When Virtue Loses All Her Loveliness," The Public Interest, Fall 1970 (repr. in On the Democratic Idea in America and Two Cheers for Capitalism). "Pornography, Obscenity, and Censorship," New York Times Magazine, March 28, 1971 (repr. in On the Democratic Idea in America and Reflections of a Neo-conservative). "Utopianism, Ancient and Modern," Imprimus, April 1973 (repr. in Two Cheers for Capitalism). "Adam Smith and the Spirit of Capitalism," The Great Ideas Today, ed. Robert Hutchins and Mortimer Adler, 1976 (repr. in Reflections of a Neo-conservative). "Memoirs of a Trotskyist," New York Times Magazine, January 23, 1977 (repr. in Reflections of a Neo-conservative). "The Adversary Culture of Intellectuals," Encounter, October 1979 (repr. in Reflections of a Neo-conservative). "The Hidden Cost of Regulation", The Wall Street Journal. BooksAuthored On the Democratic Idea in America. New York: Harper, 1972. Two Cheers for Capitalism. 1978. Reflections of a Neo-conservative: Looking Back, Looking Ahead. 1983. Neo-conservatism: The Autobiography of an Idea. 1995. The Neo-conservative Persuasion: Selected Essays, 1942-2009. New York: Basic Books, 2011. On Jews and Judaism. Barnes & Noble, 2014.EditedThe Crisis in Economic Theory. Edited with Daniel Bell. New York: Basic Books, 1981.Contributed''' ”Rationalism in Economics” (Chapter 12). The Crisis in Economic Theory''. Edited with Daniel Bell. New York: Basic Books, 1981. p. 201. See also Gertrude Himmelfarb William Kristol Norman Podhoretz References External links Website and bibliography of Irving Kristol's writings American Conservatism 1945–1995, by Irving Kristol On The Political Stupidity of the Jews, by Irving Kristol The Neoconservative Persuasion, by Irving Kristol Irving Kristol – Daily Telegraph obituary Irving Kristol Papers – Wisconsin Historical Society Arguing the World, 1998 PBS documentary film featuring Nathan Glazer, Daniel Bell, Irving Howe, and Kristol American columnists American newspaper publishers (people) American political commentators American political writers Presidential Medal of Freedom recipients Neoconservatism Former Marxists American Trotskyists American Enterprise Institute National Association of Scholars City College of New York alumni New York University faculty United States Army soldiers United States Army personnel of World War II American male journalists Jewish American journalists Jewish American writers Jewish 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229269	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/OSF	OSF	OSF may refer to: Computing Open Science Framework, a cloud-based management for open access science Open Semantic Framework, an integrated software stack using semantic technologies for knowledge management OSF/1, a Unix-like operating system developed by the Open Software Foundation Opera Show Format, an XHTML-based slideshow format Organisations Ógra Shinn Féin, the youth wing of the Sinn Féin political party Open Software Foundation, a not-for-profit organization that merged with X/Open and then became The Open Group Open Society Foundations, a grantmaking body established by George Soros OpenStack Foundation, a non-profit corporate entity to promote OpenStack software and its community Operational Support Facility, of the Federal Aviation Administration Oregon Shakespeare Festival, a repertory theatre in Ashland, Oregon, US Oxford Scientific Films, a British producer of natural history and documentary programmes The Old Spaghetti Factory, a restaurant chain Independent Senate Fraction (Onafhankelijke Senaatsfractie), a political group of the Netherlands Order of Saint Francis, a 21st-century American Franciscan religious order Oklahoma Office of State Finance, an agency of the Government of Oklahoma, US OSF Global Services, a cloud technology company OSF Healthcare, a non-profit healthcare organization in Illinois and Michigan, US	[ 0.20250777900218964, 0.2824660837650299, -0.13738727569580078, 0.09359393268823624, 0.01736634224653244, -0.02170557528734207, 0.08314919471740723, 0.24748198688030243, -0.1830092966556549, -0.21885249018669128, -0.855993926525116, 0.09969586879014969, -0.1721239537000656, 0.09578152000904083, 0.16815954446792603, -0.1021602526307106, 0.5317516326904297, 0.299478679895401, -0.24786821007728577, -0.16952353715896606, -0.49332207441329956, 0.022949961945414543, -0.21177208423614502, -0.328218013048172, 0.011148637160658836, 0.16073474287986755, 0.2529558539390564, -0.4449889361858368, 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229270	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Widerstehe%20doch%20der%20S%C3%BCnde%2C%20BWV%2054	Widerstehe doch der Sünde, BWV 54	(Just resist sin), BWV 54, is a church cantata by Johann Sebastian Bach. He composed the solo cantata for alto in Weimar between 1711 and 1714, and probably performed it on the seventh Sunday after Trinity, 15 July 1714. It is Bach's first extant church cantata for a solo voice. The text of the short work was written by Georg Christian Lehms, for two arias and a connecting recitative. The topic is to resist sin, based on the Epistle of James. The text was published in a 1711 collection, dedicated to the Sunday Oculi. It is not known when Bach composed the work but is assumed that he performed it as part of his monthly cantata productions in 1714 on the seventh Sunday after Trinity, 15 July. The solo voice is accompanied by strings: two violin parts, two viola parts and continuo. The composition begins with a striking dissonant chord. History and words The history of the composition is not clear. The text was written by Georg Christian Lehms for Oculi, the third Sunday in Lent, and published in 1711 in . It concentrates on avoiding sin, based on the Epistle of James. The first line of movement 3 quotes . Bach may have composed the cantata already before taking up regular cantata compositions in Weimar. He was appointed concertmaster of the Weimar court capelle of the co-reigning dukes Wilhelm Ernst and Ernst August of Saxe-Weimar, on 2 March 1714. As concertmaster, he assumed the principal responsibility for composing new works, specifically cantatas for the (palace church), on a monthly schedule. The Bach scholar Alfred Dürr suggested that Bach performed the cantata for the Seventh Sunday after Trinity of 1714. The prescribed readings for the Sunday are from the Epistle to the Romans, "the wages of sin is death; but the gift of God is eternal life" (), and from the Gospel of Mark, the feeding of the 4000 (). The cantata text relates to the epistle of both Sundays, but shows no connection to either Gospel. While Dürr assumes that Bach first performed the cantata on 15 July 1714, other scholars arrive at different dates. John Eliot Gardiner and others assume Oculi that year which would make it the earliest cantata performed after the promotion. It is his first extant church cantata for a solo voice, followed by , for soprano. The cantata is the first of four written for a single alto soloist, the others, all composed in 1726, being , Vergnügte Ruh, beliebte Seelenlust, BWV 170, and , BWV 169, two of which also have texts by Lehms. It is not clear what sort of alto singer (boy contralto? adult male falsettist? high tenor?) might have been the intended or actual first performer of "Widerstehe doch der Sünde", especially given its low range and tessitura compared with other alto solo writing by Bach such as or Vergnügte Ruh, beliebte Seelenlust, BWV 170. If the cantata was written early in Bach's (second) Weimar period, then perhaps the soloist could have been Adam Immanuel Weldig, the only falsettist in the Weimar court chapel in 1708 (the other five singers being a bass, two tenors and two teenage discantists). However, Weldig's designation as "falsettist" may indicate that he was a soprano and not an alto. Weldig left Weimar in 1713 so could not have sung if the first performance was as late as 1714 as suggested by Dürr. Scoring and structure The cantata, structured in three movements, is scored as chamber music for a solo alto voice, two violins (Vl), two violas (Va), and basso continuo (Bc). The duration is given as 14 minutes. The manuscript title page reads: "Cantata.à 2 Violini, 2 Viole, Alto, Solo, è Cont.: del J.S.B.". In the following table of the movements, the scoring follows the Neue Bach-Ausgabe. The keys and time signatures are taken from Alfred Dürr, using the symbols for common time (4/4) and alla breve (2/2). The continuo, playing throughout, is not shown. Music 1 The first movement, "" (Just resist sin) is a da capo aria, which opens with a surprising dissonance and leaves its key of E-flat major open until a cadence in measure 8. Dürr describes it as a call to resistance and compares it to the beginning of the recitative "", a call to be ready, in the cantata for Advent Nun komm, der Heiden Heiland, BWV 61, composed in 1714. Gardiner comments: "It is a deliberate shock tactic to rouse his listeners to the need to 'stand firm against all sinning, or its poison will possess you'". Bach used the first aria again in his St Mark Passion. 2 The recitative "" (The way of vile sins) is secco, accompanied by the continuo. The words "So zeigt sich nur ein leerer Schatten und übertünchtes Grab" (It shows itself as only an empty shadow and a whitewashed grave) are expressed in "pale" harmonies. The final lines are arioso and illustrate in (It is like a sharp sword, that pierces through body and soul) the movement of the sword by fast runs in the continuo. 3 The final aria "" (He who sins is of the devil) is again a da capo aria, but shows elements of a four-part fugue for the voice, the violins in unison, the violas in unison and the continuo. Gardiner describes the theme as "insinuating chromatic" and the "contorted counter-subject to portray the wily shackles of the devil". Recordings The sortable listing is taken from the selection provided by Aryeh Oron on the Bach-Cantatas website. The sortable table is based on the listing on the Bach Cantatas website. The type of orchestra is roughly shown as a large group by red background, and as an ensemble playing period instruments in historically informed performance by green background. Notes References Sources {{IMSLP\|work=Widerstehe doch der Sünde, BWV 54 (Bach, Johann Sebastian)\|cname=Widerstehe doch der Sünde, BWV 54}} Widerstehe doch der Sünde, BWV 54; BC A 51 / Sacred cantata (7th Sunday after Trinity) Leipzig University Widerstehe doch der Sünde history, scoring, Bach'' website BWV 54 Widerstehe doch der Sünde, English translation, University of Vermont External links Widerstehe doch der Sünde, BWV 54: performance by the Netherlands Bach Society (video and background information) Johann Sebastian Bach (1685–1750): Widerstehe doch der Sünde, BWV 54 saturdaychorale.com 30 April 2015 Víkingur Ólafsson – Bach: Widerstehe doch der Sünde, BWV 54 (Transcr. by Víkingur Ólafsson) live at Harpa, Reykjavík. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=nGXBudB_reM&list=RDnGXBudB_reM&start_radio=1 Deutsche Grammophon: Víkingur Ólafsson Church cantatas by Johann Sebastian Bach 1714 compositions	[ -0.07078619301319122, 0.5904980897903442, -0.09325256198644638, -0.7228882312774658, 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229274	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Crumble	Crumble	A crumble is a dish that can be made in a sweet or savory version. Crumbles became popular in Britain during World War II, when the topping was an economical alternative to pies due to shortages of pastry ingredients as the result of rationing. See also Cobbler (food) Crisp Apple crisp Brown Betty Smulpaj, a similar Swedish dessert Streusel References External links Crumble recipes What is a crumble Baked goods Desserts Fruit dishes British desserts Irish cuisine sv:Paj#Smulpaj	[ -0.3837948739528656, 0.3182239532470703, -0.5025879144668579, 0.08588303625583649, -0.17762288451194763, 0.32339537143707275, 0.3009667694568634, 0.7622644901275635, -0.13283038139343262, -0.4947807490825653, -0.4175024926662445, 0.20529134571552277, 0.24745561182498932, 0.5601837635040283, -0.30310410261154175, 0.005279024131596088, 0.5865620374679565, 0.5251400470733643, 0.031041013076901436, -0.09056062251329422, -0.015281385742127895, -0.5142320394515991, -0.2532365024089813, -0.259390264749527, 0.3338017165660858, 0.12867653369903564, 0.15418130159378052, -0.2244812548160553, 0.40529680252075195, -0.19783304631710052, -0.16877436637878418, 0.6534398198127747, 0.27613818645477295, -0.9176539778709412, 0.12156986445188522, 0.4132479727268219, 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229275	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lamb%20and%20mutton	Lamb and mutton	Lamb, hogget, and mutton, generically sheep meat, are the meat of domestic sheep, Ovis aries. A sheep in its first year is a lamb and its meat is also lamb. The meat from sheep in their second year is hogget. Older sheep meat is mutton. Generally, "hogget" and "sheep meat" are not used by consumers outside Norway, New Zealand, South Africa and Australia. Hogget is becoming increasingly commonly eaten in England, particularly in the North (Lancashire and Yorkshire) often in association with rare breed and organic farming. In South Asian and Caribbean cuisine, "mutton" often means goat meat. At various times and places, "mutton" or "goat mutton" has occasionally been used to mean goat meat. Lamb is the most expensive of the three types and in recent decades sheep meat is increasingly only retailed as "lamb", sometimes stretching the accepted distinctions given above. The stronger-tasting mutton is now hard to find in many areas, despite the efforts of the Mutton Renaissance Campaign in the UK. In Australia, the term prime lamb is often used to refer to lambs raised for meat. Other languages, for example French, Spanish, Italian and Arabic, make similar or even more detailed distinctions among sheep meats by age and sometimes by sex and diet—for example, lechazo in Spanish refers to meat from milk-fed (unweaned) lambs. Classifications and nomenclature The definitions for lamb, hogget and mutton vary considerably between countries. Younger lambs are smaller and more tender. Mutton is meat from a sheep over two years old, and has less tender flesh. In general, the darker the colour, the older the animal. Commonwealth countries Lamb — a young sheep under 12 months of age which does not have any permanent incisor teeth in wear. (From July 1, 2019, the Australian definition is "an ovine animal that: (a) is under 12 months of age; or (b) does not have any permanent incisor teeth in wear." The New Zealand definition also allows "0 incisors in wear".) Hogget — A term for a sheep of either sex having no more than two permanent incisors in wear, or its meat. Still common in farming usage, it is now rare as a domestic or retail term for the meat. Much of the "lamb" sold in the UK is "hogget" to a farmer in Australia or New Zealand. Mutton — the meat of a female (ewe) or castrated male (wether) sheep having more than two permanent incisors in wear. United States In the early 1900s, mutton was widely consumed in the United States, but mutton consumption has declined since World War II. , most sheep meat in the United States comes from animals in between 12 and 14 months old, and is called "lamb"; the term "hogget" is not used. Federal statutes and regulations dealing with food labeling in the United States permit all sheep products to be marketed as "lamb." USDA grades for lamb are only partly a function of the animal's age. Animals up to 20 months old may meet the quality of the "USDA prime" grade depending on other factors, while "USDA choice" lamb can be of any age. "Spring lamb" is defined by the USDA as having been slaughtered between March and October. Indian subcontinent The term "mutton" is applied to goat