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229668	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Siege%20of%20Vicksburg	Siege of Vicksburg	The siege of Vicksburg (May 18 – July 4, 1863) was the final major military action in the Vicksburg campaign of the American Civil War. In a series of maneuvers, Union Maj. Gen. Ulysses S. Grant and his Army of the Tennessee crossed the Mississippi River and drove the Confederate Army of Mississippi, led by Lt. Gen. John C. Pemberton, into the defensive lines surrounding the fortress city of Vicksburg, Mississippi. Vicksburg was the last major Confederate stronghold on the Mississippi River; therefore, capturing it completed the second part of the Northern strategy, the Anaconda Plan. When two major assaults against the Confederate fortifications, on May 19 and 22, were repulsed with heavy casualties, Grant decided to besiege the city beginning on May 25. After holding out for more than forty days, with their supplies nearly gone, the garrison surrendered on July 4. The successful ending of the Vicksburg campaign significantly degraded the ability of the Confederacy to maintain its war effort. This action, combined with the surrender of the down-river Port Hudson to Maj. Gen. Nathaniel P. Banks on July 9, yielded command of the Mississippi River to the Union forces, who would hold it for the rest of the conflict. The Confederate surrender on July 4, 1863, is sometimes considered, when combined with Gen. Robert E. Lee's defeat at Gettysburg by Maj. Gen. George Meade the previous day, the turning point of the war. It cut off the Trans-Mississippi Department (containing the states of Arkansas, Texas and part of Louisiana) from the rest of the Confederate States, effectively splitting the Confederacy in two for the rest of the war. Lincoln called Vicksburg "The key to the war." Background Military situation After crossing the Mississippi River south of Vicksburg at Bruinsburg and driving northeast, Grant won battles at Port Gibson and Raymond and captured Jackson, the Mississippi state capital, on May 14, 1863, forcing Pemberton to withdraw westward. Attempts to stop the Union advance at Champion Hill and Big Black River Bridge were unsuccessful. Pemberton knew that the corps under Maj. Gen. William T. Sherman was preparing to flank him from the north, and so had no choice but to withdraw or be outflanked. Pemberton burned the bridges over the Big Black River and devastated the countryside as he retreated to the well-fortified city of Vicksburg. The Confederates evacuated Hayne's Bluff, which was subsequently occupied by Sherman's cavalry on May 19, and Union steamboats no longer had to run the guns of Vicksburg, now being able to dock by the dozens up the Yazoo River. Grant could now receive supplies more directly than by the previous route, which ran through Louisiana, over the river crossing at Grand Gulf and Bruinsburg, then back up north. Over half of Pemberton's army had been lost in the two preceding battles and many in Vicksburg expected General Joseph E. Johnston, in command of the Confederate Department of the West, to relieve the city—which he never did. Large numbers of Union troops were on the march to invest the city. They repaired the bridges over the Big Black River and crossed on May 18. Johnston sent a note to his general, Pemberton, asking him to sacrifice the city and save his troops, something Pemberton would not do. (Pemberton, a Northerner by birth, was probably influenced by his fear of public condemnation if he abandoned Vicksburg.) Fortifications As the Union forces approached Vicksburg, Pemberton could put only 18,500 troops in his lines. Grant had over 35,000, with more on the way. However, Pemberton had the advantage of terrain and fortifications that made his defense nearly impregnable. The defensive line around Vicksburg ran for approximately , based on terrain of varying elevations that included hills and knobs with steep slopes which would require an attacker to ascend them under fire. The perimeter included many gun pits, forts, trenches, redoubts, and lunettes. The major fortifications of the line included: Fort Hill, on a high bluff north of the city; the Stockade Redan, dominating the approach to the city on Graveyard Road from the northeast; the 3rd Louisiana Redan; the Great Redoubt; the Railroad Redoubt, protecting the gap for the railroad line entering the city; the Square Fort (Fort Garrott); a salient along the Hall's Ferry Road; and the South Fort. Opposing forces Union Maj. Gen. Ulysses S. Grant's Union Army of the Tennessee brought five corps to the siege: IX Corps, under Maj. Gen. John Parke; XIII Corps, under Maj. Gen. John A. McClernand; XV Corps, under Maj. Gen. William T. Sherman; XVI Corps (detachment), under Maj. Gen. Cadwallader C. Washburn; XVII Corps, under Maj. Gen. James B. McPherson. Confederate Lt. Gen. John C. Pemberton's Confederate Army of Mississippi inside the Vicksburg line consisted of four divisions, under Maj. Gens.: Carter L. Stevenson; John H. Forney; Martin L. Smith; John S. Bowen. Siege Assaults Grant wanted to overwhelm the Confederates before they could fully organize their defenses and ordered an assault against the Stockade Redan for May 19. Troops from Sherman's corps had a difficult time approaching the position under rifle and artillery fire from the 36th Mississippi Infantry, Brig. Gen. Louis Hébert's brigade. They had to negotiate a steep ravine protected by abatis and cross a , ditch before attacking the walls of the redan. This first attempt was easily repulsed. Grant ordered an artillery bombardment to soften the defenses and at about 2 pm, Sherman's division under Maj. Gen. Francis P. Blair tried again, but only a small number of men were able to advance even as far as the ditch below the redan. The assault collapsed in an exchange of rifle fire and hand grenades lobbing back and forth. The failed Union assaults of May 19 damaged troop morale, deflating the confidence the soldiers had felt after their string of victories across Mississippi. They were also costly, with 157 killed, 777 wounded, and eight missing, versus Confederate casualties of eight killed and 62 wounded. The Confederates, assumed to be demoralized, had regained their fighting edge. Grant planned another assault for May 22, but this time with greater care; his troops would first reconnoiter thoroughly and soften up the defenses with artillery and naval gunfire. The lead units were supplied with ladders to ascend the fortification walls. Grant did not want a long siege, and this attack was to be by the entire army across a wide front. Despite their bloody repulse on May 19, Union troops were in high spirits, now well-fed with provisions they had foraged. On seeing Grant pass by, a soldier commented, "Hardtack". Soon all Union troops in the vicinity were yelling, "Hardtack! Hardtack!" The Union served hardtack, beans, and coffee the night of May 21. Everyone expected that Vicksburg would fall the next day. Union forces bombarded the city all night, from 220 artillery pieces and with naval gunfire from Rear Adm. David D. Porter's fleet in the river. While causing little property damage, they damaged Confederate civilian morale. On the morning of May 22, the defenders were bombarded again for four hours before the Union attacked once more along a front at 10 am. Sherman attacked once again down the Graveyard Road, with 150 volunteers (nicknamed the forlorn hope detachment) leading the way with ladders and planks, followed by the divisions of Blair and Brig. Gen. James M. Tuttle, arranged in a long column of regiments. They hoped to achieve a breakthrough by concentrating their mass on a narrow front. They were driven back in the face of heavy rifle fire. Blair's brigades under Cols. Giles A. Smith and T. Kilby Smith made it as far as a ridge 100 yards from Green's Redan, the southern edge of the Stockade Redan, from where they poured heavy fire into the Confederate position, but to no avail. Tuttle's division, waiting its turn to advance, did not have an opportunity to move forward. On Sherman's far right, the division of Brig. Gen. Frederick Steele spent the morning attempting to get into position through a ravine of the Mint Spring Bayou. McPherson's corps was assigned to attack the center along the Jackson Road. On their right flank, the brigade of Brig. Gen. Thomas E. G. Ransom advanced to within 100 yards of the Confederate line, but halted to avoid dangerous flanking fire from Green's Redan. On McPherson's left flank, the division of Maj. Gen. John A. Logan was assigned to assault the 3rd Louisiana Redan and the Great Redoubt. The brigade of Brig. Gen. John E. Smith made it as far as the slope of the redan, but huddled there, dodging grenades until dark, when they were recalled. Brig. Gen. John D. Stevenson's brigade advanced in two columns against the redoubt, but their attack also failed when they found their ladders were too short to scale the fortification. Brig. Gen. Isaac F. Quinby's division advanced a few hundred yards, but halted for hours while its generals engaged in confused discussions. On the Union left, McClernand's corps moved along the Baldwin Ferry Road and astride the Southern Railroad of Mississippi. The division of Brig. Gen. Eugene A. Carr was assigned to capture the Railroad Redoubt and the 2nd Texas Lunette; the division of Brig. Gen. Peter J. Osterhaus was assigned the Square Fort. Carr's men achieved a small breakthrough at the 2nd Texas Lunette and requested reinforcements. By 11 am, it was clear that a breakthrough was not forthcoming and that the advances by Sherman and McPherson were failures. Just then, Grant received a message from McClernand, which stated that he was heavily engaged, the Confederates were being reinforced, and he requested a diversion on his right from McPherson's corps. Grant initially refused the request, telling McClernand to use his own reserve forces for assistance; Grant was mistakenly under the impression that McClernand had been lightly engaged and McPherson heavily, although the reverse was true. McClernand followed up with a message that was partially misleading, implying that he had captured two forts—"The Stars and Stripes are flying over them."—and that another push along the line would achieve victory for the Union Army. In fact, more than a dozen members of the 22nd Iowa Infantry Regiment had secured a tenuous foothold in a portion of the fortification known as the Railroad Redoubt, and forced Confederate defenders back from that point, though the Iowans could not advance further. Although Grant once again demurred, he showed the dispatch to Sherman, who ordered his own corps to advance again. Grant, reconsidering, then ordered McPherson to send Quinby's division to aid McClernand. Sherman ordered two more assaults. At 2:15 pm, Giles Smith and Ransom moved out and were repulsed immediately. At 3 pm, Tuttle's division suffered so many casualties in their aborted advance that Sherman told Tuttle, "This is murder; order those troops back." By this time, Steele's division had finally maneuvered into position on Sherman's right, and at 4 pm, Steele gave the order to charge against the 26th Louisiana Redoubt. They had no more success than any of Sherman's other assaults. In McPherson's sector, Logan's division made another thrust down the Jackson Road at about 2 pm, but met with heavy losses and the attack was called off. McClernand attacked again, reinforced by Quinby's division, but with no success. Union casualties for the day totalled 502 killed, 2,550 wounded, and 147 missing, about evenly divided across the three corps. Confederate casualties were not reported directly, but are estimated to have been under 500. Grant blamed McClernand's misleading dispatches for part of the poor results of the day, storing up another grievance against the political general who had caused him so many aggravations during the campaign. Siege operations Historian Shelby Foote wrote that Grant "did not regret having made the assaults; he only regretted that they had failed." Grant reluctantly settled into a siege. On May 25, Lt. Col. John A. Rawlins issued Special Orders No. 140 for Grant: Grant wrote in his memoirs, "I now determined upon a regular siege—to 'out-camp the enemy,' as it were, and to incur no more losses." Federal troops began to dig in, constructing elaborate entrenchments which the soldiers of the time referred to as "ditches". These surrounded the city and moved steadily closer to the Confederate fortifications. With their backs against the Mississippi and Union gunboats firing from the river, Confederate soldiers and citizens alike were trapped. Pemberton was determined to hold his few miles of the Mississippi as long as possible, hoping for relief from Johnston or elsewhere. A new problem confronted the Confederates. The dead and wounded of Grant's army lay in the heat of Mississippi summer, the odor of the deceased men and horses fouling the air, the wounded crying for medical help and water. Grant first refused a request of truce, thinking it a show of weakness. Finally he relented, and the Confederates held their fire while the Union recovered the wounded and dead on May 25, soldiers from both sides mingling and trading as if no hostilities existed for the moment. After this truce, Grant's army began to fill the ring around Vicksburg. It soon became clear that even 50,000 Union soldiers would not be able to effect a complete encirclement of the Confederate defenses. Pemberton's outlook on escape was pessimistic, but there were still roads leading south out of Vicksburg unguarded by Union troops. Grant sought help from Maj. Gen. Henry W. Halleck, the Union general-in-chief. Halleck quickly began to shift Union troops in the West to meet Grant's needs. The first of these reinforcements was a 5,000-man division from the Department of the Missouri under Maj. Gen. Francis J. Herron on June 11. Herron's troops, remnants of the Army of the Frontier, were attached to McPherson's corps and took up position on the far south. Next came a three division detachment from XVI Corps led by Brig. Gen. Cadwallader C. Washburn on June 12, assembled from troops at the nearby posts of Corinth, Memphis, and LaGrange. The final significant group of reinforcements to join was the 8,000-man strong IX Corps from the Department of the Ohio, led by Maj. Gen. John G. Parke, arriving on June 14. With the arrival of Parke, Grant had 77,000 men around Vicksburg. In an effort to cut Grant's supply line, Confederates in Louisiana under Major General John G. Walker attacked Milliken's Bend up the Mississippi on June 7. This was largely defended by recently enlisted United States colored troops. Despite having inferior weaponry, they fought bravely and repulsed the Confederates with help from gunboats, although at heavy cost; the defenders lost 652 to the Confederate 185. The loss at Milliken's Bend left the Confederates with no hope for relief other than from the cautious Johnston. Pemberton was boxed in with plentiful munitions but little food. The poor diet was telling on the Confederate soldiers. By the end of June, half were sick or hospitalized. Scurvy, malaria, dysentery, diarrhea, and other diseases cut their ranks. At least one city resident had to stay up at night to keep starving soldiers out of his vegetable garden. The constant shelling did not bother him as much as the loss of his food. As the siege wore on, fewer and fewer horses, mules, and dogs were seen wandering about Vicksburg. Shoe leather became a last resort of sustenance for many adults. During the siege, Union gunboats lobbed over 22,000 shells into the town and army artillery fire was even heavier. As the barrages continued, suitable housing in Vicksburg was reduced to a minimum. A ridge, located between the main town and the rebel defense line, provided lodging for the duration. Over 500 caves, known locally as "bombproofs", were dug into the yellow clay hills of Vicksburg. Whether houses were structurally sound or not, it was deemed safer to occupy these dugouts. People did their best to make them comfortable, with rugs, furniture, and pictures. They tried to time their movements and foraging with the rhythm of the cannonade, sometimes unsuccessfully. Because of the citizens' burrowing, the Union soldiers gave the town the nickname of "Prairie Dog Village". Despite the ferocity of the Union fire, fewer than a dozen civilians are known to have been killed during the siege. Command changes One of Grant's actions during the siege was to settle a lingering rivalry. On May 30, General McClernand wrote a self-adulatory note to his troops, claiming much of the credit for the soon-to-be victory. Grant had been waiting six months for him to slip, ever since they clashed early in the campaign, around the Battle of Arkansas Post. He had received permission to relieve McClernand in January 1863 but waited for an unequivocal provocation; McClernand was relieved on June 18. Grant so carefully prepared his action that McClernand was left without recourse. McClernand's XIII Corps was turned over to Maj. Gen. Edward Ord, who had recovered from an October 1862 wound sustained at Hatchie's Bridge. In May 1864, McClernand would be given a command in a remote area of Texas. Another command change occurred on June 22. In addition to Pemberton in Vicksburg, Grant had to be aware of Confederate forces in his rear under the command of Joseph E. Johnston. He stationed one division in the vicinity of the Big Black River Bridge and another reconnoitered as far north as Mechanicsburg; both acted as covering forces. By June 10, the IX Corps, under Maj. Gen. John G. Parke, was transferred to Grant's command. This corps became the nucleus of a special task force whose mission was to prevent Johnston, who was gathering his forces at Canton, from interfering with the siege. Sherman was given command of this task force and Brig. Gen. Frederick Steele replaced him at XV Corps. Johnston eventually began moving to relieve Pemberton and reached the Big Black River on July 1, but he delayed a potentially difficult encounter with Sherman until it was too late for the Vicksburg garrison, and then fell back to Jackson. Sherman would pursue Johnston and recapture Jackson on July 17. Louisiana operations Throughout the siege Union and Confederate forces kept busy in a supporting role on the Louisiana side of the Mississippi River. Lt. Gen. Edmund Kirby Smith, commander of the Trans-Mississippi Department, received a telegraph from Pemberton on May 9 requesting that he move against Grant's communication lines along the Mississippi River. Grant had established important supply depots at Milliken's Bend, Young's Point, and Lake Providence, all within Smith's jurisdiction, but Smith failed to recognize the importance of Pemberton's situation. It was not until June when Smith finally took action on Pemberton's request, directing Maj. Gen. Richard Taylor to "do something" in support of the Vicksburg garrison. Taylor commanded the District of Western Louisiana and developed a three-pronged campaign against Grant's three supply depots. All three of Taylor's assaults were defeated at the Battle of Milliken's Bend, the Battle of Young's Point, and the Battle of Lake Providence. In response to the growing Confederate activity in the area, Grant decided to dispatch troops from the Vicksburg trenches across the river. The presence of Maj. Gen. John G. Walker's Confederate division on the Louisiana side was of particular concern; its presence could possibly aid any Confederate attempt to escape from Vicksburg. Therefore, Brig. Gen. Alfred W. Ellet's Mississippi Marine Brigade and Joseph A. Mower's brigade from Sherman's corps were ordered to the vicinity of Milliken's Bend. Mower and Ellet were to cooperate against Walker's division, which was stationed in the vicinity of Richmond, Louisiana. Richmond was also an important supply line providing Vicksburg with food from Louisiana. On June 15, Ellet and Mower defeated Walker and destroyed Richmond. Ellet's men returned to De Soto Point and constructed an artillery battery targeting an iron foundry recasting spent Union artillery shells. Construction was begun on June 19, which placed a 20-pounder Parrott rifle in a casemate of railroad iron. The targeted foundry was destroyed on June 25 and the next day a second Parrott gun was added to the battery, which continued to harass the defenders until the garrison's surrender. Additional Confederate activity in Louisiana occurred on June 29 at Goodrich's Landing when they attacked a plantation and an army training center run by former slaves. The Confederates destroyed the plantations and captured over a hundred former slaves before disengaging in the face of Ellet's Marines. Confederate raids such as these were disruptive and caused damage, but they were only minor setbacks and demonstrated that the Confederates could cause only momentary disturbances in the area. Crater at the Third Louisiana Redan Late in the siege, Union troops tunneled under the 3rd Louisiana Redan and packed the mine with 2,200 pounds of gunpowder. The explosion blew apart the Confederate lines on June 25, while an infantry attack made by troops from Logan's XVII Corps division followed the blast. The 45th Illinois Regiment (known as the "Lead Mine Regiment"), under Col. Jasper A. Maltby, charged into the diameter, deep crater with ease, but were stopped by recovering Confederate infantry. The Union soldiers became pinned down and the defenders rolled artillery shells with short fuses into the pit with deadly results. Union engineers worked to set up a casemate in the crater in order to extricate the infantry, and soon the soldiers fell back to a new defensive line. From the crater left by the explosion, Union miners worked to dig a new mine to the south. On July 1, this mine was detonated but no infantry attack followed. Pioneers worked throughout July 2 and 3 to widen the initial crater to be large enough for an infantry column of four to pass through for any future assault. However, events the following day negated the need for any further assaults. Capture On July 3, Pemberton sent a note to Grant regarding the possibility of negotiations for peace. Grant, as he had done at Fort Donelson, first demanded unconditional surrender. He then reconsidered, not wanting to feed 30,000 Confederates in Union prison camps, and offered to parole all prisoners. Considering their destitute and starving state, he never expected them to fight again; he hoped they would carry home the stigma of defeat to the rest of the Confederacy. In any event, shipping that many prisoners north would have occupied his army and taken months. Pemberton officially surrendered his army on July 4. Most of the men who were paroled on July 6 were exchanged and received back into the Confederate Army on August 4, 1863, at Mobile Harbor, Alabama. They were back in Chattanooga, Tennessee, by September and some fought in the Battles for Chattanooga in November and against Sherman's invasion of Georgia in May 1864. The Confederate government protested the validity of the paroles on technical grounds and the issue was referred to Grant who, in April 1864, was general in chief of the army. The dispute effectively ended all further prisoner exchanges during the war except for hardship cases. Surrender was formalized by an old oak tree, "made historical by the event". In his Personal Memoirs, Grant described the fate of this luckless tree: The surrender was finalized on July 4, Independence Day, a day Pemberton had hoped would bring more sympathetic terms from the United States. Although the Vicksburg campaign continued with some minor actions, the fortress city had fallen and, with the surrender of Port Hudson on July 9, the Mississippi River was firmly in Union hands and the Confederacy split in two. President Lincoln famously announced, "The Father of Waters again goes unvexed to the sea." Union casualties for the battle and siege of Vicksburg were 4,835; Confederate were 32,697, of whom 29,495 had surrendered. The full campaign, since March 29, claimed 10,142 Union and 9,091 Confederate killed and wounded. In addition to the men under his command, Pemberton turned over to Grant 172 cannons and 50,000 rifles. Aftermath Vicksburg was the last major Confederate stronghold on the Mississippi River; therefore, capturing it completed the second part of the Northern strategy, the Anaconda Plan. The successful ending of the Vicksburg campaign significantly degraded the ability of the Confederacy to maintain its war effort. This action, combined with the surrender of Port Hudson to Maj. Gen. Nathaniel P. Banks on July 9, yielded command of the Mississippi River to the Union forces, who would hold it for the rest of the conflict. The Confederate surrender on July 4, 1863, is sometimes considered, when combined with Gen. Robert E. Lee's July 3 defeat at Gettysburg by Maj. Gen. George Meade, the turning point of the war. It cut off the states of Arkansas, Louisiana, and Texas from the rest of the Confederate States, effectively splitting the Confederacy in two for the duration of the war. The Union victory also permanently severed communication between the Trans-Mississippi Department and the balance of the Confederacy. Folk tradition holds that the Fourth of July (Independence Day) holiday was not celebrated by Vicksburg until World War II. This claim is inaccurate, for large Independence Day celebrations were held as early as 1907. Battlefield preservation The works around Vicksburg are now maintained by the National Park Service as part of Vicksburg National Military Park. The park, located in Vicksburg, Mississippi, and Delta, Louisiana (flanking the Mississippi River), also commemorates the greater Vicksburg campaign which led up to the battle and includes reconstructed forts and trenches. The park includes 1,325 historic monuments and markers, of historic trenches and earthworks, a tour road, a walking trail, two antebellum homes, 144 emplaced cannons, the restored gunboat USS Cairo (sunk on December 12, 1862, on the Yazoo River), and the Grant's Canal site, where the Union Army attempted to build a canal to let their ships bypass Confederate artillery fire. The American Battlefield Trust and its partners have acquired and preserved of the Vicksburg battlefield through 2021. See also Troop engagements of the American Civil War, 1863 List of costliest American Civil War land battles Commemoration of the American Civil War Commemoration of the American Civil War on postage stamps Armies in the American Civil War Mississippi River in the American Civil War Notes References Ballard, Michael B. Vicksburg, The Campaign that Opened the Mississippi. Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 2004. . Bearss, Edwin C. The Campaign for Vicksburg. 3 vols. Dayton, OH: Morningside House, 1985. . Catton, Bruce. The Centennial History of the Civil War. Vol. 3, Never Call Retreat. Garden City, NY: Doubleday, 1965. . Eicher, David J. The Longest Night: A Military History of the Civil War. New York: Simon & Schuster, 2001. . Esposito, Vincent J. West Point Atlas of American Wars. New York: Frederick A. Praeger, 1959. . The collection of maps (without explanatory text) is available online at the West Point website. Foote, Shelby. The Civil War: A Narrative. Vol. 2, Fredericksburg to Meridian. New York: Random House, 1958. . Gabel, Christopher R., Staff ride handbook for the Vicksburg Campaign, December 1862 – July 1863. Fort Leavenworth, Kan.: Combat Studies Institute Press, 2001. . Grabau, Warren E. Ninety-Eighty Days: A Geographer's View of the Vicksburg Campaign. Knoxville: University of Tennessee Press, 2000. . Kennedy, Frances H., ed. The Civil War Battlefield Guide . 2nd ed. Boston: Houghton Mifflin Co., 1998. . Korn, Jerry, and the Editors of Time-Life Books. War on the Mississippi: Grant's Vicksburg Campaign. Alexandria, VA: Time-Life Books, 1985. . McPherson, James M. Battle Cry of Freedom: The Civil War Era. Oxford History of the United States. New York: Oxford University Press, 1988. . Silkenat, David. Raising the White Flag: How Surrender Defined the American Civil War. Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 2019. . Smith, Jean Edward. Grant. New York: Simon & Schuster, 2001. . Simon, John Y., ed. The Papers of Ulysses S. Grant. Vol. 8, April 1 – July 6, 1863. Carbondale: Southern Illinois University Press, 1979. . National Park Service battle description CWSAC Report Update Various resources from the University Libraries Division of Special Collections, The University of Alabama. U.S. War Department, The War of the Rebellion: a Compilation of the Official Records of the Union and Confederate Armies. Washington, DC: U.S. Government Printing Office, 1880–1901. Further reading Ballard, Michael B. Grant at Vicksburg: The General and the Siege. Carbondale, IL: Southern Illinois University Press, 2013. . Bearss, Edwin C. Receding Tide: Vicksburg and Gettysburg: The Campaigns That Changed the Civil War. Washington, DC: National Geographic Society, 2010. . Groom, Winston. Vicksburg, 1863. New York: Knopf, 2009. . Shea, William L. and Terrence J. Winschel. Vicksburg is the Key: The Struggle for the Mississippi River. Lincoln, NE: University of Nebraska Press, 2003. . Winschel, Terrence J. Triumph & Defeat: The Vicksburg Campaign. Campbell, CA: Savas Publishing Company, 1999. . Winschel, Terrence J. Triumph & Defeat: The Vicksburg Campaign, Vol. 2. New York: Savas Beatie, 2006. . Winschel, Terrence J. Vicksburg: Fall of the Confederate Gibraltar. Abilene, TX: McWhiney Foundation Press, 1999. . Woodworth, Steven E.ed. Grant's Lieutenants: From Cairo to Vicksburg. Lawrence: University Press of Kansas, 2001. . Woodworth, Steven E. Jefferson Davis and His Generals: The Failure of Confederate Command in the West. Lawrence: University Press of Kansas, 1990. . Woodworth, Steven E. Nothing but Victory: The Army of the Tennessee, 1861–1865. New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 2005. . External links Vicksburg Campaign animated map (Civil War Trust) Vicksburg Virtual Museum Exhibit, National Park Service Animated map of the siege of Vicksburg (Civil War Trust) C-SPAN American History TV Tour of Vicksburg National Military Park Vicksburg, Siege of Vicksburg Vicksburg Siege Siege Vicksburg Vicksburg Vicksburg Vicksburg Vicksburg Vicksburg Siege Battles commanded by Ulysses S. 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229670	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/American%20Himalayan%20Foundation	American Himalayan Foundation	The American Himalayan Foundation (AHF) is a non-profit organization in the United States that helps Tibetans, Sherpas, and Nepalis living throughout the Himalayas. AHF builds schools, plants trees, trains doctors, funds hospitals, takes care of children and the elderly, and restores sacred sites. The San Francisco-based organization also helps Tibetans rebuild and maintain their culture both in exile and inside Tibet. It was founded by Richard C. Blum. The late Sir Edmund Hillary was a Director of the foundation for more than 20 years. Overview The American Himalayan Foundation was established by San Francisco financier Richard Blum after his first trip through the mountains of Nepal in 1968. During this trip he developed an interest in the local people and the poverty in which they lived. Blum started helping Sherpa children informally, and in 1980 he set up the American Himalayan Foundation (AHF). Because many people in Nepal and Tibet live without healthcare, education, clean water, or bridges connecting remote villages; Blum created the foundation to address these problems. The foundation's first partner was Sir Edmund Hillary, assisting the Sherpas through his Himalayan Trust. Also in the early years, the 14th Dalai Lama requested that AHF help the growing number of Tibetan refugees in Nepal and India. AHF has provided education, healthcare, and basic assistance to Tibetans for over 20 years. As AHF grew, the 501 (c)(3) charity continued to work with the Sherpas and Tibetans in exile, but expanded its geographic reach to people throughout Nepal, inside Tibet, and in Bhutan. The foundation helps the most vulnerable: poor children and the elderly, girls in remote villages at risk of being trafficked, disabled children, refugees, and people in need of medical care. All AHF-supported projects involve community participation, in order to build local capacity and to ensure the foundation is responding to community needs. Funds are not used to pay for western volunteers. All the donations raised by the foundation go directly to helping Sherpas, Nepalis, and Tibetans inside Tibet and in exile. Projects AHF supports over 150 projects throughout the Himalayas and touches the lives of 300,000 people each year. The foundation provides healthcare through community clinics, the training of local healthcare workers, and the Hospital and Rehabilitation Center for Disabled Children in Banepa. AHF educates over fifteen thousand children a year, including ten thousand girls who would otherwise be vulnerable to being trafficked to brothels in India. The foundation developed the Tibetan Enterprise Fund to help Tibetan refugees in Nepal and India, who lack the same rights as citizens, start income generating businesses. AHF also supports orphanages, day care centers for the very young, care for the disabled, and clean water systems and bridges for nomads in Tibet. Beginning in 1995, the organization was involved with the restoration of 15th century Tibetan Buddhist monasteries in the former Kingdom of Mustang and is also extensively involved with humanitarian work in Mustang. See also Himalayan Trust References External links Official website Conservation and environmental foundations in the United States Non-profit organizations based in California Foreign charities operating in Tibet Foreign charities operating in Nepal Edmund Hillary	[ -0.021505894139409065, 0.5528832674026489, -0.4090423285961151, -0.1092069000005722, -0.12902244925498962, 0.03994389995932579, 0.6685948967933655, 0.12709176540374756, -0.36024823784828186, 0.499782532453537, -0.42706725001335144, -0.6261609196662903, -0.1996823102235794, 0.30226361751556396, -0.6913036108016968, -0.08876008540391922, 0.6350719928741455, 0.4523722231388092, -0.30786246061325073, -0.10116451233625412, -0.5709394216537476, -0.5079243779182434, 0.763634443283081, 0.08486950397491455, -0.10101235657930374, 0.10925491899251938, 0.45985230803489685, -0.2788163721561432, -0.13736344873905182, -0.19798912107944489, 0.04119842126965523, 0.4833751916885376, 0.35358309745788574, -0.7333211898803711, 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229676	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tug%20of%20war%20at%20the%201900%20Summer%20Olympics	Tug of war at the 1900 Summer Olympics	A tug of war tournament was held on 16 July at Catalan Cross, Boulogne Forest in Paris as part of the 1900 Summer Olympics. The only match of the tournament was between a mixed team from the Racing Club de France, consisting of five French and one Colombian athlete, and a mixed team consisting of three Danish athletes and three Swedish athletes. The mixed Scandinavian team won the match 2–0. Originally, the Racing Club team were scheduled to face a team from the United States, but the latter had to withdraw due to a scheduling clash with the hammer throw, which three of their team were competing in. The Scandinavians were accepted as late entrants by the organisers, with their team composed of five athletes who were competing in other events and one journalist, Edgar Aabye. The Scandinavian team won both of the first two pulls against the French/Colombian team in a best-of-three contest to win the gold medal. Due to a second unofficial match subsequently taking place between the United States and the Scandinavians, some records have erroneously listed the United States as gold medalists. Background The modern Olympic Games were first held in Athens in 1896, and travelled to Paris four years later as part of the 1900 Exposition Universelle world's fair. The second Games featured a greatly expanded range of events from the first, up from 43 to 95. Among the events added in 1900 was the tug of war. Two tug of war teams were entered for the Paris tournament: Racing Club de France represented the host nation, along with a team from the United States which was composed of six athletes that were taking part in various other events during the Games. However, the American team were forced to withdraw after they discovered that the tug of war was scheduled at the same time as the hammer throw, in which three of their team members were competing. A Scandinavian team was accepted as a late entry by the organisers, comprising a mix of Swedish and Danish athletes competing at the Games. Various reports assign the credit for the formation and entry of this team to different sources; a Danish account claimed that it was one of the Danish pullers, Eugen Schmidt, who was responsible, while a Swedish record attributed it to their representative at the Games, Lieutenant Bergh. Team composition The French team, representing the Racing Club de France, included 3 players who were later part of the gold-winning rugby team for France. Jean Collas, Charles Gondouin, and Émile Sarrade were all part of both teams, while it is often misreported that another of their rugby teammates, the Haitian-born Constantin Henriquez was also on the tug of war team, but this was a case of mistaken identity due to their similar names, with Colombian-born Francisco Henríquez de Zubiría taking part in the tug of war. The other two members of the tug-of-war team were Raymond Basset and Joseph Roffo. The combined Scandinavian team featured three athletes from each of Sweden and Denmark. The Swedish competitors were August Nilsson, who also took part in the pole vault and shot put, Gustaf Söderström, who was competing in the shot put and the discus throw, and Karl Staaf, who did the pole vault, triple jump, standing triple jump and hammer throw. Only one of the three Danish pullers took part in any other events; Charles Winckler competed in the shot put and discus throw. Dane Edgar Aabye was at the Games as a journalist for the Politiken newspaper, but was recruited into the team to make up the numbers as one of the original entrants was injured. Eugen Schmidt, the sixth member of the team, had competed in the 100 metres sprint and the 200 metre rifle shooting at the 1896 Games, and founded the Danish Sports Federation that same year. Match The match was played as a best-of-three. The mixed Scandinavian team won both of the first two pulls, using their greater weight, particularly that of Söderström and Winckler, to their advantage. The Swedish paper Ny Tidning för Idrott reported that the French team "put up desperate resistance" but were unable to cope with their opponents. There are sources that report that the Scandinavian team won by two pulls to one, but the majority record it as a 2–0 victory. Confusion As late as 1974, the Olympic Review listed the United States team of John Flanagan, Robert Garrett, Truxton Hare, Josiah McCracken, Lewis Sheldon and Richard Sheldon as the gold medalists for the 1900 tug of war. A report in the Paris edition of the New York Herald described the tug of war contest at the Olympic Games as being "an object lesson in how not to do a thing". The report mentioned the Scandinavian team's defeat of France, before detailing a second match between an American team and the Scandinavians. The New York Herald recorded that in the second contest, a group of Americans formed a team to take on the victorious Scandinavians, beating them in two pulls, the second of which took over five minutes. In contrast, the Journal des Sports suggested that the Americans initially wanted to wear spiked shoes to take part in the match, but were then forced to remove them after protests. They then won the first pull against the mixed Swedish/Danish team, but during the second pull, some of their compatriots joined in pulling the rope to help the tiring team. A fight nearly broke out, but was avoided by the intervention of officials. Regardless of the result of this second contest, it was not considered to be part of the official competition, but rather a private contest, so the United States are not considered to have officially taken part. Medalists Notes References Bibliography External links 1900 Summer Olympics events 1900 1900 in tug of war	[ -0.213456928730011, 0.21420200169086456, -0.37467271089553833, 0.3681465685367584, -1.0512943267822266, -0.005661621689796448, 0.6016356945037842, -0.0899108499288559, -0.4849139451980591, -0.49796923995018005, 0.35890015959739685, 0.11052104830741882, 0.0894685611128807, 0.365797221660614, -0.2501254379749298, 0.4527287185192108, -0.08196753263473511, -0.32674288749694824, 0.32672059535980225, -0.12260019779205322, -0.3541882634162903, -0.2389678806066513, 0.3603474199771881, 0.20835477113723755, -0.10617314279079437, -0.0836862102150917, 0.7142623662948608, 0.2603449523448944, 0.39928844571113586, -0.09112142771482468, 0.5746896266937256, 0.5324552655220032, -0.30234208703041077, -0.1683872789144516, -0.49669888615608215, -0.38884326815605164, 0.04521150514483452, -0.14852404594421387, 0.09261218458414078, -0.8659482598304749, -0.05505078285932541, 0.4700720012187958, 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229678	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brigach	Brigach	The Brigach is the shorter of two streams that jointly form the river Danube in Baden-Württemberg, Germany. The Brigach has its source at above sea level within St. Georgen in the Black Forest. The Brigach crosses the city Villingen-Schwenningen. from the source, the Brigach joins the Breg in Donaueschingen to form the Danube River. Name The name Brigach is of Celtic origin and means "light coloured, pure water". A relief found here points to the goddess, Abnoba. Geography Sources One source of the Brigach is impounded in the cellar of a farmhouse in the upper valley near the village of Brigach and may be visited by the public. On the official state water map the Brigach begins, however, at a height of about somewhat below a small pond near this farm in the borough of Sankt Georgen im Schwarzwald. Course The Brigach flows initially along a gently descending course and roughly east-north-east through the landscape of the Black Forest, which consists here of open fields across the width of the valley with woods on the accompanying heights, before reaching the first large village of Sankt Georgen. From here Baden's Black Forest Railway runs down to the mouth of the valley. In Sankt Georgen, the river is already 100 metres below the surrounding highland and it now swings slowly around the woods of the Röhlinswald on the right to head southeast through a typical high Black Forest landscape of scattered settlements. By the place where the Brigach is joined from the WNW by its first long tributary, the Röhlinsbach, it leaves the parish of Sankt Georgen and enters a valley called the Groppertal, a protected landscape about half a square kilometre in area, which lies within the municipality of Unterkirnach and the town of Villingen-Schwenningen. It continues down the valley until it is joined, near Kirnach railway station outside the village of Villingen, by its most important tributary, the Kirnach which has a length of over 12 kilometres and a catchment of 33 km2. In this area the Birgach runs for just under a quarter of a kilometre alongside the railway line which itself runs close to the right side of the valley, below the hillside. Shortly thereafter, the Brigach leaves the Black Forest behind, about halfway along its course, and enters the much flatter Baar region near Villingen, which is dominated by open countryside, with larger settlements than in its upper reaches. In the middle of the town, it changes direction to the south and receives a number of tributaries from the north, of which two are from the Black Forest to the west and are more than 10 kilometres long: the Warenbach, whose confluence is in the borough of Villingen, and the Holenbach whose confluence is in the next municipality of Brigachtal. Below the village of Klengen, the Brigach passes over the boundary of the district into the borough of Donaueschingen. Once again, the valley passes through wooded hills, the river develops meanders and then swings left on an easterly course through the urban part of the borough. In the left-hand part of the castle park, a karst spring, which has been regarded as a source of the Danube for centuries and whose upper reaches are called the Donaubach ("Danube Stream") is routed underground through the park into the Brigach. Its confluence is marked by a temple dedicated to the former German Emperor, Kaiser William II. Compared with its two headstreams, this source of the Danube is, however, hydrologically insignificant. A mile and a half east of the Donaubach spring, the Brigach unites with the Breg, a river which joins from the right and originates in the High Black Forest, to form the River Danube. The Brigach descends through more than 250 metres during its course which is approximately 40.5 kilometres long. Catchment The Brigach's catchment covers an area of 196.7 km2 and lies entirely within the county of Schwarzwald-Baar-Kreis, almost two-thirds within the Black Forest, the remaining eastern area is part of the Baar. Within its catchment the Brigach flows very close to its northern and then eastern side. Through the centre of the catchment is the Kirnach which flows very consistently towards the south-southeast and rises very close to the source of the Brigach. The watershed, which is close to the Kirnach to the northwest, separates it from the catchment of the Gutach which flows via the Kinzig into the River Rhine and, in its subsequent northeasterly course from the Schiltach to the upper Kinzig. Beyond the long northeastern watershed the upper Neckar and its tributaries also drain into the Rhine. On the remaining outer edge of the catchment, by contrast, precipitation flows into the Danube. In front of the short southeastern boundary there are only a few significant tributaries into this river. Beyond the long southwestern perimeter lies the considerably larger catchment (291.5 km2) of the right-hand Danube tributary, the Breg. The highest point in the catchment is about a kilometre southwest of the source on the summit of the Kesselberg (). This is the tripoint of the catchments of the Gutach to the northwest, the Brigach to the east and the Breg to the southwest. Tributaries This list shows those tributaries that are over 3.0 km long, together with the direction and location of their confluence. They are listed in order from source to mouth. For the full list of tributaries with additional data, see :de:Liste der Zuflüsse der Brigach. Röhlinbach (right, Stockburg Mill, St. Georgen) Kirnach (right, Kirnach railway station, Villingen-Schwenningen) Krebsgraben (left, Villingen) Ziegelbach (left, Villingen) Steppach (left, Villingen) Warenbach (right, Villingen) Talbach (left, Villingen-Marbach) Holenbach (right, Brigachtal-Kirchdorf) References External links Brigach: pictures Rivers of Baden-Württemberg Danube Rivers of the Black Forest Sankt Georgen im Schwarzwald Rivers of Germany	[ -0.11245014518499374, 0.34195247292518616, 0.5503345727920532, -0.3168295621871948, 0.38606247305870056, 0.8181012868881226, 0.5058313608169556, 0.48679688572883606, -0.43867430090904236, -0.418367475271225, -0.27314797043800354, 0.21658262610435486, -0.1348680555820465, 0.3747447431087494, -0.3004583716392517, 0.122836172580719, 0.6796402931213379, 0.00979751255363226, 0.5013353228569031, -0.7364736199378967, 0.4250149130821228, -0.006423032842576504, 0.24359901249408722, 0.4450031518936157, 0.02274743653833866, 0.27614662051200867, 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229679	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jacqueline%20Cochran	Jacqueline Cochran	Jacqueline Cochran (May 11, 1906 – August 9, 1980) was an American pilot and business executive. She pioneered women's aviation as one of the most prominent racing pilots of her generation. She set numerous records and was the first woman to break the sound barrier on 18 May 1953. Cochran was the wartime head of the Women Airforce Service Pilots (WASP) (1943–1944) (along with Nancy Love) which employed about 1000 civilian American women in a non-combat role to ferry planes from factories to port cities, and was later a sponsor of the Mercury 13 women astronaut program. Early life Jacqueline Cochran, born Bessie Lee Pittman, in Pensacola, (some sources indicate she was born in DeFuniak Springs) in the Florida Panhandle, was the youngest of the five children of Mary (Grant) and Ira Pittman, a skilled millwright who frequently relocated setting up and reworking sawmills. While her family was not wealthy, Cochran's childhood living in small-town Florida was similar to those in other families of the era. Contrary to some accounts, there was always food on the table and she was not adopted, as she often claimed. Circa 1920, (she would have been 13 or 14), she married Robert Cochran and gave birth to a son, Robert, who died in 1925 at the age of 5. After the marriage ended, she kept the name Cochran and began using Jacqueline or Jackie as her given name. Cochran then became a hairdresser and got a job in Pensacola, eventually moving to New York City. There, she used her looks and driving personality to get a job at a prestigious salon at Saks Fifth Avenue. Although Cochran denied her family and her past, she remained in touch with them and provided for them over the years. Some of her family moved to her ranch in California after she remarried. They were instructed to always say they were her adopted family. Cochran apparently wanted to hide from the public the early chapters of her life and was successful in doing so until after her death. Later Cochran met Floyd Bostwick Odlum, founder of Atlas Corp. and CEO of RKO in Hollywood. Fourteen years her senior, he was reputed to be one of the 10 wealthiest men in the world. Odlum became enamored of Cochran and offered to help her establish a cosmetics business. After a friend offered her a ride in an aircraft, Cochran began taking flying lessons at Roosevelt Airfield, Long Island in the early 1930s and learned to fly an aircraft in three weeks. She then soloed and within two years obtained her commercial pilot's license. Odlum, whom she married in 1936 after his divorce, was an astute financier and savvy marketer who recognized the value of publicity for her business. Calling her line of cosmetics Wings to Beauty, she flew her own aircraft around the country promoting her products. Years later, Odlum used his Hollywood connections to get Marilyn Monroe to endorse Cochran's line of lipstick. Contributions to aviation Known by her friends as "Jackie", and maintaining the Cochran name, she was one of three women to compete in the MacRobertson Air Race in 1934. In 1937, she was the only woman to compete in the Bendix race and worked with Amelia Earhart to open the race to women. That year, she also set a new women's world speed record. By 1938, she was considered the best female pilot in the United States. She had won the Bendix and set a new transcontinental speed record as well as altitude records. Cochran was the first woman to fly a bomber across the Atlantic. She won five Harmon Trophies. Sometimes called the "Speed Queen", at the time of her death, no other pilot held more speed, distance, or altitude records in aviation history than Cochran. Ninety-Nines Cochran was a friend of Amelia Earhart. Although she was not a founding member of the Ninety-Nines, she was one of their most influential members. She was president of the Ninety-Nines from 1941-1943, and was instrumental in ensuring that women pilots would be able to participate in the newly-founded Civil Air Patrol as well as the WASP. In her monthly editorials for the Ninety-Nines Newsletter, she exhorted members to join the CAP or the WASP, and to do what they could to help the war effort. Air Transport Auxiliary Before the United States joined World War II, Cochran was part of "Wings for Britain", an organization that ferried American-built aircraft to Britain, becoming the first woman to fly a bomber (a Lockheed Hudson V) across the Atlantic. In Britain, she volunteered her services to the Royal Air Force. For several months she worked for the British Air Transport Auxiliary (ATA), recruiting qualified women pilots in the United States and taking them to England where they joined the ATA. Cochran attained the rank of Flight Captain (equivalent to a Squadron Leader in the RAF or a Major in the U.S. Air Force) in the ATA. Women Airforce Service Pilots In September, 1939, Cochran wrote to Eleanor Roosevelt to introduce the proposal of starting a women's flying division in the Army Air Forces. She felt that qualified women pilots could do all of the domestic, noncombat aviation jobs necessary to release more male pilots for combat. She pictured herself in command of these women, with the same standings as Colonel Oveta Culp Hobby, who was then the director of the Women's Army Auxiliary Corps (WAAC). (The WAAC was given full military status on July 1, 1943, thus making them part of the Army. At the same time, the unit was renamed Women's Army Corps (WAC).) That same year, Cochran wrote a letter to Lieutenant Colonel Robert Olds, who was helping to organize the Air Corps Ferrying Command for the Air Corps at the time. (Ferrying Command was originally a courier/aircraft delivery service, but evolved into the air transport branch of the United States Army Air Forces (USAAF) as the Air Transport Command). In the letter, Cochran suggested that women pilots be employed to fly non-combat missions for the new command. In early 1941, Olds asked Cochran to find out how many women pilots there were in the United States, what their flying times were, their skills, their interest in flying for the country, and personal information about them. She used records from the Civil Aeronautics Administration to gather the data. In spite of pilot shortages, Lieutenant General Henry H. "Hap" Arnold was the person who needed to be convinced that women pilots were the solution to his staffing problems. Arnold, Chief of the Air Corps, continued as commanding general of the Army Air Forces upon its creation in June 1941. He knew that women were being used successfully in the ATA in England so Arnold suggested that Cochran take a group of qualified female pilots to see how the British were doing. He promised her that no decisions regarding women flying for the USAAF would be made until she returned. When Arnold asked Cochran to go to Britain to study the ATA, Cochran asked 76 of the most qualified female pilots – identified during the research she had done earlier for Olds – to come along and fly for the ATA. Qualifications for these women were high: at least 300 hours of flying time, but most of the women pilots had over 1,000 hours. Those who made it to Canada found out that the washout rate was also high. A total of 25 women passed the tests and, two months later in March 1942 they went to Britain with Cochran to join the ATA. While Cochran was in England, in September 1942, General Arnold authorized the formation of the Women's Auxiliary Ferrying Squadron (WAFS) under the direction of Nancy Harkness Love. The WAFS began at New Castle Air Base in Wilmington, Delaware, with a group of female pilots whose objective was to ferry military aircraft. Hearing about the WAFS, Cochran immediately returned from England. Cochran's experience in Britain with the ATA convinced her that women pilots could be trained to do much more than ferrying. Lobbying Arnold for expanded flying opportunities for female pilots, he sanctioned the creation of the Women's Flying Training Detachment (WFTD), headed by Cochran. In August 1943, the WAFS and the WFTD merged to create the Women Airforce Service Pilots (WASP) with Cochran as director and Nancy Love as head of the ferrying division. As director of the WASP, Cochran supervised the training of hundreds of women pilots at the former Avenger Field in Sweetwater, Texas from August 1943 to December 1944. Award of the Distinguished Service Medal For her wartime service, she received the Distinguished Service Medal (DSM) in 1945. Her award of the DSM was announced in a War Department press release dated March 1, 1945 which stated that Cochran was the first woman civilian to receive the DSM, which was then the highest non-combat award presented by the United States government. (In actuality, however, a few civilian women received the DSM for service during the First World War. These women included Hannah J. Patterson and Anna Howard Shaw of the Council of National Defense, Evangeline Booth of the Salvation Army as well as Mary Vail Andress and Jane A. Delano of the American Red Cross.) Postwar At war's end, Cochran was hired by a magazine to report on global postwar events. In this role, she witnessed Japanese General Tomoyuki Yamashita's surrender in the Philippines and was then the first non-Japanese woman to enter Japan after the War and attended the Nuremberg Trials in Germany. On September 9, 1948, Cochran joined the U.S. Air Force Reserve as a lieutenant colonel. She was promoted to colonel in 1969 and retired in 1970. She was, quite probably, the first woman pilot in the United States Air Force. During her career in the Air Force Reserve, she received three awards of the Distinguished Flying Cross for various achievements from 1947 to 1964. Flying records Postwar, Cochran began flying the new jet aircraft, setting numerous records. She became the first woman pilot to "go supersonic". In 1952, Cochran, at age 47, decided to challenge the world speed record for women, then held by Jacqueline Auriol. She tried to borrow an F-86 from the U.S. Air Force, but was refused. She was introduced to an Air Vice-Marshal of the Royal Canadian Air Force (RCAF) who, with the permission of the Canadian Minister of Defence, arranged for her to borrow 19200, the sole Sabre 3. Canadair sent a 16-man support team to California for the attempt. On 18 May 1953, Cochran set a new 100 km speed record of 1,050.15 km/h (652.5 mph). Later on 3 June, she set a new 15 km closed circuit record of 1078 km/h (670 mph). Encouraged by then-Major Chuck Yeager, with whom Cochran shared a lifelong friendship, on May 18, 1953, at Rogers Dry Lake, California, Cochran flew the Sabre 3 at an average speed of 652.337 mph. During the course of this run the Sabre went supersonic, and Cochran became the first woman to break the sound barrier. Among her many record accomplishments, from August to October 1961, as a consultant to Northrop Corporation, Cochran set a series of speed, distance and altitude records while flying a Northrop T-38A-30-NO Talon supersonic trainer, serial number 60-0551. On the final day of the record series, she set two Fédération Aéronautique Internationale (FAI) world records, taking the T-38 to altitudes of 55,252.625 feet (16,841 m) in horizontal flight and reaching a peak altitude of 56,072.835 feet (17,091 m). Cochran was also the first woman to land and take off from an aircraft carrier, the first woman to pilot a bomber across the North Atlantic (in 1941) and later to fly a jet aircraft on a transatlantic flight, the first woman to make a blind (instrument) landing, the only woman ever to be president of the Fédération Aéronautique Internationale (1958–1961), the first woman to fly a fixed-wing, jet aircraft across the Atlantic, the first pilot to fly above 20,000 feet (6,096 m) with an oxygen mask, and the first woman to enter the Bendix Transcontinental Race. She still holds more distance and speed records than any pilot living or dead, male or female. Because of her interest in all forms of aviation, Cochran flew the Goodyear Blimp in the early 1960s with Goodyear Blimp Captain R. W. Crosier in Akron, Ohio. Mercury 13 In the 1960s, Cochran was a sponsor of the Mercury 13 program, an early effort to test the ability of women to be astronauts. Thirteen women pilots passed the same preliminary tests as the male astronauts of the Mercury program before the program was cancelled. It was never a NASA initiative, though it was spearheaded by two members of the NASA Life Sciences Committee, one of whom, William Randolph Lovelace II, was a close friend of Cochran and her husband. Though Cochran initially supported the program, she was later responsible for delaying further phases of testing, and letters from her to members of the Navy and NASA expressing concern over whether the program was to be run properly and in accordance with NASA goals may have significantly contributed to the eventual cancellation of the program. It is generally accepted that Cochran turned against the program out of concern that she would no longer be the most prominent female aviator. On 17 and 18 July 1962, Representative Victor Anfuso (D-NY) convened public hearings before a special Subcommittee of the House Committee on Science and Astronautics to determine whether or not the exclusion of women from the astronaut program was discriminatory, during which John Glenn and Scott Carpenter testified against admitting women to the astronaut program. Cochran herself argued against bringing women into the space program, saying that time was of the essence, and moving forward as planned was the only way to beat the Soviets in the Space Race. (None of the women who had passed the tests were military jet test pilots, nor did they have engineering degrees, which were the two basic experiential qualifications for potential astronauts. Women were not allowed to be military jet test pilots at that time. On average, however, they all had more flight experience than the male astronauts.) "NASA required all astronauts to be graduates of military jet test piloting programs and have engineering degrees. In 1962, no women could meet these requirements." This ended the Mercury 13 program. However, John Glenn and Scott Carpenter, who were part of the Mercury 7, also did not have engineering degrees when they were selected. Both of them were granted a degree after their flights for NASA. Significantly, the hearings investigated the possibility of gender discrimination a two full years before the Civil Rights Act of 1964 made that illegal, making these hearings a marker of how ideas about women's rights permeated political discourse even before they were enshrined in law. Political activities A lifelong Republican, Cochran, as a result of her involvement in politics and the military, became close friends with General Dwight Eisenhower. In the early part of 1952, she and her husband helped sponsor a large rally at Madison Square Garden in New York City in support of an Eisenhower presidential candidacy. The rally was documented on film and Cochran personally flew the film to France for a special showing at Eisenhower's headquarters. Her efforts proved a major factor in convincing Eisenhower to run for President of the United States in 1952 and she played a major role in his successful campaign. Close friends thereafter, Eisenhower frequently visited her and her husband at their California ranch and after leaving office, wrote portions of his memoirs there. Politically ambitious, Cochran ran for Congress in 1956 from California's 29th Congressional District as the candidate of the Republican Party. Her name appeared throughout the campaign and on the ballot as Jacqueline Cochran-Odlum. Although she defeated a field of five male opponents to win the Republican nomination, in the general election she lost a close election to Democratic candidate and first Asian-American congressman Dalip Singh Saund. Saund won with 54,989 votes (51.5%) to Cochran's 51,690 votes (48.5%). Her political setback was one of the few failures she ever experienced and she never attempted another run. Those who knew Cochran have said that the loss bothered her for the rest of her life. Legacy Cochran died on August 9, 1980 at her home in Indio, California that she shared with her husband until he had died four years prior. She was a long-time resident of the Coachella Valley and is buried in Coachella Valley Public Cemetery. She regularly utilized Thermal Airport over the course of her long aviation career. The airport, which had been renamed Desert Resorts Regional, was again renamed Jacqueline Cochran Regional Airport in her honor. Cochran's aviation accomplishments never gained the continuing media attention given those of Amelia Earhart. Also, Cochran's use of her husband's immense wealth reduced the rags-to-riches nature of her story. Nonetheless, she deserves a place in the ranks of famous women aviators and as a woman who frequently used her influence to advance the cause of women in aviation. Despite her lack of formal education, Cochran had a quick mind and an affinity for business and her investment in the cosmetics field proved a lucrative one. Later, in 1951, the Boston Chamber of Commerce voted her one of the 25 outstanding businesswomen in America. In 1953 and 1954, the Associated Press named her "Woman of the Year in Business". Cochran served on the Board of Trustees for the George Washington University from 1962 until her passing in 1980. Blessed by fame and wealth, Cochran donated a great deal of time and money to charitable works. Military awards Distinguished Service Medal Citation For exceptionally meritorious service to the Government in a position of great responsibility from June 1943 to December 1944 as Director of Women Pilots, Headquarters Army Air Forces. She directed the planning, programming and administration of all women pilot activities of the Army Air Forces, including the organization, training and operation of the Women Airforce Service Pilots (WASP). Under her leadership, the WASP performed with the utmost loyalty and efficiency, multiple flying services, in direct and effective support of the Army Air Forces which were of the greatest assistance and support to the war effort and the nation. Further, her achievements in this respect and the conclusions she has carefully and wisely drawn from this undertaking represent a contribution that is of permanent and far-reaching significance to the future of aviation. Her vision, skill and initiative have resulted in services of exceptional value and importance to the country. 1st Distinguished Flying Cross Citation The President of the United States of America, authorized by Act of Congress, July 2, 1926, takes pleasure in presenting the Distinguished Flying Cross to Colonel Jacqueline Cochran, United States Air Force, for extraordinary achievement while participating in aerial flight from 1947 to 1951. During this period, Colonel Cochran piloted an F-51 aircraft in which she established six world speed records. At Coachella Valley, California, flying a closed-circuit 100-kilometer course, Colonel Cochran established a new speed record of 469.549 miles per hour. In other flights from Thermal, Indio, and Palm Springs, CA, Colonel Cochran established world speed records for the 3-, 15-, 500-, 1000-, and 2000-kilometer courses. The professional competence, aerial skill, and devotion to duty displayed by Colonel Cochran reflect great credit upon herself and the United States Air Force. 2nd Distinguished Flying Cross Citation The President of the United States of America, authorized by Act of Congress, July 2, 1926, takes pleasure in presenting a Bronze Oak Leaf Cluster in lieu of a Second Award of the Distinguished Flying Cross to Colonel Jacqueline Cochran, United States Air Force, for extraordinary achievement while participating in aerial flight during April 1962. During that period, Colonel Cochran established a number of world records on a flight from New Orleans, LA to Bonn, Germany. Flying a Lockheed Jet Star C-140 Colonel Cochran established 69 intercity, intercapital, and straight-line distance records and routes, in addition to becoming the first woman to fly a jet aircraft across the Atlantic Ocean. The records were for both speed and distance. The professional competence, aerial skill, and devotion to duty displayed by Colonel Cochran reflect great credit upon herself and the United States Air Force. 3rd Distinguished Flying Cross Citation The President of the United States of America, authorized by Act of Congress, July 2, 1926, takes pleasure in presenting a Second Bronze Oak Leaf Cluster in lieu of a Third Award of the Distinguished Flying Cross to Colonel Jacqueline Cochran, United States Air Force, for extraordinary achievement while participating in aerial flight during May and June 1964. During this period, Colonel Cochran established three world speed records in an F-104C Starfighter. Flying a precise circular course, Colonel Cochran set a 25-kilometer record of 1429.297 miles per hour, more than twice the speed of sound. She established a record for the 100-kilometer course by flying at 1302 miles per hour. Colonel Cochran established a third world's speed record by achieving 1135 miles per hour over a 500-kilometer course. The professional competence, aerial skill, and devotion to duty displayed by Colonel Cochran reflect great credit upon herself and the United States Air Force. Other awards From many countries around the world, Cochran received citations and awards. In 1949, the government of France recognized her contribution to the war and aviation awarding her in 1951 with the French Air Medal. She is the only woman to ever receive the Gold Medal from the Fédération Aéronautique Internationale. She went on to be elected to that body's board of directors and director of Northwest Airlines in the U.S. At home, the Air Force awarded her the Distinguished Flying Cross and the Legion of Merit. In 1949, Cochran became the fourth U.S. recipient of the Türk Hava Kurumu's (Turkish Aeronautical Association) highest award, the Murassa Brövesi (Diamond Brevet). An annual air show called the Jacqueline Cochran Air Show is named in her honor and takes place at the Jacqueline Cochran Regional Airport. Cochran also became the first woman to be honored with a permanent display of her achievements at the United States Air Force Academy. In the play The Fastest Woman Alive, written by Karen Sunde, Cochran's life is chronicled alongside her husband, Floyd, Amelia Earhart, and others. Other honors include: 1964, received the Golden Plate Award of the American Academy of Achievement 1965, induction into the International Aerospace Hall of Fame 1971, induction into the National Aviation Hall of Fame 1985, the International Astronomical Union assigned the name Cochran to a large (100 km in diameter) crater on planet Venus 1992, induction into the Florida Women's Hall of Fame 1993, induction into the Motorsports Hall of Fame of America 1993, induction into the National Women's Hall of Fame. 1996, the United States Post Office honored Cochran with a 50¢ postage stamp, depicting her in front of a Bendix Trophy pylon with her P-35 in the background and the words: "Jacqueline Cochran Pioneer Pilot" 2002, induction into the Georgia Aviation Hall of Fame. 2006, induction into the Lancaster, California Aerospace Walk of Honor as its first woman inductee 2021, dedication of statue in the Okaloosa County, Florida Women Veterans Memorial See also Jacqueline Auriol Women Airforce Service Pilots Badge References Notes Citations Bibliography Ackmann, Martha. The Mercury 13: The Untold Story of Thirteen American Women and the Dream of Space Flight. New York: Random House, 2003. . Carl, Ann Baumgartner. A WASP Among Eagles. Washington, D.C.: Smithsonian Institution, 2000. . Cochran, Jacqueline. The Stars at Noon. Boston: Little, Brown and Company, 1954, re-issued in 1979. her first autobiography. Cochran, Jacqueline and Maryann Bucknum Brinley. Jackie Cochran: The Autobiography of the Greatest Woman Pilot in Aviation History. New York: Bantam Books, 1987. . McGuire, Nina and Sandra Wallus Sammons. Jacqueline Cochran: America's Fearless Aviator. Lake Buena Vista, Florida: Tailored Tours Publishing, 1997. . Merryman, Molly. Clipped Wings: The Rise and Fall of the Women Air Force Service Pilots (WASPs) of World War II. New York: New York University Press, 1998. . Nolen, Stephanie. Promised The Moon: The Untold Story of the First Women in the Space Race. Toronto, Canada: Penguin Canada, 2002. . Pelletier, Alain.High-Flying Women: A World History of Female Pilots. Sparkford, UK: Haynes, 2012. . Regis, Margaret. When Our Mothers Went to War: An Illustrated History of Women in World War II. Seattle: NavPublishing, 2008. . Robinson, Erik Thomas. "Cochran, Jacqueline (1910?–09 August 1980)" American National Biography (1999) online Sprekelmeyer, Linda, editor. These We Honor: The International Aerospace Hall of Fame. Donning Co. Publishers, 2006. Sunde, Karen. The Fastest Woman Alive. Woodstock, Illinois: Dramatic Publishing, 2005. . Teitel, Amy Shira. Fighting for Space : Two Pilots and Their Historic Battle for Female Spaceflight. New York: Grand Central Publishing, 2020. . Williams, Vera S. WASPs: Women Air Force Service Pilots of World War II. St. Paul, Minnesota: Motorbooks International, 1994. . External links Reminiscences of Jacqueline Cochran. Columbia University Aviation Project. New York: Columbia University Oral History Research Office, 1961. Biography WASP on the Web Bio National WASP WWII Museum Bio Jacqueline Cochran National Air and Space Museum Jacqueline Cochran National Women's Hall of Fame Jacqueline Cochran Florida Women's Hall of Fame Biography with bibliography US Centennial of Flight Commission WASP: Breaking Ground for Today’s Female USAF Pilots – National Museum of the US Air Force Jackie Cochran Documents at the Dwight D. Eisenhower Presidential Library Airport Jacqueline Cochran Regional Airport Jacqueline Cochran Regional Airport AirNav www.jacquelinecochranairshow.org TV Fly Girls: Jackie Cochran American Experience PBS 1906 births 1980 deaths Air Transport Auxiliary pilots Aviators from Florida Burials at Coachella Valley Public Cemetery California Republicans Harmon Trophy winners National Aviation Hall of Fame inductees People from Escambia County, Florida People from Indio, California Recipients of the Distinguished Flying Cross (United States) Recipients of the Distinguished Service Medal (US Army) Recipients of the Legion of Merit Women Airforce Service Pilots personnel People from DeFuniak Springs, Florida People from Pensacola, Florida Military personnel from Florida American aviation record holders American women aviation record holders Civilian recipients of the Distinguished Service Medal (United States) United States Air Force colonels United States Air Force reservists Female officers of 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229685	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List%20of%20ministers-president%20of%20Bavaria	List of ministers-president of Bavaria	Below is a list of the men who have served in the capacity of Minister-President or equivalent office in the German state of Bavaria from the 17th century to the present. Privy Council chancellor Privy Council chancellors (Geheime Ratskanzler) were: 1650–1662: Johann Adlzreiter von Tettenweis (de) 1662–1667: Johann Georg Oexle 1667–1693: Kaspar von Schmid (de) 1695–1704: Johann Rudolf von Wämpl (de) 1704–1714: Vacant 1726–1749: Franz Xaver Josef von Unertl 1749–1758: Franz Xaver Andreas von Praidlohn (de) 1758–1790: Wiguläus von Kreittmayr Ministers Before 1849 Bavaria had no actual head of government, but the Minister of Foreign Affairs was the most senior of the ministers. In 1806, the office was given to the Minister of the Royal House and of Foreign Affairs. 1745–1777: Franz Joseph von Berchem 1777–1799: Matthäus von Vieregg 1799–1817: Maximilian von Montgelas 1817–1825: Heinrich Aloys von Reigersberg 1825–1832: Georg Friedrich von Zentner 1832–1837: Friedrich August Koch 1837–1847: Karl von Abel 1847: Friedrich August von Zu Rhein 1847–1848: Ludwig von Oettingen-Wallerstein 1848: Klemens von Waldkirch (14 March 1848 – 29 April 1848) (de) 1848–1849: Otto von Bray-Steinburg (1st term) Chairmen of the Council of Ministers The office of Chairman of the Council of Ministers was established in 1849. With one exception (1880–1890), the Chairman was always the Foreign Minister. 1849–1859: Ludwig von der Pfordten (1st term) 1859–1864: Karl von Schrenck von Notzing (de) 1864: Max von Neumayr (de) 1864–1866: Ludwig von der Pfordten (2nd term) 1866–1870: Chlodwig zu Hohenlohe-Schillingsfürst 1870–1871: Otto von Bray-Steinburg (2nd term) 1871–1872: Friedrich von Hegnenberg-Dux (de) 1872–1880: Adolph von Pfretzschner 1880–1890: Johann von Lutz 1890–1903: Friedrich Krafft Graf von Crailsheim 1903–1912: Clemens von Podewils-Dürniz 1912–1917: Georg von Hertling 1917–1918: Otto von Dandl Ministers-President of the Free State of Bavaria Political party: Bavaria (1918–1933) Free State of Bavaria (1945–present) Minister-President of Bavaria Political party: Timeline See also List of rulers of Bavaria External links Bavaria Min 1650 establishments in the Holy Roman Empire	[ -0.049639470875263214, 1.3102232217788696, 0.09315456449985504, -0.1632869392633438, -0.4772546589374542, 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229687	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Water%20polo%20at%20the%201900%20Summer%20Olympics	Water polo at the 1900 Summer Olympics	A water polo tournament was held on the Seine (near Asnières) on 11 and 12 August 1900 as part of the 1900 Summer Olympics. Eight teams from four countries, all European, entered the event, although only seven ended up playing. The Osborne Swimming Club of Manchester, England, which has been listed with two rosters that are nearly entirely different, became the first Olympic water polo champions by defeating the Brussels Swimming and Water Polo Club of Belgium. Third place went to the two French-based semi-finalists, Libellule de Paris and Pupilles de Neptune de Lille, the latter of whom entered two teams, but merged them together after the first round. Background Water polo, and team sport in general, made its Olympic debut at the 1900 Summer Games held in Paris, France. The tournament was to be played by the less violent and more restrictive "English rules", which, along with the cost of traveling to Paris, deterred any American teams from participating. Seven teams, representing at least four countries, took part in the competition. Four squads were based in the host nation: two from Pupilles de Neptune de Lille and one each from Libellule de Paris and Tritons Lillois. The Brussels Swimming and Water Polo Club, Berliner Swimming Club, and Osborne Swimming Club of Manchester were based in Belgium, Germany, and Manchester, Great Britain respectively. A second squad from the Osborne Swimming Club of Manchester was entered, but did not participate. Team composition The composition of several of the teams in Paris differs across sources and not all teams were composed solely of members who were nationals of the countries in which their clubs were based. Libellule de Paris has been listed as having a player by the name of "Devenot", but Olympic historian Bill Mallon identifies this player as Jules Clévenot, who also competed in swimming events at the Games. Their squad also included Bill Burgess, a Briton who would later become the second man to swim across the English Channel. The first Pupilles de Neptune de Lille team contained a Belgian national, Philippe Houben. Three members of this squad, Eugène Favier, René Lériche, and Charles Treffel, joined the second Pupilles de Neptune de Lille team after the first was eliminated from the tournament. They seem to have replaced four players, Auguste Camelin, Antoine Fiolet, Pierre Gellé, and Louis Marc, who competed for the second Pupilles de Neptune de Lille lineup only in the first round. German sources do not list Hans Aniol, Max Hainle, or Herbert von Petersdorff as members of the Berliner Swimming Club, mentioning Gustav Erpf, Asmus Simonsen, and Max Schöne instead, but Mallon notes that there is proof contemporary to the tournament for the participation of only the former trio. Three members of the Brussels Swimming and Water Polo Club, Georges Romas, Guillaume Séron, and A. R. Upton, are also left off of some lists despite evidence that they participated in the first round. The roster for the Osborne Swimming Club of Manchester as listed by the International Olympic Committee is Thomas Coe, John Henry Derbyshire, Peter Kemp, William Lister, Arthur G. Robertson, Eric Robinson, and George Wilkinson. Lister, however, had died two weeks prior to the Games, while Derbyshire, Robinson, and Wilkinson all played water polo matches in England either during the tournament or too soon after it to have traveled back from Paris in time. A list of players contemporary to the match does not include Robertson, but does list Coe and Kemp in addition to Robert Crawshaw, William Henry, John Arthur Jarvis, Victor Lindberg, and Frederick Stapleton. Lindberg has been considered the first New Zealand Olympian, although he "was born in Fiji to Swedish and Irish parents, lived in New Zealand from a young age and, in Paris, represented a British club." Full rosters All entries are listed as per Mallon's "The 1900 Olympic Games" unless otherwise noted: Tournament results The water polo tournament was held at the river Seine, with the first round taking place on 11 August. Osborne defeated Tritons Lillois in a 12–0 shutout, with Jarvis scoring at least six of the goals. Brussels also shutout the first Pupilles de Neptune de Lille squad 2–0, while the latter's second team defeated Berliner 3–2. Libellule de Paris received a bye and the losing teams were eliminated from the tournament. The semi-finals took place on 12 August, with Osborne defeating the remaining Pupilles de Neptune de Lille squad 10–1 (with Martin scoring the lone goal for the French team) and Brussels winning against Libellule de Paris 5–1. The final was held on the same day, with Osborne overcoming Brussels 7–2. Osborne, with the medal later credited to Great Britain, became the first Olympic water polo champions and "descriptions of the matches make it appear that they won as they wished, and the margins could have been larger, had they pressed the matter". Belgium has been retroactively credited with silver (medals were not handed out for many events at the 1900 Summer Olympics), while the two French semi-finalists have been seen as the bronze medalists. Summary References Sources PDF documents in the LA84 Foundation Digital Library: Official Report of the 1900 Olympic Games (download, archive) Water polo on the Olympedia website Water polo at the 1900 Summer Olympics (men's tournament) Water polo on the Sports Reference website Water polo at the 1900 Summer Games (men's tournament) (archived) 1900 in water polo 1900 Summer Olympics events 1900 1900	[ 0.056768447160720825, -0.5114406943321228, -0.40122300386428833, 0.6998152136802673, -0.6264883875846863, -0.16009043157100677, 0.2503635883331299, -0.1651245653629303, -0.537351131439209, -0.6596676111221313, 0.2954595386981964, 0.04025611653923988, -0.054652053862810135, 0.20755021274089813, 0.18043291568756104, 0.41445446014404297, 0.6331263184547424, -0.26705172657966614, 0.7026984691619873, 0.07347889989614487, -0.5244514346122742, 0.2568967640399933, 0.2896071672439575, 0.4648398160934448, -0.3973419964313507, -0.25555485486984253, 0.7281240224838257, 0.3831382393836975, 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229691	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arte%20Moreno	Arte Moreno	Arturo "Arte" Moreno (born August 14, 1946) is an American businessman. On May 15, 2003, he became the first Mexican-American to own a major sports team in the United States when he purchased the Anaheim Angels baseball team from the Walt Disney Company. Early life and education Moreno was born to a Mexican American family in Tucson, Arizona, the oldest of 11 children of Maria and Arturo Moreno, who immigrated from Mexico. His father ran a small print shop; his grandfather owned Tucson's first Spanish-language newspaper. In 1965, graduated from high school and in 1966, he was drafted into the United States Army and fought in the Vietnam War. After returning to civilian life in 1968, he enrolled at the University of Arizona where he graduated in 1973 with a degree in marketing. Career Advertising background After school, he was hired to work at Eller Outdoor, an advertising company. He traveled across the country for the next seven years, relocating several times and in 1984, he moved back to Arizona, settling in Phoenix, where he was hired by billboard company Outdoor Systems. In 1984, Moreno and his friend Wally Kelly attempted unsuccessfully to buy the firm from owner William S. Levine. Moreno and Kelly entered into a partnership with Levine, and Moreno later became its president and chief executive officer. In 1996, Moreno took Outdoor Systems public. The company's stock soared, and in 1998 Outdoor Systems was purchased by Infinity Broadcasting for $8 billion. Baseball ownership With baseball being Moreno's favorite pastime, he applied his business acumen in that arena, as well, purchasing the Salt Lake Trappers minor league team alongside 17 other investors in 1986. The group owned the team until 1992, and the venture proved to be a resounding financial success. By 2001, Moreno wished to own a Major League Baseball (MLB) team. He attempted to buy controlling interest in his home state's Arizona Diamondbacks, but no deal could be reached. He nonetheless remained determined to own a Major League team, and soon set his sights on the 2002 World Series champion Anaheim Angels. It was announced in April 2003 that Moreno had agreed with The Walt Disney Company to purchase the team for $180 million. On May 15, 2003, MLB commissioner Bud Selig announced that the sale of the Angels to Moreno had been approved. One of the first people to congratulate Moreno after the news was Diamondbacks' owner Jerry Colangelo, a personal friend who declared it a good opportunity for Moreno. Angels owner Moreno soon demonstrated a willingness to spend the money necessary to sign premium players, including star outfielder Vladimir Guerrero. He also took a hands-on approach, becoming a regular attendee of the team's home games and periodically leaving his owner's box during games to mingle with fans in the regular stadium seating areas and concourses. All of these moves proved very popular with fans. In the first year of his ownership, the Angels drew more than three million fans, 750,000 more than their championship season. However, Moreno encountered a substantial backlash from fans of the team, and in particular, from the city leadership of Anaheim, California, over his decision in 2005 to change the name of the team from the Anaheim Angels to the Los Angeles Angels of Anaheim. Moreno saw the change as part of an overall strategy to increase the team's revenue by actively marketing it to, and associating it with, the entire Los Angeles metropolitan area, rather than restricting the team's identity to the city of Anaheim and to Orange County. In recent years, the San Diego Zoo and Los Angeles Times have been notable club sponsors, while all baseball TV rightsholders also use some variation of the team's new name, indicating the effect of Moreno's plan. But the move outraged Anaheim city officials, who responded by suing the team. It also angered a substantial segment of the Angels' fan base in Orange County, who took pride in the team's identity being distinct from Los Angeles. The awkwardness of the of Anaheim suffix, appended to satisfy a contractual requirement for Anaheim to be included in the team's name, also caused the new name to become the subject of national ridicule. Eventually, the team won the lawsuit filed by the city. Whatever displeasure fans felt over the name change has not translated into diminished support for the team, as attendance levels have remained well above 2002 numbers. Aside from the name controversy, Moreno's first few seasons as owner of the Angels were largely successful. The team posted three consecutive winning seasons for the first time in club history (2007–2009), including winning the American League Western Division championship in 2004, 2005, 2007, 2008, 2009, and 2014 when they finished with a league leading 98 regular season wins. Just prior to the start of the 2006 Major League season, Moreno scored another success in signing a lucrative contract with Fox Sports Net for the television broadcast rights for the Angels' regular season games. The ten-year deal significantly increased the team's television revenue. In April 2006, Forbes magazine estimated the team to be worth $368 million—twice the amount Moreno paid for the club only three years earlier; in January 2018 Forbes estimated the franchise value at $1.75 billion. [Moreno] has really done an amazing job with the franchise. To double the value in three years without getting a new stadium is an incredible feat. — Forbes magazine associate editor Kurt Badenhausen In October 2020, Moreno, through his company SRB Management, purchased Angel Stadium and the surrounding parking lots from the City of Anaheim for $150MM. Other business interests On February 26, 2006, Moreno led a partnership of buyers to purchase Radio 830 KMXE, the nation's largest Spanish-language AM radio station. For the 2006 and 2007 seasons Radio 830 KMXE served as the Spanish-language radio broadcast outlet for the Angels. On July 17, 2007, the station began broadcasting from new studios located in Angel Stadium. Just before the 2008 season the station became AM830 KLAA (AM) and went all English language, including the Angels game broadcasts. The station has since added morning and afternoon sports talk shows to its lineup. While it seems a new trend for sports teams to buy their own radio stations (see the St. Louis Cardinals and the Washington Commanders), for the Angels it is a tradition started by team founder Gene Autry, who owned 710 KMPC and broadcast the games for years. Personal life Moreno has been married twice. He has three children. In 1997, Moreno and his wife established the Moreno Family Foundation, which supports non-profit organizations focusing on youth and education. It also has provided support to the athletic programs at the University of Arizona. Aside from this, Moreno is vigilant about maintaining his privacy. He refuses most interview requests, and does not discuss his personal life publicly. His family and friends also avoid commenting on his personal life publicly, though off the record, those who know him describe him as "unabashed in his support of Republican politics" and as particularly dedicated to his family. In September 2020 he endorsed Donald Trump for president, saying "it’s very necessary to vote for President Trump". References 1946 births Living people United States Army personnel of the Vietnam War American billionaires American sportspeople of Mexican descent Anaheim Angels owners Businesspeople from Tucson, Arizona Businesspeople in advertising Hispanic and Latino American businesspeople Los Angeles Angels owners Los Angeles Angels of Anaheim owners University of Arizona alumni United States Army soldiers	[ 0.17386046051979065, -0.17720860242843628, -0.21973572671413422, 0.0920497477054596, 0.006964907981455326, 0.4602167010307312, -0.18021729588508606, 0.4241615831851959, 0.1748378425836563, -0.31101587414741516, 0.205740287899971, 1.1762890815734863, 0.07283861190080643, 0.06168987601995468, -0.20648884773254395, 0.32452839612960815, -0.10567247867584229, 0.11485190689563751, -0.8538652658462524, 0.10564247518777847, -0.6780539155006409, -0.17506946623325348, 0.5114380717277527, 0.3419196903705597, -0.6028535962104797, 0.0016120357904583216, -0.09814117848873138, -0.34246447682380676, 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229694	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Intercooler	Intercooler	An intercooler is a mechanical device used to cool a gas after compression. Compressing a gas increases its internal energy which in turn raises its temperature. An intercooler typically takes the form of a heat exchanger that removes waste heat in a gas compressor. Intercoolers have a variety of applications, and can be found, for instance, in air compressors, air conditioners, refrigeration, gas turbines, and automotive engines. They are widely known as an air-to-air or air-to-liquid cooler for forced induction (turbocharged or supercharged) internal combustion engines, used to improve volumetric efficiency. This is accomplished by increasing intake air density through nearly constant pressure cooling. Automotive: DAF Trucks of Eindhoven, Netherlands were the first to introduce turbo-intercooling in 1973. The technology was initially developed to meet the demand for higher engine outputs and lower exhaust emissions. Air compressors Intercoolers are used to remove the waste heat from the first stage of two-stage air compressors. Two-stage air compressors are manufactured because of their inherent efficiency. The cooling action of the intercooler is principally responsible for this higher efficiency, bringing it closer to Carnot efficiency. Removing the heat-of-compression from the discharge of the first stage has the effect of densifying the air charge. This, in turn, allows the second stage to produce more work from its fixed compression ratio. Adding an intercooler to the setup requires additional investments. Intercoolers remove the heat from the air and feed the engine manifold cooler air for better compression hence the name, the intercoolers have small little fins that channel air and cool it then feeding it to the engine and then also later on after compression spool the turbo or in a super charged engine take a twin screw super charger for example, it would spin the screws and feed air into a intercooler which would cool air and feed it into the intake manifold. Internal combustion engines Intercoolers increase the efficiency of the induction system by reducing induction air heat created by the supercharger or turbocharger and promoting more thorough combustion. This removes the heat of compression (i.e., the temperature rise) that occurs in any gas when its pressure is raised (i.e. its unit mass per unit volume - density - is increased). A decrease in intake air charge temperature sustains use of a more dense intake charge into the engine, as a result of forced induction. The lowering of the intake charge air temperature also eliminates the danger of pre-detonation (knock) of the fuel/air charge prior to timed spark ignition. This preserves the benefits of more fuel/air burn per engine cycle, increasing the output of the engine. Intercoolers also eliminate the need for using the wasteful method of lowering intake charge temperature by the injection of excess fuel into the cylinders' air induction chambers to cool the intake air charge prior to its flowing into the cylinders. This wasteful practice (before intercoolers were used) nearly eliminated the gain in engine efficiency from forced induction, but was necessitated by the greater need to prevent at all costs the engine damage that pre-detonation engine knocking causes. The inter prefix in the device name originates from its use as a cooler in between compression cycles. Typically in automobiles the intercooler is placed between the turbocharger (or supercharger) and the engine (the piston compression produces the next compression cycle). A more descriptive or informative term would be aftercooler/chargecooler, thereby removing any ambiguity that the vehicles have sequential two-stage turbocharging. Aircraft engines are sometimes built with charge air coolers that were installed between multiple stages of forced induction, thus the designation of inter. In a vehicle fitted with twin stage turbocharging, it is possible to have both an intercooler (between the two turbocharger units) and an aftercooler (between the second-stage turbo and the engine). The JCB Dieselmax diesel land speed record-holding car is an example of such a system. In general, an intercooler or aftercooler is said to be a charge-air cooler. Intercoolers can vary dramatically in size, shape and design, depending on the performance and space requirements of the entire supercharger system. Common spatial designs are front mounted intercoolers (FMIC), top mounted intercoolers (TMIC) and hybrid mount intercoolers (HMIC). Each type can be cooled with an air-to-air system, air-to-liquid system, or a combination of both. In supercharged engines Turbochargers and superchargers are engineered to force more air mass (and thus more oxygen molecules) into an engine's intake manifold and combustion chamber. Intercooling is a method used to compensate for heating caused by supercharging, a natural byproduct of the semi-adiabatic compression process. Increased air pressure can result in an excessively hot intake charge, significantly reducing the performance gains of supercharging due to decreased density. Increased intake charge temperature can also increase the cylinder combustion temperature, causing detonation, excessive wear, or heat damage to an engine block or pistons. Passing a compressed and heated intake charge through an intercooler reduces its temperature (due to heat rejection) and pressure (due to flow restriction of fins). If the device is properly engineered, the relative decrease in temperature is greater than the relative loss in pressure, resulting in a net increase in density. This increases system performance by recovering some losses of the inefficient compression process by rejecting heat to the atmosphere. Additional cooling can be provided by externally spraying a fine mist onto the intercooler surface, or even into the intake air itself, to further reduce intake charge temperature through evaporative cooling. Intercoolers that exchange their heat directly with the atmosphere are designed to be mounted in areas of an automobile with maximum air flow. These types are mainly mounted in front mounted systems (FMIC). Cars such as the Nissan Skyline, Saab, Volvo 200 Series Turbo, Volvo 700 Series (and 900 series) turbo, Dodge SRT-4, 1st gen Mazda MX-6, Mitsubishi Lancer Evolution and Chevrolet Cobalt SS all use front mounted intercooler(s) mounted near the front bumper, in line with the car's radiator. Many other turbo-charged cars, particularly where the aesthetics of the car are not to be compromised by top mount scoops, such as the Toyota Supra (JZA80 only), Nissan 300ZX Twin Turbo, Nissan Silvia (S13/14/14a/15), Nissan 180sx, Mitsubishi 3000gt, Saab 900, Volkswagen, Fiat Turbo diesels, Audi TT, and Turbo Mitsubishi Eclipse use side-mounted air-to-air intercoolers (SMIC), which are mounted in the front corner of the bumper or in front of one of the wheels. Side-mounted intercoolers are generally smaller, mainly due to space constraints, and sometimes two are used to gain the performance of a larger, single intercooler. Cars such as the Subaru Impreza WRX, MINI Cooper S, Toyota Celica GT-Four, Nissan Pulsar GTI-R, Acura RDX, Mazdaspeed3, Mazdaspeed6, and the PSA Peugeot Citroën turbo diesels, use air-to-air top mounted intercoolers (TMIC) located on top of the engine. Air is directed through the intercooler through the use of a hood scoop. In the case of the PSA cars, the air flows through the grille above the front bumper, then through under-hood ducting. Top mounted intercoolers sometimes suffer from heat diffusion due to proximity with the engine, warming them and reducing their overall efficiency. Some World Rally Championship cars use a reverse-induction system design whereby air is forced through ducts in the front bumper to a horizontally mounted intercooler. Because FMIC systems require open bumper design for optimal performance, the entire system is vulnerable to debris. Some engineers choose other mount locations due to this reliability concern. FMICs can be located in front of or behind the radiator, depending on the heat dissipation needs of the engine. As well as allowing a greater mass of air to be admitted to an engine, intercoolers have a key role in controlling the internal temperatures in a turbocharged engine. When fitted with a turbo (as with any form of supercharging), the engine's specific power is increased, leading to higher combustion and exhaust temperatures. The exhaust gases passing through the turbine section of the turbocharger are usually around 450 °C (840 °F), but can be as high as 1000 °C (1830 °F) under extreme conditions. This heat passes through the turbocharger unit and contributes to the heating of the air being compressed in the compressor section of the turbo. If left uncooled, this hot air enters the engine, further increasing internal temperatures. This leads to a build-up of heat that will eventually stabilise, but this may be at temperatures in excess of the engine's design limits- 'hot spots' at the piston crown or exhaust valve can cause warping or cracking of these components. High air charge temperatures will also increase the possibility of pre-ignition or detonation. Detonation causes damaging pressure spikes in the engine's cylinders, which can quickly damage an engine. These effects are especially found in modified or tuned engines running at very high specific power outputs. An efficient intercooler removes heat from the air in the induction system, preventing the cyclic heat build-up via the turbocharger, allowing higher power outputs to be achieved without damage. Compression by the turbocharger causes the intake air to heat up and heat is added due to compressor inefficiencies (adiabatic efficiency). This is actually the greater cause of the increase in air temperature in an air charge. The extra power obtained from forced induction is due to the extra air available to burn more fuel in each cylinder. This sometimes requires a lower compression ratio be used, to allow a wider mapping of ignition timing advance before detonation occurs (for a given fuel's octane rating). On the other hand, a lower compression ratio generally lowers combustion efficiency and costs power. Some high performance tuning companies measure the temperature before and after the intercooler to ensure the output temperature is as close to ambient as possible (without additional cooling; water/liquid gas spray kits). Air-to-liquid intercoolers Air-to-liquid intercoolers, also known as charge air coolers, are heat exchangers that transfer intake charge heat to an intermediate liquid, usually water, which finally rejects heat to the air. These systems use radiators in other locations, usually due to space constraints, to reject unwanted heat, similar to an automotive radiator cooling system. Air-to-liquid intercoolers are usually heavier than their air-to-air counterparts due to additional components making up the system (water circulation pump, radiator, fluid, and plumbing). The Toyota Celica GT-Four had this system from 1988 to 1989, 1994 to 1999, also in the Carlos Sainz Rally Championship Version from 1990 to 1993. The 1989-1993 Subaru Legacy with the 2.0 L DOHC flat-4 engine also used a top installed air-to-water intercooler on the GT and RS models sold in Japan, Europe, and Australia. A big advantage of the air-to-liquid setup is the lower overall pipe and intercooler length, which offers faster response (lowers turbo lag) , giving peak boost faster than most front-mount intercooler setups. Some setups have reservoirs that can hold ice, producing intake temperatures lower than ambient air, giving a big advantage (but of course, ice would need constant replacement). Ford had adopted the technology when they decided to use forced induction (via Supercharger) on their Mustang Cobra and Ford Lightning truck platforms. It uses a water/glycol mixture intercooler inside the intake manifold, just under the supercharger, and has a long heat exchanger front mounted, all powered by a Bosch pump made for Ford. Ford still uses this technology today with their Shelby GT500. The 2005-2007 Chevrolet Cobalt SS Supercharged also utilizes a similar setup. Air-to-liquid intercoolers are by far the most common form of intercooler found on marine engines, given that a limitless supply of cooling water is available and most engines are located in closed compartments where obtaining a good flow of cooling air for an air-to-air unit would be difficult. Marine intercoolers take the form of a tubular heat exchanger with the air passing around a series of tubes within the cooler casing, and cooling water circulating inside the tubes. The source of water for the intercooler depends on the exact cooling system fitted to the engine. Most marine engines have fresh water circulating within them which is passed through a heat exchanger cooled by sea water. In such a system, the intercooler will be attached to the sea water circuit and placed before the engine's own heat exchanger to ensure a supply of cool water. The main materials used for this kind of application are meant to resist sea water corrosion: Copper-Nickel for the tubes and bronze for the sea water covers. Charge air cooler A charge air cooler is used to cool engine air after it has passed through a turbocharger, but before it enters the engine. The idea is to return the air to a lower temperature and thus increase density, for the optimum power for the combustion process within the engine. Charge air coolers range in size depending on the engine. The smallest are most often referred to as intercoolers and are attached to automobile engines or truck engines. The largest are reserved for use on huge marine diesel engines, and can weigh over 2 tonnes (see picture). The first marine diesel engine charge air cooler was built by Vestas aircoil A/S in 1956. There is some confusion in terminology between aftercooler, intercooler, and charge-air cooler. In the past, aircraft engines would run turbochargers in stages, where the first stage compressor would feed the inlet of the second stage compressor that would further compress the air before it enters the engine. Due to the extremely high pressures that would develop, an air cooler was positioned between the first and second stage compressors. That cooler was the "intercooler". Another cooler would be positioned after the second stage, which was the final compressor stage, and that was the "aftercooler". An aftercooler was the cooler whose outlet fed the engine. Charge-air cooler is simply an all-encompassing term referring to a system that cools the compressed charge air before it is routed into the engine. Usually a charge-air cooler means an air-to-air cooler where the heat is rejected using ambient air flowing through the heat exchanger, much like the engine's coolant radiator. While the multi-stage turbocharger systems are still in use in some tractor pull classes, selected high-performance diesels, and are also being used on newer late model commercial diesels, the term intercooler and aftercooler are used synonymously today. The term intercooler is widely used to mean in-between the Turbocharger and the engine. Both terms, intercooler or aftercooler, are correct, but this is the origin of the two terms that are used interchangeably by all levels of experts. An intercooler, or "charge-air cooler", is an air-to-air or air-to-liquid heat exchange device used on turbocharged and supercharged (forced induction) internal combustion engines to improve their volumetric efficiency by increasing intake air-charge density through isochoric cooling. A decrease in air intake temperature provides a denser intake charge to the engine and allows more air and fuel to be combusted per engine cycle, increasing the output of the engine. The inter- prefix in the device name originates from historic compressor designs. In the past, aircraft engines were built with charge-air coolers that were installed between multiple stages of supercharging, thus the designation of inter. Modern automobile designs are technically designated aftercoolers because of their placement at the end of supercharging chain. This term is now considered archaic in modern automobile terminology since most forced induction vehicles have single-stage superchargers or turbochargers. In a vehicle fitted with two-stage turbocharging, it is possible to have both an intercooler (between the two turbocharger units) and an aftercooler (between the second-stage turbo and the engine). In general, an intercooler or aftercooler is said to be a charge-air cooler. 