meat in most of these countries, and the goat population has been rising. For example, mutton-curry is always made from goat meat. It is estimated that over one-third of the goat population is slaughtered every year and sold as mutton. The husbanded sheep population in India and the Indian subcontinent has been in decline for over 40 years and has survived at marginal levels in mountainous regions, based on wild-sheep breeds, and mainly for wool production. Other definitions Milk-fed lamb — meat from an unweaned lamb, typically 4–6 weeks old and weighing 5.5–8 kg; this is almost unavailable in countries such as the United States and the United Kingdom. The flavour and texture of milk-fed lamb when grilled (such as the tiny lamb chops known as chuletillas in Spain) or roasted (lechazo asado or cordero lechal asado) is generally thought to be finer than that of older lamb, and fetches higher prices. The areas in northern Spain where this can be found include Asturias, Cantabria, Castile and León, and La Rioja. Milk-fed lambs are especially prized for Easter in Greece, when they are roasted on a spit. Young lamb — a milk-fed lamb between six and eight weeks old Spring lamb — a milk-fed lamb, usually three to five months old, born in late winter or early spring and sold usually before 1 July (in the northern hemisphere). Sucker lambs — a term used in Australia — includes young milk-fed lambs, as well as slightly older lambs up to about seven months of age which are also still dependent on their mothers for milk. Carcases from these lambs usually weigh between 14 and 30 kg. Older weaned lambs which have not yet matured to become mutton are known as old-season lambs. Yearling lamb — a young sheep between 12 and 24 months old, so another term for a hogget. Saltbush mutton – a term used in Australia for the meat of mature Merinos which have been allowed to graze on atriplex plants Salt marsh lamb (also known as 'saltmarsh lamb' or by its French name, agneau de pré-salé) is the meat of sheep which graze on salt marsh in coastal estuaries that are washed by the tides and support a range of salt-tolerant grasses and herbs, such as samphire, sparta grass, sorrel and sea lavender. Depending on where the salt marsh is located, the nature of the plants may be subtly different. Salt marsh lamb has long been appreciated in France and is growing in popularity in the United Kingdom. Places where salt marsh lamb are reared in the UK include Harlech and the Gower Peninsula in Wales, the Somerset Levels, Morecambe Bay and the Solway Firth. Saltgrass lamb – a type of lamb exclusive to Flinders Island (Tasmania). The pastures on the island have a relatively high salt content, leading to a flavor and texture similar to saltmarsh lamb. Butchery and cookery The meat of a lamb is taken from the animal between one month and one year old, with a carcass weight of between . This meat generally is more tender than that from older sheep and appears more often on tables in some Western countries. Hogget and mutton have a stronger flavour than lamb because they contain a higher concentration of species-characteristic fatty acids and are preferred by some. Mutton and hogget also tend to be tougher than lamb (because of connective tissue maturation) and are therefore better suited to casserole-style cooking, as in Lancashire hotpot, for example. Lamb is often sorted into three kinds of meat: forequarter, loin, and hindquarter. The forequarter includes the neck, shoulder, front legs, and the ribs up to the shoulder blade. The hindquarter includes the rear legs and hip. The loin includes the ribs between the two. Lamb chops are cut from the rib, loin, and shoulder areas. The rib chops include a rib bone; the loin chops include only a chine bone. Shoulder chops are usually considered inferior to loin chops; both kinds of chops are usually grilled. Breast of lamb (baby chops) can be cooked in an oven. Leg of lamb is a whole leg; saddle of lamb is the two loins with the hip. Leg and saddle are usually roasted, though the leg is sometimes boiled. Forequarter meat of sheep, as of other mammals, includes more connective tissue than some other cuts, and, if not from a young lamb, is best cooked slowly using either a moist method, such as braising or stewing, or by slow roasting or American barbecuing. It is, in some countries, sold already chopped or diced. Lamb shank definitions vary, but generally include: a cut from the arm of shoulder, containing leg bone and part of round shoulder bone, and covered by a thin layer of fat and fell (a thin, paper-like covering). a cut from the upper part of the leg. Mutton barbeque is a tradition in Western Kentucky. The area was strong in the wool trade, which gave them plenty of older sheep that needed to be put to use. Thin strips of fatty mutton can be cut into a substitute for bacon called macon. Lamb tongue is popular in Middle Eastern cuisine both as a cold cut and in preparations like stews. Cuts UK, Canada, and other Commonwealth countries Approximate zones of the usual UK cuts of lamb: Scrag end (of neck) Middle neck Best End (of neck) Loin Chump (and chump chops) Leg (gigot in Scotland) Shank Shoulder Breast US and Ireland Square cut shoulder – shoulder roast, shoulder chops and arm chops Rack – rib chops and riblets, rib roast Loin – loin chops or roast Leg – sirloin chops, leg roast (leg of lamb) Neck Breast Shanks (fore or hind) Flank New Zealand Forequarter Neck – neck chops Shoulder – shoulder chops, shoulder roast (usually boned and rolled) Rib-eye Breast Shank Loin Rib-loin – racks, frenched cutlets, spare ribs Mid-loin – striploin (backstrap), loin chops Tenderloin Flap Full leg – leg roast (may be boned and rolled), leg chops. A short-cut leg is a full leg without the chump; a carvery leg is a short-cut leg without the thick flank Chump (rump) – chump chops, rump steak Thick flank (knuckle) – schnitzel Topside & silverside – steaks Shank Production and consumption figures Sheep meat consumption According to the OECD-FAO Agricultural Outlook for 2016, the top consumers of sheep meat in 2015 were as follows: EU countries are not individually surveyed in this list. Among EU nations, Greece is the per capita leader in consumption at 12.3 kg, while the UK's annual per capita lamb consumption is 4.7 kg. Outside of the OECD, the largest per capita consumer overall is Mongolia, with 45.1 kg. – per capita – – – – – – – – – Sheep meat production The table below gives a sample of producing nations, but many other significant producers in the 50–120 KT range are not given. Source: Helgi Library, World Bank, FAOSTAT Dishes Meat from sheep features prominently in the cuisines of several Mediterranean cultures including Greece, Turkey, North Africa, Jordan, and the Middle East, as well as in the cuisines of Pakistan and Afghanistan. In Greece for example, it is an integral component of many meals and of religious feasts such as Easter (see avgolemono, magiritsa). It is also very popular in the Basque culture, both in the Basque country of Europe and in the shepherding areas of the Western United States. In the United States, the Navajo have incorporated mutton and lamb into their traditional cuisine since the introduction of sheep by Spanish explorers and settlers in the 17th century, replacing wild turkey and venison and creating a pastoral culture. In Northern Europe, mutton and lamb feature in many traditional dishes, including those of Iceland, Norway and of the United Kingdom, particularly in the western and northern uplands, Scotland and Wales. Mutton used to be an important part of Hungarian cuisine due to strong pastoral traditions but began to be increasingly looked down on with the spread of urbanisation. Mutton is also popular in Australia. Lamb and mutton are very popular in Central Asia and in certain parts of China, where other red meats may be eschewed for religious or economic reasons. Barbecued mutton is also a specialty in some areas of the United States (chiefly Owensboro, Kentucky) and Canada. However, meat from sheep is generally consumed far less in the US than in many European, Central American and Asian cuisines; for example, average per-capita consumption of lamb in the United States is only per year. In Australia, the leg of lamb roast is considered to be the national dish. Commonly served on a Sunday or any other special occasion, it can be done in a kettle BBQ or a conventional oven. Typical preparation involves covering the leg of lamb with butter, pushing rosemary sprigs into incisions cut in the leg, and sprinkling rosemary leaves on top. The lamb is then roasted for two hours at and typically served with carrots and potato (also roasted), green vegetables and gravy. In Indonesia, lamb is popularly served as lamb satay and lamb curry. Both dishes are cooked with various spices from the islands, and served with either rice or lontong. A version of lamb and bamboo shoot curry is the specialty of Minang cuisine, although similar dish could also be found in Thai cuisine. In Mexico, lamb is the meat of choice for the popular barbacoa dish, in which the lamb is roasted or steamed wrapped in maguey leaves underground. In Medieval India, the armies, unable to cook elaborate meals, would prepare a one-pot dish where they cooked rice with mutton. This dish led to the famous Biryani. In Japan, although lamb is not traditionally consumed in most of the country, on the Northern island of Hokkaido and North-eastern Tohoku regions, a hot pot dish called Jingisukan (i.e. "Genghis Khan") is popular. In that dish, thin-sliced lamb is cooked over a convex skillet alongside various vegetables and mushrooms in front of the diners, then dipped in soy-sauce based dipping sauces and eaten. It was so named because lamb is popular in Mongolia (see "Sheep meat consumption" above). Organ meats / Offal Lamb's liver, known as lamb's fry in New Zealand and Australia, is eaten in many countries. It is the most common form of offal eaten in the UK, traditionally used in the family favourite (and pub grub staple) of liver with onions and/or bacon and mashed potatoes. It is a major ingredient, along with the lungs and heart (the pluck), in the traditional Scottish dish of haggis. Lamb testicles or lamb fries are a delicacy in many parts of the world. Lamb kidneys are found in many cuisines across Europe and the Middle East, often split into two halves and grilled (on kebabs in the Middle East), or sautéed in a sauce. They are generally the most highly regarded of all kidneys. Lamb sweetbreads are a delicacy in many cuisines. Environmental impact Production of lamb emits more greenhouse gas per gram of protein than other common foods, except for beef. See also Lechazo de Castilla y León – milk-fed lamb meat from Spain List of lamb dishes Mutton curry Mutton flaps Goat meat Sheep's trotters Smalahove – a Western Norwegian dish of sheep head Bibliography K.F. Warner, "Boning Lamb Cuts", Leaflet 74, U.S. Department of Agriculture, Bureau of Animal Industry, June 1931. full text Bob Kennard, "Much ado about mutton". Ludlow: Merlin Unwin, 2014 Notes External links Sheep Meat Production Meat by animal Sheep	[ 0.44650906324386597, -0.06478692591190338, -0.8437093496322632, -0.1294410079717636, -0.2569744288921356, 1.10767662525177, -0.020443145185709, 0.20302139222621918, -0.6914302706718445, -0.608680784702301, -0.44752269983291626, 0.46515554189682007, -0.20677568018436432, 0.3950347304344177, -0.27040550112724304, 0.20119710266590118, 0.7914072871208191, 0.17207059264183044, 0.15574033558368683, -0.25039058923721313, -0.012170659378170967, -0.8108954429626465, -0.12622930109500885, 0.03219826519489288, 0.5371088981628418, -0.31857484579086304, 0.47432634234428406, 0.2137623131275177, 0.6236359477043152, 0.29160553216934204, 0.062433548271656036, 0.6593847274780273, 0.2466442883014679, -0.39211946725845337, 0.5668202638626099, -0.09889527410268784, 0.4035920202732086, -0.2952161431312561, 0.008305844850838184, -0.14589723944664001, 0.24173246324062347, -0.1385846734046936, 0.420807808637619, 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229277	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Northern%20Dobruja	Northern Dobruja	Northern Dobruja ( or simply ; , Severna Dobrudzha) is the part of Dobruja within the borders of Romania. It lies between the lower Danube river and the Black Sea, bordered in the south by Southern Dobruja, which is part of Bulgaria. History Around 600 BC, the Greeks colonized the Black Sea shore and founded numerous fortresses: Tomis (today's Constanta), Callatis, Histria, Argamum, Heracleea, Aegysus. After Greek civilization faded, Dobruja became a Roman province. One of the best preserved remnants of this period is the Enisala citadel. Between the 7th and 14th century, Dobruja was part of the First Bulgarian Empire and the Second Bulgarian Empire. For a short period in the 14th century, Dobruja became part of Wallachia under the rule of voivode Mircea the Elder. However, the territory fell under Ottoman rule from the mid-15th century until 1878, when it was awarded to Romania for its role in the 1877-78 Russo-Turkish War, and as compensation for the transfer of a region partly overlapping Southern Bessarabia. Under the treaties of San Stefano and Berlin, Romania received Northern Dobruja while the newly restored Principality of Bulgaria received the smaller southern part of the region. After the Second Balkan War in 1913, Romania also annexed the Bulgarian Southern Dobruja, which it ruled until the signing of the 1940 Treaty of Craiova. The treaty was approved by Britain, Vichy France, Germany, Italy, the Soviet Union and the United States. It included a population exchange which removed the Bulgarian minority from Northern Dobruja, which was evacuated to the southern part. At the same time, the Romanians (including Aromanians and Megleno-Romanians) from Southern Dobruja were brought north of the border. There also is a Csángó Hungarian village in Northern Dobruja, in the Constanța County, known as Oituz. Geography The territory of Northern Dobruja now forms the counties of Constanța and Tulcea, with a total area of 15,570 km2 and a current population of slightly under 900,000. Cities Constanța Tulcea Medgidia Mangalia Rivers Casimcea Slava Taița Telița Lakes Crapina Lake Jijiei Lake Traian Lake Babadag Lake Razim Lake Zmeica Lake Sinoe Lake Tașaul Lake Techirghiol Lake Danube Delta The Danube Delta consists of numerous lakes. The most important ones are: Roșu Isac Gorgova Furtuna Ledeanca Tatanir Merhel Matița Uzlina Dranov Lumina Puiu Puiuleț Demographics 1According to the 1926–1938 Romanian administrative division (counties of Constanța and Tulcea), which excluded a part of today's Romania (chiefly the communes of Ostrov and Lipnița, now part of Constanța County) and included a part of today's Bulgaria (parts of General Toshevo and Krushari municipalities) 2Only Russians. (Russians and Lipovans counted separately) Symbols Northern Dobruja is represented by two dolphins in the Coat of arms of Romania. Starting with 2015, Romania observes Dobruja Day on November 14, marking the 1878 incorporation of Northern Dobruja into the Kingdom of Romania after the Treaty of Berlin. 