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229697	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Soft%20X-ray%20transient	Soft X-ray transient	Soft X-ray transients (SXTs), also known as X-ray novae and black hole X-ray transients, are composed of a compact object (most commonly a black hole but sometimes a neutron star) and some type of "normal", low-mass star (i.e. a star with a mass of some fraction of the Sun's mass). These objects show dramatic changes in their X-ray emission, probably produced by variable transfer of mass from the normal star to the compact object, a process called accretion. In effect the compact object "gobbles up" the normal star, and the X-ray emission can provide the best view of how this process occurs. The "soft" name arises because in many cases there is strong soft (i.e. low-energy) X-ray emission from an accretion disk close to the compact object, although there are exceptions which are quite hard. Soft X-ray transients Cen X-4 and Aql X-1 were discovered by Hakucho, Japan's first X-ray astronomy satellite to be X-ray bursters. During active accretion episodes, called "outbursts", SXTs are bright (with typical luminosities above 1037 erg/s). Between these episodes, when the accretion is absent, SXTs are usually very faint, or even unobservable; this is called the "quiescent" state. In the "outburst" state the brightness of the system increases by a factor of 100–10000 in both X-rays and optical. During outburst, a bright SXT is the brightest object in the X-ray sky, and the apparent magnitude is about 12. The SXTs have outbursts with intervals of decades or longer, as only a few systems have shown two or more outbursts. The system fades back to quiescence in a few months. During the outburst, the X-ray spectrum is "soft" or dominated by low-energy X-rays, hence the name Soft X-ray transients. SXTs are quite rare; about 100 systems are known. SXTs are a class of low-mass X-ray binaries. A typical SXT contains a K-type subgiant or dwarf that is transferring mass to a compact object through an accretion disk. In some cases the compact object is a neutron star, but black holes are more common. The type of compact object can be determined by observation of the system after an outburst; residual thermal emission from the surface of a neutron star will be seen whereas a black hole will not show residual emission. During "quiescence" mass is accumulating to the disk, and during outburst most of the disk falls into the black hole. The outburst is triggered as the density in the accretion disk exceeds a critical value. High density increases viscosity, which results in heating of the disk. Increasing temperature ionizes the gas, increasing the viscosity, and the instability increases and propagates throughout the disk. As the instability reaches the inner accretion disk, the X-ray luminosity rises and outburst begins. The outer disk is further heated by intense radiation from the inner accretion disk. A similar runaway heating mechanism operates in dwarf novae. Some SXTs in the quiescent state show thermal X-ray radiation from the surface of a neutron star with typical luminosities ∼(1032—1034) erg/s. In so called "quasi-persistent SXTs", whose periods of accretion and quiescence are particularly long (of the order of years), the cooling of the accretion-heated neutron-star crust can be observed in quiescence. Analyzing the quiescent thermal states of the SXTs and their crust cooling, one can test the physical properties of the superdense matter in the neutron stars. References Stellar phenomena soft X-ray transient	[ 0.020421242341399193, 0.1343940943479538, -0.02431073971092701, -0.04471644014120102, -0.24411258101463318, -0.5845111608505249, -0.09575074911117554, 0.7779510617256165, -0.19192448258399963, -0.2833714485168457, -1.078360676765442, 0.6277844905853271, -0.24820786714553833, 0.3616802394390106, 0.2827085852622986, 0.5252640247344971, 0.4996185898780823, 0.3080907166004181, -0.2159154713153839, -0.4323677122592926, 0.0756029412150383, -0.05561789497733116, 0.2168860137462616, -0.21376028656959534, -0.06224578991532326, -0.13506576418876648, -0.41104573011398315, -0.1936429888010025, 0.19918784499168396, 0.10269036889076233, -0.3427943289279938, 0.874332070350647, -0.5384002327919006, 0.3224775791168213, 0.10676001757383347, 0.6876445412635803, -0.08602948486804962, 0.01741958223283291, 0.02276022545993328, -0.13473783433437347, 0.2447851300239563, -0.5065882205963135, 0.1937142163515091, 0.07593061774969101, -0.6768225431442261, 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229698	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kib%C5%8D%20%28ISS%20module%29	Kibō (ISS module)	The Japanese Experiment Module (JEM), nicknamed , is a Japanese science module for the International Space Station (ISS) developed by JAXA. It is the largest single ISS module, and is attached to the Harmony module. The first two pieces of the module were launched on Space Shuttle missions STS-123 and STS-124. The third and final components were launched on STS-127. Components In initial configuration, Kibō consisted of six major elements: Pressurized Module (PM) Exposed Facility (EF) Experiment Logistics Module (ELM) Pressurized Section (ELM-PS) Experiment Logistics Module (ELM) Exposed Section (ELM-ES) Japanese Experiment Module remote manipulator system (JEMRMS) Inter-orbit communication system (ICS) Pressurized Module The Pressurized Module (PM) is the core component connected to the port hatch of Harmony. It is cylindrical in shape and contains twenty-three International Standard Payload Racks (ISPRs), ten of which are dedicated to science experiments while the remaining thirteen are dedicated to Kibōs systems and storage. The racks are placed in a 6-6-6-5 format along the four walls of the module. The end of the PM has an airlock and two window hatches. The exposed facility, experiment logistics module, and remote manipulator system all connect to the PM. It is the location for many of the press conferences that take place on board the station. Exposed facility The Exposed Facility (EF), also known as "Terrace", is located outside the port cone of the PM (which is equipped with an airlock). The EF has twelve Exposed Facility Unit (EFU) ports which attach to Payload Interface Unit (PIU) connectors on EF-equipment exchange units (EF-EEUs). All experiment payloads are fully exposed to the space environment. For proper functioning of these experiments, the payload requires an orbital replacement unit (ORU), consisting of the electrical power system (EPS), communications and tracking (CT), and the thermal control system (TCS). Of the twelve ORUs, eight are replaceable by the JEMRMS while the other four are EVA-replaceable. Experiment logistics module The experiment logistics module (ELM) includes two sections: The pressurized section (ELM-PS), also called the JLP (Japanese logistics pressurized), is a pressurized addition to the PM. It is used as a storage facility, providing storage space for experiment payloads, samples and spare items. The unpressurized (external) section (ELM-ES) serves as a storage and transportation module. It was used to transfer external experiments with the Space Shuttle. It is not used after the retirement of the shuttle. Remote manipulator system The JEM remote manipulator system (JEMRMS) is a robotic arm, mounted at the port cone of the PM. It is used for servicing the EF and for moving equipment to and from the ELM. The JEMRMS control console was launched while inside the ELM-PS, and the main arm was launched with the PM. The small fine arm, which is long and attaches to the end effector of the main arm, was launched aboard HTV-1 on the maiden flight of the HTV spacecraft. Once HTV had docked, the small fine arm was assembled by the crew and deployed outside the airlock to test it. The JEMRMS grappled the arm and unfolded it to flex the joints before stowing it onto the EF. The free end of the JEMRMS is able to use the same type of grapple fixtures that the Canadarm2 uses. Inter-orbit Communication System Inter-orbit Communication System (ICS) consists of a rack of communication module in the Pressurized Module (ICS-PM) and the antenna module to be attached on the Exposed Facility (ICS-EF). It was used to communicate with the ground station via JAXA's communication technology demonstration satellite DRTS "Kodama". After the decommissioning of DRTS in August 2017, Kibō relies on the ISS's Ku band communication through NASA's TDRSS. ICS-EF was disposed by jettisoning into orbit in February 2020. Launch sequence NASA launched the JEM complex over three flights using the Space Shuttle. The shuttle had a large payload bay which carried the modules into orbit along with the crew. This is in contrast to the Russian modules, which are launched into orbit on multistage Proton rockets and then rendezvous and dock with the station automatically. On 12 March 2007, the Experiment Logistics Module-Pressurized Section (ELM-PS), the main laboratory, arrived at the Kennedy Space Center (KSC) from Japan. It was stored in the Space Station Processing Facility (SSPF) until launched into orbit aboard Endeavour on 11 March 2008 as part of the STS-123 mission. On 30 May 2003, the Pressurized Module (PM) arrived at KSC from Japan. It was stored at the SSPF until launched into orbit aboard Discovery on 31 May 2008 as part of the STS-124 mission. On 3 June 2008, the PM was attached to the Harmony module. At first the ELM-PS, the small cargo bay, was connected to a temporary location on Harmony and later, on 6 June 2008, was moved to its final berthing location on top (zenith) of the main laboratory. The Exposed Facility (EF) and Experiment Logistics Module-External Section (ELM-ES) arrived at KSC on 24 September 2008. The two elements were launched on Endeavour on 15 July 2009 as part of the STS-127 mission. The ELM-ES was brought back to Earth at the end of the mission. The assembly of the EF was completed during the fifth spacewalk of the mission. Specifications Kibō is the largest single ISS module: Pressurized module Length: Diameter: Mass: Experiment logistics module - Pressurized Section Length: Diameter: Mass: The module and all its integrated accessories were manufactured at the Tsukuba Space Center in Japan. It is made from stainless steel, titanium, and aluminum. Experiments on Kibō Current external experiments MAXI – X-ray astronomy from 0.5 to 30 keV. Exposed Facility Slot 1. OCO-3 – Monitoring of carbon dioxide in the Earth's atmosphere using a flight spare from OCO-2. Exposed Facility Slot 3 port originally held SMILES. NREP – Nanoracks External Platform. NREP-2 is the current mission on this pallet. Exposed Facility Slot 4. i-SEEP – IVA-replaceable Small Exposed Experiment Platform (JAXA). Mounted to Exposed Facility Slot 5. It is a platform to support small-to-medium (less than 200 kg) payloads. Experiments on the i-SEEP platform are HDTV-EF2 (since 2017), GPSR/Wheel, and SOLISS (since 2019). GEDI – Global Ecosystem Dynamics Investigation on ISS Exposed Facility Slot 6 port originally held HREP. CREAM – Cosmic Ray Energetics and Mass Experiment. Launched on SpaceX CRS-12 in 2017. Initially at Exposed Facility Slot 2. Moved to Slot 7 in 2021. HISUI – Hyperspectral Imager Suite (METI) replacement for HREP which ended its mission in 2017. Exposed Facility Slot 8 port originally held MCE. CALET – CALorimetric Electron Telescope (JAXA), observation for high energy. Launched aboard Kounotori 5 (HTV-5). Mass: 2500 kg. Exposed Facility Slot 9 port originally held SEDA-AP. ExHAM 1 and 2 – External Facility Handrail Attach Mechanism (JAXA). Mounted to the deck on handrails in the forward and aft locations next to slots 7 and 10. ECOSTRESS – Ecosystem Spaceborne Thermal Radiometer Experiment on Space Station. Exposed Facility Slot 10 port originally held the ELM-ES and the HTV Transfer Pallet. STP Houston 8 Payload-COWVR and TEMPEST Launched on SpaceX CRS24 in 2021. Exposed Facility Slot 2 port originally held CREAM which was moved to Slot 7. Former external experiments Deorbited with Kounotori 5 (HTV-5): SMILES – Observes and monitors very weak sub-millimeter wave emission lines of trace gas molecules in the stratosphere. MCE – Multi-mission Consolidated Equipment (NASA). Deorbited with SpaceX CRS-15: HREP – Hyperspectral Imager for the Coastal Ocean (HICO) and Remote Atmospheric and Ionospheric Detection System (RAIDS) experimental payload. Deorbited with SpaceX CRS-17: CATS – Cloud-Aerosol Transport System (LiDAR, NASA). Originally held in Slot 5, will be replaced by MOLI. Jettisoned into orbit by ISS robotic arm: SEDA-AP – Space Environment Data Acquisition equipment-Attached Payload. Measures neutrons, plasma, heavy ions, and high-energy light particles in the station's orbit. ICS-EF – Inter-orbit Communication System-Exposed Facility, Japanese communication system. Originally at the Exposed Facility Slot 7. Current internal experiments Japanese: RYUTAI Rack – Fluid Physics Experiment Facility (FPEF), Solution Crystallization Observation Facility (SCOF), Protein Crystallization Research Facility (PCRF), Image Processing Unit (IPU) SAIBO Rack – Cell Biology Experiment Facility (CBEF), Clean Bench (CB) KOBAIRO Rack – Gradient Heating Furnace (GHF) MPSR-1 – Multi-Purpose Small payload Rack-1 MPSR-2 – Multi-Purpose Small payload Rack-2, housing Electrostatic Levitating Furnace (ELF) American: EXPRESS Rack 4 – Biotechnology Specimen Temperature Controller (BSTC), Gas Supply Module (GSM), Space Acceleration Measurement System-II (SAMS-II), Biotechnology Specimen Temperature Controller (BSTC), Nanoracks NanoLab EXPRESS Rack 5 MELFI-1 – two −80° freezer racks Life Sciences Glovebox (LSG) Planned experiments MOLI – Multi-footprint Observation Lidar and Imager (JAXA) (external) JEM-EUSO (internal) Parts See also Scientific research on the ISS Nanoracks CubeSat Deployer (NRCSD) References External links Japanese Experiment Module (Kibō) at JAXA.jp Components of the International Space Station Space program of Japan Laboratories in Japan Spacecraft launched in 2008 Spacecraft launched by the Space Shuttle	[ -0.12999041378498077, -0.060294073075056076, 0.1318274736404419, 0.2550089657306671, 0.05186770483851433, 0.10863187909126282, -0.09648487716913223, -0.35903260111808777, -0.09058906137943268, 0.0792333111166954, -0.6516065001487732, 0.17628367245197296, -0.2978981137275696, -0.3311854600906372, -0.3865490257740021, -0.31069299578666687, 0.7464209794998169, 0.15340423583984375, -0.11017148196697235, -0.26966166496276855, -0.04902351647615433, -0.1847023218870163, 0.28951144218444824, -0.46294865012168884, 0.22919930517673492, -0.06339903175830841, 0.2672351002693176, 0.9026502370834351, 0.5339646935462952, 0.06040729209780693, -0.07089948654174805, 0.5131426453590393, 0.3430968225002289, 0.3145220875740051, 0.23258809745311737, -0.04037825018167496, -0.7276754379272461, 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229703	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Roots-type%20supercharger	Roots-type supercharger	The Roots-type blower is a positive displacement lobe pump which operates by pumping a fluid with a pair of meshing lobes resembling a set of stretched gears. Fluid is trapped in pockets surrounding the lobes and carried from the intake side to the exhaust. The most common application of the Roots-type blower has been the induction device on two-stroke diesel engines, such as those produced by Detroit Diesel and Electro-Motive Diesel. Roots-type blowers are also used to supercharge four-stroke Otto cycle engines, with the blower being driven from the engine's crankshaft via a toothed or V-belt, a roller chain or a gear train. The Roots-type blower is named after American inventors and brothers Philander and Francis Marion Roots, founders of the Roots Blower Company of Connersville, Indiana USA, who patented the basic design in 1860 as an air pump for use in blast furnaces and other industrial applications. In 1900, Gottlieb Daimler included a Roots-style blower in a patented engine design, making the Roots-type blower the oldest of the various designs now available. Roots blowers are commonly referred to as air blowers or PD (positive displacement) blowers, and can be commonly called "huffers" when used with the gasoline-burning engines in hot rod customized cars. Applications The Roots-type blower is simple and widely used. It can be more effective than alternative superchargers at developing positive intake manifold pressure (i.e., above atmospheric pressure) at low engine speeds, making it a popular choice for passenger automobile applications. Peak torque can be achieved by about 2000 rpm. Unlike the basic illustration, most modern Roots-type superchargers incorporate three-lobe or four-lobe rotors; this allows the lobes to have a along the rotor axes, which reduces pulsing in the input and output (this is impractical with two lobes, as even a slight twist could open up a free path through the supercharger at certain angles). Accumulated heat is an important consideration in the operation of a compressor in an internal combustion engine. Of the three basic supercharger types, the Roots design historically possessed the worst thermal efficiency, especially at high pressure ratios. In accordance with the ideal gas law, a compression operation will raise the temperature of the compressed output. Additionally, the operation of the compressor itself requires energy input, which is converted to heat and can be transferred to the gas through the compressor housing, heating it more. Although intercoolers are more commonly known for their use on turbochargers, superchargers may also benefit from the use of an intercooler. Internal combustion is based upon a thermodynamic cycle, and a lower temperature of the intake charge results in a greater thermodynamic expansion and vice versa. A hot intake charge provokes detonation in a petrol engine, and can melt the pistons in a diesel, while an intercooling stage adds complexity but can improve the power output by increasing the amount of the input charge, exactly as if the engine were of higher capacity. An intercooler reduces the thermodynamic efficiency by losing the heat (power) introduced by compression, but increases the power available because of the increased working mass for each cycle. Above about the intercooling improvement can become dramatic. With a Roots-type supercharger, one method successfully employed is the addition of a thin heat exchanger placed between the blower and the engine. Water is circulated through it to a second unit placed near the front of the vehicle where a fan and the ambient air-stream can dissipate the collected heat. The Roots design was commonly used on two-stroke diesel engines (popularized by the Detroit Diesel [truck and bus] and Electro-Motive [railroad] divisions of General Motors), which require some form of forced induction, because there is no separate intake stroke. The Rootes Co. two-stroke diesel engine, used in Commer and Karrier vehicles, had a Roots-type blower; the two companies are not related. The superchargers used on top fuel engines, funny cars, and other dragsters, as well as hot rods, are in fact derivatives of General Motors Coach Division blowers for their industrial diesel engines, which were adapted for automotive use in drag racing. The model name of these units delineates their size - the once-commonly used 4–71 and 6–71 blowers were designed for 71 series diesels. Current competition dragsters use aftermarket GMC variants similar in design to the 71 series, but with the rotor and case length increased for added capacity; hot rodders also use reproduction 6-71s. Roots blowers are typically used in applications where a large volume of air must be moved across a relatively small pressure differential. This includes low vacuum applications, with the Roots blower acting alone, or in combination with other pumps as part of a high vacuum system. One very common industrial application is in pneumatic conveying systems, the blower delivering a high volume of air for the movement of bulk solids through pipes. Some civil defense sirens used Roots blowers to pump air to the rotor (chopper) so as to drastically increase its sound output through all pitch ranges. The most well known are the Federal Signal Thunderbolt Series, and ACA (now American Signal Corporation) Hurricane. These sirens are known as "supercharged sirens". Roots blowers are also used in reverse to measure the flow of gases or liquids, for example, in gas meters. Roots blowers were used for cabin pressurisation in aircraft, initially being investigated immediately before WW2 (using the Marshall supercharger) and made by companies such as Sir George Godfrey and Partners who were still shipping increasing numbers into the 1960s, they were later superseded by air bleeds from jet engine compression stages. Technical considerations The simplest form of a Roots blower has cycloidal rotors, constructed of alternating tangential sections of hypocycloidal and epicycloidal curves. For a two-lobed rotor, the smaller generating circles are one-quarter the diameter of the larger. Real Roots blowers may have more complex profiles for increased efficiency. The lobes on one rotor will not drive the other rotor with minimal free play in all positions, so that a separate pair of gears provide the phasing of the lobes. Because rotary lobe pumps need to maintain a clearance between the lobes, a single stage Roots blower can pump gas across only a limited pressure differential. If the pump is used beyond its specification, the compression of the gas generates enough heat so that the lobes expand to the point that they jam, damaging the pump. Roots pumps are capable of pumping large volumes but, as they only achieve moderate compression, it is not uncommon to see multiple Roots blower stages, frequently with heat exchangers (intercoolers) in between to cool the gas. The lack of oil on the pumping surfaces allows the pumps to work in environments where contamination control is important. The high pumping rate for hydrocarbons allows the Roots pump to provide an effective isolation between oiled pumps, such as rotary compression pumps, and the vacuum chamber. A variant uses claw-shaped rotors for higher compression. Roots efficiency map The Roots-type blower may achieve an efficiency of approximately 70% while achieving a maximum pressure ratio of two. Higher pressure ratios are achievable but at decreasing efficiency. Because a Roots-type blower pumps air in discrete pulses (unlike a screw compressor), pulsation noise and turbulence may be transmitted downstream. If not properly managed (through outlet piping geometry) or accounted for (by structural reinforcement of downstream components), the resulting pulsations can cause fluid cavitation and/or damage to components downstream of the blower. For any given Roots blower running under given conditions, a single point will fall on the map. This point will rise with increasing boost and will move to the right with increasing blower speed. It can be seen that, at moderate speed and low boost, the efficiency can be over 90%. This is the area in which Roots blowers were originally intended to operate, and they are very good at it. Boost is given in terms of pressure ratio, which is the ratio of absolute air pressure before the blower to the absolute air pressure after compression by the blower. If no boost is present, the pressure ratio will be 1.0 (meaning 1:1), as the outlet pressure equals the inlet pressure. 15psi boost is marked for reference (slightly above a pressure ratio of 2.0 compared to atmospheric pressure). At boost, Roots blowers hover between 50% and 58%. Replacing a smaller blower with a larger blower moves the point to the left. In most cases, as the map shows, this will move it into higher efficiency areas on the left as the smaller blower likely will have been running fast on the right of the chart. Usually, using a larger blower and running it slower to achieve the same boost will give an increase in compressor efficiency. The volumetric efficiency of the Roots-type blower is very good, usually staying above 90% at all but the lowest blower speeds. Because of that, a blower running at low efficiency will still mechanically deliver the intended volume of air to the engine, but that air will be hotter. In drag racing applications, where large volumes of fuel are injected with that hot air, vaporizing the fuel absorbs the heat. That functions as a kind of liquid aftercooler system and goes a long way to negating the inefficiency of the Roots design in that application. Comparative advantages Rotary lobe blowers, commonly called boosters in high vacuum application, are not used as a stand-alone pump. In high vacuum applications, the boosters' pumping speed can be used towards reducing the end pressure and increasing the pumping speed. Fans With a low increase in pressure, fans are commonly used to move substantial quantities of gas. They're typically employed for the circulation of air in buildings, machine ventilation, cooling equipment and other industrial applications. Blowers Blowers create medium air pressure with moderate pressure levels. They are used in applications where the pressure need is higher than fans. Compressors Compressors generate higher air pressures in industrial applications generally between 8 to 12 bars with less amount of air flow rates. Related terms The term "blower" is commonly used to define a device placed on engines with a functional need for additional airflow using a direct mechanical link as its energy source. The term blower is used to describe different types of superchargers. A screw type supercharger, Roots-type supercharger, and a centrifugal supercharger are all types of blowers. Conversely, a turbocharger, using exhaust compression to spin its turbine, and not a direct mechanical link, is not generally regarded as a "blower" but simply a "turbo". See also Drag racing, where Roots-type superchargers are used for T/F top fuel dragsters, F/C Fuel Coupe funny car each using nitro-methane fuel and T/AD dragsters and TA/FC funny cars using alcohol fuel and Pro Modified using methanol fuel in professional drag racing classes TVS Supercharger References External links (5 April 2002). Roots-type superchargers explained. SuperchargersOnline.com. Retrieved 31 March 2008. Eaton TVS Supercharger The Eaton TVS Supercharger. Retrieved 31 March 2008. Flash Animation of Roots Pump http://www.everestblowers.com/technical-articles/understandin-blowers.pdf http://www.pdblowers.com/t17-positive-displacement-blower-calculations.php https://polimak.com/en/urun/roots-blower/ Superchargers Two-stroke diesel engines ja:スーパーチャージャー#ルーツ式	[ -0.20221149921417236, -0.19490815699100494, 0.35046106576919556, 0.27991074323654175, -0.4170289635658264, 0.1974295675754547, 0.08288513123989105, -0.3847857415676117, 0.18740993738174438, -0.02552206441760063, -0.1229870468378067, 0.4458268880844116, -0.15342772006988525, 0.44567620754241943, -0.1370665282011032, 0.25905612111091614, 0.3192095458507538, 0.3211926519870758, -0.44966062903404236, -0.24193963408470154, 0.22091233730316162, -0.14376430213451385, 1.2923904657363892, 0.43606194853782654, -0.2288118600845337, 0.1817597895860672, 0.43976297974586487, -0.21052883565425873, -0.1900738626718521, 0.12096387892961502, 0.08531706035137177, 0.7078730463981628, 0.3675282895565033, -0.37468743324279785, 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229704	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Royal%20Court	Royal Court	Royal Court may refer to: Court of justice Royal Courts of Justice, England and Wales The Royal Court, one of the courts of Jersey The Royal Court of Guernsey, the court of justice of Guernsey Royalty Court (royal), the household and entourage of a monarch or other ruler, the princely court Royal Court, the name of the Royal Palace in the Oman city of Seeb Other uses Royal Court Theatre, in London, England Royal Court Theatre, Liverpool, a theatre in Liverpool, England The Royal Court, Timbaland's production company See also Court (disambiguation) Curia regis Royal (disambiguation)	[ 0.2886095941066742, -0.19688968360424042, 0.4856813848018646, -0.4051724970340729, 0.20913895964622498, 0.40920186042785645, 0.02942308969795704, 0.17013651132583618, -0.7260575294494629, -0.37090742588043213, -0.6779369711875916, 0.2251751571893692, -0.036361418664455414, 0.301258385181427, -0.05713291093707085, 0.44009336829185486, 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229705	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Walmart%20de%20M%C3%A9xico%20y%20Centroam%C3%A9rica	Walmart de México y Centroamérica	Walmart de México y Centroamérica, also known as Walmex, is the Mexican and Central American Walmart division. Walmart de México y Centroamérica is the Walmart's largest division outside the U.S. as of January 31, 2022, consists of 2,755 stores around the country, including 294 Walmart Supercenter stores and 166 Sam's Club stores. It has been traded in the Mexican Stock Exchange since 1977 (as Cifra). Walmart de México y Centroamérica is the biggest retailer in Latin America. As of January 31, 2022, Walmart operated 2,755 retail outlets in Mexico, under the Walmart Supercenter, Superama, Sam's Club, Bodega Aurrerá, Mi Bodega Aurrera, Walmart Express, and Bodega Aurrerá Express banners. As of 2012, the company was Mexico's largest private sector employer with 209,000 employees. Approximately one-fifth of Walmart stores in the world are in Mexico. It competes with Soriana, Comercial Mexicana, Chedraui, H-E-B, Casa Ley, S-Mart and Calimax. Walmex's restaurant division, Vips, was acquired by the Mexican restaurant company, Alsea, in September 2013 for around $626 million. History The company was founded in 1952 as Cifra by Jerónimo Arango. In 1991, Cifra and Wal-Mart Stores, Inc. signed a joint venture agreement. This agreement allowed cooperation between the two companies and the opening of Walmart stores and Sam's Clubs in Mexico. In 1997, Walmart increased its stake by acquiring 51% of Cifra. Cifra was renamed Wal-Mart de Mexico, S.A. de C.V. Walmart again increased its stake in Wal-Mart de Mexico to 60% in April 2000. After completing the acquisition of Walmart's operations in Central America in January 2010, Walmart Mexico changed its name to Walmart de Mexico y Centroamérica. In 1999, they continued expressing their aggressive position: Following the implementation of NAFTA; Grupo CIFRA initiates Mexico's first duty-free importation of fresh Canadian Beef from Biological Farm Management Systems (BFMS) Inc., an Alberta, CANADA export company. International expansion Walmart Centroamérica In 2005, Walmart entered the Central American market by acquiring 33% of Central American Retail Holding Company (CARHCO) from Dutch retailer Royal Ahold NV. CARHCO operated stores in Guatemala, El Salvador, Costa Rica, Honduras and Nicaragua. In 2006, Walmart increased its stake to 51% and changed the name to Walmart Centroamérica. Walmart de Mexico y Centroamérica In December 2009, Walmart de México acquired 43% of Walmart Centroamérica from Walmart Stores Inc and 40% from two minority partners, paying over $1.4 billion pesos (approximately US$110 million) in cash and shares. In early 2010, the transaction was completed and Walmart de México was renamed Walmart de México y Centroamérica. In Mexico, Walmart has 2,755 stores, including 294 Walmart Supercenter stores, and 166 Sam's Club stores. Labor relations In 2008, a Mexican court ruled that Walmart de México could not pay its employees in vouchers redeemable only at the store, as it violated an article of the country's Constitution. In 2020, Walmart de México y Centroamérica was included in the Bloomberg Gender Equity Index for the third time. It is the only company in the self-service sector worldwide that has appeared in this index for three consecutive years. This Index is made up of 325 companies belonging to 50 industries. Bribery investigations An April 2012 investigative report in The New York Times reported that a former executive of Walmart de Mexico alleged that, in September 2005, Walmart de Mexico had paid bribes via local fixers called gestores to officials throughout Mexico in order to obtain construction permits, information, and other favors. Walmart investigators found credible evidence that Mexican and American laws had been broken. Concerns were raised that Walmart executives in the United States "hushed up" the allegations. Reportedly, bribes were given to rapidly obtain construction permits, which gave Walmart a substantial advantage over its business competitors. A follow-up investigation by The New York Times, published December 17, 2012, revealed evidence that regulatory permission for siting, construction, and operation of nineteen stores had been obtained through bribery. There was evidence that a bribe of $52,000 was paid to change a zoning map, which enabled the opening of a Walmart store a mile from a historical site in San Juan Teotihuacán. After the initial article was released, Walmart released a statement denying the allegations and describing its anti-corruption policy. While an official Walmart report states that they found no evidence of corruption, the article alleges that previous internal reports had indeed turned up such evidence before the story became public. Forbes magazine contributor, Adam Hartung, also alluded that the bribery scandal was a reflection of Walmart's "serious management and strategy troubles," stating, "[s]candals are now commonplace... [e]ach scandal points out that Walmart's strategy is harder to navigate and is running into big problems." As of December 2012, internal investigations ongoing into possible violations of the Foreign Corrupt Practices Act. Walmart has invested $99 million in the internal investigations, which have expanded beyond Mexico to implicate operations in China, Brazil, and India. The case has added fuel to the debate as to whether foreign investment will result in increased prosperity, or if it merely allows local retail trade and economic policy to be taken over by "foreign financial and corporate interests." Walmart Sale Of Banco Walmart Financial Services To Grupo Financiero Inbursa And Subsequent Commercial Alliance In December 2014, Grupo Financiero Inbursa agreed to acquire Banco Walmart from the chain and create a commercial alliance to offer financial services to supermarket customers with a locally familiar banking entity, such as branded credit cards and banking services, the bank also serves Walmex associates who might need banking services such as bank accounts and salary deposits. See also Bodega Aurrerá References External links Wal-Mart quits Mexican trade group, article at the Memphis Business Journal. 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229710	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Centrifugal-type%20supercharger	Centrifugal-type supercharger	A centrifugal supercharger is a specialized type of supercharger that makes use of centrifugal force in order to increase the manifold air pressure, MAP. An increased MAP allows the engine to burn more fuel, which results in an increased power output. Centrifugal superchargers are generally attached to the front of the engine via a belt-drive or gear-drive from the engine's crankshaft. Types of centrifugal superchargers The centrifugal supercharger is used in many applications including, but not limited to, automotive, truck, marine, aircraft, motorcycles and UTV's. Of these applications, they are most commonly utilized for increasing horsepower in street vehicles and race applications. While the first practical centrifugal compressor was designed in 1899, centrifugal superchargers evolved during World War II with their use in aircraft, where they were frequently paired with their exhaust driven counterpart, the turbosupercharger. This term refers to the fact that turbochargers are a specific type of centrifugal supercharger, one that is driven by a turbine. Lately, centrifugal superchargers have become very common in today's performance automotive world. Superchargers are sometimes installed as original equipment on some vehicles manufactured today. Centrifugal supercharging creates an efficient, compact and intercooler friendly means to boost horsepower in both gasoline and diesel engines for a wide variety of watercraft, land craft and aircraft. Automotive superchargers Centrifugal superchargers have become popular in the aftermarket as a bolt-on addition to improve performance. By design, centrifugal superchargers allow for easy integration of air-to-air or air-to-water intercooling. Several companies build centrifugal superchargers and also offer them as complete systems which can be easily installed by a mechanic or the auto enthusiast at home. Aircraft superchargers Because air pressure decreases with altitude, air compression helps maintain engine power as the aircraft climbs. Standard functionality Components The four main components of a centrifugal supercharger are the volute (compressor housing), diffuser, impeller and transmission. Volutes are typically cast into a form from aluminum rather than other metals due to the combination of strength, weight, and resistance to corrosion. Volutes are then precision machined to match the impeller design. Impellers are designed in many configurations, and Euler's pump and turbine equation plays an important role in understanding impeller performance. Impellers are often formed by casting metals into a form and then machined, with the highest quality impellers machined from solid billet. The transmission provides a step-up ratio from the input shaft (driven from the engine crankshaft) to the output shaft, to which the impeller attaches (it is not uncommon for centrifugal supercharger impeller speeds to exceed 100,000 rotations per minute). The basic components of the gear drive centrifugal transmission are shafts, gears, bearings, and seals. Because of the high speeds and loads the transmission must endure, components are machined, ground and assembled to extremely close tolerances. Process The centrifugal supercharger draws its power from the movement of the drive where it is attached. At this point, the supercharger powers an impeller – or small rotating wheel. The impeller draws air into a small compressor housing (volute) and centrifugal force sends the air into the diffuser. The result is air that is highly pressurized, but that travels at low speed. The high-pressure, low-speed air is then fed into the engine, where the additional pressure gives the engine the ability to burn more fuel and have a higher level of combustion. This results in a faster, more responsive vehicle due to greater engine volumetric efficiency. Uses for centrifugal-type superchargers Personal/recreational Beyond the use in aircraft which drove many improvements in centrifugal design, more widespread use of the centrifugal supercharger has been heavily focused on the automotive performance aftermarket. Improvements in design and machining technology have allowed for major advancements in compressor efficiency, as well as bearing and seal design. As a reliable, safe and affordable (dollar per horsepower) option to increase the performance of cars, truck, boats, motorcycles and UTV's, centrifugal supercharging has become a viable option for performance enthusiasts in a variety of applications. Due to the ease of installation, and the fact that many systems utilize integrated intercooling, centrifugal supercharging continues to gain popularity within the performance industry. Commercial Centrifugal supercharger technology has also found its way into industrial applications. In many industries, pneumatic conveying is now the preferred method for moving product or media within a facility. Traditionally the only source for air flow of this volume was considered to be a Roots style compressor. Due to its efficient design, centrifugal technology is now being embraced because it offers substantial energy savings, lower discharge air temperatures and quieter operation. Benefits of centrifugal-type superchargers Performance Engine driven Centrifugal superchargers are inferior to Roots-type superchargers in building torque low in the RPM range but superior to Roots-type superchargers in thermodynamic efficiency (less heat is generated when compressing the air). Adiabatic efficiency Because centrifugal superchargers utilize centrifugal forces to compress the air, they offer higher efficiency than positive displacement designs, both in terms of power consumption and heat production. "Perhaps the simplest of all superchargers, the centrifugal can also be the most thermally efficient". The compressor-side of turbochargers are centrifugal designs as well, and also feature high efficiency. Minimal heat transfer Centrifugal superchargers are typically mounted off to the side on the front of the engine. Distancing the supercharger from the engine via a mounting bracket greatly reduces heat transfer from the engine to the supercharger during operation. By comparison, a twin screw or roots blower which is nested in the center (valley) of the engine, will absorb heat (heat soak) during operation due to thermal transfer from the engine block and heads. Elevated temperature levels in the supercharger directly influence discharge air temperatures that next enter the engine. Higher engine inlet air temperatures result in reduced power increases and an increased likelihood of engine damage resulting from detonation within the cylinders. See also intercooling (charge-air density increase). References External links HowStuffWorks "Centrifugal Superchargers." http://auto.howstuffworks.com/supercharger4.htm Turbochargers Superchargers	[ -0.35343846678733826, 0.24060074985027313, 0.6618143320083618, 0.4433774948120117, -0.7839682698249817, -0.13825103640556335, 0.22258731722831726, -0.3606230318546295, 0.15746836364269257, -0.5648059844970703, -0.4162904620170593, 0.5867518186569214, 0.07100919634103775, 0.4563864767551422, -0.3851166367530823, 0.35197266936302185, 0.26534703373908997, 0.5073212385177612, -0.3618619740009308, -0.2819148600101471, 0.09321176260709763, -0.13527743518352509, 1.0245174169540405, 0.14082346856594086, -0.12965646386146545, -0.17271044850349426, 0.030135001987218857, 0.030062975361943245, -0.36611998081207275, 0.254709929227829, -0.17210043966770172, 1.2713927030563354, 0.2419145107269287, -0.0016250739572569728, 0.6681203842163086, 0.08263847976922989, 0.4628794193267822, 0.05526137724518776, 0.19539715349674225, -0.8538002371788025, 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229714	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carriage	Carriage	A carriage is a private four-wheeled vehicle for people and is most commonly horse-drawn. Second-hand private carriages were common public transport, the equivalent of modern cars used as taxis. Carriage suspensions are by leather strapping and, on those made in recent centuries, steel springs. Two-wheeled carriages are informal and usually owner-driven. Coaches are a special category within carriages. They are carriages with four corner posts and a fixed roof. Two-wheeled war chariots and transport vehicles such as four-wheeled wagons and two-wheeled carts were forerunners of carriages. In the twenty-first century, horse-drawn carriages are occasionally used for public parades by royalty and for traditional formal ceremonies. Simplified modern versions are made for tourist transport in warm countries and for those cities where tourists expect open horse-drawn carriages to be provided. Simple metal sporting versions are still made for the sport known as competitive driving. Overview The word carriage (abbreviated carr or cge) is from Old Northern French , to carry in a vehicle. The word car, then meaning a kind of two-wheeled cart for goods, also came from Old Northern French about the beginning of the 14th century (probably derived from the Late Latin , a car); it is also used for railway carriages and in the US around the end of the nineteenth century early cars were briefly called horseless carriages. History Prehistory Some horsecarts found in Celtic graves show hints that their platforms were suspended elastically. Four-wheeled wagons were used in Bronze Age Europe, and their form known from excavations suggests that the basic construction techniques of wheel and undercarriage (that survived until the age of the motor car) were established then. Bullock carriage A bullock carriage, also known as a bullock cart, is a large, four wheeled carriage typically pulled by oxen. It conventionally includes a sturdy wooden tongue between the wheels, a yoke connecting the pair of oxen, a wooden platform for passengers or cargo, and large steel rimmed wooden wheels. These carriages were first protyped in the 3rd millennium BC and predated chariots. Evidence of both light and heavy wheeled bullock carriages have been found in sites like Mohenjo--Daro, Harappa and Chanhu-daro. Chariot Two-wheeled carriage models have been discovered from the Indus valley civilization including twin horse drawn covered carriages resembling ekka from various sites such as Harappa, Mohenjo Daro and Chanhu Daro. The earliest recorded sort of carriage was the chariot, reaching Mesopotamia as early as 1900 BC. Used typically for warfare by Egyptians, the Near Easterners and Europeans, it was essentially a two-wheeled light basin carrying one or two passengers, drawn by one to two horses. The chariot was revolutionary and effective because it delivered fresh warriors to crucial areas of battle with swiftness. Roman carriage First century BC Romans used sprung wagons for overland journeys. It is likely that Roman carriages employed some form of suspension on chains or leather straps, as indicated by carriage parts found in excavations. In 2021 archaeologists discovered the remains of a ceremonial four wheel carriage, a pilentum, near the ancient Roman city of Pompeii. It is thought the pilentum may have been used in ceremonies such as weddings. The find has been described as being "in an excellent state of preservation". Ancient Chinese carriage During the Zhou dynasty of China, the Warring States were also known to have used carriages as transportation. With the decline of these city-states and kingdoms, these techniques almost disappeared. Medieval carriage The medieval carriage was typically a four-wheeled wagon type, with a rounded top ("tilt") similar in appearance to the Conestoga Wagon familiar from the United States. Sharing the traditional form of wheels and undercarriage known since the Bronze Age, it very likely also employed the pivoting fore-axle in continuity from the ancient world. Suspension (on chains) is recorded in visual images and written accounts from the 14th century ("chars branlant" or rocking carriages), and was in widespread use by the 15th century. Carriages were largely used by royalty, aristocrats (and especially by women), and could be elaborately decorated and gilded. These carriages were usually on four wheels and were drawn by two to four horses depending on their size and status. Wood and iron were the primary materials needed to build a carriage and carriages that were used by non-royalty were covered by plain leather. Another form of carriage was the pageant wagon of the 14th century. Historians debate the structure and size of pageant wagons; however, they are generally miniature house-like structures that rest on four to six wheels depending on the size of the wagon. The pageant wagon is significant because up until the 14th century most carriages were on two or three wheels; the chariot, rocking carriage, and baby carriage are two examples of carriages which pre-date the pageant wagon. Historians also debate whether or not pageant wagons were built with pivotal axle systems, which allowed the wheels to turn. Whether it was a four- or six-wheel pageant wagon, most historians maintain that pivotal axle systems were implemented on pageant wagons because many roads were often winding with some sharp turns. Six wheel pageant wagons also represent another innovation in carriages; they were one of the first carriages to use multiple pivotal axles. Pivotal axles were used on the front set of wheels and the middle set of wheels. This allowed the horse to move freely and steer the carriage in accordance with the road or path. Coach One of the great innovations in carriage history was the invention of the suspended carriage or the chariot branlant (though whether this was a Roman or medieval innovation remains uncertain). The "chariot branlant" of medieval illustrations was suspended by chains rather than leather straps as had been believed. Suspension, whether on chains or leather, might provide a smoother ride since the carriage body no longer rested on the axles, but could not prevent swinging (branlant) in all directions. It is clear from illustrations (and surviving examples) that the medieval suspended carriage with a round tilt was a widespread European type, referred to by any number of names (car, currus, char, chariot). Under King Mathias Corvinus (1458–90), who enjoyed fast travel, the Hungarians developed fast road transport, and the town of Kocs between Budapest and Vienna became an important post-town, and gave its name to the new vehicle type. The earliest illustrations of the Hungarian "Kochi-wagon" do not indicate any suspension, a body with high sides of lightweight wickerwork, and typically drawn by three horses in harness. Later models were considerably lighter and famous for a single horse being able to draw many passengers. The Hungarian coach spread across Europe rather quickly, in part due to Ippolito d'Este of Ferrara (1479–1529), nephew of Mathias' queen Beatrix of Aragon, who as a very junior Archbishopric of Esztergom developed a taste for Hungarian riding and took his carriage and driver back to Italy. Around 1550 the "coach" made its appearance throughout the major cities of Europe, and the new word entered the vocabulary of all their languages. However, the new "coach" seems to have been a fashionable concept (fast road travel for men) as much as any particular type of vehicle, and there is no obvious technological change that accompanied the innovation. As its use spread throughout Europe in the late 16th century, the coach's body structure was ultimately changed, from a round-topped tilt to the "four-poster" carriages that became standard everywhere by c.1600. Later development of the coach The coach had doors in the side, with an iron step protected by leather that became the "boot" in which servants might ride. The driver sat on a seat at the front, and the most important occupant sat in the back facing forwards. The earliest coaches can be seen at Veste Coburg, Lisbon, and the Moscow Kremlin, and they become a commonplace in European art. It was not until the 17th century that further innovations with steel springs and glazing took place, and only in the 18th century, with better road surfaces, was there a major innovation with the introduction of the steel C-spring. Many innovations were proposed, and some patented, for new types of suspension or other features. It was only from the 18th century that changes to steering systems were suggested, including the use of the 'fifth wheel' substituted for the pivoting fore-axle, and on which the carriage turned. Another proposal came from Erasmus Darwin, a young English doctor who was driving a carriage about 10,000 miles a year to visit patients all over England. Darwin found two essential problems or shortcomings of the commonly used light carriage or Hungarian carriage. First, the front wheels were turned by a pivoting front axle, which had been used for years, but these wheels were often quite small and hence the rider, carriage and horse felt the brunt of every bump on the road. Secondly, he recognized the danger of overturning. A pivoting front axle changes a carriage's base from a rectangle to a triangle because the wheel on the inside of the turn is able to turn more sharply than the outside front wheel. Darwin proposed to fix these insufficiencies by proposing a principle in which the two front wheels turn (independently of the front axle) about a centre that lies on the extended line of the back axle. This idea was later patented in 1818 as Ackermann steering. Darwin argued that carriages would then be easier to pull and less likely to overturn. Carriage use in North America came with the establishment of European settlers. Early colonial horse tracks quickly grew into roads especially as the colonists extended their territories southwest. Colonists began using carts as these roads and trading increased between the north and south. Eventually, carriages or coaches were sought to transport goods as well as people. As in Europe, chariots, coaches and/or carriages were a mark of status. The tobacco planters of the South were some of the first Americans to use the carriage as a form of human transportation. As the tobacco farming industry grew in the southern colonies so did the frequency of carriages, coaches and wagons. Upon the turn of the 18th century, wheeled vehicle use in the colonies was at an all-time high. Carriages, coaches and wagons were being taxed based on the number of wheels they had. These taxes were implemented in the South primarily as the South had superior numbers of horses and wheeled vehicles when compared to the North. Europe, however, still used carriage transportation far more often and on a much larger scale than anywhere else in the world. Demise Carriages and coaches began to disappear as use of steam propulsion began to generate more and more interest and research. Steam power quickly won the battle against animal power as is evident by a newspaper article written in England in 1895 entitled "Horseflesh vs. Steam". The article highlights the death of the carriage as the main means of transportation. Today Nowadays, carriages are still used for day-to-day transport in the United States by some minority groups such as the Amish. They are also still used in tourism as vehicles for sightseeing in cities such as Bruges, Vienna, New Orleans, and Little Rock, Arkansas. The most complete working collection of carriages can be seen at the Royal Mews in London where a large selection of vehicles is in regular use. These are supported by a staff of liveried coachmen, footmen and postillions. The horses earn their keep by supporting the work of the Royal Household, particularly during ceremonial events. Horses pulling a large carriage known as a "covered brake" collect the Yeoman of the Guard in their distinctive red uniforms from St James's Palace for Investitures at Buckingham Palace; High Commissioners or Ambassadors are driven to their audiences with the Queen in landaus; visiting heads of state are transported to and from official arrival ceremonies and members of the Royal Family are driven in Royal Mews coaches during Trooping the Colour, the Order of the Garter service at Windsor Castle and carriage processions at the beginning of each day of Royal Ascot. Construction Body Carriages may be enclosed or open, depending on the type. The top cover for the body of a carriage, called the head or hood, is often flexible and designed to be folded back when desired. Such a folding top is called a bellows top or calash. A hoopstick forms a light framing member for this kind of hood. The top, roof or second-story compartment of a closed carriage, especially a diligence, was called an imperial. A closed carriage may have side windows called quarter lights (British) as well as windows in the doors, hence a "glass coach". On the forepart of an open carriage, a screen of wood or leather called a dashboard intercepts water, mud or snow thrown up by the heels of the horses. The dashboard or carriage top sometimes has a projecting sidepiece called a wing (British). A foot iron or footplate may serve as a carriage step. A carriage driver sits on a box or perch, usually elevated and small. When at the front, it is known as a dickey box, a term also used for a seat at the back for servants. A footman might use a small platform at the rear called a footboard or a seat called a rumble behind the body. Some carriages have a moveable seat called a jump seat. Some seats had an attached backrest called a lazyback. The shafts of a carriage were called limbers in English dialect. Lancewood, a tough elastic wood of various trees, was often used especially for carriage shafts. A holdback, consisting of an iron catch on the shaft with a looped strap, enables a horse to back or hold back the vehicle. The end of the tongue of a carriage is suspended from the collars of the harness by a bar called the yoke. At the end of a trace, a loop called a cockeye attaches to the carriage. In some carriage types, the body is suspended from several leather straps called braces or thoroughbraces, attached to or serving as springs. Undercarriage Beneath the carriage body is the undergear or undercarriage (or simply carriage), consisting of the running gear and chassis. The wheels and axles, in distinction from the body, are the running gear. The wheels revolve upon bearings or a spindle at the ends of a bar or beam called an axle or axletree. Most carriages have either one or two axles. On a four-wheeled vehicle, the forward part of the running gear, or forecarriage, is arranged to permit the front axle to turn independently of the fixed rear axle. In some carriages a dropped axle, bent twice at a right angle near the ends, allows for a low body with large wheels. A guard called a dirtboard keeps dirt from the axle arm. Several structural members form parts of the chassis supporting the carriage body. The fore axletree and the splinter bar above it (supporting the springs) are united by a piece of wood or metal called a futchel, which forms a socket for the pole that extends from the front axle. For strength and support, a rod called the backstay may extend from either end of the rear axle to the reach, the pole or rod joining the hind axle to the forward bolster above the front axle. A skid called a drag, dragshoe, shoe or skidpan retards the motion of the wheels. A London patent of 1841 describes one such apparatus: "An iron-shod beam, slightly longer than the radius of the wheel, is hinged under the axle so that when it is released to strike the ground the forward momentum of the vehicle wedges it against the axle". The original feature of this modification was that instead of the usual practice of having to stop the carriage to retract the beam and so lose useful momentum the chain holding it in place is released (from the driver's position) so that it is allowed to rotate further in its backwards direction, releasing the axle. A system of "pendant-levers" and straps then allows the beam to return to its first position and be ready for further use. A catch or block called a trigger may be used to hold a wheel on an incline. A horizontal wheel or segment of a wheel called a fifth wheel sometimes forms an extended support to prevent the carriage from tipping; it consists of two parts rotating on each other about the kingbolt or perchbolt above the fore axle and beneath the body. A block of wood called a headblock might be placed between the fifth wheel and the forward spring. Fittings Many of these fittings were carried over to horseless carriages and evolved into the modern elements of automobiles. During the Brass Era they were often the same parts on either type of carriage (i.e., horse-drawn or horseless). Upholstery (trimming): traditionally similar to the upholstery of furniture; evolved into car interior upholstery such as car seats and door trim panels Carriage lamps: typically oil lamps for centuries, although carbide lamps and battery-powered electric lamps were also used in the late 19th and early 20th centuries; evolved into car headlamps Trunk: a luggage trunk serving the same purpose as, and which gave its name to, later car trunks Toolbox: a small box with enough hand tools to make simple repairs on the roadside Blankets: in winter, blankets for the driver and passengers and often horse blankets as well Running board: a step to assist in climbing onto the carriage and also sometimes a place for standing passengers Shovel: useful for mud and snow in the roadway, to free the carriage from being stuck; was especially important in the era when most roads were dirt roads, often with deep ruts Buggy whip or coachwhip: whips for the horses. For obvious reasons, this is one of the components of carriage equipment that did not carry over from horse-drawn carriages to horseless carriages, and that fact has made such whips one of the prototypical or stereotypical examples of products whose manufacture is subject to disruptive innovation Carriage terminology A person whose business was to drive a carriage was a coachman. A servant in livery called a footman or piquer formerly served in attendance upon a rider or was required to run before his master's carriage to clear the way. An attendant on horseback called an outrider often rode ahead of or next to a carriage. A carriage starter directed the flow of vehicles taking on passengers at the curbside. A hackneyman hired out horses and carriages. When hawking wares, a hawker was often assisted by a carriage. Upper-class people of wealth and social position, those wealthy enough to keep carriages, were referred to as carriage folk or carriage trade. Carriage passengers often used a lap robe as a blanket or similar covering for their legs, lap and feet. A buffalo robe, made from the hide of an American bison dressed with the hair on, was sometimes used as a carriage robe; it was commonly trimmed to rectangular shape and lined on the skin side with fabric. A carriage boot, fur-trimmed for winter wear, was made usually of fabric with a fur or felt lining. A knee boot protected the knees from rain or splatter. A horse especially bred for carriage use by appearance and stylish action is called a carriage horse; one for use on a road is a road horse. One such breed is the Cleveland Bay, uniformly bay in color, of good conformation and strong constitution. Horses were broken in using a bodiless carriage frame called a break or brake. A carriage dog or coach dog is bred for running beside a carriage. A roofed structure that extends from the entrance of a building over an adjacent driveway and that shelters callers as they get in or out of their vehicles is known as a carriage porch or porte cochere. An outbuilding for a carriage is a coach house, which was often combined with accommodation for a groom or other servants. A livery stable kept horses and usually carriages for hire. A range of stables, usually with carriage houses (remises) and living quarters built around a yard, court or street, is called a mews. A kind of dynamometer called a peirameter indicates the power necessary to haul a carriage over a road or track. Competitive driving In most European and English-speaking countries, driving is a competitive equestrian sport. Many horse shows host driving competitions for a particular style of driving, breed of horse, or type of vehicle. Show vehicles are usually carriages, carts, or buggies and, occasionally, sulkies or wagons. Modern high-technology carriages are made purely for competition by companies such as Bennington Carriages. in England. Terminology varies: the simple, lightweight two- or four-wheeled show vehicle common in many nations is called a "cart" in the USA, but a "carriage" in Australia. Internationally, there is intense competition in the all-round test of driving: combined driving, also known as horse-driving trials, an equestrian discipline regulated by the Fédération Équestre Internationale (International Equestrian Federation) with national organizations representing each member country. World championships are conducted in alternate years, including single-horse, horse pairs and four-in-hand championships. The World Equestrian Games, held at four-year intervals, also includes a four-in-hand competition. For pony drivers, the World Combined Pony Championships are held every two years and include singles, pairs and four-in-hand events. Types of horse-drawn carriages An almost bewildering variety of horse-drawn carriages existed. Arthur Ingram's Horse Drawn Vehicles since 1760 in Colour lists 325 types with a short description of each. By the early 19th century one's choice of carriage was only in part based on practicality and performance; it was also a status statement and subject to changing fashions. The types of carriage included the following: Araba Bandy Barouche Berlin Brake Britzka Brougham Buckboard Buggy Cabriolet Calash Cape cart Cariole Carryall Chaise Chariot Chariot Biga Triga Clarence Coach Coupé Croydon Curricle Dogcart Dokar Dos-à-dos Drag Driving (horse) Droshky (Drozhki) Ekka Fiacre Fly Four-in-hand Gharry Gig Gladstone Governess cart Hackney Hansom Hearse Herdic Horse and buggy Horsebus Jaunting car Jingle Kalesa Filipino carriage Karozzin (Maltese horse carriage) Kibitka Landau Limousine Mail coach One-horse carriage One-horse shay Park Drag Phaeton Spider phaeton Post chaise Randem Ratha Temple car Road Coach Rockaway Sociable Sprung cart Stagecoach Stanhope Sulky Surrey Tarantass (Tarantas) Tanga/Tonga (Indian horse carriage) Telega Tilbury Trap Troika two-wheeled calash Un-sprung cart Vardo (Romani wagon) Victoria Village cart Vis-à-vis Voiturette Volante Wagonette Whim Whiskey Carriage collections Argentina Muhfit (Museo Histórico Fuerte Independencia Tandil), Tandil. Australia Cobb + Co Museum – National Carriage Collection, Queensland Museum, Toowoomba, Queensland. The National Trust of Australia (Victoria) Carriage Collection Austria Museum of Carriages and Department of Court Uniforms, Kunsthistorisches Museum, Vienna. Belgium VZW Rijtuigmuseum Bree, Bree, Limburg De Groom Carriage Center Bruges, Bruges, West Flanders Koetsenmuseum Verdonckt Royal Museum for Art and History Brussels (KMKG/MRAH) Brazil National Historical Museum in Rio de Janeiro, Brazil Imperial Museum in Petrópolis, Brazil Canada The Remington Carriage Museum in Cardston, Alberta, Canada The Campbell Carriage Factory Museum in Sackville, New Brunswick, Canada The Kings Landing Historical Settlement in Prince William, New Brunswick, Canada, has a large collection of horse and oxen drawn vehicles. Denmark Royal Carriage Museum, Christiansborg Palace, Copenhagen Slesvigske Vognsamling, Haderslev Egypt Carriage Museum France Apremont-sur-Allier, Musée des calèches (Berry) Bourg, Musée Au temps des calèches (Guyenne) Cazes-Mondenard, Musée de l'Attelage et du corbillard Yvan Quercy (Quercy) château de Chambord. Salle des carrosses du comte de Chambord (Sologne, Orléanais) château de Compiègne. Musée National de la voiture et du tourisme de Compiègne (Picardie) Cussac-Fort-Médoc, Musée du cheval du château Lanessan (Guyenne) Le Fleix, Musée de l’hippomobile André Clament (Périgord) Les Épesses, Musée de la voiture à cheval (Vendée, Bas-Poitou) Marcigny, Musée de la voiture à cheval (Bourgogne) Plouay. Musée du conservatoire breton de la voiture hippomobile (Brittany) Sacy-le-grand, Musée du cheval de trait (Picardie) Saint-Auvent, musée Au temps jadis (Limousin) Sérignan, Musée de l’attelage et du cheval (Languedoc) château de Vaux-le-Vicomte, Musée des Equipages (Île-de-France) Palace of Versailles, Galerie des carrosses, The Versailles Stables (Île-de-France) Germany Romano-Germanic Museum Marstallmuseum of Carriages and Sleighs in the former Royal Stables, Nymphenburg Palace, Munich Hesse Museum of Carriages and Sleighs in Lohfelden near Kassel Italy Museo "Le Carrozze d'Epoca", Rome. Museo Civico delle Carrozze d'Epoca di Codroipo. Museo Civico delle Carrozze d'Epoca, San Martino, Udine. Museo della Carrozza di Macerata. Museo delle Carrozze del Quirinale, Rome. Museo delle Carrozze di Palazzo Farnese, Piacenza. Museo delle Carrozze, Catanzaro. Museo delle Carrozze, Naples. Netherlands Nationaal Rijtuigmuseum, Leek in Groningen. Poland Łańcut Castle Rogalin Palace Portugal National Coach Museum (Museu dos Coches), Lisbon Geraz do Lima Carriage museum Spain Carriage Museum, Seville United Kingdom Mossman Collection, Luton, Bedfordshire Royal Mews at Buckingham Palace, London. Swingletree Carriage Collection. John Parker Swingletree Carriage Driving, Swingletree, Wingfield, Nr. Diss, Norfolk National Trust Carriage Museum, Arlington Court, near Barnstaple, Devon The Tyrwhitt-Drake Museum of Carriages, Maidstone, Kent United States Florida Carriage Museum, Weirsdale, Florida. Formerly Austin Carriage Museum. Skyline Farm Carriage Museum, North Yarmouth, Maine The Carriage Collection of the Owls Head Transportation Museum, Owls Head, Maine. The Carriage Museum, Washington, Kentucky Carriage Museum of America, Lexington, Kentucky Henry Ford Museum, Dearborn, Michigan The Long Island Museum of American Art, History & Carriages, Stony Brook, New York Pioneer Village, Farmington, Utah. Thrasher Carriage Museum, Frostburg, Maryland The Wesley W. Jung Carriage Museum, Greenbush, Wisconsin Shelburne Museum, Shelburne, Vermont Forney Museum of Transportation, Denver, Colorado Mifflinburg Buggy Museum, Mifflinburg, PA. Only museum in US that preserves an original intact 19th century carriage factory. Frick Art & Historical Center Car & Carriage Museum, Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania, preserving carriages owned by Henry Clay Frick and his family. The Northwest Carriage Museum, Raymond, Washington. See also Bullock carriage, a carriage pulled by oxen Coach (carriage) Coupé (carriage) Driving (horse) Horse-drawn vehicle Horsecar Horse harness Horseless carriage (term for early automobiles) Howdah (carriage positioned on the back of an elephant or camel) Ox-wagon Steering undercarriage Wagon Wagonette War wagon Notes Further reading Bean, Heike, & Sarah Blanchard (authors), Joan Muller (illustrator), Carriage Driving: A Logical Approach Through Dressage Training, Howell Books, 1992. Berkebile, Don H., American Carriages, Sleighs, Sulkies, and Carts: 168 Illustrations from Victorian Sources, Dover Publications, 1977. Boyer, Marjorie Nice. "Mediaeval Suspended Carriages". Speculum, v34 n3 (July 1959): 359–366. Boyer, Marjorie Nice. Mediaeval Suspended Carriages. Cambridge, Mass.: The Mediaeval Academy of America, 1959. . Bristol Wagon Works Co., Bristol Wagon & Carriage Illustrated Catalog, 1900, Dover Publications, 1994. Elkhart Manufacturing Co., Horse-Drawn Carriage Catalog, 1909 (Dover Pictorial Archives), Dover Publications, 2001. Hutchins, Daniel D., Wheels Across America: Carriage Art & Craftsmanship, Tempo International Publishing Company, 1st edition, 2004. Ingram, Arthur, Horse Drawn Vehicles since 1760 in Colour, Blandford Press, 1977. King-Hele, Desmond. "Erasmus Darwin's Improved Design for Steering Carriages—And Cars". Notes and Records of the Royal Society of London, 56, no. 1 (2002): 41–62. Kinney, Thomas A., The Carriage Trade: Making Horse-Drawn Vehicles in America (Studies in Industry and Society), The Johns Hopkins University Press, 2004. Lawrence, Bradley & Pardee, Carriages and Sleighs: 228 Illustrations from the 1862 Lawrence, Bradley & Pardee Catalog, Dover Publications, 1998. Museums at Stony Brook, The Carriage Collection, Museums, 2000. Nelson Alan H. "Six-Wheeled Carts: An Underview". Technology and Culture, v13 n3 (July 1972): 391–416. Richardson, M. T., Practical Carriage Building, Astragal Press, 1994. Ryder, Thomas (author), Rodger Morrow (editor), The Coson Carriage Collection at Beechdale, The Carriage Association of America, 1989. . Wackernagel, Rudolf H., Wittelsbach State and Ceremonial Carriages: Coaches, Sledges and Sedan Chairs in the Marstallmuseum Schloss Nymphenburg, Arnoldsche Verlagsanstalt GmbH, 2002. Walrond, Sallie, Looking at Carriages, J. A. Allen & Co., 1999. Ware, I. D., Coach-Makers' Illustrated Hand-Book, 1875: Containing Complete Instructions in All the Different Branches of Carriage Building, Astragal Press, 2nd edition, 1995. Westermann, William Linn. "On Inland Transportation and Communication in Antiquity". Political Science Quarterly, v43 n3 (September 1928): 364–387. "Colonial Roads and Wheeled Vehicles". The William and Mary Quarterly, v8 n1 (July 1899): 37–42. . External links 19th century American carriages: Their manufacture, decoration and use. By Museums at Stony Brook, Stony Brook, NY, 1987. Long Island Digital Books Project, CONTENTdm Collection, Stony Brook University, Southampton, New York. 19th Century Transportation-Carriages. University of North Carolina at Charlotte. All About Romance Novels – Carriages in Regency & Victorian Times. Appendix to Cadillac "Styling" section (coaching terminology). The Classic Car-Nection: Yann Saunders, Cadillac Database. Drawings and text CAAOnline: Carriage Tour Carriage Association of America. Photos and text. Calisphere – A World of Digital Resources. Search carriage. University of California. Hundreds of photos. Carriages & Coaches: Their History & Their Evolution by Ralph Straus, 1912, London. Carriage House and Carriage parts. ThinkQuest Library. Illustrations and text. Colonial Carriage Works – America's Finest Selection of Horse Drawn Vehicles. Columbus, Wisconsin. Driving for Pleasure, Or The Harness Stable and its Appointments by Francis Underhill, 1896. Carnegie Mellon University. A comprehensive overview, with photographs of horse-drawn carriages in use at the turn of the 19th century. Full text free to read, with free full text search. An Encyclopædia of Domestic Economy, Comprising Subjects Connected with the Interests of Every Individual..., by Thomas Webster and William Parkes, 1855. Book XXIII, Carriages. Google Book Search. English Pleasure Carriages: Their Origin, History, Varieties, Materials, Construction, Defects, Improvements, and Capabilities: With an Analysis of the Construction of Common Roads and Railroads, and the Public Vehicles Used on Them; Together with Descriptions of New Inventions by William Bridges Adams, 1837. Google Book Search. Four wheeled vehicles. The Guild of Model Wheelwrights. Galaxy of Images \| Smithsonian Institution Libraries. Carriages and sleighs. Georgian Index – Carriages. Georgian Index. Illustrations and text. The History of Coaches, by George Athelstane Thrupp, 1877. Google Book Search. Horse-drawn Transportation Clipart etc. Educational Technology Clearinghouse, University of South Florida. Drawings. JASNA Northern California Region. Jane Austen Society of North America. Illustrations and text. The Kinross Carriageworks, Stirling (Scotland), 1802–1966. Lexique du cheval! Lexikon of Carriage driving. Modern carriages, by W. Gilbey, 1905. The University of Hong Kong Libraries, China–America Digital Academic Library (CADAL). Passenger Vehicles The Guild of Model Wheelwrights. Illustrations and text. Science and Society Picture Library – Search Illustrations and text. Treatise on Carriages. Comprehending Coaches, Chariots, Phaetons, Curricles, Whiskeys, &c. Together with Their Proper Harness. In Which the Fair Prices of Every Article are Accurately Stated, by William Felton, coachmaker, 1794. Google Book Search. TTM web Texas Transportation Museum, San Antonio. Photos and text. Wheeled vehicles. The New York Times, 29 October 1871, page 2. 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229718	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Royal%20court	Royal court	A royal court is an extended royal household in a monarchy, including all those who regularly attend on a monarch, or another central figure. Hence the word court may also be applied to the coterie of a senior member of the nobility. Royal courts may have their seat in a designated place, several specific places, or be a mobile, itinerant court. In the largest courts, the royal households, many thousands of individuals comprised the court. These courtiers included the monarch or noble's camarilla and retinue, household, nobility, gentry, clergy, those with court appointments, bodyguard, and may also include emissaries from other kingdoms or visitors to the court. Foreign princes and foreign nobility in exile may also seek refuge at a court. Near Eastern and Eastern courts often included the harem and concubines as well as eunuchs who fulfilled a variety of functions. At times, the harem was walled off and separate from the rest of the residence of the monarch. In Asia, concubines were often a more visible part of the court. Lower ranking servants and bodyguards were not properly called courtiers, though they might be included as part of the court or royal household in the broadest definition. Entertainers and others may have been counted as part of the court. Patronage and courtly culture A royal household is the highest-ranking example of patronage. A regent or viceroy may hold court during the minority or absence of the hereditary ruler, and even an elected head of state may develop a court-like entourage of unofficial, personally-chosen advisers and "companions". The French word compagnon and its English derivation "companion" literally connote a "sharer of the bread" at table, and a court is an extension of the great individual's household. Wherever members of the household and bureaucrats of the administration overlap in personnel, it is reasonable to speak of a "court", for example in Achaemenid Persia, Ming China, Norman Sicily, the papacy before 1870 (see papal household), and the Austro-Hungarian Empire. A group of individuals dependent on the patronage of a great man, classically in ancient Rome, forms part of the system of "clientage" that is discussed under vassal. Individual rulers differed greatly in tastes and interests, as well as in political skills and in constitutional situations. Accordingly, some founded elaborate courts based on new palaces, only to have their successors retreat to remote castles or to practical administrative centers. Personal retreats might arise far away from official court centres. Etiquette and hierarchy flourish in highly structured court settings, and may leave conservative traces over generations. Most courts featured a strict order of precedence, often involving royal and noble ranks, orders of chivalry, and nobility. Some courts even featured court uniforms. One of the major markers of a court is ceremony. Most monarchal courts included ceremonies concerning the investiture or coronation of the monarch and audiences with the monarch. Some courts had ceremonies around the waking and the sleeping of the monarch, called a levée. Orders of chivalry as honorific orders became an important part of court culture starting in the 15th century. They were the right of the monarch, as the fount of honour, to create and grant. History Early history The earliest developed courts were probably in the Akkadian Empire, in Ancient Egypt, and in Asia in China during the Shang dynasty, but we find evidence of courts as described in the Neo-Assyrian Empire and in Asia in the Zhou Dynasty. Two of the earliest titles referring to the concept of a courtier were likely the ša rēsi and mazzāz pāni of the Neo-Assyrian Empire. In Ancient Egypt we find a title translated as high steward or great overseer of the house. The royal courts influenced by the court of the Neo-Assyrian Empire such as those of the Median Empire and the Achaemenid Empire would also have identifiable developed courts with court appointments and other features associated with later courts. The imperial court of the Achaemenid Empire at Persepolis and Pasargadae is the earliest identifiable complex court with all of the definitive features of a royal court such as a household, court appointments, courtiers, and court ceremony. Though Alexander the Great had an entourage and the rudimentary elements of a court it was not until after he conquered Persia that he took many of the more complex Achaemenid court customs back to the Kingdom of Macedonia to develop a royal court which would later influence the courts of Hellenistic Greece and the Roman Empire. The Sasanian Empire adopting and developing the earlier court culture and customs of the Achaemenid Empire would also influence again the development of the complex court and court customs of the Roman Empire and Byzantine Empire. The imperial court of the Byzantine Empire at Constantinople would eventually contain at least a thousand courtiers. The court's systems became prevalent in other courts such as those in the Balkan states, the Ottoman Empire, and Russia. Byzantinism is a term that was coined for this spread of the Byzantine system in the 19th century. East Asia The imperial courts of Chinese emperors, known as (), were among the largest and most complex of all. The Han dynasty, Western Jin dynasty, and Tang dynasty occupied the large palace complex at Weiyang Palace located near Chang'an, and the later Ming dynasty and Qing dynasty occupied the whole Forbidden City and other parts of Beijing, the present capital city of China. By the Sui dynasty, the functions of the imperial household and the imperial government were clearly divided. During the Heian period, Japanese emperors and their families developed an exquisitely refined court that played an important role in their culture. Medieval and modern Europe After the collapse of the Roman Empire in the West, a true court culture can be recognised in the entourage of the Ostrogoth Theodoric the Great and in the court of Charlemagne. In the Roman East, a brilliant court continued to surround the Byzantine emperors. In Western Europe, consolidation of power of local magnates and of kings in fixed administrative centres from the mid-13th century led to the creation of a distinct court culture that was the centre of intellectual and artistic patronage rivaling the abbots and bishops, in addition to its role as the apex of a rudimentary political bureaucracy that rivaled the courts of counts and dukes. The dynamics of hierarchy welded the court cultures together. Many early courts in Western Europe were itinerant courts that traveled from place to place. Local courts proliferated in the splintered polities of medieval Europe and remained in early modern times in Germany and in Italy. Such courts became known for intrigue and power politics; some also gained prominence as centres and collective patrons of art and culture. In medieval Spain (Castile), provincial courts were created. Minor noblemen and burguesie allied to create a system to oppose the monarchy on many policy issues. They were called "las Cortes de Castilla". These courts are the root of the current Spanish congress and senate. The courts of Valois Burgundy and the Kingdom of Portugal were particularly influential over the development of court culture and pageantry in Europe. The court of Philip the Good, Duke of Burgundy was considered one of the most splendid in Europe and would influence the development of court life later on for all of France and Europe. Later, Aliénor de Poitiers of the Burgundian court would write one of the seminal books on court etiquette, Les honneurs de la cour (Honours of the Court). Court life would reach its apogee of culture, complexity and etiquette at the courts of Versailles under Louis XIV of France and the Hofburg under the Habsburgs. As political executive functions generally moved to more democratic bases, noble courts have seen their function reduced once more to that of a noble household, concentrating on personal service to the household head, ceremonial and perhaps some residual politico-advisory functions. If republican zeal has banished an area's erstwhile ruling nobility, courts may survive in exile. Traces of royal court practices remain in present-day institutions like privy councils and governmental cabinets. Africa A series of Pharaohs ruled Ancient Egypt over the course of three millennia (circa 3150 BC to 31 BC), until it was conquered by the Roman Empire. In the same time period several kingdoms with their own royal courts flourished in the nearby Nubia region, with at least one of them, that of the so-called A-Group culture, apparently influencing the customs of Egypt itself. From the 6th to 19th centuries, Egypt was variously part of the Byzantine Empire, Islamic Empire, Mamluk Sultanate, Ottoman Empire and British Empire with a distant monarch. The Sultanate of Egypt was a short lived protectorate of the United Kingdom from 1914 until 1922, when it became the Kingdom of Egypt and Sultan Fuad I changed his title to King. After the Egyptian Revolution of 1952 the monarchy was dissolved and Egypt became a republic. In the Horn of Africa, the Kingdom of Aksum and later the Zagwe Dynasty, Ethiopian Empire (1270–1974), and Aussa Sultanate all had royal courts. Various Somali Sultanates also existed, including the Adal Sultanate (led by the Walashma dynasty of the Ifat Sultanate), Sultanate of Mogadishu, Ajuran Sultanate, Warsangali Sultanate, Geledi Sultanate, Majeerteen Sultanate and Sultanate of Hobyo. The kingship system has been an integral part of the more centralised African societies for millennia. This is especially true in the West African sahel, where royal courts have been in existence since at least the era of the 9th century Takrur and Ghana empires. The ruler of the 13th century Mali empire, Mansa Musa, brought a large number of his courtiers with him on the Islamic Hajj pilgrimage to Mecca. Today, the courts of the Ashanti nanas in modern Ghana, the Mande members of the tunkalemmu caste in Mali, the Bamum sultans of Cameroon, the Kanem shaykhs of Chad, the Hausa emirs of northern Nigeria, the inkosis of the Southern African Zulus and Xhosas and the obas and baales of Yorubaland, amongst others, continue the pageantry and court lifestyle traditions once common to the continent. Americas Court structure and organization Court officials Court officials or office-bearers (one type of courtier) derived their positions and retained their titles from their original duties within the courtly household. With time, such duties often became archaic. However, titles survived involving the ghosts of arcane duties. These styles generally dated back to the days when a noble household had practical and mundane concerns as well as high politics and culture. Such court appointments each have their own histories. They might include but are not limited to: Court seats Earlier courts in medieval Western Europe were itinerant courts, but courts were often held in a fixed place. One of the criteria of Norbert Elias' concept of a court society is that it existed in space. The German word Hof, meaning an enclosed courtyard, can also apply to a rural farmstead with outbuildings and walls forming the perimeter. It has also been used for the palatial seat where the court was held. Thus Hof or "court" can become transferred to the building itself. For example, the grand residence Hampton Court Palace on the River Thames above London was where Thomas Wolsey held court as Catholic cardinal (built after the Italian ideal for a cardinal's palace) until his fall and its confiscation by Henry VIII. William and Mary also held court there, 1689–94. Though it is built round two main courts, the structure itself is no longer the seat of a court in the sense of this article. As an example, ambassadors to the United Kingdom are still accredited to the Court of St. James's, and courtiers of the monarchy may still have offices in St James's Palace, London. The present monarch, however, holds court at Buckingham Palace, where dignitaries are received. Some former seats of power (see official residence): The Haute Cour (High Court) was the feudal council of the Kingdom of Jerusalem. Alhambra in Granada, seat of the last Muslim dynasty in current Spain Ali Qapu Palace, imperial palace of the later Safavid emperors in Isfahan, Iran. The Forbidden City, imperial palace complex of the Ming and Qing dynasties walled off from Beijing Gyeongbokgung Royal Palace, royal palace of the Joseon Dynasty in Seoul Wawel Castle in Kraków and Warsaw Royal Castle, Poland Château de Versailles near Paris in France Palace of Darius in Susa and Persepolis, imperial Achaemenid palaces Taq-i Kisra in Ctesiphon, Persia, in Sasanian period Hofburg Palace in Vienna, Austria Palatine Hill in Rome, Italy. Origin of the word palace. Sanssouci in Potsdam near Berlin Munich Residence in Munich in Bavaria Ludwigsburg Palace in Ludwigsburg in Swabia Dresden Castle in Dresden in Saxony The Vatican in the Papal States Palazzo Medici Riccardi, palace of the House of Medici, Grand Dukes of Tuscany The Kingdom of Portugal The Royal Alcáçova of Coimbra – under the House of Burgundy The Royal Alcáçova of São Jorge, Lisbon – under the houses of Burgundy and Aviz The Royal Palace of Évora – under the reign of Manuel I of Portugal The Royal Palace of Sintra – under the reigns of Manuel I of Portugal and John III of Portugal The Palaces of Ribeira, Lisbon – under the Houses of Aviz, Habsburg, and Braganza The Palace of Ajuda, Lisbon – under the House of Braganza The Winter Palace in Saint Petersburg, Russia Urbino, seat of a duchy in the Marche The Red Fort, palatial fortress of the Mughal emperors in Delhi, India Shaniwar Wada palace fort of the Maratha Peshwas in Pune, India Great Palace of Constantinople in Constantinople Topkapı Palace in Istanbul, Turkey – under the Ottoman dynasty Royal Palace of Madrid in Spain Alcázar de Colón in Santo Domingo Examples of court seats in fiction The Citadel of Minas Tirith in Gondor, in J. R. R. Tolkien's The Lord of the Rings The Imperial Palace on Coruscant in George Lucas' Star Wars The Imperial Palace on Kaitain, in Frank Herbert's Dune The Palace of Galadriel and Celeborn in Caras Galadhon, in J. R. R. Tolkien's The Lord of the Rings The Red Keep in King's Landing, in George R. R. Martin's A Song of Ice and Fire The Royal Palace of Andor in Caemlyn, in Robert Jordan's The Wheel of Time The Theed Royal Palace on Naboo in George Lucas' Star Wars The Court of Elfheim Formed by Mab Greenbriar in Faerie in Holly Black's The Folk of the Air Court structure and titles Byzantine aristocracy and bureaucracy in the Byzantine Empire Ethiopian aristocratic and court titles Government of the Han Dynasty Imperial Household Agency in Japan Itinerant court in European kingdoms in the Early Middle Ages. Maison du Roi in France during the Ancien Régime Ministry of the Imperial Court in Imperial Russia Papal Court of the Holy See Royal Court of Sweden in Sweden Royal Household and Heritage of the Crown of Spain in Spain Royal Households of the United Kingdom in the United Kingdom Titles of the Welsh Court in Wales during the Middle Ages Caliphate courts All four major Caliphates had sophisticated courts; this enabled Cordoba, Cairo and Baghdad (the respective seats of the Omayyad, the Fatimid and the Abbasid) to become the largest, most culturally developed cities of their time. This drew talented people from all walks of life—such as musicians, singers, poets and scientists—to seek employment under the patronage of elite bureaucrats, emirs and Sultans at court. The other Caliphate was the Ottoman, which employed its court's culture to stabilize an empire inhabited by huge non-Islamic populations spanning three continents. Everything from Algeria to the Balkans to Yemen was controlled by the court in Istanbul. The royal courts in the Islamic world were mostly run by rulers, but there were the exceptions of important elite families such as Barmakids and Nizams who established their own minor courts, enabling them to encourage arts and improve the empire even if the ruling king was useless. See also Aliénor de Poitiers, who documented the etiquette of the Burgundian Court in the late 15th century Camarilla Court appointment Courtesy book Courtier Curia regis Masque Orda (organization), the nomadic court of the Turkic and Mongol peoples Royal Household Striking in the King's Court References Bibliography On the sociology of the court, originally completed in 1939. Further reading Antiquity Spawforth, A. J. S. (ed.). The Court and Court Society in Ancient Monarchies. Cambridge, 2007 Middle Ages Branner, Robert, et al., eds. Art and the Courts: France and England from 1259 to 1328, 2 vols. Ottawa, 1972. Bumke, Joachim. Courtly Culture: Literature and Society in the High Middle Ages. Berkeley and Ozford, 1991. Cubitt, C. (ed.). Court Culture in the Early Middle Ages. The Proceedings of the First Alcuin Conference. Turnhout, 2002 Hen, Yitzhak. Roman Barbarians: The Royal Court and Culture in the Early Medieval West. Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan, 2007. . Jaeger, C.S. The Origins of Courtliness: Civilizing Trends and the Formation of Courtly Ideals 939–1210. Philadelphia, 1985. Jones, S.R., R. Marks and A. J. Minnis (eds.). Courts and Regions in Medieval Europe. York, 2000. Jong, M. de and F. Theuws (eds.). Topographies of Power in the Early Middle Ages. Leiden, 2001. Scaglione, A. Knights at Court: Courtliness, Chivalry, and Courtesy from Ottonian Germany to the Italian Renaissance. LA and Oxford, 1991. Scattergood, V.J. English Court Culture in the Later Middle Ages. London, 1983. Vale, Malcolm. The Princely Court: Medieval Courts and Culture in North-West Europe. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2001. Renaissance and Early Modern Adamson, John (ed.). The Princely Courts of Europe, 1500–1750. Ritual, Politics and Culture under the Ancien Régime, 1500–1750. London, 1999. Asch, Ronald G., and Adolf M. Birke, eds. Princes, Patronage and the Nobility: The Court at the Beginning of the Modern Age, c.1450–1650. London and Oxford, 1991. Birke, A., and R. Asch (eds.). Courts, Patronage and the Nobility at the Beginning of the Modern Period, 1450–1650. 1991. Burke, Peter. The Fabrication of Louis XIV. New Haven and London, 1992. Charles-Edwards, T.M. et al. The Welsh king and his court. Cardiff, 2000. Dickens, A.G. (ed.). The Courts of Europe: Politics, Patronage and Royalty, 1400–1800. 1977. Emphasis on patronage. Duindam, Jeroen. Myths of Power: Norbert Elias and the Early Modern European Court. Amsterdam, 1995. Critique of Elias. English translation of dissertation Macht en Mythe (1992). Duindam, Jeroen. Vienna and Versailles. The courts of Europe's Dynastic Rivals 1550–1780. Cambridge, 2003. Elias, Norbert. The Court Society. Oxford, 1983. External links Division between Hall and Chamber in late medieval noble and royal households. Bibliography on court history.	