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229281	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/America%20First%20Committee	America First Committee	The America First Committee (AFC) was the foremost United States isolationist pressure group against American entry into World War II. Launched on September 4, 1940, the committee principally supported isolationism for its own sake, but many communists made use of the AFC, as well as antisemitic and pro-fascist speakers, who became its leaders. Supported by Charles Lindbergh, AFC membership peaked at 800,000 paying members in 450 chapters, making the AFC one of the largest antiwar organizations in the history of the United States. The committee was dissolved on December 10, 1941, three days after the attack on Pearl Harbor brought the United States into the war. Membership The AFC was established on September 4, 1940, by Yale Law School student R. Douglas Stuart, Jr. (son of R. Douglas Stuart, co-founder of Quaker Oats), along with other students including future president Gerald Ford, future Peace Corps director Sargent Shriver, and future U.S. Supreme Court justice Potter Stewart. At its peak, America First claimed 800,000 dues-paying members in 450 chapters, located mostly in a 300-mile radius of Chicago, and 135,000 members in 60 chapters throughout Illinois, its strongest state. Fundraising drives produced about $370,000 from some 25,000 contributors. Nearly half came from a few millionaires such as William H. Regnery, H. Smith Richardson of the Vick Chemical Company, General Robert E. Wood of Sears-Roebuck, publisher Joseph M. Patterson (New York Daily News) and his cousin, publisher Robert R. McCormick (Chicago Tribune). The AFC was never able to draw funding for its own public opinion poll. The New York chapter received slightly more than $190,000, most of it coming from its 47,000 contributors. As the AFC never had a national membership form or national dues, and local chapters were quite autonomous, historians point out that the organization's leaders had no idea how many "members" it had. Serious organization efforts took place in Chicago, the national headquarters of the committee, not long after the AFC's September 1940 establishment. America First chose General Robert E. Wood, the 61-year-old chairman of Sears, Roebuck and Co., to preside over the committee. Wood remained in his post until the AFC was disbanded in the days after the attack on Pearl Harbor. The America First Committee contained its share of prominent businessmen and attracted the sympathies of political figures including Democratic senators Burton K. Wheeler of Montana and David I. Walsh of Massachusetts, and Republican senator Gerald P. Nye of North Dakota. Its most prominent spokesman was aviator Charles A. Lindbergh. Other celebrities supporting America First were actress Lillian Gish and architect Frank Lloyd Wright. Two future presidents, John F. Kennedy and Gerald Ford, supported and contributed to the organization. When he donated $100 to the AFC, Kennedy attached a note that read simply: "What you are doing is vital." Ford was one of the first members of the AFC when a chapter formed at Yale University. Potter Stewart, a future Supreme Court justice, served on the original committee of the AFC. Issues When the war began in September 1939, most Americans, including politicians, demanded neutrality regarding Europe. Although most Americans supported strong measures against Japan, Europe was the focus of the America First Committee. The public mood was changing, however, especially after the fall of France in the spring of 1940. The America First Committee launched a petition aimed at enforcing the 1939 Neutrality Act and forcing President Franklin D. Roosevelt to keep his pledge to keep America out of the war. The committee profoundly distrusted Roosevelt and argued that he was lying to the American people. On the day after Roosevelt's lend-lease bill was submitted to the United States Congress, Wood promised AFC opposition "with all the vigor it can exert." America First staunchly opposed the convoying of ships, the Atlantic Charter, and the placing of economic pressure on Japan. In order to achieve the defeat of lend-lease and the perpetuation of American neutrality, the AFC advocated four basic principles: The United States must build an impregnable defense for America. No foreign power, nor group of powers, can successfully attack a prepared America. American democracy can be preserved only by keeping out of the European war. "Aid short of war" weakens national defense at home and threatens to involve America in war abroad. Charles Lindbergh was admired in Germany and was allowed to see the buildup of the German air force, the Luftwaffe, in 1937. He was impressed by its strength and secretly reported his findings to the General Staff of the United States Army, warning them that the U.S. had fallen behind and that it must urgently build up its aviation. Lindbergh, who had feuded with the Roosevelt administration for years, delivered his first radio speech on September 15, 1939 through all three major radio networks. He urged listeners to look beyond the speeches and propaganda that they were being fed and instead look at who was writing the speeches and reports, who owned the papers and who influenced the speakers. On June 20, 1941, Lindbergh spoke to 30,000 people in Los Angeles and billed it as a "Peace and Preparedness Mass Meeting". Lindbergh criticized the movements that he perceived were leading America into the war and proclaimed that the U.S. was in a position that made it virtually impregnable. He also claimed that the interventionists and the British who called for "the defense of England" really meant "the defeat of Germany." A speech that Lindbergh delivered to a rally in Des Moines, Iowa on September 11, 1941 may have significantly raised tensions. He identified the forces pulling America into the war as the British, the Roosevelt administration, and American Jews. While he expressed sympathy for the plight of the Jews in Germany, he argued that America's entry into the war would serve them little better: Many condemned the speech as antisemitic. Journalist Dorothy Thompson wrote for the New York Herald an opinion that many shared: "I am absolutely certain that Lindbergh is pro-Nazi." Republican presidential candidate Wendell Willkie criticized the speech as "the most un-American talk made in my time by any person of national reputation." During the period after Nazi Germany and the Soviet Union had signed the Molotov–Ribbentrop non-aggression pact, most American Communists were opposed to the United States entering World War II, and they tried to infiltrate or take over America First. After June 1941, when Hitler launched Operation Barbarossa, the invasion of the Soviet Union, they reversed positions and denounced the AFC as a Nazi front, a group infiltrated by German agents. Nazis also tried to use the committee; at the trial of the aviator and orator Laura Ingalls, the prosecution revealed that her handler, German diplomat Ulrich Freiherr von Gienanth, had encouraged her to participate in committee activities. After Pearl Harbor After the attack on Pearl Harbor on December 7, AFC canceled a rally with Lindbergh at Boston Garden "in view of recent critical developments," and the organization's leaders announced their support of the war effort. Lindbergh gave this rationale: With the formal declaration of war against Japan, the organization chose to disband. On December 11, the committee leaders met and voted for dissolution, the same day upon which Germany and Italy declared war on the United States. In a statement released to the press, the AFC wrote: Conservative commentator Pat Buchanan has praised America First and used its name as a slogan. "The achievements of that organization are monumental," writes Buchanan. "By keeping America out of World War II until Hitler attacked Stalin in June 1941, Soviet Russia, not America, bore the brunt of the fighting, bleeding and dying to defeat Nazi Germany." See also America First (policy) America First Party (1943) Committee to Defend America by Aiding the Allies Donald Trump 2016 presidential campaign Donald Trump 2020 presidential campaign List of anti-war organizations References Notes Bibliography Berg, A. Scott (1999) Lindbergh pp .84–432 Cole, Wayne S. (1974) Charles A. Lindbergh and the Battle against American Intervention in World War II Cole, Wayne S. (1953) America First: The Battle against Intervention, 1940-41 Doenecke, Justus D. ed. (1990) In Danger Undaunted: The Anti-Interventionist Movement of 1940-1941 as revealed in the Papers of the America First Committee Doenecke, Justus D. (2000) Storm on the Horizon: The Challenge to American Intervention, 1939-1941 Doenecke, Justus D. (Summer/Fall 1982) "American Isolationism, 1939-1941" Journal of Libertarian Studies 6(3), pp. 201–216 Doenecke, Justus D. (Summer 1987) "Anti-Interventionism of Herbert Hoover" Journal of Libertarian Studies 8(2), pp. 311–340. Gleason, S. Everett and Langer, William L. (1953) The Undeclared War, 1940-1941 semi-official government history Goodman, David (2007) "Loving and Hating Britain: Rereading the Isolationist Debate in the USA" in Darian-Smith, Kate; Grimshaw, Patricia; and Macintyre, Stuart eds. Britishness Abroad: Transnational Movements and Imperial Cultures, Carlton: Melbourne University Press. pp187–204. Gordon, David (2003) America First: the Anti-War Movement, Charles Lindbergh and the Second World War, 1940-1941 presentation to the New York Military Affairs Symposium Jonas, Manfred (1966) Isolationism in America, 1935-1941 Kauffman, Bill (1995) America First!: Its History, Culture, and Politics Parmet, Herbert S. and Hechy, Marie B. (1968) Never Again: A President Runs for a Third Term Schneider, James C. (1989) Should America Go to War? The Debate over Foreign Policy in Chicago, 1939-1941 Primary sources Doenecke, Justus D. (1997) The Battle Against Intervention, 1939-1941 includes short narrative and primary documents Historiography Doenecke, Justus D. (Spring 1983) "Literature of Isolationism, 1972–1983: A Bibliographic Guide" Journal of Libertarian Studies 7(1), pp. 157–184 Doenecke, Justus D. (Winter 1986) "Explaining the Antiwar Movement, 1939–1941: The Next Assignment" Journal of Libertarian Studies 8(1), pp. 139–162. 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229283	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tartary	Tartary	Tartary (, , , ) or Tatary () was a blanket term used in Western European literature and cartography for a vast part of Asia bounded by the Caspian Sea, the Ural Mountains, the Pacific Ocean, and the northern borders of China, India and Persia, at a time when this region was largely unknown to European geographers. The active use of the toponym (place name) can be traced from the 13th to the 19th centuries. In European sources, Tartary became the most common name for Central Asia that had no connection with the real polities or ethnic groups of the region; until the 19th century, European knowledge of the area remained extremely scarce and fragmentary. In modern English-speaking tradition, the region formerly known as Tartary is usually called Inner or Central Eurasia. Much of this area consists of arid plains, the main population of which in the past was engaged in animal husbandry. Ignorance surrounding Tartary's use as a place name has spawned conspiracy theories including ideas of a "hidden past" and "mudflood". Such theories contend, falsely, that Tartary (or "Tartaria") was a lost civilization with advanced technology and culture. This ignores the well documented history of Asia, which Tartary refers to. In the present day, the Tartary region covers a region spanning from central Afghanistan to northern Kazakhstan, as well as areas in present Mongolia, China and the Russian Far East in "Chinese Tartary". Geography and history Knowledge of Manchuria, Siberia and Central Asia in Europe prior to the 18th century was limited. The entire area was known simply as "Tartary" and its inhabitants "Tartars". In the Early modern period, as understanding of the geography increased, Europeans began to subdivide Tartary into sections with prefixes denoting the name of the ruling power or the geographical location. Thus, Siberia was Great Tartary or Russian Tartary, the Crimean Khanate was Little Tartary, Manchuria was Chinese Tartary, and western Central Asia (prior to becoming Russian Central Asia) was known as Independent Tartary. By the seventeenth century, however, largely under the influence of Catholic missionary writings, the word "Tartar" came to refer to the Manchus and the lands they ruled as "Tartary". European opinions of the area were often negative, and reflected the legacy of the Mongol invasions that originated from this region. The term originated in the wake of the widespread devastation spread by the Mongol Empire. The adding of an extra "r" to "Tatar" was suggestive of Tartarus, a Hell-like realm in Greek mythology. In the 18th century, conceptions of Siberia or Tartary and its inhabitants as "barbarous" by Enlightenment-era writers tied into contemporary concepts of civilization, savagery and racism. More positive opinions were also expressed by Europeans. Some saw Tartary as a possible source of spiritual knowledge lacking in contemporary European society. In Five Years of Theosophy, edited by Theosophist and scholar G.R.S. Mead, polymath and "seer" Emanuel Swedenborg is quoted as having advised: "Seek for the Lost Word among the hierophants of Tartary, China, and Tibet." Decline The use of "Tartary" declined as the region became more known to European geographers; however, the term was still used long into the 19th century. Ethnographical data collected by Jesuit missionaries in China contributed to the replacement of "Chinese Tartary" with Manchuria in European geography by the early 18th century. The voyages of Egor Meyendorff and Alexander von Humboldt into this region gave rise to the term Central Asia in the early 19th century as well as supplementary terms such as Inner Asia, and Russian expansionism led to the term "Siberia" being coined for the Asian half of the Russian Empire. By the 20th century, Tartary as a term for Siberia and Central Asia was obsolete. However, it lent the title to Peter Fleming's 1936 book News from Tartary, which detailed his travels in Central Asia. Tartaria conspiracy theory The pseudohistorical conspiracy theory about Great Tartaria first appeared in Russia, popularized by Nikolai Levashov, and in Anatoly Fomenko’s New chronology. In Russian pseudoscience, known for its nationalism, Tartaria is presented as the "real" name for Russia, which was maliciously "ignored" in the West. Since about 2016, conspiracy theories about the supposed lost empire of "Tartaria" have gained popularity on the English-speaking part of the Internet. The conspiracy is based mostly on a misunderstanding of architectural history. Adherents suppose that demolished buildings such as the Singer Building, Penn Station, or the temporary grounds of the 1915's World's Fair were actually the buildings of a vast empire based in Tartary that has been suppressed from history. Sumptuously styled Gilded Age buildings are often held out as really having been built by the supposed Tartaria. Other buildings, such as the Great Pyramids and the White House are further held out as Tartarian buildings. The conspiracy only vaguely describes how such a supposedly advanced civilization which had reputedly achieved world peace could have fallen and been hidden. The idea that a "mud flood" wiped out much of the world and thus old buildings is common, supported only by the fact that some buildings have basements which had windows. World War I & II are cited as a way in which Tartaria was destroyed and hidden, reflecting the reality that the extensive bombing campaigns of World War II did destroy many historic buildings. The general evidence for the theory is that there are similar styles of building around the world, such as capital buildings with domes, or star forts. Zach Mortice writing for Bloomberg believes that the theory reflects a cultural discontent with modernism, and a supposition that traditional styles are inherently good and modern styles are bad. He describes the theory as "the QAnon of architecture". See also Chinese Tartary Cossack Golden Horde Khanate of Crimea Mongol Empire Tatars Tatarstan References Citations Sources External links 1704 map of Tartary 1736 map of Tartary showing Muscovite, Independent, and Chinese Tartary Nationality of Religion? 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229286	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Window%20class	Window class	In computer programming a window class is a structure fundamental to the Microsoft Windows (Win16, Win32, and Win64) operating systems and its Application Programming Interface (API). The structure provides a template, from which windows may be created, by specifying a window's icons, menu, background color and a few other features. It also holds a pointer to a procedure that controls how the window behaves in response to user interaction. It finally tells the operating system how much additional storage space is needed for the class itself and for each window created from it. There have been two versions of window classes; the only non-technical addition brought by the second one is that of a small additional icon for the window. The first version was present in the Windows 3.x series; the second version appeared in Windows 95 and Windows NT 3.1. 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229291	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dead%20End%20Kids	Dead End Kids	The Dead End Kids were a group of young actors from New York City who appeared in Sidney Kingsley's Broadway play Dead End in 1935. In 1937, producer Samuel Goldwyn brought all of them to Hollywood and turned the play into a film. They proved to be so popular that they continued to make movies under various monikers, including the Little Tough Guys, the East Side Kids, and the Bowery Boys, until 1958. History (1934–1939) In 1934, Sidney Kingsley wrote a play about a group of children growing up on the streets of New York City. Fourteen children were hired to play various roles in the play, including Billy Halop (Tommy), Bobby Jordan (Angel), Huntz Hall (Dippy), Charles Duncan (Spit), Bernard Punsly (Milty), Gabriel Dell (T.B.), and Leo and David Gorcey (Second Avenue Boys). Duncan left for a role in another play before opening night, and was replaced by Leo, his understudy. Leo had been a plumber's assistant and was originally recruited by his brother David to audition for the play. The play opened at the Belasco Theatre on October 28, 1935, and ran for two years, totaling 684 performances. Samuel Goldwyn and director William Wyler saw the play and decided to turn it into a film. They paid $165,000 for the rights to the film and began auditioning actors in Los Angeles. Failing to find actors who could convey the emotions they saw in the play, Goldwyn and Wyler had six of the original Kids (Halop, Jordan, Hall, Punsly, Dell, and Leo Gorcey) brought from New York City to Hollywood for the film. The Kids were all signed to two-year contracts, allowing for possible future films, and began working on the 1937 United Artists' film, Dead End. The actual name of the gang of boys in Dead End is written in chalk on the wall shown throughout the movie. It reads: "East 53rd Place Gang Members Only". During production, the boys ran wild around the studio, destroying property, including a truck that they crashed into a sound stage. Goldwyn chose not to use them again and sold their contract to Warner Bros. Warner Bros. had initially attempted to rename them the "Crime School Kids" through advertisements for their first two films produced there, starting with Crime School (1937), to disassociate them from their previous studio's film, and promote their own. In 1938, they made their only color appearance in a short film, Swingtime in the Movies, and were referred to as that name. This was all in vain, though, as the name never caught on, and they remained the Dead End Kids. At Warner Bros., the Dead End Kids made six films, including Angels with Dirty Faces, with some of the top actors in Hollywood, including James Cagney, Humphrey Bogart, John Garfield, Pat O'Brien, and Ronald Reagan. The last one was in 1939, when they were released from their contracts owing to more antics on the studio lot. Filmography Little Tough Guys (1938–1943) Shortly after they made their first film at Warner Brothers in 1938, Universal borrowed all of the Dead End Kids except for Bobby Jordan and Leo Gorcey and made twelve films and three 12-chapter serials under the team names of "The Dead End Kids and Little Tough Guys" and "Little Tough Guys". Universal also contracted Leo's brother David and Hal E. (Hally) Chester to join the team. After Warners released Jordan from his contract, Universal quickly signed him to join the rest of gang. Because the original Dead End Kids were now working for several studios, their Universal films were made at roughly the same time as the Warner Brothers' "Dead End Kids" series and, later, Monogram Picture's "The East Side Kids" series. The final Universal film was Keep 'Em Slugging, released in 1943. The East Side Kids (1940–1945) After Warner Brothers released the remaining Dead End Kids from their contracts in 1939, producer Sam Katzman at Monogram acted quickly and hired several of them, including Jordan and the Gorcey brothers, as well as Chester and some of the other Little Tough Guys to star in a new series using the name "The East Side Kids". This series introduced 'Sunshine' Sammy Morrison, one of the original members of the Our Gang comedy team, to the group. A total of 22 East Side Kids films were made, ending with Come Out Fighting in 1945. The Bowery Boys (1946–1958) In 1946, with only Monogram making films using any of the original Dead End Kids, Huntz Hall, Leo Gorcey, and Gorcey's agent, Jan Grippo, revamped The East Side Kids, renaming them "The Bowery Boys". These films followed a more established formula than the earlier films. First Jordan and then Dell departed the series after several films. Gorcey left after the 41st film and was replaced by Stanley Clements for the remaining films. In all, a total of 48 Bowery Boys films were made, ending with 1958's In the Money. During the series Hall and Dell did a nightclub act together. Gorcey and Hall reteamed on the film Second Fiddle to a Steel Guitar then finally, in The Phynx. Epilogue In total the various teams that began life as "The Dead End Kids" made 89 films and three serials for four different studios during their 21-year-long film career. The team was awarded a star on Hollywood's Walk of Fame that can be found at the corner of La Brea and Hollywood. One notable aspect of the group's history is their transition from stark drama to comedy. When they began, in Dead End and their other early films, their characters were serious, gritty, genuinely menacing young hoodlums. But, by the height of their career, their movies were comedies, with the Kids depicted as low-class but basically harmless, likable teens – comic caricatures of their former selves. The original play has had two revivals. A 1978 adaptation played at the Quigh Theatre in New York, N.Y. and another in 2005 at the Ahmanson Theatre in Los Angeles. Members Gabriel Dell was often cast as erstwhile friends or antagonist characters pitted against the other Dead End Kids. Dell continued to act in both film and television roles for the rest of his life. Leo Gorcey was known for his diminutive stature, wiseguy attitude and frequent malapropisms, which he delivered in a Brooklyn accent. While he played various characters in the "Dead End Kids", "East Side Kids", and "Bowery Boys" films, these roles tended to be similar street tough characters. For the "Bowery Boys" series, he was the leader of the group. Billy Halop served as the original leader of the "Dead End Kids". He later appeared on All in the Family in a recurring role. Huntz Hall became known for his goofy, bumbling character Horace DeBussy "Sach" Jones in the "Bowery Boys" films. Following Gorcey's departure, he became the focal point of the series. Later, Hall acted in war films and staged a successful nightclub act with fellow actor Gabriel Dell. Bobby Jordan was the youngest member of the group. Over time, with the rising popularity of Gorcey and Hall, Jordan's role was reduced to little more than a background character. Bernard Punsly was known for his well-meaning, likeable personality. He tended to play new kid on the block roles and act as the voice of reason among the gang. After serving in the military, Punsly later became a doctor and retired from show business altogether. Similar groups The Harlem Tuff Kids Prison Bait (1939) Take My Life (1942) The Gas House Kids Gas House Kids (1946) Gas House Kids Go West (1947) ''Gas House Kids in Hollywood (1947) References External links The Dead End Kids @ Findagrave.com American comedy troupes American film series Film series introduced in 1937 Film series	[ 0.2652738392353058, -0.1376831978559494, -0.41659268736839294, 0.12239009886980057, 0.30777430534362793, -0.02379271760582924, -0.00790551770478487, 0.5346376895904541, 0.002677702344954014, -0.14558923244476318, 0.03341063857078552, 0.6225699186325073, -0.2573709785938263, 0.12899628281593323, -0.3576928675174713, -0.03169381618499756, 0.2826865017414093, -0.1388787478208542, 0.15478530526161194, -0.39474761486053467, -0.47561582922935486, -0.41943204402923584, 0.3710341453552246, -0.08194517344236374, -0.14604191482067108, 0.12930957973003387, 0.20605385303497314, 0.11303111165761948, -0.28682881593704224, 0.13214395940303802, 0.2532808482646942, 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229292	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reference%20%28computer%20science%29	Reference (computer science)	In computer science, a reference is a value that enables a program to indirectly access a particular data, such as a variable's value or a record, in the computer's memory or in some other storage device. The reference is said to refer to the datum, and accessing the datum is called dereferencing the reference. A reference is distinct from the datum itself. Typically, for references to data stored in memory on a given system, a reference is implemented as the physical address of where the data is stored in memory or in the storage device. For this reason, a reference is often erroneously confused with a pointer or address, and is said to "point to" the data. However, a reference may also be implemented in other ways, such as the offset (difference) between the datum's address and some fixed "base" address, as an index into an array, or more abstractly as a handle. More broadly, in networking, references may be network addresses, such as URLs. The concept of reference must not be confused with other values (keys or identifiers) that uniquely identify the data item, but give access to it only through a non-trivial lookup operation in some table data structure. References are widely used in programming, especially to efficiently pass large or mutable data as arguments to procedures, or to share such data among various uses. In particular, a reference may point to a variable or record that contains references to other data. This idea is the basis of indirect addressing and of many linked data structures, such as linked lists. References can cause significant complexity in a program, partially due to the possibility of dangling and wild references and partially because the topology of data with references is a directed graph, whose analysis can be quite complicated. Benefits References increase flexibility in where objects can be stored, how they are allocated, and how they are passed between areas of code. As long as one can access a reference to the data, one can access the data through it, and the data itself need not be moved. They also make sharing of data between different code areas easier; each keeps a reference to it. The mechanism of references, if varying in implementation, is a fundamental programming language feature common to nearly all modern programming languages. Even some languages that support no direct use of references have some internal or implicit use. For example, the call by reference calling convention can be implemented with either explicit or implicit use of references. Examples Pointers are the most primitive type of reference. Due to their intimate relationship with the underlying hardware, they are one of the most powerful and efficient types of references. However, also due to this relationship, pointers require a strong understanding by the programmer of the details of memory architecture. Because pointers store a memory location's address, instead of a value directly, inappropriate use of pointers can lead to undefined behavior in a program, particularly due to dangling pointers or wild pointers. Smart pointers are opaque data structures that act like pointers but can only be accessed through particular methods. A handle is an abstract reference, and may be represented in various ways. A common example are file handles (the FILE data structure in the C standard I/O library), used to abstract file content. It usually represents both the file itself, as when requesting a lock on the file, and a specific position within the file's content, as when reading a file. In distributed computing, the reference may contain more than an address or identifier; it may also include an embedded specification of the network protocols used to locate and access the referenced object, the way information is encoded or serialized. Thus, for example, a WSDL description of a remote web service can be viewed as a form of reference; it includes a complete specification of how to locate and bind to a particular web service. A reference to a live distributed object is another example: it is a complete specification for how to construct a small software component called a proxy that will subsequently engage in a peer-to-peer interaction, and through which the local machine may gain access to data that is replicated or exists only as a weakly consistent message stream. In all these cases, the reference includes the full set of instructions, or a recipe, for how to access the data; in this sense, it serves the same purpose as an identifier or address in memory. Formal representation More generally, a reference can be considered as a piece of data that allows unique retrieval of another piece of data. This includes primary keys in databases and keys in an associative array. If we have a set of keys K and a set of data objects D, any well-defined (single-valued) function from K to D ∪ {null} defines a type of reference, where null is the image of a key not referring to anything meaningful. An alternative representation of such a function is a directed graph called a reachability graph. Here, each datum is represented by a vertex and there is an edge from u to v if the datum in u refers to the datum in v. The maximum out-degree is one. These graphs are valuable in garbage collection, where they can be used to separate accessible from inaccessible objects. External and internal storage In many data structures, large, complex objects are composed of smaller objects. These objects are typically stored in one of two ways: With internal storage, the contents of the smaller object are stored inside the larger object. With external storage, the smaller objects are allocated in their own location, and the larger object only stores references to them. Internal storage is usually more efficient, because there is a space cost for the references and dynamic allocation metadata, and a time cost associated with dereferencing a reference and with allocating the memory for the smaller objects. Internal storage also enhances locality of reference by keeping different parts of the same large object close together in memory. However, there are a variety of situations in which external storage is preferred: If the data structure is recursive, meaning it may contain itself. This cannot be represented in the