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229719	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Popularity	Popularity	In sociology, popularity is how much a person, idea, place, item or other concept is either liked or accorded status by other people. Liking can be due to reciprocal liking, interpersonal attraction, and similar factors. Social status can be due to dominance, superiority, and similar factors. For example, a kind person may be considered likable and therefore more popular than another person, and a wealthy person may be considered superior and therefore more popular than another person. There are two primary types of interpersonal popularity: perceived and sociometric. Perceived popularity is measured by asking people who the most popular or socially important people in their social group are. Sociometric popularity is measured by objectively measuring the number of connections a person has to others in the group. A person can have high perceived popularity without having high sociometric popularity, and vice versa. According to psychologist Tessa Lansu at the Radboud University Nijmegen, "Popularity [has] to do with being the middle point of a group and having influence on it." Introduction The term popularity is borrowed from the Latin term popularis, which originally meant "common." The current definition of the word popular, the "fact or condition of being well liked by the people", was first seen in 1601. While popularity is a trait often ascribed to an individual, it is an inherently social phenomenon and thus can only be understood in the context of groups of people. Popularity is a collective perception, and individuals report the consensus of a group's feelings towards an individual or object when rating popularity. It takes a group of people to like something, so the more that people advocate for something or claim that someone is best liked, the more attention it will get, and the more popular it will be deemed. Notwithstanding the above, popularity as a concept can be applied, assigned, or directed towards objects such as songs, movies, websites, activities, soaps, foods etc. Together, these objects collectively make up popular culture, or the consensus of mainstream preferences in society. In essence, anything, human or non-human, can be deemed popular. Types of interpersonal popularity For many years, popularity research focused on a definition of popularity that was based on being "well liked." Eventually, it was discovered that those who are perceived as popular are not necessarily the most well liked as originally assumed. When students are given the opportunity to freely elect those they like most and those they perceive as popular, a discrepancy often emerges. This is evidence that there are two main forms of personal popularity that social psychology recognizes, sociometric popularity and perceived popularity. Prinstein distinguishes between the two types as likeability vs. social status. Sociometric popularity or likeability Sociometric popularity can be defined by how liked an individual is. This liking is correlated with prosocial behaviours. Those who act in prosocial ways are likely to be deemed sociometrically popular. Often they are known for their interpersonal abilities, their empathy for others, and their willingness to cooperate non-aggressively. This is a more private judgement, characterized by likability, that will not generally be shared in a group setting. Often, it is impossible to know whom individuals find popular on this scale unless confidentiality is ensured. Perceived popularity or social status Perceived popularity is used to describe those individuals who are known among their peers as being popular. Unlike sociometric popularity, perceived popularity is often associated with aggression and dominance and is not dependent on prosocial behaviors. This form of popularity is often explored by the popular media. Notable works dealing with perceived popularity include Mean Girls, Odd Girl Out, and Ferris Bueller's Day Off. Individuals who have perceived popularity are often highly socially visible and frequently emulated but rarely liked. Since perceived popularity is a measure of visible reputation and emulation, this form of popularity is most openly discussed, agreed upon within a group, and what most people refer to when they call someone popular. Comprehensive theories To date, only one comprehensive theory of interpersonal popularity has been proposed: that of A. L. Freedman in the book Popularity Explained. The 3 Factor Model proposed attempts to reconcile the two concepts of sociometric and perceived popularity by combining them orthogonally and providing distinct definitions for each. In doing so, it reconciles the counter intuitive fact that liking does not guarantee perceived popularity nor does perceived popularity guarantee being well liked. "Popularity Explained" Popularity Explained was first published as a blog before being converted to a book and various versions have been available online since 2013. Conceptual foundations There are four primary concepts that Popularity Explained relies on. Liking and attraction are not the same. The interpersonal feeling of "liking" is not the same as "attraction" and that both are responsible for different human behaviours. The neurological evidence of this comes from the research of Kent C. Berridge and his incentive salience model. Popularity Explained extrapolates the conclusions of this research and applies it to human-human interpersonal interactions. A hierarchy of interpersonal attraction exists in all social groups. Popularity Explained develops a very broad definition of interpersonal attraction asserting that it is based on a multitude of different factors but primarily those of: socioeconomic status; interpersonal similarity; physical appearance; and efficacy. It proposes the concept of a "Hierarchy of Attraction" which, in simple terms, is just a stylized bell curve that illustrates how attractive people are relative to each other in terms of a percentile. Interpersonal attraction (in the broadest sense) results in Input of Energy. Input of Energy is the interpersonal actions that an individual takes, consciously and unconsciously, when they experience an interpersonal attraction. Examples of Input of Energy given in the book include: attempts at physical proximity; changes in verbal communications; changes to non-verbal communication; biased interpersonal judgments; cognitive intrusion; and helping behaviour. Sociometric and perceived popularity are correlated but not equivalent. By combining these two concepts, Popularity Explained defines eight prototypical student types that can be plotted on the single graph. Three-factor model According to Freedman, an individual's place in the social landscape is determined by a combination of three factors: what they are; who they are; and the situation. What refers to all those aspects of a person that are objective: participation in sports, physical appearance, etc. Perceived popularity is primarily the result of what a person is. It is mediated by Input of Energy combining with the Hierarchy of Attraction. This preferential receipt of Input of Energy by a select few is what propels them to the "popular" side of the graph that combines sociometric and perceived popularity. Who refers to the personality of the individual and how they treat other people. It is this factor that is responsible for determining where a student sits along the "liking" and "disliking" dimensions that characterize a student. The more pro-social an individual, the more they will be liked. The Situation refers to the circumstances that an individual finds themself in. Different circumstances may result in different social outcomes. For example, the same student may be perceived as popular when in the social context of their church youth group but unpopular within the social context of their school as a whole. Interpersonal causes One of the most widely agreed upon theories about what leads to an increased level of popularity for an individual is the perceived value which that individual brings to the group. This seems to be true for members of all groups, but is especially demonstrable in groups that exist for a specific purpose. For example, sports teams exist with the goal of being successful in competitions against other sports teams. Study groups exist so that the members of the group can mutually benefit from one another's academic knowledge. In these situations, leaders often emerge because other members of the group perceive them as adding a lot of value to the group as a whole. On a sports team, this means that the best players are usually elected captain and in study groups people might be more inclined to like an individual who has a lot of knowledge to share. It has been argued that this may be a result of our evolutionary tendencies to favor individuals who are most likely to aid in our own survival. It is also of note that the actual value which an individual brings to a group is not of consequence in determining his or her popularity; the only thing that is important is his or her value as perceived by the other members of the group. While perceived value and actual value may often overlap, this is not a requisite and it has been shown that there are instances in which an individual's actual value is relatively low, but they are perceived as highly valuable nevertheless. Attractiveness Attractiveness, specifically physical attractiveness, has been shown to have very profound effects on popularity. People who are physically attractive are more likely to be thought of as possessing positive traits. People who are attractive are expected to perform better on tasks and are more likely to be trusted. Additionally, they are judged to possess many other positive traits such as mental health, intelligence, social awareness, and dominance. Additionally, people who are of above average attractiveness are assumed to also be of above average value to the group. Research shows that attractive people are often perceived to have many positive traits based on nothing other than their looks, regardless of how accurate these perceptions are. This phenomenon is known as the Halo effect This means that, in addition to being more well-liked, attractive people are more likely to be seen as bringing actual value to the group, even when they may be of little or no value at all. In essence, physically attractive people are given the benefit of the doubt while less attractive individuals must prove that they are bringing value to the group. It has been shown empirically that being physically attractive is correlated with both sociometric and perceived popularity. Some possible explanations for this include increased social visibility and an increased level of tolerance for aggressive, social interactions that may increase perceived popularity. Aggression The degree to which an individual is perceived as popular is often highly correlated with the level of aggression with which that individual interacts with his or her peers. There are two main categories of aggression, relational and overt, both of which have varying consequences for popularity depending on several factors, such as the gender and attractiveness of the aggressor. The relationship also depends on culture. Prinstein notes that studies have found that increased aggression tends to correlate with higher social status in the United States, but lower social status in China. Relational aggression Relational aggression is nonviolent aggression that is emotionally damaging to another individual. Examples of relationally aggressive activities include ignoring or excluding an individual from a group, delivering personal insults to another person, and the spreading of rumors. Relational aggression is more frequently used by females than males. It has been found that relational aggression almost always has a strongly negative relationship with sociometric popularity but can have a positive relationship with perceived popularity depending on the perceived level of attractiveness of the aggressor. For an aggressor who is perceived as unattractive, relational aggression, by both males and females, leads to less perceived popularity. For an attractive aggressor however, relational aggression has been found to actually have a positive relationship with perceived popularity. The relationship between attractiveness and aggression is further intertwined by the finding that increased levels of physical attractiveness actually further decreased the sociometric popularity of relationally aggressive individuals. In short, the more physically attractive an individual is, the more likely they are to experience decreased levels of sociometric popularity but increased levels of perceived popularity for engaging in relationally aggressive activities. Overt aggression Overt aggression is aggression that involves individuals physically interacting with each other in acts such as pushing, hitting, kicking or otherwise causing physical harm or submission in the other person. This includes threats of violence and physical intimidation as well. It has been shown that overt aggression directly leads to perceived popularity when the aggressor is attractive. Experiments that are controlled for levels of physical attractiveness show that individuals who are attractive and overtly aggressive have a higher degree of perceived popularity than attractive non-overtly aggressive individuals. This was found to be true to a small degree for females and a large degree for males. Attractive individuals who are overtly aggressive barely suffer any consequences in terms of sociometric popularity. This is a key difference between overt and relational aggression because relational aggression has a strongly negative relationship on sociometric popularity, especially for attractive individuals. For unattractive individuals, there is again a strongly negative relationship between overt aggression and sociometric popularity. This means that attractive individuals stand to gain a lot of perceived popularity at the cost of very little sociometric popularity by being overtly aggressive while unattractive individuals stand to gain very little perceived popularity from acts of overt aggression but will be heavily penalized with regards to sociometric popularity. Cultural factors According to Talcott Parsons, as rewritten by Fons Trompenaars, there are four main types of culture, marked by: love/hate (Middle East, Mediterranean, Latin America); approval/criticism (United Kingdom, Canada, Scandinavia, Germanic countries); esteem/contempt (Japan, Eastern Asia); and responsiveness/rejection (the United States). Only the responsiveness/rejection culture results in teenagers actively trying to become popular. There is no effort for popularity in Northern or Southern Europe, Latin America or Asia. This emotional bonding is specific for the high schools in the United States. In the love/hate cultures, the family and close friends are more important than popularity. In the approval/criticism cultures, actions are more important than persons, so no strong links develop during school. Demographic differences Maturity Popularity is gauged primarily through social status. Because of the importance of social status, peers play the primary role in social decision making so that individuals can increase the chances that others like them. However, as children, individuals tend to do this through friendship, academics, and interpersonal conduct. By adulthood, work and romantic relationships become much more important. This peer functioning and gaining popularity is a key player in increasing interest in social networks and groups in the workplace. To succeed in such a work environment, adults then place popularity as a higher priority than any other goal, even romance. Gender These two types of popularity, perceived popularity and sociometric popularity, are more correlated for girls than they are for boys. However, it is said that men can possess these qualities to a larger extent, making them more likely to be a leader, more powerful, and more central in a group, but also more likely than women to be socially excluded. Boys tend to become popular based on athletic ability, coolness, toughness, and interpersonal skills; however, the more popular a boy gets, the worse he tends to do on his academic work. On the other hand, this negative view of academics is not seen at all in popular girls, who gain popularity based on family background (primarily socioeconomic status), physical appearance, and social ability. Boys are also known to be more competitive and rule focused, whereas girls have more emotional intimacy. Race In some instances, it has been found that in predominantly white high schools, attractive non-white students are on average significantly more sociometrically popular than equally attractive white students. One theory that has been put forth to explain this phenomenon is a high degree of group cohesiveness among minority students compared with the relative lack of cohesion amongst members of the majority. Since there is more cohesion, there is more availability for one person to be liked by many since they are all in contact. This acts like Zipf's Law, where the cohesion is a confounding factor that forces the greater links in the smaller minority, causing them to be more noticed and thus more popular. When considering race as a predictor for perceived popularity by asking a class how popular and important each other person is, African American students were rated most popular by their peers. Popularity in race was found to be correlated with athleticism, and because African Americans have a stereotype of being better at sports than individuals of other races, they are viewed as more popular. Additionally, White and Hispanic children were rated as more popular the better they succeeded in school and came from a higher socioeconomic background. No single factor can explain popularity, but instead the interaction between many factors such as race and athleticism vs. academics. Effects of popularity in the workplace Importance More tasks in the workplace are being done in teams, leading to a greater need of people to seek and feel social approval. In academic settings, a high social standing among peers is associated with positive academic outcomes. Popularity also leads to students in academic environments to receive more help, have more positive relationships and stereotypes, and be more approached by peers. While this is the research found in schools, it is likely to be generalized to a workplace. Benefits Popularity is positively linked to job satisfaction, individual job performance, and group performance. The popular worker, besides just feeling more satisfied with his job, feels more secure, believes he has better working conditions, trusts his supervisor, and possesses more positive opportunities for communication with both management and co-workers, causing a greater feeling of responsibility and belongingness at work. Others prefer to work with popular individuals, most notably in manual labor jobs because, although they might not be the most knowledgeable for the job, they are approachable, willing to help, cooperative in group work, and are more likely to treat their coworkers as an equal. If an employee feels good-natured, genial, but not overly independent, more people will say that they most prefer to work with that employee. Contributing factors According to the mere-exposure effect, employees in more central positions that must relate to many others throughout the day, such as a manager, are more likely to be considered popular. There are many characteristics that contribute to popularity: Expressing and acting in genuine ways - others will turn away if they can detect that someone is being fake to them Focusing on positive energy - others will feel too drained to be around someone if their interactions are not started on a positive note or they don't have empathy to share in someone else's positive news Treating others with respect - others do not like to be around someone if they aren't treated equally and acknowledged for their hard work Create connections - others are more likely to approach individuals they have strong relationships with; these can be built by talking about more personal issues, attending work gatherings, and communicating outside the office walls Patience - turning away too quickly ignores that relationships take time to grow, especially in the busy and stressful environments that work often induces Incorporating others - others feel a sense of trust and belongingness when they are asked for help on a project Hands-on or servant leader- Its a person that will do the work before anyone else, be the first to do the less desirable jobs, and have a positive attitude about it. Leadership popularity With a greater focus on groups in the workplace, it is essential that leaders effectively deal with and mediate groups to avoid clashing. Sometimes a leader does not need to be popular to be effective, but there are a few characteristics that can help a leader be more accepted and better liked by his group. Without group or team cohesiveness, there is no correlation between leadership and popularity; however, when a group is cohesive, the higher up someone is in the leadership hierarchy, the more popular they are for two reasons. First, a cohesive group feels more personal responsibility for their work, thus placing more value on better performance. Cohesive members see leaders as taking a bulk of the work and investing a lot of personal time, so when they see a job's value they can ascribe its success to the leader. This greatest contribution principle is perceived as a great asset to the team, and members view the leader more favorably and he gains popularity. Secondly, cohesive groups have well established group values. Leaders can become more popular in these groups by realizing and acting on dominant group values. Supporting group morals and standards leads to high positive valuation from the group, leading to popularity. The popularity of objects as a consequence of social influence Information cascades Popularity is a term widely applicable to the modern era thanks primarily to social networking technology. Being "liked" has been taken to a completely different level on ubiquitous sites such as Facebook. Popularity is a social phenomenon but it can also be ascribed to objects that people interact with. Collective attention is the only way to make something popular, and information cascades play a large role in rapid rises in something's popularity. Rankings for things in popular culture, like movies and music, often do not reflect the public's taste, but rather the taste of the first few buyers because social influence plays a large role in determining what is popular and what is not through an information cascade. Information cascades have strong influence causing individuals to imitate the actions of others, whether or not they are in agreement. For example, when downloading music, people don't decide 100% independently which songs to buy. Often they are influenced by charts depicting which songs are already trending. Since people rely on what those before them do, one can manipulate what becomes popular among the public by manipulating a website's download rankings. Experts paid to predict sales often fail but not because they are bad at their jobs; instead, it is because they cannot control the information cascade that ensues after first exposure by consumers. Music is again, an excellent example. Good songs rarely perform poorly on the charts and poor songs rarely perform very well, but there is tremendous variance that still makes predicting the popularity of any one song very difficult. Experts can determine if a product will sell in the top 50% of related products or not, but it is difficult to be more specific than that. Due to the strong impact that influence plays, this evidence emphasizes the need for marketers. They have a significant opportunity to show their products in the best light, with the most famous people, or being in the media most often. Such constant exposure is a way of gaining more product followers. Marketers can often make the difference between an average product and a popular product. However, since popularity is primarily constructed as a general consensus of a group's attitude towards something, word-of-mouth is a more effective way to attract new attention. Websites and blogs start by recommendations from one friend to another, as they move through social networking services. Eventually, when the fad is large enough, the media catches on to the craze. This spreading by word-of-mouth is the social information cascade that allows something to grow in usage and attention throughout a social group until everyone is telling everyone else about it, at which point it is deemed popular. Individuals also rely on what others say when they know that the information they are given could be completely incorrect. This is known as groupthink. Relying on others to influence one's own decisions is a very powerful social influence, but can have negative impacts. Zipf's Law The popularity of many different things can be described by Zipf's powerlaw, which posits that there is a low frequency of very large quantities and a high frequency of low quantities. This illustrates popularity of many different objects. For example, there are few very popular websites, but many websites have small followings. This is the result of interest; as many people use e-mail, it is common for sites like Yahoo! to be accessed by large numbers of people; however, a small subset of people would be interested in a blog on a particular video game. In this situation, only Yahoo! would be deemed a popular site by the public. This can additionally be seen in social networking services, such as Facebook. The majority of people have about 130 friends, while very few people have larger social networks. However, some individuals do have more than 5,000 friends. This reflects that very few people can be extremely well-connected, but many people are somewhat connected. The number of friends a person has, has been a way to determine how popular an individual is, so the small number of people who have an extremely high number of friends is a way of using social networking services, like Facebook, to illustrate how only a few people are deemed popular. Popular people may not be those who are best liked interpersonally by their peers, but they do receive most of the positive behavior from coworkers when compared to nonpopular workers. This is a result of the differences between sociometric and perceived popularity. When asked who is most popular, employees typically respond based on perceived popularity; however, they really prefer the social interactions with those who are more sociometrically popular. For each individual to ensure that they are consistent with the group's popularity consensus, those who are high in perceived popularity are treated with the same positive behaviors as those who are more interpersonally, but privately, liked by specific individuals. Well-liked workers are most likely to get salary increases and promotions, while disliked (unpopular) workers are the first to get their salary cut back or laid off during recessions. During interactions with others in the work environment, more popular individuals receive more organizational citizenship behavior (helping and courteousness from others) and less counter productive work behavior (rude reactions and withheld information) than those who are considered less popular in the workplace. Coworkers agree with each other on who is and who is not popular and, as a group, treat popular coworkers more favorably. While popularity has proven to be a big determiner of getting more positive feedback and interactions from coworkers, such a quality matters less in organizations where workloads and interdependence is high, such as the medical field. In many instances, physical appearance has been used as one indicator of popularity. Attractiveness plays a large role in the workplace and physical appearance influences hiring, whether or not the job might benefit from it. For example, some jobs, such as salesperson, benefit from attractiveness when it comes down to the bottom line, but there have been many studies which have shown that, in general, attractiveness is not at all a valid predictor of on-the-job performance. Many individuals have previously thought this was only a phenomenon in the more individualistic cultures of the Western world, but research has shown that attractiveness also plays a role in hiring in collectivist cultures as well. Because of the prevalence of this problem during the hiring process in all cultures, researchers have recommended training a group to ignore such influencers, just like legislation has worked to control for differences in sex, race, and disabilities. See also Peer group School bullying Self-esteem Social status References Further reading "Interpersonal Relations Among Female Adolescents" # Donna Eder; Sociology of Education, Vol. 58, No. 3 (Jul., 1985), pp. 154–165; American Sociological Association. "How to be Popular" # Dr. A. L. Freedman; PopularityExplained.com, retrieved July 19, 2015. 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229723	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lie	Lie	A lie is an assertion that is believed to be false, typically used with the purpose of deceiving someone. The practice of communicating lies is called lying. A person who communicates a lie may be termed a liar. Lies may serve a variety of instrumental, interpersonal, or psychological functions for the individuals who use them. Generally, the term "lie" carries a negative connotation, and depending on the context a person who communicates a lie may be subject to social, legal, religious, or criminal sanctions. Although people in many cultures believe that deception can be detected by observing nonverbal behaviors (e.g. not making eye contact, fidgeting, stuttering) research indicates that people overestimate both the significance of such cues and their ability to make accurate judgements about deception. More generally, people's ability to make truth judgments is affected by biases towards accepting incoming information and interpreting feelings as evidence of truth. People don't always check incoming assertions against their memory. Types and associated terms A barefaced, bald-faced or bold-faced lie is an impudent, brazen, shameless, flagrant, or audacious lie that is sometimes but not always undisguised and that it is even then not always obvious to those hearing it. A big lie is one that attempts to trick the victim into believing something major, which will likely be contradicted by some information the victim already possesses, or by their common sense. When the lie is of sufficient magnitude it may succeed, due to the victim's reluctance to believe that an untruth on such a grand scale would indeed be concocted. A black lie is about simple and callous selfishness. They are usually told when others gain nothing, and the sole purpose is either to get ourselves out of trouble (reducing harm against ourselves), or to gain something we desire (increasing benefits for ourselves). A blue lie is a form of lying that is told purportedly to benefit a collective or "in the name of the collective good". The origin of the term "blue lie" is possibly from cases where police officers made false statements to protect the police force or to ensure the success of a legal case against an accused. This differs from the blue wall of silence in that a blue lie is not an omission but a stated falsehood. An April fool is a lie or hoax told/performed on April Fools' Day. To bluff is to pretend to have a capability or intention one does not possess. Bluffing is an act of deception that is rarely seen as immoral when it takes place in the context of a game, such as poker, where this kind of deception is consented to in advance by the players. For instance, gamblers who deceive other players into thinking they have different cards to those they really hold, or athletes who hint that they will move left and then dodge right are not considered to be lying (also known as a feint or juke). In these situations, deception is acceptable and is commonly expected as a tactic. Bullshit (also B.S., bullcrap, bull) does not necessarily have to be a complete fabrication. While a lie is related by a speaker who believes what is said is false, bullshit is offered by a speaker who does not care whether what is said is true because the speaker is more concerned with giving the hearer some impression. Thus bullshit may be either true or false, but demonstrates a lack of concern for the truth that is likely to lead to falsehoods. A cover-up may be used to deny, defend, or obfuscate a lie, errors, embarrassing actions, or lifestyle, and/or lie(s) made previously. One may deny a lie made on a previous occasion, or alternatively, one may claim that a previous lie was not as egregious as it was. For example, to claim that a premeditated lie was really "only" an emergency lie, or to claim that a self-serving lie was really "only" a white lie or noble lie. This should not be confused with confirmation bias in which the deceiver is deceiving themselves. Defamation is the communication of a false statement that harms the reputation of an individual person, business, product, group, government, religion, or nation. To deflect is to avoid the subject that the lie is about, not giving attention to the lie. When attention is given to the subject the lie is based around, deflectors ignore or refuse to respond. Skillful deflectors are passive-aggressive, who when confronted with the subject choose to ignore and not respond. Disinformation is intentionally false or misleading information that is spread in a calculated way to deceive target audiences. An exaggeration occurs when the most fundamental aspects of a statement are true, but only to a certain degree. It also is seen as "stretching the truth" or making something appear more powerful, meaningful, or real than it is. Saying that someone devoured most of something when they only ate half would be considered an exaggeration. An exaggeration might be easily found to be a hyperbole where a person's statement (i.e. in informal speech, such as "He did this one million times already!") is meant not to be understood literally. Fake news is supposed to be a type of yellow journalism that consists of deliberate misinformation or hoaxes spread via traditional print and broadcast news media or online social media. Sometimes the term is applied as a deceptive device to deflect attention from uncomfortable truths and facts, however. A fib is a lie that is easy to forgive due to its subject being a trivial matter; for example, a child may tell a fib by claiming that the family dog broke a household vase, when the child was the one who broke it. Fraud refers to the act of inducing another person or people to believe a lie in order to secure material or financial gain for the liar. Depending on the context, fraud may subject the liar to civil or criminal penalties. A gray lie is told partly to help others and partly to help ourselves. It may vary in the shade of gray, depending on the balance of help and harm. Gray lies are, almost by definition, hard to clarify. For example you can lie to help a friend out of trouble but then gain the reciprocal benefit of them lying for you while those they have harmed in some way lose out. A half-truth is a deceptive statement that includes some element of truth. The statement might be partly true, the statement may be totally true, but only part of the whole truth, or it may employ some deceptive element, such as improper punctuation or double meaning, especially if the intent is to deceive, evade, blame, or misrepresent the truth. An honest lie (or confabulation) may be identified by verbal statements or actions that inaccurately describe the history, background, and present situations. There is generally no intent to misinform and the individual is unaware that their information is false. Because of this, it is not technically a lie at all since, by definition, there must be an intent to deceive for the statement to be considered a lie. Jocose lies are lies meant in jest, intended to be understood as such by all present parties. Teasing and irony are examples. A more elaborate instance is seen in some storytelling traditions, where the storyteller's insistence that the story is the absolute truth, despite all evidence to the contrary (i.e., tall tale), is considered humorous. There is debate about whether these are "real" lies, and different philosophers hold different views. The Crick Crack Club in London arranges a yearly "Grand Lying Contest" with the winner being awarded the coveted "Hodja Cup" (named for the Mulla Nasreddin: "The truth is something I have never spoken."). The winner in 2010 was Hugh Lupton. In the United States, the Burlington Liars' Club awards an annual title to the "World Champion Liar." Lie-to-children is a phrase that describes a simplified explanation of technical or complex subjects as a teaching method for children and laypeople. While lies-to-children are useful in teaching complex subjects to people who are new to the concepts discussed, they can promote the creation of misconceptions among the people who listen to them. The phrase has been incorporated by academics within the fields of biology, evolution, bioinformatics, and the social sciences. Media use of the term has extended to publications including The Conversation and Forbes. Lying by omission, also known as a continuing misrepresentation or quote mining, occurs when an important fact is left out in order to foster a misconception. Lying by omission includes the failure to correct pre-existing misconceptions. For example, when the seller of a car declares it has been serviced regularly, but does not mention that a fault was reported during the last service, the seller lies by omission. It may be compared to dissimulation. An omission is when a person tells most of the truth, but leaves out a few key facts that therefore, completely obscures the truth. Lying in trade occurs when the seller of a product or service may advertise untrue facts about the product or service in order to gain sales, especially by competitive advantage. Many countries and states have enacted consumer protection laws intended to combat such fraud. A memory hole is a mechanism for the alteration or disappearance of inconvenient or embarrassing documents, photographs, transcripts, or other records, such as from a website or other archive, particularly as part of an attempt to give the impression that something never happened. Minimization is the opposite of exaggeration. It is a type of deception involving denial coupled with rationalization in situations where complete denial is implausible. Mutual deceit is a situation wherein lying is both accepted and expected or that the parties mutually accept the deceit in question. This can be demonstrated in the case of a poker game wherein the strategies rely on deception and bluffing to win. A noble lie, which also could be called a strategic untruth, is one that normally would cause discord if uncovered, but offers some benefit to the liar and assists in an orderly society, therefore, potentially being beneficial to others. It is often told to maintain law, order, and safety. Paltering is the active use of selective truthful statements to mislead. Paternalistic deception is a lie told because it is believed (possibly incorrectly) that the deceived person will benefit. In psychiatry, pathological lying (also called compulsive lying, pseudologia fantastica, and mythomania) is a behavior of habitual or compulsive lying. It was first described in the medical literature in 1891 by Anton Delbrueck. Although it is a controversial topic, pathological lying has been defined as "falsification entirely disproportionate to any discernible end in view, may be extensive and very complicated, and may manifest over a period of years or even a lifetime". The individual may be aware they are lying, or may believe they are telling the truth, being unaware that they are relating fantasies. Perjury is the act of lying or making verifiably false statements on a material matter under oath or affirmation in a court of law, or in any of various sworn statements in writing. Perjury is a crime, because the witness has sworn to tell the truth and, for the credibility of the court to remain intact, witness testimony must be relied on as truthful. A is a lie that a politeness standard requires, and that usually is known to be untrue by both parties. Whether such lies are acceptable is heavily dependent on culture. A common polite lie in international etiquette may be to decline invitations because of "scheduling difficulties", or due to "diplomatic illness". Similarly, the butler lie is a small lie that usually is sent electronically and is used to terminate conversations or to save face. Puffery is an exaggerated claim typically found in advertising and publicity announcements, such as "the highest quality at the lowest price", or "always votes in the best interest of all the people". Such statements are unlikely to be true – but cannot be proven false and so, do not violate trade laws, especially as the consumer is expected to be able to determine that it is not the absolute truth. A red lie is about spite and revenge. It is driven by the motive to harm others even at the expense of harming oneself. When we are angry at others, perhaps because of a long feud or where we feel they have wronged us in some way, we feel a sense of betrayal and so seek retributive justice, which we may dispense without thought of consequence. The phrase "speaking with a forked tongue" means to deliberately say one thing and mean another or, to be hypocritical, or act in a duplicitous manner. This phrase was adopted by Americans around the time of the Revolution, and may be found in abundant references from the early nineteenth century – often reporting on American officers who sought to convince the Indigenous peoples of the Americas with whom they negotiated that they "spoke with a straight and not with a forked tongue" (as for example, President Andrew Jackson told members of the Creek Nation in 1829). According to one 1859 account, the proverb that the "white man spoke with a forked tongue" originated in the 1690s, in the descriptions by the indigenous peoples of French colonials in America inviting members of the Iroquois Confederacy to attend a peace conference, but when the Iroquois arrived, the French had set an ambush and proceeded to slaughter and capture the Iroquois. Weasel word is an informal term for words and phrases aimed at creating an impression that a specific or meaningful statement has been made, when in fact only a vague or ambiguous claim has been communicated, enabling the specific meaning to be denied if the statement is challenged. A more formal term is equivocation. A white lie is a harmless or trivial lie, especially one told in order to be polite or to avoid hurting someone's feelings or stopping them from being upset by the truth. A white lie also is considered a lie to be used for greater good (pro-social behavior). It sometimes is used to shield someone from a hurtful or emotionally-damaging truth, especially when not knowing the truth is deemed by the liar as completely harmless. Consequences The potential consequences of lying are manifold; some in particular are worth considering. Typically lies aim to deceive, when deception is successful, the hearer ends up acquiring a false belief (or at least something that the speaker believes to be false). When deception is unsuccessful, a lie may be discovered. The discovery of a lie may discredit other statements by the same speaker, staining his reputation. In some circumstances, it may also negatively affect the social or legal standing of the speaker. Lying in a court of law, for instance, is a criminal offense (perjury). Hannah Arendt spoke about extraordinary cases in which an entire society is being lied to consistently. She said that the consequences of such lying are "not that you believe the lies, but rather that nobody believes anything any longer. This is because lies, by their very nature, have to be changed, and a lying government has constantly to rewrite its own history. On the receiving end you get not only one liea lie which you could go on for the rest of your daysbut you get a great number of lies, depending on how the political wind blows." Detection The question of whether lies can be detected reliably through nonverbal has been the subject of frequent study. While people in many cultures believe that deception can be indicated by behaviors such as looking away, fidgeting, or stammering, this is not supported by research. A 2019 review of research on deception and its detection through nonverbal behavior concludes that people tend to overestimate both the reliability of nonverbal behavior as an indicator of deception, and their ability to make accurate judgements about deception based on nonverbal behavior. Polygraph "lie detector" machines measure the physiological stress a subject endures in a number of measures while giving statements or answering questions. Spikes in stress indicators are purported to reveal lying. The accuracy of this method is widely disputed. In several well-known cases, application of the technique has been shown to have given incorrect results. Nonetheless, it remains in use in many areas, primarily as a method for eliciting confessions or employment screening. The unreliability of polygraph results are the basis of such evaluations not being admissible as court evidence and, generally, the technique is perceived to be pseudoscience. A recent study found that composing a lie takes longer than telling the truth and thus, the time taken to answer a question may be used as a method of lie detection, however, it also has been shown that instant answers with a lie may be proof of a prepared lie. A recommendation provided to resolve that contradiction is to try to surprise the subject and find a midway answer, not too quick, nor too long. Ethics Utilitarian philosophers have supported lies that achieve good outcomes – white lies. In his 2008 book, How to Make Good Decisions and Be Right All the Time, Iain King suggested a credible rule on lying was possible, and he defined it as: "Deceive only if you can change behaviour in a way worth more than the trust you would lose, were the deception discovered (whether the deception actually is exposed or not)." Stanford Law professor Deborah L. Rhode articulated three rules she says ethicists generally agree distinguish "white lies" from harmful lies or cheating: A disinterested observer would conclude that the benefits outweigh the harms There is no alternative If everyone in similar circumstances acted similarly, society would be no worse off Aristotle believed no general rule on lying was possible, because anyone who advocated lying could never be believed, he said. Although the philosophers St. Augustine, St. Thomas Aquinas, and Immanuel Kant, condemned all lying, Thomas Aquinas did advance an argument for lying, however. According to all three, there are no circumstances in which, ethically, one may lie. Even if the only way to protect oneself is to lie, it is never ethically permissible to lie even in the face of murder, torture, or any other hardship. Each of these philosophers gave several arguments for the ethical basis against lying, all compatible with each other. Among the more important arguments are: Lying is a perversion of the natural faculty of speech, the natural end of which is to communicate the thoughts of the speaker. When one lies, one undermines trust in society. In Lying, neuroscientist Sam Harris argues that lying is negative for the liar and the person who's being lied to. To say lies is to deny others access to reality, and often we cannot anticipate how harmful lies can be. The ones we lie to may fail to solve problems they could have solved only on a basis of good information. To lie also harms oneself, makes the liar distrust the person who's being lied to. Liars generally feel badly about their lies and sense a loss of sincerity, authenticity, and integrity. Harris asserts that honesty allows one to have deeper relationships and to bring all dysfunction in one's life to the surface. In Human, All Too Human, philosopher Friedrich Nietzsche suggested that those who refrain from lying may do so only because of the difficulty involved in maintaining lies. This is consistent with his general philosophy that divides (or ranks) people according to strength and ability; thus, some people tell the truth only out of weakness. In other species Possession of the capacity to lie among non-humans has been asserted during language studies with great apes. In one instance, the gorilla Koko, when asked who tore a sink from the wall, pointed to one of her handlers and then laughed. Deceptive body language, such as feints that mislead as to the intended direction of attack or flight, is observed in many species. A mother bird deceives when she pretends to have a broken wing to divert the attention of a perceived predator – including unwitting humans – from the eggs in her nest, instead to her, as she draws the predator away from the location of the nest, most notably a trait of the killdeer. Cultural references Carlo Collodi's Pinocchio is a wooden puppet character often led into trouble by his propensity to lie; his nose grows with every one. Hence, long noses have become a caricature of liars. The Boy Who Cried Wolf, a fable attributed to Aesop about a boy who continually lies that a wolf is coming. When a wolf does appear, nobody believes him anymore. A famous anecdote by Parson Weems claims that George Washington once cut at a cherry tree with a hatchet when he was a small child. His father asked him who cut the cherry tree and Washington confessed his crime with the words: "I'm sorry, father, I cannot tell a lie." To Tell the Truth was the originator of a genre of game shows with three contestants claiming to be a person only one of them is. Glenn Kessler, a journalist at The Washington Post, awards one to four Pinocchios to politicians in his Washington Post Fact Checker blog. The cliché "All is fair in love and war", asserts justification for lies used to gain advantage in these situations. Sun Tzu declared that "All warfare is based on deception." Machiavelli advised in The Prince that a prince must hide his behaviors and become a "great liar and deceiver." Thomas Hobbes wrote in Leviathan: "In war, force and fraud are the two cardinal virtues." The concept of a memory hole was first popularized by George Orwell's dystopian novel, Nineteen Eighty-Four, where the Party's Ministry of Truth systematically re-created all potential historical documents, in effect re-writing all of history to match the often-changing state propaganda. These changes were complete and undetectable. In the film Big Fat Liar, the story producer Marty Wolf (a notorious and proud liar) steals a story from student Jason Shepard, telling of a character whose lies become out of control to the point where each lie he tells causes him to grow in size. In the film Liar Liar, the lawyer Fletcher Reede (Jim Carrey) cannot lie for 24 hours, due to a wish of his son that magically came true. In the 1985 film Max Headroom, the title character comments that one can always tell when a politician lies because "their lips move". The joke has been widely repeated and rephrased. Larry-Boy! And the Fib from Outer Space! was a Veggie Tales story of a crime-fighting super-hero with super-suction ears, having to stop an alien, calling himself "Fib", from destroying the town of Bumblyburg due to the lies that caused Fib to grow. Telling the truth is the moral to this story. Lie to Me is a television series based on behavior analysts who read lies through facial expressions and body language. The Invention of Lying is a 2009 movie depicting the fictitious invention of the first lie, starring Ricky Gervais, Jennifer Garner, Rob Lowe, and Tina Fey. The Adventures of Baron Munchausen tell the story about an eighteenth-century baron who tells outrageous, unbelievable stories, all of which he claims are true. In the games Grand Theft Auto IV and Grand Theft Auto V, there's an agency named FIB, a parody of the FBI, which is known to cover up stories, cooperate with criminals, and extract information with the use of lying. Psychology It is asserted that the capacity to lie is a talent human beings possess universally. The evolutionary theory proposed by Darwin states that only the fittest will survive and by lying, we aim to improve other's perception of our social image and status, capability, and desirability in general. Studies have shown that humans begin lying at a mere age of six months, through crying and laughing, to gain attention. Scientific studies have shown differences in forms of lying across gender. Although men and women lie at equal frequencies, men are more likely to lie in order to please themselves while women are more likely to lie to please others. The presumption is that humans are individuals living in a world of competition and strict social norms, where they are able to use lies and deception to enhance chances of survival and reproduction. Stereotypically speaking, David Livingstone Smith asserts that men like to exaggerate about their sexual expertise, but shy away from topics that degrade them while women understate their sexual expertise to make themselves more respectable and loyal in the eyes of men and avoid being labelled as a ‘scarlet woman’. Those with Parkinson's disease show difficulties in deceiving others, difficulties that link to prefrontal hypometabolism. This suggests a link between the capacity for dishonesty and integrity of prefrontal functioning. Pseudologia fantastica is a term applied by psychiatrists to the behavior of habitual or compulsive lying. Mythomania is the condition where there is an excessive or abnormal propensity for lying and exaggerating. A recent study found that composing a lie takes longer than telling the truth. Or, as Chief Joseph succinctly put it, "It does not require many words to speak the truth." Some people believe that they are convincing liars, however in many cases, they are not. Religious perspectives In the Bible The Old Testament and New Testament of the Bible both contain statements that God cannot lie and that lying is immoral (Num. 23:19, Hab. 2:3, Heb. 6:13–18). Nevertheless, there are examples of God deliberately causing enemies to become disorientated and confused, in order to provide victory (2 Thess. 2:11; 1 Kings 22:23; Ezek. 14:9). Various passages of the Bible feature exchanges that assert lying is immoral and wrong (Prov. 6:16–19; Ps. 5:6), (Lev. 19:11; Prov. 14:5; Prov. 30:6; Zeph. 3:13), (Isa. 28:15; Dan. 11:27), most famously, in the Ten Commandments: "Thou shalt not bear false witness" (Ex. ; Deut. ); Ex. 23:1; Matt. 19:18; Mark 10:19; Luke 18:20 a specific reference to perjury. Other passages feature descriptive (not prescriptive) exchanges where lying was committed in extreme circumstances involving life and death, however, most Christian philosophers would argue that lying is never acceptable, but that even those who are righteous in God's eyes sin sometimes. Old Testament accounts of lying include: The midwives lied about their inability to kill the Israelite children. (Ex. 1:15–21). Rahab lied to the king of Jericho about hiding the Hebrew spies (Josh. 2:4–5) and was not killed with those who were disobedient because of her faith (Heb. 11:31). Abraham instructed his wife, Sarah, to mislead the Egyptians and say that she is his sister (Gen. 12:10). Abraham's story was strictly true – Sarah was his half sister – but intentionally misleading because it was designed to lead the Egyptians to believe that Sarah was not Abraham's wife for Abraham feared that they would kill him in order to take her, for she was very beautiful. In the New Testament, Jesus refers to the Devil as the father of lies (John 8:44) and Paul commands Christians "Do not lie to one another" (Col. 3:9; cf. Lev. 19:11). In the Day of Judgement, unrepentant liars will be punished in the lake of fire. (Rev. 21:8; 21:27). Augustine's taxonomy Augustine of Hippo wrote two books about lying: On Lying (De Mendacio) and Against Lying (Contra Mendacio). He describes each book in his later work, Retractationes. Based on the location of De Mendacio in Retractationes, it appears to have been written about AD 395. The first work, On Lying, begins: "Magna quæstio est de Mendacio" ("There is a great question about Lying"). From his text, it can be derived that St. Augustine divided lies into eight categories, listed in order of descending severity: Lies in religious teaching Lies that harm others and help no one Lies that harm others and help someone Lies told for the pleasure of lying Lies told to "please others in smooth discourse" Lies that harm no one and that help someone materially Lies that harm no one and that help someone spiritually Lies that harm no one and that protect someone from "bodily defilement" Despite distinguishing between lies according to their external severity, Augustine maintains in both treatises that all lies, defined precisely as the external communication of what one does not hold to be internally true, are categorically sinful and therefore, ethically impermissible. Augustine wrote that lies told in jest, or by someone who believes or opines the lie to be true are not, in fact, lies. In Buddhism The fourth of the five Buddhist precepts involves falsehood spoken or committed to by action. Avoiding other forms of wrong speech are also considered part of this precept, consisting of malicious speech, harsh speech, and gossip. A breach of the precept is considered more serious if the falsehood is motivated by an ulterior motive (rather than, for example, "a small white lie"). The accompanying virtue is being honest and dependable, and involves honesty in work, truthfulness to others, loyalty to superiors, and gratitude to benefactors. In Buddhist texts, this precept is considered most important next to the first precept, because a lying person is regarded to have no shame, and therefore capable of many wrongs. Lying is not only to be avoided because it harms others, but also because it goes against the Buddhist ideal of finding the truth. The fourth precept includes avoidance of lying and harmful speech. Some modern Buddhist teachers such as Thich Nhat Hanh interpret this to include avoiding spreading false news and uncertain information. Work that involves data manipulation, false advertising, or online scams can also be regarded as violations. Anthropologist reports that among Thai Buddhists, the fourth precept also is seen to be broken when people insinuate, exaggerate, or speak abusively or deceitfully. In Norse paganism In Gestaþáttr, one of the sections within the Eddaic poem Hávamál, Odin states that it is advisable, when dealing with "a false foe who lies", to tell lies also. In Zoroastrianism Zoroaster teaches that there are two powers in the universe; Asha, which is truth, order, and that which is real, and Druj, which is "the Lie". Later on, the Lie became personified as Angra Mainyu, a figure similar to the Christian Devil, who was portrayed as the eternal opponent of Ahura Mazda (God). Herodotus, in his mid-fifth-century BC account of Persian residents of the Pontus, reports that Persian youths, from their fifth year to their twentieth year, were instructed in three things – "to ride a horse, to draw a bow, and to speak the Truth". He further notes that: "The most disgraceful thing in the world [the Persians] think, is to tell a lie; the next worst, to owe a debt: because, among other reasons, the debtor is obliged to tell lies." In Achaemenid Persia, the lie, drauga (in Avestan: druj), is considered to be a cardinal sin and it was punishable by death in some extreme cases. Tablets discovered by archaeologists in the 1930s at the site of Persepolis give us adequate evidence about the love and veneration for the culture of truth during the Achaemenian period. These tablets contain the names of ordinary Persians, mainly traders and warehouse-keepers. According to Stanley Insler of Yale University, as many as 72 names of officials and petty clerks found on these tablets contain the word truth. Thus, says Insler, we have Artapana, protector of truth, Artakama, lover of truth, Artamanah, truth-minded, Artafarnah, possessing splendour of truth, Artazusta, delighting in truth, Artastuna, pillar of truth, Artafrida, prospering the truth, and Artahunara, having nobility of truth. It was Darius the Great who laid down the "ordinance of good regulations" during his reign. Darius' testimony about his constant battle against the Lie is found in the Behistun Inscription. He testifies: "I was not a lie-follower, I was not a doer of wrong ... According to righteousness I conducted myself. Neither to the weak or to the powerful did I do wrong. The man who cooperated with my house, him I rewarded well; who so did injury, him I punished well." He asks Ahuramazda, God, to protect the country from "a (hostile) army, from famine, from the Lie". Darius had his hands full dealing with large-scale rebellion which broke out throughout the empire. After fighting successfully with nine traitors in a year, Darius records his battles against them for posterity and tells us how it was the Lie that made them rebel against the empire. At the Behistun inscription, Darius says: "I smote them and took prisoner nine kings. One was Gaumata by name, a Magian; he lied; thus he said: I am Smerdis, the son of Cyrus ... One, Acina by name, an Elamite; he lied; thus he said: I am king in Elam ... One, Nidintu-Bel by name, a Babylonian; he lied; thus he said: I am Nebuchadnezzar, the son of Nabonidus. ... The Lie made them rebellious, so that these men deceived the people." Then advice to his son Xerxes, who is to succeed him as the great king: "Thou who shalt be king hereafter, protect yourself vigorously from the Lie; the man who shall be a lie-follower, him do thou punish well, if thus thou shall think. May my country be secure!" See also Appeal to emotion Black propaganda Confabulation Deception Disinformation Ethics Evasion (ethics) Fabrication (science) False analogy False equivalence Falsifiability Honesty Mental reservation Mutual deceit Plausible deniability Post-truth politics Prisoner's dilemma Propaganda Psychological manipulation Sophistry Spin (public relations) Traitor Truth Weasel word References Sources Further reading Adler, J.E. "Lying, deceiving, or falsely implicating," Journal of Philosophy, Vol. 94 (1997), 435–52. Aquinas, T., St. "Question 110: Lying," in Summa Theologiae (II.II), Vol. 41, Virtues of Justice in the Human Community (London, 1972). Augustine, St. "On Lying" and "Against Lying," in R.J. Deferrari, ed., Treatises on Various Subjects (New York, 1952). Bok, S. Lying: Moral Choice in Public and Private Life, 2d ed. (New York, 1989). Davids, P.H.; Bruce, F.F.; Brauch, M.T. & W.C. Kaiser, Hard Sayings of the Bible (InterVarsity Press, 1996). Denery II, Dallas G. The Devil Wins: A History of Lying From the Garden of Eden to the Enlightenment (Princeton University Press; 2014) 352 pages; Uses religious, philosophical, literary and other sources in a study of lying from the perspectives of God, the Devil, theologians, courtiers, and women. Frankfurt, H.G. "The Faintest Passion," in Necessity, Volition and Love (Cambridge, MA: CUP, 1999). Hausman, Carl, "Lies We Live By," (New York: Routledge, 2000). Kant, I. Groundwork of the Metaphysics of Morals, The Metaphysics of Morals and "On a supposed right to lie from philanthropy," in Immanuel Kant, Practical Philosophy, eds. Mary Gregor and Allen W. Wood (Cambridge: CUP, 1986). Lakoff, George, Don't Think of an Elephant, (Chelsea Green Publishing, 2004). Leslie I. Born Liars: Why We Can't Live Without Deceit (2011) Mahon, J.E. "Kant on Lies, Candour and Reticence," Kantian Review, Vol. 7 (2003), 101–33. Mahon, J.E., "Lying," Encyclopedia of Philosophy, 2nd ed., Vol. 5 (Farmington Hills, MI: Macmillan Reference, 2006), 618–19. Mahon, J.E. "Kant and the Perfect Duty to Others Not to Lie," British Journal for the History of Philosophy, Vol. 14, No. 4 (2006), 653–85. Mahon, J.E. "Kant and Maria von Herbert: Reticence vs. Deception," Philosophy, Vol. 81, No. 3 (2006), 417–44. Mannison, D.S. "Lying and Lies," Australasian Journal of Philosophy, Vol. 47 (1969), 132–44. Mount, Ferdinand, "Ruthless and Truthless" (review of Peter Oborne, The Assault on Truth: Boris Johnson, Donald Trump and the Emergence of a New Moral Barbarism, Simon and Schuster, February 2021, , 192 pp.; and Colin Kidd and Jacqueline Rose, eds., Political Advice: Past, Present and Future, I.B. Tauris, February 2021, , 240 pp.), London Review of Books, vol. 43, no. 9 (6 May 2021), pp. 3, 5–8. Siegler, F.A. "Lying," American Philosophical Quarterly, Vol. 3 (1966), 128–36. Margaret Talbot (2007). "Duped. Can brain scans uncover lies?". The New Yorker, 2 July 2007. 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229725	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Horizontal	Horizontal	Horizontal may refer to: Horizontal plane, in astronomy, geography, geometry and other sciences and contexts Horizontal coordinate system, in astronomy Horizontalism, in monetary circuit theory Horizontalism, in sociology Horizontal market, in microeconomics Horizontal (album), a 1968 album by the Bee Gees "Horizontal" (song)" is a 1968 song by the Bee Gees See also Horizontal and vertical Horizontal fissure (disambiguation), anatomical features Horizontal bar, an apparatus used by male gymnasts in artistic gymnastics Vertical (disambiguation) fr:Horizontale	[ 0.08089534193277359, 0.19670701026916504, 0.09078912436962128, 0.3276436924934387, -0.10371912270784378, 0.6840187311172485, -0.028700480237603188, 0.213979572057724, -0.6491124033927917, -0.4075511693954468, -0.23581258952617645, 0.2344265580177307, -0.09162133932113647, 0.08257704973220825, -0.17103536427021027, 0.15239810943603516, 0.04092016443610191, 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229727	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alfredo%20Binda	Alfredo Binda	Alfredo Binda (11 August 1902 – 19 July 1986) was an Italian road cyclist of the 1920s and 1930s. He was the first to win five editions of the Giro d'Italia, and a three-time world champion. In addition he won Milan–San Remo twice, and the Tour of Lombardy four times. Later he would manage the Italian National team. Under him, Fausto Coppi, Gino Bartali and Gastone Nencini all triumphed at the Tour de France. Early life Binda was born in Cittiglio near Varese but moved to Nice, in southern France as a teenager. He found work with his uncle as an apprentice plasterer, but he and brother Primo spent their free time cycling. He began racing in September 1921, aged 19. He won his first race (though he was subsequently disqualified) and it was clear from the outset that he was immensely gifted as both time trialist and climber. Binda was a trained trumpet player, and was nicknamed "Trombettiere di Cittiglio" ("The Trumpeter of Cittiglio"). Cycling career Enticed by a 500 lire King of the Mountains prize on the Ghisallo climb, Binda rode from Nice to Milan in order to compete in the 1924 Tour of Lombardy. He won the prize, finished fourth in the race, and was immediately offered a contract with the Legnano professional team. The 1925 Giro d'Italia was to be the last of the legendary campionissimo Costante Girardengo. All of Italy hoped he would prevail, and his defeat at the hands of Binda, a 23-year-old Giro debutant, was deeply unpopular. In the event Girardengo resolved to continue racing, and the two of them developed a caustic, deeply personal rivalry. As Girardengo's powers waned, Italians looked to Domenico Piemontesi to usurp Binda but, much like everyone else, he was hopelessly out of his depth against the fuoriclasse. In 1929 Girardengo "discovered" a prodigiously strong track rider from Veneto, Learco Guerra. He famously anointed him as his heir apparent, a new "anti-Binda". Guerra closely resembled Girardengo as a cyclist, and was hugely popular. He enjoyed the support of the Italian Fascist Party, and by extension the press and wider sporting public. Binda, on the other hand, famously declared that he'd no interest in producing spettacolo. Rather he was simply in the business of winning bike races, and each time he defeated Guerra the Italian public's antipathy grew. Whilst Guerra was homespun, expansive and open, Binda was perceived as cold and detached, pompous even. So dominant was he that the Gazzetta dello Sport offered him 22,500 lire to miss the Giro of 1930. Instead, he took part in that year's Tour de France, winning two stages. Not until 1932, when he won a third Cycling World Championship in Rome, did the public start to warm to him. By then he had redefined both training and racing methodology, and was arguably the greatest cyclist ever to have lived. All told he won the Giro a record five times in 1925, 1927, 1928, 1929 and 1933 (1933 was also the first year the Giro held a "King of the Mountains" competition, which Binda won too). Besides the overall victories he won 41 stages (a record only broken in 2003 by Mario Cipollini). In 1927, he won 12 out of 15 stages, and in 1929 he won 8 consecutive stages. In the World Championships, Binda was also very successful. He won the title three times in 1927, 1930 and 1932 (a record later equalled by Rik Van Steenbergen, Eddy Merckx, Óscar Freire and Peter Sagan). In addition, he placed third in 1929. By the time he retired he had won over 120 races, including the Italian Championships four times. Società Ciclistica Alfredo Binda is named in his honor. Major results Source: 1924 1st Overall Tour du Sud-Est 1st Stage 3 1st Mont Faron 4th Giro di Lombardia 1925 1st Overall Giro d'Italia 1st Stage 6 1st Giro di Lombardia 2nd Road race, National Road Championships 2nd Giro dell'Emilia 3rd Giro del Piemonte 1926 1st Road race, National Road Championships 1st Giro di Lombardia 1st Giro del Piemonte 1st Coppa Città di Milazzo 2nd Overall Giro d'Italia 1st Stages 3, 6, 7, 9, 11 & 12 2nd Giro del Veneto 3rd Giro della Romagna 1927 1st Road race, UCI Road World Championships 1st Road race, National Road Championships 1st Overall Giro d'Italia 1st Stages 1–3, 5–10, 12, 14 & 15 (Record for the Giro d'Italia) 1st Giro di Lombardia 1st Giro del Piemonte 2nd Milan–San Remo 2nd Giro dell'Emilia 1928 1st Road race, National Road Championships 1st Overall Giro d'Italia 1st Stages 2, 3, 4, 5, 10 & 11 1st Giro del Veneto 1st Rund um Köln 1st Predappio Alta - Roma 2nd Milan–San Remo 5th Groβer Sachsenpreis 1929 1st Road race, National Road Championships 1st Overall Giro d'Italia 1st Stages 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8 & 9 1st Milan–San Remo 1st Giro della Romagna 1st Predappio Alta - Roma 2nd Giro del Piemonte 3rd Road race, UCI Road World Championships 1930 1st Road race, UCI Road World Championships Tour de France 1st Stages 8 & 9 2nd Road race, National Road Championships 2nd Giro di Lombardia 2nd Giro di Toscana 1931 1st Milan–San Remo 1st Giro di Lombardia Giro d'Italia 1st Stages 3 & 4 6th Road race, UCI Road World Championships 1932 1st Road race, UCI Road World Championships 1st GP Industria & Artigianato di Larciano 1st (with Raffaele di Paco) 2nd Milan–San Remo 2nd Giro di Campania 3rd Road race, National Road Championships 3rd Giro di Toscana 7th Overall Giro d'Italia 1933 1st Overall Giro d'Italia 1st Mountains classification 1st Stages 2, 8, 9, 10, 13 (ITT) & 17 6th Road race, UCI Road World Championships 6th Milan–San Remo See also Legends of Italian sport - Walk of Fame References External links Complete Palmarès Alfredo Binda: The Giro's first superstar Alfredo Binda Cycling Team Alfredo Binda at CycleToscana.com Italian male cyclists UCI Road World Champions (elite men) Giro d'Italia winners Italian Giro d'Italia stage winners Italian Tour de France stage winners People from Cittiglio 1902 births 1986 deaths Cyclists from Lombardy	[ -0.17072036862373352, -0.28844332695007324, -0.5676840543746948, -0.08712587505578995, -0.5246753692626953, 0.507668673992157, 0.4284818172454834, -0.10135471075773239, -0.35979729890823364, -0.5493023991584778, 0.6993468403816223, -0.09538472443819046, -0.5992442965507507, -0.10807956010103226, -0.11230655759572983, 0.1233365461230278, 0.04688725247979164, -0.41824871301651, -0.2967805862426758, -0.1490631401538849, 0.31271347403526306, -0.22680175304412842, 0.008321576751768589, 0.17546461522579193, -0.6925376653671265, 0.5096421837806702, 0.07437243312597275, 0.6800041794776917, 0.07389525324106216, -0.3977450132369995, 0.6823221445083618, 0.2610773742198944, 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229730	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Patrick%20Vieira	Patrick Vieira	Patrick Vieira (born 23 June 1976) is a French professional football manager and former player who is the manager of club Crystal Palace. Vieira began his career at Cannes in 1994, where several standout performances in his debut season garnered him a move to Serie A club Milan a year later, though he had limited first-team playing time. In 1996, he relocated to England, where he was able to join his fellow countryman Arsène Wenger at Arsenal for a fee of £3.5 million. During his nine-year stint in the Premier League, Vieira established himself as a dominating box-to-box midfielder, noted for his aggressive and highly competitive style of play, an attitude that also helped him excel as captain of the club from 2002 until his departure in 2005. He was named in the Premier League PFA Team of the Year for six consecutive years from 1999 to 2004. He helped Arsenal achieve a sustained period of success during his time at the club, where he lifted four FA Cups and three league titles, including one unbeaten. He then returned to Italy, playing for Juventus, but quickly departed after the club was relegated as punishment for its part in the Calciopoli scandal. He then signed for Inter Milan, where he consecutively won four league titles, before featuring for Manchester City, where he won another FA Cup before retiring in 2011. Vieira featured at senior level for much of his international career, representing France over a period of 12 years, where he also spent some part as captain. He played in the final in his nation's victorious campaign at the 1998 FIFA World Cup, and featured heavily as the team also won Euro 2000. He also appeared for France at the 2002 World Cup, Euro 2004, in the side that finished runners-up in the 2006 World Cup, and at Euro 2008. Vieira was used sparingly by France in the latter stages of his career, and he retired from international competition in 2010, after amassing 107 appearances for the side. Following retirement, Vieira transitioned into coaching, and took charge of the academy at Manchester City in 2013. He departed two years later to sign for Major League Soccer (MLS) club New York City FC. He subsequently returned to France to manage Ligue 1 club Nice in 2018, but was dismissed in 2020 after a string of poor results. He was then appointed manager of Crystal Palace in July 2021. Early life Vieira's family moved from Senegal to Dreux, France, when he was eight, and he did not return to Senegal until 2003. His parents divorced when Vieira was young, and he never met his father again. His grandfather served in the French Army, making him eligible for French nationality at birth. His surname Vieira, which is Portuguese, is the maiden name of his mother, who is from Cape Verde. Club career Cannes Vieira first played for Cannes, where he made his debut at the age of 17 and captained the team at just 19 years old. Milan In the summer of 1995, he was signed by Italian giants Milan, although he made just two first-team appearances for the club. Arsenal First season (1996–97) On 10 August 1996, the Daily Mirror reported that Vieira was subject to a move to English club Arsenal, given personal terms with original suitors Ajax were not reached. He joined Arsenal four days later in a £3.5 million move. The peculiarity of Vieira and fellow Frenchman Rémi Garde arriving at the club, coupled with manager Bruce Rioch's dismissal before the season had begun, suggested that Arsenal was managed by exterior influence. Vieira later revealed he signed for Arsenal because his compatriot Arsène Wenger was going to be the club's next manager: "I am delighted to be joining Arsenal at the same time as Mr Wenger becomes their coach. Being able to speak French to him will make life a lot easier for me." Wenger was officially in command of managerial affairs at Arsenal by the start of October, but Vieira had already made his mark, coming on as a substitute against Sheffield Wednesday on 16 September 1996; The Times described him as a "thinking man's Carlton Palmer … who, at last, gives the Arsenal midfield some variety." Vieira made his full debut against Middlesbrough at the Riverside Stadium, three days after. He scored his first goal for the club against Derby County on 8 December 1996 – a late equaliser in a 2–2 draw. His performances for Arsenal in the subsequent months made him a fans’ favourite and was lauded as "…the playmaker Arsenal have sought since Paul Davis pulled the strings in the 1991 championship-winning team." Davis himself noted that in the matches Vieira was suspended during the Christmas period, Arsenal struggled to win. He ended his first season with 38 appearances in total and Arsenal finished in third place, missing out on a spot in the UEFA Champions League via goal difference. Two "doubles" (1997–2002) Vieira's partnership with international teammate Emmanuel Petit the following season was instrumental in helping Arsenal complete a domestic league and cup double. Vieira scored his first goal of the campaign against Manchester United in a 3–2 victory on 9 November 1997. Vieira, however, twisted his knee during the match and was ruled out from playing for a month. He returned for the trip at Wimbledon on 22 December 1997, which was postponed due to floodlight problems. In a game against Coventry City on 17 January 1998, Vieira received his first red card for using "foul and abusive language" at referee Stephen Lodge. Vieira was again dismissed a month later, this time in a League Cup semi-final against Chelsea, a decision which Wenger described as "absolutely ridiculous." Towards the finishing straight of the campaign, Vieira helped Arsenal make ground on league leaders Manchester United and his card record had improved, "…with only one booking in the latter stages of the season". After a successful World Cup campaign with the national team, Vieira had another productive season at Arsenal in 1998–99. Although Arsenal failed to retain the Premier League, Vieira's endeavour was rewarded – he was named in the PFA Team of the Year alongside Petit. Against West Ham United on 2 October 1999, Vieira was sent off for a second booking, after fouling striker Paolo Di Canio. Moments after, he spat at Neil Ruddock, who walked into him and was dragged off the pitch by officials. Vieira was subsequently charged, banned for six matches and fined a record £45,000 by The Football Association (FA). The season ended in disappointment for both Vieira and Arsenal, as the team finished 18 points behind champions Manchester United, in second place. Arsenal reached the 2000 UEFA Cup Final, which Vieira played but the team lost the match on penalties; Vieira's spot kick hit the post. Disciplinary problems continued to beset Vieira in the 2000–01 season. He was sent off on the opening day against Sunderland and for the second time in 72 hours at home to Liverpool. Vieira scored two goals, the following match against Charlton Athletic, in what was his final appearance before a five-match suspension. It was feared that Vieira was prepared to turn his back on English football as he felt victimised – Wenger, several Arsenal players and fans supported him publicly. Vieira himself, after the ban, expressed his desire to remain at Arsenal, but noted he could never alter his style of play: "...because, basically, I don't want to change. I really enjoy English football and the life in England. I am happy here." After a group stage match against Lazio in October 2000, Vieira claimed he was the target of racial abuse from Siniša Mihajlović, to which UEFA subsequently launched an investigation into. Mihajlović later admitted he made reference to Vieira's colour, but added that he was provoked. The player was then handed a two-match ban for "unsporting actions". Given Arsenal finished behind Manchester United in the league for a third consecutive season, Vieira was reluctant to commit himself to the club and described the season, up until April 2001, as "average". Despite how mature his performances had become since Petit left, he criticised Arsenal's decision to sell him and Marc Overmars to Barcelona: "Of course it was good business but it was a big disappointment for me. If we still had the same team now and put Overmars and Petit in it, we would be even better and stronger. It's not that I miss Petit – the team needs him." In May 2001, The Daily Telegraph reported that Manchester United was planning an "audacious" attempt to sign Vieira; manager Sir Alex Ferguson, a long-term admirer of the player, was given the green light by his board to make a bid. In the summer period, Vieira disparaged Arsenal's transfer activity and was adamant the club would not finish "in the top five in the league – and forget the Champions League," saying about his future: "As far as I'm concerned, the matter is resolved. I am leaving Arsenal and I have made that perfectly clear." The club refused to respond to his comments, but vice-chairman David Dein was privately irked at Vieira's agent, Marc Roger, for letting the situation become unsettling. Wenger attributed the saga at the hands of Manchester United: "[They] made an approach to Patrick without contacting us, and that does not really respect the rules." Vieira turned up for pre-season training in July 2001 as normal and was later named the club vice-captain, to ensure he would succeed Tony Adams as captain. Success finally came for Vieira in the 2001–02 season; Arsenal regained the league and beat Chelsea in the 2002 FA Cup Final to complete a second double. Captaincy and "Invincibles" (2002–04) Adams' retirement in May 2002 meant Vieira became club captain. He described the feeling as "daunting", but it was something he looked forward to: "Taking the responsibility on my shoulders is something I relish. It will make me a better, more mature footballer and a more mature person as well." Against Chelsea at Stamford Bridge in September 2002, Vieira was sent off for a late tackle on Gianfranco Zola; Arsenal's persistence nevertheless earnt them a point. In an interview with L'Équipe soon after, Vieira spoke of his desire to rest, as he felt "burned out": "I can hardly stand. My back aches, my legs hurt, it hurts all over. I'm going to see Arsène. He must give me time off to relax." He featured in 66 games the previous campaign for Arsenal, but Wenger rejected the player's need for special treatment: "I looked at the statistics for Tuesday's game and, physically, Patrick was outstanding. He pushed himself very hard and that explains why he was so tired." Vieira's performance against Charlton on 14 September 2002 – incidentally his 200th league appearance for Arsenal – "justified Wenger's faith in his captain's fitness". Two months later, he was lauded by The Guardian correspondent David Lacey for his show against Newcastle United – "the Arsenal captain dominated the afternoon with a demonstration of tackling, control, awareness and movement that was exceptional even by his standards." Vieira sustained a groin injury against Valencia in December 2002, returning on Boxing Day to face West Bromwich Albion. In May 2003, Vieira was fined £2,300 by UEFA, having criticised the organisation for not doing enough on racism – the player was subject to racist abuse against Valencia. Vieira missed Arsenal's title run-in, which saw Manchester United overtake them in first place, due to sustaining a knee injury. Vieira was also ruled out of the 2003 FA Cup Final which Arsenal won. In spite of growing interest to sign Vieira, not least from Manchester United, Real Madrid and Chelsea in the summer of 2003, the player agreed terms to stay at Arsenal and signed a deal which ran until 2007. The 2003–04 season was a successful one for Arsenal, as they reclaimed the league title and became the first English team in more than a century to go through the entire league season unbeaten. Vieira endured a troubling start to the campaign, as he was sent off against Manchester United in September 2003, banned for one match and later fined £20,000 "for improper conduct in failing to leave the field of play following his sending-off". He went off with a thigh strain during the match against Newcastle United, which commenced a period of being in and out of the side for two months. He scored his first goal of the season against Chelsea on 21 February 2004; Arsenal afterwards opened up a seven-point gap at the top of the league. Two months later, Vieira scored the opening goal away to Tottenham Hotspur, in what ended a 2–2 draw – enough for Arsenal to regain the title. Against Leicester City in the final league match of the campaign, with the score tied at 1–1, Dennis Bergkamp set up Vieira with a pass, to which he rounded the goalkeeper and scored. Arsenal ended the campaign as league champions without a single defeat – a record of 26 wins and 12 draws. Final season (2004–05) The re-election of Real Madrid president Florentino Pérez in July 2004 prompted him to declare the club's ambition to sign Vieira: "I must repeat that my policy is to try to sign the best player in the world in every position where we do not already have that. Patrick Vieira is, in my opinion, the best in the world in his position." Vieira's advisors met with officials from Real Madrid, before it was speculated a bid of £18 million had been put on the table. Following an ultimatum set by Wenger, who was "likely" to make an offer for West Ham midfielder Michael Carrick as his replacement, Vieira chose to stay at Arsenal. In a statement, he said: "I'm staying at the club. I'm proud to be captain of the club and I'm looking forward to achieving my ambitions." Vieira scored his first goal of the 2004–05 season in a nine-goal North London derby, which Arsenal won 5–4 on 13 November 2004. His second goal came in a fortnight at Liverpool, "lift[ing] a lazy, delicate finish away from Chris Kirkland" after a one-touch move. Arsenal lost the match late on and Vieira, booked in the match, was suspended for the December clash against league leaders Chelsea; he scored the only goal for the team against Newcastle in the Christmas period. Vieira was involved in a tunnel bust up with Manchester United captain Roy Keane in February 2005 and was confronted about an incident involving Gary Neville. Arsenal fell to third as a result of losing 4–2 to United, but a 12 league match unbeaten run, culminating in a 7–0 home win against Everton, meant they ended the season in second place. In the 2005 FA Cup Final, he scored the winning penalty in a penalty shoot-out after a 0–0 draw with Manchester United, which proved to be his final kick of a ball for Arsenal. Vieira returned for the opening match of Emirates Stadium, in a testimonial for Bergkamp on 22 July 2006, as one of the Arsenal legends against Ajax. Juventus In July 2005, representatives of Juventus met with Arsenal with a view to signing Vieira. The player, according to The Guardian, accepted that Arsenal were "ready to let him go" before agreeing in principle to join Juventus. On 15 August 2005, Vieira signed a five-year contract, in a deal worth £13.75 million. Vieira was reunited with Fabio Capello, who had signed him at Milan, as a teenager. Capello described him as a "very important player", adding "…his presence is felt not only for his technical value but for his physical quality." Capello deployed Vieira in a midfield alongside Brazilian Emerson and Czech Pavel Nedvěd. Vieira made his debut for Juventus in their 1–0 win against Chievo on 28 August 2005. On 14 September 2005, he was sent off against Club Brugge, in Juventus' first matchday of the Champions League. Vieira scored his first goal for the club – a 37th-minute winner against Udinese a week after, which contributed towards Juventus' impressive start to the league season. Having picked up a groin injury through international duty for France, Vieira missed Juventus' Champions League match away to Bayern Munich in October 2005. Despite his performances dipping as the result of a persistent groin injury and a reported training ground bust-up with teammate Zlatan Ibrahimović, Vieira helped Juventus retain the Scudetto, which was later stripped. In a twist of fate, Vieira returned to Highbury on 28 March 2006 to play against Arsenal in the first leg of the quarter-finals of the Champions League. During that game, he was the subject of a strong tackle by former club and national teammate Robert Pires. Vieira was left crestfallen as Pires regained possession and Arsenal attacked, scoring the first goal of the tie through Cesc Fàbregas. Pires humorously quipped that it was the first time in 13 years he had got the better of Vieira physically. Vieira also received a yellow card during that leg, which Arsenal won 2–0, and was suspended for the return leg on 5 April 2006 which ended 0–0 and eliminated Juventus. Arsenal ended up reaching the Champions League final. Inter Milan Juventus were stripped of their 2004–05 and 2005–06 titles after it was revealed they were involved in the Calciopoli scandal. Juventus were relegated to Serie B and deducted 17 points by the Italian Football Federation (FIGC) for their involvement, prompting many of the club's major stars to move elsewhere. After press speculation linking him to various clubs, including a move back to Arsenal, on 2 August 2006, Vieira officially signed a four-year deal with Inter Milan in a deal to be worth €9.5 million, less than half of the €20 million fee Juventus had paid just 12 months prior. Vieira declared he wanted to continue to play at the highest level at the presentation conference, which is his reason to leave Juve. On his Inter debut on 26 August, Vieira scored twice as the team won 4–3 against A.S. Roma in the 2006 Supercoppa Italiana at the San Siro. He later won the 2006–07, 2007–08, and 2008–09 Serie A titles. But due to injury, he failed to become a regular starter. Olivier Dacourt, initially a backup player, became manager Roberto Mancini's first choice player in the 2006–07 season. After the club signed Sulley Muntari and Thiago Motta, Vieira became of lesser and lesser importance in the team. In response to extensive media speculation regarding a possible return by Vieira to his former club in 2009, Arsenal manager Arsène Wenger admitted that he would contemplate re-signing Vieira. The move never happened, however, and Vieira remained at Inter. On 6 January 2010, Vieira unusually played as starter against Chievo, which was his eighth league start of the season. Before the match commenced, Inter had lost Esteban Cambiasso and Muntari due to injury, with Dejan Stanković and Motta suspended. José Mourinho stated that Vieira had played his last game at Inter after the match. Manchester City On 8 January 2010, it was confirmed that Vieira was having a medical at Manchester City and he would sign a six-month deal, where he would link up with former Arsenal colleagues Kolo Touré and Sylvinho and former Inter manager Roberto Mancini. The contract also included an option for a 12-month extension. Mancini described Vieira as an excellent midfielder with a winner's mentality and that he would fit into Manchester City's squad very well. He made his debut on 6 February in the 2–1 defeat away to Hull City, replacing Craig Bellamy after an hour. Three days later, he made his first start against Bolton Wanderers, where he assisted Emmanuel Adebayor through a long ball in the 2–0 victory. Later in the month, he was given a three-match retrospective ban for a kick at Stoke City's Glenn Whelan. He scored his first goal for the club against Burnley in a 6–1 win on 3 April 2010. On 9 June, Vieira agreed to a one-year extension to his contract, which kept him at Eastlands until the summer of 2011. On 22 February 2011, Vieira scored the first two City goals in a 5–0 win in the FA Cup Fourth round replay against Notts County, and was awarded Man of the Match honours. He scored in the Premier League on 3 April against Sunderland, a minute after having come on as a substitute for Adam Johnson in the 5–0 win. He made an added-time substitute appearance in place of David Silva on 14 May, as Manchester City won the 2011 FA Cup Final with a 1–0 win over Stoke at Wembley Stadium. International career Vieira made his debut for France in 1997 against the Netherlands. He was part of the France squad in the 1998 FIFA World Cup. He came on as a substitute in the final against Brazil, and set up Arsenal teammate Emmanuel Petit for France's third goal in a 3–0 win. He, with the rest of the squad, was appointed a Knight of the Legion of Honour in 1998. He subsequently played as a first choice midfield player in France's successful campaign at UEFA Euro 2000, which they won, beating Italy in the final. He helped France to victory in the 2001 FIFA Confederations Cup, ending the tournament as joint top scorer with two goals, including the winner, a header, in the final against Japan. He also played in all three games in the 2002 World Cup, in which France were eliminated in the group stage, failing to score a goal. Vieira was injured and missed France's defeat to Greece, the eventual winners, at Euro 2004. After the tournament in Portugal, he became captain upon Zinedine Zidane's retirement from international football. In August 2005, he returned the armband as Zidane returned to the team. On 23 June 2006, his 30th birthday, Vieira took the captain's armband for the match in place of the suspended Zidane, and scored the first goal as France beat Togo 2–0 in the group stages of the 2006 World Cup; he also assisted Thierry Henry for the second. This win helped France advance to the knockout stages in second behind Switzerland. In the round of 16, Vieira assisted the equaliser by Franck Ribéry and scored the second goal in a 3–1 win over Spain. Spain. Vieira started the final, but was substituted injured for Alou Diarra as Italy won 5–3 on penalties after a 1–1 draw. On 5 August 2006, Vieira was reappointed captain of the French national team for the Euro 2008 qualifying campaign following Zidane's full retirement. He became the fifth Frenchman to earn 100 caps on 15 November, in a 1–0 win over Greece at the Stade de France. He played no part in the group games at Euro 2008 for a struggling France due to a niggling knee injury. His last cap with the national team was on 2 June 2009 in a friendly match against Nigeria, and was not included by coach Raymond Domenech in France's squad for the 2010 World Cup in South Africa. On 7 July 2010, Vieira confirmed that he was no longer interested in playing for France and would devote his time to Manchester City. Altogether, he won 107 caps for France, scoring six goals. Style of play Regarded by pundits as one of the best players ever in his position, Vieira was a complete, powerful, tenacious and aggressive footballer, with outstanding physical, athletic and technical attributes, who was also known for his grace on the pitch when in possession of the ball. Usually deployed as a defensive, central, or box-to-box midfielder, he was a competent tackler, and a tactically intelligent midfielder, who was known for his ability to anticipate his opponents, and was gifted with good ball skills, distribution and vision, which enabled him to start attacking plays in midfield after winning back possession; he also excelled in the air, and was known for his surging forward runs from midfield, which enabled him to contribute to his team's offensive play. These attributes, in addition to his pace, strength, pressing ability and stamina, allowed him to link up the defence with the attack effectively, and made him capable of playing anywhere in midfield. In 2007, The Times placed him at number 33 in their list of the 50 hardest footballers in history. In addition to his abilities as a footballer, he also stood out for his leadership throughout his career. Managerial career On 14 July 2011, Vieira announced his retirement from playing and accepted a training and youth development role at Premier League club Manchester City, with the title of "Football Development Executive". In this role, he forged a strong, close working relationship with City Football Group's Brian Marwood. In May 2013, Vieira was appointed as the manager of the club's new reserve team: the Elite Development Squad (EDS). In May 2015, Vieira was interviewed to be the next manager of fellow Premier League club Newcastle United, an opportunity which both parties rejected due to difference of policies. New York City FC On 9 November 2015, Vieira was announced as the new head coach of New York City FC - who share owners with Manchester City, in City Football Group - from 1 January 2016, replacing inaugural head coach Jason Kreis. He was selected for the role by Director of Football Claudio Reyna due to his familiarity with the structure of operations within the group, as well as his tactical knowledge, which was previously utilized by Jason Kreis on his scholar period in Manchester. Vieira's first signing at the club was Jack Harrison, the first pick of the 2016 MLS SuperDraft. He took charge of his first Major League Soccer game on the road versus Chicago Fire on 6 March 2016, in which his squad claimed a 4–3 victory. He led New York City to their first ever playoff appearance after finishing second in the Eastern Conference. Despite losing in the conference semi-finals to Toronto, 2016 was considered a successful first season for Vieira by nearly all pundits. New York City improved its position in the combined MLS standings in each of his years with the club, improving from 17th in 2015 to 4th in Vieira's first season in 2016 and then to 2nd in 2017. Nice On 11 June 2018, Vieira was appointed as the manager of Ligue 1 side Nice. In his first season in charge, he led the club to a seventh-placed finish in the league, one place ahead of the club's position the previous season. Elsewhere in the French domestic circuit, Nice had a disappointing run in the Coupe de France, being eliminated by Toulouse in the round of 64, whereas they were defeated by EA Guingamp in the round of 16 during their Coupe de la Ligue campaign. On 4 December 2020, OGC Nice announced Patrick Vieira was no longer the manager of the club after a run of 5 losses in a row in all competitions and elimination from the group stage of the Europa League. Crystal Palace On 4 July 2021, Vieira was appointed as manager of Premier League club Crystal Palace on a three-year contract following the departure of their previous manager, Roy Hodgson, who served the club since 2017. He lost 3–0 away to Chelsea on his debut on 14 August. In his first season, he earned points away to his two former Premier League teams: a 2–2 draw with Arsenal on 18 October, and a 2–0 win at Manchester City. Coaching style Vieira has been known for implementing a methodical, possession-based football in all his teams. Vieira has shown a tendency to become more defensive when his side are in a tight spot. His spell at Crystal Palace saw a shift to a proactive style of gameplay from the reactive counterattack-based gameplay prominent under the management of Roy Hodgson. Personal life Vieira and his Trinidadian wife, Cheryl, first met in England while he was playing for Arsenal. They have a daughter. The family were burgled in May 2006 when a gas was pumped into their home near Cannes, but suffered no long-term effects. In 2003, Vieira returned to Senegal for the first time since his childhood, to lay the foundation stone of the Diambars football academy in Saly. The academy produced nine of the players in Senegal's squad at the 2012 Olympic football tournament. Media Vieira features in EA Sports FIFA video game series; he was on the cover of FIFA 2005, and was named in the Ultimate Team Legends in FIFA 14. Vieira was sponsored by sportswear company Nike and appeared in Nike commercials. In a global Nike advertising campaign in the run-up to the 2002 World Cup in Korea and Japan, he starred in a "Secret Tournament" commercial (branded "Scorpion KO") directed by Terry Gilliam, appearing alongside football players such as Thierry Henry, Ronaldo, Edgar Davids, Fabio Cannavaro, Francesco Totti, Ronaldinho, Luís Figo and Hidetoshi Nakata, with former player Eric Cantona the tournament "referee". Vieira also worked as a pundit for ITV during their coverage of the 2014 FIFA World Cup. Career statistics Club In League Cup, including Charity Shield and Supercoppa Italiana International Scores and results list France's goal tally first, score column indicates score after each Vieira goal. Managerial Honours Player Arsenal Premier League: 1997–98, 2001–02, 2003–04 FA Cup: 1997–98, 2001–02, 2002–03, 2004–05 FA Community Shield: 1998, 1999, 2002 Inter Milan Serie A: 2006–07, 2007–08, 2008–09, 2009-10 Coppa Italia: 2009-10 Supercoppa Italiana: 2006, 2008 Manchester City FA Cup: 2010–11 International France FIFA World Cup: 1998 UEFA European Championship: 2000 FIFA Confederations Cup: 2001 Individual Division 1 Rookie of the Year: 1995 UEFA European Championship Team of the Tournament: 2000 FIFA Confederations Cup Silver Ball: 2001 FIFA World Cup All-star team: 2006 PFA Team of the Year: 1998–99 Premier League, 1999–2000 Premier League, 2000–01 Premier League, 2001–02 Premier League, 2002–03 Premier League, 2003–04 Premier League Premier League Player of the Season: 2000–01 UEFA Team of the Year: 2001 French Player of the Year: 2001 Premier League Overseas Team of the Decade: 1992–93 – 2001–02 Premier League Overall Team of the Decade: 1992–93 – 2001–02 FIFA 100: 2004 Sports Illustrated Team of the Decade: 2009 Équipe type spéciale 20 ans des trophées UNFP: 2011 English Football Hall of Fame: 2014 Golden Foot Legends Award: 2019 Manager Manchester City EDS Premier League International Cup: 2014–15 Orders Knight of the Legion of Honour: 1998 See also List of men's footballers with 100 or more international caps References External links FFF.FR Profile Official Inter Milan site 1976 births Living people Sportspeople from Dakar People from Dreux Sportspeople from Eure-et-Loir French footballers French football managers France international footballers France under-21 international footballers Olympic footballers of France Senegalese footballers Senegalese football managers French sportspeople of Senegalese descent French sportspeople of Cape Verdean descent Senegalese emigrants to France Senegalese people of Cape Verdean descent Black French sportspeople Association football midfielders Tours FC players AS Cannes players A.C. Milan players Arsenal F.C. players Manchester City F.C. players Juventus F.C. players Inter Milan players Ligue 1 players Premier League players Serie A players FA Cup Final players English Football Hall of Fame inductees Footballers at the 1996 Summer Olympics 1998 FIFA World Cup players UEFA Euro 2000 players 2001 FIFA Confederations Cup players 2002 FIFA World Cup players UEFA Euro 2004 players 2006 FIFA World Cup players UEFA Euro 2008 players FIFA World Cup-winning players UEFA European Championship-winning players FIFA Confederations Cup-winning players FIFA Century Club FIFA 100 French expatriate footballers French expatriate sportspeople in Italy French expatriate sportspeople in England Expatriate footballers in Italy Expatriate footballers in England Manchester City F.C. non-playing staff New York City FC coaches OGC Nice managers Crystal Palace F.C. managers Major League Soccer coaches Ligue 1 managers French expatriate football managers French expatriate sportspeople in the 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229745	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Orders%20of%20magnitude%20%28power%29	Orders of magnitude (power)	This page lists examples of the power in watts produced by various sources of energy. They are grouped by orders of magnitude. Below 1 W 1 to 102 W 103 to 108 W The productive capacity of electrical generators operated by utility companies is often measured in MW. Few things can sustain the transfer or consumption of energy on this scale; some of these events or entities include: lightning strikes, naval craft (such as aircraft carriers and submarines), engineering hardware, and some scientific research equipment (such as supercolliders and large lasers). For reference, about 10,000 100-watt lightbulbs or 5,000 computer systems would be needed to draw 1 MW. Also, 1 MW is approximately 1360 horsepower. Modern high-power diesel-electric locomotives typically have a peak power of 3–5 MW, while a typical modern nuclear power plant produces on the order of 500–2000 MW peak output. 