internal way. If the larger object is being stored in an area with limited space, such as the stack, then we can prevent running out of storage by storing large component objects in another memory region and referring to them using references. If the smaller objects may vary in size, it is often inconvenient or expensive to resize the larger object so that it can still contain them. References are often easier to work with and adapt better to new requirements. Some languages, such as Java, Smalltalk, Python, and Scheme, do not support internal storage. In these languages, all objects are uniformly accessed through references. Language support In assembly languages, the first languages used, it is typical to express references using either raw memory addresses or indexes into tables. These work, but are somewhat tricky to use, because an address tells you nothing about the value it points to, not even how large it is or how to interpret it; such information is encoded in the program logic. The result is that misinterpretations can occur in incorrect programs, causing bewildering errors. One of the earliest opaque references was that of the Lisp language cons cell, which is simply a record containing two references to other Lisp objects, including possibly other cons cells. This simple structure is most commonly used to build singly linked lists, but can also be used to build simple binary trees and so-called "dotted lists", which terminate not with a null reference but a value. Another early language, Fortran, does not have an explicit representation of references, but does use them implicitly in its call-by-reference calling semantics. The pointer is still one of the most popular types of references today. It is similar to the assembly representation of a raw address, except that it carries a static datatype which can be used at compile-time to ensure that the data it refers to is not misinterpreted. However, because C has a weak type system which can be violated using casts (explicit conversions between various pointer types and between pointer types and integers), misinterpretation is still possible, if more difficult. Its successor C++ tried to increase type safety of pointers with new cast operators and smart pointers in its standard library, but still retained the ability to circumvent these safety mechanisms for compatibility. A number of popular mainstream languages today such as Eiffel, Java, C#, and Visual Basic have adopted a much more opaque type of reference, usually referred to as simply a reference. These references have types like C pointers indicating how to interpret the data they reference, but they are typesafe in that they cannot be interpreted as a raw address and unsafe conversions are not permitted. Fortran A Fortran reference is best thought of as an alias of another object, such as a scalar variable or a row or column of an array. There is no syntax to dereference the reference or manipulate the contents of the referent directly. Fortran references can be null. As in other languages, these references facilitate the processing of dynamic structures, such as linked lists, queues, and trees. Functional languages In all of the above settings, the concept of mutable variables, data that can be modified, often makes implicit use of references. In Standard ML, OCaml, and many other functional languages, most values are persistent: they cannot be modified by assignment. Assignable "reference cells" serve the unavoidable purposes of mutable references in imperative languages, and make the capability to be modified explicit. Such reference cells can hold any value, and so are given the polymorphic type α ref, where α is to be replaced with the type of value pointed to. These mutable references can be pointed to different objects over their lifetime. For example, this permits building of circular data structures. The reference cell is functionally equivalent to an array of length 1. To preserve safety and efficient implementations, references cannot be type-cast in ML, nor can pointer arithmetic be performed. It is important to note that in the functional paradigm, many structures that would be represented using pointers in a language like C are represented using other facilities, such as the powerful algebraic datatype mechanism. The programmer is then able to enjoy certain properties (such as the guarantee of immutability) while programming, even though the compiler often uses machine pointers "under the hood". Symbolic references Some languages, like Perl, support symbolic references, which are just string values that contain the names of variables. When a value that is not a regular reference is dereferenced, Perl considers it to be a symbolic reference and gives the variable with the name given by the value. PHP has a similar feature in the form of its $$var syntax. References in object-oriented languages Many object-oriented languages make extensive use of references. They may use references to access and assign objects. References are also used in function/method calls or message passing, and reference counts are frequently used to perform garbage collection of unused objects. See also Reference type Abstraction (computer science) Autovivification Bounded pointer Linked data Magic cookie Variable (programming) Weak reference References External links Pointer Fun With Binky Introduction to pointers in a 3-minute educational video – Stanford Computer Science Education Library Data types Programming language concepts Primitive types	[ 0.33783406019210815, 0.621160626411438, 0.08104421198368073, 0.6719022989273071, 0.22479066252708435, 0.01695496402680874, -0.5564093589782715, 0.06963016837835312, -0.1416955441236496, -0.21845553815364838, -0.17346958816051483, 0.44393041729927063, -0.02880590595304966, 0.45837366580963135, -0.13065265119075775, 0.1672561913728714, 0.3081303834915161, 0.07202303409576416, 0.2699674665927887, -0.4577487111091614, -0.6910635232925415, 0.08904163539409637, -0.546088695526123, -0.9230080246925354, 0.3274017572402954, -0.07795128971338272, 0.274954617023468, 0.1613091230392456, -0.5962652564048767, -0.19963793456554413, 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229293	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/William%20Winter	William Winter	William or Bill Winter may refer to: Bill Winter (American football) (born 1943), American football player Bill Winter (linebacker) (born 1940), American football player; played for the New York Giants (1962–1964) Bill Winter (British Army officer) (William Arthur Winter, 1913–2004), British soldier W. Christopher Winter (born 1972), sleep medicine specialist and neurologist William H. Winter (1819–1879), American explorer and author William J. Winter (born 1930), Roman Catholic auxiliary bishop of Pittsburgh William Winter (author) (1836–1917), American drama critic and author William Winter (chess player) (1898–1955), British chess player William Winter (cricketer) (1843–1905), English cricketer William Winter (politician) (1923-2020), American politician; former Governor of Mississippi William Winter-Irving (1840–1901), born William Irving Winter, Australian politician See also William Wynter (1519–1589), English admiral William Winter Payne (1807–1874), U.S. Representative from Alabama	[ -0.19609394669532776, 0.07108121365308762, -0.02567698061466217, -0.44773951172828674, 0.24881450831890106, 0.8027921915054321, 0.8595666885375977, -0.0953284427523613, -0.6367797255516052, -0.42802372574806213, -0.4998125731945038, -0.20425303280353546, -0.2272476702928543, 0.1439376175403595, -0.035870783030986786, 0.37485021352767944, -0.22770851850509644, 0.3121427893638611, -0.40362298488616943, -0.23375676572322845, 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229296	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pons	Pons	The pons (from Latin , "bridge") is part of the brainstem that in humans and other bipeds lies inferior to the midbrain, superior to the medulla oblongata and anterior to the cerebellum. The pons is also called the pons Varolii ("bridge of Varolius"), after the Italian anatomist and surgeon Costanzo Varolio (1543–75). This region of the brainstem includes neural pathways and tracts that conduct signals from the brain down to the cerebellum and medulla, and tracts that carry the sensory signals up into the thalamus. Structure The pons is in the brainstem situated between the midbrain and the medulla oblongata, and in front of the cerebellum. A separating groove between the pons and the medulla is the inferior pontine sulcus. The superior pontine sulcus separates the pons from the midbrain. The pons can be broadly divided into two parts: the basilar part of the pons (ventral pons), and the pontine tegmentum (dorsal pons). Running down the midline of the ventral surface is the basilar sulcus, a groove for the basilar artery. Most of the pons is supplied by the pontine arteries, which arise from the basilar artery. A smaller portion of the pons is supplied by the anterior and posterior inferior cerebellar arteries. The pons in humans measures about in length. Most of it appears as a broad anterior bulge above the medulla. Posteriorly, it consists mainly of two pairs of thick stalks called cerebellar peduncles. They connect the cerebellum to the pons (middle cerebellar peduncle) and midbrain (superior cerebellar peduncle). Development During embryonic development, the metencephalon develops from the rhombencephalon and gives rise to two structures: the pons and the cerebellum. The alar plate produces sensory neuroblasts, which will give rise to the solitary nucleus and its special visceral afferent (SVA) column; the cochlear and vestibular nuclei, which form the special somatic afferent (SSA) fibers of the vestibulocochlear nerve, the spinal and principal trigeminal nerve nuclei, which form the general somatic afferent column (GSA) of the trigeminal nerve, and the pontine nuclei which relays to the cerebellum. Basal plate neuroblasts give rise to the abducens nucleus, which forms the general somatic efferent fibers (GSE); the facial and motor trigeminal nuclei, which form the special visceral efferent (SVE) column, and the superior salivatory nucleus, which forms the general visceral efferent fibers (GVE) of the facial nerve. Nuclei A number of cranial nerve nuclei are present in the pons: mid-pons: the 'chief' or 'pontine' nucleus of the trigeminal nerve sensory nucleus (V) mid-pons: the motor nucleus for the trigeminal nerve (V) lower down in the pons: abducens nucleus (VI) lower down in the pons: facial nerve nucleus (VII) lower down in the pons: vestibulocochlear nuclei (vestibular nuclei and cochlear nuclei) (VIII) Function Functions of these four cranial nerves (V-VIII) include regulation of respiration, control of involuntary actions, sensory roles in hearing, equilibrium, and taste, and in facial sensations such as touch and pain, as well as motor roles in eye movement, facial expressions, chewing, swallowing, and the secretion of saliva and tears. The pons contains nuclei that relay signals from the forebrain to the cerebellum, along with nuclei that deal primarily with sleep, respiration, swallowing, bladder control, hearing, equilibrium, taste, eye movement, facial expressions, facial sensation, and posture. Within the pons is the pneumotaxic center consisting of the subparabrachial and the medial parabrachial nuclei. This center regulates the change from inhalation to exhalation. The pons is implicated in sleep paralysis, and may also play a role in generating dreams. Clinical significance Central pontine myelinolysis is a demyelinating disease that causes difficulty with sense of balance, walking, sense of touch, swallowing and speaking. In a clinical setting, it is often associated with transplant or rapid correction of blood sodium. Undiagnosed, it can lead to death or locked-in syndrome. Other animals Evolution The pons first evolved as an offshoot of the medullary reticular formation. Since lampreys possess a pons, it has been argued that it must have evolved as a region distinct from the medulla by the time the first agnathans appeared, 525 million years ago. Additional images References External links Diagram at UCC	[ -0.1674501746892929, -0.05136721953749657, 0.20144733786582947, -0.2899613380432129, 0.07248825579881668, 1.0845615863800049, 0.09953726828098297, 0.32422760128974915, -0.240079864859581, -0.7679015398025513, -0.27680903673171997, 0.8160786628723145, 0.10321998596191406, -0.5649763345718384, -0.2584801912307739, -0.44511711597442627, 1.276105523109436, 0.08094068616628647, -0.5087561011314392, -0.07943654805421829, 0.23384155333042145, -0.11229470372200012, 0.4597965478897095, -0.30165061354637146, 0.46609896421432495, -0.03627628833055496, -0.08122099190950394, 0.28358450531959534, 0.48415085673332214, -0.0518263503909111, -0.24279244244098663, 0.5736366510391235, -0.05839161202311516, -0.5841543078422546, -0.5688478350639343, -0.3577612638473511, -0.27240195870399475, -0.47014477849006653, -0.14109595119953156, -0.40229156613349915, 0.06672181934118271, 0.1069592610001564, -0.26558899879455566, 0.2573156952857971, 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229297	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/William%20Allain	William Allain	William Alexander "Bill" Allain (February 14, 1928 – December 2, 2013) was an American politician who held office as the 59th Governor of Mississippi as a Democrat from 1984 to 1988. Biography He was born in Washington in Adams County near Natchez, Mississippi. He attended the University of Notre Dame in South Bend, Indiana, and received his law degree from the University of Mississippi School of Law at Oxford. Allain served in the United States Army infantry in the Korean War. A Catholic, he was a member of the American Legion and Veterans of Foreign Wars. After the war, he practiced law in Natchez, Mississippi, until his appointment as assistant state attorney general in 1962. Allain was elected state attorney general in 1979, having defeated the Republican State Senator Charles W. Pickering of Laurel. Allain earned a reputation as a consumer advocate. He fought utility rate increases and stopped the storage of nuclear waste in Mississippi. State labor president Claude Ramsay sought to broker an agreement between Democratic Party presidential candidate Walter F. Mondale and Allain when the latter sought a veto over the federal storage of nuclear waste in Mississippi as a condition for his political support of Mondale. He also fought the powerful Mississippi Legislature, which for decades had diluted executive branch power by appointing legislators to executive department boards and commissions. The Mississippi Supreme Court, at Allain's insistence, struck the practice as a violation of the constitutional principle of separation of powers. The resulting decision, Allain v. Alexander, is sometimes referred to as "Mississippi's Marbury vs. Madison," after the landmark decision of the United States Supreme Court which delineated the powers of the three branches of the federal government. Allain's efforts strengthened the Mississippi executive and streamlined Mississippi's political processes. Allain as governor instituted a legal panel to study the possibility of re-writing the 1890 Bourbon state constitution and created an administrative task force of state agency heads to reduce the use of illegal drugs. He was unsuccessful in the former and successful in the later case, particularly in the interdiction and seizure of almost a ton of cocaine. In 1983, while Allain was running for governor against Republican candidate Leon Bramlett of Clarksdale, private detective Rex Armistead, formerly with the Mississippi State Sovereignty Commission, helped to spread rumors that Allain had sexual intercourse with two African-American male transvestites. Allain denied the charges. The transvestites went on the record with a lie detector but in 1984 claimed they had never met Allain and had been paid for their testimony. Allain died December 2, 2013, in Jackson, Mississippi. References \|- \|- 1928 births 2013 deaths United States Army soldiers United States Army personnel of the Korean War Catholics from Mississippi Governors of Mississippi Mississippi Attorneys General Mississippi Democrats University of Mississippi alumni University of Notre Dame alumni People from Washington, Mississippi Democratic Party state governors of the United States	[ -0.6074361205101013, -0.25514936447143555, -0.5878096222877502, -0.45477911829948425, 0.40703284740448, 0.798825204372406, 0.46621912717819214, 0.0942370817065239, -0.4057682454586029, -0.2527617812156677, 0.17030209302902222, 0.7125057578086853, -0.7497345805168152, 0.5804269313812256, 0.34942391514778137, 0.38693922758102417, 0.21187040209770203, -0.4266816973686218, -0.15302535891532898, 0.19449172914028168, -0.24252548813819885, -0.03051106072962284, 0.621863842010498, 0.307145357131958, -0.029460882768034935, 0.21667678654193878, -0.18175062537193298, -0.15740223228931427, 0.25268855690956116, 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229298	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bradley%20Nowell	Bradley Nowell	Bradley James Nowell (February 22, 1968 – May 25, 1996) was an American musician and the lead singer and guitarist of the ska punk band Sublime. Born and raised in Belmont Shore, Long Beach, California, Nowell developed an interest in music at a young age. His father took him on a trip to Jamaica during his childhood years, which exposed him to reggae and dancehall music; he then gained a strong interest in rock music once he learned how to play guitar. Nowell played in various bands until forming Sublime with bassist Eric Wilson and drummer Bud Gaugh, whom he had met while attending California State University at Long Beach. In his lifetime, Sublime released the albums 40oz. to Freedom and Robbin' the Hood to critical and commercial success. Throughout the band's career, Nowell struggled with a worsening addiction to heroin. He eventually became sober after his son Jakob, with girlfriend Troy Dendekker, was born in May 1995, but relapsed and died of a heroin overdose in 1996 in a San Francisco hotel while Sublime was on tour. Sublime released their self-titled third album two months after Nowell's death, and has subsequently released several compilation albums featuring the hundreds of songs he recorded throughout his life. Nowell remains an influential figure of the 1990s alternative era in his legacy. Early life Bradley Nowell and his sister, Kellie, were born and raised in the Belmont Shore neighborhood of Long Beach, California, to Jim and Nancy Nowell. As a child, he enjoyed surfing and sailing, often participating in boat races. Nowell became a difficult child and was often hyperactive and disruptive; his mother recalled that he was "very emotional, very sensitive, very artistic, but he was needy … He was always testing just to see what he could get away with." After his parents' divorce when he was 10, Nowell's behavior worsened. His mother was originally awarded custody, but found him too difficult to control, and at the age of 10 he moved in full time with his father. Music was an integral part of Nowell's upbringing on the part of both of his parents. His father, a construction worker, enjoyed playing guitar and exposed him to the music of Jim Croce; his mother taught piano for a living in addition to playing the flute. Both parents helped teach young Nowell to play the guitar. In the summer of 1979, 11-year-old Nowell accompanied his father on a month-long sailing trip in the Virgin Islands, where he was first exposed to reggae music. By the age of 16, he started his first band, Hogan's Heroes, with Michael Yates and Eric Wilson. Nowell was described as a "gifted kid with many friends." At first, Wilson did not share Nowell's interest in reggae music. Nowell recalled the experience: "I was trying to get them to do (UB40's version of) 'Cherry Oh Baby,' and it didn't work. They tried, but it just sounded like such garbage. We were horrible." Nowell attended the University of California, Santa Cruz before transferring to California State University, Long Beach to study finance. While at Cal State Long Beach, Nowell received good grades, appearing on the " Dean's List in 1990. However, he dropped out one semester shy of earning a degree, stating in 1995, "I have all the hard classes left … I doubt I'll ever go back." Sublime According to a Westwood One interview (which can be found on disc three of the Sublime box set), in 1988 Nowell got together with bassist Wilson and drummer Bud Gaugh, performing in small shows at house parties and barbecues. The band was often asked to leave the parties due to excessive noise. Sublime gained a reputation for their rowdy behavior and eventually became one of the most popular bands in Southern California. Despite their local success, music venues were skeptical of the band's eclectic musical fusion and many refused to book the band. In response, Nowell and Wilson created their own music label, Skunk Records, telling venues they were "Skunk Records recording artists," helping the band seem more accomplished and enabling them to book more shows. The band produced and distributed Sublime's early recordings on the label, later selling demo tapes at shows and local record stores. In 1990, music student Michael "Miguel" Happoldt offered to let the band record in the studio at the school where he was studying, although without the school's knowledge. The band agreed, then sneaked into the school at night, where they recorded from midnight to seven in the morning. That recording session resulted in the popular cassette tape Jah Won't Pay the Bills, released in 1991. The tape helped the band gain a grassroots following throughout Southern California. It was during this time that Nowell became involved with drugs. For years, Nowell refused to try heroin; however, as he entered his twenties and witnessed his band's success, he decided to try the drug. Nowell's father explained, "His excuse for taking the heroin was that he felt like he had to be larger than life. He was leading the band, leading his fans, and he had to put on this persona. He heard a lot of musicians say they were taking heroin to be more creative." Using the same tactics they used in recording Jah Won't Pay the Bills, the band recorded its debut album 40oz. to Freedom in secrecy at the studios at California State University, Dominguez Hills. Nowell recalled, "You weren't supposed to be in there after 9 p.m., but we'd go in at 9:30 and stay until 5 in the morning. We'd just hide from the security guards. They never knew we were there. We managed to get $30,000 worth of studio time for free". 40oz. to Freedom was released in 1992; 60,000 copies were sold. Despite their growing popularity in Southern California, Sublime still was not signed with a major label. Around this same time Nowell teamed up with longtime friend Gwen Stefani of No Doubt, to record the song "Saw Red". The song was eventually released on Sublime's Robbin' the Hood album, which was self-recorded on a four-track cassette, and released in October 1994. Several songs from the album detail Nowell's worsening drug addiction. Nowell is said by some to have predicted his own death in the song "Pool Shark", with the line, "One day I'm gonna lose the war". About a year later, Tazy Phillipz took a copy of 40oz. to Freedom to Los Angeles radio station KROQ-FM, requesting that Sublime's song "Date Rape" be added to the playlist. Soon after, MCA Records picked up 40oz. to Freedom for national distribution, and Sublime was scheduled to tour throughout Europe. Nowell, an avid reader who enjoyed quoting historians and philosophers, began studying European history to prepare for the trip. Attention from a major label did not curb Nowell's drug use, which sometimes led him to pawn his instruments and sell drugs, as reflected in the song "Pawn Shop". In February 1996, Sublime returned to the studio to record the bulk of their self-titled album, which would be their debut with MCA. Production was done by Paul Leary of the Butthole Surfers (and producer of Marcy Playground and Meat Puppets) at Willie Nelson's Pedernales Studio in Austin, Texas. Death Nowell married Troy Dendekker on May 18, 1996. Seven days later, on the morning of May 25, Sublime was set to begin a five-day tour through Northern California, followed by a European and East Coast tour. However, while the band was staying at the Ocean View Motel in San Francisco (Seascape Inn now), drummer Bud Gaugh awoke to find Nowell lying on the floor next to his bed. His dalmatian, Lou Dog, was curled up on the bed whimpering. Nowell had tried awakening his fellow bandmates to go to the beach with him that morning, but they were too hung-over and tired to get out of bed. Initially, Gaugh assumed that Nowell was too intoxicated to get into bed. However, he noticed a yellow film around his mouth, and it became apparent that he had overdosed on heroin. Gaugh called for paramedics, but Nowell had died several hours earlier and was pronounced dead at the scene. Nowell was cremated and his ashes were spread over his favorite surfing spot in Surfside, California. A headstone was placed at Westminster Memorial in Westminster, California, in his memory. Eight months after Nowell's death, No Doubt headlined a "cautionary" benefit concert in honor of his memory. Nowell's widow wanted to make it clear that the goal of the concert was not to glamorize his death, but rather to promote drug awareness and prevention among fans. Proceeds from the concert were given to a non-profit offering support for musicians struggling with drug addiction, as well as a scholarship fund for Nowell's son, Jakob. On January 11, 1997, a Los Angeles Times article titled "Cautionary Concert in Rocker's Memory", writer Jerry Crowe quoted No Doubt bassist Tony Kanal as saying, "Obviously, it's going to be very emotional because you're there playing a show to commemorate a good friend who died and died for very wrong reasons. But you're also there to change things for the future and prevent stuff like that from ever happening again. A lot of times we hear about musicians using drugs and it's so blasé and clichéd. You just kind of say, 'Oh, he'll be fine. Somebody will take care of him.' But that's not true. It's important for every single one of us to stand up and say, 'Enough of this shit.' It's time to make a difference". Jason Westfall, one of Sublime's managers, was quoted as saying the surviving members of Sublime had no interest in continuing to perform and record under the "Sublime" name: "Just like Nirvana, Sublime died when Brad died." Sublime played their last show at the Phoenix Theater in Petaluma, California. In late 2010 and early 2011, the remaining band members, along with Rome Ramirez, began touring under the name Sublime with Rome. Post-death Sublime's final album was released on July 30, 1996. Its original title, Killin' It, was replaced by the eponymous title, Sublime. By 1997, the album entered Billboard's Top 20, with the largely acoustic single, "What I Got", becoming the number one song on the Modern Rock chart. The album produced three more radio hits: "Santeria", "Wrong Way", and "Doin' Time". The accompanying music videos for "Santeria", "What I Got", and "Wrong Way" received heavy rotation on MTV, with previously filmed footage of Nowell performing live intercut into the video. The footage which was used came mostly from shows in 1996. Sublime became one of the most successful American rock acts of 1997. Rolling Stone reported in March 2010 that the album Sublime had sold over 6 million copies. In 2009, Gaugh and Wilson teamed up with Rome Ramirez to form Sublime with Rome after an attempt to reform "Sublime" was blocked by Nowell's estate. The new band plays all of Sublime's original songs except for "Caress Me Down", which Rome refuses to play out of respect for Nowell - as it is sung from his perspective (the lyrics with "me llamo Bradley"). The band also records original music; their 2011 debut album Yours Truly is dedicated to Nowell. The trio stuck together until 2011, when bandmate Bud Gaugh decided to leave the band. The current entourage is Rome Ramirez, Eric Wilson, and Carlos Verdugo. Personal life Marriage and fatherhood While on tour in the early 1990s, Nowell began dating Troy Dendekker. In October 1994, Troy became pregnant, giving birth to a son, Jakob James Nowell, on June 25, 1995. On May 18, 1996, a week before Nowell died, the couple married in a Hawaiian-themed ceremony in Las Vegas. Lou Dog In February 1990, Nowell purchased a dalmatian puppy from an old man for $500, and named him "Louie" after his grandfather. Also referred to as "Lou Dog", he became a mascot for the band Sublime. Lou Dog was often allowed to wander the stage during concert performances. Louie was also often featured on the cover of Sublime albums, and was referred to in the lyrics of Sublime songs. In Sublime's most successful radio track, "What I Got", Nowell sings, "...livin' with Louie Dog's the only way to stay sane". Another prominent song of the band, "Garden Grove", mentions Lou Dog as such: "We took this trip to Garden Grove. It smelled like Lou dog inside the van, oh yeah". In the song "Doin' Time" Nowell can be heard singing: "All the people in the dance will agree That we're well qualified to represent the LBC Me, me and Louie run to the party Dance to the rhythm it gets harder" Nowell would sometimes begin live songs by referencing Lou Dog, and can be heard on the live version of "Caress Me Down" from Stand By Your Van yelling "Everybody say Louie - 1,2,3 Louie, Louie, Louie, Louie!" Nowell was known to invite his friends and their dogs over to film parodies of popular music videos; the dogs would pose as a band or an artist, dressed in corresponding costumes. In the early 1990s, Lou Dog disappeared for a week but was soon returned to Nowell, who later covered the Camper Van Beethoven song "The Day That Lassie Went to the Moon", and changed it to "Lou Dog Went to the Moon". Following Nowell's death in 1996, Lou Dog was cared for by Miguel, the band's manager. Lou Dog died from old age on September 17, 2001. Nowell's family scattered Lou Dog's ashes over the same spot as Nowell's, in Surfside, California. See also Dub music Long Beach Dub All Stars Long Beach Shortbus References External links American punk rock guitarists American punk rock singers California State University, Long Beach alumni Deaths by heroin overdose in California Accidental deaths in California Musicians from Long Beach, California Wilson Classical High School alumni 1968 births 1996 deaths Sublime (band) members Singers from California Lead guitarists 20th-century American singers Alternative rock singers American alternative rock musicians Guitarists from California American male guitarists Reggae rock musicians 20th-century American guitarists 20th-century American male singers	[ 0.10501617193222046, 0.36944249272346497, -0.4699966013431549, -0.15394334495067596, 0.16935811936855316, 0.14920499920845032, 0.6045873761177063, -0.21404939889907837, -0.05519269406795502, -0.30465659499168396, 0.4040151834487915, 0.22398817539215088, -0.07530201971530914, 0.20714052021503448, 0.07426798343658447, 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229301	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coat%20of%20arms%20of%20%C3%96land	Coat of arms of Öland	Öland is a province of Sweden and, like many of Sweden's provinces, was granted a coat of arms in preparation for the funeral of Gustav Vasa in 1560. Confusion arose between Öland's arms with