109 to 1014 W 1015 to 1026 W Over 1027 W See also Orders of magnitude (energy) Orders of magnitude (voltage) World energy resources and consumption International System of Units (SI) SI prefix Notes References Power Power (physics)	[ 0.13306142389774323, -0.029333051294088364, 0.160880908370018, -0.09294559806585312, -0.2812481224536896, -0.030418235808610916, 0.6323128342628479, -0.35202378034591675, -0.40223029255867004, -0.4937022030353546, -0.03891834616661072, 0.3914058208465576, -0.0058199516497552395, 0.5627885460853577, -0.36733105778694153, 0.4894023835659027, 0.24945992231369019, 0.6288211941719055, -0.49111208319664, -0.09118480980396271, -0.031613823026418686, 0.10107183456420898, 0.6679452657699585, -0.5775851011276245, 0.0734662264585495, -0.08120071887969971, 0.27868232131004333, 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229763	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heathrow%20Express	Heathrow Express	Heathrow Express is a high-frequency airport rail link operating between London Heathrow Airport and London Paddington. It is an open-access operator, formed in 1998, and is operated jointly by Great Western Railway & Heathrow Express Operating Company, a wholly owned subsidiary of Heathrow Airport Holdings. History Heathrow Express was planned as a joint venture between BAA and British Rail, but was taken over fully by the former following the privatisation of British Rail. Construction began in 1993. The principal works were two 5-mile single-bore tunnels (including eight escape shafts) and underground stations at and Terminal 4. Electrification of the Great Western Main Line (GWML) between Paddington and Airport Junction, where the new line diverged from the GWML, was also required. A flying junction known as Stockley Flyover was constructed to connect the tunnel to the GWML fast lines. During construction, a notable tunnel collapse occurred including the subsidence of a surface building, leading to a 6 month delay in opening and additional costs of around £150M. Beginning in January 1998, an interim service called Heathrow FastTrain ran to a temporary station called Heathrow Junction, where a coach took passengers the rest of the way. From 1999 to 2003, a check-in service was provided at Paddington, allowing Heathrow Express passengers to check in and drop off their luggage prior to flights, which was similar to the service currently provided on Hong Kong Airport Express. Checked baggage was transported to the airport by using the luggage space at the westbound first carriage. This service was withdrawn due to low usage and high cost of operation. In June 2005, Heathrow Express began jointly providing a new Heathrow Connect service, which saw a new twice-hourly stopping service on the same route between Paddington and Heathrow using EMUs from the Siemens Desiro family. Heathrow Airport Holdings had provided the on-board staff through Heathrow Express as part of the contract. This continued until May 2018, which saw Heathrow Connect absorbed into TfL Rail ahead of the new Crossrail project, which will see Crossrail fully operate to Heathrow Airport through this takeover when it opens. In August 2018, Great Western Railway took over the operation of Heathrow Express as part of a new management contract. Heathrow Airport continues to be responsible for commercial aspects of the service, including marketing, ticket pricing and revenue management, while GWR are now responsible for operations. Service Trains depart Paddington every 15 minutes from 05:10 (06:10 on Sunday) until 23:25, and there is a similar quarter-hourly service in the return direction. At Paddington they use dedicated platforms 6 and 7, although on occasions other platforms are used. There are two stops at Heathrow: Heathrow Central, serving Terminals 2 and 3 (journey time from Paddington 15 minutes); and Heathrow Terminal 5 (journey time 21 minutes), platforms 3 and 4. Until the opening of Terminal 5 on 27 March 2008, Heathrow Express terminated at Heathrow Terminal 4. In 2010, Heathrow Express introduced a dedicated shuttle between Heathrow Central and Terminal 4 that would be timed to connect with the main Heathrow Express service to/from Terminal 5 to improve connections between the terminals. Heathrow Express has been generally well received, not least because steps were taken to reduce the environmental impact, including disguising ventilation shafts as barns. On board Trains offer a choice of two classes of travel, express class which corresponds to standard class, and "business first" class which corresponds to first class. Both classes have large luggage storage spaces and complimentary WiFi. First class offers wider seats and a table at every seat. Children under 16 travel free of charge with a fare-paying adult; unaccompanied children may travel free of charge in express class only with proof of a same-day flight to or from Heathrow. Route The service runs along Network Rail's Great Western Main Line from Paddington to Airport Junction. The line from Airport Junction to the airport terminals is owned by Heathrow Airport Holdings but maintained by Network Rail. The line is electrified at overhead and uses Automatic Train Protection (ATP) and European Train Control System (ETCS). The controlling signal centre for the entire route is the Thames Valley Signalling Centre (TVSC) in Didcot. Stations Rolling stock Current fleet From 29 December 2020, the first of twelve Class 387 units from the Bombardier Electrostar family began service with Heathrow Express, having replaced the Class 332 fleet. The units transferred from Great Western Railway who are also responsible for their maintenance and operation within Heathrow Express. The units underwent modifications prior to their introduction on Heathrow Express which included the fitting of USB power sockets, extra luggage space, work tables, on-board WiFi and HD TVs. A new Business First cabin was also included in a 2+1 configuration with reclining seats. Past fleet Until May 2018, Heathrow Express leased a singular Class 360 unit which operated the shuttle service between Heathrow Central and Heathrow Terminal 4. After the withdrawal of the Class 360 unit, all Heathrow Express services were operated by Class 332 units built by CAF with traction equipment supplied by Siemens Transportation Systems. In 2019, it was announced that all the Class 332 units would be replaced by a fleet of twelve Class 387 units from Great Western Railway with GWR also managing their introduction and arrival. The first Class 332 unit was withdrawn and scrapped in November 2020 and by 28 December 2020, all of the units were withdrawn. See also Gatwick Express Stansted Express Heathrow Connect Elizabeth Line References Further reading External links Airport rail links in London Express Heathrow Express Open-access train operating companies Railway companies established in 1998 Railway operators in London Railway services introduced in 1998 1998 establishments in England British companies established in 1998	[ -0.23535920679569244, -0.765231728553772, 0.5950603485107422, -0.33921536803245544, 0.26702505350112915, -0.24636505544185638, 0.6692661046981812, 0.4934108555316925, -0.014038591645658016, -0.26356106996536255, -0.5611766576766968, 0.20011822879314423, -0.029479503631591797, -0.01086332742124796, 0.5440415740013123, -0.25091803073883057, -0.001954718492925167, -0.04879501834511757, -0.032104868441820145, -0.7430461645126343, 0.23847287893295288, 0.051976438611745834, 0.6842302680015564, -0.5790229439735413, 0.30218976736068726, -0.6270482540130615, -0.171827033162117, 0.18417753279209137, -0.37415939569473267, 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229765	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vatican%20Museums	Vatican Museums	The Vatican Museums (; ) are the public museums of the Vatican City. They display works from the immense collection amassed by the Catholic Church and the papacy throughout the centuries, including several of the most renowned Roman sculptures and most important masterpieces of Renaissance art in the world. The museums contain roughly 70,000 works, of which 20,000 are on display, and currently employ 640 people who work in 40 different administrative, scholarly, and restoration departments. Pope Julius II founded the museums in the early 16th century. The Sistine Chapel, with its ceiling and altar wall decorated by Michelangelo, and the Stanze di Raffaello (decorated by Raphael) are on the visitor route through the Vatican Museums. In 2020, due to the COVID-19 pandemic, the Vatican Museums were visited by only 1,300,000 persons, a drop of 81 percent from the number of visitors in 2019, but still enough to rank the museums fourth among the most-visited art museums in the world. There are 24 galleries, or sale, in total, with the Sistine Chapel, notably, being the last sala within the Museum. History The Vatican Museums trace their origin to one marble sculpture, purchased in the 16th century: Laocoön and His Sons was discovered on 14 January 1506, in a vineyard near the basilica of Santa Maria Maggiore in Rome. Pope Julius II sent Giuliano da Sangallo and Michelangelo, who were working at the Vatican, to examine the discovery. On their recommendation, the Pope immediately purchased the sculpture from the vineyard owner. The Pope put the sculpture, which represents the Trojan priest Laocoön and his two sons, Antiphantes and Thymbraeus being attacked by giant serpents, on public display at the Vatican exactly one month after its discovery. Benedict XIV founded the Museum Christianum, and some of the Vatican collections formed the Lateran Museum, which Pius IX founded by decree in 1854. The museums celebrated their 500th anniversary in October 2006 by permanently opening the excavations of a Vatican Hill necropolis to the public. On 1 January 2017, Barbara Jatta became the Director of the Vatican Museums, replacing Antonio Paolucci who had been director since 2007. Pinacoteca Vaticana The art gallery was housed in the Borgia Apartment until Pius XI ordered construction of a dedicated building. The new building, designed by Luca Beltrami, was inaugurated on 27 October 1932. The museum's paintings include: Giotto: Stefaneschi Triptych Olivuccio di Ciccarello: Opere di Misericordia Filippo Lippi: Marsuppini Coronation Giovanni Bellini: Pietà Melozzo da Forlì: Sixtus IV Appointing Platina as Prefect of the Vatican Library Pietro Perugino: Decemviri Altarpiece and San Francesco al Prato Resurrection Leonardo da Vinci: Saint Jerome in the Wilderness Raphael: Madonna of Foligno, Oddi Altarpiece and Transfiguration Titian: Frari Madonna Antonio da Correggio: Christ in Glory Paolo Veronese: The Vision of Saint Helena Caravaggio: The Entombment of Christ Domenichino, The Last Communion of Saint Jerome Nicolas Poussin, The Martyrdom of Saint Erasmus Jan Matejko: Sobieski at Vienna Collection of Modern Religious Art The Collection of Modern Religious Art was added in 1973 and houses paintings and sculptures from such artists as Carlo Carrà, Giorgio de Chirico, Vincent van Gogh, Paul Gauguin, Marc Chagall, Paul Klee, Salvador Dalí, and Pablo Picasso. Sculpture museums The group of museums includes several sculpture museums surrounding the Cortile del Belvedere. These are the Museo Gregoriano Profano, with classical sculpture, and others as below: Museo Pio-Clementino The museum takes its name from two popes: Clement XIV, who established the museum, and Pius VI, who brought it to completion. Clement XIV came up with the idea of creating a new museum in Innocent VIII's Belvedere Palace and started the refurbishment work. Clement XIV founded the Museo Pio-Clementino in 1771; it originally contained artworks of antiquity and the Renaissance. The museum and collection were enlarged by Clement's successor Pius VI. Today, the museum houses works of Greek and Roman sculpture. Some notable galleries are as follows: Octagonal Court (aka Belvedere Courtyard and Cortile delle Statue): this was where some of the first ancient classical statues in the papal collections were first displayed. Some of the most famous pieces, the Apollo of the Belvedere and Laocoön and His Sons have been here since the early 1500s. Sala Rotonda: shaped like a miniature Pantheon, the room has impressive ancient mosaics on the floors, and ancient statues lining the perimeter, including a gilded bronze statue of Hercules and the Braschi Antinous. Greek Cross Gallery (Sala a Croce Greca): with the porphyry sarcophagi of Constance and Saint Helena, daughter and mother of Constantine the Great. Gallery of the Statues (Galleria delle Statue): as its name implies, holds various important statues, including Sleeping Ariadne and the bust of Menander. It also contains the Barberini Candelabra. Gallery of the Busts (Galleria dei Busti) Many ancient busts are displayed. Cabinet of the Masks (Gabinetto delle Maschere). The name comes from the mosaic on the floor of the gallery, found in Villa Adriana, which shows ancient theater masks. Statues are displayed along the walls, including the Three Graces. Sala delle Muse: houses the statue group of Apollo and the nine muses, uncovered in a Roman villa near Tivoli in 1774, as well as statues by important ancient Greek or Roman sculptors. The centerpiece is the Belvedere Torso, revered by Michelangelo and other Renaissance men. Sala degli Animali: so named because of the many ancient statues of animals. Museo Chiaramonti This museum was founded in the early 19th century by Pius VII, whose surname before his election as Pope was Chiaramonti. The museum consists of a large arched gallery in which are exhibited several statues, sarcophagi and friezes. The New Wing, or Braccio Nuovo, built by Raffaele Stern, houses statues including the Augustus of Prima Porta, the Doryphoros, and The River Nile. It is in the Neoclassical style and has a wide arched roof with skylights. The colour scheme is blue-grey and white with a polychrome marble floor. The walls of each side of the gallery have a row of large niches in which stand marble statues. Between the niches are plinths supporting smaller portrait sculptures. The Galleria Lapidaria forms part of the Museo Chiaramonti, and contains over 3,000 stone tablets and inscriptions. It is accessible only with special permission, usually for the purpose of academic study. Museo Gregoriano Etrusco Founded by Gregory XVI in 1837, this museum has nine galleries and houses important Etruscan pieces, coming from archaeological excavations. The pieces include vases, sarcophagus, bronzes and the Guglielmi Collection. Museo Gregoriano Egiziano This museum houses a large collection of artifacts from Ancient Egypt. Such material includes papyruses, the Grassi Collection, animal mummies, and reproductions of the Book of the Dead. The Museo Gregoriano Egiziano was inaugurated on 2 February 1839 to commemorate the anniversary of Gregory XVI's accession to the papacy. The creation of the museum was particularly close to the pope's heart as he believed that the understanding of ancient Egyptian civilization was vital in terms of its scientific importance as well as its value in understanding the Old Testament. This feeling was expressed in a paper by the museum's first curator, the physiologist and Barnabite, Father Luigi Maria Ungarelli. Vatican Historical Museum The Vatican Historical Museum () was founded in 1973 at the behest of Paul VI, and was initially hosted in environments under the Square Garden. In 1987, it moved to the main floor of the Lateran Palace, where it opened in March 1991. The Vatican Historical Museum has a unique collection of portraits of the Popes from the 16th century to date, the memorable items of the Papal Military Corps of the 16th–17th centuries, and old religious paraphernalia related to rituals of the papacy. Also on display on the lower floor are the papamobili (Popemobiles), carriages and motorcars of popes and cardinals, including the first cars used by popes. Highlights The red marble papal throne, formerly in the Basilica of Saint John Lateran. Roman sculpture, tombstones, and inscriptions, including the Early Christian Sarcophagus of Junius Bassus and Dogmatic sarcophagus, and the epitaph of Lucius Cornelius Scipio Barbatus. The Raphael Rooms with many works by Raphael and his workshop, including the masterpiece The School of Athens (1509–1511). The Niccoline Chapel. The Sistine Chapel, including the Sistine Chapel ceiling (gallery). The Gallery of Maps: topographical maps of the whole of Italy, painted on the walls by friar Ignazio Danti of Perugia, commissioned by Gregory XIII (1572–1585). It remains the world's largest pictorial geographical study. The frescoes and other works in the Borgia Apartment built for the Borgia pope Alexander VI. The Bramante Staircase is a double spiral staircase designed by Giuseppe Momo in 1932. The staircase has two parts, a double helix, and is of shallow incline, being a stepped ramp rather than a true staircase. It encircles the outer wall of a stairwell about wide and with a clear space at the centre. The balustrade around the ramp is of ornately worked metal. Visitors See also Accademia, Venice Index of Vatican City–related articles List of most visited art museums Uffizi, Florence References Further reading G. Spinola, Il Museo Pio-Clementino (3 vols., 1996, 1999, 2004) G. B. Visconti and E. Q. Visconti, Il Museo Pio-Clementino Descritto (8 vols., 1782–1792) Peter Rohrbacher: Völkerkunde und Afrikanistik für den Papst. Missionsexperten und der Vatikan 1922–1939 in: Römische Historische Mitteilungen 54 (2012), 583–610. External links Vatican Museums official on-line ticket office Official English information On-line arts Catalogue Vatican Museum's 360 degree panorama virtual tour Vatican Museum's On-line bookshop 1506 establishments in the Papal States Art museums and galleries in Rome Art museums established in 1506 Museums in Vatican City Museums of ancient Greece Museums of ancient Rome Museums of Dacia National museums National galleries Organizations established in the 1500s Vatican City culture Double spiral staircases Rome Q. 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229779	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tenor%20horn	Tenor horn	The tenor horn (British English; alto horn in American English, Althorn in Germany; occasionally referred to as E horn) is a brass instrument in the saxhorn family and is usually pitched in E. It has a bore that is mostly conical, like the flugelhorn and baritone horn, and normally uses a deep, cornet-like mouthpiece. It is most commonly used in British brass bands, whereas the French horn tends to take the corresponding parts in concert bands and orchestras. However, the tenor horn has occasionally been used as an alternative to the French horn in concert bands. Description The tenor horn is a valved brass instrument (in E) which has a predominantly conical bore like that of the baritone horn and flugelhorn. It uses a deep funnel- or cup-shaped mouthpiece. The tenor horn's conical bore and deep mouthpiece produce a mellow, rounded tone that is often used as a middle voice, supporting the melodies of the trumpets, cornets, or flugelhorns, and fills the gap above the lower tenor and bass instruments (the trombone, baritone horn, euphonium, and tuba). Its valves are typically, though not exclusively, piston valves. The tenor horn has been made and is made in various shapes: the most common in the United States and the UK, and in most other parts of the world, is a sort of mini-tuba shape, with the bell pointing upward, which may help the voice blend before reaching the audience. In contrast, the solo horn (found mainly in Europe) looks like (and indeed effectively is) an enlarged flugelhorn, with the bell pointing forward, projecting more toward the audience. Another older and lesser-known variant has the bell facing backward (for military marching bands that preceded the soldiers, thus helping them hear better and keep better time in marching). Still another variant has a detachable bell, easily rotated to point in the direction of the player's choice. The standard bell-up horn comes in two basic shapes - one with the beginning of the bell looping over the top of the valves and the other looping below the valves. These types are the most frequently encountered in the United States and UK. Only the standard upright instrument is seen in UK brass bands. In Europe, Červený have been manufacturing tenor horns since 1852. They currently offer models of the instrument looped like a classic horn and an oval model shaped like a Wagner tuba, all models having rotary valves, as opposed to the more common piston valves. Within a British brass band, the tenor horn section usually plays a unique part in the middle of the band, with the Solo Horn having frequent solo passages. However, it is less often featured as a solo instrument, but is increasingly gaining popularity as one. The instrument's timbre, with little attack or resonance, as well as the parts it usually plays, makes the section difficult to hear individually, even in professional studio recordings. Despite this, the horn section contributes greatly to the rich mellow sound of a brass band. Tenor horns, especially those built in the middle of the 20th century, typically have very poor projection and power, so much so that they quickly became known as the "cinderella" of the brass band, hiding between the much more powerful cornets and trombones. This reputation played no small part in discouraging composers outside of the British brass band from writing for the tenor horn, and it certainly had an adverse effect on the instrument's popularity outside the UK. In more recent years, however, there have been many attempts by various makers to create a tenor horn with much better power and projection while still retaining the instrument's characteristic "narrow-mellow" timbre. A few of these modern instruments have become especially popular within the UK; the Besson Sovereign and the Yamaha Maestro have dominated the tenor horn market over the last decade or so. Today, different makes of tenor horns have a wide range of bore sizes. Narrow-bore instruments, such as those made by the former Besson company, tend to emphasise the tonal delicacy of older instruments and play more like a French-styled flugelhorn, while larger-bore instruments like those made by Courtois have a weight of sound much greater than traditional tenor horns, playing much more like a conical-bored cornet. There are even very rare instruments that have a fourth valve that functions similar to the F trigger on a trombone. Good, well-made instruments should, however, regardless of bore size, retain a light, velvety and mellow tone quality. Range The nominal range of the tenor horn (expressed in concert pitch) is from the A an octave and a minor third below middle C to the E an octave and a minor third above middle C (A2 to E5 in scientific pitch notation). Experienced players can reach at least a major third higher than this. Additionally, as the tenor horn is a whole-bore brass instrument, most players can play some pedal tones, the fundamentals (first partials) of (at least) the shorter tubing lengths. Notation Tenor horn parts are written in the treble clef. The tenor horn is an E transposing instrument written a major sixth above concert pitch: the tenor horn notation for middle C represents the E below middle C in concert pitch (E3 in scientific pitch notation). History The instrument known today as the tenor/alto horn was developed in the 1840s by the Belgian instrument maker Adolphe Sax who, among other instrument design activities, designed two similar families of valved brass instruments, the saxhorn and the saxotromba. The surviving E alto instruments by Sax all have inner diameters described in the saxotromba patent. In this patent the soprano voice (descant) is tuned in E and thence descending through B (contralto) to E (alto). The next family member below the alto saxotromba was described as a baritone in B. Ascending from baritone, logically the next E family member above it is a tenor. The inconsistency spread across multiple descriptions and patents over decades apparently is the source of confusion as regards the names tenor vs. alto horn. The modern instrument has a larger diameter and now resembles Sax's specification of the saxhorn more than it does that of the saxotromba. A great deal of interesting historical technical information on the saxhorn is found in the "Saxhorn" entry of Grove's Dictionary of Music and Musicians, Vol. 4 (1909). In the 1970s, King Musical Instruments produced a variation on the tenor/alto horn, called the "altonium". This instrument was keyed in F, and it utilized the same mouthpiece as the French horn. From their 1971 catalog, King Instruments produced two models of the altonium: numbers 1147 and 1148. The 1147 was a straight model, and the 1148 was a bell forward model. In the US, the alto horn is colloquially known as the "peck horn", supposedly because these instruments were employed in band music to "peck away at" the upbeats. This name is mentioned in The Music Man, and a french horn-patterned peck horn can be seen in the scene where Professor Hill is explaining the Think System as applied to Beethoven's Minuet in G and a small boy asks him how to play it. Repertoire The tenor horn is very rarely included in the symphony orchestra, where its place is taken by the French horn. Instead, it is a fixture of British brass bands, where it often plays a role similar to that of the orchestral horn in the symphony orchestra. The tenor horn has also been used in concert bands as a replacement for the French horn. In the past, many publishers included parts in both Eb (for the tenor horn) and F (for the French horn). These parts were the same, just transposed into the pitch of the given instrument. Some publishers still follow this practice. Although Gustav Mahler orchestrated his Seventh Symphony to include one "tenorhorn in B", that instrument is more akin to the baritone horn. Partial list of solo repertoire: Sonata for Alto Horn and Piano (1943)—Paul Hindemith. Sonata for Eb Horn and Piano, Op. 75—John Golland September Fantasy (1977)—Eric Ball Masquerade for Tenor Horn and Brass Band (1985)—Philip Sparke A Hornting We Will Go for Tenor Horn and Piano, Op. 151 (1997)—Derek Bourgeois Concerto for Eb Tenor Horn and Brass Band, Op. 194 (2003)—Derek Bourgeois Aria for Tenor Horn and Brass Band (2003)—Philip Sparke Capricorno for Tenor Horn and Brass Band (2009)—Philip Sparke Sonata for Tenor Horn and Piano, Op. 304 (2011)—Derek Bourgeois Rajaz – concerto for tenor horn and chamber ensemble (2013)—Idin Samimi Mofakham Sunday in the Park for Tenor Horn and Brass Band (2016)—Philip Sparke References External links International Alto/Tenor Horn Project Tenor Horn.com A Tenor Horn/Alto Horn FAQ Al's Tenor Horn page Brass instruments E-flat instruments Horns	[ -0.6755555272102356, 0.26659202575683594, 0.31483548879623413, -0.6906804442405701, -0.09213684499263763, 0.27422645688056946, 0.009577066637575626, 0.39965346455574036, -0.4339440166950226, 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229795	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hungarian%20forint	Hungarian forint	The forint (sign Ft; code HUF) is the currency of Hungary. It was formerly divided into 100 fillér, but fillér coins are no longer in circulation. The introduction of the forint on 1 August 1946 was a crucial step in the post-World War II stabilisation of the Hungarian economy, and the currency remained relatively stable until the 1980s. Transition to a market economy in the early 1990s adversely affected the value of the forint; inflation peaked at 35% in 1991. Since 2001, inflation is in single digits, and the forint has been declared fully convertible. As a member of the European Union, the long-term aim of the Hungarian government may be to replace the forint with the euro, although under the current government there is no target date for adopting the euro. History The forint's name comes from the city of Florence, where gold coins called fiorino d'oro were minted from 1252. In Hungary, florentinus (later forint), also a gold-based currency, was used from 1325 under Charles Robert, with several other countries following Hungary's example. Between 1868 and 1892, the forint was the name used in Hungarian for the currency of the Austro-Hungarian Empire, known in German as the gulden or florin. It was subdivided into 100 krajczár (krajcár in modern Hungarian orthography). The forint was reintroduced on 1 August 1946, after the pengő was rendered almost worthless by massive hyperinflation in 1945–46: the highest ever recorded. This was brought about by a mixture of the high demand for reparations from the USSR, Soviet plundering of Hungarian industries, and the holding of Hungary's gold reserves in the United States. The different parties in the government had different plans to solve this problem. To the Independent Smallholders' Party—which had won a large majority in the 1945 Hungarian parliamentary election—as well as the Social Democrats, outside support was essential. However, the Soviet Union and its local supporters in the Hungarian Communist Party were opposed to raising loans in the West, and thus the Communist Party masterminded the procedure using exclusively domestic resources. The Communist plan called for tight limits on personal spending as well as the concentration of existing stocks in state hands. The forint replaced the pengő at the rate of 1 forint = pengő—dropping 29 zeroes from the old currency. In fact, this was an imaginary exchange rate. With the highest value note being 100 million B. pengő ( pengő), the total amount of pengő in circulation had a value of less than 0.1 fillér. (The "B" stood for an old-style "billion", i.e. a million million.) Of more significance was the exchange rate to the adópengő of 1 forint = 200 million adópengő. Historically the forint was subdivided into 100 fillér (comparable to a penny), although fillér coins have been rendered useless by inflation and have not been in circulation since 1999. (Since 2000, one forint has typically been worth about half a US cent or slightly less.) The Hungarian abbreviation for forint is Ft, which is written after the number with a space between. The name fillér, the subdivision of all Hungarian currencies since 1925, comes from the German word Vierer which denoted a four-krajcár-piece. The abbreviation for the fillér was f, also written after the number with a space in between. When the forint was introduced, its value was defined on the basis of 1 kilogram of gold being 13 210 forints. Therefore, given that gold was fixed at US$35 per Troy ounce, one USD was at that time worth 11.74 forints. After its 1946 introduction, the forint remained stable for the following two decades, but started to lose its purchasing power as the state-socialist economic system (Planned economy) lost its competitiveness during the 1970s and 1980s. After the democratic change of 1989–90, the forint saw yearly inflation figures of about 35% for three years, but significant market economy reforms helped stabilize it. Coins In 1946, coins were introduced in denominations of 2, 10, 20 fillérs and 1, 2, 5 forints. The silver 5 forint coin was reissued only in the next year; later it was withdrawn from circulation. 5 and 50 fillérs coins were issued in 1948. In 1967, a 5 forint coin was reintroduced, followed by a 10 forint in 1971 and 20 forint in 1982. In 1992, a new series of coins was introduced in denominations of 1, 2, 5, 10, 20, 50, 100 and (a somewhat different, 500‰ silver) 200 forint. Production of the 2 and 5 fillér coins ceased in 1992, with all fillér coins withdrawn from circulation by 1999. From 1996, a bicolor 100 forint coin was minted to replace the 1992 version, since the latter was considered too big and ugly, and could easily be mistaken for the 20 forint coin. Silver 200 forint coins were withdrawn in 1998 (as their nominal value was too low compared to their precious metal content); the 1 and 2 forint coins remained legal tender until 29 February 2008. For cash purchases, the total price is now rounded to the nearest multiple of 5 forint (to 0 or to 5). A new 200 forint coin made of base metal alloy was introduced in place of the 200 forint bank note on 15 June 2009. Banknotes In 1946, 10- and 100-forint notes were introduced by the Magyar Nemzeti Bank (Hungarian National Bank). A new series of higher quality banknotes (in denominations of 10, 20 and 100 forints) were introduced in 1947 and 1948. 50-forint notes were added in 1953, 500-forint notes were introduced in 1970, followed by 1,000 forints in 1983, and 5,000 forints in 1991. A completely redesigned new series of banknotes in denominations of 200, 500, 1,000, 2,000, 5,000, 10,000 and 20,000 forints was introduced gradually between 1997 and 2001. Each banknote depicts a famous Hungarian leader or politician on the obverse and a place or event related to him on the reverse. All of the banknotes are watermarked, contain an embedded vertical security strip and are suitable for visually impaired people. The 1,000 forints and higher denominations are protected by an interwoven holographic security strip. The notes share the common size of . The banknotes are printed by the Hungarian Banknote Printing Corp. in Budapest on paper manufactured by the Diósgyőr Papermill in Miskolc. Commemorative banknotes have also been issued recently: 1,000- and 2,000-forint notes to commemorate the millennium (in 2000) and a 500-forint note to commemorate the 50th anniversary of the 1956 revolution (in 2006). Forgery of forint banknotes is not significant. However, forged 20,000-forint notes printed on the paper of 2,000-forint notes after dissolving the original ink might come up and are not easy to recognize. Another denomination preferred by counterfeiters was the 1,000-forint note until improved security features were added in 2006. Worn banknotes not anymore fit for circulation are withdrawn, destroyed and turned into briquettes which are donated to public benefit (charitable) organizations to be used as heating fuel. In 2014, a new revised version of the 1997 banknote series was gradually put into circulation beginning with the 10,000 Ft banknote in 2014 and completed with the 500 Ft banknote in 2019. Current exchange rates Historic rates Most traded currencies (from 31 December 1990): Sources: arfolyam.iridium.hu Currencies of nearby countries (from 31 December 2010): Sources: arfolyam.iridium.hu References Further reading External links Official Daily Exchange Rates Archive, Hungarian National Bank bankjegy.szabadsagharcos.org (Hungarian banknote catalog) www.numismatics.hu (Roman and Hungarian related numismatic site) papirpenz.hu (pictures of Hungarian banknotes) Current HUF/EUR and other rates with charts www.eremgyujtok.hu (homepage of the Hungarian Coin Collectors' Society) Hungarian banknotes (high resolution pictures, also including old forint banknotes) Comprehensive catalog of Hungarian coins Hungarian National Bank – "Information on forint banknotes and their security features, and forint coins" Industry in Hungary Currencies introduced in 1946 Currency symbols	[ 0.4579582214355469, 0.21024172008037567, -0.09574417769908905, -0.1963948756456375, 0.12683825194835663, 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229803	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vertical	Vertical	Vertical may refer to: Vertical direction, the direction aligned with the direction of the force of gravity, up or down Vertical (angles), a pair of angles opposite each other, formed by two intersecting straight lines that form an "X" Vertical (music), a musical interval where the two notes sound simultaneously "Vertical", a type of wine tasting in which different vintages of the same wine type from the same winery are tasted Vertical Aerospace, stylised as "Vertical", British aerospace manufacturer Vertical Kilometer, a discipline of skyrunning Vertical market, a market in which vendors offer goods and services specific to an industry Media Vertical (1967 film), Soviet movie starring Vladimir Vysotsky "Vertical" (Sledge Hammer!), 1987 television episode Vertical (novel), 2010 novel by Rex Pickett Vertical Entertainment, an American independent film distributor and production company Vertical (publisher), a novel and manga imprint of Kodansha USA Vertikal, a 2013 album by the Swedish band Cult of Luna See also Vertical integration, a management term describing a style of ownership and control Vertical blinds, a type of window blind Vertical jump, a measure of how high an individual or athlete can elevate off the ground from a standstill Vertical loop, a section of roller coaster track which causes the riders to complete a 360 degree turn Horizontal (disambiguation) ↕, see Arrow (symbol)#Arrows in Unicode	[ 0.16529102623462677, 0.23406413197517395, -0.11342813819646835, 0.11633461713790894, -0.06192399188876152, 0.5542318224906921, 0.1763356775045395, 0.23894396424293518, -0.43325895071029663, -0.20183543860912323, -0.38378238677978516, 0.4841938018798828, 0.11563456058502197, 0.5915157794952393, 0.10538116842508316, 0.4795433282852173, 0.5862637758255005, 0.3418716788291931, -0.4778693616390228, -0.19832882285118103, -0.4880470037460327, 0.17452718317508698, 0.370243638753891, -0.6626409888267517, 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229808	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/William%20Hepworth%20Thompson	William Hepworth Thompson	William Hepworth Thompson (27 March 18101 October 1886) was an English classical scholar and Master of Trinity College, Cambridge. Early life Thompson was born at York and was privately educated in Buckinghamshire before entering Trinity College, Cambridge in 1828. Career Graduating BA as 4th classic in 1832, he became a Fellow of Trinity in 1834. In 1853 he was appointed Professor of Greek (to which a canonry in Ely Cathedral was then for the first time attached), and in 1866 Master of Trinity College. Also in 1866, he married Frances Elizabeth, daughter of William Selwyn, widow of George Peacock. With the exception of the year 1836, when he acted as headmaster of a newly established school in Leicester, his life was divided between Cambridge and Ely. Thompson died in Cambridge, at the Master's Lodge, twenty years after being appointed Master. Thompson had succeeded William Whewell as Master and proved a worthy successor; the twenty years of his mastership were years of progress, and he himself took an active part in the abolition of tests (in particular the compulsory religious tests) and the reform of university studies and of the college statutes. In Trinity College An Historical Sketch, G. M. Trevelyan notes: But Thompson and the society over which he presided (1866–1886) were more ready than their predecessors to accept and even to promote changes long overdue. Trinity men were now in the forefront of the reform movement in Cambridge, no longer deprecating but welcoming the help of Parliament to remove from the living academic body the shackles of an age out-worn. The efforts Thompson and others played an important role in transforming Trinity College and Cambridge University into more meritocratic institutions. As a scholar Thompson devoted his attention almost entirely to Plato; and his Phaedrus (1868) and Gorgias (1871), with especially valuable introductions, remained as the standard English editions of these two dialogues for over forty years. The quote "We are none of us infallible, not even the youngest of us" is attributed to Thompson and is recorded in Collections and Recollections by George W. E. Russell (1898) and also in Trinity College An Historical Sketch by G.M. Trevelyan (1943). Thompson uttered these words while Master of Trinity at a College Meeting of the Fellowship on 30 March 1878. As noted above, this was a time of great reformation within the College, willingly supported by Thompson. Gerald Balfour, then a junior Fellow of the College, later politician and Chief Secretary for Ireland, proposed a revision of the College Statutes. The quote was, as Trevelyan puts it, "directed in a kindly spirit at the reforming zeal of a group of junior Fellows". Incidentally, the motion was seconded by Coutts Trotter, one of the most senior Fellows. References Sources Trinity College An Historical Sketch by G. M. Trevelyan (1943) The Master of Trinity at Trinity College, Cambridge External links 1810 births 1886 deaths People from York Alumni of Trinity College, Cambridge Masters of Trinity College, Cambridge English classical scholars Vice-Chancellors of the University of Cambridge Classical scholars of the University of Cambridge British scholars of ancient Greek philosophy	[ 0.016312729567289352, 0.5793783664703369, -0.6381173729896545, -0.4385988414287567, 0.0005121523863635957, 1.0130856037139893, 0.7898751497268677, 0.1646675020456314, -0.24178151786327362, -0.32816314697265625, -0.23848457634449005, -0.07908380031585693, -0.3077488839626312, 0.030099423602223396, 0.24966014921665192, -0.2988126873970032, 0.2095150202512741, -0.37873995304107666, -0.5059837102890015, -0.2814509868621826, -0.18262404203414917, 0.00036909073241986334, 0.20810039341449738, 0.16908086836338043, -0.6615418791770935, 0.19575490057468414, 0.11139510571956635, -0.3140476644039154, 0.17773708701133728, 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229810	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Octameter	Octameter	Octameter in poetry is a line of eight metrical feet. It is not very common in English verse. E.g.: - Trochaic Once upon a midnight dreary, while I pondered, weak and weary Over many a quaint and curious volume of forgotten lore- While I nodded, nearly napping, suddenly there came a tapping As of some one gently rapping, rapping at my chamber door (Edgar Allan Poe, "The Raven") Iambic I am the very model of a modern Major-General, I've information vegetable, animal, and mineral, I know the kings of England, and I quote the fights historical From Marathon to Waterloo, in order categorical; I'm very well-acquainted, too, with matters mathematical, I understand equations, both the simple and quadratical, About binomial theorem I'm teeming with a lot o' news, With many cheerful facts about the square of the hypotenuse. (W.S. Gilbert, "The Pirates of Penzance") Anapestic (acephalous) Ere frost-flower and snow-blossom faded and fell, and the splendour of winter had passed out of sight, The ways of the woodlands were fairer and stranger than dreams that fulfil us in sleep with delight; The breath of the mouths of the winds had hardened on tree-tops and branches that glittered and swayed Such wonders and glories of blossomlike snow or of frost that outlightens all flowers till it fade (A. C. Swinburne, "March: An Ode") Dactyllic There is, however, the occasional song, among them Marty Robbins's Grammy-winning (1961) "El Paso." Out in the West Texas town of El Paso I fell in love with a Mexican girl Nighttime would find me in Rosa's Cantina Music would play and Feleena would whirl ... Off to my right I see five mounted cowboys Off to my left ride a dozen or more Shouting and shooting; I can't let them catch me I have to make it to Rosa's back door .... 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229814	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Roy%20Hudd	Roy Hudd	Roy Hudd, OBE (16 May 1936 – 15 March 2020) was an English comedian, actor, presenter, radio host, author and authority on the history of music hall entertainment. Early life Hudd was born in Croydon on 16 May 1936 to Evalina "Evie" (née Barham) and Harry Hudd. His father was a carpenter who left the family shortly after the Second World War, and his mother, who had a history of mental health problems, died by suicide by gas when Hudd was 10 years old. Hudd was primarily brought up by his grandmother, and attended Tavistock Secondary Modern School in Croydon and Croydon Secondary Technical School. After completing his national service in the Royal Air Force, he studied commercial art at the Regent Street Polytechnic. He then worked as a messenger for an advertising agency, a window dresser and a commercial artist working under Harry Beck. He made his professional debut as a comedian at the Streatham Hill Theatre on 27 October 1957, in a show in aid of the Sir Philip Game Boys' Club, of which he had been a member. Initially he worked with Eddy Kay, a friend from Croydon who had also been a member of the boys' club, the two billing themselves as "the peculiar pair". In 1958, they joined as Redcoats at Butlin's Clacton working alongside Cliff Richard and Dave Allen. Radio Although Hudd and Kay had made a brief appearance as 'discoveries' on the BBC's In Town Tonight in 1958, Hudd made his solo debut on radio in 1959 on Workers' Playtime. His BBC Radio 2 satirical series The News Huddlines ran from 1975 to 2001. His other radio credits include playing Max Quordlepleen, the host at The Restaurant at the End of the Universe, in the original radio series of The Hitchhiker's Guide to the Galaxy (1978), Crowned Hudds (1994–95), The Newly Discovered Casebook of Sherlock Holmes (1999–2000) and Like They've Never Been Gone (1999–2002). Television Hudd broke into television in the mid-1960s in sketch series such as The Illustrated Weekly Hudd and The Roy Hudd Show. His acting roles include David Furnham's The Puppet Man series for Channel 4, Dennis Potter series Lipstick on Your Collar, for which he received critical praise, and Karaoke. In the mid 1990s, he appeared in two series of Common As Muck, a drama about a group of refuse collectors, alongside Edward Woodward. In 2000, Hudd appeared as neighbour Mr. Smedley in one episode of One Foot in the Grave. From 2002 to 2003, he appeared as the undertaker Archie Shuttleworth in the ITV soap opera Coronation Street and subsequently returned for guest appearances in 2006 and 2010; the character died offscreen in December 2018. He also starred in the ITV drama The Quest, alongside Sir David Jason and Hywel Bennett, from 2002–2004. In 2007, he appeared in episodes of New Tricks, Casualty (and again in July 2019) and The Last Detective. In 2010, he appeared in BBC dramas Missing and Ashes to Ashes. In 2010, he appeared in two episodes of the television series Just William. In 2012, he appeared in an episode of the BBC drama Call the Midwife. In 2014, he appeared in episodes of Midsomer Murders, Law & Order: UK and Holby City. In December 2015, Hudd played Bud Flanagan in the BBC drama We're Doomed! The Dad's Army Story, about the creation of the titular long-running sitcom. In 2016 he appeared in an episode of Benidorm. In 2017, he appeared in the ITV series Broadchurch. Stage appearances Hudd appeared in many pantomime and variety performances. In 1977 he starred as Fagin in the West End revival of Lionel Bart's musical Oliver! at the Albery Theatre and, in 1982, he played Bud Flanagan in Underneath the Arches at the Prince of Wales Theatre, for which he won a Society of West End Theatre Award. In 2000, he starred in a musical version of Hard Times at the Theatre Royal Haymarket. In 2008, he played the part of the Wizard in a production of The Wizard of Oz at London's Royal Festival Hall. In 2019, he toured the UK in a production of Oscar Wilde's play A Woman of No Importance alongside Liza Goddard and Isla Blair. Music hall Hudd wrote several books on music hall, re-recorded music hall records, and appeared in the music hall revival show The Good Old Days. He was seen by broadcasters as an authority on the subject and was the longstanding President of the British Music Hall Society. His CD, Mirth, Magic and Melodrama consists of a collection of classic monologues from the music hall days, including The Pig and The Lion and Albert, first recorded by Stanley Holloway. For Celebrity Mastermind, broadcast in January 2014, Hudd answered questions on the specialist subject of music hall comedian Dan Leno. He was an authority on the comedian Max Miller and was known for his impersonation of Miller. He appeared as his hero in the Big Finish Productions Doctor Who audio play Pier Pressure in 2006. He was President of the Max Miller Appreciation Society. Charity work Hudd had a long association with the Bristol Hospital Broadcasting Service, where he was considered an honorary member. In 1994, he officially opened their current studios in the Bristol Royal Infirmary. He was also a past King Rat of the show business charity the Grand Order of Water Rats. in 1989 and 2000. In addition to this, he was the first Honorary President of Sandwell Hospital Radio in West Bromwich for a period of ten years, visiting the studios, members and patients whenever he was appearing in the West Midlands. Honours and death Hudd was appointed an Officer of the Order of the British Empire (OBE) in the 2004 New Year Honours List for services to entertainment. In 1983 (1982 season), he was awarded the Society of West End Theatre Award as Best Actor in a Musical for his role in Underneath the Arches, as Bud Flanagan. On 29 November 2010, Hudd was awarded an honorary degree of Doctor of Letters by the University of Westminster; he studied commercial art there when it was the Regent Street Polytechnic. On 16 March 2020, Hudd's agent announced his death on 15 March, aged 83, following a short illness. He died at Ipswich Hospital. Filmography Bibliography Hudd books began to be published in 1971: Joke Book (Mini-ha-ha Books) by Roy Hudd (Paperback – 28 May 1971) Music Hall (Picturefile) by Roy Hudd (Paperback – 4 November 1976) The News Huddlines by Roy Hudd and Illustrated (Paperback – 1 January 1980) Beautiful Dreamer: A musical melodrama based on the life and songs of Stephen Collins Foster by Roy Hudd (Unknown Binding – 1981) Underneath the Arches by Patrick, Glanville, Brian, Hudd, Roy Garland (Paperback – 1982) Underneath the Arches: Musical in Two Acts by Patrick Garland, Brian Glanville, and Roy Hudd (Paperback – 1984) That's Entertainment: Vol.1 by Roy Hudd, etc. (Paperback – 1 December 1992) Roy Hudd's Book of Music-hall, Variety and Showbiz Anecdotes by Roy Hudd (Hardcover – October 1993) Roy Hudd's Huddline Annual by Roy Hudd and Tony Hare (Hardcover – October 1994) I Say, I Say, I Say: Johnners' Choice of Jokes to Keep You Laughing by Brian Johnston and Roy Hudd (Paperback – 4 September 1995) The Pantomime Book by Paul Harris and Roy Hudd (Paperback – August 1996) Look Back with Laughter. Volume Three by Mike Craig, Dame Thora Hird, and Roy Hudd (Paperback – 1998) Roy Hudd's Cavalcade of Variety Acts: A Who Was Who of Light Entertainment, 1945–60 by Roy Hudd and Philip Hindin (Paperback – 18 November 1998) Roy Hudd's Book of Music-hall, Variety and Showbiz Anecdotes by Roy Hudd (Paperback – 30 October 1998) The Pantomime Book: The Only Known Collection of Pantomime Jokes and Sketches in Captivity by Paul Harris and Roy Hudd (Paperback – 31 October 2001) Twice Nightly by Roy Hudd (Hardcover – October 2007) The Pantomime Book by Roy Hudd and Paul Harris (Paperback – 15 September 2008) A Fart in a Colander: The Autobiography by Roy Hudd (Hardcover – 1 October 2009) References A Fart in a Colander: The Autobiography by Roy Hudd (Hardcover – 1 October 2009), Notes External links Roy Hudd at the British Film Institute BBC Biography/Profile BBC – Radio comic Roy Hudd honoured with OBE 1936 births 2020 deaths English male radio actors British radio personalities English male 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229818	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tallulah%20Bankhead	Tallulah Bankhead	Tallulah Brockman Bankhead (January 31, 1902 – December 12, 1968) was an American stage and screen actress. She was a member of the Bankhead and Brockman family, a prominent Alabama political family. Both her grandfather and her uncle served as US Senators; her father served as a US Representative in Congress for 11 terms, the final two as Speaker of the House of Representatives. Tallulah Bankhead's support of liberal causes, including the budding civil rights movement, broke with her southern contemporaries with their support of white supremacy and segregation as championed by Southern Democrats; she often opposed her own family publicly. Primarily an actress of the stage, Bankhead appeared in several films including an award-winning performance in Alfred Hitchcock's Lifeboat (1944). She also had a brief but successful career on radio and made appearances on television as well. In her personal life, Bankhead struggled with alcoholism and drug addiction; she reportedly smoked 120 cigarettes a day and often talked openly about her vices. She also openly had a series of relationships with both men and women. Bankhead supported foster children and helped families escape the Spanish Civil War and World War II. She was inducted into the American Theater Hall of Fame in 1972, and the Alabama Women's Hall of Fame in 1981. During her career, Bankhead amassed nearly 300 film, stage, television and radio roles. Early life Tallulah Brockman Bankhead was born on January 31, 1902, in Huntsville, Alabama, to William Brockman Bankhead and Adelaide Eugenia "Ada" Bankhead (née Sledge); her great-great-grandfather, James Bankhead (1738–1799) was born in Ulster, Ireland and settled in South Carolina. "Tallu" was named after her paternal grandmother, who in turn was named after Tallulah Falls, Georgia. Her father hailed from the Bankhead-and-Brockman political family, active in the Democratic Party of the South in general and of Alabama in particular. Her father was the Speaker of the United States House of Representatives from 1936 to 1940. She was the niece of Senator John H. Bankhead II and granddaughter of Senator John H. Bankhead. Her mother, Adelaide "Ada" Eugenia, was a native of Como, Mississippi, and was engaged to another man when she met William Bankhead on a trip to Huntsville to buy her wedding dress. The two fell in love at first sight and were married on January 31, 1900, in Memphis, Tennessee. Their first child, Evelyn Eugenia (January 24, 1901 – May 11, 1979), was born two months prematurely and had some vision difficulties. The following year, Tallulah was born on her parents' second wedding anniversary, on the second floor of what is now known as the Isaac Schiffman Building. A marker was erected to commemorate the site, and in 1980 the building was placed on the National Register of Historic Places. Three weeks after Bankhead's birth, her mother died of blood poisoning (sepsis) on February 23, 1902. Coincidentally, her maternal grandmother had died giving birth to her mother. On her deathbed, Ada told her sister-in-law to "take care of Eugenia, Tallulah will always be able to take care of herself". Bankhead was baptized next to her mother's coffin. William B. Bankhead was devastated by his wife's death, which sent him into a bout of depression and alcoholism. Consequently, Tallulah and her sister Eugenia were mostly reared by their paternal grandmother, Tallulah James Brockman Bankhead, at the family estate called "Sunset" in Jasper, Alabama. As a child, Bankhead was described as "extremely homely" and overweight, while her sister was slim and prettier. As a result, she did everything in her efforts to gain attention, and constantly sought her father's approval. After watching a performance at a circus, she taught herself how to cartwheel, and frequently cartwheeled about the house, sang, and recited literature that she had memorized. She was prone to throwing tantrums, rolling around the floor, and holding her breath until she was blue in the face. Her grandmother often threw a bucket of water on her to halt these outbursts. Bankhead's famously husky voice (which she described as "mezzo-basso") was the result of chronic bronchitis due to childhood illness. She was described as a performer and an exhibitionist from the beginning, discovering at an early age that theatrics gained her the attention she desired. Finding she had a gift for mimicry, she entertained her classmates by imitating the schoolteachers. Bankhead claimed that her "first performance" was witnessed by none other than the Wright brothers, Orville and Wilbur. Her Aunt Marie gave the famous brothers a party at her home near Montgomery, Alabama, in which the guests were asked to entertain. "I won the prize for the top performance, with an imitation of my kindergarten teacher", Bankhead wrote. "The judges? Orville and Wilbur Wright." Bankhead also found she had a prodigious memory for literature, memorizing poems and plays and reciting them dramatically. Tallulah and Eugenia's grandmother and aunt were beginning to find the girls difficult to handle. Their father William, who was working from their Huntsville home as a lawyer, proposed enrolling the girls in a convent school (although he was a Methodist and her mother an Episcopalian). In 1912, both girls were enrolled in the Convent of the Sacred Heart in Manhattanville, New York when Eugenia was 11 and Tallulah was 10. As William's political career brought him to Washington, the girls were enrolled in a series of different schools, each one a step closer to Washington, D.C. When Bankhead was 15, her aunt encouraged her to take more pride in her appearance, suggesting that she go on a diet to improve her confidence. Bankhead quickly matured into a southern belle. The girls were not really tamed by the schools, however, as both Eugenia and Tallulah went on to have a lot of relationships and affairs during their lives. Eugenia was more of an old romantic as she got married at 16 and ended up marrying seven times to six different men during her life, while Tallulah was a stronger and even more rebellious personality, who sought a career in acting, was into lust in her relationships even more than love, and showed no particular interest in marrying, although she did marry actor John Emery in 1937, a marriage which ended in divorce in 1941. Bankhead was also childhood friends with American socialite, later novelist, Zelda Sayre Fitzgerald, the wife of American author and expatriate F. Scott Fitzgerald. Career Beginnings in New York (1917–1922) At 15, Bankhead submitted her photo to Picture Play, which was conducting a contest and awarding a trip to New York plus a movie part to 12 winners based on their photographs. However, she forgot to send in her name or address with the picture. Bankhead learned that she was one of the winners while browsing the magazine at her local drugstore. Her photo in the magazine was captioned "Who is She?", urging the mystery girl to contact the paper at once. Congressman William Bankhead sent in a letter to the magazine with her duplicate photo. Arriving in New York, Bankhead discovered that her contest win was fleeting: she was paid $75 for three weeks' work on Who Loved Him Best and had only a minor part, but she quickly found her niche in New York City. She soon moved into the Algonquin Hotel, a hotspot for the artistic and literary elite of the era, where she quickly charmed her way into the famed Algonquin Round Table of the hotel bar. She was dubbed one of the "Four Riders of the Algonquin", consisting of Bankhead, Estelle Winwood, Eva Le Gallienne, and Blyth Daly. Three of the four were non-heterosexual: Bankhead and Daly were bisexuals, and Le Gallienne was a lesbian. Bankhead's father had warned her to avoid alcohol and men when she got to New York; Bankhead later quipped "He didn't say anything about women and cocaine." The Algonquin's wild parties introduced Bankhead to cocaine and marijuana, of which she later remarked "Cocaine isn't habit-forming and I know because I've been taking it for years." Bankhead did abstain from drinking, keeping half of her promise to her father. At the Algonquin, Bankhead befriended actress Estelle Winwood. She also met Ethel Barrymore, who attempted to persuade her to change her name to Barbara. Bankhead declined, and Vanity Fair later wrote "she's the only actress on both sides of the Atlantic to be recognized by her first name only." In 1919, after roles in three other silent films, When Men Betray (1918), Thirty a Week (1918), and The Trap (1919), Bankhead made her stage debut in The Squab Farm at the Bijou Theatre in New York. She soon realized her place was on stage rather than screen, and had roles in 39 East (1919), Footloose (1919), Nice People (1921), Everyday (1921), Danger (1922), Her Temporary Husband (1922), and The Exciters (1922). Though her acting was praised, the plays were commercially and critically unsuccessful. Bankhead had been in New York for five years, but had yet to score a significant hit. Restless, Bankhead moved to London. Fame in Great Britain (1922–1931) In 1923 she made her debut on the London stage at Wyndham's Theatre. She appeared in over a dozen plays in London over the next eight years, most famously in The Dancers and at the Lyric as Jerry Lamar in Avery Hopwood's The Gold Diggers. Her fame as an actress was ensured in 1924 when she played Amy in Sidney Howard's They Knew What They Wanted. The show won the 1925 Pulitzer Prize. While in London, Bankhead bought herself a Bentley, which she loved to drive. She was not very competent with directions and constantly found herself lost in the London streets. She would telephone a taxi-cab and pay the driver to drive to her destination while she followed behind in her car. During her eight years on the London stage and touring across Great Britain's theatres, Bankhead earned a reputation for making the most out of inferior material. For example, in her autobiography, Bankhead described the opening night of a play called Conchita: In the second act. ... I came on carrying a monkey. ... On opening night, the monkey went berserk. ... (he) snatched my black wig from my head, leaped from my arms and scampered down to the footlights. There he paused, peered out at the audience, then waved my wig over his head. ... The audience had been giggling at the absurd plot even before this simian had at me. Now it became hysterical. What did Tallulah do in this crisis? I turned a cartwheel! The audience roared. ... After the monkey business I was afraid they might boo me. Instead I received an ovation. Career in Hollywood (1931–1933) Bankhead returned to the United States in 1931, but Hollywood success eluded her in her first four films of the 1930s. She rented a home at 1712 Stanley Street in Hollywood (now 1712 North Stanley Avenue) and began hosting parties that were said to "have no boundaries". Bankhead's first film was Tarnished Lady (1931), directed by George Cukor, and the pair became fast friends. Bankhead behaved herself on the set and filming went smoothly, but she found film-making to be very boring and did not have the patience for it. After over eight years of living in Great Britain and touring on their theatrical stages, she did not like living in Hollywood; when she met producer Irving Thalberg, she asked him "How do you get laid in this dreadful place?" Thalberg retorted "I'm sure you'll have no problem. Ask anyone." Although Bankhead was not very interested in making films, the opportunity to make $50,000 per film was too good to pass up. Her 1932 movie Devil and the Deep is notable for the presence of three major co-stars, with Bankhead receiving top billing over Gary Cooper, Charles Laughton, and Cary Grant; it is the only film with Cooper and Grant as the film's leading men although they share no scenes together. She later said "Dahling, the main reason I accepted [the part] was to [word of profanity implying sexual relations] that divine Gary Cooper!" Later in 1932, Bankhead starred opposite Robert Montgomery in Faithless. Return to Broadway (1933–1938) Returning to Broadway, Bankhead worked steadily in a series of middling plays which were, ironically, later turned into highly successful Hollywood films starring other actresses. 1933's Forsaking All Others by Edward Barry Roberts and Frank Morgan Cavett—a romantic comedy-drama in which three friends sustain a love triangle lasting several years—was a modest success for Bankhead, running 110 performances, but the 1934 film version with Joan Crawford was one of that year's bigger financial and critical successes. Similarly, Bankhead's next two short-lived plays, Jezebel by Owen Davis and Dark Victory by George Brewer Jr. and Bertram Bloch, were both transformed into high-profile, prestigious film vehicles for Bette Davis. But Bankhead persevered, even through ill health. In 1933, while performing in Jezebel, Bankhead nearly died following a five-hour emergency hysterectomy due to gonorrhea, which she claimed she had contracted from either Gary Cooper or George Raft. Weighing only when she left the hospital, she vowed to continue her promiscuous and party lifestyle, stoically saying to her doctor "Don't think this has taught me a lesson!" Bankhead continued to play in various Broadway performances over the next few years, gaining excellent notices for her portrayal of Elizabeth in a revival of Somerset Maugham's The Circle. However, when she appeared in Shakespeare's Antony and Cleopatra with her then-husband John Emery, the New York Evening Post critic John Mason Brown memorably carped "Tallulah Bankhead barged down the Nile last night as Cleopatra – and sank." From 1936 to 1938, David O. Selznick, producer of Gone with the Wind (1939) called Bankhead the "first choice among established stars" to play Scarlett O'Hara in the upcoming film. Although her 1938 screen test for the role in black-and-white was superb, she photographed poorly in Technicolor. Selznick also reportedly believed that at age 36, she was too old to play Scarlett, who is 16 at the beginning of the film (the role eventually went to Vivien Leigh). Selznick sent Kay Brown to Bankhead to discuss the possibility of Bankhead playing brothel owner Belle Watling in the film, which she turned down. Critical acclaim (1939–1945) Regina and Sabina Her brilliant portrayal of the cold and ruthless, yet fiery Regina Giddens in Lillian Hellman's The Little Foxes (1939) won her Variety magazine's award for Best Actress of the Year. Bankhead as Regina was lauded as "one of the most electrifying performances in American theater history". During the run, she was featured on the cover of Life. Bankhead and playwright Hellman, both formidable women, feuded over the Soviet Union's invasion of Finland. Bankhead (a strong critic of communism from the mid 1930s onwards) was said to want a portion of one performance's proceeds to go to Finnish relief, and Hellman (a communist who had defended the Moscow Trials of 1936, and was a member of the Communist Party USA in 1938–40) objected strenuously, and the two women did not speak for the next quarter of a century, eventually reconciling in late 1963. Nevertheless, Bankhead called the character of Regina in Hellman's play "the best role I ever had in the theater". Bankhead earned another Variety award and the New York Drama Critics' Award for Best Performance by an Actress followed her role in Thornton Wilder's The Skin of Our Teeth, in which Bankhead played Sabina, the housekeeper and temptress, opposite Fredric March and Florence Eldridge (husband and wife offstage). About her work in Wilder's classic, the New York Sun wrote: "Her portrayal of Sabina has comedy and passion. How she contrives both, almost at the same time, is a mystery to mere man." She also clashed with Elia Kazan on The Skin of Our Teeth and during rehearsals of Clash by Night she called the producer, Billy Rose a "loathsome bully" who retorted that "How could anyone bully Niagara Falls?". Lifeboat In 1944, Alfred Hitchcock cast her as cynical journalist Constance Porter in her most successful film, both critically and commercially, Lifeboat. Her superbly multifaceted performance was acknowledged as her best on film and won her the New York Film Critics Circle award. A beaming Bankhead accepted her New York trophy and exclaimed: "Dahlings, I was wonderful!" Renewed success (1948–1952) Bankhead appeared in a revival of Noël Coward's Private Lives, taking it on tour and then to Broadway for the better part of two years. The play's run made Bankhead a fortune. From that time, Bankhead could command 10% of the gross and was billed larger than any other actor in the cast, although she usually granted equal billing to Estelle Winwood, a frequent co-star and close friend from the 1920s through Bankhead's lifetime. In 1950, in an effort to cut into the rating leads of The Jack Benny Program and The Edgar Bergen and Charlie McCarthy Show, which had jumped from NBC radio to CBS radio the previous season, NBC spent millions over the two seasons of The Big Show starring "the glamorous, unpredictable" Bankhead as its host, in which she acted not only as mistress of ceremonies, but also performed monologues (often written by Dorothy Parker) and songs. Despite Meredith Willson's Orchestra and Chorus and top guest stars from Broadway, Hollywood, and radio, The Big Show, which earned rave reviews, failed to do more than dent Jack Benny and Edgar Bergen's ratings. The next season, NBC installed her as one of a half-dozen rotating hosts of NBC's The All Star Revue on Saturday nights. Bankhead was director Irving Rapper's first choice for the role of Amanda in the film version of Tennessee Williams' The Glass Menagerie. Laurette Taylor, who originated the role of Amanda, was an idol of Bankhead's and also an alcoholic, whose brilliant performance in the original Broadway production reversed years of career decline. Rapper called Bankhead's screen test the greatest performance he had ever seen: "I thought she was going to be difficult, but she was like a child, so sweet and lovely. I was absolutely floored by her performance. It's the greatest test I've ever made or seen in my life. I couldn't believe I was seeing such reality. Bankhead was absolutely natural, so moving, so touching without even trying. The crew was stunned, too." But studio head Jack Warner rejected the idea because of his fear of Bankhead's drinking; though she promised not to drink during shooting, he refused to give her the part. The role was given to Gertrude Lawrence instead, whose acting was panned by most critics. Late career (1952–1968) Bankhead wrote a bestselling autobiography Tallulah: My Autobiography. (Harper & Bros., 1952) that was published in 1952. Though Bankhead's career slowed in the mid-1950s, she never faded from the public eye. Her highly public and often scandalous personal life began to undermine her reputation as a terrific actress, leading to criticism she had become a caricature of herself. Although a heavy smoker, heavy drinker, and consumer of sleeping pills, Bankhead continued to perform in the 1950s and 1960s on Broadway, radio, television, and in the occasional film, even as her body got more and more frail from the mid 1950s up until her death in 1968. In 1953, Bankhead was enticed into appearing in a stage act at the Sands Hotel in Las Vegas. She was paid a then-generous $20,000 per week for her appearances, reciting scenes from famous plays, reading poetry and letters that had the audience in stitches—and she even sang a bit. Las Vegas critics bet she would flop but she was a smash, and she came back to the Sands for three years. Addiction, illness and icon status Around this time, Bankhead began to attract a passionate and highly loyal following of gay men, some of whom she employed as help when her lifestyle began to take a toll on her, affectionately calling them her "caddies". Though she had long struggled with addiction, her condition now worsened – she began taking dangerous cocktails of drugs to fall asleep, and her maid had to tape her arms down to prevent her from consuming pills during her periods of intermittent wakefulness. In her later years, Bankhead had serious accidents and several psychotic episodes from sleep deprivation and hypnotic drug abuse. Though she always hated being alone, her struggle with loneliness began to lapse into a depression. In 1956, playing the truth game with Tennessee Williams, she confessed, "I'm 54, and I wish always, always, for death. I've always wanted death. Nothing else do I want more." The Ford Lucille Ball-Desi Arnaz Show Bankhead's most popular and perhaps best remembered television appearance was the December 3, 1957, The Ford Lucille Ball-Desi Arnaz Show. Bankhead played herself in the classic episode titled "The Celebrity Next Door". The part was originally slated for Bette Davis, but Davis had to bow out after cracking a vertebra. Lucille Ball was reportedly a fan of Bankhead and did a good impression of her. By the time the episode was filmed, however, both Ball and Desi Arnaz were deeply frustrated by Bankhead's behavior during rehearsals. It took her three hours to "wake up" once she arrived on the set and she often seemed drunk. She also refused to listen to the director and she did not like rehearsing. Ball and Arnaz apparently did not know about Bankhead's antipathy to rehearsals or her ability to memorize a script quickly. After rehearsals, the filming of the episode proceeded without a hitch and Ball congratulated Bankhead on her performance. Last years on stage In 1956, Bankhead appeared as Blanche DuBois (a character inspired by her) in a revival of Tennessee Williams' A Streetcar Named Desire (1947). Williams had wanted Bankhead for the original production, but she turned it down. Tennessee Williams himself (they were close friends) called her Blanche "the worst I have seen", accusing her of ruining the role to appease her fans who wanted camp. She agreed with this verdict, and made an effort to conquer the audience which her own legend had drawn about her, giving a performance two weeks later of which he remarked: "I'm not ashamed to say that I shed tears almost all the way through and that when the play was finished I rushed up to her and fell to my knees at her feet. The human drama, the play of a woman's great valor and an artist's truth, her own, far superseded, and even eclipsed, to my eye, the performance of my own play." The director remarked that her performance exceeded those of Jessica Tandy and Vivien Leigh in the role. However, the initial reviews had decided the production's fate, and the producer pulled the plug after 15 performances. Bankhead received a Tony Award nomination for her performance of a bizarre 50-year-old mother in the short-lived Mary Coyle Chase play Midgie Purvis (1961). It was a physically demanding role and Bankhead insisted on doing the stunts herself, including sliding down a staircase banister. She received glowing reviews, but the play suffered from numerous rewrites and failed to last beyond a month. Her last theatrical appearance was in The Milk Train Doesn't Stop Here Anymore (1963), a revival of another Williams play, directed by Tony Richardson. She had suffered a severe burn on her right hand from a match exploding while she lit a cigarette, and it was aggravated by the importance of jewelry props in the play. She took heavy painkillers, but these dried her mouth, and most critics thought that Bankhead's line readings were unintelligible. As with Antony and Cleopatra, the nadir of her career, she only made five performances, and in the same unhappy theater. New media Among her last radio appearances was in an episode of the BBC's Desert Island Discs with Roy Plomley in 1964. Bankhead, at 62 and audibly suffering from breathing difficulties from emphysema in the interview, frankly spoke of how hopeless she would be on a desert island, admitting that she "couldn't put a key in the door, dahling. I can't do a thing for myself." In the interview, host Plomley spoke of Bankhead's glory days as the most celebrated actress of 1920s London. Later he recalled of their interview, "She was a very frail and ailing old lady, and I was shocked to see how old and ill she looked as I helped her out of a taxi. She had come from her hotel wearing a mink coat slung over a pair of lounging pyjamas, and she leaned heavily on my arm as I supported her to the lift. Her eyes were still fine, and there was still beauty in the bone structure of her face beneath the wrinkles and ravages of hard living. Her hands shook, and when she wished to go to the loo she had to ask Monica Chapman to accompany her to help her with her clothing." Her last motion picture was in a British horror film, Fanatic (1965). Fanatic was released in the U.S. as Die! Die! My Darling!, which she protested, thinking it was exploiting her famous catchphrase, but did not succeed in getting it changed. During the screening she held privately for her friends, she apologized for "looking older than God's wet nurse" (in the film she wore no makeup and dyed her hair grey, and the director used very claustrophobic close-ups to accentuate her age and frailty). She called the B-movie horror flick "a piece of shit", though her performance in it was praised by critics and remains popular as a cult film and with her fans. For her role in Fanatic, she was paid $50,000. Her last appearances on television came in March 1967 as the villainous Black Widow in the Batman TV series, and in the December 17, 1967, episode of The Smothers Brothers Comedy Hour comedy-variety TV series, in the "Mata Hari" skit. She also appeared in NBC's famous lost Tonight Show Beatles interview that aired on May 14, 1968. Sitting behind the interview desk and beside Joe Garagiola, who was substituting for an absent Johnny Carson, she took an active role during the interview, questioning Paul McCartney and John Lennon. George Harrison and Ringo Starr were not present and were in England at the time, as noted during the interview. Death Bankhead moved into 230 East 62nd Street in the late 1950s, and then to a co-op at 333 East 57th Street (unit #13E). Bankhead died at St. Luke's Hospital in Manhattan on December 12, 1968, at age 66. The cause of death was pleural double pneumonia. Her pneumonia was complicated by emphysema due to cigarette smoking and malnutrition, but it may also have been exacerbated by a strain of the flu which was endemic at that time. Her last coherent words reportedly were a garbled request for "codeine ... bourbon". Despite claiming to be poor for much of her life, Bankhead left an estate valued at $2 million (). A private funeral was held at St. Paul's Episcopal Church in Kent County, Maryland, on December 14, 1968. A memorial service was held at St. Bartholomew's Episcopal Church in New York City on December 16. She was buried in Saint Paul's Churchyard, near Chestertown, Maryland, where her sister, Eugenia, lived. For her contribution to the motion picture industry, Bankhead has a star on the Hollywood Walk of Fame at 6141 Hollywood Blvd. Personal life Bankhead was famous not only as an actress, but also for her many affairs, compelling personality, and witticisms such as, "There is less to this than meets the eye." and "I'm as pure as the driven slush." She was an extrovert, uninhibited, outspoken, and often got naked at private parties. She said that she "lived for the moment". Bankhead was an avid baseball fan whose favorite team was the New York Giants. This was evident in one of her famous quotes, through which she gave a nod to the arts: "There have been only two geniuses in the world, Willie Mays and Willie Shakespeare. But, darling, I think you'd better put Shakespeare first." Bankhead identified as an Episcopalian despite not being what might then have been called "the typical churchgoing type". Political activism Like her family, Bankhead was a Democrat, but even more than her father, she broke with many Southerners. She supported civil rights and strongly opposed racism and segregation. In the 1924 United States presidential election, Bankhead voted for Robert La Follette of the Progressive Party, but voted for the Democratic presidential nominee at every U.S. presidential election from 1928 to 1968, travelling back to the United States from the United Kingdom in 1924 and 1928 in order to visit her family and to place her vote in person. In the 1948 presidential election, Bankhead supported the re-election of Harry S. Truman. At the time, Truman faced opposition not just from the Republican Party, but also from splits to his right and to his left from within the Democratic ranks. Bankhead is credited with having helped Truman immeasurably by belittling his rival, New York's Governor and Republican presidential candidate Thomas E. Dewey, as Truman defied predictions by defeating Dewey and winning the election. After Truman was elected, Bankhead was invited to sit with the president during his inauguration on January 20, 1949. While viewing the inauguration parade, she booed the South Carolina float which carried then-governor and segregationist Strom Thurmond, who had recently run against Truman on the Dixiecrat ticket, which had split the Democratic vote by running on a racist pro-segregationist ticket that appealed to most Southern Democrats. In Democratic primaries and campaigns of later years, Bankhead supported Estes Kefauver in 1952, Adlai Stevenson II in 1956, John F. Kennedy in 1960, Lyndon B. Johnson in 1964 and Eugene McCarthy in 1968. Bankhead would quickly switch to campaigning for the winning Democratic nominee, such as Adlai Stevenson II in 1952 and Hubert Humphrey in 1968, if her original pick failed to win the nomination. Bankhead was close friends with Truman, Kefauver, and Stevenson. Marriage Bankhead married actor John Emery on August 31, 1937, at her father's home in Jasper, Alabama. Bankhead filed for divorce in Reno, Nevada, in May 1941. It was finalized on June 13, 1941. The day her divorce became final, Bankhead told a reporter, "You can definitely quote me as saying there will be no plans for a remarriage." Bankhead had no children, but she had four abortions before she had a hysterectomy in 1933, when she was 31. She was the godmother of Brook and Brockman Seawell, children of her lifelong friend, actress Eugenia Rawls and husband Donald Seawell. Sexuality and sexual exploits An interview that Bankhead gave to Motion Picture magazine in 1932 generated controversy. In the interview, Bankhead ranted about the state of her life and her views on love, marriage, and children: I'm serious about love. I'm damned serious about it now. ... I haven't had an affair for six months. Six months! Too long. ... If there's anything the matter with me now, it's not Hollywood or Hollywood's state of mind. ... The matter with me is, I WANT A MAN! ... Six months is a long, long while. I WANT A MAN! Time ran a story about it, angering Bankhead's family. Bankhead immediately telegraphed her father, vowing never to speak with a magazine reporter again. For these and other offhand remarks, Bankhead was cited in the Hays Committee's "Doom Book", a list of 150 actors and actresses considered "unsuitable for the public" which was presented to the studios. Bankhead was at the top of the list with the heading: "Verbal Moral Turpitude". She publicly called Hays "a little prick". Following the release of the Kinsey reports, she was quoted as stating, "I found no surprises in the Kinsey report. The good doctor's clinical notes were old hat to me. ... I've had many momentary love affairs. A lot of these impromptu romances have been climaxed in a fashion not generally condoned. I go into them impulsively. I scorn any notion of their permanence. I forget the fever associated with them when a new interest presents itself." In 1934, Bankhead had an affair with the artist Rex Whistler who, according to his biographer Anna Thomasson, lost his virginity to her at the age of 29. Offering him what Thomasson calls "an uncomplicated crash-course in sex", Bankhead's glamour and charisma appealed to the "instinctively submissive Rex". One afternoon in early 1934, Bankhead's friend David Herbert called at her suite at the Hotel Splendide in Piccadilly, only to be informed by her maid that "Miss Bankhead is in the bath with Mr Rex Whistler". Hearing Herbert's voice down the hall, Bankhead reportedly shouted, "I'm just trying to show Rex I'm definitely a blonde!" Rumors about Bankhead's sex life have lingered for years. In the 1920s, British domestic spy agency MI5 tried to investigate allegations she had been seducing schoolboys at Eton College but the headmaster refused to cooperate. In addition to her many affairs with men, she was also linked romantically with female personalities of the day, including Greta Garbo, Marlene Dietrich, Hattie McDaniel, Beatrice Lillie, Alla Nazimova, Blyth Daly, writers Mercedes de Acosta and Eva Le Gallienne, and singer Billie Holiday. Actress Patsy Kelly confirmed she had a sexual relationship with Bankhead when she worked for her as a personal assistant. John Gruen's Menotti: A Biography notes an incident in which Jane Bowles chased Bankhead around Capricorn, Gian Carlo Menotti and Samuel Barber's Mount Kisco estate, insisting that Bankhead needed to play the lesbian character Inès in Jean-Paul Sartre's No Exit (which Paul Bowles had recently translated). Bankhead locked herself in the bathroom and kept insisting, "That lesbian! I wouldn't know a thing about it." Bankhead never publicly used the term "bisexual" to describe herself, preferring to use the term "ambisextrous" instead. Credits Stage Filmography Radio appearances Legacy Bankhead is regarded as one of the great stage actresses of the 20th century, acclaimed for her natural eloquence and dynamism. She excelled in both serious and comedic roles, and for over two decades, she was among the most celebrated actresses in Broadway or London's West End, praised in the superlative "perhaps the greatest actress this country has ever produced". For the most part, Bankhead was lauded even in her failed vehicles, and she was considered by critics to be a rare and unique talent. At the height of her career, she was a "living legend", Broadway's most original leading lady. Her eccentric personality was an asset to her career rather than a hindrance, but as years of hard living took their toll, her highly publicized and often scandalous private life began to undermine her reputation. Obituaries on her passing reflected on how far she had fallen from her former grandeur, à la John Barrymore. The critic Brooks Atkinson was more candid: "Since Miss Bankhead lived as she wanted to, there is no point in deploring the loss of a talented actress". However, the legend which had ruined her career made her an enormously popular icon in both the theatrical and especially the gay community. Decades of sustained interest in Bankhead eventually realized itself in a renewed appreciation for her body of work. Awards and honors Among Bankhead's awards were a New York Drama Critics Award for Best Performance by an actress in The Skin of Our Teeth in 1942, as well as a Variety award in The Little Foxes and Skin. She was nominated for a Tony award for her performance in Midgie Purvis, and won the New York Film Critics Award for Best Actress in a Film for her work in Lifeboat. Bankhead was the first white woman to be featured on the cover of Ebony magazine, and was one of the very few actresses and the only stage actress to have a cover on both Time and Life. In 1928, she was honored as one of the 10 most remarkable women in London. A resolution honoring her achievements was passed in the Alabama Legislature. Bankhead was (posthumously) one of the original members of the American Theater Hall of Fame inducted upon its establishment in 1972. In theatre Bankhead earned her greatest acclaim for two classic roles she originated: Regina in Lillian Hellman's The Little Foxes and Sabina in Thornton Wilder's The Skin of our Teeth. At the Algonquin Hotel, Bankhead left prominent impressions upon playwrights such as Zoe Akins and Rachel Crothers. Crothers later wrote the play Everyday for Bankhead, and Akins patterned the character of Eva Lovelace in her play Morning Glory on Bankhead. She became good friends with Tennessee Williams, who was immediately struck upon meeting her, describing her as "result[ing] from the fantastic crossbreeding of a moth and a tiger". Williams wrote four female roles for her, Myra Torrance in Battle of Angels, Blanche DuBois in A Streetcar Named Desire, Princess Kosmonopolis in Sweet Bird of Youth, and Flora Goforth in The Milk Train Doesn't Stop Here Anymore. A song in the 1937 musical I'd Rather Be Right, "Off the Record", contains the line "I'm not so fond of Bankhead, but I'd love to meet Tallulah". The Bankhead Theater (Livermore Performing Arts Center) has her namesake. In art A collection of 50 portraits of Bankhead in her London years is housed in the United Kingdom's National Portrait Gallery. Augustus John painted a portrait of Bankhead in 1929 which is considered one of his greatest pieces. Frank Dobson also sculpted a bust of Bankhead during her London period. The Library of Congress houses numerous works of Bankhead. Biographies Many books have been written about Bankhead's life. In chronological order, they are: Bankhead, Tallulah. Tallulah: My Autobiography. Harper & Bros., 1952. Gill, Brendan. Tallulah. Holt, London: Rinehart & Winston, 1972. Israel, Lee. Miss Tallulah Bankhead. New York: Putnam Pub Group, 1972. Tunney, Kieran. Tallulah: Darling of the Gods. New York: Dutton, 1973. Rawls, Eugenia. Tallulah, A Memory. University of Alabama Press, 1979. Brian, Denis. Tallulah, Darling: A Biography of Tallulah Bankhead. New York: Macmillan, 1980. Patrick, Pamela Cowie. Tallulah Bankhead: The Darling of the Theater. Huntsville: Writers Consortium Books, 1989. Carrier, Jeffrey. Tallulah Bankhead, A Bio-Bibliography. New York: Greenwood Press, 1991. Bret, David. Tallulah Bankhead: A Scandalous Life. New York: Robson Books/Parkwest, 1997. Lavery, Bryony. Tallulah Bankhead. Bath: Absolute Press, 1999. Archibald, Alecia Sherard. Tallulah Bankhead: Alabama's Bad Girl Star. Alabama: Seacoast Publishing, Inc., 2003 Lobenthal, Joel. Tallulah!: The Life and times of a Leading Lady. New York: HarperCollins, 2004. Tributes A Tallulah Bankhead Tribute was held by the Walker County Arts Alliance in her hometown of Jasper, Alabama, on June 11–15, 2015. A similar tribute was held for a week at the University of Alabama in Birmingham in November 1977. In popular culture Bankhead left a lasting impact on American culture despite modern audiences being unfamiliar with the stage performances for which she was most acclaimed. Bankhead remains far more prominent in the public imagination than contemporary Broadway actresses of her caliber, and due to her unique personality and often self-destructive behavior. She has become a frequently imitated camp icon. Many critics (and Bankhead herself) compared the characterization of Margo Channing in All About Eve to that of Bankhead. The costume designer Edith Head had explicitly admitted to styling Channing's appearance to that of Bankhead. The 1964 one-act play Dutchman by Amiri Baraka has the protagonist address the white woman antagonist by Bankhead's name repeatedly. Bankhead's voice and personality inspired voice actress Betty Lou Gerson's work on the character Cruella De Vil in Walt Disney Pictures' One Hundred and One Dalmatians, which the studio calls "a manic take-off on famous actress Tallulah Bankhead". A cocktail at the Ritz Hotel in London is called "The Tallulah", named for the occasion when Bankhead visited the hotel and drank champagne out of her shoe. Fictional portrayals In the 1969 film Goodbye, Mr. Chips, actress Siân Phillips portrays Ursula Mossbank, a character clearly inspired by the Bankhead mystique and mannerisms, but no suggestion is made in the film that that character is supposed to be Bankhead herself. Eugenia Rawls developed a one-woman show in 1971, Tallulah, A Memory, where she portrayed her "lifetime friend" Bankhead. She later published it as a book of the same title in 1979. In the 1980 made-for-television movie, The Scarlett O'Hara War, Carrie Nye plays Bankhead as she and many others vie for the role of Scarlett O' Hara in Gone with the Wind. In the 1983 off-Broadway musical, Tallulah!, Helen Gallagher portrays Bankhead's life from the early days in Alabama to her New York career and centers on her relationship with her father. Rock musician/actor Suzi Quatro portrayed Bankhead in a musical named Tallulah Who? in 1991. The musical was based on a book by Willie Rushton. The show ran from February 14 to March 9 at The Queen's Theatre, Hornchurch, UK, and received favorable reviews. The 1995 documentary Wigstock: The Movie featured an act entitled The Dueling Bankheads whose drag stars emulate the camp icon's exaggerated style. Character actor and self stylized "illusionist", Jim Bailey originated the role of Bankhead in the play Tallulah and Tennessee in 1999. In her first one-woman show, Kathleen Turner played the titular character in Sandra Ryan Heyward's Tallulah from 2000 to 2001. Valerie Harper starred as Bankhead in Looped, which premiered at The Pasadena Playhouse. It opened on Broadway on February 19, 2010, at the Lyceum Theatre. In the 2015–2017 series Z: The Beginning of Everything, about Bankhead's childhood friend Zelda Sayre Fitzgerald, Christina Bennett Lind plays Bankhead. Paget Brewster portrayed Bankhead in two episodes of the 2020 Netflix miniseries, Hollywood. The show includes a highly fictionalized version of Bankhead and her place in the 1940s Golden Age of Hollywood. Bankhead has been variously portrayed by Tovah Feldshuh in both Tallulah's Party, which opened in 1998 at the Martin R. Kaufman Theater and in Feldshuh and Linda Selman's original Tallulah Hallelujah!, which opened at the Douglas Fairbanks Theater Off Broadway in 2000. Natasha Lyonne portrayed Bankhead in the 2021 Hulu film The United States vs. Billie Holiday. The film portrayed Holiday and Bankhead as having a sexual relationship. This relationship is speculative, albeit possible, as the two knew one another and were friends in reality. References Notes Bibliography Further reading External links 1902 births 1968 deaths 20th-century American actresses 20th-century American non-fiction writers 20th-century American women writers Alabama Democrats American autobiographers American stage actresses American silent film actresses American film actresses American people of Scotch-Irish descent American radio actresses American television actresses Bankhead family Bisexual actresses Burials in Maryland Deaths from emphysema Deaths from pneumonia in New York (state) American bisexual actors LGBT people from Alabama Mary Baldwin University alumni New York Film Critics Circle Awards People from Jasper, Alabama Writers from Alabama Women autobiographers American women non-fiction writers American Episcopalians New York (state) Democrats Algonquin Round Table American women activists Activists from Alabama Activists for African-American civil rights 20th-century LGBT people	[ -0.47406089305877686, -0.045687563717365265, 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229823	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/False%20%28logic%29	False (logic)	In logic, false or untrue is the state of possessing negative truth value or a nullary logical connective. In a truth-functional system of propositional logic, it is one of two postulated truth values, along with its negation, truth. Usual notations of the false are 0 (especially in Boolean logic and computer science), O (in prefix notation, Opq), and the up tack symbol . Another approach is used for several formal theories (e.g., intuitionistic propositional calculus), where a propositional constant (i.e. a nullary connective), , is introduced, the truth value of which being always false in the sense above. It can be treated as an absurd proposition, and is often called absurdity. In classical logic and Boolean logic In Boolean logic, each variable denotes a truth value which can be either true (1), or false (0). In a classical propositional calculus, each proposition will be assigned a truth value of either true or false. Some systems of classical logic include dedicated symbols for false (0 or ), while others instead rely upon formulas such as and . In both Boolean logic and Classical logic systems, true and false are opposite with respect to negation; the negation of false gives true, and the negation of true gives false. The negation of false is equivalent to the truth not only in classical logic and Boolean logic, but also in most other logical systems, as explained below. False, negation and contradiction In most logical systems, negation, material conditional and false are related as: In fact, this is the definition of negation in some systems, such as intuitionistic logic, and can be proven in propositional calculi where negation is a fundamental connective. Because is usually a theorem or axiom, a consequence is that the negation of false () is true. A contradiction is the situation that arises when a statement that is assumed to be true is shown to entail false (i.e., ). Using the equivalence above, the fact that φ is a contradiction may be derived, for example, from . A statement that entails false itself is sometimes called a contradiction, and contradictions and false are sometimes not distinguished, especially due to the Latin term falsum being used in English to denote either, but false is one specific proposition. Logical systems may or may not contain the principle of explosion (ex falso quodlibet in Latin), for all . By that principle, contradictions and false are equivalent, since each entails the other. Consistency A formal theory using the "" connective is defined to be consistent, if and only if the false is not among its theorems. In the absence of propositional constants, some substitutes (such as the ones described above) may be used instead to define consistency. See also Contradiction Logical truth Tautology (logic) (for symbolism of logical truth) Truth table References Logical connectives	[ 0.0653831884264946, 0.3674761652946472, -0.520659327507019, 0.2523910105228424, -0.36489102244377136, -0.028641004115343094, 0.9468167424201965, -0.04016914963722229, 0.13543057441711426, 0.007149585522711277, -0.35626453161239624, 0.3845188319683075, -0.4130885601043701, 0.42621129751205444, 0.06169471889734268, 0.044371116906404495, 0.810247540473938, 0.13731077313423157, 0.39511141180992126, -0.1922840178012848, -0.11167329549789429, -0.0642460510134697, -0.2568236291408539, -0.46846646070480347, 0.3687615990638733, -0.24640825390815735, 0.0721283107995987, -0.3751432001590729, -0.08919382840394974, -0.00885042268782854, -0.31040409207344055, 0.4508691430091858, -0.23296669125556946, 0.17050807178020477, -0.053705018013715744, 0.3311643898487091, -0.009904684498906136, 0.05518705025315285, -0.15291601419448853, -0.1839219182729721, 0.16767701506614685, 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229825	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Karlsruhe%20%28district%29	Karlsruhe (district)	Karlsruhe is a Landkreis (district) in the northwest of Baden-Württemberg, Germany. Neighboring districts are (from north clockwise) Rhein-Neckar, Heilbronn, Enz, Calw, Rastatt, Germersheim, Rhein-Pfalz-Kreis and the district-free city Speyer. The urban district Karlsruhe (Stadtkreis Karlsruhe), which contains the City of Karlsruhe, is located in the middle of the district, and partially cuts it into a northern and a southern part. History The historic origin of the district is the Oberamt Karlsruhe. In 1809 it was split into one part responsible for the city Karlsruhe (Stadtamt), and one for the surrounding municipalities (Landamt). In 1865 however both parts were merged again to the Bezirksamt Karlsruhe. 1938 it was split again, this time with the district of Karlsruhe for the surrounding part, and the urban district of Karlsruhe for the urban area. In 1973 the district was enlarged by adding the complete district of Bruchsal and parts of the districts Sinsheim, Vaihingen, Pforzheim and Rastatt; some municipalities were also added to the city Karlsruhe and therefore left the district. Since the founding of the Federal Republic, Karlsruhe has been the seat of the Federal Constitutional Court (Bundesverfassungsgericht), Germany's highest. Geography The western part of the district is located in the Rhine valley. The area in the east belongs to the landscape of the Kraichgau, and it is also to the north of the foothills of the Black Forest. Coat of arms The top-left quarter of the coat of arms shows the symbol of Baden, as a large part of the Karlsruhe district belonged to Baden historically. The cross in the top-right is the symbol of the clerical state of Speyer. The three deer antlers in the bottom-right are the symbol of the state of Württemberg, and in the bottom-left is the symbol of the Wittelsbach family. Cities and towns Partnerships/Twin regions The Karlsruhe district partners with the following sister regions outside of Germany: Gwent, United Kingdom (former administrative area in southeast Wales), since 1978. In 1996, due to an administrative reform, Gwent was abolished and divided into five districts, of which Karlsruhe mainly continues the partnership with the new districts of Monmouthshire and Torfaen. Sha’ar Hanegev (region in the northwestern Negev, bounded on the west by the Gaza Strip), since 1992 Brusque, Brazil (city in southern Brazil), since 2011 Within Germany, the Karlsruhe district has a partnership with the Saxon district Mittelsachsen, which was formed in 2008 through a merger of the former districts Döbeln, Freiberg und Mittweida; this relationship dates from 1990 when Karlsruhe district first partnered with Döbeln. References External links Official city website (German) Official municipalities website (German) Karlsruhe (region) Districts of Baden-Württemberg	[ 0.23763692378997803, 0.5483975410461426, 0.5053409337997437, -0.3502614200115204, -0.4693162739276886, 0.1488485038280487, 0.7931174635887146, 0.1168372705578804, -0.2930295765399933, -0.5850551724433899, -0.15132379531860352, -0.20669713616371155, -0.16057057678699493, 0.33211013674736023, -0.11875857412815094, 0.8100346922874451, 0.33926132321357727, 0.3960578441619873, -0.17359542846679688, -0.32296130061149597, -0.027152230963110924, -0.14545759558677673, 0.4409491717815399, -0.11218221485614777, -0.46785208582878113, -0.5825818777084351, 0.9277821183204651, 0.7479956746101379, -0.11892693489789963, 0.17070500552654266, -0.08925440907478333, 0.6503798961639404, -0.8704332113265991, 0.0625036358833313, 0.2275741547346115, 0.7130879163742065, 0.13031959533691406, -0.6361024379730225, 0.42717841267585754, -1.1985864639282227, 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229834	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Paul%20Bowles	Paul Bowles	Paul Frederic Bowles (; December 30, 1910November 18, 1999) was an American expatriate composer, author, and translator. He became associated with the Moroccan city of Tangier, where he settled in 1947 and lived for 52 years to the end of his life. Following a cultured middle-class upbringing in New York City, during which he displayed a talent for music and writing, Bowles pursued his education at the University of Virginia before making several trips to Paris in the 1930s. He studied music with Aaron Copland, and in New York wrote music for theatrical productions, as well as other compositions. He achieved critical and popular success with his first novel The Sheltering Sky (1949), set in French North Africa, which he had visited in 1931. In 1947, Bowles settled in Tangier, at that time in the Tangier International Zone, and his wife Jane Bowles followed in 1948. Except for winters spent in Ceylon during the early 1950s, Tangier was Bowles's home for the remainder of his life. He came to symbolize American immigrants in the city. Bowles died in 1999 at the age of 88. His ashes are buried near family graves in Lakemont Cemetery, in upstate New York. Life 1910–1930: Family and education Paul Bowles was born in Jamaica, Queens, New York City, as the only child of Rena (née Winnewisser) and Claude Dietz Bowles, a dentist. His childhood was materially comfortable, but his father was a cold and domineering parent, opposed to any form of play or entertainment, and feared by both his son and wife. According to family legend, Claude had tried to kill his newborn son by leaving him exposed on a window-ledge during a snowstorm. The story may not be true, but Bowles believed it was and that it encapsulated his relationship with his father. Warmth in his childhood was provided by his mother, who read Nathaniel Hawthorne and Edgar Allan Poe to him – it was to the latter that he later attributed his own desire to write stories, such as "The Delicate Prey", "A Distant Episode", and "Pages from Cold Point". Bowles could read at age 3 and was writing stories by age 4. Soon, he wrote surrealistic poetry and music. In 1922, at age 11, he bought his first book of poetry, Arthur Waley's A Hundred and Seventy Chinese Poems. At age 17, he had a poem, "Spire Song", accepted for publication in transition. This Paris-based literary journal served as a forum for leading proponents of modernism – Djuna Barnes, James Joyce, Paul Éluard, Gertrude Stein and others. Bowles's interest in music also dated from his childhood, when his father bought a phonograph and classical records. (Bowles was interested in jazz, but such records were forbidden by his father.) His family bought a piano, and the young Bowles studied musical theory, singing, and piano. When he was 15, he attended a performance of Stravinsky's The Firebird at Carnegie Hall, which made a profound impression: "Hearing The Firebird made me determined to continue improvising on the piano when my father was out of the house, and to notate my own music with an increasing degree of knowing that I had happened upon a new and exciting mode of expression." Bowles entered the University of Virginia in 1928, where his interests included T. S. Eliot's The Waste Land, Prokofiev, Duke Ellington, Gregorian chant, and blues. He also heard music by George Antheil and Henry Cowell. In April 1929, he dropped out without informing his parents, and sailed with a one-way ticket for Paris and no intention of returning – not, he said later, running away, but "running toward something, although I didn't know what at the time." Bowles spent the next months working for the Paris Herald Tribune and developing a friendship with Tristan Tzara. By July, he returned to New York and worked at Duttons Bookshop in Manhattan, where he began work on an unfinished book of fiction, Without Stopping (not to be confused with his later autobiography of the same title). At the insistence of his parents, Bowles returned to studies at the University of Virginia but left after one semester to return to Paris with Aaron Copland, with whom he had been studying composition in New York. Copland was a lover as well as mentor to Bowles, who would later state that he was "other than Jane the most important person in my life": when their affair concluded, they remained friends for life. It was during the autumn of 1930 in Paris that Bowles began work on his own first musical composition, the Sonata for Oboe and Clarinet, which he finished the following year. It premiered in New York at the Aeolian Hall on Wigmore Street, 16 December 1931. The entire concert (which also included work by Copland and Virgil Thomson) was panned by New York critics. (Bowles's first-known composition was completed earlier in Berlin: an adaptation as piano music of some vocal pieces by Kurt Schwitters.) 1931–1946: France and New York In Paris, Bowles became a part of Gertrude Stein's literary and artistic circle. On her advice, he made his first visit to Tangier with Aaron Copland in the summer of 1931. They took a house on the Mountain above Tangier Bay. Bowles later made Morocco his full-time home, and it inspired many of his short stories. From there he returned to Berlin, where he met British writers Stephen Spender and Christopher Isherwood. (Isherwood was reportedly so taken with him that he named a character Sally Bowles in his novel after him.) The next year, Bowles returned to North Africa, traveling throughout other parts of Morocco, the Sahara, Algeria, and Tunisia. In 1937, Bowles returned to New York. Over the next decade, he established a solid reputation as a composer, collaborating with Orson Welles, Tennessee Williams, and others on music for stage productions, as well as orchestral pieces. In 1938, he married Jane Auer, an author and playwright. It was an unconventional marriage; each of their intimate relationships were with people of their own sex, but the couple maintained close personal ties with each other. During this time the couple joined the Communist Party of USA but soon left the organization after Bowles was ejected from the party. Bowles has frequently been featured in anthologies as a gay writer, but he regarded such categories as both absurd and irrelevant. After a brief sojourn in France, the couple were prominent among the literary figures of New York throughout the 1940s. Paul Bowles also worked under Virgil Thomson, as a music critic at the New York Herald Tribune. His zarzuela The Wind Remains, based on a poem by Federico García Lorca, was performed in 1943 with choreography by Merce Cunningham and conducted by Leonard Bernstein. His translation of Jean-Paul Sartre's play Huis Clos ("No Exit"), directed by John Huston, won a Drama Critic's Award in 1943. In 1945, Bowles began writing prose again, beginning with a few short stories including "A Distant Episode". His wife Jane, he said, was the main influence upon his taking up fiction as an adult, when she published her first novel Two Serious Ladies (1943). 