one deer and Åland's arms with two deer and nine roses, resulting in Öland bearing the wrong coat of arms from the 1880s until an audit in 1944. A confusing error The coat of arms originally granted for the island province of Öland in 1560 displayed a golden red deer on a blue field and generally resembled Öland's present arms but lacked the deer's red collar and red attire. In 1569, the island province of Åland had been given to the queen dowager Katarina Stenbock as a fief and was awarded a coat of arms displaying two roe deer on a field strewn with nine roses. The arms of these two similar-sounding provinces became confused early on, and in the 1880s Öland's arms were recorded as two roe deer with nine roses. During a heraldic revision in 1944, the office of the Swedish Herald of the Realm (Riksheraldikerämbetet) discovered that a mistake had been committed. It was then decided the Öland deer should have a collar, something which had sometimes occurred before and had been considered for Djurgården. So in 1944 the arms of Öland were reverted to the single golden red deer, which at this time was granted the distinction of a collar, marking it as the royal game. Heraldic authorities in Finland had long since granted Åland (which Sweden had ceded to Russia in 1809 along with the rest of Finland) arms bearing a single golden red deer on a blue field. In 1944 they were notified of the error but ultimately decided not make any changes and not to adopt the coat of arms originally intended for Åland with the roe deer and the nine Finnish roses. This decision made it necessary for Swedish heralds to once again alter the coat of arms for Öland, to avoid further confusion. This change included the introduction of a red collar and red antlers and hooves. Öland's arms 1944-present Official blazon (in Swedish): "I blått fält en gående hjort av guld med rött halsband och röd beväring, därest sådan skall komma till användning." (In a blue field a walking deer of gold with red collar and red arms, when such shall come to use.) The arms are displayed with a ducal coronet. The province was originally ranked as an earldom but following a decision by the Privy Council on January 18, 1884 gave all Provinces the right of use to a ducal coronet for their arms. Related arms Åland Åland is today an autonomous province of Finland. The arms of Öland and Åland had been confused, leading Öland to adopt the arms intended for Åland, featuring two golden deer on a blue field strewn with nine white roses. Åland, meanwhile, retained the arms which had originally been granted to Öland in 1560 (a golden deer on a blue field). The arms of Åland are displayed with a comital coronet. Blazon (in Swedish): "I blått fält en gående hjort av guld." ("Azure, a hart passant Or".) Blazon (in Finnish): "Sinisessä kentässä on kävelevä kultainen saksanhirvi." Kalmar County The Kalmar County includes the eastern part of Småland and the island province of Öland. The arms are a combination of the arms of Småland and Öland. The arms are displayed with a royal crown, representing the County Administrative Board. Blazon (in Swedish): "Sköld kvadrerad av Smålands och Ölands vapen." ("Quartered, the arms of Småland and Öland.") 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229302	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Skate%20punk	Skate punk	Skate punk (also known as skatecore and skate rock) is a skater subculture and punk rock subgenre that developed in the 1980s. Originally a form of hardcore punk that had been closely associated with skate culture, skate punk evolved into a more melodic genre of punk rock in the 1990s similar to pop punk. Since then, it has predominately featured fast tempos, lead guitar playing (including guitar riffs and guitar solos), fast drumming, and singing (sometimes including vocal harmonies). Occasionally, skate punk also combines the fast tempos of hardcore punk and melodic hardcore with the catchy hooks of pop-punk. 1970s and early 1980s punk rock bands like Buzzcocks, Descendents, Adolescents, Black Flag, and Circle Jerks paved the way for skate punk. Skate punk was pioneered in the 1980s by bands such as the Big Boys, Suicidal Tendencies, and JFA. Many early skate punk bands are part of the hardcore punk movement nardcore, which emerged in Oxnard, California. Skate punk band Bad Religion started the more melodic style of skate punk in 1988 with the band's influential album Suffer. This melodic style of skate punk continued in the 1990s with several skate punk bands emerging at the time. In the 1990s, skate punk changed into a more melodic punk rock genre with bands like NOFX, Lagwagon, Pennywise, Face to Face, and No Use for a Name. Skate punk broke into the mainstream during the 1990s with bands such as the Offspring and Blink-182. Other bands, like NOFX, Pennywise, Face to Face, MxPx and Bad Religion, achieved underground to moderate success. Many skate punk bands' songs were featured in Tony Hawk's video games, a video game series that sold millions. punk's popularity continued in the early 2000s with many bands continuing to make albums that received a lot of attention. During the 2010s, later skate punk bands such as Trash Boat, Cerebral Ballzy, and Trash Talk, achieved underground success through the influence of previous skate punk bands. Characteristics Skate punk is also known as skate rock and skatecore. Noted by AllMusic for having "high-energy", skate punk features fast tempos. Many of the 1980s skate punk bands were hardcore punk bands. In the 1990s, it changed and was played by bands that sounded more like pop punk and standard punk rock than hardcore punk. Also a skater subculture, skate punk's origins go back to skate culture and surf culture. Author Sharon M. Hannon noted skate punk is known for "its fast guitars, driving bass lines, and surf music–style drums". According to Mark Lepage of Spin magazine, it often has a "double-time hup-two-three-four beat". Skate punk music often features singing and vocal harmonies. Rolling Stone described skate punk as "a sort of pop hardcore". Some skate punk music has lyrics that are about humor - "mostly of the smartass variety". Much skate punk music features lead guitar playing, guitar riffs, and sometimes guitar solos. Skate punk is described by AllMusic as having "thrashier guitars" than regular punk rock. Blast beats and fast drumming are very common in skate punk. Skate punk features the fast tempos of hardcore punk and melodic hardcore, occasionally combining them with the catchy hooks of pop punk. Some skate punk bands play other genres of music; pop punk, funk metal, and hardcore punk are genres that are noted for being played by some skate punk bands. Skate punk paved the way for third-wave ska. Some skate punk bands, including NOFX and the Suicide Machines, also play ska punk. Some skate punk bands, including Suicidal Tendencies and Excel, also play thrash metal or crossover thrash. History Predecessors (1970s and early 1980s) California punk bands like Black Flag, Adolescents, and Circle Jerks paved the way for skate punk with their "fast and raw" music, "which replicated the feel of skating." 1970s punk bands like the Buzzcocks and 1980s punk bands like The Descendents made fast and catchy punk rock songs about teenage confusion, and also combined the aggression and speed of hardcore punk with melodies. Origins (1980s) Originally derived from hardcore punk, skate punk began in the early 1980s. The Big Boys and JFA are considered pioneers of skate punk. Bands such as Gang Green, Suicidal Tendencies, The Faction, Rich Kids on LSD, Tales of Terror, Agression, Drunk Injuns and NOFX were among the first wave of skate punk bands. Johnny Loftus of AllMusic described early skate punk music as "a confluence of punk's anger and simplicity, the furious speed of hardcore, and defiantly smart-assed machismo". Many early skate punk bands are part of the hardcore punk movement nardcore, which emerged in Oxnard, California. Popular among skateboarders, 1980s hardcore punk bands with connections to skateboarding culture were labeled as "skate punk" - the origin of the term. Early skate punk bands are noted for creating the connection between punk rock and skateboarding. Mörizen "Mofo" Föche, vocalist of Drunk Injuns and former employee of the magazine Thrasher, is "often credited with first coining the term 'skate-punk'." Bad Religion's 1988 album Suffer is seen by many as a highly influential landmark album in the skate punk genre. Suffer helped start the melodic style of skate punk that continued in the 1990s. Mainstream success (1990s and early 2000s) As skate punk became more popular during the 1990s, it changed into a more melodic genre. During this time, some bands experienced mainstream success and were featured at events such as the Warped Tour, which started in 1995. Prominent skate punk bands of the 1990s include Consumed, Good Riddance, Strung Out, NOFX, Goldfinger, Lagwagon, Guttermouth, No Use for a Name, Face to Face, Slick Shoes, MxPx, Unwritten Law, Ten Foot Pole, Screeching Weasel, Bad Religion, the Offspring, and Pennywise. Skate punk broke into the mainstream in 1994. The Offspring's album Smash, released in 1994, launched the band into the mainstream. Smash, certified 6x platinum by the Recording Industry Association of America (RIAA), sold at least 6.3 million copies in the United States and at least 5 million copies outside the United States. NOFX's 1994 album Punk in Drublic was eventually certified gold by the RIAA on May 5, 2000. Unlike other 1990s punk rock bands, NOFX never signed to a major record label. Also, NOFX has not given permission for its music videos to be played on channels like MTV and VH1. Explaining this decision NOFX member said: "We made the 'Leave It Alone' video, and we decided not to send it to MTV. We just didn't want to be a part of that machine, of that punk wave. I think it's one of the best decisions we've ever made." California skate punk band Face to Face had local success with their song "Disconnected", which was played often on California radio station KROQ-FM. With "Disconnected" constantly playing on KROQ-FM, Face to Face's 1995 album Big Choice sold more than 100,000 copies. Other skate punk bands achieved underground to moderate success. Pennywise's 1993 album Unknown Road sold 100,000 copies within two years, according to Nielsen SoundScan, and helped bring the band underground popularity. Bad Religion's 1994 album Stranger Than Fiction was certified gold by the RIAA on March 4, 1998. Stranger Than Fiction song "21st Century (Digital Boy)" peaked at number 11 on the Alternative Songs chart on December 24, 1994 and the song's music video was played a lot on MTV. Although Ixnay on the Hombre by the Offspring did not achieve the same sales as the Offspring's album Smash, Ixnay on the Hombre by the Offspring was certified platinum by the RIAA in April 1997. As of November 1998, the album sold at least 3 million copies worldwide and, as of August 2015, the album sold 1.4 million copies in the United States. In June 1997, Blink-182 released its album Dude Ranch. It was certified gold by the RIAA in February 1998, and was certified platinum by the RIAA in November 1999. Scott Heisel of Alternative Press described Dude Ranch as "a killer skate-punk record". Dude Ranch single "Dammit" was a hit. It peaked at number 61 on Billboard Hot 100 Airplay chart, received heavy radio airplay and was played a lot by MTV. In 1998, the Offspring released their album Americana, which was certified 5x platinum by the RIAA. MxPx began to receive underground attention in 1996 with the band's third album Life in General, which sold 89,000 copies within two years, according to Nielsen SoundScan, and helped the band's first two albums, Pokinatcha (1994) and Teenage Politics (1995), sell 50,000 combined. The song "Chick Magnet" received limited play on MTV and M2. MxPx released its fourth album Slowly Going the Way of the Buffalo, which was certified gold by the RIAA in January 2000. The skateboarding video game series Tony Hawk's featured music by many skate punk bands, including Lagwagon, Guttermouth, the Vandals, Suicidal Tendencies, Millencolin, Bad Religion, and Consumed. Tony Hawk's Pro Skater was one of the top-selling video games for PlayStation in November 1999. Quickly after being released, Tony Hawk's Pro Skater 2, released in 2000, was the PlayStation title for two consecutive weeks. Tony Hawk's Pro Skater 2 quickly sold 1,000,000 copies. The sales of the video game reached 5,300,000 copies in the United States. Tony Hawk's Pro Skater 3, released in 2001, sold about 2,100,000 copies in the United States. As skate punk achieved success in the 1990s, record labels like Epitaph Records and Fat Wreck Chords signed numerous punk bands. Underground revival (2010s) During the 2010s, there was an emergence of skate punk bands influenced by older skate punk bands. These bands include Trash Talk, FIDLAR, Trash Boat and Cerebral Ballzy. Many of them attracted cult followings by promoting their music on the Internet. Many of these bands, including Trash Talk and Cerebral Ballzy, are influenced by hardcore punk and speed metal. FIDLAR is influenced by skate punk bands Blink-182 and the Offspring. and achieved underground and moderate success; their self-titled album debuted at number five on Billboard Top Heatseekers chart. See also List of skate punk bands Pop punk Skateboarding References Citations Bibliography Further reading External links Skateboarding 1980s in music 1990s in music 2000s in music 1990s fads and trends 2000s fads and trends 20th-century music genres 21st-century music genres Hardcore punk genres American styles of music American rock music genres Youth culture in the United States Music of California Southern California Punk rock genres Musical subcultures	[ 0.4668485224246979, -0.31066054105758667, -0.5890830755233765, 0.38225820660591125, -0.17505718767642975, 0.1257304549217224, 0.17781628668308258, 1.0271923542022705, -0.2067108005285263, -0.3721148669719696, 0.3039208650588989, 0.23534366488456726, -0.24186669290065765, -0.013712702319025993, -0.5987190008163452, -0.028954336419701576, -0.11372322589159012, 0.03407234698534012, 0.23582789301872253, 0.33155831694602966, -0.7042193412780762, -0.39060503244400024, 0.35110050439834595, -0.10117435455322266, 0.004594048950821161, 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229307	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heilbronn%20%28district%29	Heilbronn (district)	Landkreis Heilbronn () is a Landkreis (district) in the north of Baden-Württemberg, Germany. Neighboring districts are (from north clockwise) Neckar-Odenwald, Hohenlohe, Schwäbisch Hall, Rems-Murr, Ludwigsburg, Enz, Karlsruhe and Rhein-Neckar. In the centre of it is the free-city of Heilbronn, which is its own separate administrative area. History The predecessor to the district is the Oberamt Heilbronn, which was created in 1803 when the previously Free Imperial City of Heilbronn was incorporated into the Electorate of Württemberg. In 1926, about half of the Oberamt (old district) of Weinsberg was added. In 1938, it was recognized as a district, and in addition to the previous Oberamt, parts of the dissolved Oberämter Neckarsulm, Brackenheim, Marbach and Besigheim were added. The city of Heilbronn was not included into the district. In 1973, the Landkreise (districts) were reorganized, and part of the dissolved districts of Sinsheim, Mosbach, Buchen and Schwäbisch Hall were added. Within the following two years 5 municipalities were incorporated into the city and therefore left the district, which got its current borders in 1975. Geography The main river in the district is the Neckar, which flows through the district from the south to the north. The western part of the district belongs to the landscape