1947–1956: Early years in Tangier In 1947, Paul Bowles received a contract for a novel from Doubleday; with the advance, he moved permanently to Tangier. Jane joined him there the next year. Bowles commented: Bowles traveled alone into the Algerian Sahara to work on the novel. He later said, "I wrote in bed in hotels in the desert." He drew inspiration from personal experience, noting years later that, "Whatever one writes is in a sense autobiographical, of course. Not factually so, but poetically so." He titled the novel The Sheltering Sky, from a song, "Down Among the Sheltering Palms", which he had heard every summer as a child. It was first published by John Lehmann in England, in September 1949, after Doubleday rejected the manuscript. Bowles recalled: I sent it out to Doubleday and they refused it. They said, "We asked for a novel." They didn't consider it a novel. I had to give back my advance. My agent told me later they called the editor on the carpet for having refused the book – only after they saw that it was selling fast. It only had to do with sales. They didn't bother to read it. A first American edition, by New Directions Publishing, appeared the following month. The plot follows three Americans: Port, his wife Kit, and their friend, Tunner, as they journey through the Algerian desert. The reviewer for TIME magazine commented that the ends visited upon the two main characters "seem appropriate but by no means tragic", but that "Bowles scores cleanly with his minor characters: Arab pimps and prostitutes, French officers in garrison towns, [and] a stupidly tiresome pair of tourists—mother & son." In The New York Times, playwright and critic Tennessee Williams commented that the book was like a summer thunderstorm, "pulsing with interior flashes of fire". The book quickly rose to the New York Times best-seller list, going through three printings in two months. In 1950, Bowles published his first collection of short stories. Titled A Little Stone (John Lehmann, London, August 1950), it omitted two of Bowles's most famous short stories, "Pages From Cold Point" and "The Delicate Prey." British critic Cyril Connolly and writer Somerset Maugham had advised him that if they were included in the collection, distribution and/or censorship difficulties might ensue. The American edition by Random House, The Delicate Prey and Other Stories (November 1950), did include these two stories. In an interview 30 years later, Bowles responded to an observation that almost all of the characters in "The Delicate Prey" were victimized by either physical or psychological violence. He said: Yes, I suppose. The violence served a therapeutic purpose. It's unsettling to think that at any moment life can flare up into senseless violence. But it can and does, and people need to be ready for it. What you make for others is first of all what you make for yourself. If I'm persuaded that our life is predicated upon violence, that the entire structure of what we call civilization, the scaffolding that we've built up over the millennia, can collapse at any moment, then whatever I write is going to be affected by that assumption. The process of life presupposes violence, in the plant world the same as the animal world. But among the animals only man can conceptualize violence. Only man can enjoy the idea of destruction. He set his second novel, Let It Come Down (John Lehmann, London, February 1952), in North Africa, specifically Tangier. It explored the disintegration of an American (Nelson Dyar) who was unprepared for the encounter with an alien culture. The first American edition by Random House was published later that same month. Bowles set his third novel, The Spider's House (Random House, New York, November 1955), in Fez, immediately prior to Morocco's gaining independence and sovereignty in 1956. In it, he charted the relationships among three immigrants and a young Moroccan: John Stenham, Alain Moss, Lee Veyron, and Amar. Reviewers noted that the novel marked a departure from Bowles's earlier fiction in that it introduced a contemporary political theme, the conflict between Moroccan nationalism and French colonialism. The UK edition (Macdonald) was published in January 1957. While Bowles was concentrating on his career as a writer, he composed incidental music for nine plays presented by the American School of Tangier. The Bowles couple became fixtures of the American and European immigrant scene in Tangier. Visitors included Truman Capote, Tennessee Williams and Gore Vidal. William S. Burroughs, and the Beat writers Allen Ginsberg and Gregory Corso followed in the mid-1950s and early 1960s. In 1951, Bowles was introduced to the Master Musicians of Jajouka, having first heard the musicians when he and Brion Gysin attended a festival, or moussem, at Sidi Kacem. Bowles described his continued association with the Master Musicians of Jajouka and their hereditary leader Bachir Attar in his book, Days: A Tangier Journal. In 1952, Bowles bought the tiny island of Taprobane, off the coast of Ceylon (now Sri Lanka). There, he wrote much of his novel The Spider's House and returned to Tangier in the warmer months. He returned to Sri Lanka most winters. 1957–1973: Moroccan music and translation In 1957, Jane Bowles suffered a mild stroke, which marked the beginning of a long and painful decline in her health. Her condition preoccupied Paul Bowles until Jane's death in 1973. During the late 1950s, Morocco achieved independence. With a grant from the Rockefeller Foundation and sponsorship from the US Library of Congress, Bowles spent the months of August to September 1959 traveling throughout Morocco with Christopher Wanklyn and Mohammed Larbi, recording traditional Moroccan music. From 1959 to 1961, Bowles recorded a wide variety of music from the different ethnic groups in Morocco, including the Sephardic Jewish communities of Meknes and Essaouira. The majority of these recordings were transferred to the digital format at George Blood Audio and Video in Philadelphia. During these years, Bowles also worked at translating Moroccan authors and story-tellers, including Mohamed Choukri, Ahmed Yacoubi, Larbi Layachi (under the pseudonym Driss ben Hamed Charhadi), and Mohammed Mrabet. In the autumn of 1968, invited by friend Oliver Evans, Bowles was a visiting scholar for one semester at the English Department of the San Fernando Valley State College, (now California State University, Northridge). He taught "Advanced Narrative Writing and the Modern European Novel." In 1970, Bowles and Daniel Halpern founded the literary magazine Antaeus, based in Tangier. It featured many new, as well as established authors. Bowles's work was also represented, including his story "Afternoon with Antaeus." Antaeus was published until 1994. 1974–1995: Later years After Jane Bowles's death, on 4 May 1973 in Málaga, Spain, Bowles continued to live in Tangier. He wrote regularly and received many visitors to his modest apartment. In the summers of 1980 and 1982, Bowles conducted writing workshops in Morocco, at the American School of Tangier (under the auspices of the School of Visual Arts in New York). These were considered successful. Among several students who have become successful authors are Rodrigo Rey Rosa, the 2004 Winner of the Miguel Ángel Asturias National Prize in Literature, and Mark Terrill. Bowles designated Rey Rosa as the literary heir of his and Jane Bowles's estates. In 1982 Bowles published Points in Time, subtitled Tales From Morocco, a collection of stories. Divided into eleven parts, the work consists of untitled story fragments, anecdotes, and travel narratives. These stories are not included in either The Stories of Paul Bowles (Ecco Press) or Collected Stories and Later Writings (The Library of America). In 1985, Bowles published his translation of Jorge Luis Borges's short story, "The Circular Ruins". It was collected in a book of 16 stories, all translated by Bowles, called She Woke Me Up So I Killed Her. This Borges story had previously been published in translations by the three main Borges translators: Anthony Kerrigan, Anthony Bonner, and James E. Irby. Critics have pointed to differences among these translations. Bowles's version is in his typical prose style, readily distinguishable from the other three, which are more conservative and idiomatic. In 1988, when Bowles was asked in an interview about his social life, he replied, "I don't know what a social life is ... My social life is restricted to those who serve me and give me meals, and those who want to interview me." When asked in the same interview how he would summarize his achievement, he said, "I've written some books and some music. That's what I've achieved." Bowles had a cameo appearance at the beginning and end of the film version of The Sheltering Sky (1990), directed by Bernardo Bertolucci. Bowles's music was overlooked and mostly forgotten for more than a generation, but in the 1990s, a new generation of American musicians and singers became interested in his work again. Art song enthusiasts savor what are described as "charming, witty pieces." In 1994, Bowles was visited and interviewed by writer Paul Theroux, who featured him in his last chapter of his travel book, The Pillars of Hercules. 1995–1999 : Final years In 1995, Bowles made his final return to New York, invited to a "Paul Bowles Festival" at Lincoln Center celebrating his music. The music was performed by Jonathan Sheffer leading the Eos Orchestra. A related symposium on Bowles's work and interview were held at the New School for Social Research. A Canadian documentary on his life, Let It Come Down: The Life of Paul Bowles won Best Documentary at the 27th Annual International Emmy Awards in New York City. Visitors in 1998 reported that Bowles's wit and intellect endured. He continued to welcome visitors to his apartment in Tangier but, on the advice of doctors and friends, limited interviews. One of the last was an interview with Stephen Morison, Jr., a friend teaching at the American School of Tangier. It was featured in the July/August 1999 issue of Poets & Writers magazine. On June 6, 1999, Irene Herrmann, the executrix of the Paul Bowles Music Estate, interviewed him to focus on his musical career; this was published in September 2003. Bowles died of heart failure on November 18, 1999, at the Italian Hospital in Tangier, aged 88. He had been ill for some time with respiratory problems. His ashes were buried in Lakemont, New York, next to the graves of his parents and grandparents. Bowles and Tangier Paul Bowles lived for 52 of his 88 years in Tangier. He became strongly identified with the city and symbolized American immigrants. Obituary writers always linked his life to his residency there. When Bowles had first visited Tangier with Aaron Copland in 1931, they were both outsiders to what they perceived as an exotic place of different customs. They were not bound by any local rules, which varied among the many ethnic groups. Tangier was a Moroccan and international city, a longtime trading center, with a population made up of Berber, Arab, Spanish, French and other Europeans, speaking Spanish, French, Berber and Arabic, and professing a variety of religions. Politically it was under the control of a consortium of foreign powers, including the United States. Bowles was entranced by the city's culture. By his return in 1947 the city had of course changed, but he still found it full of strangeness and wonder. In 1955, anti-European riots erupted as the people sought independence. In 1956, the city was returned to full Moroccan control. Music Introduction Paul Bowles first studied music with Aaron Copland. In the fall of 1931, following an introduction from Copland, he entered the studio of Virgil Thomson. Bowles had thought of himself first as a poet, having published some verse in his brief time at the University of Virginia in the pages of transition. Unfortunately, the quality of his poetry eluded any of the intellectuals he would later encounter in Paris. Among them was Gertrude Stein, from whom he received the sobriquet, "the manufactured savage," and who begged him to give up writing poetry. However, his music of the time, demonstrated by a propensity for Ravel-like piano improvisations, charmed both Copland and Thomson, alike. In his book, Copland On Music (Doubleday & Company, New York, 1960), Copland remarked: For Copland the allure of Bowles's music would never diminish. In later years he was recorded as having said, "Paul Bowles' music is always fresh; I've never known him to write a dull piece." However, the precocity of Bowles's early musical efforts would later belie a lack of professional training and discipline. Copland had tried in New York to teach him harmony, but had found him to be a stubborn pupil. In Paris Bowles approached Nadia Boulanger for lessons, and Thomson recommended him to Paul Dukas. In the end, he would work with neither. Development Apart from irregular consultation with Vittorio Rieti, Bowles never received any formal instruction in music, despite the best efforts of Aaron Copland and Virgil Thomson to persuade him otherwise. However, the self-taught composer, with assistance from Thomson, found success in New York as a producer of incidental music for the theatre. He collaborated with the likes of George Balanchine, Joseph Losey, Leonard Bernstein, Elia Kazan, Arthur Koestler, José Ferrer, Salvador Dalí, Orson Welles, William Saroyan and Tennessee Williams. During the Second World War he turned his hand to writing as a reviewer for the New York Herald Tribune, where Thomson then served as music critic. Bowles was well-suited to the work, according to Thomson, "because he wrote clearly and because he had the gift of judgment." Following Virgil Thomson's retirement from his critic's post in 1954, reminiscing on his wish Paul Bowles had taken over the position, Bowles remarked, "I don't think I could have handled it, any more than I could have followed a career in composition. I lacked the musical training that [Virgil] and Aaron had." A new direction After the war, eventually settling in Tangier, Morocco, Bowles continued his musical and literary pursuits, gradually letting go of the former and becoming what Virgil Thomson described as, "a novelist and story writer of international repute." Paul Bowles referred to Tangier as "a place where it is still hard to find a piano in tune." Regarding his establishment as an author in Morocco, Bowles said: Little by little I was aware of there being atmospheres which I could only portray by writing about them. I was unable to express my emotions in their entirety through music. My music was joyful as I was myself. The more nocturnal side to my personality, I managed to express through language. With the success of the book, The Sheltering Sky, Bowles struck his first blow for independence. In time this break from the composition of music would see Bowles's earlier exploits overshadowed completely by his acclaim as a writer of prose. Recapitulation Only in the decade before his death was there a renewed interest in his musical output from the 1930s and '40s. This movement may have culminated in May 1994, at the Théâtre du Rond-Point in Paris, with the presentation of a live concert performance, and at which the then 83-year-old Paul Bowles was in attendance. The program included a number of Bowles's original songs and pieces for piano, plus musical tributes and portraits of the composer by Virgil Thomson, Leonard Bernstein, and Phillip Ramey. At least as regards the past neglect of his own catalogue, this ongoing revival may serve as proof of Bowles's own words: "Music only exists when it is played." Renewal of respect for Paul Bowles's music has led to several commercial recording projects. In 2016 the Invencia Piano Duo (Andrey Kasparov and Oksana Lutsyshyn), in collaboration with Naxos Records and its American Classics division, released two CDs of Bowles's complete piano works. Volume one opens with pieces inspired by Latin American themes, evocative of the composer's interest in the culture and his fluency in the Spanish language. The second of the two volumes closes with arrangements of Blue Mountain Ballads (1946), set for piano duet by Dr. Andrey Kasparov, and three miscellaneous pieces, set for two pianos by the American piano duo of Arthur Gold and Robert Fizdale. The latter three arrangements were uncovered in the Gold and Fizdale Collection, held in the Peter Jay Sharp Special Collections, Lila Acheson Wallace Library, The Juilliard School. Dr. Kasparov reconstructed the original manuscripts which permitted these duets to be recorded for the very first time. Recording of Moroccan music Paul Bowles was a pioneer in the field of North African ethnomusicology, making field recordings from 1959 to 1961 of traditional Moroccan music for the US Library of Congress. The collection includes dance music, secular music, music for Ramadan and other festivals, and music for animistic rituals. Bowles realised that modern culture would inevitably change and influence the practice of traditional music, and he wanted to preserve some of it. Bowles commented on the political aspects of the practice of traditional music: Instrumentalists and singers have come into being in lieu of chroniclers and poets, and even during the most recent chapter in the country's evolution – the war for independence and the setting up of the present regime – each phase of the struggle has been celebrated in song. The total collection of this recorded music is known as The Paul Bowles Collection; it is archived in the US Library of Congress, Reference No. 72-750123. The Archival Manuscript Material (Collection) contains 97 x 2-track 7" reel-to-reel tapes, containing approximately sixty hours of traditional folk, art and popular music, one box of manuscripts, 18 photographs, and a map, along with the 2-LP recording called Music of Morocco (AFS L63-64). Translating other authors In the 1960s Bowles began translating and collecting stories from the oral tradition of native Moroccan storytellers. His most noteworthy collaborators included Mohammed Mrabet, Driss Ben Hamed Charhadi (Larbi Layachi), Mohamed Choukri, Abdeslam Boulaich, and Ahmed Yacoubi. He also translated writers whose original work was written in Spanish, Portuguese and French: Rodrigo Rey Rosa, Jorge Luis Borges, Jean-Paul Sartre, Isabelle Eberhardt, Guy Frison-Roche, André Pieyre de Mandiargues, Ramón Gómez de la Serna, Giorgio de Chirico, Si Lakhdar, E. Laoust, Ramon Beteta, Gabino Chan, Bertrand Flornoy, Jean Ferry, Denise Moran, Paul Colinet, Paul Magritte, Popul Buj, Francis Ponge, Bluet d'Acheres and Ramon Sender. Achievement and legacy Paul Bowles is considered one of the artists to have shaped 20th-century literature and music. In his "Introduction" to Bowles's Collected Stories (1979) Gore Vidal ranked the short stories as "among the best ever written by an American", writing: "the floor to this ramshackle civilization that we have built cannot bear much longer our weight. It was Bowles's genius to suggest the horrors which lie beneath that floor, as fragile, in its way, as the sky that shelters us from a devouring vastness". Critics have described his music, in contrast, "as full of light as the fiction [is] of dark ... almost as if the composer were a totally different person from the writer." During the early 1930s, Bowles studied composition (intermittently) with Aaron Copland; his music from this period "is reminiscent of Satie and Poulenc." Returning to New York in the mid-30s, Bowles became one of the preeminent composers of American theater music, producing works for William Saroyan, Tennessee Williams, and others, "show[ing] exceptional skill and imagination in capturing the mood, emotion, and ambience of each play to which he was assigned." Bowles said that such incidental music allowed him to present "climaxless music, hypnotic music in one of the exact senses of the word, in that it makes its effect without the spectator being made aware of it." At the same time he continued to write concert music, assimilating some of the melodic, rhythmic, and other stylistic elements of African, Mexican, and Central American music. In 1991, Bowles was awarded the annual Rea Award for the Short Story. The jury gave the following citation: "Paul Bowles is a storyteller of the utmost purity and integrity. He writes of a world before God became man; a world in which men and women in extremis are seen as components in a larger, more elemental drama. His prose is crystalline and his voice unique. Among living American masters of the short story, Paul Bowles is sui generis." The historic building of the American Legation in Tangier includes an entire wing devoted to Paul Bowles. In 2010, they received a donation of furniture, photographs and documents compiled by Gloria Kirby, a permanent resident of Tanger and friend of Bowles. The Library of America published an edition of Bowles's works in 2002. Works In addition to his chamber and stage compositions, Bowles published fourteen short story collections, several novels, three volumes of poetry, numerous translations, numerous travel articles, and an autobiography. Music Fiction Novels Short fiction Short stories (collections) Poetry Translations References Further reading Biographies and memoirs Paul Bowles: 2117 Tanger Socco, Robert Briatte (1989), The first biography of Paul Bowles (in French) An Invisible Spectator: A Biography of Paul Bowles, Christopher Sawyer-Laucanno (1989) You Are Not I: A Portrait of Paul Bowles, Millicent Dillon (1998) Paul Bowles: A Life, Virginia Spencer Carr (2004), Isherwood, Bowles, Vedanta, Wicca, and Me, Lee Prosser (2001), Paul Bowles, Magic and Morocco, Allan Hibbard (2004), February House, Sherill Tippins (2005), Paul Bowles by his Friends, Gary Pulsifer (1992), Second Son: an autobiography, David Herbert (1972), The Sheltering Sky, (movie edition) Bertolucci and Bowles (1990), Here to Learn, Mark Terrill (2002), Yesterday's Perfume, Cherie Nutting with Paul Bowles (2000), "Tangier Love Story, Jane Bowles, Paul Bowles and Me", Carol Adman (2014), ASIN B00NMM642G Literary criticism of Paul Bowles The Short Story in Midcentury America: Countercultural Form in the Work of Bowles, McCarthy, Welty, and Williams, Sam Reese (2017), Paul Bowles: Romantic Savage, Gena Dagel Caponi (1994), Paul Bowles: The Inner Geography, Wayne Pounds (1985), Paul Bowles: The Illumination of North Africa, Lawrence D. Stewart (1974), Paul Bowles: Twayne's Authors Series, Gena Dagel Caponi (1998), The Fiction of Paul Bowles: The Soul is the Weariest Part of the Body, Hans Bertens (1979), Published interviews with Bowles Conversations with Paul Bowles, Gena Dagel Caponi (1993), Desultory Correspondence, Florian Vetsch (1997), Catalog and archive editions on Bowles Paul Bowles: A Descriptive Bibliography, Jeffrey Miller (1986), Paul Bowles on Music, edited by Timothy Mangan and Irene Herrmann (2003), Other references External links Archives Paul Bowles papers, Special Collections, University of Delaware Library Paul Bowles collection, Special Collections, University of Delaware Library Virginia Spencer Carr papers, Special Collections, University of Delaware Library Paul Bowles collection at the Harry Ransom Center, University of Texas at Austin Paul Bowles papers at Rare Book & Manuscript Library, Columbia University Libraries Exhibitions Paul Bowles at 80 (online exhibition), Special Collections, University of Delaware Library Paul Bowles, 1910-1990 (online exhibition), Special Collections, University of Delaware Library Other links "The Authorized Paul Bowles Web Site" Paul Bowles audio and music web published on the Tellus Audio Cassette Magazine project archive at Ubuweb Music of Morocco: The Paul Bowles Recordings for the American Folklife Collection at archnet.org Interviews More interviews on the official Paul Bowles website Clips of interviews with Bowles from the documentary Paul Bowles in Morocco "Paul Bowles, A Conversation with Bruce Duffie" (Bruce Duffie, May 1992) "Stranger on a Strange Shore" (Gaither Stewart, Critique magazine, October 2000). Assessments Paul Bowles' Tangier and Fez, Mohamed Elkouche (from “Paul Bowles' Tangier and Fez: The Agony of Transition from Colonial to Post-colonial Times,” in Urban Generations: Post-Colonial Cities, Mohamed V University, Rabat, 2005. Reviews and obituaries Review of "The Sheltering Sky", Time, December 5, 1945 Review of "Let It Come Down", Critique magazine Review of "The Spider's House", New York Times, 1955 Review of "Up Above the World", The New York Times, 1966 Obituary, Manchester Guardian'', 19 November 1999 Obituary, BBC World, 19 November 1999 1910 births 1999 deaths 20th-century classical composers American agnostics American male classical composers American classical composers American ethnomusicologists American expatriates in Morocco 20th-century American memoirists 20th-century American novelists 20th-century American male writers Beat Generation writers Bisexual men Bisexual musicians Bisexual writers California State University faculty Existentialists LGBT classical composers LGBT memoirists Members of the Communist Party USA Musicians from Queens, New York American opera composers Male opera composers People from Jamaica, Queens People from Staten Island People from Tangier School of Visual Arts faculty University of Virginia alumni Writers from Queens, New York American LGBT novelists LGBT people from New York (state) American male novelists American male short story writers American short story writers American expatriates in France American translators French–English translators 20th-century translators 20th-century American composers Novelists from New York (state) American male non-fiction writers 20th-century American male musicians 20th-century LGBT people	[ -0.26667699217796326, 0.32773271203041077, -0.6639641523361206, -0.3179076313972473, 0.21986059844493866, 0.6794535517692566, 0.3755945861339569, -0.2425701916217804, 0.20538513362407684, -0.36996597051620483, -0.5420559048652649, 0.044465962797403336, -0.4225521981716156, 0.45719754695892334, -0.10124912858009338, -0.037089619785547256, 0.03505752980709076, -0.5419968962669373, -0.5141849517822266, -0.08397068828344345, -0.3943174481391907, 0.22830654680728912, 0.5253355503082275, 0.6564569473266602, 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229847	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tupolev%20Tu-114	Tupolev Tu-114	The Tupolev Tu-114 Rossiya (; NATO reporting name Cleat) was a turboprop-powered long-range airliner designed by the Tupolev design bureau and built in the Soviet Union from May 1955. The aircraft was the largest and fastest passenger plane at that time and also had the longest range, at 10,900 km (6,800 mi). It has held the official title of fastest propeller-driven aircraft since 1960. Due to its swept wing and powerplant design, the Tu-114 was able to travel at speeds typical of modern jetliners, . Although it was able to accommodate 224 passengers, when operated by Aeroflot, it was more common to provide 170 sleeping berths and a dining lounge. In 14 years of civilian service, the Tu-114 was reported to have a high level of safety and reliability. The Tu-114 carried over six million passengers before being replaced by the jet-powered Ilyushin Il-62. Thirty-two aircraft were built at the Kuibyshev aviation plant (No.18) in the early 1960s. Development In response to a directive No.1561-868 from the Council of Ministers and Ministry of Aircraft Production order No.571, issued in August 1955, the Tupolev Design Bureau was to create an airliner that had a range of 8,000 km (4,971 mi), based on the Tupolev Tu-95 strategic bomber, powered by four Kuznetsov NK-12 engines driving contra-rotating propellers. The Tu-114 used the basic wing, empennage, landing gear, and powerplants of the Tu-95 bomber, mated to a totally new pressurized fuselage of much larger diameter. To cope with the increased weight, increased landing flap surface area was required, and the flap chord was increased compared to the bomber's flaps. The wing was mounted low on the fuselage, giving the Tu-114 a much higher stance on its landing gear than the bomber. As a result, a new nose landing gear strut was required, although the main landing gear remained unchanged. The Tu-114 was able to reach speeds typical of modern jetliners (880 km/h), but its cruising speed equivalent to Mach 0.71 was markedly lower than equivalent jet airliners such as the Boeing 707, Douglas DC-8, and Vickers VC10, which usually cruised at Mach 0.83. It carried up to 224 passengers in maximum carriage configuration, although a more usual number for long-distance transcontinental flights was 170 passengers, which enabled the planes to be fitted with such luxuries as sleeping berths and even a dining lounge for the upper-class cabin. Design The Tu-114 had several unique features for its time, such as: Wings swept back at 35 degrees — the same angle as for the Boeing 707 and several other pure turbojet-powered airliners The most powerful turboprop engines to enter service on any aircraft, the Kuznetsov NK-12MV, each driving two AV-60H, contra-rotating, four-bladed, reversible-pitch propellers. Lower deck galleys. A dumbwaiter connected the galley to the upper deck; originally, a member of the crew was a chef. Lower deck aircrew rest area. Long landing gear (the nose gear was 3 meters high) due to a combination of a low wing and its large propeller diameter. Many destination airports did not have steps tall enough to reach the Tu-114's cabin door because of this. The Tu-114s was a rare example of plane with a dual-use layout — as commercial airliner and for government transportation. The same dual-purpose layout was used in the first Tu-104s. The Tu-114 had four sleeping compartments with three berths in each, and a "restaurant" cabin in the midsection of the aircraft — the loudest section on the aircraft — with eight tables, each of which had six seats in a face-to-face arrangement. During official flights the middle cabin was used as a restaurant for dining. VIPs like Nikita Khrushchev and his wife travelled in the sleeping compartments, with their staff and entourage in two tourist class cabins with 3+3 layout. Front cabins had 41 seats (first row 2+3), and the aft cabin had 54 seats. On domestic flights all seats were sold at one price, there was no class difference in the USSR during Tu-114s flying career. The most uncomfortable places on the plane were in the "restaurant" compartments (six seats instead three sleeping berths), these were sold last. Three places in row 16, near the stair to the lower deck were equipped with baby bassinets. Maximum seating capacity of the Tu-114 in its "native" configuration was 170 passengers. For international flights sleeping places were sold as first class. In the early seventies sleeping compartments and the "restaurant" on most Tu-114s (excluding three or four) were dismantled and replaced with the usual passenger seats, with maximum seating reaching 200. The design was not without shortcomings. Passengers on the Tu-114 endured high noise levels (108–112 dB) and vibrations from the propellers and engines. Operational history The first Tu-114, registration СССР-Л5611, was first shown to the West in 1958 at the Brussels World Exhibition. It later carried Nikita Khrushchev on his first trip to the United States in September 1959, the first such visit by any Soviet leader. The Tu-114 was still in the testing phase and had completed its first long range flight only four months earlier, after which postflight analysis found that hairline cracks had formed in the engines. Trusting the Soviet leadership to a still experimental aircraft was risky, but the only other option for a flight to the United States would be the short range Il-18 which would require multiple fueling stops. Although the Central Committee, Minister of Defense Malinovsky, and Khrushchev's personal pilot all considered it too risky to use the new aircraft, the Soviet premier insisted and aircraft designer Andrei Tupolev felt confident enough to put his son Alexei on the same flight. During Khrushchev's flight, a group of engineers were aboard the plane, operating diagnostic equipment to monitor the engines and verify that they were functioning correctly. Khrushchev later said, "We didn't publicize the fact that Tupolev's son was with us" for "to do so, would have meant giving explanations, and these might have been damaging to our image". When it arrived at Andrews Air Force Base, the ground crew found that the aircraft was so large and its landing gear so tall that they had no passenger steps high enough to reach the forward hatch. Khrushchev and his party were obliged to use the aircraft's own emergency escape ladder. The last flight of this particular plane was in 1968, and it is now on display at the Central Air Force Museum at Monino, outside of Moscow. Similar issues were experienced when the plane first landed at London and Paris airports, neither of which had hosted a plane of this size. The Tu-114 entered regular Aeroflot service on flights from Vnukovo Airport in Moscow to Khabarovsk on 24 April 1961. It was subsequently used for Aeroflot flights to international destinations including Copenhagen, Havana, Montreal, New Delhi, Paris, Belgrade and Tokyo (in co-operation with JAL). Flights to Havana via Conakry in Guinea began 10 July 1962. After the United States government placed political pressure on Guinea, landing rights were denied after four flights, and the Tu-114 service had to be routed through Dakar, Senegal, instead. Further American pressure to isolate Cuba resulted in denial of landing rights after three flights, and the route was changed to Algiers, Algeria, instead. After three more flights, Algiers was also closed to the Tu-114. To overcome this, the Tu-114 was specially modified into the long-range Tu-114D variant, with seating reduced from 170 to 60, and 15 extra fuel tanks added. These aircraft refuelled at Olenya near Murmansk, in the far North of the Soviet Union, and then flew via the Barents Sea to Havana. Usually, this fuel load was enough, but in case of strong headwinds, an emergency refuelling stop in Nassau in The Bahamas was necessary; this was an American military field. All planes operating this route were converted back to normal specifications after the jet-powered Ilyushin Il-62 began flying the Moscow–Havana route. Aeroflot first appeared in the OAG registry in the January 1967 issue, which shows: a weekly Tu-114 from Sheremetyevo to Montreal, scheduled 11 hours 50 minutes (YUL to SVO was 10:30) two weekly Tu-114s to Havana in 19:20, returning in 16:25 one weekly Tu-114 to Delhi in 7:00, returning in 7:40 The May 1967 OAG adds the weekly flight to Tokyo, taking 10:35 hours and the return to SVO in 11:25 hours. Ilyushin 62s took over the Delhi and Montreal flights in 1967 (though the August 1968 OAG shows a weekly SVO-YUL-HAV Tu-114 along with a weekly Tu-114 via Algiers). Ilyushins took over the Tokyo flight in May/June 1969 and Havana, probably sometime in 1969. With the increasing use of the Il-62, the Tu-114s were shifted to long domestic flights from Domodedovo to Alma-Ata, Tashkent, Novosibirsk and Khabarovsk. Tu-114s were also used for charter operations for senior officials of the USSR and various official delegations. The Tu-114 had a short commercial service life compared with other Soviet airliners, being operated on regular flights from 1962 to 1976 (in comparison, the Il-62 is still in civilian service 52 years after its introduction, as of 2019). The fatigue life of the airframe was set at 14,000 flying hours. Most of the aircraft passed this point in 1976. By the summer of 1977, Aeroflot decided to scrap 21 aircraft at the same time. A few continued in use by the Soviet Air Forces until 1991. The Tu-114 was renowned for reliability, speed and fuel economy. Tu-114 burned 5,000-5,500 kg/hour of fuel at cruise flight. Its safety record was rarely matched: there was only one accident involving fatalities, but the plane was not airborne at the time. It was only withdrawn from service after the introduction of the Il-62 and after carrying over six million passengers with Aeroflot and Japan Airlines. JAL service For the Moscow–Tokyo route, Japan Air Lines made an agreement with Aeroflot to use the Tu-114. The flight crew included one JAL member, and the cabin crew consisted of five each from Aeroflot and JAL. The seating was changed to a two-class layout with 105 seats, and the aircraft livery included a small JAL logo and lettering on the forward fuselage. The first flight was on April 17, 1967. In 1969, the Moscow–Tokyo Tu-114 flights ended and the four involved planes converted back to the 200-seat domestic layout. World records In June 1959 the Aviation Sports committee of the Central Air Club named after Valeriy P. Chkalov approached the Tupolev OKB suggesting that various aviation records could be taken by Tupolev-designed aircraft. The Tupolev OKB prepared a detailed plan for record attempts on the Tu-16, Tu-104, Tu-104B, Tu-95M and Tu-114. The second preproduction Tu-114 (СССР-76459) was prepared and clearance obtained to fly with the 30-tonne (metric ton) payload required for some of the record attempts. In a series of flights beginning on 24 March 1960 the Tu-114 achieved the following records in Sub-class C-1 (landplanes) Group 2 (turboprop): 24 March 1960 Maximum speed on a 1,000-km (621-mile) closed circuit with payloads of Pilot: Ivan Sukhomlin (USSR) Captain: B. Timochuk + 4 other crew Course/place: Sternberg Astronomical Institute 1 April 1960 Maximum speed on a 2,000-km (1,242-mile) closed circuit with payloads of Pilot: Ivan Sukhomlin (USSR) 2nd pilot: N. Kharitonov + 3 other crew Course/place: Sternberg-Point Observatory (USSR) Tu-114 '76459' 9 April 1960 Maximum speed on a 5,000-km (3,105-mile) closed circuit with payloads of Pilot: Ivan Sukhomlin (USSR) 2nd pilot: Konstantin Sapelkin (2nd pilot) Course/place: Sternberg-Point Observatory (USSR) Tu-114 '76459' 12 July 1961 Altitude with payloads of 25,000 to 30,000 kg (55,115 to 66,138 lb) Pilot: Ivan Sukhomlin (USSR) 2nd pilot: Piotr Soldatov Course/place: Vnukovo (USSR) 21 April 1962 Maximum speed on a 10,000-km (6,210-mile) closed circuit with payloads of 1,000 to 10,000 kg (2,205 to 22,046 lb) Pilot: Ivan Sukhomlin (USSR) 2nd pilot: P. Soldatov Course/place: Sternberg-Point Observatory (USSR) Tu-114 '76467' All these records stand, but the category was discontinued when the category was split into takeoff weight sub-groups. Similar records have been set in the new sub-groups by Tu-95 and Tu-142 aircraft at faster speeds. Variants Tu-114 — initial production version Tu-114 6NK-8 — projected long-range version with six NK-8 turbofan engines. Destined as an alternative to the Il-62M; never reached production. Tu-114-200 — upgrade to original Tu-114, with seating layout for 200 passengers. Almost all aircraft were converted. Tu-114A — projected upgraded version designed in 1962–1963, with 98–102 passengers on long-range routes; never entered production Tu-114B — variant of Tu-114A with radome and assigned to carry large cruise missile Tu-114C — variant of Tu-114A with radome from Tu-114B and side blisters Tu-114D — (Dalniy, "long-range") long-range version for flights to Cuba, with fewer passengers and increased take-off weight to 182,000 kg. Three built; two were converted to Tu-114-200 standard in 1969–1970 and one was written off in 1962. Not to be confused with the Tu-116 (Tu-114D). Tu-114E — reconnaissance version of Tu-114A Tu-114F — reconnaissance version of Tu-114A and Tu-114E with additional sensors Tu-114PLO — projected maritime strike variant armed with anti-ship missiles and naval radar. This variant was to be powered by a nuclear powerplant. Tu-114T and Tu-114TS — retrofit into air ambulances Tu-115 — projected military transport version; never reached production Related developments Tu-116 The Tu-116 was a Tupolev Tu-95 bomber fitted with pressurized passenger cabins built to serve as the official government transport. The two passenger cabins were fitted into the space of bomb bays and were not connected to each other or the flight deck. Tu-126 The Tu-126 (NATO reporting name Moss) was used by the Soviet Air Force in the airborne early warning (AEW) role until being replaced by the Beriev A-50. Operators Civil Japan Japan Airlines – In association with Aeroflot. Soviet Union Aeroflot Military Soviet Union Soviet Air Forces (Tu-114, Tu-116) Accidents and incidents During its service life, the Tu-114 had only one fatal accident. On 17 February 1966, Aeroflot Flight 65 attempted to take off from Moscow Sheremetyevo Airport at night in deteriorating weather conditions, after the flight had been delayed several times. The crew was unaware that snow had not been properly cleared from the full width of the runway involved. The plane's wing struck a large snow mound at speed and the propellers of the number 3 and 4 engines hit the runway, resulting in the aircraft veering off course and catching fire. Initial Soviet sources suggested that 48 of the 70 persons on board were killed, including the pilot. The aircraft was bound for Brazzaville, Republic of the Congo with a number of Africans and a Soviet trade delegation on board. Later reports give the fatalities as 21 of 48 on board. Another non-operational aircraft was written off, with fuselage damage, in August 1962 at Vnukovo Airport after the nose undercarriage collapsed during servicing. Tail number СССР-76479 was one of only three long range D models manufactured. Aircraft on display Russia СССР-L5611 – (Prototype) On static display at the Central Air Force Museum in Monino, Moscow Oblast. This is the airliner used by Nikita Khrushchev when he visited The United States in 1959. СССР-76490 – On static display at the Ulyanovsk Aircraft Museum in Ulyanovsk, Ulyanovsk Oblast together with the sole surviving example of the related Tu-116. Ukraine СССР-76485 – On static display at the Aviation Museum of the National Aviation University in Kryvyi Rih. Specifications (Tu-114) See also References Alexander, Jean. Russian Aircraft since 1940. Putnam. London. Gordon,Yefim & Rigmant, Vladimir. Tupolev Tu-114. Midland. Hinkley. 2007. Gunston, Bill. The Osprey Encyclopedia of Russian Aircraft 1875–1995. London, Osprey. 1995. Taylor, John W. R. Jane's All The World's Aircraft 1969–70. London: Sampson Low, Marston & Company, 1969. . External links Tu-114 in Museum of Civilian Aviation, Ulyanovsk, Russia "Tu-114 Rossiya" a 1959 Flight article Tu-0114 1950s Soviet airliners Four-engined tractor aircraft Low-wing aircraft Aircraft with contra-rotating propellers Four-engined turboprop aircraft Articles containing video clips Aircraft first flown in 1957	[ 0.22027763724327087, 0.2319122552871704, 0.14220303297042847, 0.17297270894050598, -0.19952046871185303, 0.7627329230308533, -0.020841913297772408, -0.5016607642173767, 0.2128150463104248, 0.14982019364833832, -0.6075438261032104, 0.33310365676879883, -0.8215604424476624, -0.030919905751943588, -0.24881719052791595, 0.21033886075019836, 0.7278721928596497, -0.08120636641979218, -0.02408549003303051, -0.5869069695472717, 0.22435523569583893, 0.05241784453392029, 0.761074960231781, 0.08490587770938873, -0.06427419930696487, -0.3105769455432892, 0.8031965494155884, 0.780349850654602, 0.2241000086069107, 0.8805202841758728, -0.07628858089447021, 0.5500642657279968, 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229853	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tupolev%20Tu-134	Tupolev Tu-134	The Tupolev Tu-134 (NATO reporting name: Crusty) is a twin-engined, narrow-body jet airliner built in the Soviet Union for short and medium-haul routes from 1966 to 1989. The original version featured a glazed-nose design and, like certain other Russian airliners (including its sister model the Tu-154), it can operate from unpaved airfields. One of the most widely used aircraft in former Comecon countries, the number in active service is decreasing because of operational safety concerns and noise restrictions. The model has seen long-term service with some 42 countries, with some European airlines having scheduled as many as 12 daily takeoffs and landings per plane. In addition to regular passenger service, it has also been used in various air force, army and navy support roles; for pilot and navigator training; and for aviation research and test projects. In recent years, a number of Tu-134s have been converted for use as VIP transports and business jets. A total of 854 Tu-134s were built of all versions (including test bed examples) with Aeroflot as the largest user; by 1995, the Tu-134 had carried 360 million passengers for that airline. Design and development Following the introduction of engines mounted on pylons on the rear fuselage by the French Sud Aviation Caravelle, airliner manufacturers around the world rushed to adopt the new layout. Its advantages included clean wing airflow without disruption by nacelles or pylons and decreased cabin noise. At the same time, placing heavy engines that far back created challenges with the location of the centre of gravity in relation to the centre of lift, which was at the wings. To make room for the engines, the tailplanes had to be relocated to the tail fin, which had to be stronger and therefore heavier, further compounding the tail-heavy arrangement. During a 1960 visit to France, Soviet leader Nikita Khrushchev was so impressed by the quiet cabin of the Caravelle, that on 1 August 1960 the Tupolev OKB received an official directive to create the Tu-124A with a similar engine arrangement. The requirement was also driven by the need to replace slow, aging piston-engined Il-14s on domestic routes. In 1961, the Soviet state airline, Aeroflot, updated its requirement specifications to include greater payload and passenger capacity. The first Tu-124A prototype, SSSR-45075, first flew on 29 July 1963. On 22 October 1963, the prototype British BAC One-Eleven, which had a similar layout, crashed with the loss of all crew while testing its stalling properties. The aircraft had entered pitch-up: the high-mounted tailplane became trapped in the turbulent wake produced by the wings (deep stall), which prevented recovery from the stall. As a result, the tailplane on Tu-124A was enlarged by 30% for greater control authority. Since Aeroflot's requirements dictated a larger aircraft than initially planned, the Soloviev Design Bureau developed the more powerful D-30 low-bypass turbofan engines. On 20 November 1963, the new airliner was designated Tu-134. Design curiosities of the Tu-134 included a sharp wing sweepback of 35 degrees, compared to 25–28 degrees in its counterparts. The engines on early production Tu-134s lacked thrust reversers, which made the aircraft one of the few airliners to use a brake parachute for landing. The majority of onboard electronics operated on direct current. The lineage of early Soviet airliners could be traced directly to the Tupolev Tu-16 strategic bomber, and the Tu-134 carried over the glass nose for the navigator and the landing gear fitted with low-pressure tires to permit operation from unpaved airfields. Serial production began in 1966 at the Kharkov Aviation Production Association, and production of the Tu-124 was discontinued. The Tu-134 was designed for short-haul lines with low passenger traffic. Originally the aircraft had 56 seats in a single class configuration, or 50 seats in a two-class configuration. In 1968, Tupolev began work on an improved Tu-134 variant with a 72-seat capacity. The fuselage received a plug for greater passenger capacity and an auxiliary power unit in the tail. As a result, the maximum range was reduced from 3,100 kilometers to 2,770 kilometers. The upgraded D-30 engines now featured thrust reversers, replacing the parachute. The first Tu-134A, converted from a production Tu-134, flew on 22 April 1969. The first airline flight was on 9 November 1970. An upgraded version, the Tu-134B began production in 1980, with the navigator position abandoned, and seating capacity increased to 96 seats. Efforts subsequently began to develop a Tu-134D with increased engine thrust, but the project was cancelled. Operational history In September 1967, the Tu-134 made its first scheduled flight from Moscow to Adler. The Tu-134 was the first Soviet airliner to receive international certification from the International Civil Aviation Organization, which permitted it to be used on international routes. Due to this certification, Aeroflot used most of its Tu-134s on international routes. In 1968, the first export customers, Interflug of East Germany, LOT Polish Airlines and Malév Hungarian Airlines purchased the Tu-134. In 1969, the Tu-134 was displayed at the Paris Air Show. From 1972, Aeroflot began placing the Tu-134 in domestic service to Baku, Yerevan, Kyiv, Kishinev, Krasnodar, Leningrad, Omsk, Riga, and Sochi from Sheremetyevo International Airport in Moscow. In its early years, the Tu-134 developed a reputation for reliability and efficiency, especially when compared with previous Soviet designs. After the establishment of tougher noise standards in the ICAO regulations in 2002, the Tu-134 was banned from most western European airports for its high noise levels. In early 2006, 245 Tu-134s were still in operation, 162 of which were in Russia. After a fatal accident in March 2007, and at the instigation of Russian Minister of Transportation Igor Levitin, Aeroflot announced that it would be retiring its fleet, and the last Tu-134 was removed from service on 1 January 2008. Some were still in operations with Aeroflot subsidiaries on local routes within Russia. The Tu-134 also found a new life as a business jet with many having an expensive business interior installed. High fuel and maintenance costs are increasingly limiting the number used today. In June 2011, as a response to RusAir Flight 9605 which resulted in 47 fatalities, Russian president Dmitry Medvedev ordered preparations for taking the Tu-134 out of use by 2012. On 22 May 2019, the final passenger flight of the Tu-134 in Russia took place. Many Tu-134s have been preserved as memorials at airports throughout the former Soviet Union. A former Malév Tu-134 (registration HA-LBA) is on display at the Aeropark at Budapest Ferenc Liszt International Airport in Hungary. Variants Tu-134 The glass-nosed version. The first series could seat up to 64 passengers, and this was later increased to 72 passengers. The original designation was Tu-124A. Tu-134A Second series, with upgraded engines, improved avionics, seating up to 84 passengers. All Tu-134A variants have been built with the distinctive glass nose and chin radar dome, but some were modified to the B standard with the radar moved to the nose radome. Tu-134A-2 The glass nose was replaced. Tu-134A-3 Second series, powered by two updated Soloviev D-30 turbofan engines. Tu-134A-5 Most recent version. Tu-134B Second series, 80 seats, radar moved to the nose radome, eliminating the glazed nose. Some Tu-134B models have long-range fuel tanks fitted under the fuselage; these are visible as a sizable bulge. Tu-134BV Space shuttle work model. Tu-134LK Cosmonaut training version. Tu-134M Projected modernized version of Tu-134B, powered by Progress D-436T1-134 engines. Tu-134S Projected cargo version based on Tu-134A. Tu-134UBL Tu-160 crew training version, with Tu-160 nose cone. Tu-134UBK Naval version of Tu-134UBL. Only one was ever built. Tu-134BSh Tu-22M crew trainer, fitted with a Tu-22M radar in the nose. Tu-134Sh-1 Crew trainer with bomb racks for heavy bomber crews Tu-134Sh-2 navigator trainer for tactical bomber crews Tu-134SKh Crop survey version. Operators Civil operators As of 2019, just two Tupolev Tu-134s remain in airline service. Operators are: Air Koryo (2) Syrianair (also used for VIP purposes) Former civil operators Military operators Former military operators Accidents and incidents Specifications (Tu-134A) See also References Bibliography External links 1960s Soviet airliners Tu-0134 Twinjets T-tail aircraft Aircraft first flown in 1963 Low-wing aircraft Kharkiv Aviation Factory aircraft	[ -0.12847569584846497, -0.019874487072229385, -0.03000529110431671, -0.08730961382389069, -0.10047932714223862, 0.593159556388855, -0.0036990270018577576, -0.147638201713562, -0.06855292618274689, 0.3275572657585144, -0.6090628504753113, 0.002019193023443222, -0.7481101751327515, -0.00006950922397663817, -0.13887076079845428, 0.1429319530725479, 0.7069401741027832, 0.32273051142692566, -0.12581506371498108, -0.6533234119415283, 0.21097202599048615, -0.0098479725420475, 1.0505118370056152, 0.12182000279426575, -0.14529478549957275, 0.12387518584728241, 0.47617530822753906, 0.7835571765899658, 0.27233633399009705, 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229854	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ilyushin%20Il-10	Ilyushin Il-10	The Ilyushin Il-10 (Cyrillic Илью́шин Ил-10, NATO reporting name: "Beast") was a Soviet ground attack aircraft developed at the end of World War II by the Ilyushin construction bureau. It was also license-built in Czechoslovakia by Avia as the Avia B-33. Development From the start of Eastern Front combat in World War II, the Soviet Air Force (VVS) used the successful ground attack aircraft Ilyushin Il-2 Sturmovik, powered by the Mikulin AM-38 inline engine. As the war progressed, the Soviets laid plans for that aircraft's successor. The main goal was to increase speed and maneuverability at low altitudes, mainly to evade small-caliber anti-aircraft artillery, which was the main threat for ground attack aircraft, and to remove some of the Il-2's faults. The most promising project was a modern, light and maneuverable close assault aircraft, the Sukhoi Su-6, developed by Pavel Sukhoi's bureau from 1942. At the same time, Sergei Ilyushin developed a heavier aircraft, the BSh M-71, (Il-8 M-71), derived from the Il-2 design, on which it was partly based, to be powered by the prototype Tumansky M-71 radial engine, which did not enter production. In 1943, Ilyushin started work on a new aircraft, Il-1, which was to be a 1- or 2-seat heavily armoured fighter-interceptor, meant mainly for fighting enemy bombers and transports. The Il-1 was similar to the Il-2 design, but was more modern, compact, and powered with a new Mikulin engine: the AM-42. But the VVS gave up the idea of heavy armoured fighters, due to their low speed, which was not enough to intercept modern bombers. As a result, Ilyushin decided to turn the Il-1 into a two-seat ground attack plane, with the designation changed to Il-10 in early 1944 (odd numbers were reserved for fighters). At that time, Ilyushin also finished a prototype of a heavier ground attack plane, the Il-8, using the same engine, and more closely derived from the Il-2. It carried a higher payload (1,000 kg/2,204 lb), but had lower performance than the Il-10. Both types first flew in April 1944, the Il-10 proving greatly superior to the Il-8, which had poor handling. The Il-10 successfully passed trials in early June 1944. The third competitor was a new variant of the Sukhoi Su-6, also powered by the AM-42 engine. After comparative tests, the Il-10 was considered the winner and was chosen as the new ground attack plane, despite some opinions that the Su-6 was a better aircraft, notwithstanding inferior performance and payload, with better gun armament. Notably, the Su-6 prototype was tested with maximum payload, causing lowered performance, while the Il-10 was tested with normal payload. Some advantages of the Il-10 came from its technical similarity to the Il-2. Production On 23 August 1944 the Il-10 was ordered into serial production by decision of the State Defense Committee (GKO) as a new ground attack plane. Its armament was initially similar to late model Il-2s, with two 23 mm VYa-23 cannons and two ShKAS machine guns in the wings, and a 12.7 mm UBT machine gun for a rear gunner, and 400 kg, or a maximum 600 kg of bombs. Unlike the Il-2 and Su-6, it was not initially meant to carry rockets. Production of the Il-10 started in Kuybyshev's factories No. 1 and No. 18. The first production aircraft flew on 27 September 1944 and 99 aircraft were produced by the end of 1944. Early series aircraft showed teething problems, most notably engine faults and fires. Most problems were eliminated by 1945. Aircraft produced from April 1945 onwards could carry four unguided air-to-ground rockets. Aircraft produced from 1947 onwards were fitted with stronger armament, consisting of four 23 mm NS-23 cannons in the wings and a 20 mm cannon for the rear gunner. Il-10 production ended in 1949, after a run of 4,600 aircraft; in the last two years, they were produced in factory No. 64. Between 1945 and 1947, 280 UIl-2 or Il-10U trainer variants were produced. The rear gunner' cockpit was replaced with a longer instructor's cockpit with dual controls. Its performance and construction were similar to the combat variant apart from armament, which was reduced to two cannons, two rockets, and a standard load of bombs. In 1951, the Czechoslovak firm Avia secured a license to make Il-10s, with the designation B-33. The first one flew on 26 December 1951. Initially, their engines were Soviet-built. From 1952 onwards the engines were also produced in Czechoslovakia as the M-42. Besides the combat variant, a Czechoslovak trainer variant also entered service under the designation CB-33. In total, 1,200 B-33s were built by 1956. In 1951, due to experience acquired during the Korean War, the Soviet Air Force decided that propeller ground attack aircraft might still be useful, and decided to renew Il-10 production in a modified variant, the Il-10M, which first flew on 2 July 1951. It was slightly longer, with a wider wingspan, and larger control surfaces, with a fin under the tail. Four of the more recently developed NR-23 cannons were mounted in the wings, while the payload stayed the same, and newer navigation equipment was installed, giving partial all-weather capability. Speed decreased slightly, but handling improved. Between 1953 and 1954, 146 Il-10Ms were made, all but 10 in Rostov-on-Don's factory No.168. In total, 6,166 of all Il-10 variants were made, including those built under license. Trials of Il-10s mounted with more powerful AM-43 and AM-45 engines took place, but proved unsuccessful. Ilyushin next designed a lighter close support aircraft, the Il-16, with improved performance and similar armament. It first flew on 10 June 1945. A short run entered production, but the project was cancelled in 1946 due to the AM-43 engine's unreliability. Design Technical description The airframe was a one engine two-seat monoplane, with a metal-covered frame. It was highly armoured. The front part of the fuselage, with the cockpit, was a shell of armour plates 4–8 mm thick; the thickest, 8 mm, were under the engine, there was no armour above the engine. The front windshield was made of armour glass 64 mm (2.5 in) thick. Also armoured were: the roof above the pilot, side window frames in the pilot's cab, the wall between crew seats, and the rear wall behind the cab. Total armour weight was 994 kg, including its attachment. The wing consisted of a central section, with two bomb bays, and two detachable outer panels. The undercarriage was retractable. The main wheels folded to the rear after rotating by 86°. Early Il-10s had two 23 mm VYa-23 autocannons (150 rounds each) and 2 7.62 mm ShKAS machine guns (750 rounds each) fixed in the wings, and a 12.7 mm UBT machine gun in a rear gunner station BU-8, with 150 rounds. The horizontal angle of the rear machine gun field of fire was 100°. From 1947, the aircraft were armed with four NS-23 23 mm cannons in the wings (150 rounds each) and 20 mm B-20T cannon in a rear gunner station BU-9 (150 rounds). The IL-10M had four 23 mm NR-23 cannons in wings (150 rounds each) and 20 mm B-20EN cannon in a rear gunner station BU-9M (150 rounds). Avia B-33 had four 23 mm NS-23RM cannons in wings and 20 mm B-20ET cannon in a rear gunner station BU-9M. The normal bomb load was 400 kg, maximum load was 600 kg. This could be small fragmentation or anti-tank bomblets, put in bomb bays, or four 50–100 kg bombs in bomb bays and externally under wings, or two 200–250 kg bombs attached under wings. Small bomblets were put directly on bomb bay floors, in piles. A typical load was 182 (maximum 200) 2 kg AO-2,5-2 fragmentation bombs, or 144 PTAB-2,5-1,5 anti-tank HEAT bombs. Apart from bombs, four unguided rockets RS-82 or RS-132 could be carried on rail launchers under wings. Avia B-33s were also fitted to carry other rocket types. Late Soviet aircraft could carry ORO-82 and ORO-132 tube launchers. In the tail section was a DAG-10 launcher with 10 anti-aircraft or anti-personnel grenades AG-2 (after being thrown, they would fall with parachutes and then burst, but were not widely used in practice). The Il-10 engine was a 12-cylinder inline V engine Mikulin AM-42, liquid-cooled, power: 1,770 hp continuous, takeoff power: 2,000 hp. Three-blade propeller AV-5L-24 of 3.6 m diameter. Two fuel tanks in the fuselage: upper 440 l over engine, ahead of the cockpit, and lower tank of 290 l under the cockpit. The aircraft had a radio set and a camera AFA-1M in a rear section of the fuselage. Operational history In October 1944, the Il-10 first entered service with training units in the Soviet Air Force. In January 1945, the first Il-10 combat unit entered service with the 78th Guards Assault Aviation Regiment, but it did not enter action due to unfinished training. However, three other Il-10 units managed to take part in the final combat actions of World War II in Europe. They were the 571st Assault Aviation Regiment (from 15 April 1945), the 108th Guards Assault Aviation Regiment (from 16 April 1945), and the 118th Guards Assault Aviation Regiment (on 8 May 1945). About a dozen aircraft were destroyed by flak or engine breakdowns, but the Il-10 appeared to be a successful design. One was shot down by an Fw 190 fighter, but a crew of the 118th Regiment shot down another Fw 190 and probably damaged another. On 10 May 1945, the day after the official Soviet end of the war, (Victory Day), there were 120 serviceable Il-10s in Soviet Air Force combat units, and 26 disabled ones. After the USSR reentered the war against the Empire of Japan, with the invasion of Manchuria, from 9 August 1945, one Il-10 unit, the 26th Assault Aviation Regiment of the Pacific Navy Aviation, was used in combat in the Korean Peninsula, attacking Japanese ships in Rasin and rail transports. After the war, until the early 1950s, the Il-10 was a basic Soviet ground attack aircraft. It was withdrawn from service in 1956. At the same time, work on new jet-powered dedicated armoured ground attack planes (like the Il-40) was canceled, and the Soviets turned to multipurpose fighter-bomber aviation. The Il-10 and its licensed variant, the Avia B-33, became a basic ground attack plane of the Warsaw Pact countries. From 1949 to 1959, the Polish Air Force used 120 Il-10s (including 24 UIl-10), and 281 B-33s. In Poland, the B-33 was modified to carry 400 l fuel tanks under its wings. From 1950 to 1960, Czechoslovakia used 86 Il-10s, including six UIl-10s, and about 600 B-33s. From 1949 to 1956, the Hungarian Air Force used 159 Il-10s and B-33s. From 1950 to 1960, the Romanian Air Force used 14 Il-10s and 156 B-33s. Bulgaria also used these aircraft. In the late 1940s, 93 Il-10 and UIl-10s were given to North Korea. They were then used in the 57th Assault Aviation Regiment during the early phase of the Korean War. They were initially used with success against the weak anti-aircraft defense of South Korean forces (following the US refusal to supply the south with "heavy weapons"), but then they suffered heavy losses in encounters against the United States Air Force fighters and were bombed on the ground themselves. After several weeks, about 20 remained. In the summer of 1950, North Korea received more aircraft from the USSR. The North Koreans claimed that they sank a warship on 22 August 1950 with Il-10s, but it was never confirmed. From 1950, Il-10s were used by the People's Republic of China, in two regiments of an assault aviation division. They were used in combat during a conflict with the Republic of China, (Taiwan), over border islands in January 1955. They remained in service until 1972 (replaced by Nanchang Q-5). From 1957, Yemen used 24 B-33s. Kemlitz incident On 14 April 1951 a flight of Soviet Il-10 aircraft of the 16th Air Army departed Reinsdorf for the bombing and strafing range at Lieberoser Heide. Thirteen aircraft crashed across a wide area in the vicinity of Kemlitz for the loss of 26 aircrew. The cause of the disaster – whether sabotage, a fueling error, or something else – remains publicly unknown. The aircrew are buried at the Soviet Cemetery Potsdam. In April 2011 a memorial stone was erected in the village square at Kemlitz. Variants Il-10 Initial production variant Il-10M Redesigned production variant Il-10U Two-seat operational trainer. Also known as UIl-10. Avia B-33 Czechoslovakia-built variant of the initial Il-10 Avia BS-33 Czechoslovakia-built two-seat operational trainer Operators Kingdom of Afghanistan Afghan Air Force may have received some B-33 aircraft, but this is unconfirmed. People's Republic of Bulgaria Bulgarian Air Force received first Il-10 aircraft in 1947, later unknown number of B-33s were delivered. All were withdrawn in 1954. People's Liberation Army Air Force From 1950 to 1952, 254 Il-10 attackers were imported, used by assault aviation divisions of PLAAF. They were used in combat during conflict with Taiwan on border islands in January 1955. The last 103 IL-10s retired in 1972. Czechoslovak Air Force received about 80 Il-10s and 4–6 Il-10Us in summer 1950. Additionally about 600 of locally built B-33s were delivered. All were operated from 1950 through 1962. People's Republic of Hungary Hungarian Air Force received 159 Il-10 aircraft (including about 14 training UIl-10) and operated it from 1949 through 1956. On retirement, 120 airframes were destroyed. The Il-10's Hungarian codename was "Párduc" (Panther). Indonesian Air Force received unknown number B-33s from Poland in 1957. Aircraft were modified in Poland and could carry additional 300-liter fuel tank under fuselage. Due to poor handling aircraft were returned to Poland. Korean People's Air Force received about 50 Il-10s, probably all were from World War II production. Polish Air Force received about 120 Il-10 aircraft (probably 96 Il-10 and 24 UIl-10) and used it from February 1949 through 1959. Additionally at least 281 B-33 aircraft were delivered between 1954 and 1956 but all were withdrawn in 1961 due to poor quality. Polish B-33 aircraft were modified to carry additional fuel. People's Republic of Romania Romanian Air Force received 14 old Il-10s and UIl-10s in 1950 and 1952. In 1953 140 B-33s and 16 CB-33s trainers were delivered and were used through 1960. Soviet Air Force Soviet Naval Aviation Kingdom of Yemen Yemen Air Force received 24 B-33 aircraft in 1957. Aircraft on display Il-10 Central Air Force Museum at Monino, outside of Moscow, Russia Chinese Aviation Museum in Beijing, China Museum of the Polish Army in Warsaw, Poland Romanian Aviation Museum in Bucharest, Romania B-33 (licensed version produced in Czechoslovakia) Lubuskie Military Museum in Drzonów, Poland Polish Aviation Museum in Kraków, Poland Prague Aviation Museum in Kbely, Czech Republic Route E371, Nižný Komárnik in Nižný Komárnik, Presov, Slovak Republic Google Maps Link Specifications (Il-10) See also References Notes Bibliography Donald, Donald and Jon Lake, eds. Encyclopedia of World Military Aircraft. London: AIRtime Publishing, 1996. . Gordon, Yefim and Sergey Kommissarov. Ilyushin IL-2 and IL-10 Shturmovik. Wiltshire, UK: The Crowood Press, 2004. . Green, William and Gordon Swanborough. "The Annals of Ilyusha: Ilyushin's Proliferous Shturmovik" Air Enthusiast, No. 12, April–July 1980. Bromley, Kent, UK: Pilot Press, 1980. pp. 1–10, 71–77. ISSN 0143-5450. Green, William and Gordon Swanborough. "Ilyushin's Proliferous Shturmovik - Part Two". Air Enthusiast, No. 13, August–November 1980. Bromley, Kent, UK: Pilot Press, 1980. pp. 26–34. ISSN 0143-5450. Gunston, Bill. The Osprey Encyclopedia of Russian Aircraft 1875–1995. London: Osprey, 1995. . Hardesty, Von. Red Phoenix: The Rise of Soviet Air Power, 1941–1945. Washington, D.C.: Smithsonian Books, 1982. . Michulec, Robert. Ił-2 Ił-10. Monografie Lotnicze #22 (in Polish). Gdańsk: AJ-Press, 1999. . Шавров, В.Б. История конструкций самолетов в СССР 1938–1950 гг. (3 изд.) (in Russian). Moscow: Машиностроение, 1994. . (Shavrov, V.B. Istoriia konstruktskii samoletov v SSSR, 1938–1950 gg. (3rd ed.). translation: History of Aircraft design in USSR: 1938–1950. Moscow: Mashinostroenie Publishing House, 1994. ). Растренин, О.В. "Штурмовик Ил-10. Часть 1" (in Russian). Avia-Kollektsya, 5/2004. Растренин, О.В. "Штурмовик Ил-10. Часть 2" (in Russian). Avia-Kollektsya, 1/2005. Shores, Christopher. Ground Attack Aircraft of World War II. London: Macdonald and Jane's, 1977. . Stapfer, Hans-Heiri. Il-2 Stormovik in Action (Aircraft number 155). Carrollton, Texas: Squadron/Signal Publications, Inc., 1995. . Tudor, Vasile. "Modernizarea aviatiei militare romane"/ Orizont Aviatic magazine no. 26, December 2004. 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229855	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1st%20Golden%20Raspberry%20Awards	1st Golden Raspberry Awards	The 1st Golden Raspberry Awards were held on March 31, 1981, at John Wilson's living room alcove to recognize the worst the film industry had to offer in 1980. Each category included as many as ten nominees; the maximum was lowered to five the following year to mirror the Oscars. Winners and nominees Films with multiple nominations These films received multiple nominations: See also 1980 in film 53rd Academy Awards 34th British Academy Film Awards 38th Golden Globe Awards Notes References External links Official summary of awards Nomination and award listing at the Internet Movie Database Golden Raspberry Awards 01 Golden Raspberry Awards Golden Raspberry Awards Golden Raspberry	[ -0.8024976849555969, 0.15462568402290344, 0.07259009033441544, 0.1585998684167862, -0.24593155086040497, -0.26003408432006836, 0.3792001008987427, -0.4460565149784088, -0.41455817222595215, -0.01835651323199272, 0.1547427922487259, 1.1056532859802246, -0.3519832193851471, -0.1132049709558487, -0.3069685697555542, 0.3642444610595703, 0.3860432207584381, 0.08918871730566025, 0.7854800820350647, -0.6926678419113159, -0.1795024573802948, 0.03314729779958725, 0.6027498245239258, 0.13410991430282593, 0.011690586805343628, -0.06599605828523636, 0.4082919657230377, 0.2650986313819885, 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229856	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ilyushin%20Il-62	Ilyushin Il-62	The Ilyushin Il-62 (; NATO reporting name: Classic) is a Soviet long-range narrow-body jetliner conceived in 1960 by Ilyushin. As successor to the popular turboprop Il-18 and with capacity for almost 200 passengers and crew, the Il-62 was the world's largest jet airliner when first flown in 1963. One of four pioneering long-range designs (the others being Boeing 707, Douglas DC-8, and Vickers VC10), it was the first such type to be operated by the Soviet Union and a number of allied nations. The Il-62 entered Aeroflot civilian service on 15 September 1967 with an inaugural passenger flight from Moscow to Montreal, and remained the standard long-range airliner for the Soviet Union (and later, Russia) for several decades. It was the first Soviet pressurised aircraft with non-circular cross-section fuselage and ergonomic passenger doors, and the first Soviet jet with six-abreast seating (the turboprop Tu-114 shared this arrangement) and international-standard position lights. Over 30 nations operated the Il-62 with over 80 examples exported and others having been leased by Soviet-sphere and several Western airlines. The Il-62M variant became the longest-serving model in its airliner class (average age of examples in service as of 2016 is over 32 years). Special VIP (salon) and other conversions were also developed and used as head-of-state transport by some 14 countries. However, because it is expensive to operate compared to newer generation airliners, the number in service was greatly reduced after the 2008 Great Recession. The Il-62's successors include the wide-bodied Il-86 and Il-96, both of which were made in much smaller numbers and neither of which was widely exported. Development The Ilyushin OKB presented a proposal for a four-engined long-range jet airliner in February 1960, receiving the go-ahead from the Soviet Council of Ministers on 18 June 1960, with the Kuznetsov Design Bureau being instructed at the same time to develop the NK-8 turbofan to power the new airliner. The official specification required that the airliner, designated Il-62, must carry 165 economy-class passengers over a distance of 4,500 km (2,800 mi) or 100 first class passengers over 6,700 km (4,200 mi). The Il-62 replaced the fast turboprop Tu-114 on long range routes. As the Tu-114 was just entering service when the Il-62 was on the drawing board, Ilyushin had time for an unhurried design, test, and development programme. This was useful, since the Il-62 did call for significant development. The Il-62 and the British Vickers VC10 are the only commercial airliners with four engines fitted in twinned/paired nacelles by the sides of, and beneath, a "T" shaped empennage (T-tail), although the Lockheed JetStar business jet shares this configuration. In the case of Ilyushin, the configuration was dictated by TsAGI, the Soviet Union's aerospace agency, since Ilyushin's design bureau lacked the resources to engage in configuration studies. This layout allowed the wing design to be optimised for aerodynamic efficiency, without being cluttered by having to carry engines. In addition, the rear-mounted engines reduced engine noise in the cabin and allowed smaller vertical tail surfaces (as the yawing moment in the event of an engine failure was reduced compared to wing mounted engines). These advantages are balanced by a number of drawbacks. The wing structure, lacking the weight of heavy engines to pull down against the wing bending moment, needed to be heavier, as did the rear fuselage structure, which had to carry the engines. In addition, aerodynamic wash (shadow) from the wing blankets the tail when the nose is pitched up (high angle of attack) leading the aircraft into a condition known as deep stall. This called for complex and (in the 1960s) unreliable automatic stall warning systems such as stick shakers and stick pushers to prevent the aircraft from stalling, although the Il-62's wing was designed to prevent deep stall. Early aircraft (prototypes, pre-production and initial production aircraft) display an evolution from thin or thick kinked leading inboard edges to the ultimate thick and straight 1966 shape. The characteristic "dog-tooth" also moved until fixed before production began. The engine installation also evolved, with the engines' longitudinal axes canted by 3 degrees from the horizontal, addition of thrust reversers to the outer engines, and slimming down of the entire installation as production began. The prototype was grossly underpowered as its intended NK-8 engines were not ready, and small Lyulka AL-7 turbojet engines had to be installed temporarily. The prototype with AL-7PB engines (registered СССР-06156) first flew on 3 January 1963, but crashed after clipping a perimeter fence during a maximum weight testing flight of the development program. The production Il-62 was powered by the originally intended rear-mounted Kuznetsov NK-8-4 engines. The first Il-62 powered with NK-8 engines (registered СССР-06153) first flew in 1964. The Il-62M variant (first flight in 1971, introduced in 1973) has more powerful, more efficient, and quieter Soloviev D-30KU engines and a fin fuel tank. Beneath the skin, the Il-62M has simpler and lighter single-slotted flaps and incremental aerodynamic improvements. Most important of these was the addition of spoilerons (spoilers or wing-mounted lift-disruptors which can act in the same capacity as ailerons by differential deployment in cruising flight), or in concert to kill lift on landing, and the ability to use idle reverse thrust in flight during the final approach so as to shorten the landing run. All but one example in service today are Il-62M. In 1978, the Il-62MK was further developed to seat up to 198 passengers and carry some two tonnes (4,400 lb) more payload and/or fuel than the Il-62M. Other versions were also planned, including a stretched version to seat up to 250 passengers and a shrunk version to suit smaller airfields. The Il-62 has tricycle landing gear with an additional lightweight gear strut at the rear of the fuselage which extends when the aircraft reaches its parking position. Aircraft with rear-mounted engines are usually tail-heavy when sitting empty on the ground, and to prevent the aircraft from tipping up on its tail, various devices are used for supporting the tail – from simple "pogo stick" fixed struts on small aircraft, to light-weight extendable struts (Il-62). Aircraft like DC-9 or Boeing 727 use an airstair door under their tail which serves the dual purpose of a tail support as well as an extra door for passenger loading. The Il-62 is the largest airliner ever built with all-manual flight controls, using steel cables, rods, pulleys, aerodynamic and weight balances, and trim tabs. The Il-62 also has a forward-mounted tank serving as a water ballast. This may be used when the aircraft flies empty or lightly loaded. If this is a fact, it would rank the Il-62 alongside other airliners that use ballast, notably the French Caravelle and the Soviet Tu-154. Due to the rear-mounted powerplants, the wings are aerodynamically clean, and takeoff and landing aids are employed without the disturbing effect of engine nacelles, resulting in free airflow over the dorsal wing surface. This allows the aircraft to fly through air turbulence of 16–18 m/s without affecting its stability. Another key Il-62 trademark is the "saw tooth" ("dog-tooth") on the wing leading edge. This prominent feature acts as an aerodynamic fence vortex generator (without which the wings would be almost vortex-free), and fixed leading edge droop/slat/flap. It ensures vice-free behaviour at high angles of attack and assists efficient long-range cruise. The saw tooth removes the need for hydraulic controls, stick shakers, and stick pushers. Later models of the VC10 (for British United Airways and Ghana Airways) also adopted this feature, in their case closer to the wing tips. Early NK-8-4-engined Il-62s suffered from performance problems including fatigue and overheating issues with the engines, sometimes leading to false fire alarms which could possibly cause the crew to accidentally shut down paired engines to prevent contiguous engine and fuselage damage. Flying with only two paired engines on the same side would, however, render the aircraft unbalanced and difficult to control. Subsequent modifications to the Il-62 and the VC10 (which had a similar engine arrangement) largely rectified this problem. There were two fatal Il-62 losses involving engine failure, both occurring with aircraft owned by LOT Polish Airlines, which had also leased a number of Il-62s from Aeroflot and Tarom. The higher fatality accident (183) was a fully laden Il-62M Flight 5055 on 9 May 1987 which experienced a rear fuselage fire that possibly went unnoticed by the crew, hence their decision not to land at one of two nearby airports. Control of the plane was eventually lost on the return flight to Warsaw, most likely due to one of the auxiliary fuel tanks fitted to some LOT Il-62s having ignited. The other was an unmodified (early version) NK-8-4-powered Il-62 Flight 007 which crashed on 14 March 1980 with 87 fatalities after being fitted with an engine that had previously caused vibration problems when used on two other LOT aircraft (the investigation suggested that the turbine disc was damaged before its final installation). Powerplant failure of the type that afflicted the LOT aircraft was extremely rare because bearing wear is generally identified by vibration tests during maintenance. At the time, however, LOT did not have equipment to test or fault-diagnose engines of the size used in the Il-62. Unfortunately this meant that any potential problem might not be identified between overhauls. There were other known instances of engine failure, but these did not result in loss of control. The LOT accidents involving different engine types (but same engine position) was a fatal crash-rate 30 times higher than the Il-62 average (2.8% vs 0.092%). At least one other LOT Soloviev D-30-equipped aircraft (Tu-154) also suffered a similar engine failure (non-fatal) around this time. After 1987, LOT introduced turbine vibration-detecting equipment and shortened the time between inspections. It also adopted the dual flight control system used on some other Il-62s and deleted the auxiliary engine-pod fuel tanks. These planes were subsequently sold to Air Ukraine in 1991/1992 which operated them until the airline closed in 2000. In 2010, 30 years after the loss of Flight 007, an investigation of previously unreleased IPN archives at Instytut Pamięci Narodowej revealed that during the industrial unrest of the 1980s LOT had been instructed by the PRL authorities to effect operational cost savings by over-exploitation of service life of its jet engines (see LOT Flight 007, Causes of disaster). Special Il-62 conversions Several special conversions were made to the basic Il-62, the main ones being the Il-62 and Il-62M salon VIP versions used by heads of state, and the Il-62M airborne command aircraft (just one example) used by the Russian government. Although the Il-62 had been introduced during Khrushchev's time, it was during the Brezhnev era that Ilyushin was asked to develop the salon versions which have been used by Russian leaders ever since right up to the Putin years (during which time both Il-62 and Il-96 aircraft were used in combination). The VIP examples were fitted with conference rooms and rest areas, rooms for the retinue, and service personnel and bodyguards, while the secure communication equipment enabled contact with Moscow and other cities from any part of the globe. Examples were also delivered to other countries including Czechoslovakia, Germany, North Korea, Sudan and Ukraine. An airborne command Il-62M (RA-86570) was customised for the emergency response agency EMERCOM to provide evacuation transport for Russian citizens from foreign countries and act as airborne command post for these and other emergency situations. It operates in conjunction with at least one other Il-62M and a fleet of Il-76, Il-76TD waterbombers, An-72 and helicopters which have operated in some 60 countries and is credited with having saved 50,000 lives since the agency was created in 1994. Apart from basic interior changes, RA-86570 features hush-kitted engines and Honeywell electronics with global communication ability via satellite, and an Inmarsat system. The aircraft was used as a command post during the combat of forest fires in the Far East, when dealing with the Chechen terrorist attack in Kaspiysk when an apartment building was blown up, and to bring a Russian Deputy Foreign Minister to Sharjah in 1996 and from there collecting the crew of an Il-76 freighter who had escaped from the Taliban militia in Afghanistan. Design The Il-62 is a conventional all-metal low-wing monoplane of riveted sectional semi-monocoque construction to fail-safe design principles (a structure designed so that failure of one major member does not cause immediate failure of the whole). Its service life was initially set at 30,000 flight hours and subject to extensions and curtailments according to the quality of service procedures, inspection and manufacturer's bulletins. The aircraft features pressurised cabin and freight holds (with fuselage dimensions of 3.8 m width x 4.1 m height), duplex all-mechanical flight controls, though with twin electric motors for tailplane incidence control; hydraulic nosewheel steering, landing gear and tail strut actuation, and wheel brakes. The Il-62M has spoilers and lift dumpers which extend automatically upon landing and are hydraulically operated. Control surfaces include a variable-incidence tailplane with dynamically and weight-compensated elevators with trim tabs, triple-section tabbed ailerons (outermost for low speed and innermost for high speed) which are interlinked with a torsion bar, spoilerons (Il-62M), spoilers and lift dumpers, and pneumatically actuated thrust reversers on the two outboard engines (the reversers are flight-rated on the Il-62M). 27 V AC electrics are used throughout with a TA-6 auxiliary power unit (a turbine generator which supplies electric power and air conditioning on the ground) in the lower tailcone plus backup lead-zinc batteries. The aircraft uses conventional hot air de-icing using engine bleed air. Its sea level is equivalent to 2,400 m (8,000 ft) above mean sea level and thereafter reducing to the equivalent of 2,400 m (8,000 ft) to cruise altitude. It was originally built with no automatic oxygen masks; emergency supply comprises hatrack-housed oxygen bottles and masks for manual distribution to passengers by cabin crew. Since 1997, most aircraft have been retrofitted with automatic oxygen supply systems with drop-down masks. Its avionics include a Polyot-1 automatic flight control system (a "super autopilot," able to be programmed with a set route which it can fly without human intervention but under constant flight crew monitoring; ICAO Cat. 1 approaches standard, Cat. 2 optional), Doppler navigational radar replaced by triplex INSS (Inertial Navigation System Sets) on Il-62M after 1978 and by Satellite navigation sets on many aircraft after 1991, triple VHF and HF flightdeck radios, automatic direction finders, Soviet and Western instrument landing system receivers, vertical omnidirectional radio range and radio beacon receivers, duplex radio altimeters, automatic radio transponders, a full ICAO-standard navigation lights fit, cabin tannoy and intercom systems. Soviet/Russian and Warsaw Pact sovereign examples are additionally fitted with triplex "Odd Rods" (NATO code name) IFF (identification friend or foe) air defence transponders identifiable by three closely spaced short aerials. Emergency evacuation systems include inflatable life rafts and manually extendable canvas evacuation slides. Most aircraft are now retrospectively fitted with emergency floor lighting strips and some aircraft equipped with automatically inflatable evacuation slides. Fire extinguishers are sited in engine nacelles, flightdeck compartment, cabin crew rest areas and toilets. The Il-62 offers accommodation for up to 198 passengers in a single-class layout, seated six-abreast at 84 cm (33 in) seat pitch in two cabins separated by a vestibule, galley/pantry and cabin crew rest area. There are three toilets, forward, midships, and aft. It has a buffet/bar and a further cabin crew rest area in a vestibule forward, with a further optional cabin crew rest area aft. Typical mixed-class accommodation ranges between 128 and 144, seated four or six abreast, and a common single aisle configuration for long distance Aeroflot examples was first class (2-abreast) 3 rows, business class (3-abreast) 4 rows, economy class (3-abreast) 17 rows (Thiel, 2001). In this configuration, the central aisle in business and economy classes is quite narrow. A first class compartment is optionally sited aft of forward entry door or just forward of midships entry door, with an economy compartment further forward in the latter case. "Skycot" fitments are located in hatracks, while later Il-62Ms (1978 onwards) feature enclosed hatracks. Customer-optionable interior fitments. No in-flight entertainment systems are available except a public-address system that may be coupled to an open-reel or audio cassette player. Individual aircraft were experimentally fitted with television sets for Soviet-standard videotape entertainment during the 1970s. Some aircraft were retrospectively fitted with Western in-flight entertainment (solely audio) systems after 1991. Similarities to VC10 A sideline to the Il-62 story concerns alleged industrial espionage. As the Il-62 was developed at about the same time as the VC10, to which it bears a marked external resemblance, British Cold War commentators implied that the VC10 design may have been copied by dubbing the Il-62 the "VC10-ski." (Thiel, 2001), but no evidence of this was ever presented. There are significant differences between the Il-62 and the VC10, as the Soviet type is larger, lifts a greater load, and is designed for use exclusively at developed airports whereas the British type can adapt to "up-country" bases. Unlike the VC10, the Il-62 uses conservative technology, such as mechanical control surface linkages, and is an entirely civilian machine, whereas the VC10 was designed to serve as both a civilian airliner and military airlifter and freighter. The Il-62 found more buyers and was built in much larger numbers than the VC10 (292 vs 54), and as of November 2018 many examples are still in service. On the other hand, the VC10 has been retired from that role (in 1966 BOAC described the aircraft as uneconomic and asked for government subsidies to continue operating it, although some VC10s were used by Britain's Royal Air Force in support roles). China and Czechoslovakia were two countries that cancelled orders for the VC10 (for CAAC and Czechoslovak Airlines, respectively) and purchased the Il-62 instead (see VC10: Sales and airline service). Operational history After the introduction of the Il-62M, Aeroflot (the largest operator of the plane) gradually upgraded and later replaced its fleet of NK-8 powered Il-62s with the newer Soloviev D-30 KU-powered Il-62M. Coupled with engine nacelle and other modifications, greatly reduced the chance of contiguous powerplant damage. By mid-1973, the airline was operating 60 Il-62s, and by 1989 this had increased to 165 (Il-62 and Il-62M). The Il-62M had a dispatch rate with Aeroflot of 97% with some examples logging as many as 17 flight hrs/day, and it was described as the most reliable type in the fleet at that time. It set several international records in its class, mostly exemplifying a range capability far in excess of the conservative Aeroflot calculations applied in Soviet times. Some of these records were set by an all-woman crew of five captained by Iraida ("Inna") Vertiprahova. With 10 tonnes of freight, the Il-62M had a maximum range of 10,300 km compared to 9,412 km for the VC10 carrying the same weight. With a 23 tonne payload, the Il-62M range was 8000 km, compared to 6,920 km for a Boeing 707 with maximum payload. Because of its capacity, the plane has historically been used for emergency civilian evacuation flights, one of the most notable being the landing of an Aeroflot-registered Il-62 at Santiago Airport, Chile on the night of 10 September 1973 (the day before the military coup by Augusto Pinochet) in order to evacuate 147 Cuban embassy personnel. In April 2015 two EMERCOM IL-62Ms (including RA-86495 of the Russian Federation Air Force) were used to evacuate around 900 foreign nationals and Yemenis from Sanaa during the Saudi-led military operation against Yemen. The Il-62 was said to be well regarded by pilots and passengers alike, especially for its strong directional stability in high turbulence (although landings are sometimes bouncy), smooth cruising ability and very quiet interior in cruise mode due partly to engine placement. Although the original IL-62 was rated for a service life of 23 years and was criticised for heavy fuel consumption, upgraded M versions are sometimes rated for 50 years and have greatly improved operational economics. One of the drawbacks of the original Il-62 design was the lack of a cargo bay roller transfer system, which necessitated manual loading of pre-packaged baggage and cargo thus making preparation of the aircraft rather slow (a cargo/baggage conveyance system is standard on the Il-62M). There is relatively easy access to all serviceable mechanical components including the engines whilst the plane's thrust reversal capabilities allows reverse taxiing without the need for tow-vehicles. Powerplant overhaul intervals varied between specifications and maintenance procedures and between the thrust reverse-capable outer engines and the inner ones. Czech Airlines operated an early Il-62 on a proving basis up to 3000 hrs between overhauls, which was well beyond the recommended (and their usual) intervals which were nearer 2000 hrs although Interflug were able to designate up to 5000 hrs with their service facilities. Subsequent upgrades to some Il-62Ms provided for 6000 hr overhaul intervals (with total engine life of 18,000–20,000 hrs). Later examples of the Il-62M remain in regular commercial service (as of 2016), and the type also sees continued use as a VIP/head of state transport. Although the plane's safety record does not equal that of later airliners, there were no fatal accidents involving an Il-62 between 1989 and 2009 during which time the highest number of planes were in service. With successive Il-62M upgrades and improved avionics, including triplex inertial navigation systems and enhanced flight controls to cope with poor visibility (IMP, 1997), the plane gained a reputation as a very safe airliner whose record compares favorably with similar airliners, most of which are no longer in civilian use. Its total hull loss rate (7.7%) is lower than those of the Boeing 707 (16.4%) and DC-8 (14.9%), and near that of the VC10/Super VC10 (= 7.8% if one excludes the three examples destroyed by terrorists) although the VC10 was only in civilian service for 16 years (versus 48 years for the Il-62, as at 2015), and only 40 of 54 airframes were built as airliners (the remaining 14 going to the RAF). Several Il-62/M accidents over the first decades of operation mainly involved runway overruns or aborted takeoffs. The braking system employed the reverse thrust of the outer engines only, and if for some reason one or other failed to engage, the aircraft could become difficult to steer for an unprepared pilot. In seven takeoff or landing accidents there were no fatalities, a testament to the high level of structural integrity, and in two cases with landing-related fatalities [CCCP-86470 and UP-16208] these were due to the aircraft colliding with structures near the runway [tower and concrete wall, respectively]. The Il-62/M fuselage features a strengthened hull with 'ski' keel originally designed to allow for an undercarriage-up emergency landing (in practice the undercarriage and landing gear proved extremely reliable). The trade-off for the reinforced airframe is the relatively high fuel consumption and some airlines such as Interflug modified their planes to reduce fuel consumption. Production is said to have continued until 1995, although continuous production ended in 1993. Including prototypes, total production is surmised as being 289. However, the factory states 292 (5 prototypes, 94 Il-62s and 193 Il-62Ms). Four aircraft remained unsold at the factory as of 1997, while the last delivery was reportedly RA-86586 of Magma, built in 1995, but only delivered in 1999 as a result of tariffs imposed on imported western aircraft. The last airframe was built in 2004 for the Sudanese government. The Il-62M variant is still listed as an available option on the product page of Ilyushin's website, which may imply the existence of additional incomplete or unsold airframes. During the Syrian Civil War, Russian Air Force Il-62M were observed flying between Russia and Syria. Starting at the end of 2015, with the Russian military intervention in the Syrian Civil War, Russian Air Force Il-62M were frequently reported departing and landing at the Khmeimim Air Base in Latakia, Syria, moving materiel and personnel in and out of Syria. Variants Il-62 Initial production version, powered by four 23,150-lb (103.0 kN) Kuznetsov NK-8 turbofan engines, accommodation for a crew of five and 186 passengers. Il-62M Improved version, powered by four 24,250-lb (107.9 kN) Soloviev D-30KU turbofan engines, accommodation for a crew of five and 174 passengers, equipped with containerised baggage and freight system, modified wing spoilers and a revised flight deck, plus increased fuel capacity. Il-62MK Medium-range version, powered by four 24,250-lb (107.9 kN) Soloviev D-30KU turbofan engines, accommodation for a crew of five and 195 passengers, equipped with strengthened wings and landing gear for operations at higher gross weights. Il-62MGr Cargo version of Il-62M Operators Civil operators As of July 2017, a total of six Il-62 aircraft remained in passenger or government service (excluding converted freighter versions). Over 30 countries have operated the Il-62 since 1967, although exports did not begin until initial Aeroflot needs had been met (rapid replacement of Tu-114s on international services). First exports were in late 1969 to CSA Czechoslovak Airlines. The pattern was similar with the Il-62M, of which the first export (to Cubana) was delayed until 1977. Among Eastern Bloc nations, Bulgaria and Hungary did not operate the Il-62 series, although Hungary briefly leased one example pending Boeing 767 services in 1990. As a curiosity, Malev was the first and only foreign airline to order the IL-62 according to the October 1967 issue of Flight International. In 1968 the new political trend called "New Economic Mechanism" introduced by the Hungarian Council of Ministers led to the deletion of the order, because of financing problems. This was due, among other more important reasons, to heavy anti-Ilyushin lobbying by Tupolev in the former country and to commercial considerations in both countries whose airlines preferred to concentrate on short and medium range routes, that was equal to the low demand for the long-haul service. East Germany, Czechoslovakia and Cuba were amongst the largest foreign customers for the Il-62. The former East German airline Interflug owned 24 aircraft: 21 in civilian service and three for airforce and presidential use (later transferred to the united German airforce), including six Il-62s, 16 Il-62Ms and two rare Il-62MKs (after unification, seven Interflug IL-62s were on-sold to Uzbekistan which later also bought the three airforce examples). Czech Airlines (formerly Czechoslovak Airlines) operated 21 planes between 1969 and 1997, including 15 Il-62s and six Il-62Ms, of which 15 were registered under the famous CSA 'OK jet' designation, and six were leased from Aeroflot. Some of these planes were still operational in 2012. Cuba operated 27 different Il-62s, of which 12 were leased either from Aeroflot or Tarom (which operated three Il-62s and two Il-62Ms alongside its Boeing 707s) and 15 were owned by Cubana which became a long-term operator with its first Il-62M purchase in 1977. After 2000, Cubana refurbished its remaining planes for international routes, on which they operated until March 2011. Poland operated 23 Il-62s and Il-62Ms, including aircraft leased from Aeroflot and Tarom. The largest non-state operator of the Il-62 was Russian-based Domodedovo Airlines which acquired 45 planes from Aeroflot (42 Il-62Ms and 3 Il-62s) that were used for domestic services including continuous operations on the world's longest internal route, Moscow to Petropavlovsk-Kamchatsky, a distance of . From 1970, Air France and Japan Air Lines wet-leased a number of Aeroflot Il-62s for long-haul services, and from 1971, KLM Royal Dutch Airlines operated nine Aeroflot-registered Il-62s for the Moscow-Amsterdam route (these planes wore joint Aeroflot/KLM markings). Due to strained relations between the Soviet Union and the US during the 1980s, in 1984 Aeroflot coordinated with Irish carrier Aer Lingus to use Shannon airport as a hub for connecting flights from Moscow and Leningrad to link with the Irish carrier's New York routes. Aeroflot was also granted rights to use Shannon for flights to Cuba and South America (Peru). From 1992 Irish tour operators contracted Aeroflot to carry tourists to the eastern US (Miami) and later to the Caribbean, Central America and Mexico, using Il-62Ms. On any given day, Shannon hosted up to eight Il-62s and Il-86s (in addition to Tu-154s and Tu-134s). By 1995/1996, Shannon was handling 2,400 Aeroflot transit flights carrying 250,000 passengers per annum (including government-registered Il-62Ms) with Aeroflot crews being housed near Shannon airport. By 1995, direct flights between Moscow and the US became possible and the use of Shannon as a hub declined. For its US west-coast air links (which began in 1991) Aeroflot Il-62s flew east to Anchorage from Moscow and several cities in the Russian Far East (Khabarovsk, Vladivostok, Magadan, and Yuzhno-Sakhalinsk), often continuing on to San Francisco. Trans-Pacific Il-62 flights between the Russian Far East and Anchorage continued until 2000. Il-62M/MKs remained popular for civilian service in Russia up until the economic recession of 2008. In late 2008, Russian-operated planes were removed from scheduled passenger operations due to a severe economic crisis affecting major operators Interavia Airlines, Dalavia and Domodedovo Airlines. As a result, Rossiya became the largest operator, but it uses the Il-62 for government service only. By September 2009 a total of 38 Il-62s (all versions) remained in service worldwide (compared with 88 planes in service in 2006), only one of which was the original series aircraft operating with Russian Air Force whilst others were M or MK-series aircraft. In 2011 Cubana retired its last civilian examples 33 years after receiving its first IL-62. Some other airlines and governments also operate small numbers of the type. In 2013 DETA Air ceased operations of Il-62M. Rada Airlines (2) Air Koryo (4 are operated by Air Koryo; 2 are in commercial service; 2 in VIP livery and configuration and are owned by the North Korean government) Former operators Government/military operators The aircraft has seen military use with the air force of East Germany (DDR [GDR]) and later the united Germany (one Il-62MK and two Il-62Ms) and is believed to have been operated by the air forces of other countries including Cuba, Gambia, Georgia, Libya, North Korea, Russia, Romania and Ukraine. It is used as an emergency response aircraft by the Russian government (RA-86570 and RA-86495). In addition to military use, it has been used as a personnel or head-of-state transport by Russia (at least eight examples), Ukraine, East Germany, Georgia (2748552), Uzbekistan (UK-86569), Gambia (C5-RTG), Mozambique, Sudan (ST-PRA), Cuba, North Korea, and Czechoslovakia, the government of which used an Il-62 (OK-BYV) and three Il-62Ms between 1974 and 1996. Some head-of-state examples were produced in VIP interior configuration whilst others were standard civilian versions. In North Korea, two IL-62Ms (operated by Air Koryo) are owned by the North Korean government. Both of which have government liveries and VIP interior configurations and are given the call sign "Chammae" (national bird of North Korea). One is coded as "Chammae-1" which transports Kim Jong Un while the other, Chammae-2, provides transport to high level government officials and VIPs. Chammae-2 was seen transporting officials of the high-level DPRK delegation including Kim Yong Nam and Kim Yo Jong to Incheon International Airport in Seoul, South Korea for the 2018 Winter Olympics. Both aircraft are part of Air Koryo's inventory of four IL-62Ms. Current operators Government of North Korea – Currently owns 2 IL-62Ms (operated by Air Koryo) Government of Sudan Russian Air Force Former operators Incidents and accidents Since its first flight in 1963 there have been 12 fatal accidents during civilian service, namely: nine crashes, two landing overruns and an aborted takeoff (fatalities of the last three resulted from collisions with structures near the runway). The complete list of incidents include eight of Il-62M (a total of 25 incidents/accidents in ASN database, 14 of which were Il-62M, including 24 April 1998 and 20 April 2008). As of July 2012 there had been 23 hull losses from all causes including prototype testing, fires, runway overruns, navigational errors, and non-operational incidents, 48% of which did not involve fatalities, with 1,141 fatalities total. This figure and the list below includes planes that were still operable but were deemed uneconomic to return to service due to their age and/or flight hours (YR-IRD and CU-T1283). Within the group of comparable airliners (Il-62/Il-62M, VC10/Super VC10, Boeing 707, DC8) the Il-62M had the lowest hull loss rate. There were no fatal accidents involving an Il-62 between 1989 and 2009. Aircraft on display As the first long-range jet airliner to be put into service by a number of nations, some retired Il-62s have been converted into museums and other uses in countries such as the Czech Republic, Germany, Austria, Cuba and China. The best known example was the Il-62 "DDR-SEG" from the former East German airline Interflug. On 23 October 1989, DDR-SEG was intentionally landed on the short grass Stolln/Rhinow airfield in a famous but potentially dangerous manoeuvre. Fire trucks and ambulance crews were positioned on hand for the landing but were not needed. The jet is used to commemorate the site of the fatal crash of Otto Lilienthal (1848–1896) at the Gollenberg hill. Nicknamed Lady Agnes after Lilienthal's wife, it is now a museum with the fuselage divided between the Lilienthal collection and a popular wedding registry. In July 1983, another landing of an IL-62 on unimproved ground took place at Monino, Russia, when Ilyushin OKB Chief Test Pilot Stanislav Bliznyuk delivered CCCP-86670 to the Monino outdoor Air Force Museum. Appearances in media In the 1973 movie, Scorpio, at the 37 minute mark, an IL-62 appears in Aeroflot livery. Specifications (Il-62M) See also References Dawes, Alan. "Ilyushin Il-62 – A Classic of its Time". Air International, January 2004, Vol 66 No 1. pp. 30–36. ISSN 0306-5634. Gordon, Yefim. Dmitry Komissarov and Sergey Komissarov. OKB Ilyushin: a History of the Design Bureau and its Aircraft. Hinkley, UK: Midland Publishing, 2004. . Gunston, Bill. The Osprey Encyclopedia of Russian Aircraft 1975–1995. London: Osprey, 1995. . Ilyushin IL-62. Aircraft of the World, no. 66, group 2. IMP (International Masters Publishers) AB, 1997. Taylor, John W. R. Jane's All The World's Aircraft 1988–89. Coulsdon, UK: Jane's Defence Data, 1988. . Thiel, Jorg: Airliner in Service around the World, No. 2: IL-62 (NARA-Verlag, 2001, ) (text in German and English). 