Kraichgau, the east to the Hohenloher Ebene, Kocher-Jagst-Ebene, and the Löwensteiner Berge. Coat of arms The coat of arms shows a clawless eagle, the symbol of the Counts of Lauffen, who ruled the area of the district in the 13th century. Towns and municipalities Towns (Städte): Bad Friedrichshall Bad Rappenau Bad Wimpfen Beilstein Brackenheim Eppingen Güglingen Gundelsheim Lauffen Leingarten Löwenstein Möckmühl Neckarsulm Neudenau Neuenstadt am Kocher Schwaigern Weinsberg Widdern Municipalities (Gemeinden): Abstatt Cleebronn Eberstadt Ellhofen Erlenbach (Württemberg) Flein Gemmingen Hardthausen (Kocher) Ilsfeld Ittlingen Jagsthausen Kirchardt Langenbrettach Lehrensteinsfeld Massenbachhausen Neckarwestheim Nordheim (Württemberg) Obersulm Oedheim Offenau Pfaffenhofen Roigheim Siegelsbach Talheim Untereisesheim Untergruppenbach Wüstenrot Zaberfeld Municipal associations (Vereinbarte Verwaltungsgemeinschaften and Gemeindeverwaltungsverbände): Bad Friedrichshall Bad Rappenau Brackenheim Eppingen Flein-Talheim Lauffen Möckmühl Neckarsulm Neuenstadt Oberes Zabergäu Obersulm Schozach-Bottwartal Schwaigern Raum Weinsberg References External links Official website (German) Stuttgart (region) Districts of Baden-Württemberg	[ 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229313	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle%20of%20Piedmont	Battle of Piedmont	The Battle of Piedmont was fought June 5, 1864, in the village of Piedmont, Augusta County, Virginia. Union Maj. Gen. David Hunter engaged Confederates under Brig. Gen. William E. "Grumble" Jones north of Piedmont. After severe fighting, Jones was killed and the Confederates were routed. Hunter occupied Staunton on June 6 and soon began to advance on Lynchburg, destroying military stores and public property in his wake. Background The Battle of Piedmont resulted from Lt. Gen. Ulysses S. Grant's 1864 initiative to keep U.S. forces on the offensive and prevent Confederates from shuttling troops from one region to another. In the Shenandoah Valley, Grant had originally placed German-born general Franz Sigel in command, however, following Sigel's defeat at New Market on May 15, Grant relieved him and placed Maj. Gen. David Hunter in command of the United States Army of the Shenandoah on May 21. Hunter quickly regrouped his small army and ordered his troops to live off the bountiful farms of the Shenandoah Valley. He advanced up the Valley toward Staunton on May 26 against light opposition from the Confederates. Following New Market, the majority of the Confederate forces in the Valley joined the Army of Northern Virginia, leaving only Brig. Gen. John D. Imboden's brigade and the Valley Reserves to confront Hunter. Imboden kept Robert E. Lee informed of Hunter's movements, but could do little to slow Hunter with his meager forces. Hunter set his sights on Staunton, an important railroad and logistics center for the Confederacy. The quick Union advance upon the heels of their defeat at New Market caught the Confederates off guard. Closely engaged with the Army of the Potomac, Lee turned to Brig. Gen. William E. "Grumble" Jones, acting-commander of the Confederate Department of Southwest Virginia and East Tennessee for assistance, instructing him to open communications with Imboden. Jones soon went to the Shenandoah with roughly 4,000 infantry and dismounted cavalrymen. By June 3, the Union Army had reached Harrisonburg. Imboden had concentrated his forces at Mount Crawford on the south bank of the North River, blocking Hunter's direct path to Staunton upon the Valley Turnpike. Imboden, a Valley native from Augusta County, established his headquarters at the Grattan House, where his force grew when the reinforcements began to arrive from Southwest Virginia. On the morning of June 4, Hunter sent a diversionary force toward Mount Crawford while his main army headed east to Port Republic where he camped for the night. General Jones had arrived at the Grattan House and assumed command of the hastily assembled Confederate Army of the Valley District. When Confederate scouts reported Hunter's flank march, Imboden suggested that they move to Mowry's Hill in eastern Augusta to confront Hunter. According to Imboden, Jones agreed to march his infantry and dismounted cavalry to Mowry's Hill in Eastern Augusta where they would confront Hunter on June 5. Jones ordered Imboden to lead all of the mounted troops toward Mount Meridian, a few miles south of Port Republic on the Staunton or East Road. Jones added that Imboden was to delay Hunter's advance but instructed Imboden to avoid any serious confrontation when the Federals approached the next morning. Opposing forces Union Confederate Battle After spending a rainy night encamped on the southern outskirts of Port Republic, Hunter's army marched southward on the Staunton Road toward Mount Meridian through the morning mist. Maj. Gen. Julius Stahel's cavalry led the advance, driving back Imboden's outposts. When Stahel's advance regiment reached Mount Meridian, Imboden successfully counterattacked with the 18th Virginia Cavalry. Stahel fed reinforcements into the fight and quickly overwhelmed the Virginians. Imboden barely escaped capture and only the timely charge from balance of his brigade, which included local reserves, saved the 18th Virginia from disaster. The Confederates then fell back slowly toward the village of Piedmont. Imboden expected to join forces with General Jones at Mowry's Hill but was surprised to find him at Piedmont. The two commanders debated the situation, and then Jones (who ranked Imboden) decided to stand and fight. Jones advanced a battalion of dismounted cavalry, convalescents, and detailed men several hundred yards in front of his left wing, backed by a section of horse artillery, and Stahel's advance was stopped. Jones deployed his two brigades of infantry (his left wing) along the edge of a woodlot that ran from the Staunton (or East) Road to the high bluffs of the Middle River that anchored his left flank. He ordered Imboden to guard his extreme right flank with the cavalry. On Imboden's immediate left, Brig. Gen. John C. Vaughn's brigade of dismounted Tennessee and Georgia horsemen went into position. Vaughn's left flank rested six hundred yards to the rear of Jones's right wing, creating a gap in the center of his line. There he positioned two batteries, including Captain Marquis's reserve artillery manned by 17- and 18-year-olds of Augusta County. Hunter's Chief of Staff, Colonel David Hunter Strother, described the battlefield: The enemy's position was strong and well chosen. It was on a conclave of wooded hills commanding an open valley between and open, gentle slopes in front. On our right in advance of the village of Piedmont was a line of log and rail defenses very advantageously located in the edge of a forest and just behind the rise of a smooth, open hill so that troops moving over this hill could be mowed down by musketry from the works at short range and to prevent artillery from being used against them. The left flank of this palisade rested on a steep and impracticable bluff sixty feet high and washed at its base by the Shenandoah [Middle River]. At noon, Hunter's infantry under the command of Brig. Gen. Jeremiah C. Sullivan advanced. Colonel Augustus Moor's brigade drove in Jones's advance line on the west side of the Staunton (East) Road, halting along the edge of a wooded lot opposite the one Jones's Confederates were stationed in. Sullivan ordered an advance but the well-protected rebel infantry repulsed the effort. On the east side of the road, Colonel Joseph Thoburn's brigade advanced through a wooded ravine toward Imboden's position under heavy artillery fire. Thoburn withdrew to support the Union artillery when he saw Moor's repulse. During these actions, the Union artillery under Captain Henry DuPont systematically silenced most of the Confederate guns. Only a few guns with Imboden on the extreme Confederate right remained active. At this point, Jones decided to withdraw his left wing so that it was aligned with Vaughn and Imboden, but events soon changed his mind. Sullivan reinforced Moor with two regiments and ordered another attack, but was again repulsed. This time the Confederates counterattacked, but a stand by the 28th Ohio and some dismounted horsemen armed with Spencer repeating carbines, backed by a section of artillery, forced the Southerners to fall back to their breastworks. An emboldened Jones now rearranged his forces to launch a concerted attack against Moor's battered brigade. Jones ordered Vaughn to advance the greater part of his brigade to the left wing. The 60th Virginia Infantry moved from its position in the edge of the woods covering the large gap in the center of his battle line. The Virginians ended up in a second line of battle behind the main Confederate line, leaving the gap completely undefended. Jones's concentration of troops against Moor's brigade did not go unnoticed. The Federals spotted the gap on the right flank of Jones's left wing, and Hunter ordered Thoburn's brigade to attack the vulnerable Confederate position. Thoburn quickly advanced to within a few yards of the Confederate left before his men were spotted, and shattered the Southern flank. At the same time, Moor's brigade joined the assault against the Confederate front. Jones attempted to retrieve the situation bringing up the Valley Reserves, who slowed Thoburn's advance but were unable to throw it back. Jones dashed up to a small group of rallying Confederates and then charged toward the oncoming Union infantry. A Union bullet struck him in the head, killing Jones instantly. The Union forces drove the Confederates toward the bluffs of the Middle River, splitting the Confederate force into two halves. At the bluffs, the converging forces of Thoburn's and Moor's brigade, backed by some of Stahel's Cavalry, captured nearly 1,000 unwounded Confederates. A section of Captain John McClanahan's Virginia horse artillery stood its ground near the village of Piedmont, slowing the Union drive southward and barely evading capture. On the Staunton (East) Road, the 1st New York Veteran Cavalry launched a vigorous pursuit of the beaten Confederates. However, another section of McClanahan's battery and elements of Vaughn's brigade not sent to the left hastily deployed along the road between the villages of Piedmont and New Hope. When the New Yorkers chased up the road after the fleeing Southerners, this Confederate rear guard opened fire devastating the Union cavalry and dampening their enthusiasm for any further pursuit. Although at least 1,500 Confederates had been lost, the rear guard action at New Hope allowed the remnants of the army to escape further damage. Vaughn learned that he was now the senior officer as a result of Jones's death, but he was unfamiliar with the Shenandoah Valley and simply adopted Imboden's recommendations. Hunter's army rounded up the prisoners and tended to the wounded at Piedmont, where the Army of the Shenandoah camped for the night, having lost nearly 900 men killed and wounded. The next day, it became the first Union army to enter Staunton. Medal of Honor recipients Private Thomas Evans, 54th Pennsylvania Infantry, shot a Confederate officer rallying the Confederates, battled the color bearer of the 45th Virginia, and captured the flag from him. Musician James Snedden, 54th Pennsylvania Infantry, picked up a rifle and joined the attack, captured Colonel Beuhring Jones, commander of the 1st Confederate infantry brigade. Maj. Gen. Julius Stahel was struck by two bullets as he led his dismounted cavalry into the fight, had the wounds dressed at a field hospital, and returned to direct the final cavalry charge. Notes References Patchan, Scott C. The Battle of Piedmont and Hunter's Campaign for Staunton: The 1864 Shenandoah Campaign. Charleston: The History Press, 2011. . National Park Service Battle Summary CWSAC Report Update Further reading Brice, Marshall Moore. Conquest of a Valley. Charlottesville: University of Virginia Press, 1965. . Duncan, Richard R. Lee's Endangered Left: The Civil War in Western Virginia, Spring of 1864. Baton Rouge: Louisiana State University Press, 1998. . Patchan, Scott C., The Forgotten Fury: The Battle of Piedmont, Virginia. Fredericksburg, VA: Sergeant Kirkland's Museum and Historical Society, 1996. . 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229322	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nicola%20Stilo	Nicola Stilo	Nicola Stilo (born 1956 in Italy), is a jazz and pop instrumentalist, specialising in flute and guitar. Stilo began following Chet Baker in 1979, attending his concerts and recording sessions. Baker took him as part of his band for a tour of Italy the following year, and on subsequent tours, including to Brazil in 1985. After the last, Stilo stayed in Brazil for around a year before reuniting with Baker. Despite discouragement from Baker, who was a long-term drug addict, Stilo by this time had become addicted to heroin. Back together in Europe, Stilo commented: "Maybe I made the choice just to live the same life he was doing, you know? [...] We were like brothers, maybe sometimes fighting, but really taking care of each other." They continued to play together, with Stilo on flute and guitar. Stilo wrote the music for Baker's 1988 album Chet on Poetry; it "ranged from slick Europop to funk to a graceful jazz waltz". He also played on the album. He appeared on film in the 1988 documentary Let's Get Lost. After Baker's death later that year, Stilo gave up heroin. Stilo subsequently recorded with Toninho Horta and with his own group. Discography As leader/co-leader Flute Connection (1994) Errata Corrige (1995) Duets (1999) Immagini (Alfamusic, 2007) As sideman With Chet Baker Leaving (Intercord, 1980) At Capolinea (Red, 1983 [1987]) Let's Get Lost (RCA Novus, 1987) Chet on Poetry (1988) Live in Rosenheim: Chet Baker's Last Recording as Quartet (1988) References Bibliography External links Biography (broken) Personal blog Italian jazz guitarists Italian male guitarists Italian jazz flautists Italian jazz pianists Italian male pianists 1956 births Living people 21st-century pianists 21st-century Italian male musicians Male jazz musicians	[ 0.04498951509594917, 0.21752235293388367, 0.21403922140598297, 0.026826979592442513, 0.2870694696903229, 0.6726235747337341, -0.17029969394207, 0.04213176667690277, -0.309956818819046, -0.3392556607723236, 0.18061472475528717, -0.34419161081314087, -0.40174275636672974, 0.28488197922706604, 0.19782176613807678, 0.409954696893692, 0.23444296419620514, -0.12247826904058456, 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229334	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Clog%20%28disambiguation%29	Clog (disambiguation)	A clog is a shoe with a rigid, often wooden, sole. Clog may also refer to: Clog (British), a wooden-soled clog from Great Britain C.L.O.G., a clogging organization Clogs (band), an Australian music group Clog, a blockage in plumbing Clog, a British brand of rock-climbing equipment owned by Wild Country (company) "Clogs", an episode of the television series Teletubbies See also Clog-dancing, a traditional dance from the North of England Clogging, a traditional type of percussive folk dance in the United States Clogging (craft), the construction of Clogs Clock (disambiguation) Cloqué	[ 0.24833005666732788, 0.019900182262063026, -0.1694975346326828, 0.34858226776123047, -0.1352270543575287, 0.09656710177659988, 0.6272780895233154, 0.11996764689683914, -0.3323601186275482, -0.21972285211086273, -0.14281383156776428, 0.282590389251709, -0.5705395936965942, 0.29856500029563904, -0.3232509195804596, 0.7173255681991577, 0.39345431327819824, 0.13364534080028534, 0.11200397461652756, -0.17443853616714478, -0.23565024137496948, 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