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229857	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The%20Marble%20Index	The Marble Index	The Marble Index is the second solo album and third studio album by German musician Nico, which was released in November 1968 on Elektra Records. The avant-garde sound introduced in the album—a stark contrast with her folk pop debut, Chelsea Girl—was the result of the combination of Nico's droning harmonium and somber vocals, and producer John Cale's musical arrangements, which were inspired by modern European classical music. Nico envisioned the release as an attempt to get artistic legitimacy, thus also drastically changing the looks that had initially made her famous as a fashion model. Although The Marble Index was largely unnoticed when it was released, it has achieved acclaim from music critics over time. Nico's unprecedented sound and personal style—both recognised for their tenebrous quality—are considered an influence on several artists. Most notably, they served as a musical and visual prototype for the 1980 gothic rock scene. Nico and Cale continued working together, releasing two more studio albums in the same vein—Desertshore (1970) and The End... (1974)—which are now considered parts of a trilogy. Background Nico had made her recording debut in 1965 with the single "I'm Not Sayin'"; at Andy Warhol's suggestion she joined The Velvet Underground as a chanteuse, and sang three tracks on their 1967 album The Velvet Underground & Nico. Nico and the group were regulars at the Factory. However, Lou Reed was reluctant to include her in the band. This, coupled with her desire to be a soloist, made Nico leave the group as casually as she had joined. The band members continued to accompany her as she performed on her own and played on her 1967 solo debut, Chelsea Girl. The folk-pop album included songs by Bob Dylan, Tim Hardin, and Jackson Browne (with whom Nico had a brief affair). Jim Morrison, whom Nico later called "[her] soul brother", encouraged her to write her own songs; this was "a key breakthrough for [her]". They were together in California in July and August 1967, often driving into the desert and experimenting with peyote. Morrison, who encouraged Nico to write down her dreams, read Mary Shelley, William Blake and Samuel Taylor Coleridge to her. He recorded his chemical visions and dreams, using the material for his songs as he imagined the opium-addicted Coleridge had worked. In 1986 Nico said, "He taught me to write songs. I never thought that I could ... He really inspired me a lot. It was like looking in a mirror then." She began writing her own material and performing it to an intimate audience at Steve Paul's club, the Scene. Nico composed her music on a harmonium bought, according to Richard Witts, from a San Francisco hippie; manager Danny Fields recalled, "I think Leonard Cohen may have given it to her, or had something to do with her getting it." With that instrument, "she discovered not only her own artistic voice but a whole new realm of sound." The droning pump organ became her trademark. The Marble Index was produced during a little-studied period of Nico's life. For The Quietuss Matthew Lindsay, "the liminal drift of these years only emphasizes the music's amorphous moorings and lack of precedent." Nico approached Danny Fields around the summer of 1968 with the desire to make an album and prove herself artistically. Resentful of her beauty, she radically changed her image – dyeing her hair red and wearing black clothes in an effort to distance herself from what had made her a popular fashion model. John Cale said, "She hated the idea of being blonde and beautiful, and in some ways she hated being a woman, because she figured all her beauty had brought her was grief ... So The Marble Index was an opportunity for her to prove she was a serious artist, not just this kind of blonde bombshell." Nico already had the title for the album in mind from The Prelude, William Wordsworth's magnum opus; in it, he contemplates a statue of Isaac Newton in the chapel of Trinity College, Cambridge "with his prism and silent face / The marble index of a mind for ever / Voyaging through strange seas of Thought, alone." Asked about the significance of this Wordsworth quote, Nico replied: "I sometimes find a little of my own poetry in other poets, yes. Incidentally, or accidentally." Recording Fields relayed Nico's request to Jac Holzman, head of Elektra Records; she then went to Holzman's Broadway office with her harmonium and performed for him. Despite the challenging nature of Nico's music, Holzman agreed to release her album and assigned Frazier Mohawk to produce it, despite Nico and John Cale's desire to work together. He gave her a budget of $10,000 (), with a four-day recording schedule at a studio on La Cienega Boulevard in Los Angeles. Fields contacted Cale, who was the album's de facto producer after Mohawk gave him free rein. According to Mohawk, he spent most of the sessions using heroin with Nico. Her drug use is cited as influencing the album's sound; Simon Reynolds wrote, "While it may be a reductive interpretation to regard The Marble Index as the ultimate heroin album, its hunger for narcosis, its frigid expanses, recalls William Burroughs's description of the junkie's quest for a metabolic 'Absolute Zero'." During the sessions, Nico and Cale "fought at every opportunity" with the singer "being in pain" while recording the album. Nico and Cale worked on one song at a time, mixing the album as they went, with her voice and harmonium the starting points for each track. Cale said about the recording process, The harmonium was out of tune with everything. It wasn't even in tune with itself. She insisted on playing it on everything so we had to figure out ways to separate her voice from it as much as possible and then find instrumental voices that would be compatible with the harmonium track ... As an arranger you're usually trying to take the songs and put a structure on them, but what I thought was valuable was when you took the centre out of the track and worked around the central core of the tonality and changes. That left you with a sort of floating free-form tapestry behind what she was doing, which is when things became more abstract. He also said, "I was pretty much left alone for two days, and I let [Nico] in at the end. I played her [the album] song by song, and she'd burst into tears. 'Oh! It's so beautiful!', 'Oh, it's so beautiful!' You know, this is the same stuff that people tell me, 'Oh! It's so suicidal!'" The original release of The Marble Index included eight of 12 songs Nico recorded. "Roses in the Snow", "Nibelungen", "Sagen die Gelehrten" and "Reve Reveiller" were left off the album. The finished album was barely 30 minutes long, which "was as much apparently as Frazier Mohawk, mixing and sequencing it, could stand without starting to feel suicidal". Composition The Marble Index avant-garde style distanced Nico from rock and pop. When an interviewer pointed out the contrast between Chelsea Girl and The Marble Index, Nico said that the latter was "not supposed to be noise, because most pop music to me is noise, alright?" According to John Cale, the album "makes more sense in terms of advancing the modern European classical tradition than it does as folk or rock music". With Nico's compositions based around one or two chords, Cale decided to avoid drone and raga (Eastern music common on the West Coast at the time) in favor of a European classical approach in his arrangements. The resulting sound has been compared with Germanic folk music, Gregorian chant, medieval music such as madrigals, European avant-garde, Romanticism, and the music of Richard Wagner. Peter Buckley noted Nico's use of psychedelic drugs during the Summer of Love as an influence on the album's music, and Jim DeRogatis described it as "minimalist bad-trip psychedelia".frieze called The Marble Index the "bridge between the New York Minimalists of the late 1960s and Brian Eno's ambient records of the late 1970s". Simon Reynolds has identified the album as "the rock precedent for isolationism", a term coined by critic Kevin Martin to describe "a loose network of disenchanted refugees from rock and experimental musicians" that originated the genre known as dark ambient. Isolationism, Reynolds writes, "breaks with all of ambient's feel-good premises", and "evokes an uneasy silence: the uncanny calm before catastrophe, the deathly quiet of aftermath." He listed Aphex Twin (particularly his 1994 album Selected Ambient Works Volume II), Seefeel, David Toop and Max Eastley, among others, as exponents of this style. According to Uncut, The Marble Index is "one of that rare breed of recordings which, the better part of four decades later, still has no adequate comparison, existing in a genre all its own". The album is considered a proto-goth record. André Escarameia felt the album "anticipated gothic rock by more than a decade due to [its] ethereally darker [ambience] and disturbing sonority." Its soundscape has been described as "bleak", "chilly", "harrowing", and "everything from the sound of someone rapping on a coffin lid to that of being buried alive". In her 1969 Rolling Stone review, Anne Marie Micklo described it as "mood music, with an obscure and elusive text recited over it". Regarding the record's sonority, British author Simon Goddard wrote, "it was on [The Marble Index] that the real sound of Nico was unleashed: a bleak pumping misery which would define her music for the last two decades of her life." Lenny Kaye of Wondering Sound described the album as "Circe-like". Songs Nico's lyrics have been described as "mythological and surrealist". According to Spin, "for lyrical inspiration, Nico looked to the Romantic poets and peyote, passions shared with Jim Morrison." Stephen Davis wrote that the album's lyrics stem from the collaboration between Nico and Morrison, and his influence can be seen in song titles such as "Lawn of Dawns", "Frozen Warnings" and "Evening of Light". Morrison offered Nico a model for her writings by showing her how he worked on his poems, indicated by her use of internal rhymes. According to Peter Hogan, some of her lyrics "show a marked debt to Sylvia Plath and to William Blake" and a search for artistic legitimacy. Other critics have found Nico's lyrics to be intriguing. For example, Richie Unterberger wrote: "Nico intones lyrics that don't quite express specific feelings but convey a state of uneasy restlessness." They have also been described as "stark [and] symbolist" and "metaphysical". The album begins with a gentle piano-and-glockenspiel instrumental before segueing into "Lawn of Dawns", which introduces Nico's harmonium "of undulating motion weaving against her voice". The song is engulfed in "weird clattering and tintinnabulating", while a "dark twangy guitar ... stumbles to a subdued halt in [its] final seconds". It features what may be Nico's first lyrics, inspired by her peyote visions with Jim Morrison: "He blesses you, he blesses me/The day the night caresses,/Caresses you, caresses me,/Can you follow me?/I cannot understand the way I feel/Until I rest on lawns of dawns—/Can you follow me?" Nico explained the peyote-induced experience which inspired the lyrics: "The light of the dawn was a very deep green and I believed I was upside down and the sky was the desert which had become a garden and then the ocean. I do not swim and I was frightened when it was water and more resolved when it was land. I felt embraced by the sky-garden." The lyrics of the next song, "No One Is There", have been described as "in all probability influenced by Jim Morrison" ("Some are calling/Some are sad/Some are calling mad") and are sung over Cale's classical quartet of violas darting in and out of her unusual vocal tempo. "Ari's Song" was dedicated to Nico's young son, Christian Aaron "Ari" Boulogne, her only child with French actor Alain Delon, and has been called "the least-comforting lullaby ever recorded". It begins with the harmonium's clipped, whistling tones as she sings softly, "Sail away/Sail away my little boy". "Facing the Wind" is supported by "Cale-banged piano clusters, scraping of percussion or walls and off-beat tympani"; Nico's voice sounds filtered (possibly through a Leslie speaker), with the "somnambulistic toiling" of her pipe organ accompanied by viola and strident piano. Side two opens with "Julius Caesar (Memento Hodié)", which lyrically explores myths and gods. It features Nico's low, droning harmonium accompanied by Cale's viola. On "Frozen Warnings", Cale's arrangement harmonically blends with the pipe organ. It is considered Nico's signature song from her collaboration with Cale; Nina Antonia wrote: "Of all the strange and wracked numbers on the record, 'Frozen Warnings' is quintessential Nico; lyrics that convey a sorrowful atmosphere and little comfort in the melody." The album's dreamlike quality end with its last song, "Evening of Light", which has been described as "frighteningly quiet and hypnotizing". Nico sings "Midnight winds are landing at the end of time", with harpsichord and Cale's staccato viola building until the latter gains ground and sways with the tympani's "roar and clatter". The 1991 reissue of The Marble Index also includes the outtakes "Roses in the Snow" and "Nibelungen". In the latter, Nico's vocals are unaccompanied. The full version (with instrumental accompaniment) was included in the 2007 compilation The Frozen Borderline – 1968–1970; according to Dave Thompson of AllMusic, "It rises to equal any of Nico's subsequent performances or compositions." Release and aftermath When he heard The Marble Index, Jac Holzman decided that "there was no question of not releasing it" despite its lack of commercial appeal; Holzman saw it as a work of art, rather than a product. The album was released in November 1968 with little promotion. A music video for "Evening of Light", featuring Iggy Pop and the other Stooges, was shot by art collector François de Menil in 1969. He has described the clip as "a sort of pre-MTV promotional item for [The Marble Index]. An early pop promo." De Menil was interested in shooting a short film with the singer, and she agreed with the condition that they would film it in Ann Arbor, Michigan, Pop's hometown, and that he would be featured in it. Dave Thompson described the clip as follows: "It was shot in a cornfield behind [Pop's house], barren and stubbly in the late winter chill, Nico in white and windswept, Pop in whiteface, manic and agitated, caressing and crushing the mannequin parts that littered the field, while a wooden cross is raised before them and set ablaze as night falls." Elektra Records—who had not agreed to finance the project—rejected the music video, as did "any other media outlets that de Menil approached". The Marble Index "failed to challenge the supremacy of Nashville Skyline, From Elvis in Memphis, Abbey Road and Diana Ross & the Supremes Join the Temptations on the album charts of 1969". Although Holzman was pleased with the album, Nico's longevity with the label was unlikely; he was increasingly concerned with her heroin use and she had a difficult, irresponsible attitude. Nico left the United States before she was officially released from Elektra, after a violent incident in a New York City bar. Biographers refer to her leaving the U.S. as an exile; Nico said, "When you live in a dangerous place, you also become increasingly dangerous. You might just wind up in jail." In London she recorded two more albums with Cale in the same vein: Desertshore (1970) and The End... (1974), now considered parts of a trilogy. The album was reissued as a CD in 1991 with two bonus tracks. Songs off The Marble Index have been included in Nico compilations, including The Classic Years (1998), Femme Fatale (2002), and The Frozen Borderline – 1968–1970 (2007). To celebrate Elektra's 60th anniversary, "Frozen Warnings" was released as a single on October 25, 2010, with "No One Is There" as its B-side. Critical reception Although The Marble Index was generally unnoticed when it was released, it was praised by the countercultural East Village Other and International Times; however, most critics found "her desolate soundscapes inaccessible." Anne Marie Micklo of Rolling Stone gave the album a positive review, calling side two "a really worthwhile venture into musical infinity". A cult following emerged around it, which included music journalist Lester Bangs, who wrote in a 1978 article entitled "Your Shadow Is Scared of You: An Attempt Not to Be Frightened by Nico": "The Marble Index is the greatest piece of 'avant-garde classical', 'serious' music of the last half of the 20th century so far." Although Bangs praised the album, he also wrote that it "scared the shit out of [him]" and described the listening experience as "self-torture". The album has had "a slow progress to critical darlinghood"; for the most part, audiences have remained nonplussed. According to Simon Goddard, most critics regard it as "[Nico's] defining avant-garde masterpiece". The Rolling Stone Album Guide considers The Marble Index the point in Nico's discography where "the difficult listening starts", and the album is "pretty amazing for it". Anthony Carew of About.com called it "a suite of rootless songs written with little precedent" and "an astonishing haunting, the work of a woman who, even whilst alive, seemed a lot like a ghost". Anthony Thornton of NME called it an "artistic triumph": "Bleak but beautiful, this album remains the most fitting embodiment of her doomed glamour." According to Spin, "Few records, before or since, have sounded lonelier, spookier, or more desolate". Trouser Press described it as "one of the scariest records ever made". AllMusic's Richie Unterberger awarded the album three stars out of five, describing Nico's songwriting as "singularly morose". Dorian Lynskey wrote for The Guardian that The Marble Index forces the distinction between art and entertainment, comparing it to the "terrifying" output of musician Scott Walker (particularly the album Tilt), painter Mark Rothko and writer Philip Roth. Simon Reynolds described the record as "psychic landscapes, glittering in their immaculate, lifeless majesty of someone cut off from the thawing warmth of human contact and fellowship" and "religious music for nihilists". Sputnikmusic's Louis Arp was less enthusiastic, finding the music "pretentious" and "agitating" in the aura it evoked while deeming Nico's lyrics repetitive and meaningless. Village Voice critic Robert Christgau said, "While The Velvet Underground and Nico plus Chelsea Girl convinced me that Nico had charisma; The Marble Index plus Desertshore convince me that she's a fool." Legacy The Marble Index has a sound which distinguishes it from the musical landscape of the 1960s. Anthony Thornton of NME called it "a stark, oppressive opus that has influenced everyone from PJ Harvey to the Duke Spirit. According to Spin, "[The Marble Index] set the tone for decades of music to come – Arthur Russell, Dead Can Dance, Fennesz, Zola Jesus, Grouper, pretty much every metal band that ever used a harpsichord – but few followers have sailed so near to the edge of the abyss with such chillingly beautiful results." The Canadian rock band The Marble Index is named after Nico's album. Simon Reynolds wrote about a female rocker he called the Ice Queen: "Ice is the opposite of all that women are supposed to be: warm, flowing, giving, receptive. Like Lady Macbeth, the Ice Queen has unsexed herself, dammed up her lachrymal and lactation ducts. She offers cold, not comfort. Her hard surfaces can't be penetrated. She is an island, an iceberg." In The Marble Index Nico took this persona (originally embodied by Grace Slick) even further, making a fetish of disconnection and "[dreaming] of a sort of negative nirvana". According to Dazed, this persona has influenced Siouxsie Sioux, Zola Jesus, and Björk. The latter's 2011 album, Biophilia, was described by Rolling Stone as The Marble Indexs "haunted digital sister". The influence of The Marble Index can also be found in the music of Laurel Halo. "Frozen Warnings" was included in Toby Creswell's compendium 1001 Songs; Creswell wrote, "Just as she had done with The Velvet Underground & Nico, the singer put a new tone into music." In 2013 John Cale curated Life Along the Borderline: A Tribute to Nico at the Brooklyn Academy of Music, which featured songs from The Marble Index and other Nico albums performed by Peaches, Yeasayer, Sharon Van Etten, Meshell Ndegeocello and Cale. Primal Scream's Bobby Gillespie has listed The Marble Index as one of his favorite albums and stated that it was a "huge influence" in the making of their 1991 album Screamadelica. Jamie Stewart of Xiu Xiu, has cited the album as an inspiration, writing, "it completely changed my entire view of what it was possible to do in music", and "you could never mistake it for anything else, which is an astounding thing to be able to do." The album was also a favorite of American musician Elliott Smith. The Marble Index, which influenced the gothic rock of the late 1970s and early 1980s, has been called "the first goth album". Ian Astbury of the Cult and Peter Murphy of Bauhaus have cited Nico as an influence. She lived in the United Kingdom when the gothic rock scene was developing, with supporting acts including the Sisters of Mercy and Gene Loves Jezebel. According to Murphy, "Nico was gothic, but she was Mary Shelley gothic to everyone else's Hammer horror-film gothic. They both did Frankenstein, but Nico's was real." David Dalton of Gadfly Online disagreed: "Some say she is the originator of Goth, but this is just silly, a misunderstanding, a pastiche. Nico has no heirs. She is a discrete entity." The album's release coincided with a change in Nico's look, when she adopted what has been called a "gothic horror princess" persona and "switched from dyed blonde to dark henna and started wearing black, heavy fabrics and boots". As a result, in addition to being a musical prototype for the goth subculture, Nico became a visual one as well. Claire Marie Healy wrote, "Nico's visual statement of these years speaks of the power that comes with creating a new persona for yourself" and she described the singer as "the first ever goth girl". By the early 1980s, many women began to dress like Nico; nicknamed "Nico-teens", they were the first goth girls, encouraging a cult following for the singer. Accolades The information regarding lists including The Marble Index is adapted from Acclaimed Music, except where noted. Track listing Personnel Credits adapted from The Marble Index's liner notes. Nico words and music John Cale arrangements Frazier Mohawk producer Jac Holzman production supervisor John Haeny engineer Guy Webster photography Robert L. Heimall design William S. Harvey art direction David Anderle, Danny Fields friends See also Songs about death Neo-Medieval music Gothic fashion Gothic art Gothic fiction References External links The Marble Index statistics, tagging and previews at Last.fm The Marble Index at Rate Your Music 1968 albums Nico albums Albums produced by John Cale Elektra Records albums	[ -0.3014954626560211, 0.36260277032852173, -0.0965157225728035, 0.3145102262496948, -0.1081748679280281, 0.5847240090370178, 0.13620762526988983, -0.40212196111679077, -0.09281628578901291, -0.2813115119934082, 0.21452100574970245, 0.620505154132843, -0.4537286162376404, -0.05572986230254173, -0.07591844350099564, 0.07993971556425095, 0.409304678440094, -0.3578920066356659, -0.1780044436454773, -0.5763919949531555, 0.43472763895988464, -0.0059722596779465675, 0.20453031361103058, -0.3724856972694397, -0.39584359526634216, 0.15314552187919617, -0.06640175729990005, 0.13401632010936737, -0.20151975750923157, 0.042999498546123505, 0.25110775232315063, 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229859	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ilyushin%20Il-86	Ilyushin Il-86	The Ilyushin Il-86 (; NATO reporting name: Camber) is a short- to medium-range wide-body jet airliner that served as the USSR's first wide-bodied aircraft. Designed and tested by the Ilyushin design bureau in the 1970s, it was certified by the Soviet aircraft industry, manufactured and marketed by the USSR. Developed during the rule of Leonid Brezhnev, the Il-86 was marked by the economic and technological stagnation of the era: it used engines more typical of the late-1960s, spent a decade in development, and failed to enter service in time for the Moscow Olympics, as was originally intended. The type was used by Aeroflot and successor post-Soviet airlines and only three of the total 106 constructed were exported. At the beginning of 2012, only four Il-86s remained in service, all with the Russian Air Force. By the end of 2020 the number in active service was reduced to three. Development Background In the mid-1960s, the United States and Western Europe planned airliners seating twice the then-maximum of some 200 passengers. They were known as airbuses at the time. The Soviet leadership wanted to match them with an aerobus (). Alongside the propaganda motive, the USSR genuinely needed an aerobus. Aeroflot expected over 100 million passengers a year within a decade (the 100th million annual passenger was indeed carried on 29 December 1976.) First to respond was OKB-153, the bureau led by Oleg Antonov. It proposed a 724-seat version of the An-22 airlifter. The project was promoted until 1969, ultimately with a 605-passenger interior (383 on the upper deck and 223 on the lower). It did not go ahead due to fears that it would be old-fashioned and because the Kyiv-based bureau was close to the deposed Nikita Khrushchev. Concept Many airports had terminals too small for "aerobuses". In the West, the solution to this involved constructing greater airport capacity. By contrast, Soviet aviation research institutes addressed ways of increasing passenger throughput without the need for additional airport capacity. Many Soviet airports also had surfaces too weak for "aerobuses". The Soviet solution again favoured adapting aircraft to existing conditions, rather than reconstructing airports. The aerobus thus had to match the ground loadings of existing airliners. This called for complex multi-wheel landing gear. The Soviet solution to the airport capacity issue involved passengers loading and unloading their own luggage into and from the aircraft. This was eventually called "the luggage at hand system" (; transliterated: "sistyema bagazh s soboy"). Soviet aviation journalist Kim Bakshmi described it (at its ultimate) thus: "One arrives five minutes prior to departure, buys oneself a ticket on board the aircraft, hangs one's coat next to the seat and places one's bag or suitcase nearby.". Taking suitcases into the cabin, as in trains, was studied, but necessitated a 3 m fuselage extension with a 350-seat capacity. To avoid this, passengers were to deposit their luggage in underfloor compartments as they entered the airliner. Ideas similar to the "luggage at hand system" were briefly addressed in the West. Airbus studied such an arrangement in the mid-1970s. Lockheed implemented it into the L-1011 TriStar in 1973 at the request of Pacific Southwest Airlines (who used the baggage compartment as an entertainment lounge) and possibly also to suit potential Soviet buyers (see below). In October 1967, the Soviet government approved a Ministry of Civil Aviation (Aeroflot) specification for an aerobus. This called for 350 seats and a range of 3,600 km (1,900 nmis) with a 40-tonne payload or 5,800 km/3,100 nmi with seats taken but no freight. The airliner had to operate from smaller airports (classified as Klass "B" and "V" [Russian: класс "Б", "В"] or "Class B/C" by the Soviets) 2,600 m (8,500 ft) runways. In the second half of the 1960s, OKB-240 (as the Ilyushin bureau was formally known) was restoring positions lost (with Yakovlev, in favour of Tupolev and Antonov) during the Khrushchev era and was well placed to secure design of the aerobus. When the Soviet cabinet's defence industry committee promoted the Aeroflot specification on September 8, 1969 to a preliminary project, (Russian: аванпроект; transliterated: avanproyekt), it entrusted it to Ilyushin. The bureau received specific operational requirements for the aerobus on February 22, 1970. In developing the concept which had been agreed, Ilyushin faced four challenges: configuration (layout or "shape"), powerplant, automation (avionics) and manufacturing capacity. Conceptual development Ilyushin began work on the aerobus in late 1969, initially by assessing the development potential of existing aircraft. An enlarged Il-62 (the Il-62-250) would have had a 30-tonne payload, 259 seats and a 6.8 metre/22 ft longer fuselage: a virtual analogue of the Douglas DC-8 "Super Sixty" series. Other proposed Il-62 modifications involved double-deck and "two fuselages side-by-side" developments. There was also a project to "civilianise" the Il-76. From March 1970 the bureau developed all-new designs under the Il-86 designation. Instead of the "appropriate technology" approach of the Il-62, these designs were to have powered controls, complex high-lift devices and advanced automation which would reduce the number of flightdeck crew. A modern six-window flightdeck followed, in place of the 18-to-20 window glazing of the Il-18, Il-62 and Il-76. The main problem facing the Il-86 project was the lack of a suitable engine. It was never resolved. By the close of the 1960s, the US and the UK had turbofans with bypass ratios of 4 or 5 to 1. The first Soviet large turbofan, the Lotarev D-18T, did not appear before the mid-1980s. The Soloviev D-30, originally intended for the Il-86, was the most advanced Soviet civil aeroengine. It had a bypass ratio of 2.4 to 1 and aerodynamic clamshell thrust reversers. It failed to attain the required thrust, however: "only after the lapse of three years that were spent on preparing the advanced development project did it become clear that these engines would not provide the necessary take-off performance." The less-advanced Kuznetsov NK-8 series engine, adopted on March 26, 1975, had a bypass ratio of 1.15 to 1 and drag-inducing grilles over its cascade thrust reversers. Both these engines had high specific fuel consumptions and were noisy. Being ultimate developments of smaller engines, they could not offer growth to future Il-86s. The appropriate/intermediate technology principles to which most Soviet airliners before the Il-86 had been designed meant that they had typically five-member flight crews. The design and entry into service in 1972 of the Tu-154, an airliner built to high technology principles (more automation, less human input), showed that Soviet science lagged behind in the development of avionics which would remove the need for navigators and radio operators. A programme of avionics development was mounted to enable the Il-86 to operate in most weather with a three-member flight crew, matching Western technology of the time. The shortage of manufacturing facilities for the Il-86 was a problem from the outset: "The rapid modernisation of the Soviet Air Force ... has left limited scope for the expansion of commercial production ... the lack of production capacity is being remedied partly by ... international cooperation." This meant involving the Polish aircraft industry in the project. Interest in foreign technology The Soviets tried to import technology to solve the issues with the powerplant, avionics and manufacturing capacity. The attempts took two directions. First was wholesale technology transfer similar to the Li-2 deal of the 1930s. This would have delayed Il-86 development, since the programme would have been demoted to a reserve status. The second direction was to import individual systems and items. This would have speeded Il-86 development. The fact that Il-86 development was protracted indicates that for long periods the programme was pursued as backup insurance in case wholesale technology transfer failed. Before the Boeing 747 had flown, a Ministry of Civil Aviation delegation visited the United States for a series of detailed sales presentations on the type lasting three days. At the 1971 Paris Salon, Ilyushin bureau head Genrikh Novozhilov and Boeing's Joe Sutter are claimed to have arranged an informal technology trade-off. Over supper in a Paris restaurant, the Soviet side ceded information on titanium technology to the Americans, while the latter, "sketching on the tablecloth," ceded information on pylon-mounted podded engines and "the structural and aerodynamic amity of the aeroelastic wing." Soviet interest in buying the 747s continued until the end of détente in the late 1970s. At the peak of détente, on March 11, 1974, a Lockheed L-1011 TriStar arrived in Moscow for three days of sales presentations and demonstrations. The TriStar matched the Il-86 in size and performance and had development potential. Negotiations to buy 30 TriStars of the L-1011-385-250 version and licence-produce up to 100 a year in a new factory employing 80,000 people continued until mid-1976. Any residual will to export TriStars was scotched when US President Jimmy Carter made human rights a US foreign policy factor. TriStar exports would have needed Coordinating Committee clearance: the type embodied advanced technology banned from potential enemies. In 1978, the US Department of Commerce vetoed export of 12 General Electric CF6-50 engines ordered by the USSR for planned long-range Il-86s. By analogy with other aircraft programmes, a third direction in the efforts to acquire foreign technology may have involved illicit action along the lines of the reverse engineering of the Tu-4 from the B-29 and the copying of the Rolls-Royce Nene jet engine as the Klimov VK-1. Oblique reference to this comes in an account of the An-124 by the then-powerplant head of the Antonov bureau, V. G. Anisyenko: "The MAP leadership wanted to have a uniform large engine also capable of civil aviation applications, such as the Il-86. The most suitable analogue from this viewpoint was considered to be the Rolls-Royce RB.211-22. To purchase it, in 1976 a MAP procurement party went to Great Britain, headed by engine construction deputy minister Dondukov ... Our ultimate task was to copy the RB.211-22, for which purpose we had to buy not fewer than eight examples ... The English ... would only sell us the engine in quantities ... to power no fewer than 100 aircraft. As a result, we did not get a sample ... " Design, testing, and certification The design process at Ilyushin was managed by Sergey Ilyushin's successor as head of the bureau, Genrikh Novozhilov. The timescale announced in 1973 envisaged first flight in 1976 and service entry in time for the Moscow Olympics in 1980. The prototype flew at Khodynka airfield (where Ilyushin's experimental factory was) on December 22, 1976 (Soviet airliners often flew before the close of calendar years to meet the requirements of five-year plans). It was announced that the type had a patented electromagnetic pulse deicing system. which used 500 times less energy than conventional deicers. It is claimed that over 50 new technological processes were introduced into Soviet practice as a result of the Il-86 programme. The initial test programme was flown by Ilyushin staff, ending two months ahead of schedule on October 20, 1978. Other sources claim that these tests were completed on 22 September 1978. (According to a faster schedule announced at the time of the first flight, Ilyushin tests were to have ended in time for the 60th anniversary of the October Revolution on November 7, 1977.) In-house testing involved speeds up to Mach 0.93 and bank angles up to 11 degrees greater than specified. Initial certification flying by pilots independent of Ilyushin ended on June 6, 1977. State acceptance trials began on April 24, 1979 and ended on December 24, 1980. Certification by Gosaviaregistr SSSR [the USSR State Aviation Registry] was granted under certificate number 10–86. The Il-86 entered Aeroflot service on 26 December the same year. The service-entry deadline of summer 1980, announced by Minister of Civil Aviation Boris Bugayev in 1977 had passed, however, and the Il-86 missed the Moscow Olympics in the summer of 1980. Overall development of the Il-86 occupied over a decade. The length of this period was due to the sensitivity of the airliner's configuration, problems with its powerplant, prolonged avionics development and the low priority of civil as opposed to military aircraft. In its earlier stages, the Il-86 programme was also held back by hopes of US airliner imports. Certificating the Il-86 to the very demanding set of Soviet and Comecon standards called NLGS-2 also delayed progress; it was the first Soviet aircraft to undergo a full certification programme since certification was introduced in the USSR in 1967 and became mandatory five years later. Manufacture Production of the Il-86 began in late 1976 and continued until 1991. There was no prototype. The first two machines were handmade by Ilyushin at the bureau's own Moscow facility in 1976 and 1977. One was used for flight testing and the other for static ground testing. Beyond these initial examples, Ministry of Aircraft Manufacture ("MAP," "Minaviaprom") Factory 64 at Voronezh (today VASO) was tasked with building more than half of each Il-86 and performing final assembly. Three aircraft were assembled at Voronezh by 1979. The first (flown on October 25, 1977) was built largely by hand, subsequent machines making increasing use of production equipment. These aircraft were used in certification and development flying before handover to Aeroflot. Voronezh factory production engineers conducted a "redesign cycle" of over 50 areas, cutting some 1,500 kg (3,300 lb) of airframe weight. Capacity at Voronezh was insufficient and the Polish aircraft industry was involved in the Il-86 project from the start. The arrangement involved significant technology transfer to Poland: PZL (Państwowe Zakłady Lotnicze) Amalgamation Mielec factory Director Jerzy Belczak said it involved “… a radical retooling of our enterprise” involving “over 50 new processes.” Observers noted that "work on the Il-86 will bring Poland's ... WSK-Mielec to a new level of capability ... in the manufacturing processes involved with an aircraft of this size, including titanium structures, chemical milling and the machining of integral panels." By the mid-1980s, PZL was planned to produce half of the Il-86, including the entire wing, and also to work on Il-86 developments (“Now we are preparing to manufacture units for the next model of the Il wide-body plane,” according to Belczak). From May 1977, the Polish factory manufactured entire empennages including tailplanes and the fin, all control surfaces, high-lift devices and engine pylons for the Il-86, representing "about 16 per cent of these aircraft." Amid labour and political unrest in Poland from 1980 onwards, the Voronezh factory was instructed to retain wing manufacture. After certification in 1980, annual Il-86 outputs were: 1980, 1; 1981, 0; 1982, 11; 1983, 12; 1984, 8; 1985, 9 (including the four for 8 ADON); 1986, 11; 1987, 10; 1988, 10; 1989, 9; 1990, 11 (including the three for export to China), 1991, 3. Of the 106 examples built, one never flew (being used for static tests) and three were exported. The five-year plan in force when the USSR ceased to exist called for 40 more aircraft to be manufactured by 1995, but the manufacturing facility closed in early 1992. Design Configuration and wing All-metal low-wing land monoplane with four wing-mounted low-bypass turbofan engines. Cantilever three-spar structure of modified trapezoid planform. Centre section integral with fuselage. Inboard sections, outboard sections and detachable leading and trailing edges. High-lift devices comprise full-span six-segment leading edge slats (contiguous at engine pylons) at up to 17.5% of chord (drooping to 35°), two-segment fixed-vane double-slotted trailing edge flaps occupying some 75% of the span (deploying to 40°) and five-segment spoilers (outboards used as spoilerons at high speeds, inboards used as lift dumpers on the ground). Two-segment outboard ailerons for low speed roll control. Boundary layer fences over pylons. Engines suspended from the wing on pylons act as anti-flutter weights. Trim range is 16–33% of mean aerodynamic chord. Fuselage Circular-section structure of frames and stringers with a continuous main deck and lower decks fore and aft of the centre section. Rectangular windows in most interframe bays, eight ICAO Type 1a passenger doors on the main deck and three more on the lower deck portside; two freight hold doors and a galley supply door on the lower deck starboard. The main deck houses the flightdeck, two wardrobes, eight toilets, two pantries and a three-section passenger cabin. The lower deck houses three entry vestibules/luggage stores with hydraulic boarding stairs to ground level and fixed stairs to the main deck, a midships galley linked with the main deck by an electric lift, two freight holds (fore and aft of the passenger facilities), an avionics bay and two technical bays. The entire accommodation is pressurised and air-conditioned with "earphones for music or on-board cinema." Empennage Cantilevered trapezoid planform swept-back surfaces. Two-segment elevators and rudder. Tailplane area ; incidence adjustable between 2° and 12° by electric motors commanded by yoke trim thumbwheels and console trim wheels. Fin area . Landing gear of near-conventional layout, with a twin-wheeled nose leg and three four-wheel bogie main gear legs (centreline and two outers). Track is . Powerplant Four Kuznetsov NK-86 two-spool with five-stage LP compressors, six-stage HP compressors, annular combustor cans, single-stage HP turbine and two-stage LP turbine turbofan engines power the Il-86. The cascade thrust reversers are canted 15° in respect to the horizontal axis. Pneumatic starters start the engines (airborne relights use the windmill effect). The forward-facing ejectors blow away detritus during taxi. International Standard Atmosphere hourly fuel consumption per engine is 7.7 t (16,975 lb) at maximum continuous rated thrust, 6 t/13,230 lb at nominal maximum thrust, 5.1 t (11,243 lb) at 85% thrust, 4.2 t/9260 lb at 70%, 3.6 t (7,937 lb) at 60%, 2.45 t (5,400 lb) at 40% and 1 t (2,205 lb) at idle. Overall hourly fuel consumption at long-range cruise and 190 t (419,000 lb) is 9.75 t (21,495 lb) reducing to 7.79 t (17,174 lb) at 140 t (308,650 lb). Outboard engine pylons on the latter two-thirds of all Il-86s are marginally extended to cut drag. The VSU-10 APU generates power and heats/cools the interior on the ground, and provides engine start air. Controls Hydraulically driven. An SAU-1T-2 automatic flight control system offers assisted manual or automatic flight, with no manual option. Four independent hydraulic systems power all flight controls and the built-in airstairs. Fluid is to the NGZh, rather than AMG, formula. Avionics Pizhma-1 navigational system with OMEGA inputs. GPS transceivers and a TCAS fitted retroactively during the 1990s. Pizhma-1 can be used throughout the flight from departure terminal area to landing and taxi to stand. Pizhma-1 has full-time roll and yaw dampers. Airfield approach aids enable instrument landing system-coupled approaches to ICAO Category II weather minima. Other radio aids include VOR and DME receivers, a weather radar, and Warsaw Pact identification aids. Cockpit voice recorders and flight data recorders standard. Four GT-40PCh6 engine generators generate energy from the Kuznetsov NK-86. The APU or ground sources supply 200/115 V, 400 Hz current to the primary system or two secondary systems (36 V/400 Hz AC and 27 V DC). Recipients include high-lift devices, tailplane trim, deicing, galley lift (elevator) and interior services. Service life The expected service life of an Il-86 is twenty years (up to 25) or 10,000 landings (from 20,000 up to 35,000 hours) prior to major servicing. Operational history An inaugural service from Moscow to Tashkent was flown on December 26, 1980 but services-proper commenced after February 1, 1981. Aeroflot first operated the Il-86 on peak domestic routes. Foreign services began in June 1981 to Eastern Europe. Services to larger West European cities began with the winter timetable starting in October that year. Charter flights to European points followed, with services on high-density medium/long-range routes within the Soviet Union coming last. Long-range operations Although the Il-86 was a medium-range airliner, from 1982 Aeroflot put it into scheduled service from Moscow to Havana via Shannon and Gander, "perhaps with limited payload or with additional tankerage." Other scheduled long-range services flown by the type were to Buenos Aires, Montevideo and Lima, Rio de Janeiro and São Paulo, all via Sal, Cape Verde. Post-Soviet operations After the collapse of the Soviet Union in 1991, national airlines emerged in the 15 successor republics. Il-86s serving with Aeroflot administrations ("Directorates") in these nations accrued to their airlines and many were traded. From April 2002, the European Union, the US and much of the rest of the world banned noisier aircraft, including the Il-86. On October 23, 2006, Aeroflot Deputy Director General Igor Desyatnichenko said that the Il-86 was to be withdrawn from service starting November 15 that year as it operated for just two or three months in the summer." Unused facilities The Il-86's "luggage at hand" carry-on luggage facility was rarely used. Vul'fov, A, notes: "Thank God no civil servant got it into his head to refuse the parallel opportunity offered to passengers of electing to drop their luggage when checking-in at airports. Otherwise, the loading of luggage into the aircraft by passengers would have turned into a proper nightmare lasting hours." In 1987 Radio Moscow reported that Aeroflot "resisted the change" to a three-person crew. Vul'fov further reports that the type continued to be operated by four-member crews. Navigators, occupying the observer seat (devoid of instrumentation), stood unsecured on final approach to oversee the pilots' instruments and read-out indications (despite voice synthesizers being fitted). Soviet operations of the Tu-154 airliner similarly employed four or five flightdeck crew, despite foreign operators using three-person flightdeck crews. Military operations With its built-in stairs and below deck holds, the Il-86 was widely expected to serve in the personnel transport role with the Soviet air forces: "The wide-bodied Il-86 can perform not only as a troop transport ... but may also in the future form the basis for a command and control aircraft for airborne coordination of Warsaw Pact forces." In the event, four airframes (c/n 042, 043, 046 and 048, carrying quasi-civil registrations SSSR-86146, '7, '8 and '9) were delivered to the 8th Special Purposes Aviation Division at the Chkalovsky air base near Moscow. These are variously claimed to be designated Il-80, Il-82, Il-87 or Il-86VKP (Russian: “ВКП” for “воздушный командный пост”; transliterated: "vozdushniy komandnyi post" “veh-kah-peh” and meaning "aerial command post"). This version has the NATO reporting name Maxdome. Marketing Il-86 provision to Aeroflot did not constitute a sale: it was part of the centralised Soviet supply and allocation system coordinated by offices called Gosplan and Gossnab which controlled the entirety of planning and distribution in the USSR (except the black market). Built aircraft were allocated to Aeroflot regions and Soviet Air Force units as follows (in order of first acceptance): the Vnukovo Aviation Entreprise, 21; the TsUMVS Administration of International Air Communications centred on Sheremetyevo Airport, 22; the Tashkent Air Enterprise, 9; the Sheremetyevo Air Enterprise, 10; the Pulkovo Air Enterprise, 8; the Alma-Ata Air Enterprise, 8; the Chkalovsky Soviet Air Force Base 8 ADON (or 8th Special Purposes Aviation Division), 4; the Kol'tsovo Air Enterprise, 6; the Tolmachevo Air Enterprise, 6; the Erevan Air Enterprise, 2; the Yemelyanovo Air Enterprise, 3. Selling the Il-86 commercially (which under the Soviet system meant solely exports) was the job of the Soviet foreign trade organisation V/O Aviaeksport. The division of responsibilities between the influential TsAGI research establishment, design bureaux (acting like naval architects) which designed aeroplanes, factories (independent of the bureaux) which constructed them, independent service facilities which repaired them and an independent organisation which marketed them alongside designs by all other bureaux, has been seen as diluting responsibility for the fate of a product. As part of supply provisions within the Comecon, Lot was allocated four Il-86s as barter for component manufacture; the airline deferred deliveries which were cancelled by 1987. In 1988 the East German airline Interflug is said to have prepared to take delivery of two Il-86s and to have allocated them the registrations DDR-AAA and DDR-AAB. Instead, that same year the airline took delivery of two Airbus A310s. The sole export order for the Il-86 − and the sole commercial transactions involving factory-built rather than secondhand examples − was by China Xinjiang Airlines which received three aircraft in 1990. The Il-86 prototype was displayed at the Paris Salon International de l'Aéronautique in 1977. It was noted that its interior used patented fire-resistant materials and hydraulics employed a fire-resistant fluid. At that time a version without the "luggage at hand" system was offered, seating 375 or alternatively weighing 3,000 kg (6,600 lb) less and having longer range. This version offered 7% lower seat-mile operational costs. The type was again displayed at Paris in 1979, 1981, 1983 and 1985, the Farnborough Air Show in 1984 and other world air events. Setting records was a traditional Soviet way of promoting aviation products. On Tuesday September 22, 1981, an Il-86 flown by Commander G Volokhov and Second Pilot A Tyuryumin set Fédération Aéronautique Internationale records for flying payloads of 35, 40, 45, 50, 55, 60 and 65 tonnes over a 2,000 km closed circuit at an average of 975.3 km per hour. Two days later, the same crew and machine set FAI records for flying payloads of 30, 35, 40, 45, 50, 55, 60, 65, 70, 75 and 80-tonne payloads over a 1,000 km closed circuit at an average of 962 km/h. Of these 18 records, one was broken by a Tu-144 in 1983, five were superseded or discontinued and 12 still stood in 2010. In September 1982 the type made a sales call on Bulgaria, followed by calls in July 1983 on Hungary and Czechoslovakia. Potential buyers received no hard information on the type in advance. Little solid information was given during the sales calls: "constructor Novosilov sidestepped all questions [on fuel consumption] ... [the] chief pilot ... provided a measure of veiled explanation: 'The consumption of the Il-86 is not higher than that of the Il-18,' he said." While welcomed as “proof of friendship with the USSR,” these sales calls failed to attract orders. Observers tacitly noted that the aircraft marked a 10/15-year lag by Soviet civil aviation compared with the West. Undeveloped Variants Only the base version of the Il-86 and a small batch of military derivatives entered service. Further versions were mooted but none entered service. Freight or combined passenger-freight versions are not known to have been proposed. Proposed long-range version On June 26, 1972, a long-range version of the Il-86, the Il-86D (for Russian: "дальний"; transliterated: "dal’niy"; meaning "long-range"), was ordered into development by the Soviet cabinet. Design was completed in June 1976. The Il-86D would have had a marginally extended wing span, carried additional fuel, and had a range of some 8,500 km (4,600 nmi). Later announcements stated that a version of the Il-86D with Lotarev D-18 engines had entered development in March 1975. This version would have had a 147,500 kg (325,000 lb) empty weight, a 300,000 kg/660,000 lb maximum take-off weight, a fuel capacity of some 150,000 kg (330,000 lb), a wing area of 325 m2 (5,300 ft2), and a range of 10,200 km (5,500 nmi). It evolved into the Il-96. Proposed high-capacity version A "minimum-change" development of the Il-86, stated to have been designated Il-86V, was test-flown on 1 June 1982 and was ready for service by 27 April 1985. It was said to have 450 seats, with the underfloor vestibules fitted with seats and possible changes to main-deck seating. The version is not known to have entered passenger service but may have been used by the military. Proposed re-engined versions In the 1980s, there were moves to fit the Il-86 with RB211-22 engines. Designated Il-86V (second use of this designation), this would have had a range of over 9,000 km (4,860 nmi) and/or increased payload. Another 450-seater Il-86V powered by RB211-524G engines was also projected. Amid the disintegration of the Soviet economy, these versions did not progress. In 1991, there were moves to fit the Il-86 with Franco-American CFM56-5C2 engines. Finances precluded progress. In 1995, International Aero Engines offered the V2500 engine to five Il-86 operators with proposals to re-engine 25 aircraft. The offer was not taken up. Operators Civil As of 28 May 2011, no civilian Il-86s remained in service. Former civil operators: Military As of 21 March 2010, four Il-86VKPs (Il-80s; Il-87s) remained in service: Former military operators: Accidents and incidents As of August 2013, the Il-86 is known to have been involved in at least 10 incidents, including 4 hull losses with a total of 23 fatalities unrelated to passengers. During its passenger-carrying operations the Il-86 has not been involved in any fatal accident. The following are reported significant recorded safety events involving the Il-86: On an unknown date during the 1980s, an unknown Il-86 on approach to Mineralnye Vody, Russia, suffered a hydraulic failure resulting in asymmetrical deployment of the high-lift devices. The flight crew brought the machine to a safe landing without further incident. No casualties. On an unknown date in 1980, the aircraft registered SSSR-86004 (constructor's number 51483200002 ["002"]) experienced a fire in engine No 4 on departure from Vnukovo on an acceptance testing flight; the crew initially shut down No 1 in error, then No 4, but landed safely on the reciprocal runway to the one from which they had departed, after performing a 180° turn. No casualties. The investigation into this fire resulted in a modification to the engine. In 1984, SSSR-86011 (c/n 009) was found to have suffered a tail strike on landing at Simferopol. No casualties. On March 8, 1994, RA-86119 (c/n 087) parked at Delhi airport was struck by debris of crashing Sahara India Boeing 737 (VT-SIA) flown by a trainee; both aircraft were destroyed. All 4 crew on the 737 were killed. Two Aeroflot employees and Russian ground engineer died inside Il-86 due to fire and an airport worker was killed on the ground. In June 1998, RA-86080 (c/n 051) was found to have been overstressed, most likely by a recent heavy landing, and repairs were considered inexpedient in view of coming retirement. No casualties; aircraft stored pending retirement. On May 1, 2000, RA-86113 (c/n 081) suffered an apparent engine failure and fire on departure from Sochi. The flight crew brought the machine to a safe overweight landing. The failure and fire indications were found to have been spurious. No casualties. On August 26, 2000, RA-86066 (c/n 033) experienced a failure and fire in No 2 engine shortly after take-off from Moscow Sheremetyevo for Barcelona. The crew landed on the reciprocal runway with no further incident. No casualties. On September 21, 2001, RA-86074 (c/n 041) belly-landed at Dubai after a flight from Moscow, the flight crew having switched off the ground proximity warning due to heavy workload on the approach and then neglected to extend the landing gear; no casualties; aircraft written off. On July 28, 2002, Pulkovo Aviation Enterprise Flight 9560 RA-86060 (c/n 027) crashed shortly after departure from Moscow on a repositioning flight to Saint Peterburg. The trim toggle button on the control column caused a spontaneous retrimming of the tailplane, rapid transition to nose-heavy trim and a dive. The four flightdeck crew, two ground support staff and ten cabin crew aboard the aircraft died, making the crash the deadliest aviation accident involving the Il-86. The two injured survivors were cabin crew members. Following the Moscow crash in July 2002, the MAK Interstate Aviation Committee withdrew the Il-86's certificate of airworthiness, temporarily grounding the type. The certificate was rapidly restored in stages by early 2003. The accident prompted the Egyptian civil aviation authorities to attempt to ban Il-86 operations to Egypt. Amid continuing negotiations, by 2007 the intention had lapsed, with intensive Il-86 operations to and from Egypt continuing. Specifications See also Notes References External links Il-86 English page on Ilyushin website Il-86 page on The State Aviation Museum of Ukraine National aviation university Il-086 Poland–Soviet Union relations 1970s Soviet airliners Quadjets Aircraft first flown in 1976 Low-wing aircraft Wide-body aircraft	[ 0.23386220633983612, 0.248886376619339, -0.026817284524440765, -0.07575567811727524, -0.19056181609630585, 0.24156466126441956, -0.2995826005935669, -0.0806654617190361, -0.014470316469669342, 0.12719759345054626, -0.5240873098373413, 0.497480571269989, -0.7467872500419617, 0.5038284063339233, -0.14439459145069122, 0.02223845385015011, 0.5928462743759155, 0.007427269592881203, -0.14930525422096252, -0.2851533889770508, 0.06908120959997177, 0.2407311052083969, 0.37493354082107544, 0.20156362652778625, -0.07328170537948608, -0.20877133309841156, 0.5470338463783264, 0.24796108901500702, 0.09541112929582596, 0.5534046292304993, -0.12511691451072693, 0.44209355115890503, 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229860	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ilyushin%20Il-18	Ilyushin Il-18	The Ilyushin Il-18 (; NATO reporting name: Coot) is a large turboprop airliner that first flew in 1957 and became one of the best known and most durable Soviet aircraft of its era. The Il-18 was one of the world's principal airliners for several decades and was widely exported. Due to the aircraft's airframe durability, many examples achieved over 45,000 flight hours and the type remains operational in both military and (to a lesser extent) civilian capacities. The Il-18's successor was the long range Il-62 jet airliner. Design and development Two Soviet aircraft shared the designation Ilyushin Il-18. The first Il-18 was a propeller-driven airliner of 1946 but after a year of test flights that programme was abandoned. In the early 1950s with a need to replace older designs and increase the size of the Soviet civil transport fleet, a Soviet Council of Ministers directive was issued on 30 December 1955 to the chief designers Kuznetsov and Ivchenko to develop new turboprop engines and to Ilyushin and Antonov to design an aircraft to use these engines. The two aircraft designs were developed as the Ilyushin Il-18 and the Antonov An-10 and the engine chosen was the Kuznetsov NK-4 rather than the Ivchenko AI-20. The Il-18 design had started in 1954 before the directive was issued and experience with the piston-engined Il-18 was used although the aircraft was a new design. The design was for a four-engined low-wing monoplane with a circular pressurised fuselage and a conventional tail. The forward retracting tricycle landing gear had four wheels fitted on the main leg bogies, the main legs bogies rotated 90 degrees and retracted into the rear of the inboard engines. A new feature at the time was the fitting of a weather radar in the nose and it was the first Soviet airliner to have an automatic approach system. The aircraft has two entry doors on the port-side before and after the wing and two overwing emergency exits on each side. The prototype SSSR-L5811 was rolled out in June 1957 and after ground-testing it began taxi test and high-speed runs on 1 July 1957. On 4 July 1957 the prototype first flew from Khodynka. On 10 July 1957 the aircraft was flown to Moscow-Vnukovo Airport to be presented to a Soviet government commission; also present was the prototype Antonov An-10 and the Tupolev Tu-114. The Il-18 type was formally named Moskva and this was painted on the fuselage, although the name was not used when the aircraft entered production. The Moscow Machinery Plant No. 30 located at Khodynka, near where the Ilyushin design office and the prototype had been built, was chosen to manufacture the aircraft. During 1957 the plant began to reduce its production of the Ilyushin Il-14 and prepare to build the production aircraft designated IL-18A. The Il-18A was only different from the prototype in minor details, mainly internal configuration to increase the seating from 75 to 89. The first production aircraft were powered by the Kuznetsov NK-4 but the engines were plagued with problems so the Council of Ministers decreed in July 1958 that all production from November 1958 would use the Ivchenko AI-20 and earlier production would be re-engined. Only 20 IL-18As were built before production changed to the improved Il-18B, this new variant had a higher gross weight and the nose was re-designed with a larger radome which increased the length by 20 cm. The first Il-18B flew on 30 September 1958 powered by the AI-20; a VIP variant was also built as the IL-18S for the Soviet Air Force. From April 1961 a TG-18 Auxiliary Power Unit was fitted for ground starting rather than the bank of lead-acid batteries. Some aircraft were modified to allow the APU to be run in flight. With experience of the earlier aircraft a further improvement was the Il-18V variant. The Il-18V was structurally the same but the interior was re-designed including moving the galley and some minor system changes. The first Il-18V appeared in December 1959 and was to continue into production until 1965 after 334 had been built. Specialised variants of the aircraft also appeared, including aircraft modified for flight calibration and a long-range polar variant. Military variants also appeared including the anti-submarine Ilyushin Il-38. Operational history The first Il-18, initially equipped with Kuznetsov NK-4 engines, flew on 4 July 1957. On 17 September 1958 the aircraft first flew with the new Ivchenko AI-20 engines. Vladimir Kokkinaki was the test pilot. Between 1958 and 1960 twenty-five world records were set by this aircraft, among them flight range and altitude records with various payloads. In 1958 the aircraft was awarded the Brussels World Fair Grand Prix. In April 1979 a monument was unveiled at Sheremetyevo airport to commemorate this remarkable aircraft. Seventeen foreign air carriers acquired some 125 Il-18 aircraft, seating 100-120 passengers. Il-18s are still in service in Siberia, North Korea and the Middle East, whilst a number of examples manufactured in the mid-1960s were still in civilian use in Africa and south Asia as at 2014. The type operates in various military capacities, including the Il-22PP electronic warfare and reconnaissance aircraft which entered service in October 2016. A modernized Il-20M with improved radar, radio and optical-electronic reconnaissance equipment entered service in July 2020 to provide secure targeting to Kh-47M2 Kinzhal missile system. An Il-18 (registration DDR-STD) belonging to Interflug and used as a transport by East German leaders, including Erich Honecker, has been converted into a static hotel suite in The Netherlands. As of July 2018, there are 7 aircraft in airliner service with 6 operators. Variants Data from:OKB Ilyushin Il-18 Designation of the sole prototype of the Il-18 family. Il-18A The original production model, equivalent to pre-production, powered by either Kuznetsov NK-4 or Ivchenko AI-20 turboprop engines. Circa 20 built. Il-18B First major production model, a medium-haul airliner that could seat 84 passengers. Il-18 Combi Il-18 aircraft modified to mixed passenger / cargo configuration Il-18D Similar to Il-18I, but equipped with an extra center section fuel tank for increased range. The Il-18D is fitted with four Ivchenko AI-20M turboprop engines. Il-18D communications relay Three aircraft modified to provide communications relay between VIP aircraft and Government bodies. Il-18D Pomor A single Il-18D converted to a fisheries reconnaissance aircraft (Pomor = person who lives by the sea) Il-18D Salon VIP version of the Il-18D Il-18DORR Two Il-18Ds modified as fishery reconnaissance aircraft for the Polar Institute of Oceanic Fishery and Oceanography, the modification mainly involved the fitment of specialized mission equipment. First flown in 1985 they were later modified back as standard Il-18Ds. Il-18E Similar to the Il-18I, but without the increased fuel capacity. Il-18E Salon VIP transport version of the Il-18E. Il-18Gr Aircraft converted to cargo configuration, (Gr - Gruzovoy - cargo). Il-18GrM Several Il-18 aircraft modified to Gr standard with the addition of a pressurised side cargo door. Il-18I Equipped with more powerful Ivchenko AI-20M turboprop engines, producing . Seating increased to 122 passengers in an enlarged cabin gained by moving the aft pressure bulkhead rearwards by . Il-18LL (Letayuschchaya Laboratoriya - flying laboratory), one aircraft modified from an Il-18A to be an anti-icing test-bed and an Il-18V used by the Czechoslovak flight test center as an engine testbed. Il-18RT Two Il-18Vs were modified as Telemetry Relay Aircraft to rocket and unmanned air vehicle trials. Il-18RTL Prototype for Il-20RT, converted from Il-18A c/n 188000401. Il-18S VIP variant of Il-18B Il-18SL Designation of a number of different test and research aircraft, normally had a letter suffix like SL-18D for avionics trials. Il-18T This designation was given to civil and military cargo transport aircraft converted from Il-18A/B/V aircraft. Il-18AT: Military transport/medevac version based on the Il-18A Il-18BT: Military transport/medevac version based on the Il-18B Il-18VT: Military transport/medevac version based on the Il-18V Il-18TD One Il-18T was modified as a military transport variant to take either 69 stretcher cases or 118 paratroopers. Not wanted by the military it was converted to Il-18D standard. Il-18USh One Il-18V was modified as a navigator trainer including two dorsal astro-sextant windows. Although it was tested and found acceptable the Soviet Air Force used a variant of the twin-jet Tupolev Tu-124 instead. Il-18V Standard Aeroflot version, which entered service in 1961. The Il-18V was powered by four Ivchenko AI-20K turboprop engines, seating 90-100 passengers. Il-18V Salon VIP version of the Il-18V Il-18V/polar a single Il-18V modified for Polyarnaya Aviatsiya - Polar Aviation use. Il-18V-26A a single Il-18V modified for Polyarnaya Aviatsiya - Polar Aviation use with an auxiliary fuel tank in the cabin, revised window layout and enlarged oil tanks on the engines, covered by protruding fairings on the engine nacelles (sometimes referred to as the Il-18D, before the real D model emerged). Il-18V calibrator a single Il-18V operated by Interflug for navaid calibration. Il-20M (NATO reporting name: Coot-A) COMINT/ELINT reconnaissance airplane version. Il-20RT Four Telemetry aircraft used to support the Soviet space activities, later replaced by a variant of the Il-76. Il-22 (NATO reporting name: Coot-B) Airborne command post version. (Not to be confused with 1947 prototype Soviet jet-engined bomber Il-22.) Il-22M Same as the Il-22 but had new mission equipment. Il-22PP Electronic warfare and reconnaissance aircraft Il-24N Two Il-18Ds modified for ice reconnaissance similar to the Il-20M but with civilian reconnaissance equipment, both later modified back to standard configuration and sold. Il-38 Maritime reconnaissance, anti-submarine warfare version. Il-118 A proposed upgrade powered by two Lotarev D-236-T propfan engines. Operators Civil operators Current operators Former operators Military operators Current operators: Former operators: Accidents and incidents Specifications (Il-18D) See also Related development Ilyushin Il-38 Comparable aircraft Antonov An-10 Bristol Britannia Douglas DC-6 Lockheed L-188 Electra Vickers Vanguard Vickers Viscount Related lists List of civil aircraft References Notes Bibliography Gordon, Yefim and Komissarov, Dmitry. Ilyushin Il-18/-20/-22 - A Versatile Turboprop Transport. Hinckley, Leicestershire, UK: Midland Publishing, 2004, External links Flight simulator Il-18 in the Museum of Technology "Hugo Junkers" in Dessau (Germany) http://www.globalsecurity.org/military/world/russia/il-18.htm Il-018 1950s Soviet airliners Four-engined tractor aircraft Low-wing aircraft Four-engined turboprop aircraft Aircraft first flown in 1957 Soviet and Russian military reconnaissance aircraft Electronic warfare aircraft	[ 0.2249247431755066, 0.1287214756011963, -0.038233041763305664, -0.10563270002603531, -0.12754978239536285, 0.38357630372047424, -0.0893876925110817, -0.09973813593387604, 0.16538208723068237, 0.09647238999605179, -0.45883065462112427, 0.40847158432006836, -0.9108145833015442, 0.3758648633956909, 0.010606580413877964, -0.0035715957637876272, 0.4179220199584961, 0.022140460088849068, -0.23664242029190063, -0.3279411494731903, 0.0030045730527490377, -0.17836831510066986, 0.5462884902954102, 0.19253653287887573, -0.14384812116622925, -0.31708893179893494, 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229863	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Folland%20Aircraft	Folland Aircraft	Folland Aircraft was a British aircraft manufacturing company which was active between 1937 and 1963. History British Marine Aircraft Limited was formed in February 1936 to produce Sikorsky S-42-A flying boats under licence in the UK. The company built a factory on the western side of the Hamble peninsula with a slipway to Southampton Water. The construction of one Sikorsky based aircraft was started at Hamble, however the company ran out of money and liquidators were appointed. Mergers with other British aircraft companies were considered, including one with Westland Aircraft, but none was followed up. In 1937 Henry Folland, chief designer of Gloster Aircraft, was looking for a new opportunity to pursue his own ideas without management hindrance. He left Gloster, took over the British Marine site and set up the Folland Aircraft Company. He took the positions of both managing director and aircraft designer. Folland began aircraft assembly at Hamble making parts for Bristol Blenheim and Beaufort bombers. Follands also made 15,000 rear portions out of the 22,000 constructed for the Supermarine Spitfire. Folland later took on sub-contract work making parts for de Havilland Mosquitos and Vickers Wellingtons. The first aircraft of its own design to fly was the Folland Fo.108 in 1940. Designed and built to meet the Air Ministry Specification 43/37 for a flying engine testbed it was generally known as the 43/47 or by the nickname "Folland Frightful" from its unusual appearance. The Folland F.115 and F.116 designs were tendered to meet Specification E.28/40 for a research aircraft to investigate the issues of landing weight for aircraft operating from carriers. The F.116 design was powered by a Centaurus radial and used a variable incidence wing on an airframe estimated at around 18,250 lb (8,300 kg). Two prototypes were ordered but the project was cancelled in 1943 as most of the problems had already been overcome, and neither prototype was completed. W. E. W. Petter, who had designed the Westland Lysander, English Electric Canberra and English Electric Lightning, joined the company as managing director in 1950. He designed the Folland Midge as an unarmed proof-of-concept demonstrator for a lightweight jet fighter which first flew 11 August 1954. This was followed by the Folland Gnat, the prototype of which, serial number G-39-2, flew on 18 July 1955. Although RAF interest in the possibilities for using the Gnat as a fighter had waned, Folland identified another potential use for the type as an advanced trainer aircraft. The prototype Gnat Trainer conducted its maiden flight on 31 August 1959. Both were built at Hamble until the 1960s with the final Gnat T.1 for the RAF being delivered in May 1965. Follands used an airfield at Chilbolton formerly RAF Chilbolton where they Flight Tested the Folland Midge and the versions of the Folland Gnat. In 1959 Folland was acquired by Hawker Siddeley who dropped the Folland name in 1963. Ultimately, Folland became part of British Aerospace (BAe). Although Hamble airfield closed in 1986, BAe continued to use the premises there for the production of major assemblies for Harrier and Hawk jets. Aircraft Folland Fo.108 Folland Midge Folland Gnat Missiles Red Dean Vessels Ground Effect Research Machine or hovercraft 1960 – 1 demo only and no commercial production Sport The factory also had its own football team created by the workers in 1938, the team is still playing under the name of Folland Sports. See also Aerospace industry in the United Kingdom References External links The Folland E.28/40 a 1946 Flight article Defunct aircraft manufacturers of the United Kingdom Former defence companies of the United Kingdom Hawker Siddeley Vehicle manufacturing companies established in 1936 1936 establishments in England Vehicle manufacturing companies disestablished in 1963 1963 disestablishments in England 1959 mergers and acquisitions British companies disestablished in 1963 British companies established in 1936	[ 0.05895250663161278, 0.2827776074409485, 0.055328041315078735, -0.18621523678302765, -0.5357018113136292, 0.3572445511817932, -0.22094686329364777, -0.009070185013115406, -0.11609561741352081, 0.3185204565525055, -0.29349616169929504, 0.045169249176979065, -0.047567352652549744, 0.34447306394577026, 0.1603786051273346, 0.23855146765708923, -0.1831183284521103, 0.11822780221700668, -0.01886715367436409, -0.7035871744155884, 0.04120970517396927, -0.21033944189548492, 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229865	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mariana%20and%20Palau%20Islands%20campaign	Mariana and Palau Islands campaign	The Mariana and Palau Islands campaign, also known as Operation Forager, was an offensive launched by United States forces against Imperial Japanese forces in the Mariana Islands and Palau in the Pacific Ocean between June and November 1944 during the Pacific War. The United States offensive, under the overall command of Chester Nimitz, followed the Gilbert and Marshall Islands campaign and was intended to neutralize Japanese bases in the central Pacific, support the Allied drive to retake the Philippines, and provide bases for a strategic bombing campaign against Japan. The United States invasion force was supported by a massive combat force. The Fifth Fleet was commanded by Admiral Raymond A. Spruance. Task Force 58, commanded by Vice Admiral Marc Mitscher, consisted of 15 carriers, 7 battleships, 11 cruisers, 86 destroyers and over 900 planes. The invasion force, commanded by Vice Admiral Richmond K. Turner, consisted of 56 attack transports, 84 landing craft and over 127,000 troops. Beginning the offensive, United States Marine Corps and United States Army forces, with support from the United States Navy, executed landings on Saipan in June 1944. In response, the Imperial Japanese Navy's Combined Fleet sortied to attack the U.S. Navy fleet supporting the landings. In the resulting aircraft carrier Battle of the Philippine Sea (the so-called "Great Marianas Turkey Shoot") on 19–20 June, the Japanese naval forces were decisively defeated with heavy and irreplaceable losses to their carrier-borne and land-based aircraft. U.S. forces executed landings on Saipan in June 1944 and Guam and Tinian in July 1944. After heavy fighting, Saipan was secured in July and Guam and Tinian in August 1944. The U.S. then constructed airfields on Saipan and Tinian where B-29s were based to conduct strategic bombing missions against the Japanese mainland until the end of World War II, including the nuclear attacks on Hiroshima and Nagasaki. In the meantime, in order to secure the flank for U.S. forces preparing to attack Japanese forces in the Philippines, in September 1944, U.S. Marine and Army forces landed on the islands of Peleliu and Angaur in Palau. After heavy and intense combat on Peleliu, the island was finally secured by U.S. forces in November 1944. Following their landings in the Mariana and Palau Islands, Allied forces continued their ultimately successful campaign against Japan by landing in the Philippines in October 1944 and the Volcano and Ryukyu Islands beginning in January 1945. Operations Battle of Saipan, 15 June – 9 July 1944 Battle of Guam, 21 July – 10 August 1944 Battle of Tinian, 24 July – 1 August 1944 Battle of Peleliu, 15 September – 27 November 1944 Battle of Angaur, 17 September – 22 October 1944 See also West Loch disaster References Books Web External links Conflicts in 1944 History of the Northern Mariana Islands Pacific Ocean theatre of World War II United States Marine Corps in World War II Wars involving Palau Campaigns of World War II Battles and operations of World War II involving Japan	[ -0.07405804842710495, -0.0771426185965538, -0.5446575284004211, 0.2030782699584961, -0.4296101927757263, 0.1484040766954422, 0.28487756848335266, 0.30249717831611633, -0.21823596954345703, 0.02728082239627838, -0.306365042924881, 0.5085216760635376, 0.13821783661842346, 0.6200595498085022, -0.03648396208882332, 0.5241022109985352, 0.6663329601287842, -0.06552046537399292, 0.15181823074817657, -0.22842681407928467, -0.5385238528251648, 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229867	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PZL	PZL	PZL (Państwowe Zakłady Lotnicze - State Aviation Works) was the main Polish aerospace manufacturer of the interwar period, and a brand of their aircraft. Based in Warsaw between 1928 and 1939, PZL introduced a variety of well-regarded aircraft, most notably the PZL P.11 fighter, the PZL.23 Karaś light bomber, and the PZL.37 Łoś medium bomber. In the post-war era, aerospace factories in Poland were initially run under the name WSK (Transport Equipment Manufacturing Plant), but returned to adopt PZL acronym in late 1950s. This was used as a common aircraft brand and later as a part of names of several Polish state-owned aerospace manufacturers referring to PZL traditions, and belonging to the Zjednoczenie Przemysłu Lotniczego i Silnikowego PZL - PZL Aircraft and Engine Industry Union. Among the better-known products during this period is the PZL TS-11 Iskra jet trainer and PZL-104 Wilga STOL utility aircraft. After the fall of communism in Poland in 1989, these manufacturers became separate companies, still sharing the PZL name. In the case of PZL Mielec, the abbreviation was later developed as Polskie Zakłady Lotnicze - Polish Aviation Works. Over time, most of the now-separate divisions were purchased by foreign concerns, and some continue to use PZL brand. History PZL (1928-1939) The PZL - Państwowe Zakłady Lotnicze (State Aviation Works) was founded in Warsaw in 1928 as a state-owned company, and was based on the earlier CWL (Centralne Warsztaty Lotnicze) - Central Aviation Workshops. First to be produced was a licensed version of a French fighter, the Wibault 70, but from then on the company produced exclusively its own designs. In the next decade a talented designer Zygmunt Puławski designed a series of high-wing, all-metal modern fighters: PZL P.1, P.6, P.7 and P.11. The latter two types were used as basic fighters in the Polish Air Force from 1933 onwards. The last variant, PZL P.24, developed after Puławski's death in an air crash, was exported to four countries. PZL also mass-produced a light bomber, PZL.23 Karaś, and a modern medium bomber, PZL.37 Łoś, as well as building small numbers of sport aircraft (PZL.5, PZL.19, PZL.26), and liaison aircraft (PZL Ł.2); and developing prototypes of passenger aircraft. In the late 1930s the company also developed several prototypes of more modern fighters and bombers — and a passenger airliner, the PZL.44 Wicher. However, World War II prevented these aircraft from entering production. PZL was the largest Polish pre-war aircraft manufacturer. In 1934, the main factory in Warsaw was named PZL WP-1 (Wytwórnia Płatowców 1 - Airframe Works 1) in the Okęcie district of Warsaw. A new division PZL WP-2 was built in Mielec in 1938-1939, but production was only just starting there at the outbreak of World War II. An engine factory division, PZL WS-1 in Warsaw-Okęcie (Wytwórnia Silników - Engine Works 1), produced mostly licensed versions of British Bristol engines, such as the Bristol Pegasus and the Bristol Mercury. The WS-1 factory was former Polskie Zakłady Skody, the Polish division of Skoda Works, and was nationalized and renamed in 1936. In 1937-1939 a new engine division, PZL WS-2, was built in Rzeszów. Situation post-war During World War II and the five-year German occupation, all Polish aviation industry was taken over by German firms, and as a result, almost completely destroyed. By the end of the war, all factories were either ruined or robbed of tooling. Despite it, from 1944 there were carried out efforts to design new aircraft, in primitive conditions (first of all, in the LWD). No engines nor suitable production facilities were available at first. The post-war communist government of Poland wanted to break all connections with pre-war Poland: from the late 1940s the name PZL ceased to be used, and new aerospace factories were named WSK (Wytwórnia Sprzętu Komunikacyjnego - Transport Equipment Manufacturing Plant). Under the Soviet-influenced, centrally planned economy, all indigenous projects were abandoned, in a favour of manufacturing Soviet-licensed aircraft. No own designs were produced for a decade, and only in late 1950s, after the stalinist period (1956), did the PZL brand return to designing new aircraft. The ZPLiS PZL - Zjednoczenie Przemysłu Lotniczego i Silnikowego PZL - PZL Aircraft and Engine Industry Union, which grouped all state-owned aerospace industry factories, was created in following years, but it only enjoyed some economic autonomy from 1973 onwards. It consisted of 19 factories, a research institute, and the Pezetel Foreign Trade Center - CHZ Pezetel, which represented all the Polish aerospace industry abroad (Pezetel being the pronunciation of an abbreviation PZL in Polish). Consequently, in the 1970s some WSK factories also introduced the PZL abbreviation to their names. After the fall of communism in Poland in 1989, all manufacturers became separate companies, initially state-owned, still sharing the PZL name. Locations PZL "Warszawa-Okęcie" The main factory PZL WP-1 in Warsaw was destroyed during World War II, mostly during the German evacuation in 1944. In 1946, the CSS construction bureau (Centralne Studium Samolotów - Central Aircraft Study) was set up there. As the factory was rebuilt, it was renamed in 1950 as the WSK Nr.4, and in 1956 as the WSK-Okęcie. It first produced licensed versions of Soviet types and aircraft developed by other Polish companies. From 1958 onwards it started to produce its own designs under the PZL brand, starting with the PZL-101 Gawron. The factory developed mainly light sports, trainer and utility aircraft. An attempt of producing and airliner PZL MD-12 was unsuccessful. The best-known designs are the PZL-104 Wilga utility aircraft, which was produced in larger numbers than any other Polish-designed aircraft; and the PZL-106 Kruk agricultural aircraft. During the 1970s the factory adopted the name WSK "PZL Warszawa-Okęcie", which after the fall of the communist system was changed in 1989 to PZL Warszawa-Okęcie. In 2001 the factory was bought by the Spanish company EADS CASA (now part of Airbus Defence and Space) and since then has been known as EADS PZL Warszawa-Okęcie SA. WSK "PZL-Mielec" / PZL Mielec The PZL WP2 factory in Mielec became a part of Heinkel during the German occupation of Poland, and manufactured parts for German aircraft. After the war the factory was named first PZL No.1 works, then from 1949 WSK-Mielec, and later WSK "PZL-Mielec". It became the biggest post-war Polish aircraft producer. It manufactured mostly licensed Soviet types, such as the Antonov An-2 transport biplane and early jet fighters: Mikoyan-Gurevich MiG-15 (as Lim-1 and Lim-2) and Mikoyan-Gurevich MiG-17 (as Lim-5 and Lim-6). It also produced the Polish-designed TS-8 Bies piston trainer and TS-11 Iskra jet trainer, and the PZL M-15 Belphegor the world's only jet agricultural aircraft. Large numbers of aircraft were exported abroad, mostly to the USSR. From the 1970s onward it produced mostly its own developments of licensed civil aircraft, the best known are the PZL M-18 Dromader agricultural aircraft, which was exported to numerous countries, and the PZL M-28 Skytruck/Bryza light transport aircraft. In 1998 the state factory WSK PZL-Mielec went bankrupt and was changed into the state-owned Polskie Zakłady Lotnicze Sp.z o.o. (Polish Aviation Works) (PZL Mielec). On March 16, 2007, PZL Mielec was purchased by the Sikorsky Aircraft Corporation, a unit of United Technologies Corporation (UTX). It still produces M-18 and M-28 aircraft. WSK "PZL-Świdnik" In 1951 a third national aerospace factory, WSK-Świdnik, was built in Świdnik, and in 1957 it was renamed to WSK "PZL-Świdnik". Since 1956 it has become one of the world's major helicopter manufacturers, producing helicopters under Soviet licences, starting from the SM-1 (Mil Mi-1). Świdnik was the main producer of the Mi-1 and the exclusive producer of the Mil Mi-2, which was widely used throughout the world. Since the late 1980s, Świdnik has been producing a Polish-designed medium helicopter PZL W-3 Sokół. It also produces a light helicopter, the PZL SW-4 Puszczyk. After 1991 the state factory became a state-owned corporation (WSK "PZL-Świdnik" SA). It also produced the SZD-30 Pirat, PW-5 and PW-6 gliders and cooperates widely with other nations' manufacturers, e.g., in the manufacture of Agusta A109 fuselages. In early 2010 the factory was acquired by AgustaWestland. PZL-Bielsko / Allstar PZL Glider Glider manufacturer SZD (Szybowcowy Zakład Doświadczalny - Glider Experimental Works) was created in Bielsko-Biała in 1948. The company grew and had production plants in additional locations, during this process it was renamed several times until it got its name PZL-Bielsko in the 1990s. It was one of the biggest sailplane factories and exported its gliders world-wide. In 2002 Allstar PZL Glider Sp. z o.o. acquired the production plant in Bielsko-Biala and the Type Certificates of the following SZD sailplanes: SZD-59-1 Acro - a single-seater for aerobatics and cross-country, SZD-54-2 Perkoz – a double-seater training-glider for aerobatic and cross-country, SZD-55-1 Nexus – a single seater glider of the standard class, SZD-51-1 Junior - single seater training glider of the club class, SZD-50 Puchacz - double-seater training-glider and SZD-48-3 Jantar Standard 3 – single-seater glider of standard class. The company further manufactures and develops the first four SZD-glider models. Allstar PZL Glider is also producing and distributing spare parts for all six types mentioned above. On the occasion of the air show “Aero” 2019 in Friedrichshafen Allstar PZL Glider has presented its proof-of-concept of a new electric propulsion system for the SZD-55 Nexus. The electric sustainer, developed by the company and named “Allstar-e-motion”, is right now in the advanced certification process. The system will also be available as an assembly kit for retrofitting of existing SZD-55s. WSK-Rzeszów The engine division WS-2 of the PZL was built in Rzeszów in 1937-1939. After the war it still bore a name PZL (Państwowe Zakłady Lotnicze) until 1951, when it was renamed WSK-Rzeszów. From 1949 it manufactured Soviet-licensed M-11 engines, later, among others, ASh-62IR, turboshaft engines GTD-350 and Polish jet engines SO-1. The factory was bought by United Technologies in 2002 and changed its name to Pratt & Whitney Rzeszów in 2015. WSK "PZL-Kalisz" In 1952 the engine manufacturer WSK-Kalisz was created. It manufactured mostly Soviet-licensed engines, first piston (the Shvetsov ASh-82 and the Ivchenko AI-14) and then jet (the Klimov VK-1). It also produced Polish piston engines, such as the WN-3, and other equipment. In October 1996 it was renamed WSK "PZL-Kalisz" and became a corporation (SA). WSK "PZL Warszawa II" WSK Warszawa II was created in 1952 in Warsaw as a manufacturer of aircraft parts and military equipment parts. In 1995 it was changed from a state factory to a corporation WSK "PZL Warszawa II" SA. Aircraft Other types of aircraft PZL Krosno KR-03 Puchatek - glider Engines PZL-3 See also Gliders built at PZL-Bielsko References Notes Bibliography External links Swidnik PZL branch home page Warsaw EADS PZL "Warszawa-Okęcie" home page PZL Mielec home page Allstar PZL Glider home page Aircraft manufacturers of Poland Aircraft engine manufacturers of Poland Glider manufacturers Science and technology in Poland Helicopter manufacturers of Poland Manufacturing companies based in Warsaw Polish brands	[ 0.34886395931243896, 0.007308944594115019, 0.11033708602190018, -0.2501087784767151, -0.3141019940376282, 0.5954306125640869, -0.3704906105995178, 0.2304777204990387, 0.07331514358520508, -0.049128539860248566, -0.4014621078968048, -0.5608461499214172, 0.08039293438196182, 0.6710529327392578, -0.5493701100349426, 0.09908972680568695, 0.11449319124221802, 0.5246393084526062, -0.12950347363948822, -0.7028545141220093, 0.31289544701576233, -0.19964714348316193, 0.8299963474273682, 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229870	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hans-Hermann%20Hoppe	Hans-Hermann Hoppe	Hans-Hermann Hoppe (; ; born 2 September 1949) is a German-American paleolibertarian and anarcho-capitalist political theorist. He is Professor Emeritus of Economics at the University of Nevada, Las Vegas (UNLV), Senior Fellow of the Ludwig von Mises Institute, and the founder and president of the Property and Freedom Society. Hoppe identifies as a culturally conservative libertarian. He is opposed to democracy, a view he lays out in his book Democracy: The God That Failed. Hoppe's statements and ideas concerning race and homosexuality have repeatedly provoked controversy among his libertarian peers and his colleagues at UNLV. His belief in the right of property owners to establish libertarian communities that engage in racial discrimination, and his assertion that homosexuals and political dissidents will have to be "physically removed" from these communities if they are to survive, have proven particularly divisive. Hoppe also garners controversy due to his support for governmental enforcement of immigration laws, which critics argue is at odds with libertarianism and anarcho-capitalism. Life and work Hoppe was born in Peine, West Germany, did undergraduate studies at Universität des Saarlandes and received his MA and PhD degrees from Goethe University Frankfurt. He studied under Jürgen Habermas, a leading German intellectual of the post-WWII era, but gradually came to reject Habermas's ideas, and European leftism generally, regarding them as "intellectually barren and morally bankrupt." He was a post-doctoral fellow at the University of Michigan, in Ann Arbor, from 1976 to 1978 and earned his habilitation in Foundations of Sociology and Economics from the University of Frankfurt in 1981. From 1986 until his retirement in 2008, Hoppe was a professor in the School of Business at University of Nevada, Las Vegas. He is a Distinguished Fellow of the Mises Institute, the publisher of much of his work, and was editor of various Mises Institute periodicals.<ref>Hans Herman Hoppe, [https://mises.org/books/economicsethics.pdf The Ethics and Economics of Private Property], Second Edition, Mises Institute, p. xii, .</ref> Hoppe has stated that Murray Rothbard was his "principal teacher, mentor and master". After reading Rothbard's books and being converted to a Rothbardian political position, Hoppe moved from Germany to New York City to be with Rothbard, and then followed Rothbard to the University of Nevada, Las Vegas, "working and living side-by-side with him, in constant and immediate personal contact." According to Hoppe, from 1985 until Rothbard's 1995 death, Hoppe considered Rothbard his "dearest fatherly friend". Hoppe resides in Turkey with his wife Gülçin Imre Hoppe, an Austrian school economist.Salihovic, Elnur (2015). Major Players in the Muslim Business World. Universal Publishers. Property and Freedom Society In 2006, Hoppe founded The Property and Freedom Society ("PFS") as a reaction against the Milton Friedman-influenced Mont Pelerin Society, which he has derided as "socialist". On the fifth anniversary of PFS, Hoppe reflected on its goals: Hoppe has been criticized for repeatedly inviting white nationalist speakers such as Jared Taylor, and neo-Nazi Richard B. Spencer, to speak at the PFS. Creation of the Mises Institute As a result of the economic works of Hans-Hermann Hoppe, Murray Rothbard, Ludwig Von Mises, and other Austrian economists, the Mises Institute was founded in 1982 by Lew Rockwell, Burton Blumert, and Murray Rothbard, following a split between the Cato Institute and Rothbard, who had been one of the founders of the Cato Institute. Argumentation ethics In the September 1988 issue of Liberty, Hoppe attempted to establish an a priori and value-neutral justification for libertarian ethics by devising a new theory which he named argumentation ethics. Hoppe asserted that any argument which in any respect purports to contradict libertarian principles is logically incoherent. Hoppe argued that, in the course of having an argument about politics (or indeed any subject), people assume certain norms of argumentation, including a prohibition on initiating violence. Hoppe then extrapolated this argument to political life in general, arguing that the norms governing argumentation should apply in all political contexts. Hoppe claimed that, of all political philosophies, only anarcho-capitalist libertarianism prohibits the initiation of aggressive violence (the non-aggression principle); therefore, any argument for any political philosophy other than anarcho-capitalist libertarianism is logically incoherent. Reception In the following issue, Liberty published comments by ten of Hoppe's fellow libertarians, mostly friends and colleagues at the Mises Institute, followed by a rejoinder from Hoppe. In his comment for Liberty, Hoppe's friend and Mises Institute supervisor Murray Rothbard wrote that Hoppe's theory was "a dazzling breakthrough for political philosophy in general and for libertarianism in particular" and that Hoppe "has managed to transcend the famous is/ought, fact/value dichotomy that has plagued philosophy since the days of the Scholastics, and that had brought modern libertarianism into a tiresome deadlock". However, the majority of Hoppe's colleagues surveyed by Liberty rejected his theory. In his response, Hoppe derided his critics as "utilitarians". Later, attorney and Mises Institute adjunct scholar Stephan Kinsella also defended Hoppe's argument, while Mises Institute economists Bob Murphy and Gene Callahan rejected Hoppe's argument. David Osterfeld, an adjunct scholar at the Mises Institute, agreed with most of Hoppe's argument in an essay, while raising a number of objections, to which Hoppe subsequently responded. Mises Institute Senior Fellow Roderick T. Long stated that Hoppe's a priori formulation of libertarianism denied the fundamental principle of Misesean praxeology. On the issue of utilitarianism, Long wrote, "Hoppe's argument, if it worked, would commit us to recognizing and respecting libertarian rights regardless of what our goals are – but as a praxeologist, I have trouble seeing how any practical requirement can be justified apart from a means-end structure." Long reconstructed Hoppe's argument in deductively valid form, specifying four premises on whose truth the argument's soundness depends, and showed that each premise is either uncertain, doubtful, or clearly false. Long summarized his views by stating: Libertarian philosopher Jason Brennan rejected Hoppe's argument, saying: Another critic argued that Hoppe had not provided any non-circular reasons why we "have to regard moral values as something that must be regarded as being established through (consensual) argument instead of 'mere' subjective preferences for situations turning out in certain ways". In other words, the theory relies "on the existence [of] certain intuitions, the acceptance of which cannot itself be the result of 'value-free' reasoning." Views on democracy In 2001, Hoppe published Democracy: The God That Failed which examines various social and economic phenomena which, Hoppe argues, are problems caused by democratic forms of government. He attributes democracy's failures to pressure groups which seek to increase government expenditures and regulations. Hoppe proposes alternatives and remedies, including secession, decentralization of government, and "complete freedom of contract, occupation, trade and migration". Hoppe argues that monarchy would preserve individual liberty more effectively than democracy. In 2013, Hoppe reflected on the relationship between democracy and the arts and concluded that "democracy leads to the subversion and ultimately disappearance of the notion of beauty and universal standards of beauty. Beauty is swamped and submerged by so-called 'modern art'." Walter Block, a colleague of Hoppe's at the Mises Institute, asserts that Hoppe's arguments shed light "on historical occurrences, from wars to poverty to inflation to interest rates to crime". Block notes that while Hoppe concedes that 21st-century democracies are more prosperous than the monarchies of old, Hoppe argues that if nobles and kings replaced today's political leaders, their ability to take a long-term view of a country's well-being would "improve matters". Block also shared what he called minor criticisms of Hoppe's theses regarding time preferences, immigration and the gap between libertarianism and conservatism. Alberto Benegas-Lynch Jr. criticized Hoppe's thesis that monarchy is preferable to democracy. A Professor of Economics at the University of Buenos Aires, Benegas-Lynch provided empirical evidence demonstrating that modern monarchies tend to be far poorer than modern democracies. In response, Hoppe argued that monarchies tend to be poorer than democracies not because of intrinsic features of these political systems, but because African countries, populated by what Hoppe considers to be racially inferior people, are disproportionately monarchical whereas European countries are mostly democratic. Citing the book Race, Evolution, and Behavior by racialist psychologist J. Phillipe Rushton, Hoppe claimed that comparing African monarchies to European democracies would "lead to a systematic distortion of the evidence given that Caucasians have, on the average, a significantly lower degree of time preference than Negroids". Expulsion of homosexuals and dissidents In Democracy Hoppe describes a fully libertarian society of "covenant communities" made up of residents who have signed an agreement defining the nature of that community. Hoppe writes "There would be little or no 'tolerance' and 'openmindedness' so dear to left-libertarians. Instead, one would be on the right path toward restoring the freedom of association and exclusion implied in the institution of private property". Hoppe writes that towns and villages could have warning signs saying "no beggars, bums, or homeless, but also no homosexuals, drug users, Jews, Muslims, Germans, or Zulus".Block, Walter (2007). "Plumb-Line Libertarianism: A Critique of Hoppe". Reason Papers. Hoppe also makes plain that he believes that practicing certain forms of discrimination, including the physical removal of homosexuals and political dissidents, is completely compatible with his system. Hoppe writes: Commenting on this passage, Martin Snyder of the American Association of University Professors said Hoppe's words will disturb "[t]hose with a better memory than Hoppe for segregation, apartheid, internment facilities and concentration camps, for yellow stars and pink triangles". Hoppe also provoked controversy by calling homosexuality a "perversity or abnormality" analogous to pedophilia, drug use, pornography, polygamy and obscenity. Walter Block wrote that Hoppe's statement calling for the physical removal of homosexuals from a libertarian political community was "exceedingly difficult to reconcile with libertarianism." Block argues that "it is entirely possible that some areas of the country, parts of Gotham and San Francisco for example, will require this practice, and ban, entirely, heterosexuality. If this is done through contract, private property rights, restrictive covenants, it will be entirely compatible with the libertarian legal code." Support for immigration restrictions and critiques Although a self-proclaimed anarcho-capitalist who favors abolishing the nation-state, Hoppe believes that as long as states exist, they should impose some restrictions on immigration. Hoppe has equated free immigration to "forced integration" which violates the rights of native peoples, since if land were privately owned, immigration would not be unhindered but would only occur with the consent of private property owners. Hoppe's Mises Institute colleague Walter Block has characterized Hoppe as an "anti-open immigration activist" who argues that, though all public property is "stolen" by the state from taxpayers, "the state compounds the injustice when it allows immigrants to use [public] property, thus further "invading" the private property rights of the original owners". However, Block rejects Hoppe's views as incompatible with libertarianism. He argues that Hoppe's logic implies that flagrantly unlibertarian laws such as regulations on prostitution and drug use "could be defended on the basis that many tax-paying property owners would not want such behavior on their own private property". Another libertarian author, Simon Guenzl, writing for Libertarian Papers argues that: "supporting a legitimate role for the state as an immigration gatekeeper is inconsistent with Rothbardian and Hoppean libertarian anarchism, as well as with the associated strategy of advocating always and in every instance reductions in the state's role in society." In terms of specific immigration restrictions, Hoppe argued that an appropriate policy will require immigrants to the United States to display proficiency in English in addition to "superior (above-average) intellectual performance and character structure as well as a compatible system of values". He suggested that these criteria would lead to a "systematic pro-European immigration bias". Jacob Hornberger of the Future of Freedom Foundation argued that the immigration test Hoppe advocated would probably be prejudiced against Latin American immigrants to the United States. Remarks about homosexuals and academic freedom Following a 4 March 2004, lecture on time preference at the University of Nevada, Las Vegas (UNLV), a student complained that Hoppe created a hostile classroom environment by stating that homosexuals tend to be more shortsighted than heterosexuals in their ability to save money and plan (economically) for the future, in part because they tend not to have children. Hoppe also suggested that John Maynard Keynes's homosexuality might explain his economic views, with which Hoppe disagreed. Hoppe also stated that very young and very old people, and couples without children, were less likely to plan for the future. Hoppe told a reporter that the comments lasted only 90 seconds of a 75-minute class, no students questioned the comments in that class, and that in 18 years of giving the same lecture all over the world, he had never previously received a complaint about it. At the request of university officials, Hoppe apologized to the class. He said, "Italians tend to eat more spaghetti than Germans, and Germans tend to eat more sauerkraut than Italians" and explained that he was speaking in generalities. Thereafter, Hoppe told the reporter, the student alleged that Hoppe did not take the complaint seriously and filed a formal complaint. Hoppe told the reporter that he felt as if it were he who was the victim in the incident and that the student should have been told to "grow up". An investigation was conducted and the university's provost, Raymond W. Alden III, issued Hoppe a non-disciplinary letter of instruction on 9 February 2005, with a finding that he had "created a hostile or intimidating educational environment in violation of the University's policies regarding discrimination as to sexual orientation". Alden also instructed Hoppe to "... cease mischaracterizing opinion as objective fact", asserted that Hoppe's opinion was not supported by peer-reviewed academic literature, and remarked that Hoppe had "refus[ed] to substantiate [his] in-class statements of fact ..." Hoppe appealed the decision, saying the university had "blatantly violated its contractual obligations" toward him and described the action as "frivolous interference with my right to academic freedom". He was represented by the American Civil Liberties Union. The ACLU threatened legal action. ACLU attorney Allen Lichtenstein said "The charge against professor Hoppe is totally specious and without merit". The Nevada ACLU executive director said "We don't subscribe to Hans' theories and certainly understand why some students find them offensive ... But academic freedom means nothing if it doesn't protect the right of professors to present scholarly ideas that are relevant to their curricula, even if they are controversial and rub people the wrong way". Alden's decision was picked up by Fox News and several blogs and libertarians organized a campaign to contact the university. The university received two weeks of bad publicity and the Interim Chancellor (Nevada System of Higher Education) Jim Rogers expressed concerns about "any attempts to thwart free speech". Jim Rogers intervened in the matter. He rejected Hoppe's request for a one-year paid sabbatical, and UNLV President Carol Harter acted upon Hoppe's appeal on 18 February 2005. She decided that Hoppe's views, even if non-mainstream or controversial, should not be cause for reprimanding him. She dismissed the discrimination complaint against Hoppe and the non-disciplinary letter was withdrawn from Hoppe's personnel file. She wrote: Hoppe later wrote about the incident and the UNLV investigation in an article entitled "My Battle With the Thought Police". Martin Snyder of the American Association of University Professors wrote that he should not be "punished for freely expressing his opinions". Various controversies about academic freedom, including the Hoppe matter and remarks made by Harvard University President Lawrence Summers, prompted the University of Nevada, Las Vegas, to hold a conference on academic freedom in October 2005. In 2009 UNLV proposed a new policy that included the encouragement of reporting by people who felt that they had encountered bias. The proposed policy was criticized by the Nevada ACLU and some faculty members who remembered the Hoppe incident as adverse to academic freedom.Policy on Bias Incidents and Hate Crimes (Final draft), University of Nevada, Las Vegas, Office of the Vice President for Student Affairs, Department of Police Services, Office of the Vice President for Diversity and Inclusion Policy on Bias Incidents and Hate Crimes. Selected works Books (authored) German Handeln und Erkennen [Action and Cognition] (in German). Bern (1976). . . Kritik der kausalwissenschaftlichen Sozialforschung [Critique of Causal Scientific Social Research] (in German). Opladen: Westdeutscher Verlag (1983). . . Eigentum, Anarchie und Staat Property, Anarchy, and the State (in German). Opladen: Westdeutscher Verlag (1987). . . English A Theory of Socialism and Capitalism. Kluwer Academic Publishers (1989). . Archived from the original. Audiobook, narrated by Jim Vann. Economic Science and the Austrian Method. Auburn, AL: Ludwig von Mises Institute (1995). . Audiobook, narrated by Gennady Stolyarov II. Democracy: The God That Failed: The Economics and Politics of Monarchy, Democracy and Natural Order. New Brunswick, NJ: Transaction Publishers (2001). . . The Economics and Ethics of Private Property. Auburn, AL: Ludwig von Mises Institute, 2006. [2nd ed.] . Books (edited) The Myth of National Defense: Essays on the Theory and History of Security Production. Ludwig von Mises Institute (2003). . . Book contributions "Introduction." [1998]. In: The Ethics of Liberty, by Murray N. Rothbard. New York University Press (1998). . Audiobook available. "Government and the Private Production of Defense." In: The Myth of National Defense: Essays on the Theory and History of Security Production. Auburn, AL: Ludwig von Mises Institute (2003), pp. 335–368. . . Audiobook, narrated by George Pickering. Articles "On the Ultimate Justification of the Ethics of Private Property." Liberty, vol. 2, no. 1 (September 1988): 20–22. "Symposium: Breakthrough or Buncombe?" Liberty, vol. 2, no. 2 (November 1988): 44–54. Symposium proceedings featuring Murray N. Rothbard, D. Friedman, L. Yeager, D. Gordon and D. Rasmussen. "Socialism: A Property or Knowledge Problem?" Review of Austrian Economics, vol. 9 (March 1996): 143–149. . "Small is Beautiful and Efficient: The Case for Secession." Telos, vol. 107 (Spring 1996). "The Libertarian Case for Free Trade and Restricted Immigration." Journal of Libertarian Studies, vol. 13, no. 2 (Summer 1998). Center for Libertarian Studies. Reprinted by the Center for Immigration Studies (May 2001). "On Property and Exploitation," with Walter Block. International Journal of Value-Based Management, vol. 15 (2002): 225–236. "My Battle with the Thought Police." Mises Daily (12 April 2005). Ludwig von Mises Institute. Book reviews "In Defense of Extreme Rationalism: Thoughts on D. McCloskey's The Rhetoric of Economics." Review of The Rhetoric of Economics by Donald McCloskey. Review of Austrian Economics, vol. 3 (1989): 179–214. Collected works Jacob, Thomas (editor). Hoppe Unplugged: Ansichten, Einsichten und Provokationen aus Interviews und Reden von Prof. Hans-Hermann Hoppe [in German]. Hamburg: tredition GmbH (2021). Online supplement. "Views, insights and provocations from interviews and speeches by Prof. Hans-Hermann Hoppe." See also Anarcho-capitalism Anti-democratic thought Austrian School of Economics Criticism of democracy Curtis Yarvin Dark Enlightenment Dialectic Lew Rockwell Libertarianism Ludwig von Mises Market anarchism Mises Institute Murray Rothbard Nick Land Outline of democracy Paleolibertarianism Praxeology Propertarianism Right-libertarianism Ron Paul Soft despotism Sovereign democracy Totalitarian democracy Tyranny of the majority Voluntaryism Further reading Hülsmann, Jörg Guido, and Stephan Kinsella (eds). Property, Freedom, and Society: Essays in Honor of Hans-Hermann Hoppe. Auburn, AL: Mises Institute, 2009. Deist, Jeff. "Hans-Hermann Hoppe: The In-Depth Interview." The Austrian, vol. 6, no. 2, March–April 2020, pp. 4–13. References External links Hans-Hermann Hoppe, The Mises Institute Property, Freedom, and Society – Festschrift'' (essays honoring Hoppe from the Mises Institute) The Property & Freedom Society Hoppe's archives at LewRockwell.com 1949 births Living people 20th-century American economists 20th-century American essayists 20th-century American male writers 20th-century American philosophers 20th-century German male writers 20th-century German non-fiction writers 20th-century German philosophers 21st-century American economists 21st-century American essayists 21st-century American male writers 21st-century American non-fiction writers 21st-century American philosophers 21st-century German male writers 21st-century German non-fiction writers 21st-century German philosophers American anarcho-capitalists American ethicists American libertarians American male non-fiction writers American political philosophers American political writers Austrian School economists Free speech activists German anti-communists German classical liberals German economists German emigrants to the United States German ethicists German libertarians German male non-fiction writers German political philosophers German political writers Goethe University Frankfurt alumni Libertarian economists Libertarian theorists Mises Institute people Non-interventionism Paleolibertarianism People from Peine (district) Philosophers of law Saarland University alumni University of Nevada, Las Vegas faculty University of Michigan fellows	[ -0.033352695405483246, 0.2296532541513443, -1.0692142248153687, -0.07143333554267883, 0.2969436049461365, 0.9881746768951416, 0.20055244863033295, 0.11173666268587112, -0.12535426020622253, -0.0654832050204277, -0.45889222621917725, -0.07321342080831528, -0.3645528256893158, 0.3884828984737396, 0.5896512269973755, -0.26706966757774353, -0.6137905716896057, -0.28056490421295166, -0.9079388380050659, -0.17810113728046417, -0.046451155096292496, -0.10986776649951935, 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229876	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yakovlev%20Yak-40	Yakovlev Yak-40	The Yakovlev Yak-40 (; NATO reporting name: Codling) is a regional jet designed by Yakovlev. The trijet maiden flight was made in 1966, and it was in production from 1967 to 1981. Introduced in September 1968, the Yak-40 has been exported since 1970. Development By the early 1960s, Soviet international and internal trunk routes were served by Aeroflot, the state airline, using jet or turboprop powered airliners, but their local services, many of which operated from grass airfields, were served by obsolete piston-engine aircraft such as the Ilyushin Il-12, Il-14 and Lisunov Li-2. Aeroflot wanted to replace these elderly airliners with a turbine-powered aircraft, with the Yakovlev design bureau being assigned to design it. High speed was not required, but it would have to be able to operate safely and reliably out of poorly equipped airports with short (less than 700 m or 2,300 ft) unpaved runways in poor weather. Yakovlev studied both turboprop and jet-powered designs to meet the requirement, including Vertical Take-Off and Landing designs with lift jets in the fuselage or in wing-mounted pods, but eventually they settled on a straight-winged tri-jet carrying 20 to 25 passengers. The engines were to be the new AI-25 turbofan being developed by Ivchenko at Zaporozhye in Ukraine. Design The Yak-40 is a low-winged cantilever monoplane with unswept wings, a large T-tail and a retractable tricycle landing gear. The passenger cabin is ahead of the wing, with the short rear fuselage carrying the three turbofan engines, with two engines mounted on short pylons on the side of the fuselage and a third engine in the rear fuselage, with air fed from a dorsal air-intake by an "S-duct", as is an auxiliary power unit, fitted to allow engine start-up without ground support on primitive airfields. The three AI-25 engines are two-shaft engines rated at 14.7 kN (3,300 lbf). The engines have no jetpipes, and initially no thrust reversers. The pressurized fuselage has a diameter of 2.4 metres (94 in). Pilot and co-pilot sit side by side in the aircraft's flight deck, while the passenger cabin has a standard layout seating 24 to 27 passengers three-abreast, although 32 passengers can be carried by switching to four-abreast seating. Passengers enter the aircraft via a set of ventral airstairs in the rear fuselage. The wing is fitted with large trailing-edge slotted flaps, but has no other high-lift devices, relying on the aircraft's low wing loading to give the required short-field take-off and landing performance. The wings join at the aircraft centerline, with the main spar running from wingtip to wingtip. The wings house integral fuel tanks with a capacity of 3,800 litres (1,000 US gal; 840 imp gal). The aircraft has a large fin, which is swept back at an angle of 50 degrees to move the tailplane rearwards to compensate for the short rear fuselage. The horizontal tailplane itself is unswept. The Yak-40 was the first Soviet-built airliner designed to Western airworthiness requirements. Operational history The first of five prototypes made its maiden flight on 21 October 1966, with production being launched at the Saratov Aviation Plant in 1967 and Soviet type certification granted in 1968. The type carried out its first passenger service for Aeroflot on 30 September 1968. In the 1972 version, a tailspin was removed. In 1974, new version was introduced, with non-stop flight distance increased. Also, the forward door on the right side of the fuselage changed its place – it was located together with the sixth window. In 1975, the last upgrade of Yak-40 took place – the number of cabin windows on the right side changed from nine to eight. By the time production ended in November 1981, the factory at Saratov had produced 1,011 or 1,013 aircraft. By 1993 Yak-40s operated by Aeroflot had carried 354 million passengers. As well as being the backbone of Aeroflot's local operations, flying to 276 domestic destinations in 1980, the Yak-40 was also an export success. In addition to this, Yak-40 became the first Russian/Soviet aircraft to get flying certificates from Italy and West Germany. It was demonstrated in 75 countries of the world, including the US, where orders for the Yak-40 were made. A total of 130 were exported to Afghanistan, Angola, Bulgaria, Cambodia, Cuba, Czechoslovakia, Equatorial Guinea, Ethiopia, Germany, Guatemala, Honduras, Hungary, Italy, Laos, Madagascar, Philippines, Poland, Syria, Vietnam, Yugoslavia and Zambia. As of July 2021, a Yak-40 has begun testing with an electric propeller engine in the nose of the aircraft. Variants Data from:- OKB Yakovlev Yak-40 – The first production model. Yak-40-25 Military conversion with the nose of a MiG-25R and SRS-4A Elint installation. Yak-40 Akva (Aqua) – Military conversion with nose probe, pylon-mounted sensors, a fuselage dispenser and underwing active jammer pods. Yak-40D (Dal'niy – long-distance) – with non-stop flight distance enlarged. Yak-40EC – Export version. Yak-40 Fobos (Phobos) – Military conversion with two dorsal viewing domes and a removable window on each side. Yak-40K – cargo / convertible / combi version with a large freight door. Produced in 1975–81. Yak-40 Kalibrovshchik – Military Elint conversion with a "farm" of blade, dipole and planar antennas. Yak-40L – Proposed version with two Lycoming LF507-1N turbofans, a joint program between Skorost and Textron (now Allied-Signal) Lycoming. The original design would have had a slightly swept wing. Yak-40 Liros – Military conversion with nose probe carrying air-data sensors. Yak-40M – Proposed 40-seat stretched passenger version. Yak-40 M-602 – Flying testbed with a Czechoslovak M 602 turboprop installed in the nose. Yak-40 Meteo – Military conversion with multipole dipole antennas and fuselage dispenser. Yak-40P – Yak-40L with large nacelles projecting ahead of the wings. Yak-40REO – Military conversion with large ventral canoe for IR linescan. Lateral observation blister on right side. Yak-40 Shtorm – Military conversion with multiple probes and sensors on the forward sidewalls. Yak-40TL – Proposed upgraded version, to be powered by three Lycoming LF 507 turbofan engines. Yak-40V – Export version powered by three AI-25T turbofan engines. Yak-40MS – Experimental upgrade with two Honeywell TFE731-5 turbofan engines by SibNIA. STR-40DT – A proposed twin-engine composite-wing derivative along the line of TVS-2DTS, also being developed by SibNIA. Endorsed, but not supported by Yakovlev. Operators Civilian operators As of July 2019, a total of 22 out of 1011 Yakovlev Yak-40 aircraft remained in service with civil operators. The airworthiness of several Yak-40 of smaller Russian and Central Asian charter airlines is uncertain, as is the whereabouts of one Air Libya Tibesti aircraft after the civil war. Most aircraft in service today have been reconfigured for VIP-charter services, with fewer than ten remaining in scheduled passenger service. Known operators are: Military operators As of November 2012 no more than 17 Yak-40 remain in military service (possibly fewer, with the unclear situation in Syria). Known operators are: Accidents and incidents Specifications (Yak-40) See also References Bibliography Gordon, Yefim, Dmitry Komissarov and Sergey Komissarov. OKB Yakovlev: A History of the Design Bureau and its Aircraft. Hinkley, UK: Midland Publishing, 2005. . Gunston, Bill. The Osprey Encyclopedia of Russian Aircraft 1875–1995. London:Osprey, 1995. . Gunston, Bill and Yefim Gordon. Yakovlev Aircraft since 1924. London, UK: Putnam Aeronautical Books, 1997. . Hoyle, Craig. "World Air Forces Directory". Flight International. Vol. 190, No. 5566, 6–12 December 2016, pp. 22–53. . Ottenhof, Guus; Hillman, Peter and Jessup, Stuart. Soviet Transports. Aviation Hobby World. 1996. . Stroud, John. Soviet Transport Aircraft since 1945. London:Putnam, 1968. . Thisdell, Dan and Seymour, Chris. "World Airliner Census". Flight International, Vol. 196, No. 5694, 30 July–5 August 2019. . pp. 24–47. Taylor, John W. R. Jane's All The World's Aircraft 1976–77. London:Jane's Yearbooks, 1976. . External links List of all Yak-40 aircraft used by Polish Air Force Watch a video of the plane in action Walkaround Yak-40 (Kyiv's Aviation Museum, Ukraine) * 1960s Soviet airliners Yak-040 Trijets T-tail aircraft Aircraft first flown in 1966 Low-wing aircraft	[ 0.007322823163121939, 0.5845431685447693, 0.007447652518749237, 0.08830943703651428, -0.2543659508228302, 0.5947954654693604, 0.29108893871307373, -0.5106420516967773, 0.18996641039848328, -0.05118052288889885, -0.804308295249939, 0.2636539041996002, -0.6573669910430908, 0.27649736404418945, -0.15945932269096375, 0.5092732906341553, 0.3342612683773041, 0.26819518208503723, -0.013025670312345028, -0.3824828565120697, 0.04847247153520584, -0.5555248260498047, 0.769034206867218, 0.03539020195603371, 0.012412205338478088, -0.17611472308635712, 0.5441886782646179, 0.5417037010192871, -0.0812980905175209, 0.78214031457901, -0.5945183038711548, 1.3464744091033936, 0.14721481502056122, 0.1297328919172287, 0.22318005561828613, 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229878	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Difference	Difference	Difference, The Difference or Differences may refer to: Music Difference (album), by Dreamtale, 2005 The Difference (album), Pendleton, 2008 "The Difference" (The Wallflowers song), 1997 "The Difference", a song by Westlife from the 2009 album Where We Are "The Difference", a song by Nick Jonas from the 2016 album Last Year Was Complicated "The Difference", a song by Meek Mill featuring Quavo, from the 2016 mixtape DC4 "The Difference", a 2020 song by Flume featuring Toro y Moi "Differences" (song), by Ginuwine, 2001 Science and mathematics Difference (mathematics), the result of a subtraction Difference equation, a type of recurrence relation Differencing, in statistics, an operation on time-series data Data differencing, in computer science Set difference, the result of removing the elements of a set from another set Other uses Differences (journal), a journal of feminist cultural studies Difference (philosophy), a key concept of philosophy Difference (heraldry), a way of distinguishing similar coats of arms See also Different (disambiguation) Differential (disambiguation) Distinction (disambiguation) Deference, submitting to one's superior Différance, a French term coined by Jacques Derrida	[ 0.24455152451992035, -0.04198530316352844, 0.004490646533668041, 0.25647392868995667, -0.4739164710044861, 0.5283551812171936, 0.18419228494167328, -0.4331475794315338, -0.041961561888456345, -0.2184182107448578, 0.39440715312957764, 0.5145592093467712, 0.04464341700077057, 0.14830732345581055, -0.4464884400367737, 0.47661739587783813, 0.5054892301559448, 0.3652373254299164, -0.20692381262779236, 0.273078978061676, -0.13070495426654816, 0.27943214774131775, 0.2827739417552948, -0.7237347960472107, -0.0301746167242527, 0.3594265282154083, -0.3135036528110504, -0.1625981330871582, -0.006172133609652519, 0.5938258171081543, 0.4951627254486084, 0.790610134601593, 0.1009662002325058, -0.2128640115261078, 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229887	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mises%20Institute	Mises Institute	The Ludwig von Mises Institute for Austrian Economics, or Mises Institute, is a libertarian nonprofit think tank located in Auburn, Alabama, United States. It is named after Austrian School economist Ludwig von Mises (1881–1973). It was founded in 1982 by Lew Rockwell. It was funded by Ron Paul. Background and location The Ludwig von Mises Institute was founded in 1982 by Lew Rockwell. Rockwell, who had previously served as editor for Arlington House Publishers, received the blessing of Margit von Mises during a meeting at the Russian Tea Room in New York City, and she was named the first chairman of the board. Early supporters of the Institute included F.A. Hayek, Henry Hazlitt, Murray Rothbard, Ron Paul, and Burt Blumert. According to Rockwell, the motivation of the institute was to promote the specific contributions of Ludwig von Mises, who he feared was being ignored by libertarian institutions financed by Charles Koch and David Koch. As recounted by Justin Raimondo, Rockwell said he received a phone call from George Pearson, of the Koch Foundation, who had said that Mises was too radical to name an organization after or promote. Rothbard served as the original academic vice president of the institute. Paul agreed to become distinguished counselor and assisted with early fundraising. Judge John V. Denson assisted in the Mises Institute becoming established at the campus of Auburn University. Auburn was already home to some Austrian economists, including Roger Garrison. The Mises Institute was affiliated with the Auburn University Business School until 1998 when the institute established its own building across the street from campus. Kyle Wingfield wrote a 2006 commentary in The Wall Street Journal that the Southern United States was a "natural home" for the institute, as "Southerners have always been distrustful of government," with the institute making the "Heart of Dixie a wellspring of sensible economic thinking." Its academic programs include Mises University, Rothbard Graduate Seminar, the Austrian Economics Research Conference, and a summer research fellowship program. In 2020, the Mises Institute began offering a graduate program. It has led to the creation of spin-off organizations around the world, including Brazil, Germany, South Korea, and Turkey. Views Economic A defining philosophy of the institute is Misesian praxeology ('the logic of human action'), which holds that economic science is deductive rather than empirical. Developed by Ludwig von Mises, following the Methodenstreit opined by Carl Menger, it opposes the mathematical modeling and hypothesis-testing used to justify knowledge in neoclassical economics. Misesian economics is a form of heterodox economics. This emphasis on Misesian methodology is distinct from other scholars in the Austrian tradition, including Hayek and those associated with George Mason University. Political The Mises Institute has been criticized by some libertarians for the paleolibertarian and right-wing cultural views of some of its leading figures, on topics such as race, immigration, and the presidential campaigns of Donald Trump. In the late 1980s and early 1990s, Rockwell and Rothbard embraced racial and class resentments to build a coalition with populist paleoconservatives. This rhetoric appeared at the time in newsletters for Ron Paul that Rockwell was later identified as writing, including statements against black people and gay people that later became controversies in Paul's congressional and presidential campaigns. Separately, Rothbard's writing opposed "multiculturalists" and "the entire panoply of feminism, egalitarianism". A 2000 report by the Southern Poverty Law Center (SPLC) categorized the Mises Institute as Neo-Confederate, "devoted to a radical libertarian view of government and economics." In 2003, Chip Berlet of the SPLC described the institute as "a major center promoting libertarian political theory and the Austrian School of free market economics", noted Rothbard's disgust with child labor laws, and wrote that other institute scholars held anti-immigrant views. When a New York Times reporter requested a tour of the institute in 2014, Rockwell asked him to leave, saying he was "part of the regime." Candice Jackson, who served as acting head of the U.S. Department of Education Office for Civil Rights during the Trump Administration, was previously a summer fellow at the Mises Institute. Notable faculty Notable figures affiliated with the Mises Institute include: Walter Block – Austrian School economist and anarcho-capitalist; economics professor at Loyola University New Orleans Godfrey Bloom – British politician, former Member of the European Parliament Thomas DiLorenzo – economics professor at Loyola University Maryland Paul Gottfried – paleoconservative author, former Professor of Humanities at Elizabethtown College Hans-Hermann Hoppe – philosopher, paleolibertarian, business professor at University of Nevada, Las Vegas, and founder of Property and Freedom Society Jesús Huerta de Soto – Professor of Applied Economics at King Juan Carlos University Peter Klein – Professor of Entrepreneurship and Senior Research Fellow with the Center for Entrepreneurship & Free Enterprise at Baylor University Robert P. Murphy – economist, Institute for Energy Research Andrew Napolitano – Fox News pundit and former judge Gary North – co-founder of Christian reconstructionism and founder of Institute for Christian Economics Ron Paul – physician, author, and former congressman Ralph Raico (1936–2016) – historian and libertarian specializing in European classical liberalism and Austrian economics Murray Rothbard (1926–1995) – heterodox economist, paleolibertarian theorist, polemicist, revisionist historian, and founder of anarcho-capitalism Joseph Sobran (1946–2010) – journalist, contributor to American Renaissance and lecturer at the Institute for Historical Review Mark Thornton – Austrian School economist Joseph T. Salerno – academic vice president of the Mises Institute, Professor of Economics at Pace University, and editor of the Quarterly Journal of Austrian Economics Thomas Woods – historian, political analyst, and author See also Anarcho-capitalism Austrian School Cultural conservatism Libertarian conservatism Libertarian Party Mises Caucus Old Right (United States) Paleolibertarianism Property and Freedom Society Right-libertarianism References External links EDIRC listing (provided by RePEc) 1982 establishments in Alabama Auburn, Alabama Austrian School Book publishing companies of the United States Educational charities based in the United States Libertarian organizations based in the United States Non-profit organizations based in Alabama Think tanks established in 1982 Political and economic think tanks in the United States Private universities and colleges in Alabama	[ -0.14986753463745117, 0.31845900416374207, -0.27327945828437805, 0.3253115117549896, 0.11942623555660248, 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229896	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nils%20J%C3%B6nsson%20%28Oxenstierna%29	Nils Jönsson (Oxenstierna)	Nils Jönsson Oxenstierna (1390s–1450s) was a Swedish nobleman. During the Kalmar Union, he was co-regent of Sweden, together with his brother Bengt Jönsson Oxenstierna (1390s–1450s) from January to June 1448. He was a member of the Privy Council of Sweden in 1432, Castellan (hövitsman) at Borgholm Castle in 1436, Stäket in 1438, and Nyköping Castle in 1442. Dubbed as knight by King Christopher of Bavaria following his coronation in 1441. Biography Oxenstierna was son of important nobles and landowners: his mother Märta Finvidsdotter (Frössviksätten) was the heiress of the noble Frössvik family, and his father Jöns Bengtsson Oxenstierna (died 1396–99) was the son and one of the heirs of Ingeborg Nilsdotter (from family that is called the earliest Sparre in later historiography and genealogy), heiress of Ängsö and Salsta. Jöns Bengtsson inherited Frössvik (in Uppland) from his mother and Ängsö (in Västmanland) from his father. His brother, Bengt Jönsson Oxenstierna, was the father of Jöns Bengtsson (Oxenstierna), Archbishop of Uppsala (1417–1467). In 1418 he acquired an islet and the founded the estate Djursholm. There he built a manor house, later the site of Djursholm Castle (Djursholms slott) which dates from the 15th century but did not get its current appearance until the 17th century. From his two earlier marriages, Oxenstierna did not succeed to have any surviving male heir. His third wife Katarina Karlsdotter bore a number of children of whom half died without marriage and issue. His surviving son Erik Nilsson Oxenstierna (d. 1470) did not have any children. Three of Oxenstierna's daughters married noblemen of the Vasa family. Kerstin who married Nils of Hjulsta, continues a more permanent issue. A portion of Oxenstierna's properties passed ultimately to others than his direct descendants, as inheritances through his daughters-in- and sons-in-law. Marriages Kristina Ivarsdotter Kristina Petersdotter Katarina Karlsdotter See also Halltorps References Oxenstierna, Nils Jonsson 15th-century Swedish nobility Nils	[ -0.7546091675758362, 0.3430648148059845, 0.22412672638893127, 0.513433575630188, -0.574734628200531, 0.7043890357017517, 0.8749666213989258, -0.428911030292511, -1.2263950109481812, -0.39790162444114685, 0.41895583271980286, -0.06751371175050735, -0.2895333766937256, 0.20886468887329102, -0.08962871134281158, 0.017688428983092308, 0.4081193208694458, 0.6731771230697632, -0.8013432621955872, -0.3153507709503174, -0.032866209745407104, -0.3258730471134186, 0.49924007058143616, 0.26634156703948975, 0.5198575854301453, 0.14839708805084229, -0.04605738818645477, 0.33166903257369995, 0.5288980007171631, -0.07114610075950623, -0.08577336370944977, 0.6658189296722412, 0.7437489628791809, -0.40154802799224854, -0.46615293622016907, 0.05660638213157654, -0.2592512369155884, -0.09954404085874557, 0.6643093824386597, 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229903	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hill%20v%20Church%20of%20Scientology%20of%20Toronto	Hill v Church of Scientology of Toronto	Hill v Church of Scientology of Toronto February 20, 1995- July 20, 1995. 2 S.C.R. 1130 was a libel case against the Church of Scientology, in which the Supreme Court of Canada interpreted Ontario's libel law in relation to the Canadian Charter of Rights and Freedoms. After consideration, the Supreme Court of Canada determined that it would not follow the actual malice standard set forth in the famous United States Supreme Court case of New York Times Co. v. Sullivan, 376 U.S. 254 (1964). Overview On 17 September 1984 Morris Manning, a lawyer working for the Church, and representatives of the Church of Scientology held a press conference on the courthouse steps in Toronto. Manning, wearing his barrister's gown, read from and commented upon allegations in a notice of motion by Scientology, intending to commence criminal contempt proceedings against a Crown Attorney, Casey Hill. The motion alleged Hill had misled a judge and had breached orders sealing certain documents belonging to Scientology in R. v. Church of Scientology of Toronto. At the contempt proceeding where the appellants were seeking a fine or imprisonment against the defendant, the allegations against Hill were found to be completely untrue and without foundation. Thus Hill launched a lawsuit for damages in libel against the appellants. Both appellants were found jointly liable for general damages of C$300,000 and Scientology alone was liable for aggravated damages of C$500,000 and punitive damages of C$800,000. The judgement was affirmed in a 1993 decision by the Court of Appeal for Ontario. The major issues raised in this appeal were: Was the common law of defamation valid in light of the Canadian Charter of Rights and Freedoms and whether the jury's award of damages could stand. The Charter, interpreting the common law and freedom of expression Appellant's arguments The Church of Scientology contended that the common law of defamation in Canada failed to evolve with Canadian society. Too much emphasis in the common law had been placed on the need to protect the reputation of plaintiffs at the expense of freedom of expression. This, they argued, was an unwarranted restriction imposed in a manner that cannot be justified in a free and democratic society that could survive a limitations clause challenge. The appellants added that if the element of government action was insufficient to attract Charter scrutiny, the principles of the common law ought to be interpreted, even in a purely private law action, in a manner consistent with the Charter. This, they argued, could be achieved only by the adoption of the "actual malice" standard of liability found in the Supreme Court of the United States in the case of New York Times Co. v. Sullivan. Qualified privilege attaches to the occasion upon which the communication is made, and not to the communication itself. The legal effect of the defence of qualified privilege is to rebut the inference, which normally arises from the publication of defamatory words, that they were spoken with malice. Where the occasion is shown to be privileged, the bona fides of the defendant is presumed and the defendant is free to publish, with impunity, remarks which may be defamatory and untrue about the plaintiff. The privilege is not absolute, however, and can be defeated if the dominant motive for publishing the statement is actual or express malice. (Malice, in this context, is established by showing the defendant spoke dishonestly, or in knowing or reckless disregard for the truth.) Qualified privilege may also be defeated when the limits of the duty or interest have been exceeded. The fact that an occasion is privileged does not necessarily protect all that is said or written on that occasion. The information communicated must be reasonably appropriate in the context of the circumstances existing on the occasion when that information was given. The Court's reasons In two opinions (a majority opinion written by Cory J. per La Forest, Gonthier, Cory, McLachlin, Iacobucci and Major JJ., and a concurrence in result by L'Heureux-Dubé J.), the Court rejected those arguments while continuing to apply RWDSU v. Dolphin Delivery Ltd., [1986] 2 S.C.R. 573, that the Charter cannot rewrite the common law, though the common law should be interpreted according to general Charter principles. This did not mean the Court had to adopt the "actual malice" standard of libel from American jurisprudence. In refusing to change Canadian law and bringing it more into line with "actual malice" standard applied in the US law (following the New York Times Co. v. Sullivan case) Cory J., writing for the majority, stated (at ¶ 138): Freedom of speech, like any other freedom, is subject to the law and must be balanced against the essential need of the individuals to protect their reputation. The words of Diplock J. in Silkin v. Beaverbrook Newspapers Ltd., [1958] 1 W.L.R. 743, at pp. 745-46, are worth repeating: "Freedom of speech, like the other fundamental freedoms, is freedom under the law, and over the years the law has maintained a balance between, on the one hand, the right of the individual… whether he is in public life or not, to his unsullied reputation if he deserves it, and on the other hand… the right of the public… to express their views honestly and fearlessly on matters of public interest, even though that involves strong criticism of the conduct of public people." In L'Heureux-Dubé's concurring reasons, her analysis of the Charter issue applying to common law is succinctly stated: (at ¶ 206): First, however, in order to dispel any possible confusion regarding the applicability of the Canadian Charter of Rights and Freedoms to the common law, I note that this issue can be easily summarized in the following two principles, both of which were first articulated by McIntyre J. in RWDSU v. Dolphin Delivery Ltd., [1986] 2 S.C.R. 573: The Charter does not directly apply to the common law unless it is the basis of some governmental action. Even though the Charter does not directly apply to the common law absent government action, the common law must nonetheless be developed in accordance with Charter values. (To the same effect, see R. v. Salituro, [1991] 3 S.C.R. 654, Dagenais v. Canadian Broadcasting Corp., [1994] 3 S.C.R. 835, and R. v. Park, [1995] 2 S.C.R. 836, per L'Heureux-Dubé J.) In other words, the basic rule is that absent government action, the Charter applies only indirectly to the common law. Factual background As in all actions for libel, the factual background is extremely important and must be set out in some detail. At the time the defamatory statement were made, Casey Hill was employed as counsel with the Crown Law Office, Criminal Division of the Ministry of the Attorney General for the Province of Ontario. He had given advice to the Ontario Provincial Police ("OPP") regarding a warrant obtained on March 1, 1983, which authorized a searched warrant on March 3 and 4, 1983, approximately 250,000 documents, comprising over 2 million pages of material, were seized. These documents were stored in some 900 boxes at an OPP building in Toronto. Result The Supreme Court upholds the Ontario Court of Appeal decision and the underlying jury award of general, aggravated and punitive damages. Largest libel award in Canada The jury award that was upheld in this appeal was the largest libel award in Canadian history. Barrister Manning and the Church of Scientology were found jointly liable for general damages of C$300,000. Scientology alone was liable for aggravated damages of C$500,000 and punitive damages of $800,000, making Scientology's total liability C$1,600,000. It was not until 2008 that this record was broken. See also Prud’homme v. Prud’homme, [2002] 4 S.C.R. 663, 2002 SCC 85 Néron Communication Marketing Inc. v. Chambre des notaires du Québec, [2004] 3 S.C.R. 95, 2004 SCC 53 Scientology and the legal system References External links Ontario Court of Appeal decision Canadian Charter of Rights and Freedoms case law Canadian freedom of expression case law Canadian defamation case law Supreme Court of Canada cases 1995 in Canadian case law Lawsuits Scientology litigation	[ -0.3654402494430542, 0.31262657046318054, -0.20459002256393433, -0.07701670378446579, -0.4704675078392029, 0.6326847076416016, 0.2991712987422943, 0.34337368607521057, -0.3719462454319, 0.3360990285873413, 0.4951678216457367, 0.5085276365280151, 0.40779829025268555, 0.2571811079978943, -0.12021351605653763, 0.6547479629516602, 0.10779901593923569, 0.6618547439575195, 0.4043057858943939, -0.8316124081611633, 0.07840607315301895, -0.818813145160675, 0.6903578639030457, 0.2774380147457123, -0.5636661648750305, 0.18798571825027466, 0.3441653251647949, 0.18947134912014008, -0.38191887736320496, 0.6147686243057251, 0.0712108165025711, 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229904	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Silkin%20v%20Beaverbrook%20Newspapers%20Ltd	Silkin v Beaverbrook Newspapers Ltd	In Silkin v. Beaverbrook Newspapers Ltd., [1958] 1 W.L.R. 743, a House of Lords case, the famous speech of Lord Diplock states succinctly the principle that freedom of speech is subject to the law and like any other freedom there is a balancing. In freedom of speech this right must be balanced against the essential need of the individuals to protect their reputation. Lord Diplock stated (at pp. 745–46): Freedom of speech, like the other fundamental freedoms, is freedom under the law, and over the years the law has maintained a balance between, on the one hand, the right of the individual . . . whether he is in public life or not, to his unsullied reputation if he deserves it, and on the other hand . . . the right of the public . . . to express their views honestly and fearlessly on matters of public interest, even though that involves strong criticism of the conduct of public people. 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229907	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Retail%2C%20Wholesale%20and%20Department%20Store%20Union%2C%20Local%20580%20v%20Dolphin%20Delivery%20Ltd	Retail, Wholesale and Department Store Union, Local 580 v Dolphin Delivery Ltd	Retail, Wholesale and Department Store Union, Local 580 v Dolphin Delivery Ltd, [1986] 2 S.C.R. 573, is the seminal Canadian Charter of Rights and Freedoms decision that states that the Charter applies to governmental action, and to the common law except where matters are solely between private parties. Nevertheless, judges should interpret the common law in the light of the Charter. Background The Retail, Wholesale and Department Store Union applied to the court to have Dolphin Delivery and Supercourier declared allies of Purolator, an employer of union members. This would have allowed the union to picket Dolphin while its employees would not have to cross the picket line. The BC Labour Board declined to hear an application since the dispute was governed under the Canada Labour Code, as Purolator was an interprovincial company. Dolphin obtained an injunction against secondary picketing on their premises on the basis that the common law does not permit secondary picketing. The action was brought by the union on the basis that their rights to freedom of expression (section 2(b)) and freedom of association (section 2(d)) under the Charter were violated. Reasoning of the Court McIntyre, writing for the court, looked at section 52(1) of the Constitution Act, 1982, which stated that any law inconsistent with the Charter is of no force or effect. The court stated that this should be interpreted broadly and thus must include both statute law and common law. However, this interpretation needed to be reconciled with section 32 which states that the Charter should apply only to Parliament and legislatures. The Court gave preference to section 32 and stated that the Charter will apply to common law only where the government is involved. The issue of whether the courts were included within the meaning of government was considered. The Court found that orders from the court did not constitute government action, rather the courts must be the neutral arbiters and cannot be included without unduly widening the scope of the Charter. The legislative, executive, and administrative branches, however, fall within the purview of government. The final judgement of the court succinctly stated by McIntyre J.(at paras. 1 & 2): 1 The Charter does not directly apply to the common law unless it is the basis of some governmental action. 2 Even though the Charter does not directly apply to the common law absent government action, the common law must nonetheless be developed in accordance with Charter values."" To the same effect, see Hill v. Church of Scientology of Toronto, (1995) 2 S.C.R. 1130, R. v. Salituro, (1991) 3 S.C.R. 654, Dagenais v. Canadian Broadcasting Corp., (1994) 3 S.C.R. 835, and R. v. Park, (1995) 2 S.C.R. 836, per L'Heureux-Dubé J. Aftermath Much of the principles from this case remain today, with the exception of the opinion that court orders were exempted from Charter scrutiny. R. v. Rahey'', [1987] 1 S.C.R. 58 reversed this and held that all courts are subject to Charter. 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229909	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tupolev%20Tu-104	Tupolev Tu-104	The Tupolev Tu-104 (NATO reporting name: Camel) is a retired twinjet, medium-range, narrow-body turbojet-powered Soviet airliner. It was the second to enter regular service, behind the British de Havilland Comet, and was the only jetliner operating in the world from 1956 to 1958, when the British jetliner was grounded due to safety concerns. In 1957, Czechoslovak Airlines – ČSA, (now Czech Airlines) became the first airline in the world to fly a route exclusively with jet airliners, using the Tu-104A variant between Prague and Moscow. In civil service, the Tu-104 carried over 90 million passengers with Aeroflot (then the world's largest airline), and a lesser number with ČSA, while it also was operated by the Soviet Air Force. Its successors included the Tu-124, Tu-134, and Tu-154. Design and development At the beginning of the 1950s, the Soviet Union's Aeroflot airline needed a modern airliner with better capacity and performance than the piston-engined aircraft then in operation. The design request was filled by the Tupolev OKB, which based their new airliner on its Tu-16 "Badger" strategic bomber. The wings, engines, and tail surfaces of the Tu-16 were retained with the airliner, but the new design adopted a wider, pressurised fuselage designed to accommodate 50 passengers. The prototype build in MMZ 'Opit' first flew on June 17, 1955, with Yu.L. Alasheyev at the controls. It was fitted with a drag parachute to shorten the landing distance by up to , since at the time, not many airports had sufficiently long runways. The first serial TU-104 took off on 5 November 1955. The Tu-104 was powered by two Mikulin AM-3 turbojets placed in the wing roots (resembling the configuration of the de Havilland Comet). The crew consisted of two pilots, a navigator (seated in the glazed "bomber" nose), a flight engineer, and a radio operator (later eliminated). The airplane raised great curiosity by its lavish "Victorian" interior – so-called by some Western Hemisphere observers – due to the materials used: mahogany, copper, and lace. Tu-104 pilots were trained on the Il-28 bomber, followed by mail flights on an unarmed Tu-16 bomber painted in Aeroflot colors, between Moscow and Sverdlovsk. Pilots with previous Tu-16 experience transitioned into the Tu-104 with relative ease. The Tu-104 was considered difficult to fly, as it was heavy on controls and quite fast on final approach, and at low speeds displayed a tendency to stall, a feature common with highly swept wings. Experience with the Tu-104 led the Tupolev Design Bureau to develop the world's first turbofan series-built airliner, the Tupolev Tu-124, designed for local markets, and subsequently the more commercially successful Tu-134. Operational history On 15 September 1956, the Tu-104 began revenue service on Aeroflot's Moscow-Omsk-Irkutsk route, replacing the Ilyushin Il-14. The flight time was reduced from 13 hours and 50 minutes to 7 hours and 40 minutes, and the new jet dramatically increased the level of passenger comfort. By 1957, Aeroflot had placed the Tu-104 in service on routes from Vnukovo Airport in Moscow to London, Budapest, Copenhagen, Beijing, Brussels, Ottawa, Delhi, and Prague. In 1957, ČSA Czechoslovak Airlines became the only export customer for the Tu-104, placing the aircraft on routes to Moscow, Paris, and Brussels. ČSA bought six Tu-104As (four new and two used examples) configured for 81 passengers. Three of these aircraft were subsequently written off (one due to a refueling incident in India and another to a pilot error without fatalities). In 1959 a Tu-104 was leased to Sir Henry Lunn Ltd. (Lunn Poly) of London which used the aircraft to transport holiday-makers to Russia with a 4.5 hour flight time. Whilst the Tu-104 continued to be used by Aeroflot throughout the 1960s and 1970s, the safety record of the aircraft was poor in comparison to Western jet airliners (16 of 96 aircraft were lost in accidents). The Tu-104 was unreliable, heavy, very unstable with poor control response, with an inclination to Dutch roll. Poor design aerodynamics of the wings resulted in a propensity to stall with little or no warning and a dangerous tendency to pitch up violently before stalling and entering an irrecoverable dive. Due to the fear of inadvertent stalls, aircrew would fly approaches above the recommended approach speed, landing at , nearly faster. At least two accidents were attributed to the pitch-up phenomenon, prompting changes to the design of the aircraft and operating procedures, but the problem remained. Aeroflot retired the Tu-104 from civilian service in March 1979 following a fatal accident at Moscow, but several aircraft were transferred to the Soviet military, which used them as staff transports and to train cosmonauts in zero gravity. After a military Tu-104 crash in February 1981 killed 50 people (17 were senior army and naval staff), the type was permanently removed from service. The last flight of the Tu-104 was a ferry flight to Ulyanovsk Aircraft Museum in 1986. Variants Data from: Tu-104 – The initial version seating 50 passengers, it used two Mikulin AM-3 turbojet engines, each with of thrust; 29 airframes were built. Tu-104 2NK-8 – Proposed version, it was to be powered by two Kuznetsov NK-8 turbofan engines. Tu-104A – An improved version appearing in June 1957, its continued improvements of the Mikulin engines (Mikulin AM-3M each with of thrust) permitted significant growth in capacity, resulting in a 70-seater variant. The Tu-104A became the definitive production variant. On 6 September 1957, it flew with 20 t of payload at above mean sea level. On 24 September 1957, it reached average speed with a 2-tonne payload. In total, 80 airframes were built, of which six were exported to Czechoslovakia. Tu-104AK – A testbed aircraft, it was used for zero-g cosmonauts' training and testing the Soviet space program equipment. Tu-104A-TS – Five Tu-104As converted to freighter/medevac aircraft. Tu-104B – Further improvements were made by stretching the fuselage and fitting new Mikulin AM-3M-500 turbojets ( of thrust each). The Tu-104B was able to accommodate 100 passengers. This variant took advantage of the newer fuselage from the Tu-110 and the existing wings. It began revenue service with Aeroflot on 15 April 1959 on the Moscow-Saint Petersburg route; 95 airframes were built. Most were later rebuilt to Tu-104V-115 standard. Tu-104B-TS – Six Tu-104Bs converted to freighter/medevac aircraft. Tu-104 CSA - Six aircraft built for CSA. Tu-104D – This VIP version had two sleeper cabins forward and a 39-seat cabin aft. Tu-104D-85 – Tu-104A airframes rebuilt to accommodate 85 passengers. Tu-104D 3NK-8 – Project powered by three NK-8 engines, precursor of Tu-154. Tu-104E – A higher performance Tu-104 powered by RD-16-15 engines, giving better fuel economy and greater thrust. Two prototypes were converted from Tu-104Bs СССР-42441 and СССР-42443. The program was cancelled in the mid-1960s in favor of the Tu-154. Tu-104G – This VIP version was for the federal government, with two VIP cabins forward and a 54-seat cabin aft. Tu-104LL – Several serial numbers were converted for use in testing Tu-129 and Tu-22M electronics, and air-to-air missile systems (including launch). Tu-104Sh – Navigator trainer in two versions. Tu-104V – The first use of this designation was for a projected 117-seat, medium-haul version with six-abreast seating; project cancelled. Tu-104V – The second use of this designation was used for Tu-104A airframes rebuilt to accommodate 100 or 105 passengers. A later version packed 115 passengers in by reducing seat pitch and adding seat rows. Tu-104V-115 – Tu-104B airframes were rebuilt to accommodate 115 passengers, with new radio and navigational equipment. Tu-107 – Prototype military transport version, with a rear loading ramp and a defensive turret armed with paired cannon. Although one aircraft was built, no production followed. Tu-110 – A four-engined version intended for export. A number of prototypes were built before the project was cancelled. Tu-118 – A projected turboprop freighter version powered by four Kuznetsov TV-2F engines. Former operators CSA Czechoslovak Airlines – six aircraft Czechoslovakian Air Force Military of Mongolia Aeroflot Soviet Air Force Accidents and incidents According to the American Flight Safety Foundation, between 1958 and 1981, 16 Tu-104s were lost in crashes out of 37 aircraft written off (hull loss rate = 18%) with a total of 1140 fatalities. 1950s 19 February 1958 An Aeroflot Tu-104 (СССР-Л5414) was being ferried from Sverdlovsk (now Yekaterinburg) to Moscow when it force-landed short of the runway at Savasleika Air Base due to fuel exhaustion; all three crew survived. 15 August 1958 Aeroflot Flight 04, a Tu-104A (СССР-Л5442), stalled, spun down and crashed in the Khabarovsky District, Khabarovsk Krai after entering a updraft at , killing all 64 on board in the first fatal accident involving the Tu-104. Later accidents showed that the Tu-104 was prone to losing longitudinal stability when flying in certain atmospheric conditions. 17 October 1958 An Aeroflot Tu-104A (СССР-42362) pitched up, entered a dive, spun down and crashed near Kanash after encountering turbulence and an updraft, killing all 80 on board. The aircraft was flying high-level diplomats of several Soviet-aligned countries to Moscow for an official event. In the wake of this accident, the Tu-104 was limited to and the stabilizers were redesigned. 1960s 20 October 1960 Aeroflot Flight 05, a Tu-104A (СССР-42452), struck sloping terrain near Ust-Orda while attempting to climb following an aborted approach after the nosegear light malfunctioned, killing three of 68 on board. 1 February 1961 An Aeroflot Tu-104A (СССР-42357) overran the runway on landing at Vladivostok Airport after landing too late; no casualties. 16 March 1961 Aeroflot Flight 068, a Tu-104B (СССР-42438) force-landed on the frozen Nizhneisetsky pond near Koltsovo Airport following double engine failure, killing five of 51 on board. Shortly after takeoff, the right engine failed, causing severe vibration of the fuselage. Because of the vibration, the crew could not determine which engine failed as they could not read the instruments. A crew member pulled back the throttle for the left engine in an attempt to hear the difference in engine power to determine which engine failed, but the engine was shut down by mistake. A loss of altitude resulted, and a forced landing was carried out. The aircraft also struck a house near the pond, killing two. The engine failure was caused by a broken turbine blade in the second stage of the turbine section. 10 July 1961 Aeroflot Flight 381, a Tu-104B (СССР-42447), crashed at Odessa-Central Airport in bad weather after encountering downdrafts during the approach, killing one of 94 on board. 17 September 1961 An Aeroflot Tu-104A (СССР-42388) was written off following a heavy landing at Tashkent Airport; no casualties. 2 November 1961 An Aeroflot Tu-104B (СССР-42504) force-landed in a field near Vladivostok Airport due to engine failure after striking a radio antenna during the approach; no casualties. 6 April 1962 An Aeroflot Tu-104B (СССР-42491) struck the side of Mount Baba (19 mi northeast of Vrazhdebna Airport) while attempting to return to Sofia following engine failure, killing the five crew. 30 June 1962 Aeroflot Flight 902, a Tu-104A (СССР-42370), was shot down by a errant anti-aircraft missile and crashed in the Beryozovsky District, killing all 84 on board. The missile was fired during an air defense exercise in the Magansk area, but it had lost its target in a storm front and hit the Tu-104 instead. 3 September 1962 Aeroflot Flight 03, a Tu-104A (СССР-42366), crashed in a swamp near Kuruna, Nanaysky District following an unexplained loss of control, killing all 86 on board; autopilot problems were blamed. An accidental shootdown was also theorized. 25 October 1962 An Aeroflot Tu-104B (СССР-42495) crashed shortly after takeoff from Sheremetyevo Airport during a post-maintenance test flight, killing all 11 on board. The rudder controls had been connected backwards. 18 May 1963 An Aeroflot Tu-104B (СССР-42483) stalled and crashed while on approach to Smolnoye Airport; no casualties. 13 July 1963 Aeroflot Flight 012, a Tu-104B (СССР-42492), crashed short of the runway at Irkutsk Airport following a sudden, sharp descent during the approach, killing 33 of 35 on board. Water had entered wiring, causing incorrect readings of horizontal and vertical speed and altitude instruments. 16 August 1963 A CSA Czechoslovak Airlines Tu-104A (OK-LDB) burned out during refueling at Santa Cruz Airport; one stewardess was injured while jumping from the plane, but there were no other casualties. 9 June 1964 Aeroflot Flight 35, a Tu-104B (СССР-42476), landed hard at Tolmachevo Airport while attempting an overshoot; no casualties. 28 April 1969 An Aeroflot Tu-104B (СССР-42436) was written off after it landed short of the runway at Irkutsk Airport; no casualties. 1970s 1 June 1970 A CSA Czechoslovak Airlines Tu-104A (OK-NDD) crashed short of runway 36 at Tripoli International Airport after two missed approaches to runway 18, killing all 13 on board. 25 May 1971 Aeroflot Flight 1912, a Tu-104B (СССР-42405), crashed following a hard landing short of the runway at Irkutsk Airport after the aircraft pitched up due to a too low approach speed, killing 97 of 126 on board. The speed indicator reading was affected by cabin pressurization and may have overstated the aircraft's speed. 10 October 1971 Aeroflot Flight 773, a Tu-104B (СССР-42490), exploded in mid-air and crashed near Baranovo, Naro-Fominsky District after a bomb placed in the cabin detonated, killing all 25 on board. 19 March 1972 An Aeroflot Tu-104B (СССР-42408) crashed after it struck a snow wall short of the runway at Omsk Airport during its fifth attempt to land; no casualties. 24 April 1973 Aeroflot Flight 2420, a Tu-104B (СССР-42505), was hijacked by a passenger who demanded to be flown to Stockholm, Sweden. The crew returned to Leningrad and while the landing gear was lowered the hijacker set off a bomb, killing himself and the flight engineer. Although the explosion blew a hole in the right side of the fuselage, the aircraft was able to land safely with no other casualties. 18 May 1973 Aeroflot Flight 109, a Tu-104B (СССР-42379), was hijacked by Chingis Yunusogly Rzayev and demanded to be flown to China. When Rzayev attempted to enter the cockpit he was shot by security officer Vladimir Yezikov. Though mortally wounded, Rzayev managed to detonate a bomb he had with him, consisting of of TNT, blowing the aircraft out of the sky and it crashed in the Buryat ASSR, killing all 81 on board. 29 August 1973 CSA Flight 531, a Tu-104A (OK-MDE), veered off the runway on landing at Nicosia Airport after the pilot failed to stop the aircraft in time; all 70 on board survived. Wreckage remains at the crash site. 30 September 1973 Aeroflot Flight 3932, a Tu-104B (СССР-42506), crashed shortly after takeoff from Koltsovo Airport after the artificial horizons lost power, killing all 108 on board. 13 October 1973 Aeroflot Flight 964, a Tu-104B (СССР-42486), crashed 10 mi northwest of Domodedovo Airport after the compass and main gyroscopes lost power, killing all 122 in the deadliest accident involving the Tu-104. 7 December 1973 Aeroflot Flight 964, a Tu-104B (СССР-42503), crashed at Domodedovo Airport following a hard landing after the crew banked left to correct a right bank, killing 16 of 75 on board. 5 November 1974 An Aeroflot Tu-104B (СССР-42501) overran the runway on landing at Chita Airport and struck a railway embankment; no casualties. 30 August 1975 An Aeroflot Tu-104B (СССР-42472) landed hard at Tolmachevo Airport, breaking the right landing gear; no casualties. 2 February 1976 Aeroflot Flight 3739, a Tu-104A (СССР-42327), crashed on takeoff from Irkutsk Airport after entering a right bank due to pilot error, killing 24 of 119 on board. A Chosonminhang Tu-154 (P-551) was damaged by debris from the Tu-104. 17 July 1976 An Aeroflot Tu-104A (СССР-42335) crashed on takeoff from Chita Airport after it hit a railway embankment after lifting off too slow and too low; all 117 on board survived. The aircraft was overloaded. 28 November 1976 Aeroflot Flight 2415, a Tu-104B (СССР-42471), crashed near Klushino, Solnechnogorsky District after the crew became disorientated following artificial horizon failure, killing all 73 on board. 1976 An Aeroflot Tu-104A (СССР-42371) crashed short of the runway at Borispol Airport after the engines were shut down in flight. 13 January 1977 Aeroflot Flight 3843, a Tu-104A (СССР-42369), crashed near Alma-Ata Airport due to loss of control following an engine fire, killing all 80 on board. 17 March 1979 Aeroflot Flight 1691, a Tu-104B (СССР-42444), crashed while attempting to return to Moscow following a false fire alarm, killing 58 of 119 on board. The fire alarm was caused by mismatched parts in the engine. Following this accident, Aeroflot retired the Tu-104. 1980s 7 February 1981 Soviet Navy Tu-104A СССР-42332 stalled and crashed on takeoff from Pushkin Airport due to improper loading and shifting cargo, killing all 50 on board. All remaining military Tu-104s were grounded following this accident. Specifications (Tu-104B) In film A Tu-104 is the supposed aircraft making a flight from London to New York which forms the subject of the 1959 film Jet Storm. Footage of an actual Tu-104 taxiing and taking off is shown near the beginning of the film. In philately Tu-104 is depicted on Soviet postage stamps of 1958 and 1969. See also References Aviation Safety Network entry http://www.airforce.ru/content/english-pages/2344-interview-civil-aviation-pilot-hsu-v-m-yanchenko/ External links Aerospaceweb.org contemporary analysis in Flight journal Tu-0104 1950s Soviet airliners Twinjets Low-wing aircraft Aircraft first flown in 1955	[ -0.108686164021492, 0.25731196999549866, -0.3722795248031616, -0.033707838505506516, -0.09346675127744675, 0.6453059911727905, 0.2726506292819977, -0.3755309581756592, 0.2693561911582947, 0.0906255915760994, -0.9107236266136169, 0.27691513299942017, -0.7818851470947266, -0.11091043800115585, -0.10898885130882263, 0.16659824550151825, 0.5051292777061462, 0.02120586670935154, 0.08975101262331009, -0.3310137987136841, 0.20357728004455566, 0.25767800211906433, 0.7269358038902283, -0.22414450347423553, 0.05411268398165703, -0.09062948077917099, 0.6506779789924622, 0.9743343591690063, -0.07541870325803757, 1.084021806716919, -0.19467152655124664, 0.7436638474464417, 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229912	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rail%20transport%20in%20Switzerland	Rail transport in Switzerland	The Swiss rail network is noteworthy for its density, its coordination between services, its integration with other modes of transport, timeliness and a thriving domestic and trans-alp freight system. This is made necessary by strong regulations on truck transport, and is enabled by properly coordinated intermodal logistics. In 2015, with network length, Switzerland has not only the world's most dense railway network ( km/103km2, except for very small countries and city-states) despite the Alps covering about 60% of its surface, but it is also a world leader in kilometres traveled: per inhabitant and year (2015). Virtually 100% of its network is electrified, except for the few tracks on which steam locomotives operate for tourism purposes only. There are 74 railway companies in Switzerland. The share of commuters who travel to work using public transport (as main mode of transport) is 30%. The share of rail in goods transport performance by road and rail (modal split) is 39%. Switzerland was ranked first among national European rail systems in the 2017 European Railway Performance Index for its intensity of use, quality of service and strong safety rating. Switzerland had excellent intensity of use, notably driven by passenger traffic, and a good rating for quality of service and a very good rating for safety. Switzerland captured high value in return for public investment with cost to performance ratios that outperform the average ratio for all European countries. Switzerland is a member of the International Union of Railways (UIC). The UIC Country Code for Switzerland is 85. Standard-gauge lines Three quarters of the Swiss rail network is at standard gauge, comprising , administered mostly by three companies. Important railway stations are the Zürich HB (466,800 passengers per day on a working day), Bern (210,000 ppd), Basel SBB (114,200 ppd), Lausanne (108,900 ppd), Winterthur (108,000 ppd), Luzern (96,200 ppd), Zürich Oerlikon (85,700 ppd), Zürich Stadelhofen (83,300 ppd), Olten (81,300 ppd), and Geneva (73,700 ppd). Swiss Federal Railways Swiss Federal Railways (SBB CFF FFS) is the largest railway company in Switzerland and handles the majority of national and international traffic. It operates the main east–west track in the Swiss Plateau area serving all larger Swiss cities and many smaller ones, and the north–south routes through the Alps via the Gotthard Line through the Gotthard Base Tunnel (Milano-Chiasso-Lugano-Luzern/Zurich-Basel line) and the Simplon Tunnel (Domodossola to Brig-Lausanne-Geneva line). Total route length: . BLS BLS (Bern-Lötschberg-Simplon) is the other main company, with 10% of the standard-gauge network. It manages the other major Alpine route Bern-Brig via both Lötschberg Tunnels and connection at Brig with SBB's Simplon Tunnel to Italy. Total route length: . SOB The Schweizerische Südostbahn AG (SOB) operates on (of which are their own) between Romanshorn on Lake Constance to St. Gallen. And further via Herisau to the Toggenburg valley in northeast Switzerland. Via Wattwil and Rapperswil SOB travels the track over the Seedamm on Lake Zurich and finally over the high moorland of Rothenthurm down to Arth-Goldau in Central Switzerland. The named train Voralpen Express (VAE, Pre-Alpine Express) is operated by the Südostbahn. It runs every hour between Lucerne and St. Gallen. Rail links to other countries Standard gauge Austria – same voltage 15 kV, 16.7 Hz AC France – voltage change 15 kV, 16.7 Hz AC / 25 kV, 50 Hz AC or 1,500 V DC Germany – same voltage 15 kV, 16.7 Hz AC Italy – voltage change 15 kV, 16.7 Hz AC / 3 kV DC Liechtenstein – same voltage 15 kV, 16.7 Hz AC Although both Austria and Germany use the same voltage as Switzerland, dedicated types of locomotives are necessary due to Switzerland using narrower pantographs. The German national railway company Deutsche Bahn (DB) owns cross-border lines from the German border to Basel Badischer Bahnhof station, which is also operated by DB. It also owns and operates an east–west line across the canton of Schaffhausen that forms a link in the largely German High Rhine Railway, and jointly owns Schaffhausen railway station with the Swiss Federal Railways. The German DB operates longer-distance trains from Germany to Swiss cities, including ICE services to Basel, Zurich, Berne, Chur and Interlaken. On the other hand, Swiss operators run several trains into Germany, e.g. regular EC service to Stuttgart. The French-Swiss joint-venture TGV Lyria operates high-speed trains between Paris and South-France with services to Geneva, Lausanne, Basel and Zurich. The Austrian Railjet by ÖBB operates the service between Zurich and several destinations in Austria. The service runs via Buchs SG and calls Innsbruck, Salzburg and Vienna besides others. SBB and Trenitalia jointly operate EuroCity services between Switzerland and Italy. These services are running between Geneva and Milan or even Venice via the Simplon Tunnel. Between Basel and Milan via Berne and the Lötschberg Base and Simplon Tunnels, and between Zurich and Milan via the Gotthard route. Narrow-gauge lines RhB and MGB The Rhätische Bahn (RhB) is the longest metre-gauge railway in Switzerland, linking Arosa, Disentis, Davos, St. Moritz in the high Alps, and Tirano in Italy with Chur, a rail junction with the SBB. It passes through the upper Rhine Valley and several side valleys, as well as the Engadine, the upper valley of the river Inn. The Bernina Pass is the highest point on this line, at 2253 m. It is also the highest rail crossing in Europe. Total length: 366 kilometres. The former Furka Oberalp Bahn (FO) was a metre-gauge railway in the high southern alps. Its name referred to two passes, the Furka Pass and the Oberalp Pass. The Furka Pass lies at the upper end of the Rhône valley. The Oberalp Pass is the highest point on this line at 2033 metres, and lies at the upper end of the Rhine valley. The total length of the railway was 100 kilometres, and the line runs from Disentis to Brig. Brig is a rail junction with the SBB and BLS and sits at the north end of the Simplon tunnel on the Milan to Lausanne CFF line and Milan to Bern BLS line. The former BVZ Zermatt-Bahn (BVZ; BVZ means Brig Visp Zermatt) was a short line between Brig and Zermatt. It passes through the Visp and Matt Valleys, tributaries of the Rhône. Total length: 43 kilometres. In 2003, the FO and BVZ merged to form the Matterhorn Gotthard Bahn (MGB). The Glacier Express (GEX) runs on the combined three line route St. Moritz/Davos-Filisur-Chur-Disentis-Andermatt-Brig-Visp-Zermatt. A one-day trip in panoramic-view cars takes tourists from St. Moritz/Davos to Zermatt, or vice versa, through some of the most spectacular scenery of the Alps. It is the longest distance train, the journey from Zermatt to St. Moritz lasting about 8 hours. Further narrow-gauge lines The Appenzeller Bahnen (AB) with its total of 77 km of mainly metre-gauge tracks just recently combined (2006) the earlier separate Trogenerbahn from St. Gallen to Trogen, the standard-gauge railway from Rorschach, Switzerland to Heiden, Switzerland, the short track of the funicular from Rheineck to Walzenhausen, as well as the previous Appenzeller Bahnen. The AB connects main spots within both Appenzells with St. Gallen and Altstätten in the Alpine Rhine Valley. The Chemin de Fer Montreux Oberland Bernois (MOB) line runs 75 kilometres from Montreux on Lake Geneva to Zweisimmen, with a connecting line to Lenk in the Simmental. The section from Montreux to Zweisimmen, approximately 63 kilometres long, is part of the "Golden Pass Panorama" trip from Montreux to Lucerne, a trip which combines rides on the MOB, the BLS and the Zentralbahn (zb). From Interlaken, the narrow-gauge Brünigbahn section of the Zentralbahn (zb) runs 74 kilometres further to Lucerne. It skirts Lake Brienz and passes through the range of mountains to the north of the lake via Brünig Pass, and then drops into the Sarner Aa valley to Lucerne. The zb also runs the line between Lucerne and Engelberg. The Chemins de fer du Jura (CJ), the railways of the Jura canton in northern Switzerland, is an 85-kilometre rail network of which 74 km is metre gauge, the remaining 11 km being standard gauge. It connects La Chaux-de-Fonds to Glovelier and Tramelan, both via Le Noirmont. The Aargau Verkehr company operates two unconnected narrow gauge lines; the Menziken–Aarau–Schöftland line operates in the centre of the canton of Aargau, whilst the Bremgarten–Dietikon line operates across the border between the canton of Zurich and eastern Aargau. The two lines have a total length of . The Berner Oberland Bahn (BOB) is a 24-kilometre line from Interlaken to Lauterbrunnen and Grindelwald. It begins at Interlaken Ost station and divides at Zweilütschinen, about 10 kilometres south of Interlaken. The western branch leads to Lauterbrunnen, while the eastern branch leads to Grindelwald. It is possible to make a loop by taking the Lauterbrunnen branch and returning via the Grindelwald branch. The two branches are connected by the Wengernalp Bahn. The Wengernalpbahn (WAB) is a 19-kilometre line from Lauterbrunnen to Grindelwald, leading over the Eiger ridge at the junction station of Kleine Scheidegg. In the winter, this junction is a ski resort served by many lifts and trails, as well as the rail line. Skiers can ride the train from the valleys below to return to the top of the runs. The Jungfraubahn (JB), which is also rack-and-pinion throughout, starts at Kleine Scheidegg and runs 9 kilometres through tunnels in the Eiger and Mönch, leading to the "Jungfraujoch," a saddle between the Mönch and the Jungfrau summits. At the saddle are a visitor centre and an observatory. The Aletsch Glacier, largest in Europe, runs to the south toward the Rhône valley. The Bergbahn Lauterbrunnen-Mürren (BLM) is 6 km long, divided into two independent parts, the first part being a cable car (which runs above the old funicular railway, which was replaced in 2006), the second an adhesion railway. The Chemin de fer Martigny–Châtelard (MC) is 19 km long, with one rack railway section, in the canton of Valais. It connects with the Saint-Gervais–Vallorcine railway in France, the joint services being marketed as Mont-Blanc Express. In the canton of Vaud, metre-gauge railways include the Chemin de fer Nyon-St-Cergue-Morez, the Chemin de fer Bière-Apples-Morges, the Chemin de fer Yverdon–Ste-Croix, the Chemin de fer Bex–Villars–Bretaye and the Chemin de fer Lausanne–Echallens–Bercher, as well as part of the longer MOB. The Ferrovia Lugano–Ponte Tresa (FLP), in canton Ticino, runs 12.3 kilometres from Lugano to Ponte Tresa. The Gornergrat Bahn climbs for 9 kilometres from an elevation of 1600 metres near the Zermatt station of the Zermatt RR to a 3000-metre high-end station on the shoulder of the Monte Rosa Mountain. The entire route is a rack-and-pinion railway. At Brienz the Brienz Rothorn Bahn (BRB), a steam-hauled rack railway, ascends to near the summit of the Brienzer Rothorn. Narrow-gauge links to adjacent countries Italy: Bernina Railway, break-of-gauge and voltage change at Tirano FART (ferrovie autolinee regionali ticinesi) railway line between Locarno and Domodossola through the Swiss Centovalli and Italian Valle Vigezzo. Urban rail Trams There are trams operating on nine systems in seven Swiss cities. Street-running tramways are nearly all . The Chemin de fer Bex–Villars–Bretaye (BVB) in Bex is more of a mixed interuban light rail line connected to a rack railway but it does have some street running portions, particularly in Bex where the BVB operates along the right of way of a tramway system originally built in the 1890s. S-Bahn In many parts of Switzerland suburban commuter rail service is today known as S-Bahn. Clock-face scheduling in commuter rail has been first put in place on the line Worb Dorf - Worblaufen near Bern in 1964. In 1968 followed the Golden Coast Express on the right side of Lake Zurich. 1982 clock-face scheduling was introduced all over Switzerland. The term S-Bahn has been used since 1990 for the Zürich S-Bahn, 1995 for Bern S-Bahn and 1997 with the Basel Regional S-Bahn. Other services include S-Bahn Luzern and S-Bahn St. Gallen. But also other terms for commuter rail are in use like Stadtbahn Zug. Around Fribourg, it is known as Réseau Express Régional (RER), in the region of Geneva the term is Léman Express and in the canton of Ticino Treni Regionali Ticino Lombardia (TILO). The commuter rail networks of Zurich, Basel, Geneva and Ticino provide also cross-border transportation services into Germany, France and Italy]. Tourist railways List of heritage railways and funiculars in Switzerland List of mountain railways in Switzerland History The construction and operation of Swiss railways during the 19th century was carried out by private railways. The first internal line was a 16 km line opened from Zürich to Baden in 1847, operated by the Swiss Northern Railway. By 1860 railways connected western and northeastern Switzerland but the Alps remained an insurmountable barrier for railways, which need low gradients. The first trans-alpine railway and north-south axis in Switzerland finally opened in 1882. It was the Gotthard Railway, with at its heart the Gotthard Tunnel, passing well below the Gotthard Pass. A second line was opened even lower under the Simplon Pass in 1906 (the Simplon Railway), and a third under the Lötschberg in 1913 (the Lötschberg Railway). In 1901 the major railways were nationalised to form Swiss Federal Railways. During the first half of the twentieth century they were electrified and slowly upgraded. After the Second World War rail rapidly lost its share of the rail market to road transport as car ownership rose and more roads were built. From 1970 the Federal Government has become more involved in upgrading the railways, especially in urban areas and on trunk routes under the Rail 2000 project. In addition, two major trans-alpine routes—the Gotthard Railway and the Lötschberg approach to the Simplon—were rebuilt under the NRLA project. As a consequence, two new flat routes through the Alps opened in the early 21st century: The Lötschberg Base Tunnel in 2007 and the Gotthard Base Tunnel in 2016. Integration of services Between rail services Services on the Swiss railway are integrated with each other and with other forms of public transport, such as local railways, postal buses, boats and cable transports, often in direct proximity, to minimise transfer times. Unlike its European neighbours, Switzerland has not developed a comprehensive high-speed rail network, with the running speed on its one stretch, called the Rothrist-Mattstetten line, of relatively high-speed line being 200 km/h. Instead the priority is not so much the speeding up of trains between cities, but the reduction of connection times through the nodal system. Journey times on main lines between hubs are multiples of 15 minutes so that on the hour or half-hour all trains stand in the main stations at the same time, thus minimising connection times. Indeed, the above-mentioned Rothrist-Mattstetten line reduces journey times from Bern to Zurich from 72 minutes to 57 minutes, in keeping with the clock-face scheduling. Between modes of transport Rail timetables are integrated with the extensive network of postal buses (branded as PostBus, , , ) which serve both plain and high mountain villages. For example, on postal bus line 12.381 the 10:35 from the mountain village of Les Haudères is planned to arrive in the regional city of Sion at 11:20 where a train departs the station (located next to the bus station) at 11:24 for Visp. Indeed, it is a familiar sight to for the postal cars to be already lined up outside the station for the arriving train. From this perspective, the Swiss rail network functions as the core of a wider public transport network. Other modes of transport concerned by the integrated timetable are boats (for instance at Thun railway station) and cable transports (for instance at Fiesch railway station). Costs and subsidies Although public investment is positively correlated with a given railway system's performance, the European Railway Performance Index finds differences in the value that countries receive in return for their public cost. The 2017 Index found Switzerland captures high value for money relative to the average ratio of performance to cost among European countries. Passenger transport In 2012, the total costs for passenger transport on Swiss railway network was CHF 8.88 billion, of which CHF 4.46 billion (50%) were due to infrastructure costs, CHF 3.98 billion (45%) were costs of transportation means, CHF 427 million due to environmental and health costs, and CHF 25 million due to accidents. CHF 4.28 billion, or 48.2%, were paid by passengers, and CHF 4.15 billion (or 47%) came from rail subsidies provided by federal, cantonal, and municipal contributions. CHF 426 million (or 4.8%) were contributed by the common weal (accident and health insurances, environmental funds etc.). Freight transport In 2012, the total costs for freight transport on Swiss railway network was CHF 2.063 billion, of which CHF 779 million (37.8%) were due to infrastructure costs, CHF 900 million (43.6%) were costs of transportation means, CHF 59 million due to environmental and health costs, and CHF 325 million (15.8%) due to accidents. CHF 1.058 billion, or 51.3%, were paid by customers, and CHF 122 million (5.9%) by transporting companies, while CHF 555 million (26.9%) were subsidised by federal, cantonal, and municipal contributions. CHF 328 millions (15.9%) were contributed by the common weal (accident and health insurances, environmental funds etc.). See also List of railway companies in Switzerland Swiss locomotive and railcar classification Transportation in Switzerland Notes and references Notes References Bibliography External links Swiss narrow-gauge railways	[ 0.17130209505558014, 0.06550528854131699, -0.3015612065792084, 0.022117728367447853, 0.33401936292648315, 0.13518156111240387, 0.1595662534236908, 0.7571114301681519, -0.6278308033943176, -0.5859332084655762, -0.20728062093257904, -0.32724425196647644, -0.29302024841308594, -0.01995917782187462, -0.46505576372146606, 0.6021891832351685, 0.009418210946023464, 0.026715580374002457, 0.28936126828193665, -0.8724864721298218, -0.16220875084400177, -0.04392457753419876, 0.7374710440635681, 0.2987346649169922, -0.09095855057239532, -0.31819939613342285, -0.022098209708929062, 0.7871190905570984, -0.16814519464969635, -0.26393935084342957, 0.21072614192962646, 0.2032293826341629, -0.36798641085624695, 0.009601344354450703, 0.04695864021778107, -0.07180757075548172, 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229913	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Action%20research	Action research	Action research is a philosophy and methodology of research generally applied in the social sciences. It seeks transformative change through the simultaneous process of taking action and doing research, which are linked together by critical reflection. Kurt Lewin, then a professor at MIT, first coined the term "action research" in 1944. In his 1946 paper "Action Research and Minority Problems" he described action research as "a comparative research on the conditions and effects of various forms of social action and research leading to social action" that uses "a spiral of steps, each of which is composed of a circle of planning, action and fact-finding about the result of the action". Process Action research is an interactive inquiry process that balances problem-solving actions implemented in a collaborative context with data-driven collaborative analysis or research to understand underlying causes enabling future predictions about personal and organizational change. After six decades of action research development, many methods have evolved that adjust the balance to focus more on the actions taken or more on the research that results from the reflective understanding of the actions. This tension exists between those who are more driven either by the researcher's agenda or by participants; those who are motivated primarily by instrumental goal attainment or by the aim of personal, organizational or societal transformation; and 1st-, to 2nd-, to 3rd-person research, that is, my research on my own action, aimed primarily at personal change; our research on our group (family/team), aimed primarily at improving the group; and 'scholarly' research aimed primarily at theoretical generalization or large-scale change. Action research challenges traditional social science by moving beyond reflective knowledge created by outside experts sampling variables, to an active moment-to-moment theorizing, data collecting and inquiry occurring in the midst of emergent structure. "Knowledge is always gained through action and for action. From this starting point, to question the validity of social knowledge is to question, not how to develop a reflective science about action, but how to develop genuinely well-informed action – how to conduct an action science". In this sense, engaging in action research is a form of problem-based investigation by practitioners into their practice, thus it is an empirical process. The goal is both to create and share knowledge in the social sciences. Major theoretical approaches Chris Argyris' action science Chris Argyris' action science begins with the study of how human beings design their actions in difficult situations. Humans design their actions to achieve intended consequences and are governed by a set of environment variables. How those governing variables are treated in designing actions are the key differences between single-loop and double-loop learning. When actions are designed to achieve the intended consequences and to suppress conflict about the governing variables, a single-loop learning cycle usually ensues. On the other hand, when actions are taken not only to achieve the intended consequences, but also to openly inquire about conflict and to possibly transform the governing variables, both single- and double-loop learning cycles usually ensue. (Argyris applies single- and double-loop learning concepts not only to personal behaviors but also to organizational behaviors in his models.) This is different from experimental research in which environmental variables are controlled and researchers try to find out cause and effect in an isolated environment. John Heron and Peter Reason's cooperative inquiry Cooperative, aka collaborative, inquiry was first proposed by John Heron in 1971 and later expanded with Peter Reason and Demi Brown. The major idea is to "research 'with' rather than 'on' people." It emphasizes the full involvement in research decisions of all active participants as co-researchers. Cooperative inquiry creates a research cycle among 4 different types of knowledge: propositional (as in contemporary science), practical (the knowledge that comes with actually doing what you propose), experiential (the real-time feedback we get about our interaction with the larger world) and presentational (the artistic rehearsal process through which we craft new practices). At every cycle, the research process includes these four stages, with deepening experience and knowledge of the initial proposition, or of new propositions. Paulo Freire's participatory action research Participatory action research builds on the critical pedagogy put forward by Paulo Freire as a response to the traditional formal models of education where the "teacher" stands at the front and "imparts" information to the "students" who are passive recipients. This was further developed in "adult education" models throughout Latin America. Orlando Fals-Borda (1925–2008), Colombian sociologist and political activist, was one of the principal promoters of participatory action research (IAP in Spanish) in Latin America. He published a "double history of the coast", book that compares the official "history" and the non-official "story" of the north coast of Colombia. William Barry's living educational theory approach to action research William Barry (Atkins and Wallace 2012) defined an approach to action research which focuses on creating ontological weight. He adapted the idea of ontological weight to action research from existential Christian philosopher Gabriel Marcel (1963). Barry was influenced by Jean McNiff's and Jack Whitehead's (2008) phraseology of living theory action research but was diametrically opposed to the validation process advocated by Whitehead which demanded video "evidence" of "energy flowing values" and his atheistic ontological position which influenced his conception of values in action research. Barry explained that living educational theory (LET) is "a critical and transformational approach to action research. It confronts the researcher to challenge the status quo of their educational practice and to answer the question, 'How can I improve that I'm doing?' Researchers who use this approach must be willing to recognize and assume responsibility for being 'living contradictions' in their professional practice – thinking one way and acting in another. The mission of the LET action researcher is to overcome workplace norms and self-behavior which contradict the researcher's values and beliefs. The vision of the LET researcher is to make an original contribution to knowledge through generating an educational theory proven to improve the learning of people within a social learning space. The standard of judgment for theory validity is evidence of workplace reform, transformational growth of the researcher, and improved learning by the people researcher claimed to have influenced...". Action research in organization development Wendell L. French and Cecil Bell define organization development (OD) at one point as "organization improvement through action research". If one idea can be said to summarize OD's underlying philosophy, it would be action research as it was conceptualized by Kurt Lewin and later elaborated and expanded on by other behavioral scientists. Concerned with social change and, more particularly, with effective, permanent social change, Lewin believed that the motivation to change was strongly related to action: If people are active in decisions affecting them, they are more likely to adopt new ways. "Rational social management", he said, "proceeds in a spiral of steps, each of which is composed of a circle of planning, action and fact-finding about the result of action". Unfreezing: Faced with a dilemma or disconfirmation, the individual or group becomes aware of a need to change. Changing: The situation is diagnosed and new models of behavior are explored and tested. Refreezing: Application of new behavior is evaluated, and if reinforcing, adopted. Lewin's description of the process of change involves three steps: Figure 1 summarizes the steps and processes involved in planned change through action research. Action research is depicted as a cyclical process of change. The cycle begins with a series of planning actions initiated by the client and the change agent working together. The principal elements of this stage include a preliminary diagnosis, data gathering, feedback of results, and joint action planning. In the language of systems theory, this is the input phase, in which the client system becomes aware of problems as yet unidentified, realizes it may need outside help to effect changes, and shares with the consultant the process of problem diagnosis. The second stage of action research is the action, or transformation, phase. This stage includes actions relating to learning processes (perhaps in the form of role analysis) and to planning and executing behavioral changes in the client organization. As shown in Figure 1, feedback at this stage would move via Feedback Loop A and would have the effect of altering previous planning to bring the learning activities of the client system into better alignment with change objectives. Included in this stage is action-planning activity carried out jointly by the consultant and members of the client system. Following the workshop or learning sessions, these action steps are carried out on the job as part of the transformation stage. The third stage of action research is the output or results phase. This stage includes actual changes in behavior (if any) resulting from corrective action steps taken following the second stage. Data are again gathered from the client system so that progress can be determined and necessary adjustments in learning activities can be made. Minor adjustments of this nature can be made in learning activities via Feedback Loop B (see Figure 1). Major adjustments and reevaluations would return the OD project to the first or planning stage for basic changes in the program. The action-research model shown in Figure 1 closely follows Lewin's repetitive cycle of planning, action, and measuring results. It also illustrates other aspects of Lewin's general model of change. As indicated in the diagram, the planning stage is a period of unfreezing, or problem awareness. The action stage is a period of changing, that is, trying out new forms of behavior in an effort to understand and cope with the system's problems. (There is inevitable overlap between the stages, since the boundaries are not clear-cut and cannot be in a continuous process). The results stage is a period of refreezing, in which new behaviors are tried out on the job and, if successful and reinforcing, become a part of the system's repertoire of problem-solving behavior. Action research is problem centered, client centered, and action oriented. It involves the client system in a diagnostic, active-learning, problem-finding and problem-solving process. Worldwide expansion Action research has become a significant methodology for intervention, development and change within groups and communities. It is promoted and implemented by many international development agencies and university programs, as well as local community organizations around the world, such as AERA and Claremont Lincoln in America, CARN in the United Kingdom, CCAR in Sweden, CLAYSS in Argentina, and CARPED and PRIA in India, and ARNA in the Americas. Journal The field is supported by a quarterly peer-reviewed academic journal, Action Research, founded in 2003 and edited by Hilary Bradbury. See also References Bibliography General sources Atkins, L & Wallace, S. (2012). Qualitative Research in Education. London: Sage Publications. Burns, D. 2007. Systemic Action Research: A strategy for whole system change. Bristol: Policy Press. Burns, D. 2015. Navigating complexity in international development: Facilitating sustainable change at scale. Rugby: Practical Action Davison, R., Martinsons, M., & Kock, N. (2004). Information Systems Journal, 14(1), 65–86. Greenwood, D. J. & Levin, M., Introduction to action research: social research for social change, Thousand Oaks, California: Sage Publications, 1998. Greenwood, D. J. & Levin, M., Introduction to action research. Second edition, Thousand Oaks, Calif.: Sage Publications,2007. Martyn Hammersley, "Action research: a contradiction in terms?", Oxford Review of Education, 30, 2, 165-181, 2004. James, E. Alana; Milenkiewicz, Margaret T.; Bucknam, Alan. Participatory Action Research for Educational Leadership: Using Data-Driven Decision Making to Improve Schools. Thousand Oaks: Sage, 2007. Noffke, S. & Somekh, B. (Ed.) (2009) The SAGE Handbook of Educational Action Research. London: SAGE. . Pine, Gerald J. (2008). Teacher Action Research: Building Knowledge Democracies, Sage Publications. Reason, P. & Bradbury, H., (Ed.) The SAGE Handbook of Action Research. Participative Inquiry and Practice. 1st Edition. London: Sage, 2001. . (2nd Edition, 2007. ) Rowell, L., Bruce, C., Shosh, J. M., & Riel, M. (2017). The Palgrave international handbook of action research. New York, NY: Palgrave Macmillan. Sherman & Torbert, Transforming Social Inquiry, Transforming Social Action: New paradigms for crossing the theory/practice divide in universities and communities. Boston, Kluwer, 2000. Silverman, Robert Mark, Henry L. Taylor Jr. and Christopher G. Crawford. 2008. "The Role of Citizen Participation and Action Research Principles in Main Street Revitalization: An Analysis of a Local Planning Project," Action Research 6(1): 69–93. Sagor, R. (2010). Collaborative Action Research for Professional. Learning Communities. Bloomington: Solution Tree Press. Stringer, E.T. And Ortiz, A. (2021). Action Research. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publications. Wood, L., Zuber-Skerritt, O. (2013). "PALAR as a methodology for community engagement by faculties of education". South African Journal of Education, 33, 1–15. Wood, L. (2017) "Community development in higher education: how do academics ensure their community-based research makes a difference?" Community Development Journal, Volume 52, Issue 4, Pages 685–701, https://doi.org/10.1093/cdj/bsv068 Zuber-Skerritt, O., & Wood, L. (2019). Action Learning and Action Research: Genres and Approaches. Emerald (UK). Woodman & Pasmore. Research in Organizational Change & Development series. Greenwich CT: Jai Press. Exemplars and methodological discussions Argyris, C. 1970. Intervention Theory and Method. Reading, Massachusetts: Addison-Wesley. Argyris, C. 1980. Inner Contradictions of Rigorous Research. San Diego, California: Academic Press. Argyris, C. 1994. Knowledge for Action. San Francisco, California: Jossey-Bass. Cameron, K. & Quinn, R. 1999. Diagnosing and Changing Organizational Culture. Reading, Massachusetts: Addison-Wesley. Denscombe M. 2010. Good Research Guide : For small-scale social research projects (4th Edition). Open University Press. Berkshire, GBR. Dickens, L., Watkins, K. 1999. "Management Learning, Action Research: Rethinking Lewin". Vol. 30, Issue 2, pp. 127–140. <https://doi.org/10.1177/1350507699302002> Freire, P. 1970. Pedagogy of the Oppressed''''. New York: Herder & Herder. Garreau, J. 2005. Radical Evolution: The promise and peril of enhancing our minds, our bodies – and what it means to be human. New York: Doubleday. Heikkinen, H., Kakkori, L. & Huttunen, R. 2001. "This is my truth, tell me yours: some aspects of action research quality in the light of truth theories". Educational Action Research 1/2001. Heron, J. 1996. Cooperative Inquiry: Research into the human condition. London: Sage. Kemmis, Stephen and McTaggart Robin (1982) The action research planner. Geelong: Deakin University. Kemmis, Stephen, McTaggart, Robin and Nixon, Rhonda (2014) The action research planner. Doing critical participatory action research. Springer. Marcel, G. (1963) Existential Background of Human Dignity. Cambridge: Harvard University Press. McNiff, J. & Whitehead, J. (2006) All You Need To Know About Action Research, London; Sage. Ogilvy, J. 2000. Creating Better Futures: Scenario planning as a tool for a better tomorrow. Oxford: Oxford University Press. Reason, P. & Rowan, J. 1981. Human Inquiry: A Sourcebook of New Paradigm Research. London: Wiley. Reason, P. 1995. Participation in Human Inquiry. London: Sage. Schein, E. 1999. Process Consultation Revisited. Reading, Massachusetts: Addison-Wesley. Senge, P., Scharmer, C., Jaworski, J., & Flowers, B. 2004. Presence: Human purpose and the field of the future. Cambridge, Massachusetts: Society for Organizational Learning. Susman G.I. and Evered R.D., 1978. "Administrative Science Quarterly, An Assessment of the Scientific Merits of Action Researc". Vol. 23, No. 4, pp. 582–603 Torbert, W. & Associates 2004. Action Inquiry: The Secret of Timely and Transforming Leadership. First-person research/practice exemplars Bateson, M. 1984. 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Scholarly journals Action Research The Journal of Applied Behavioral Science Management Learning External links Definition of action research at interaction-design.org Wikibooks: Contemporary Educational Psychology/Chapter 13: The Reflective Practitioner ALARA - Action Learning, Action Research Association- Established in Australia in the 1980s AR SIG, AERA -The American Educational Research Assoc, Special Interest Group in Action Research ARNA - The Action Research Network of the Americas CARN - The Collaborative Action Research Network, established in 1975 Center for Collaborative Action Research (2005-2017) CeCAR Centre for Collective Action Research CLAYSS - The Latin American Center for Service Learning, founded in 2002 in Buenos Aires, Argentina PEP - Pedagogy, Education and Praxis PRIA - Participatory Action Research in Asia Social science methodology	[ 0.424398273229599, 0.06947509199380875, -0.39622002840042114, 0.21724790334701538, -0.1934252828359604, 0.43742427229881287, 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229914	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ape	Ape	Apes (Hominoidea ) are a branch of Old World tailless simians native to Africa and Southeast Asia. They are the sister group of the Old World monkeys, together forming the catarrhine clade. They are distinguished from other primates by a wider degree of freedom of motion at the shoulder joint as evolved by the influence of brachiation. In traditional and non-scientific use, the term "ape" excludes humans, and can include tailless primates taxonomically considered monkeys (such as the Barbary ape and black ape), and is thus not equivalent to the scientific taxon Hominoidea. There are two extant branches of the superfamily Hominoidea: the gibbons, or lesser apes; and the hominids, or great apes. The family Hylobatidae, the lesser apes, include four genera and a total of sixteen species of gibbon, including the lar gibbon and the siamang, all native to Asia. They are highly arboreal and bipedal on the ground. They have lighter bodies and smaller social groups than great apes. The family Hominidae (hominids), the great apes, include four genera comprising three extant species of orangutans and their subspecies, two extant species of gorillas and their subspecies, two extant species of panins (bonobos and chimpanzees) and their subspecies, and one extant species of humans in a single extant subspecies. Except for gorillas and humans, hominoids are agile climbers of trees. Apes eat a variety of plant and animal foods, with the majority of food being plant foods, which can include fruit, leaves, stalks, roots and seeds, including nuts and grass seeds. Human diets are sometimes substantially different from that of other hominoids due in part to the development of technology and a wide range of habitation. Humans are by far the most numerous of the hominoid species, in fact outnumbering all other primates by a factor of several thousand to one. All non-human hominoids are rare and endangered. The chief threat to most of the endangered species is loss of tropical rainforest habitat, though some populations are further imperiled by hunting for bushmeat. The great apes of Africa are also facing threat from the Ebola virus. Currently considered to be the greatest threat to survival of African apes, Ebola infection is responsible for the death of at least one third of all gorillas and chimpanzees since 1990. Name and terminology "Ape", from Old English apa, is a word of uncertain origin. The term has a history of rather imprecise usage—and of comedic or punning usage in the vernacular. Its earliest meaning was generally of any non-human anthropoid primate, as is still the case for its cognates in other Germanic languages. Later, after the term "monkey" had been introduced into English, "ape" was specialized to refer to a tailless (therefore exceptionally human-like) primate. Thus, the term "ape" obtained two different meanings, as shown in the 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica entry: it could be used as a synonym for "monkey" and it could denote the tailless human-like primate in particular. Some, or recently all, hominoids are also called "apes", but the term is used broadly and has several different senses within both popular and scientific settings. "Ape" has been used as a synonym for "monkey" or for naming any primate with a human-like appearance, particularly those without a tail. Biologists have traditionally used the term "ape" to mean a member of the superfamily Hominoidea other than humans, but more recently to mean all members of Hominoidea. So "ape"—not to be confused with "great ape"—now becomes another word for hominoid including humans. The taxonomic term hominoid is derived from, and intended as encompassing, the hominids, the family of great apes. Both terms were introduced by Gray (1825). The term hominins is also due to Gray (1824), intended as including the human lineage (see also Hominidae#Terminology, Human taxonomy). The distinction between apes and monkeys is complicated by the traditional paraphyly of monkeys: Apes emerged as a sister group of Old World Monkeys in the catarrhines, which are a sister group of New World Monkeys. Therefore, cladistically, apes, catarrhines and related contemporary extinct groups such as Parapithecidaea are monkeys as well, for any consistent definition of "monkey". "Old World Monkey" may also legitimately be taken to be meant to include all the catarrhines, including apes and extinct species such as Aegyptopithecus, in which case the apes, Cercopithecoidea and Aegyptopithecus emerged within the Old World Monkeys. The primates called "apes" today became known to Europeans after the 18th century. As zoological knowledge developed, it became clear that taillessness occurred in a number of different and otherwise distantly related species. Sir Wilfrid Le Gros Clark was one of those primatologists who developed the idea that there were trends in primate evolution and that the extant members of the order could be arranged in an ".. ascending series", leading from "monkeys" to "apes" to humans. Within this tradition "ape" came to refer to all members of the superfamily Hominoidea except humans. As such, this use of "apes" represented a paraphyletic grouping, meaning that, even though all species of apes were descended from a common ancestor, this grouping did not include all the descendant species, because humans were excluded from being among the apes. Traditionally, the English-language vernacular name "apes" does not include humans, but phylogenetically, humans (Homo) form part of the family Hominidae within Hominoidaea. Thus, there are at least three common, or traditional, uses of the term "ape": non-specialists may not distinguish between "monkeys" and "apes", that is, they may use the two terms interchangeably; or they may use "ape" for any tailless monkey or non-human hominoid; or they may use the term "ape" to just mean the non-human hominoids. Modern taxonomy aims for the use of monophyletic groups for taxonomic classification; Some literature may now use the common name "ape" to mean all members of the superfamily Hominoidea, including humans. For example, in his 2005 book, Benton wrote "The apes, Hominoidea, today include the gibbons and orang-utan ... the gorilla and chimpanzee ... and humans". Modern biologists and primatologists refer to apes that are not human as "non-human" apes. Scientists broadly, other than paleoanthropologists, may use the term "hominin" to identify the human clade, replacing the term "hominid". See terminology of primate names. See below, History of hominoid taxonomy, for a discussion of changes in scientific classification and terminology regarding hominoids. Evolution Although the hominoid fossil record is still incomplete and fragmentary, there is now enough evidence to provide an outline of the evolutionary history of humans. Previously, the divergence between humans and other extant hominoids was thought to have occurred 15 to 20 million years ago, and several species of that time period, such as Ramapithecus, were once thought to be hominins and possible ancestors of humans. But, later fossil finds indicated that Ramapithecus was more closely related to the orangutan; and new biochemical evidence indicates that the last common ancestor of humans and non-hominins (that is, the chimpanzees) occurred between 5 and 10 million years ago, and probably nearer the lower end of that range (more recent); see Chimpanzee–human last common ancestor (CHLCA). Taxonomic classification and phylogeny Genetic analysis combined with fossil evidence indicates that hominoids diverged from the Old World monkeys about 25 million years ago (mya), near the Oligocene–Miocene boundary. The gibbons split from the rest about 18 mya, and the hominid splits happened 14 mya (Pongo), 7 mya (Gorilla), and 3–5 mya (Homo & Pan). In 2015, a new genus and species were described, Pliobates cataloniae, which lived 11.6 mya, and appears to predate the split between Hominidae and Hylobatidae. The families, and extant genera and species of hominoids are: Superfamily Hominoidea Family Hominidae: hominids ("great apes") Genus Pongo: orangutans Bornean orangutan, P. pygmaeus Sumatran orangutan, P. abelii Tapanuli orangutan, P. tapanuliensis Genus Gorilla: gorillas Western gorilla, G. gorilla Eastern gorilla, G. beringei Genus Homo: humans Human, H. sapiens Genus Pan: chimpanzees Common chimpanzee, P. troglodytes Bonobo, P. paniscus Family Hylobatidae: gibbons ("lesser apes") Genus Hylobates Lar gibbon or white-handed gibbon, H. lar Bornean white-bearded gibbon, H. albibarbis Agile gibbon or black-handed gibbon, H. agilis Western grey gibbon or Abbott's grey gibbon, H. abbotti Eastern grey gibbon or northern grey gibbon, H. funereus Müller's gibbon or southern grey gibbon, H. muelleri Silvery gibbon, H. moloch Pileated gibbon or capped gibbon, H. pileatus Kloss's gibbon or Mentawai gibbon or bilou, H. klossii Genus Hoolock Western hoolock gibbon, H. hoolock Eastern hoolock gibbon, H. leuconedys Skywalker hoolock gibbon, H. tianxing Genus Symphalangus Siamang, S. syndactylus Genus Nomascus Northern buffed-cheeked gibbon, N. annamensis Black crested gibbon, N. concolor Eastern black crested gibbon, N. nasutus Hainan black crested gibbon, N. hainanus Southern white-cheeked gibbon N. siki White-cheeked crested gibbon, N. leucogenys Yellow-cheeked gibbon, N. gabriellae History of hominoid taxonomy The history of hominoid taxonomy is complex and somewhat confusing. Recent evidence has changed our understanding of the relationships between the hominoids, especially regarding the human lineage; and the traditionally used terms have become somewhat confused. Competing approaches to methodology and terminology are found among current scientific sources. Over time, authorities have changed the names and the meanings of names of groups and subgroups as new evidence — that is, new discoveries of fossils and tools and of observations in the field, plus continual comparisons of anatomy and DNA sequences — has changed the understanding of relationships between hominoids. There has been a gradual demotion of humans from being 'special' in the taxonomy to being one branch among many. This recent turmoil (of history) illustrates the growing influence on all taxonomy of cladistics, the science of classifying living things strictly according to their lines of descent. Today, there are eight extant genera of hominoids. They are the four genera in the family Hominidae, namely Homo, Pan, Gorilla, and Pongo; plus four genera in the family Hylobatidae (gibbons): Hylobates, Hoolock, Nomascus and Symphalangus. (The two subspecies of hoolock gibbons were recently moved from the genus Bunopithecus to the new genus Hoolock and re-ranked as species; a third species was described in January 2017).) In 1758, Carl Linnaeus, relying on second- or third-hand accounts, placed a second species in Homo along with H. sapiens: Homo troglodytes ("cave-dwelling man"). Although the term "Orang Outang" is listed as a variety – Homo sylvestris – under this species, it is nevertheless not clear to which animal this name refers, as Linnaeus had no specimen to refer to, hence no precise description. Linnaeus may have based Homo troglodytes on reports of mythical creatures, then-unidentified simians, or Asian natives dressed in animal skins. Linnaeus named the orangutan Simia satyrus ("satyr monkey"). He placed the three genera Homo, Simia and Lemur in the order of Primates. The troglodytes name was used for the chimpanzee by Blumenbach in 1775, but moved to the genus Simia. The orangutan was moved to the genus Pongo in 1799 by Lacépède. Linnaeus's inclusion of humans in the primates with monkeys and apes was troubling for people who denied a close relationship between humans and the rest of the animal kingdom. Linnaeus's Lutheran archbishop had accused him of "impiety". In a letter to Johann Georg Gmelin dated 25 February 1747, Linnaeus wrote: Accordingly, Johann Friedrich Blumenbach in the first edition of his Manual of Natural History (1779), proposed that the primates be divided into the Quadrumana (four-handed, i.e. apes and monkeys) and Bimana (two-handed, i.e. humans). This distinction was taken up by other naturalists, most notably Georges Cuvier. Some elevated the distinction to the level of order. However, the many affinities between humans and other primates – and especially the "great apes" – made it clear that the distinction made no scientific sense. In his 1871 book The Descent of Man, and Selection in Relation to Sex, Charles Darwin wrote: Changes in taxonomy and terminology Characteristics The lesser apes are the gibbon family, Hylobatidae, of sixteen species; all are native to Asia. Their major differentiating characteristic is their long arms, which they use to brachiate through trees. Their wrists are ball and socket joints as an evolutionary adaptation to their arboreal lifestyle. Generally smaller than the African apes, the largest gibbon, the siamang, weighs up to ; in comparison, the smallest "great ape", the bonobo, is . The superfamily Hominoidea falls within the parvorder Catarrhini, which also includes the Old World monkeys of Africa and Eurasia. Within this grouping, the two families Hylobatidae and Hominidae can be distinguished from Old World monkeys by the number of cusps on their molars; hominoids have five in the "Y-5" molar pattern, whereas Old World monkeys have only four in a bilophodont pattern. Further, in comparison with Old World monkeys, hominoids are noted for: more mobile shoulder joints and arms due to the dorsal position of the scapula; broader ribcages that are flatter front-to-back; and a shorter, less mobile spine, with greatly reduced caudal (tail) vertebrae—resulting in complete loss of the tail in extant hominoid species. These are anatomical adaptations, first, to vertical hanging and swinging locomotion (brachiation) and, later, to developing balance in a bipedal pose. Note there are primates in other families that also lack tails, and at least one, the pig-tailed langur, is known to walk significant distances bipedally. The front of the ape skull is characterised by its sinuses, fusion of the frontal bone, and by post-orbital constriction. Distinction from monkeys Cladistically, apes, catarrhines, and extinct species such as Aegyptopithecus and Parapithecidaea, are monkeys, so one can only specify ape features not present in other monkeys. Unlike most monkeys, apes do not possess a tail. Monkeys are more likely to be in trees and use their tails for balance. While the great apes are considerably larger than monkeys, gibbons (lesser apes) are smaller than some monkeys. Apes are considered to be more intelligent than monkeys, which are considered to have more primitive brains. Behaviour Major studies of behaviour in the field were completed on the three better-known "great apes", for example by Jane Goodall, Dian Fossey and Birute Galdikas. These studies have shown that in their natural environments, the non-human hominoids show sharply varying social structure: gibbons are monogamous, territorial pair-bonders, orangutans are solitary, gorillas live in small troops with a single adult male leader, while chimpanzees live in larger troops with bonobos exhibiting promiscuous sexual behaviour. Their diets also vary; gorillas are foliovores, while the others are all primarily frugivores, although the common chimpanzee hunts for meat. Foraging behaviour is correspondingly variable. Diet Apart from humans and gorillas, apes eat a predominantly frugivorous diet, mostly fruit, but supplemented with a variety of other foods. Gorillas are predominately folivorous, eating mostly stalks, shoots, roots and leaves with some fruit and other foods. Non-human apes usually eat a small amount of raw animal foods such as insects or eggs. In the case of humans, migration and the invention of hunting tools and cooking has led to an even wider variety of foods and diets, with many human diets including large amounts of cooked tubers (roots) or legumes. Other food production and processing methods including animal husbandry and industrial refining and processing have further changed human diets. Humans and other apes occasionally eat other primates. Some of these primates are now close to extinction with habitat loss being the underlying cause. Cognition All the non-human hominoids are generally thought of as highly intelligent, and scientific study has broadly confirmed that they perform very well on a wide range of cognitive tests—though there is relatively little data on gibbon cognition. The early studies by Wolfgang Köhler demonstrated exceptional problem-solving abilities in chimpanzees, which Köhler attributed to insight. The use of tools has been repeatedly demonstrated; more recently, the manufacture of tools has been documented, both in the wild and in laboratory tests. Imitation is much more easily demonstrated in "great apes" than in other primate species. Almost all the studies in animal language acquisition have been done with "great apes", and though there is continuing dispute as to whether they demonstrate real language abilities, there is no doubt that they involve significant feats of learning. Chimpanzees in different parts of Africa have developed tools that are used in food acquisition, demonstrating a form of animal culture. See also Dawn of Humanity (2015 PBS film) Declaration on Great Apes from the Great Ape Project List of individual apes (for notable non-fictional non-human apes) List of fictional primates List of primates by population Notes References Literature cited External links Agreement between cladograms based on molecular and anatomical data. Human Timeline (Interactive) – Smithsonian, National Museum of Natural History (August 2016). 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229915	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vladikavkaz	Vladikavkaz	Vladikavkaz (; , , lit. ''s settlement'), formerly known as Ordzhonikidze () and Dzaudzhikau (), is the capital city of the Republic of North Ossetia-Alania, Russia. It is located in the southeast of the republic at the foothills of the Caucasus Mountains, situated on the Terek River. Population: Vladikavkaz is one of the most populous cities in the North Caucasus. The city is an industrial and transportation centre. Manufactured products include processed zinc and lead, machinery, chemicals, clothing and food products. History In 1784, a tower was founded on the site of the Ingush village Zaur on the right bank of the river Terek, Russian troops built the Vladikavkaz fortress, which had the purpose of serving as an outpost for the routes of communication between Russia and Georgia. The Georgian Military Highway, crossing the mountains, was constructed in 1799 to link the city with Georgia to the south, and in 1875 a railway was built to connect it to Rostov-on-Don and Baku in Azerbaijan. Vladikavkaz has become an important industrial centre for the region, with smelting, refining, chemicals and manufacturing industries. The city is one of the largest in the Russian-controlled Caucasus, along with Grozny, and was the capital of the Mountain Autonomous Soviet Socialist Republic, a Soviet Republic established after the annexation of the Mountainous Republic of the North Caucasus. It existed from 1921 to 1924 and comprised most of the modern-day territories of Chechnya, North Ossetia and Kabardino-Balkaria. From 1931 to 1944 and from 1954 to 1990, its name in both Russian and Ossetic languages was Ordzhonikidze () (after Sergo Ordzhonikidze, a Georgian Bolshevik), and from 1944 to 1954 it was officially called Dzaudzhikau () in Russian and () in Ossetic. Vladikavkaz resumed its old Russian name, in 1990, shortly before the dissolution of the Soviet Union; the official Ossetic name was reverted to Дзæуджыхъæу (Dzæudžyqæu). Vladikavkaz was fought over in both the Russian Civil War and World War II. In February 1919, the anti-Communist Volunteer Army under General Anton Denikin seized the city, before being expelled by the Red Army in March 1920. In early November 1942, the forces of Nazi Germany tried unsuccessfully to seize the city but were repelled. The Nazis left North Ossetia in January 1943. On 26 November 2008, Vitaly Karayev, the mayor of Vladikavkaz was killed by an unidentified gunman. On 31 December 2008, his successor, Kazbek Pagiyev, was also killed by unidentified gunmen. Administrative and municipal status Vladikavkaz is the capital of the republic. Within the framework of administrative divisions, it is, together with six rural localities, incorporated as Vladikavkaz City Under Republic Jurisdiction—an administrative unit with the status equal to that of the districts. As a municipal division, Vladikavkaz City Under Republic Jurisdiction is incorporated as Vladikavkaz Urban Okrug. Transportation The city is served by the bus network (marshrutkas). There are also tram (since 1904) and trolleybus (since 1977) networks, plus the main Vladikavkaz railway station. The city is served by Beslan Airport located about 9 kilometres from the city. The Georgian Military Road, which is a part of European route E117, starts in Vladikavkaz and it connects the city with the South Caucasus. Population According to the results of the 2010 Census, the city population of Vladikavkaz was 330,148. The ethnic makeup of city's population was: Ossetians: 210,104 (63.9%) Russians: 80,945 (24.5%) Armenians: 11,697 (3.5%) Georgians: 7,014 (2.2%) Ingush: 3,225 (1.1%) Azerbaijanis: 2,212 (0.7%) Ukrainians: 1,857 (0.6%) Greeks: 1,819 (0.5%) Slovaks: 990 (0.3%) Others: 10,285 (3.1%) Sports FC Alania Vladikavkaz is an association football club based in Vladikavkaz, which won the Russian Premier League in 1995. Vladikavkaz is home to one of the World's most prestigious Freestyle Wrestling academies, opened in February 2016: The Wrestling Academy of Aslan Khadartsev - the biggest wrestling academy in the South of Russia. It provides access to a number of facilities including a swimming pool, sauna, gym, personal dietitians, dorm rooms (which include a TV, comfortable beds, wardrobes, en-suite bathroom and showers), for 45 athletes and the main training hall, consisting of six mats- this academy is capable of hosting 250 wrestlers at one time. There have been many Olympic, World and European champions training at the Academy: Soslan Ramonov, Zaurbek Sidakov, Artur Naifonov, Chermen Valiev, Khetag Tsabolov are just some of the successful athletes in recent times to train and represent the Academy. This academy is also home to the Freestyle team of North Ossetia, to ensure a high-level of preparation and coaching is given to aid success in international and domestic tournaments. Notable structures The Mukhtarov Mosque, built in 1906, dominates the city. In Vladikavkaz, there is a guyed TV mast, tall, built in 1961, which has six crossbars with gangways in two levels running from the mast structure to the guys. Education North Ossetian State University is in the city. Religion The city's primary religion is Eastern Orthodox Christianity, which is followed by the majority of Ossetians, Russians and Georgians. The rest of the Ossetian population adheres to the next largest religion, Uatsdin, an Ossetian folk religion, which nationwide is followed by 29% of the population. The remainder follow Protestantism, Islam, Armenian Orthodoxy and other beliefs. Twin towns and sister cities Vladikavkaz is twinned with: Ardahan, Turkey Asheville, North Carolina, United States Kardzhali, Bulgaria Nalchik, Russia Makhachkala, Russia Vladivostok, Russia Geography Climate Vladikavkaz experiences a humid continental climate (Köppen climate classification Dfb) with warm, wet summers and cold, drier winters (though very mild for Russia). Notable people Lyubov Streicher (1888-1958), composer and founding member of the Society for Jewish Folk Music Alexander Kemurdzhian (1921–2003), Soviet mechanical engineer, best known for designing Lunokhod 1, the first ever planetary rover for space exploration Norat Ter-Grigoryants (born 1936), Soviet and Armenian general, prominent in his role in the First Nagorno-Karabakh War Svitlana Bilyayeva (born 1946) – archaeologist David Baev (born 1997) – World champion freestyle wrestler Lado Davidov (1924–1987) – Soviet soldier, Hero of the Soviet Union Murat Gassiev (born 1993) – professional boxer, undefeated unified cruiserweight world champion Valery Gazzaev (born 1954) – Russian football manager and former footballer Valery Gergiev (born 1953) – Russian conductor and opera company director Ilia II of Georgia (born 1933) – Catholicos-Patriarch of All Georgia and the spiritual leader of the Georgian Orthodox Church Vitaly Kaloyev (born 1956) – convicted murderer and former architect Aslan Karatsev (born 1993) – Russian tennis player Issa Pliyev (1903–1979) – Soviet military commander, twice Hero of the Soviet Union Vyacheslav Voronin (born 1974) – Russian high jumper, gold medallist at the 1999 World Championships in Athletics Stanislav Buchnev (born 1990) – Russian-Armenian footballer, member of the Armenia national football team References Notes Sources External links Vladikavkaz official site Terek Oblast Populated places established in 1784 1784 establishments in the Russian Empire Cities and towns in North Ossetia–Alania	[ -0.2824639081954956, 0.3095179498195648, -0.048183947801589966, -0.5405734777450562, -0.6541853547096252, 0.22515113651752472, 0.6178494691848755, 0.22950893640518188, -0.4198715388774872, -0.21369996666908264, -0.36985358595848083, 0.11843138188123703, -0.8310449719429016, 0.550441563129425, 0.10649383813142776, 0.8404842615127563, 0.03864426165819168, 0.692768394947052, 0.2569255232810974, -0.40822628140449524, 0.19423907995224, 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229917	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tupolev%20Tu-154	Tupolev Tu-154	The Tupolev Tu-154 (; NATO reporting name: "Careless") is a three-engined, medium-range, narrow-body airliner designed in the mid-1960s and manufactured by Tupolev. A workhorse of Soviet and (subsequently) Russian airlines for several decades, it carried half of all passengers flown by Aeroflot and its subsidiaries (137.5 million/year or 243.8 billion passenger-km in 1990), remaining the standard domestic-route airliner of Russia and former Soviet states until the mid-2000s. It was exported to 17 non-Russian airlines and used as a head-of-state transport by the air forces of several countries. The aircraft has a cruising speed of and a range of . Capable of operating from unpaved and gravel airfields with only basic facilities, it was widely used in the extreme Arctic conditions of Russia's northern/eastern regions, where other airliners were unable to operate. Originally designed for a 45,000-hour service life (18,000 cycles), but capable of 80,000 hours with upgrades, it was expected to continue in service until 2016, although noise regulations have restricted flights to Western Europe and other regions. Development The Tu-154 was developed to meet Aeroflot's requirement to replace the jet-powered Tu-104 and the Antonov An-10 and Ilyushin Il-18 turboprops. The requirements called for either a payload capacity of with a range of while cruising at , or a payload of with a range of while cruising at . A take-off distance of at maximum takeoff weight was also stipulated as a requirement. Conceptually similar to the British Hawker Siddeley Trident, which first flew in 1962, and the American Boeing 727, which first flew in 1963, the medium-range Tu-154 was marketed by Tupolev at the same time as Ilyushin was marketing the long-range Ilyushin Il-62. The Soviet Ministry of Aircraft Industry chose the Tu-154, as it incorporated the latest in Soviet aircraft design and best met Aeroflot's anticipated requirements for the 1970s and 1980s. The first project chief was ; in 1964, assumed that position. In 1975, the project lead role was turned over to . The Tu-154 first flew on 4 October 1968. The first deliveries to Aeroflot were in 1970 with freight (mail) services beginning in May 1971 and passenger services in February 1972. Limited production of the 154M model was still occurring as of January 2009, despite previous announcements of the end of production in 2006. 1025 Tu-154s have been built, 214 of which were still in service as of 14 December 2009. The last serial Tu-154 was delivered to the Russian Defense Ministry on 19 February 2013 from the Aviakor factory, equipped with upgraded avionics, a VIP interior and a communications suite. The factory has four unfinished hulls in its inventory which can be completed if new orders are received. Design The Tu-154 is powered by three rear-mounted, low-bypass turbofan engines arranged similarly to those of the Boeing 727, but it is slightly larger than its American counterpart. Both the 727 and the Tu-154 use an S-duct for the middle (number-two) engine. The original model was equipped with Kuznetsov NK-8-2 engines, which were replaced with Soloviev D-30KU-154 in the Tu-154M. All Tu-154 aircraft models have a relatively high thrust-to-weight ratio, giving the type excellent performance, though at the expense of lower fuel efficiency. This became an important factor in later decades as fuel costs grew. The cockpit is fitted with conventional dual yoke control columns. Flight control surfaces are hydraulically operated. The cabin of the Tu-154, although of the same six-abreast seating layout, gives the impression of an oval interior, with a lower ceiling than is common on Boeing and Airbus airliners. The passenger cabin accommodates 128 passengers in a two-class layout and 164 passengers in single-class layout, and up to 180 passengers in high-density layout. The layout can be modified to what is called a winter version where some seats are taken out and a wardrobe is installed for passenger coats. The passenger doors are smaller than on its Boeing and Airbus counterparts. Luggage space in the overhead compartments is very limited. Like the Tupolev Tu-134, the Tu-154 has a wing swept back at 35° at the quarter-chord line. The British Hawker Siddeley Trident has the same sweepback angle, while the Boeing 727 has a slightly smaller sweepback angle of 32°. The wing also has anhedral (downward sweep) which is a distinguishing feature of Russian low-wing airliners designed during this era. Most Western low-wing airliners such as the contemporary Boeing 727 have dihedral (upward sweep). The anhedral means that Russian airliners have poor lateral stability compared to their Western counterparts, but also are more resistant to Dutch roll tendencies. Considerably heavier than its predecessor Soviet-built airliner the Ilyushin Il-18, the Tu-154 was equipped with an oversized landing gear to reduce ground load, enabling it to operate from the same runways. The aircraft has two six-wheel main bogies fitted with large, low-pressure tires that retract into pods extending from the trailing edges of the wings (a common Tupolev feature), plus a two-wheel nosegear unit. Soft oleo struts (shock absorbers) provide a much smoother ride on bumpy airfields than most airliners, which very rarely operate on such poor surfaces. The original requirement was to have a three-person flight crew – captain, first officer, and flight engineer – as opposed to a four- or five-person crew, as on other Soviet airliners. It became evident that a fourth crew member, a navigator, was still needed, and a seat was added on production aircraft, although their workstation was compromised due to the limitations of the original design. Navigators are no longer trained, and this profession is becoming obsolete with the retirement of the oldest Soviet-era planes. The latest variant (Tu-154M-100, introduced 1998) includes an NVU-B3 Doppler navigation system, a triple autopilot, which provides an automatic ILS approach according to ICAO category II weather minima, an autothrottle, a Doppler drift and speed measure system (DISS), and a "Kurs-MP" radio navigation suite. A stability and control augmentation system improves handling characteristics during manual flight. Modern upgrades normally include modernised TCAS, GPS, and other systems (mostly American-made or EU-made). Early versions of the Tu-154 cannot be modified to meet the current Stage III noise regulations, so are no longer allowed to fly into airspace where such regulations are enforced, such as the European Union. However, the Tu-154M's D-30 engines can be fitted with hush kits, allowing them to meet noise regulations. Variants Many variants of this airliner have been built. Like its Western counterpart, the 727, many of the Tu-154s in service have been hush-kitted, and some converted to freighters. Tu-154 Tu-154 production started in 1970, and the first passenger flight was performed on 9 February 1972. Powered by Kuznetsov NK-8-2 turbofans, it carried 164 passengers. About 42 were built. Tu-154A The first upgraded version of the original Tu-154, the A model, in production since 1974, added center-section fuel tanks and more emergency exits, while engines were upgraded to higher-thrust Kuznetsov NK-8-2U. Other upgrades include automatic flaps/slats and stabilizer controls and modified avionics. Max. takeoff weight – . There were 15 different interior layouts for the different domestic and international customers, seating between 144 and 152 passengers. To discern the A model from the base model note the spike at the junction of the fin and tail. This is a fat bullet on the A model, and a slender spike on the base model. Tu-154B As the original Tu-154 and Tu-154A suffered wing cracks after a few years in service, a version with a new, stronger wing, designated Tu-154B, went into production in 1975. It also had an additional fuselage fuel tank, additional emergency exits in the tail. Also, the maximum takeoff weight increased to . Important to Aeroflot was the increased passenger capacity, hence lower operating costs. With the NK-8-2U engines the only way to improve the economics of the airplane was to spread costs across more seats. The autopilot was certified for ICAO Category II automatic approaches. Most previously built Tu-154 and Tu-154A were also modified into this variant, with the replacement of the wing. Maximum takeoff weight increased to . 111 were built. Tu-154B-1 Aeroflot wanted this version for increased revenue on domestic routes. It carried 160 passengers. This version also had some minor modifications to the fuel system, avionics, air conditioning, and landing gear. 64 were built from 1977 to 1978. Tu-154B-2 A minor modernization of Tu-154B-1. The airplane was designed to be converted from the 160 passenger version to a 180 passenger version by removing the galley. The procedure took about hours. Some of the earlier Tu-154Bs were modified to that standard. Maximum takeoff weight increased to , later to . Some 311 aircraft were built, including VIP versions. A few remain in service. Tu-154S The Tu-154S is an all-cargo or freighter version of the Tu-154B, using a strengthened floor, and adding a forward cargo door on the port side of the fuselage. The aircraft could carry nine Soviet PAV-3 pallets. Maximum payload – . There were plans for 20 aircraft, but only nine were converted, two from Tu-154 models and seven from Tu-154B models. Trials were held in the early 1980s and the aircraft was authorized regular operations in 1984. By 1997 all had been retired. Tu-154M The Tu-154M and Tu-154M Lux are the most highly upgraded versions, which first flew in 1982 and entered mass production in 1984. It uses more fuel-efficient Soloviev D-30KU-154 turbofans. Together with significant aerodynamic refinement, this led to much lower fuel consumption hence longer range, as well as lower operating costs. The aircraft has new double-slotted (instead of triple-slotted) flaps, with an extra 36-degree position (in addition to existing 15, 28 and 45-degree positions on older versions), which allows reduction of noise on approach. It also has a relocated auxiliary power unit and numerous other improvements. Maximum takeoff weight increased first to , then to . Some aircraft are certified to . About 320 were manufactured. Mass production ended in 2006, though limited manufacturing continued as of January 2009. No new airframes have been built since the early 1990s, and production since then involved assembling aircraft from components on hand. Chinese Tu-154MD electronic intelligence aircraft carry a large-size synthetic aperture radar (SAR) under their mainframe. Tu-154M-LK-1 Cosmonaut trainer. This was a salon VIP aircraft modified to train cosmonauts to fly the Buran reusable spacecraft, the Soviet equivalent of the US Space Shuttle. The Tu-154 was used because the Buran required a steep descent, which the Tu-154 was capable of replicating. The cabin featured trainee workstations, one of which was identical to the Buran's flightdeck. The forward baggage compartment was converted into a camera bay, as the aircraft was used to train cosmonauts in observation and photographic techniques. Tu-154M-ON monitoring aircraft Germany modified one of the Tu-154s it inherited from the former East German Air Force into an observation airplane. This aircraft was involved with the Open Skies inspection flights. It was converted at the Elbe Aircraft Plant (Elbe Flugzeugwerke) in Dresden, and flew in 1996. After 24 monitoring missions, it was lost in a mid-air collision in 1997. The Russians also converted a Tu-154M to serve as an Open Skies monitoring aircraft. They used the Tu-154M-LK-1, and converted it to a Tu-154M-ON. When not flying over North America, it is used to ferry cosmonauts. China is believed to have converted one Tu-154 to an electronic countermeasures aircraft. Tu-154M-100 Design of this variant started in 1994, but the first aircraft were not delivered until 1998. It is an upgraded version with Western avionics, including the Flight Management Computer, GPS, EGPWS, TCAS, and other modern systems. The airplane could carry up to 157 passengers. The cabin featured an automatic oxygen system and larger overhead bins. Three were produced, as payment of debts owed by Russia to Slovakia. Three aircraft were delivered in 1998 to Slovak Airlines, and sold back to Russia in 2003. Tu-155 A Tu-154 converted into a testbed for alternative fuels. It first flew in 1988 and was used until the fall of the Soviet Union, when it was placed in storage. Tu-164 Initial designation of the Tu-154M. Tu-174 Proposed stretched version of Tu-154. Tu-194 Proposed shortened version of Tu-154. Operators Current operators As of August 2017, there were 44 Tupolev Tu-154 aircraft of all variants still in civil or military service. A 45th aircraft has been sighted flying with Air Kyrgyzstan in 2017, but is not listed by the airline as part of its fleet. A 46th aircraft, a Polish Tu-154 with operational number 102, is currently in storage at the military airport in Mińsk Mazowiecki. It was operated by 36th Special Aviation Regiment, but after the 2010 Polish Air Force Tu-154 crash of the Tu-154 101, the Regiment has been disbanded and the plane was grounded. It was fully operational, but the government decided not to use or sell it until the investigation into the Smoleńsk crash is finished. As of June 2021 the aircraft is not flying, and it is unlikely to come back into service, since the government operates a fleet of brand-new, more fuel-efficient jets like the Gulfstream G550 and the Boeing 737 NG. in 2020 it was revealed that the aircraft was structurally damaged by the investigation team lead by Antoni Macierewicz. The access to the aircraft was restricted by the general prosecutor, and entering its hangar requires a special permission. In January 2010 Russian flag carrier Aeroflot announced the retirement of its Tu-154 fleet after 40 years, with the last scheduled flight being Aeroflot Flight 736 from Yekaterinburg to Moscow on 31 December 2009. In December 2010, Uzbekistan Airways also declared that it was retiring its Tu-154s. In February 2011, all remaining Iranian Tu-154s were grounded after two incidents. In October 2020 ALROSA, the last Russian passenger airline to operate this aircraft, retired its last remaining Tu-154. The remaining operators are: On 27 December 2016, the Russian Ministry of Defence announced that it had grounded all of its Tu-154s until the end of the investigation into the December 2016 crash of a 1983 Tupolev Tu-154. This was followed by the grounding of all Tu-154s in Russia. The Tu-154 had crashed into the Black Sea just after takeoff from Sochi, Russia, on 25 December 2016 killing all 92 people on board, including 64 members of the Alexandrov Ensemble, an official army choir of the Russian Armed Forces. Former operators Former civil operators Former military operators Incidents and accidents Between 1970 and December 2016 there were 110 serious incidents involving the Tu-154, including 73 hull losses, with 2,911 fatalities. Of the fatal incidents, five resulted from terrorist or military terrorist action (two other wartime losses were non-fatal), several from poor runway conditions in winter (including one in which the airplane struck snow plows on the runway), cargo overloading in the lapse of post-Soviet federal safety standards, and mid-air collisions due to faulty air traffic control. Other incidents resulted from mechanical problems, running out of fuel on unscheduled routes, pilot errors (including inadequate flight training for new crews), and cargo fires; several accidents remain unexplained. On 2 January 2011, Russia's Federal Transport Oversight Agency advised airlines to stop using remaining examples of the Tu-154 (B variant) until the fatal fire incident in Surgut had been investigated. Its operation in Iran ceased in February 2011 due to a number of crashes and incidents involving the type (almost 9% of all Tu-154 losses have occurred in Iran). This grounding compounded the effects of US embargo on civil aircraft parts, substantially decreasing the number of airworthy aircraft in the Iranian civil fleet. In 2010 there were two fatal losses of the Tu-154 due to pilot error and/or weather conditions (a Polish presidential jet attempting a rural airfield landing in heavy fog, the 2010 Polish Air Force Tu-154 crash, and a Russian-registered plane that suffered engine stall after a crew member accidentally de-activated a fuel transfer pump). Following these accidents, in March 2011 the Russian Federal Bureau of Aviation recommended a withdrawal of remaining Tu-154Ms from service. On 27 December 2016, the Russian Defence Ministry grounded all Tu-154s in Russia pending investigation into the 25 December 2016 Tupolev Tu-154 crash which killed 64 members of the Alexandrov Ensemble, an official Red Army Choir of the Russian Armed Forces. List Aircraft on display СССР-85020 at the Ukraine State Aviation Museum. EW-85581 in the grounds of Minsk National Airport in Belarus. HA-LCG at the Aeropark museum in Budapest. HA-LCA at Budapest Ferenc Liszt International Airport LZ-BTU at the Aviomuseum Burgas museum in Burgas, Bulgaria. OK-BYZ at the Aviation Museum Kunovice, Czech Republic OM-BYO at the Museum of Aviation in Košice, Slovakia Specifications In popular culture Tu-154 is the most popular airliner appearing in many Soviet and Russian films. Air Crew is the 1979 action film revolving around the exploits of a Soviet Tu-154 crew on an international flight, the first Soviet film in the disaster genre. See also References Citations Bibliography Dmitriy Komissarov, Tupolev Tu-154, The USSR's Medium-Range Jet Airliner, (Hinckley, UK, 2007) Yefin Gordon and Vladimir Rigmant, OKB Tupolev, A History of the Design Bureau and its Aircraft, translated by Alexander Boyd, edited by Dmitriy Komissarov (Hinckley, UK, 2005) External links Image of Tu-154M flight-deck BBC: Tu-154: The backbone of Russian fleets Gallery of Polish VIP variant of Tu-154M used by 36. Special Transport Aviation Regiment in Plastikowe.pl magazine Tu-154 1960s Soviet airliners Trijets Low-wing aircraft T-tail aircraft Aircraft first flown in 1968	[ 0.07014527916908264, -0.1136806532740593, -0.025436127558350563, 0.02962450683116913, -0.3329969644546509, 0.36395788192749023, -0.0051514701917767525, -0.3698185384273529, 0.2715235948562622, 0.12500008940696716, -0.5336582660675049, 0.2873464524745941, -0.9419571161270142, 0.011169918812811375, -0.176845520734787, 0.2587105929851532, 0.46822142601013184, 0.24575138092041016, -0.31804272532463074, -0.2254059910774231, 0.21584196388721466, 0.010965077206492424, 0.9635552763938904, -0.2093510776758194, 0.11960449069738388, -0.08869296312332153, 0.8415575623512268, 0.559945285320282, 0.2898854613304138, 0.8417040705680847, -0.040503859519958496, 0.6736873388290405, 0.08407344669103622, -0.15036386251449585, 0.10169977694749832, 0.5263062119483948, 0.006106030195951462, 0.46410903334617615, -0.42848947644233704, 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229919	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Inuvik	Inuvik	Inuvik (place of man) is a town in the Northwest Territories of Canada, and hosts the regional office of the Inuvik Region. Inuvik is both a Gwich'in and an Inuvialuit community. The community, like Aklavik, is located in both the Gwich'in Settlement Area and the Inuvialuit Settlement Region. History Inuvik was conceived in 1953 as a replacement administrative centre for the hamlet of Aklavik on the west of the Mackenzie Delta, as the latter was prone to flooding and had no room for expansion. Initially called "New Aklavik", it was renamed Inuvik in 1958. The school was built in 1959 and the hospital, government offices and staff residences in 1960, when people, including Inuvialuit, Gwich’in (Dene) and Métis, began to live in the community. Naval Radio Station (NRS) Inuvik, later CFS Inuvik, callsign CFV, was commissioned on 10 September 1963 after operations had been successfully transferred from NRS Aklavik. Station CFV was part of the SUPRAD (Supplementary Radio) network of intercept and direction finding stations. CFS Inuvik closed on 1 April 1986 and the site was transferred to the Department of Transport for use as a telecommunications station. Nothing remains of CFS Inuvik today. The Navy Operations base at the end of Navy Road was completely dismantled and removed. Inuvik achieved village status in 1967 and became a full town in 1979 with an elected mayor and council. In 1979, with the completion of the Dempster Highway, Inuvik became connected to Canada's highway system, and simultaneously the most northerly town to which one could drive in Canada. While a winter only ice road through the Mackenzie River delta still connects Inuvik to Aklavik, southwest of Inuvik, the winter only ice road running northeast to Tuktoyaktuk is no longer being built due to the opening of the Inuvik–Tuktoyaktuk Highway (ITH), which opened in November 2017, and which is open all year round. The Inuvik to Tuktoyaktuk highway, which connects to Canada's highway system at Inuvik via the Dempster Highway, is the first road in history to reach the polar shore of North America. Between 1971 and 1990, the town's economy was supported by the local Canadian Forces Station, CFS Inuvik, (originally a Naval Radio Station, later a communications research/signals intercept facility) and by petrochemical companies exploring the Mackenzie Valley and the Beaufort Sea for petroleum. This all collapsed in 1990 for a variety of reasons, including disappearing government military subsidies, local resistance to petroleum exploration, and low international oil prices. Since then the economy has been based on some minor tourism and subsidy provided by the Indigenous and Northern Affairs Canada (INAC), Health Canada (for the regional hospital) and the Royal Canadian Mounted Police. Demographics In the 2021 Census of Population conducted by Statistics Canada, Inuvik recorded a population of living in of its total private dwellings, a change of from its 2016 population of . With a land area of , it had a population density of in 2021. As of the 2016 Census there were 2,080 people who identified as Indigenous. 63.2% were Inuvialuit (Inuit, predominantly Uummarmiut), 31.0% First Nations and 5.3%; Métis. The non-native population of Inuvik was 36.7%. The main language spoken in Inuvik is English, though schools teach and a handful of local people still speak Inuinnaqtun (Inuvialuktun), and Gwich’in. Local CBC Radio, CHAK (AM), broadcasts an hour of programming a day in each of these languages. Local Gwich'in are enrolled in the Inuvik Native Band. There are also about 100 Muslims, most of whom came there for economic opportunities. A small mosque (dubbed "Little mosque on the tundra" in reference to the CBC show Little Mosque on the Prairie) was established in 2010. Geography Inuvik is located on the East Channel of the Mackenzie Delta, approximately from the Arctic Ocean and approximately north of the Arctic Circle. The tree line lies north of Inuvik, and the town is surrounded by boreal forest. Due to its northern location, Inuvik experiences an average of 56 days of continuous sunlight every summer and 30 days of polar night every winter. Transportation Most roads in Inuvik are paved. There are both concrete and metal-grill sidewalks alongside the roads. The Dempster Highway provides access to Inuvik for the majority of the year. However, the highway relies on ferries and ice bridges to get across the rivers. It is thus closed during the time of freeze-up (roughly late-October to mid-December), for ice to form and allow ice bridges, and thaw (roughly mid-May to mid-June) to allow the ferry to run. At these times, there is air access only. The main airport is Inuvik (Mike Zubko) Airport. There is also a general aviation airport, Inuvik/Shell Lake Water Aerodrome. When the Mackenzie River is ice-free, Northern Transportation Company Limited provides a commercial barge service from Hay River, on Great Slave Lake to the regional terminal in Inuvik. The annual sealift moves supplies as far east as Taloyoak, Nunavut and west to Utqiagvik, Alaska. A distinct feature of Inuvik is the use of "utilidors" – above-ground utility conduits carrying water and sewage – which are covered by corrugated steel. They run throughout town connecting most buildings, and as a result there are many small bridges and underpasses. The utilidors are necessary because of the permafrost underlying the town. Another feature is an Inuksuk placed outside the Mackenzie Hotel, which was rebuilt in 2006. Climate Inuvik has a subarctic climate (Köppen Dfc). Summers are typically wetter and cool, with temperatures varying wildly throughout the months due to its peculiar location near the cold Arctic Ocean. The average hottest month of the year, July, has a mean high of and mean low of . Unlike many other North American continental climates, Inuvik warms up very quickly during the months of May and June due to the rapidly increasing day length, and that remaining snow cools down until May. June is a warmer month than August. Seasonal transitions are extremely short, with mean daily temperatures rising or falling as fast as per day. Winters are long and extremely frigid; the coldest month of the year, January, having a mean high of and a mean low of . Freezing temperatures can occur any month of the year. Inuvik has a great variation of temperatures during the year, usually peaking below in the winter and above in the summer. The highest temperature ever recorded in Inuvik was on 17 June 1999 and 20 July 2001. The coldest temperature ever recorded was on 4 February 1968. Snow that falls from October onward usually stays until the spring thaw in mid-May. By March, the median snow depth has reached its greatest, about . Tourism Famous attractions Inuvik's Our Lady of Victory Church, often called Igloo Church, is a famous landmark in the region. It is the most-photographed building in the town . Inuvik has the Midnight Sun Mosque, North America's northernmost, which opened in November 2010 after being built in Winnipeg and moved by truck and barge. Some media reports have mistakenly called the mosque "the world's northernmost mosque", but in fact mosques in Norilsk, Russia, and Tromsø, Norway, are both slightly further north than Inuvik. Annual events of note The Great Northern Arts Festival has been held annually for 10 days in the middle of July since 1989. The Festival has hosted over 3000 artists from across Canada's north, and from as far away as Japan and Australia over 31 years and is the largest annual tourism event in the Beaufort Delta. Featuring on-site demonstrations, 50+ arts workshops, a 3500-piece gallery, an outdoor carving village, an interactive artist studio zone, nightly cultural performances, northern film screenings, family activities and an Arctic fashion show, the Festival attracts visitors from around the world to travel the Dempster Highway to visit Inuvik and the Gwich'in and Inuvialuit Settlement Regions. The annual Sunrise Festival happens on the second weekend of the new year, when the sun finally breaks the horizon after about thirty days of darkness. The Festival is an all-day community event highlighted by dog-sled races, a long-program fireworks show and community bonfire. This Festival was highlighted in the award-winning 2010 national Tropicana Orange Juice commercial Arctic Sun. Inuvik celebrates the Muskrat Jamboree each year in late March or early April. Started in 1957, the event brings together thousands of people to participate in traditional games, watch the dog-sled and snowmobile races and dance (jig) the night away in town. Most events are held on the Mackenzie River where several community groups operate concessions in stove-heated traditional McPherson tents, preparing hot soup, bannock, baked goods, coffee, Labrador tea, hot chocolate and other traditional refreshments. Many participants and spectators wear traditional clothing and often local artisans will have something to sell. In conjunction with the Muskrat Jamboree, the Town of Inuvik hosts the annual Muskrat Cup 3-on-3 Pond Hockey Tournament on the frozen Mackenzie River, the world's most northerly cash tournament. The weekend closest to the summer solstice (21 June) each year features the Midnight Sun Fun Run, a 5K, 10K and Half-Marathon that starts at midnight under the blazing 24-hours of sunlight experienced for 50+ days each summer in Inuvik. Runners from around the world make their way north to participate in this unique event under the midnight sun. Facilities A new hospital opened in early 2003, providing service to an area extending from Sachs Harbour on Banks Island, to Ulukhaktok on Victoria Island, and from Paulatuk into the Sahtu Region including Norman Wells, Tulita, Deline, Fort Good Hope, and Colville Lake. The Midnight Sun Complex, a stage-built multi-use facility, was completed in 2006. Featuring the Roy 'Sugloo' Ipana Memorial Arena, with an NHL-sized ice surface; the Inuvik Curling Club with 3 sheets and a well-situated licensed lounge/viewing area; the Inuvik Pool, an award-winning Class B recreational pool with lane swimming, waterpark features including a two-story waterslide, hot tub, sauna and steam room; two squash courts; a multi-use community hall with stage; on-site business centre/production office; full building wireless; video-conferencing facility; on-site catering/kitchen; and meeting rooms for groups of 5 to 500. At full-building use, the Complex can host conferences, conventions and trade shows with up to 1200 delegates/exhibitors. The community has a state-of-the-art school called East 3. The construction budget for the school exceeded $110 million, and it features modern technologies such as 'smartboards' and videoconferencing facilities as well as a large gym. Media Print The town is served by the Inuvik Drum, a community newspaper published weekly by Northern News Services. Television Inuvik was previously served by CHAK-TV, VHF channel 6, a CBC North television repeater of CFYK-DT (Yellowknife); that station closed down on 31 July 2012 due to budget cuts affecting the CBC. Radio Communications Landline telephone service is provided by Northwestel, and cellular service by Ice Wireless and Arctic Digital (Bell Mobility). Cable television is also offered in Inuvik by New North Networks. Fibre optic communications were added in Inuvik in June 2017 with the completion of the Mackenzie Valley Fibre Link; the $82 million line adds new capability to the town. However, the dependence on this single trunk line occasionally causes widespread Internet outages during Dempster or Alaska Highway maintenance or construction. A backup trunk line between Fort Simpson and Inuvik is currently under construction. Planetary nomenclature In 1988, the International Astronomical Union's Working Group for Planetary System Nomenclature (IAU/WGPSN) officially adopted the name Inuvik for a crater on Mars, at 78.7° north latitude and 28.6° west longitude. The crater's diameter is . Notable people Leona Aglukkaq, former member of Parliament for the electoral district of Nunavut and former Minister of Health Roger Allen, former member of the Legislative Assembly of the Northwest Territories Zac Boyer, former National Hockey League right winger Tom Butters, former member of the Legislative Assembly of the Northwest Territories Jason Elliott, former professional ice hockey player Fred Koe, former member of the Legislative Assembly of the Northwest Territories Floyd Roland, former Mayor of Inuvik and former Premier and member of the Legislative Assembly of the Northwest Territories Richard Nerysoo, former chief of the Gwich'in Tribal Council, former member of the Legislative Assembly of the Northwest Territories, former Speaker of the Legislative Assembly of the Northwest Territories, and former Premier of the Northwest Territories Eric Schweig, Inuvialuit/Chippewa/Dene actor See also List of municipalities in the Northwest Territories References External links Town 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229921	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/North%20American%20F-100%20Super%20Sabre	North American F-100 Super Sabre	The North American F-100 Super Sabre is an American supersonic jet fighter aircraft that served with the United States Air Force (USAF) from 1954 to 1971 and with the Air National Guard (ANG) until 1979. The first of the Century Series of USAF jet fighters, it was the first USAF fighter capable of supersonic speed in level flight. The F100 was designed by North American Aviation as a higher-performance follow-on to the F-86 Sabre air-superiority fighter. Adapted as a fighter-bomber, the F-100 was superseded by the high-speed Republic F-105 Thunderchief for strike missions over North Vietnam. The F100 flew extensively over South Vietnam as the air force's primary close air-support jet until being replaced by the more efficient subsonic LTV A-7 Corsair II. The F100 also served in other NATO air forces and with other U.S. allies. In its later life, it was often referred to as the "Hun", a shortened version of "one hundred". Design and development In January 1951, North American Aviation delivered an unsolicited proposal for a supersonic day fighter to the United States Air Force. Named Sabre 45 because of its 45° wing sweep, it represented an evolution of the F-86 Sabre. The mockup was inspected on 7 July 1951, and after over 100 modifications, the new aircraft was accepted as the F-100 on 30 November 1951. Extensive use of titanium throughout the aircraft was notable. On 3 January 1952, the USAF ordered two prototypes followed by 23 F-100As in February and an additional 250 F-100As in August. The YF-100A first flew on 25 May 1953, seven months ahead of schedule. It reached Mach 1.04 in spite of being fitted with a derated XJ57-P-7 engine. The second prototype flew on 14 October 1953, followed by the first production F-100A on 9 October 1953. The USAF operational evaluation from November 1953 to December 1955 found the new fighter to have superior performance, but declared it not ready for wide-scale deployment due to various deficiencies in the design. These findings were subsequently confirmed during "Project Hot Rod" operational suitability tests. Six F-100s arrived at the Air Proving Ground Command (APGC), Eglin Air Force Base, in August 1954. The Air Force Operational Test Center (AFOTC) was scheduled to use four of the fighters in operational suitability tests and the other two were to undergo armament tests by the Air Force Armament Center. The Tactical Air Division of the AFOTC was conducting the APGC testing under the direction of project office Lieutenant Colonel Henry W. Brown. Initial testing was completed by APGC personnel at Edwards Air Force Base. Particularly troubling was the yaw instability in certain flight conditions, which produced inertia coupling. The aircraft could develop a sudden yaw and roll, which would happen too fast for the pilot to correct and would quickly overstress the aircraft structure to disintegration. Under these conditions, North American's chief test pilot, George Welch, was killed while dive testing an early-production F-100A (s/n 52-5764) on 12 October 1954. Another control problem stemmed from handling characteristics of the swept wing at high angles of attack. As the aircraft approached stall speeds, loss of lift on the tips of the wings caused a violent pitch-up. This particular phenomenon (which could easily be fatal at low altitude with insufficient time to recover) became known as the "Sabre dance". Nevertheless, delays in the Republic F-84F Thunderstreak program pushed the Tactical Air Command (TAC) to order the raw F-100A into service. TAC also requested that future F-100s be fighter-bombers, with the capability of delivering nuclear bombs. The North American F-107 was a follow-on Mach 2 development of the F-100 with the air intake moved above and behind the cockpit. It was not produced in favor of the Republic F-105 Thunderchief. Operational history The F-100A officially entered USAF service on 27 September 1954, with the 479th Fighter Wing at George AFB, California. By 10 November 1954, the F-100As suffered six major accidents due to flight instability, structural failures, and hydraulic-system failures, prompting the USAF to ground the entire fleet until February 1955. The 479th finally became operational in September 1955. Due to ongoing problems, the USAF began phasing out the F-100A in 1958, with the last aircraft leaving active duty in 1961. By that time, 47 aircraft had been lost in major accidents. Escalating tension due to construction of the Berlin Wall in August 1961 forced the USAF to recall the F-100As into active service in early 1962. The aircraft was finally retired in 1970. The TAC request for a fighter-bomber was addressed with the F-100C, which flew in March 1954 and entered service on 14 July 1955, with the 450th Fighter Wing, Foster AFB, Texas. Operational testing in 1955 revealed that the F-100C was at best an interim solution, sharing all the flaws of the F-100A. The uprated J57-P-21 engine boosted performance, but continued to suffer from compressor stalls, but the F-100C was considered an excellent platform for nuclear toss bombing because of its high top speed. The inertia coupling problem was reasonably addressed with the installation of a yaw damper in the 146th F-100C, later retrofitted to earlier aircraft. A pitch damper was added starting with the 301st F-100C, at a cost of US$10,000 per aircraft. The addition of "wet" hardpoints meant the F-100C could carry a pair of 275 U.S. gal (1,040 l) and a pair of 200 U.S. gal (770 l) drop tanks. However, the combination caused a loss of directional stability at high speeds, so the four tanks were soon replaced by a pair of 450 U.S. gal (1,730 l) drop tanks. The 450s proved scarce and expensive and were often replaced by smaller 335 US gal (1,290 l) tanks. Most troubling to TAC was the fact that, as of 1965, only 125 F-100Cs were capable of using all non-nuclear weapons in the USAF inventory, particularly cluster bombs and AIM-9 Sidewinder air-to-air missiles. By the time the F-100C was phased out in June 1970, 85 had been lost in major accidents. The definitive F-100D aimed to address the offensive shortcomings of the F-100C by being primarily a ground-attack aircraft with secondary fighter capabilities. To this effect, the aircraft was fitted with autopilot, upgraded avionics, and starting with the 184th production aircraft, AIM-9 Sidewinder capability. In 1959, 65 aircraft were modified to also fire the AGM-12 Bullpup air-to-ground missile. To further address the dangerous flight characteristics, the wingspan was extended by 26 in (66 cm) and the vertical tail area was increased by 27%. The first F-100D (54–2121) flew on 24 January 1956, piloted by Daniel Darnell. It entered service on 29 September 1956 with the 405th Fighter Wing at Langley AFB. The aircraft suffered from reliability problems with the constant-speed drive, which provides constant-frequency current to the electrical systems. In fact, the drive was so unreliable that the USAF required it to have its own oil system to minimize damage in case of failure. Landing-gear and brake-parachute malfunctions claimed a number of aircraft, and the refueling probes had a tendency to break away during high-speed maneuvers. Numerous post-production fixes created such a diversity of capabilities between individual aircraft that by 1965, around 700 F-100Ds underwent High Wire modifications to standardize the weapon systems. High Wire modifications took 60 days per aircraft at a cost for the entire project of US$150 million. On 26 March 1958, an F-100D fitted with an Astrodyne booster rocket making 150,000 lbf (667.2 kN) of thrust successfully performed a Zero-length launch. This was accomplished with the addition of a large canister to the underside of the aircraft, which contained a black powder compound and was ignited electromechanically, driving the jet engine to minimal ignition point. The capability was incorporated into late-production aircraft. The F-100F two-seat trainer entered service in 1958. It received many of the same weapons and airframe upgrades as the F-100D, including the new afterburners. By 1970, 74 F-100Fs were lost in major accidents. By 1961, England AFB, Louisiana, (401st Tactical Wing)had four fighter-bomber squadrons, the 612th, 613th, 614th, and the 615th (Fighting Tigers). During the Berlin crisis (approximately September 1961), the 614th was deployed to Ramstein Air Base, Germany, to support the West Germans. At the initial briefing, the 614th personnel were informed that due to the close proximity of the USSR, if an ICBM were to be launched, they would have only 30 minutes to launch the 614th's aircraft and retire to the nearest German bunker. In 1966, the Combat Skyspot program fitted some F-100Ds with an X band radar transmitter to allow for ground-directed bombing in inclement weather or at night. In 1967, the USAF began a structural reinforcement program to extend the aircraft's service life from the designed 3,000 flying hours to 7,000. The USAF alone lost 500 F-100Ds, predominantly in accidents. After one aircraft suffered wing failure, particular attention was paid to lining the wings with external bracing strips. During the Vietnam War, combat losses constituted as many as 50 aircraft per year. After a major accident, the USAF Thunderbirds reverted from F-105 Thunderchiefs to the F-100D, which they operated from 1964 until it was replaced by the F-4 Phantom II in 1968. The F-100 was the subject of many modification programs over the course of its service. Many of these were improvements to electronics, structural strengthening, and projects to improve ease of maintenance. One of these was the replacement of the original afterburners of the J-57 engines with the more advanced afterburners from retired Convair F-102 Delta Dagger interceptors. This modification changed the appearance of the aft end of the F-100, doing away with the original "petal-style" exhaust. The afterburner modification started in the 1970s and solved maintenance problems with the old type, as well as operational problems, including compressor-stall issues. By 1972, the F-100 was mostly phased out of USAF active service and turned over to tactical fighter groups and squadrons in the ANG. In ANG units, the F-100 was eventually replaced by the F-4 Phantom II, LTV A-7 Corsair II, and A-10 Thunderbolt II, with the last F-100 retiring in 1979, with the introduction of the F-16 Fighting Falcon. In foreign service, the Royal Danish Air Force and Turkish Air Force F-100s soldiered on until 1982. Over the lifetime of its USAF service, 889 F-100 aircraft were destroyed in accidents, involving the deaths of 324 pilots. The deadliest year for F-100 accidents was 1958, with 116 aircraft destroyed, and 47 pilots killed. After Super Sabres were withdrawn from service, a large number were converted into remote-controlled drones (QF-100) under the USAF Full Scale Aerial Target (FSAT) program for use as targets for various antiaircraft weapons, including missile-carrying fighters and fighter-interceptors, with FSAT operations being conducted primarily at Tyndall AFB, Florida. A few F-100s also found their way into civilian hands, primarily with defense contractors supporting USAF and NASA flight test activities at Edwards AFB, California. Project Slick Chick North American received a contract to modify six F-100As to RF-100As carrying five cameras, three Fairchild K-17 cameras (see Fairchild K-20 camera) in a trimetrogon mounting for photo mapping and two Fairchild K-38 cameras in a split vertical mounting with the cameras mounted horizontally, shooting via a mirror angled at 45° to reduce the effects of airframe vibrations. All gun armament was removed, and the cameras installed in the gun and ammunition bays were covered by a bulged fairing under the forward fuselage. The selected pilots trained on the F-100A at Edwards Air Force Base and George Air Force Base in California and then at Palmdale Air Force Base for training with the actual RF-100As with which they would be deployed. Flight tests revealed that the RF-100A in its intended operational fit of four external tanks was lacking in directional and longitudinal stability, requiring careful handling and close attention to speed limitations for the drop tanks. Once pilot training was completed in April 1955, three aircraft were deployed to Bitburg Air Base in Germany, flying to Brookley AFB in Mobile, Alabama, cocooned, loaded on an aircraft carrier and delivered to Short Brothers at Sydenham, Belfast, for reassembly and preparation for flight. At Bitburg, they were allocated to Detachment 1 of the 7407th Support Squadron, and commenced operations flying over Eastern Bloc countries at high altitude (over 50,000 ft) to acquire intelligence on military targets. Many attempts were made to intercept these aircraft to no avail, with some photos of fighter airfields clearly showing aircraft climbing for attempted intercepts. The European detachment probably only carried out six missions between mid-1955 and mid-1956 when the Lockheed U-2 took over as the deep-penetration aerial reconnaissance asset. Three RF-100As were also deployed to the 6021st Reconnaissance Squadron at Yokota Air Base in Japan, but details of operations there are not available. Two RF-100A aircraft were lost in accidents, one due to probable overspeeding, which caused the separation of one of the drop tanks and resulted in complete loss of control, and the other due to an engine flame-out. In mid-1958, all four remaining RF-100As were returned to the US and later supplied to the Republic of China Air Force in Taiwan. Project High Wire "High Wire" was a modernization program for selected F-100Cs, Ds and Fs. It comprised two modifications - an electrical rewiring upgrade and a heavy maintenance and inspect-and-repair as necessary (IRAN) upgrade. Rewiring upgrade operations consisted of replacing old wiring and harnesses with improved maintainable designs. Heavy maintenance and IRAN included new kits, modifications, standardized configurations, repairs, replacements, and complete refurbishment. This project required all new manuals and incremented (i.e. -85 to -86) block numbers. All later-production models, especially the F models, included earlier High Wire modifications. New manuals included colored illustrations and had the Roman numeral (I) added after the aircraft number (i.e. T.O. 1F-100D(I)-1S-120, 12 January 1970). Total production was 2,294 aircraft. Vietnam War Fighter and close air support missions On 16 April 1961, six Super Sabres were deployed from Clark Air Base in the Philippines to Don Muang Royal Thai Air Force Base in Thailand for air-defense purposes, the first F-100s to enter combat in Southeast Asia. From that date until their redeployment in 1971, the F-100s were the longest serving U.S. jet fighter-bomber to fight in the Vietnam War. They served as MiG combat air patrol (CAP) escorts for F-105 Thunderchiefs, Misty FACs, and Wild Weasels over North Vietnam, and were then relegated to close air support and ground attacks within South Vietnam. On 18 August 1964, the first F-100D shot down by ground fire, piloted by 1st Lt Colin A. Clarke, of the 428th TFS; Clarke ejected and survived. On 4 April 1965, as escorts protecting F-105s attacking the Thanh Hoa Bridge, F-100 Super Sabres fought the USAF's first air-to-air jet combat duel in the Vietnam War, in which an F-100 piloted by Captain Donald W. Kilgus of the 416th Fighter Squadron shot down a Vietnam People's Air Force MiG-17, using cannon fire, while another fired AIM-9 Sidewinder missiles. The surviving North Vietnamese pilot confirmed three of the MiG-17s had been shot down. Although recorded by the U.S. Air Force as a probable kill, this represented the first aerial victory by the U.S. Air Force in Vietnam. The small force of four MiG-17s, though, had penetrated the escorting F-100s to claim two F-105s. The F-100 was soon replaced by the F-4C Phantom II for MiG CAP, which pilots noted suffered for lacking built-in guns for dogfights. The Vietnam War was not known for using activated Army National Guard, Air National Guard, or other U.S. Reserve units, but rather, had a reputation for conscription during the course of the war. During a confirmation hearing before Congress in 1973, Air Force General George S. Brown, who had commanded the 7th Air Force during the war, stated that five of the best Super Sabre squadrons in Vietnam were from the Air National Guard. This included the (120 TFS) of the Colorado Air National Guard, the 136 TFS of the New York Air National Guard TFS, the 174 TFS of the Iowa Air National Guard, and the 188 TFS of the New Mexico Air National Guard. The fifth unit was a regular AF squadron manned by mostly air national guardsmen. The Air National Guard F-100 squadrons increased the regular USAF by nearly 100 Super Sabres in theater, averaging, for the Colorado ANG F-100s, 24 missions a day, delivering ordnance and munitions with a 99.5% reliability rate. From May 1968 to April 1969, the ANG Super Sabres flew more than 38,000 combat hours and more than 24,000 sorties. Between them, at the cost of seven F-100 Air Guard pilots killed (plus one staff officer) and the loss of 14 Super Sabres to enemy action, the squadrons expended over four million rounds of 20 mm shells, 30 million pounds of bombs and over 10 million pounds of napalm against their enemy. The Hun was also deployed as a two-seat F-100F model, which served as a "fast FAC" or Misty FAC in North Vietnam and Laos, spotting targets for other fighter-bomber aircraft, performing road reconnaissance, and conducting search-and-rescue missions as part of the top-secret Commando Sabre project, based out of Phu Cat and Tuy Hoa air bases. By the war's end, 242 F-100 Super Sabres had been lost in Vietnam, as the F-100 was progressively replaced by the F-4 Phantom II and the F-105 Thunderchief. The Hun had logged 360,283 combat sorties during the war and its wartime operations came to end on 31 July 1971. The four fighter wings with F-100s flew more combat sorties in Vietnam than over 15,000 P-51 Mustangs had flown during World War II. After 1965, they did not fly into North Vietnam and mainly performed close air-support missions. Despite the April 1965 dogfight, the USAF classified the engagement as resulting in a "probable" kill, and no F-100 was ever officially credited with any aerial victories. No F-100 in Vietnam was lost to enemy fighters, but 186 were shot down by antiaircraft fire, seven were destroyed in Vietcong attacks on airbases, and 45 crashed in operational incidents. Wild Weasel The F-100 was also the first Wild Weasel air defense suppression aircraft, whose specially trained crews were tasked with locating and destroying enemy missile defenses. Four F-100F Wild Weasel Is were fitted with APR-25 vector radar homing and warning receivers, IR-133 panoramic receivers with greater detection range, and KA-60 panoramic cameras. The APR-25 could detect early-warning radars and emissions from SA-2 Guideline tracking and guidance systems. These aircraft deployed to Korat Royal Thai Air Force Base, Thailand, in November 1965, began flying combat missions with the 388th Tactical Fighter Wing in December. They were joined by three more aircraft in February 1966. All Wild Weasel F-100Fs were eventually modified to fire the AGM-45 Shrike anti-radiation missile. Algerian war French Air Force Super Sabres of the EC 1/3 Navarre flew combat missions, striking from bases within France against targets in Algeria. The planes were based at Reims, refuelling at Istres on the return flight from Algeria. The F-100 was the main fighter-bomber in the French Air Force during the 1960s, until it was replaced by the Jaguar. Turkey Turkish Air Force F-100 units were used during the Turkish invasion of Cyprus in 1974. Together with F-104G Starfighters, they provided close air support to Turkish ground troops and bombed targets around Nicosia. In March 1987, Turkish Super Sabres bombed Kurdish bases in northern Iraq. Taiwan Taiwan took delivery of 119 F-100As, 4 RF-100As, and 14 F-100Fs, and lost a number of F-100As and Fs in the course of service, but never lost a single RF-100As in either combat or accident. Those four RF-100As had never been sent on a reconnaissance mission over mainland China, as they could only produce photographic images of mediocre quality at best. Moreover, after each flying hour, the ground personnel had to spend over 100 hours on the aircraft maintenance. All of the RF-100As were returned to the US after one year and 11 months (1 January 1959 – 1 December 1960) in ROCAF service. Achievements Source: Knaack The first operational aircraft in United States Air Force inventory capable of exceeding the speed of sound in level flight. On 29 October 1953, the first YF-100A prototype set a world speed record of 755.149 mph (656.207 kn, 1,215.295 km/h) at low altitude. On 20 August 1955, an F-100C set a supersonic world speed record of 822.135 mph (714.416 kn, 1,323.098 km/h). On 4 September 1955, an F-100C won the Bendix Trophy, covering 2,235 mi (2,020 nmi, 3,745 km) at an average speed of 610.726 mph (530.706 kn, 982.868 km/h). On 26 December 1956, two F-100Ds became the first-ever aircraft to successfully perform buddy refueling. On 13 May 1957, three F-100Cs set a new world distance record for single-engine aircraft by covering the 6,710 mi (5,835 nmi, 10,805 km) distance from London to Los Angeles in 14 hours and 4 minutes. The flight was accomplished using inflight refueling. On 7 August 1959, two F-100Fs became the first-ever jet fighters to fly over the North Pole. On 16 April 1961, the first USAF combat jets to enter the Vietnam War. On 4 April 1965, the first USAF aircraft to engage in aerial jet combat during the Vietnam War, while escorting F-105 Thunderchiefs to target. The United States Air Force Thunderbirds operated the F-100C from 1956 until 1964. After briefly converting to the F-105 Thunderchief, the team flew F-100Ds from July 1964 until November 1968, before converting to the F-4E Phantom II. Costs The costs are in contemporary United States dollars and have not been adjusted for inflation. Variants YF-100A Prototype, model NA-180 two built, s/n 52-5754 and 5755. YQF-100 Nine test unmanned drone version: two D-models, one YQF-100F F-model,see DF-100F, and six other test versions. F-100A Single-seat day fighter; 203 built, model NA-192. RF-100A ("Slick Chick") Six F-100A aircraft modified for photo reconnaissance in 1954. Unarmed, with camera installations in lower fuselage bay. Used for overflights of Soviet Bloc countries in Europe and the Far-East. Retired from USAF service in 1958, the surviving four aircraft were transferred to the Republic of China Air Force and retired in 1960. F-100B See North American F-107 F-100BI Proposed interceptor version of F-100B, did not advance beyond mock-up. F-100C Seventy Model NA-214 and 381 Model NA-217. Additional fuel tanks in the wings, fighter-bomber capability, probe-and-drogue refueling capability, uprated J57-P-21 engine on late production aircraft. First flight: March 1954; 476 built. TF-100C One F-100C converted into a two-seat training aircraft. F-100D Single-seat fighter-bomber, more advanced avionics, larger wing and tail fin, landing flaps. First flight: 24 January 1956; 1,274 built. F-100F Two-seat training version, armament decreased from four to two cannon. First flight: 7 March 1957; 339 built. DF-100F This designation was given to one F-100F that was used as drone director. NF-100F Three F-100Fs used for test purposes, the prefix "N" indicates that modifications prevented return to regular operational service. TF-100F Specific Danish designation given to 14 F-100Fs exported to Denmark in 1974 in order to distinguish these from the 10 F-100Fs delivered 1959–1961. QF-100 Another 209 D and F models were ordered and converted to unmanned radio-controlled Full Scale Aerial Target drones and drone directors for testing and destruction by modern air-to-air missiles used by current U.S. Air Force fighter jets. F-100J Unbuilt all-weather export version for Japan F-100K Unbuilt design study for a two-seat F-100F powered by a J57-P-55 engine F-100L Unbuilt design study for a single-seat F-100D powered by a J57-P-55 engine F-100N Unbuilt version with simplified avionics for NATO customers F-100S Proposed French-built F-100F with Rolls-Royce Spey turbofan engine Operators Royal Danish Air Force Flyvevåbnet operated a total of 72 aircraft. 48 F-100Ds and 10 Fs were delivered to Denmark from 1959 to 1961 as MDAP equipment. The F-100 replaced the F-84G Thunderjet as a strike fighter in three squadrons; 725, 727 and 730. The F-100s of Eskadrille 725 were replaced by Saab F-35 Draken in 1970 and in 1974 14 two-seated ex-USAF TF-100F were bought. The last Danish F-100s were retired from service in 1982, replaced by F-16s. The surviving MDAP F-100s were transferred to Turkey (21 F-100Ds and two F-100Fs), while six TF-100Fs were sold for target towing. French Air Force The Armee de l'Air was the first non-US air force to receive the F-100 Super Sabre. The first aircraft arrived in France on 1 May 1958. A total of 100 aircraft (85 F-100Ds and 15 F-100Fs) were supplied to France, and assigned to the NATO 4th Allied Tactical Air Force. They were stationed at German-French bases. French F-100s were used on combat missions flying from bases in France against targets in Algeria. In 1967, France left NATO, and German-based F-100s were transferred to France, using bases vacated by the USAF. The last unit on F100D/F was the Escadron 4/11 Jura, based at Djibouti, which kept the Super Sabre until 1978. (Republic of China) Republic of China Air Force The only non-US air force to operate the F-100A model. The first F-100 was delivered in October 1958. It was followed by 15 F-100As in 1959, and by 65 more F-100As in 1960. In 1961, four unarmed RF-100As were delivered. Additionally, 38 ex-USAF/Air National Guard F-100As were delivered later, to bring the total strength to 118 F-100As and four RF-100As. F-100As were retrofitted with the F-100D vertical tail with its AN/APS-54 tail-warning radar and equipped to launch Sidewinder air-to-air missiles. Several were lost in intelligence missions over the People's Republic of China. Turkish Air Force The Turk Hava Kuvvetleri received 206 F-100C, D and F Super Sabres. Most came from USAF stocks, and 21 F-100Ds and two F-100Fs were supplied by Denmark. Turkish F-100s saw extensive action during the 1974 military operation against Cyprus. United States Air Force United States Air Force Thunderbirds List of F-100 units of the United States Air Force Surviving aircraft Denmark F-100F 56-3927/GT-927 – Denmark Flying Museum, Stauning France F-100D 55-2736 – Musée de l'Air et de l'Espace, Paris / Le Bourget. Germany F-100D 54-2136 French Air Force – Schwäbisches Bauern Technical Museum, Eschach-Seifertshofen. 54-2185 French Air Force – Schwäbisches Bauern Technical Museum, Eschach-Seifertshofen. F-100F 56-3944 United States Air Force – Flugausstellung Leo Junior, Hermeskeil. Italy F-100D 54-2290 – Aviano Air Base gate guardian; marked as 56-2927 "Thor's Hammer" used in Vietnam, wrong colors though. Netherlands F-100D 54-2265 - (painted as 54–1871, 32nd FIS) – On display at the Nationaal Militair Museum, Soesterberg. After service with the French Air Force it was returned to USAF, repainted in USAF markings and in 1976 to gate guardian at RAF Wethersfield, England. It was then removed 20 January 1988 and reported at the time to be destined for AMARC, to be held in storage on behalf of USAFM (now NMUSAF). Taiwan F-100A 53-1550 – Taiwan International (Chiang Kai Shek). 53-1571 – Tamkang University. 53-1577 – National Tainan Industrial Vocational High School Aircraft Maintenance Department. 53-1589 – National Taiwan University. 53-1696 – Chung Cheng Armed Forces Preparatory School, CCAFPS. Turkey F-100C 54-2009/3-089 – Istanbul Aviation Museum, Istanbul. F-100D 54-2245/E-245 – Istanbul Aviation Museum, Istanbul. F-100F 56-3788/8-788 – Istanbul Aviation Museum, Istanbul. United Kingdom F-100D 54-2157 – North East Aircraft Museum, Sunderland. 54-2165 – Imperial War Museum, Duxford 54-2174 – Midland Air Museum, Coventry. 54-2196 – Norfolk and Suffolk Aviation Museum, Bungay. 54-2223 – Newark Air Museum, Newark-on-Trent. 54-2613 – Dumfries and Galloway Aviation Museum, Dumfries. F-100F 56-3938 French Air Force – Lashenden Air Warfare Museum, Ashford where an aircraft accident at the museum damaged 938 and the remains were shipped to the National Museum of the United States Air Force at Wright-Patterson AFB in Dayton, Ohio, United States. United States Airworthy F-100F 56-3844 – Collings Foundation in Stow, Massachusetts. 56-3916 – privately owned in Belgrade, Montana. 56-3948 – privately owned in Fort Wayne, Indiana. 56-3971 – privately owned in Belgrade, Montana. On display YF-100A 52-5755 – Century Circle, West Gate at Air Force Flight Test Center Museum, Edwards AFB, California. F-100A 52-5759 – USAF History and Traditions Museum, Lackland AFB, Texas. 52-5760 – Museum Desert Storate, Air Force Flight Test Center Museum, Edwards AFB, California. 52-5761 – New England Air Museum, Bradley International Airport, Connecticut. 52-5762 – Grand Haven Memorial Airpark, Grand Haven, Michigan. 52-5770 – Travis AFB Heritage Center, Vacaville, California. 52-5773 – Commemorative Air Force Headquarters, Midland, Texas. 52-5777 – Hill Aerospace Museum, Hill AFB, Utah. 53-1532 – 150th Special Operations Wing, New Mexico Air National Guard area, Kirtland AFB, Albuquerque, New Mexico. 53-1533 – Baxter Memorial Park, Melrose, New Mexico. 53-1553 – South Dakota Air and Space Museum, Rapid City, South Dakota. 53-1559 – 178th Fighter Wing / Springfield-Beckley Municipal Airport, Springfield, Ohio. 53-1573 – Seymour Johnson AFB, North Carolina. 53-1578 – 140th Fighter Wing / Colorado Air National Guard compound, Buckley Space Force Base, Aurora, Colorado. 53-1600 – Tucumcari Historical Museum, Tucumcari, New Mexico. 53-1629 – Ebing Air National Guard Base – 188th Fighter Wing, Fort Smith, Arkansas. 53-1684 – Historic Aviation Memorial Museum, Tyler, Texas. 53-1688 – stored for Raytheon at the Mojave Airport, Mojave, California. F-100C 53-1709 (painted as F-100D 55–2879) – Castle Air Museum (former Castle AFB), Atwater, California 53-1712 – Grissom Air Museum, Grissom ARB (former Grissom AFB), Peru, Indiana. 53-1716 – Luke Air Force Base Air Park, Luke AFB, Phoenix, Arizona. 54-1748 – Holt Heritage Airpark, Mountain Home AFB, Boise, Idaho. 54-1752 – Dyess Linear Air Park, Dyess AFB, Texas. 54-1753 – Southern Museum of Flight, Birmingham, Alabama. 54-1784 – Prairie Aviation Museum, Bloomington, Illinois. Formerly at Octave Chanute Aerospace Museum, former Chanute AFB, Rantoul, Illinois. 54-1785 – Yankee Air Museum, Belleville, Michigan 54-1786 – March Field Air Museum, March ARB (former March AFB), Riverside, California. 54-1823 – Pima Air & Space Museum (adjacent to Davis-Monthan AFB), Tucson, Arizona. 54-1986 (painted as F-100C 54-1954 as flown by former northwest Florida resident and Medal of Honor recipient, Colonel George Bud Day, USAF Ret Dec) – Air Force Armament Museum, Eglin AFB, Florida. 54-1993 – Freedom Historical Air Park, McConnell AFB, Wichita, Kansas. 54-2005 – 185th Air Refueling Wing / Sioux City Air National Guard Base, Sioux Gateway Airport, Sioux City, Iowa. 54-2091 – Yanks Air Museum, Chino, California. 54-2106 – Volk Field Air National Guard Base, Wisconsin. F-100D 54-2145 – Air Power Park near Langley AFB in Hampton, Virginia. 54-2151 – Sheppard AFB Air Park, Sheppard AFB, Texas. 54-2281 – Harry Bonsall Park, Glendale, Arizona 54-2299 – Joe Davies Heritage Airpark, Air Force Plant 42, Palmdale, California \|prime units?=imp \|crew=1 \|length ft=50 \|length in= \|length note= \|span ft=38 \|span in=9 \|span note= \|height ft=16 \|height in=2.75 \|height note= \|wing area sqft=400 \|wing area note= \|aspect ratio=3.76 \|airfoil=NACA 64A007 Zero-lift drag coefficient: CD0.0130 Drag area: \|empty weight lb=21000 \|empty weight note= \|gross weight lb=28847 \|gross weight note= \|max takeoff weight lb=34832 \|max takeoff weight note= \|fuel capacity= \|more general= \|eng1 number=1 \|eng1 name=Pratt & Whitney J57-P-21/21A \|eng1 type=afterburning turbojet engine \|eng1 lbf=10200 \|eng1 note= \|power original= \|thrust original= \|eng1 lbf-ab=16000 \|max speed mph=924 \|max speed note= \|max speed mach=1.4 \|cruise speed mph= \|cruise speed note= \|stall speed mph= \|stall speed note= \|never exceed speed mph= \|never exceed speed note= \|minimum control speed mph= \|minimum control speed note= \|range miles=1995 \|range note= \|combat range miles= \|combat range note= \|ferry range miles= \|ferry range note= \|endurance= \|ceiling ft=50000 \|ceiling note= \|g limits= \|lift to drag=13.9 \|climb rate ftmin=22400 \|climb rate note= \|time to altitude= \|wing loading lb/sqft=72.1 \|wing loading note= \|fuel consumption lb/mi= \|thrust/weight=0.55 \|more performance= \|guns=4× 20 mm (0.787 in) M39A1 revolver cannon each with 200 rounds per gun \|hardpoints=6 \|hardpoint capacity=7,040 lb (3,190 kg) \|hardpoint bombs=Conventional bombs or Mark 7, Mk 28, Mk 38, or Mk 43 nuclear bombs \|hardpoint missiles= 4× AIM-9 Sidewinder or 2× AGM-12 Bullpup or 2× or 4× LAU-3/A 2.75" (70 mm) unguided rocket dispenser \|avionics= Minneapolis-Honeywell MB-3 automatic pilot AN/AJB-1B low-altitude bombing system AN/APR-26 rearward radar warning }} See also References Notes Bibliography Anderton, David A. North American F-100 Super Sabre. London: Osprey Publishing Limited, 1987. . Başara, Levent. F-100 Super Sabre in Turkish Air Force – Türk Hava Kuvvetlerinde F-100 Super Sabre. Hobbytime, Ankara-Turkey, 2011. Davies, Peter E. North American F-100 Super Sabre. Ramsbury, Wiltshire, UK: Crowood Press, 2003. . Davies, Peter E. and David W. Menard. F-100 Super Sabre Units of the Vietnam War (Osprey Combat Aircraft, No. 89) Oxford, UK: Osprey, 2011. . Drendel, Lou. Century Series in Color (Fighting Colors). Carrollton, Texas: Squadron/Signal Publications, 1980. . Gordon, Doug. "Through the Curtain". Flypast, December 2009. Gunston, Bill. Fighters of the Fifties. Minneapolis, Minnesota: Specialty Press Publishers & Wholesalers, Inc., 1981. . Hobson, Chris. Vietnam Air Losses: United States Air Force, Navy and Marine Corps Fixed-Wing Aircraft Losses in Southeast Asia, 1961–1973. North Branch, Minnesota: Specialty Press, 2001. . Jenkins, Dennis R. and Tony R. Landis. Experimental & Prototype U.S. Air Force Jet Fighters. North Branch, Minnesota: Specialty Press, 2008. . Pace, Steve. X-Fighters: USAF Experimental and Prototype Fighters, XP-59 to YF-23. St. Paul, Minnesota: Motorbooks International, 1991. . Thompson, Kevin F. "North American NA-180>NA-262 YF-100A/F-100A/C/D/F Super Sabre." North American: Aircraft 1934–1999 – Volume 2. Santa Ana, California: Johnathan Thompson, Greens, Inc., 1999. . Thompson, Warren E. "Centuries Series: F-100 Super Sabre." Combat Aircraft, Volume 9, Issue 3, June–July 2008, London: Ian Allan Publishing. Weaver, Michael E. "The F-100 Super Sabre as an Air Superiority Fighter." Air Power History. 67: 1 (Spring 2020), 8-15. External links JoeBaugher: F-100 Super Sabre Index JoeBaugher: Foreign Air Forces with F-100s F-100 Photo Database Warbird Alley: F-100 page – Information about privately owned F-100s F-100 Super Sabre Survivors, Static displays, locations, serial numbers, and links "Supersonic Fighter" a 1955 Flight article on the F-100 Super Sabre by Bill Gunston (missing pages) Video of an F-100 (s/n 56-2904) Zero Length Launch at British Pathe'' (1958, silent, b/w) The Intake - The Journal of the Super Sabre Society – full archives dating back to 2006 Bibliography for further reading F-100.org: Bibliography 1950s United States fighter aircraft F-100 Single-engined jet aircraft Low-wing aircraft Aircraft first flown in 1953	[ -0.18277160823345184, -0.1832890510559082, -0.10258267819881439, 0.0862094834446907, -0.13545262813568115, -0.2009671926498413, 0.0756806880235672, 0.08607868105173111, 0.37207531929016113, -0.1639304757118225, -0.2964724600315094, 0.262736439704895, -0.27907511591911316, 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229925	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Taxus	Taxus	Taxus is a genus of coniferous trees or shrubs known as yews in the family Taxaceae. They are relatively slow-growing and can be very long-lived, and reach heights of , with trunk girth averaging . They have reddish bark, lanceolate, flat, dark-green leaves long and broad, arranged spirally on the stem, but with the leaf bases twisted to align the leaves in two flat rows either side of the stem. The oldest known fossil species are from the Early Cretaceous. Morphology The seed cones are highly modified, each cone containing a single seed long partly surrounded by a modified scale which develops into a soft, bright red berry-like structure called an aril, long and wide and open at the end. The arils are mature 6–9 months after pollination, and with the seed contained are eaten by thrushes, waxwings and other birds, which disperse the hard seeds undamaged in their droppings; maturation of the arils is spread over 2–3 months, increasing the chances of successful seed dispersal. The male cones are globose, across, and shed their pollen in early spring. Yews are mostly dioecious, but occasional individuals can be variably monoecious, or change sex with time. Taxonomy All of the yews are very closely related to each other, and some botanists treat them all as subspecies or varieties of just one widespread species; under this treatment, the species name used is Taxus baccata, the first yew described scientifically. Other sources, however, recognize 9 species, for example the Plant List. Taxus species appear similar. Attempts at taxonomy vary from describing all yews as subspecies of T. baccata, as did RKF Pilger in 1903, to splitting species by even very small morphological differences, as did R. W. Spjut in 2007 with 25 species and over 50 varieties. Some species have traditionally been recognized by geographic distribution, but Asian species have been more difficult to classify. T. contorta in the Western Himalaya and T. sumatrana in Malesia are now generally agreed upon, but overlapping ranges in the Eastern Himalaya, China, and subtropical southeast Asia have led to greater confusion, with the species T. chinensis, T. mairei, and T. wallichiana being elucidated only in the 21st century with the aid of molecular phylogenetics. The most distinct is the Sumatran yew (T. sumatrana, native to Sumatra and Celebes north to southernmost China), distinguished by its sparse, sickle-shaped yellow-green leaves. The Mexican yew (T. globosa, native to eastern Mexico south to Honduras) is also relatively distinct with foliage intermediate between Sumatran yew and the other species. The Florida yew, Mexican yew and Pacific yew are all rare species listed as threatened or endangered. Toxicity All species of yew contain highly poisonous taxine alkaloids, with some variation in the exact formula of the alkaloid between the species. All parts of the tree except the arils contain the alkaloid. The arils are edible and sweet, but the seed is dangerously poisonous; unlike birds, the human stomach can break down the seed coat and release the toxins into the body. This can have fatal results if yew 'berries' are eaten without removing the seeds first. Grazing animals, particularly cattle and horses, are also sometimes found dead near yew trees after eating the leaves, though deer are able to break down the poisons and will eat yew foliage freely. In the wild, deer browsing of yews is often so extensive that wild yew trees are commonly restricted to cliffs and other steep slopes inaccessible to deer. The foliage is also eaten by the larvae of some Lepidopteran insects including the moth willow beauty. Distribution Yews occur around the globe in temperate zones of the northern hemisphere, northernmost in Norway and southernmost in the South Celebes. Some populations exist in tropical highlands. Yews typically occur in the understory or canopy of moist temperate or tropical mountain forests. Elevation varies by latitude from in tropical forests to near sea level in its northernmost populations. Yews are common in landscape architecture, giving rise to widespread naturalized populations in the United States. There, both T. baccata and T. cuspidata are common ornamental shrubs. T. baccata appears throughout Europe and into western Asia. T. cuspidata occurs over much of East Asia, in China, Japan, Korea, and Sakhalin. T. brevifolia ranges in the United States from California to Montana and Alaska, while T. canadensis appears in the northeastern United States and southeast Canada. Allergenic potential All parts of a yew plant are toxic to humans with the exception of the yew berries (however, their seeds are toxic); additionally, male and dioecious yews in this genus release cytotoxic pollen, which can cause headaches, lethargy, aching joints, itching, and skin rashes; it is also a trigger for asthma. These pollen granules are extremely small, and can easily pass through window screens. Male yews bloom and release abundant amounts of pollen in the spring; completely female yews only trap pollen while producing none. Yews in this genus are primarily separate-sexed, and males are extremely allergenic, with an OPALS allergy scale rating of 10 out of 10. Completely female yews have an OPALS rating of 1, and are considered "allergy-fighting". Uses and traditions Bows Yew wood is reddish brown (with whiter sapwood), and is very springy. It was traditionally used to make bows, especially the longbow. Latin taxus "yew tree," is probably borrowed, via Greek, from Taxša, the Scythian word for yew (and bow) (cognate of Persian تخش Taxš, meaning bow). British yews tend to be too gnarly, and thus the wood for English longbows used at the Battle of Agincourt was imported from Spain or northern Italy. Ötzi, the Chalcolithic mummy found in 1991 in the Italian Alps, carried an unfinished bow made of yew wood. Consequently, it is not surprising that in Norse mythology, the abode of the god of the bow, Ullr, had the name Ydalir (Yew Dales). Most longbow wood used in northern Europe was imported from Iberia, where climatic conditions are better for growing the knot-free yew wood required. The yew longbow was the critical weapon used by the English in the defeat of the French cavalry at the Battle of Agincourt, 1415. Cultivation It is suggested that English parishes were required to grow yews and, because of the trees' toxic properties, they were grown in the only commonly enclosed area of a village – the churchyard. The yew tree can often be found in church graveyards and is symbolic of sadness. Such a representation appears in Lord Alfred Tennyson's poem "In Memoriam A.H.H." (2.61–64). The yew can be very long-lived. The Fortingall Yew has been considered to be the oldest tree in Europe, at something over 2,000 years old. Tradition has it that Pontius Pilate slept under it while on duty before 30 AD. This has been topped by a tree in the churchyard of a small Welsh village called St Cynog. It has been dated to 5,000 years old by dendrologist Janis Fry. Such old trees usually consist of a circular ring of growths of yew, since their heart has long since rotted away. The Eihwaz rune is named after the yew, and sometimes also associated with the "evergreen" world tree, Yggdrasil. Horticulture Yews are widely used in landscaping and ornamental horticulture. Over 400 cultivars of yews have been named, the vast majority of these being derived from European yew (Taxus baccata) or Japanese yew (Taxus cuspidata). The hybrid between these two species is Taxus × media. A popular fastigiate selection of the European yew (Taxus baccata 'Fastigiata') is often called the Irish yew, illustrating the difficulties with common names. A few cultivars with yellow leaves are collectively known as golden yews. Chemistry The Pacific yew (Taxus brevifolia), native to the Pacific Northwest of North America, and the Canada yew (Taxus canadensis) were the initial sources of paclitaxel or Taxol, a chemotherapeutic drug used in breast and lung cancer treatment and, more recently, in the production of the Taxus drug eluting stent by Boston Scientific. Over-harvesting of the Pacific yew for paclitaxel led to fears that it would become an endangered species, since the drug was extracted from the bark of the yew, the harvesting of which kills the tree in the process. However, methods were developed to produce the drug semi-synthetically from cultivated yews, without the need to further endanger the wild populations, and the Pacific yew is no longer at risk. The more common Canada yew is also being successfully harvested in northern Ontario, Quebec and New Brunswick, and has become another major source of paclitaxel. Other yew species contain similar compounds with similar biochemical activity. Docetaxel, an analogue of paclitaxel, is derived from the European yew (Taxus baccata). On January 18, 2008, the Botanic Gardens Conservation International (representing botanic gardens in 120 countries) stated that "400 medicinal plants are at risk of extinction, from over-collection and deforestation, threatening the discovery of future cures for disease." These included yew trees, whose bark is used for the cancer drug paclitaxel. In culture The yew tree is a frequent symbol in the Christian poetry of T. S. Eliot, especially his Four Quartets. Species and hybrids Names not linked have been mentioned in publications but not yet validated according to the International Code of Botanical Nomenclature Species Group: Baccata Group Alliance: Baccata Alliance Taxus baccata European yew Taxus contorta West Himalayan yew Taxus fastigiata Irish yew Taxus fuana, possible synonym of T. contorta Taxus recurvata English yew. synonym of Taxus baccata Alliance: Cuspidata Alliance Taxus biternata Delicate branch yew Taxus caespitosa Caespitosa yew Taxus canadensis Canada yew Taxus cuspidata Rigid branch yew, Japanese yew Taxus umbraculifera Umbrelliform yew Species Group: Sumatrana Group Taxus celebica Celebes yew Taxus kingstonii Kingston yew Taxus mairei Maire yew Taxus sumatrana Sumatera yew Species Group: Wallichiana Group Subgroup: Chinensis Subgroup Taxus calcicola Asian limestone yew Taxus chinensis China yew Taxus obscura Obscure yew Taxus ocreata Scaly yew Taxus phytonii Phyton yew Taxus rehderiana Rehder yew Taxus scutata Scutaceous yew Subgroup: Wallichiana Subgroup Taxus brevifolia Pacific yew, western yew Taxus floridana Florida yew Taxus florinii Florin yew Taxus globosa Mesoamerican yew Taxus suffnessii Suffness yew Taxus wallichiana Wallich yew, East Himalayan yew Fossil (extinct) species Taxus engelhardtii – Oligocene, Bohemia, twig-leaves, similar to T. mairei Taxus inopinata – Upper Miocene, leaf, similar to T. baccata Taxus masonii – Eocene Clarno Formation; Oregon, USA Taxus schornii – Miocene, northern Idaho Commonly reported hybrids Taxus × media = Taxus baccata × Taxus cuspidata Taxus × hunnewelliana = Taxus cuspidata × Taxus canadensis References External links Conifer genera Dioecious plants	[ -0.5066942572593689, 0.7595372796058655, -0.20264297723770142, -0.16833803057670593, -0.39105185866355896, 0.3071894645690918, 0.19541259109973907, 0.6221758723258972, 0.27496135234832764, 0.2674737274646759, 0.029074478894472122, -0.26479169726371765, -0.5915184617042542, -0.3088473081588745, 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229930	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heaving%20line%20bend	Heaving line bend	The heaving line bend is a knot for securely joining two ropes of different diameter or rigidity. It is often used to affix playing strings to the thick silk eyes of an anchorage knot in some stringed instruments. In nautical use, the heaving line bend is used to connect a lighter messenger line to a hawser when mooring ships. It is knot number 1463 in The Ashley Book of Knots, and appeared in the 1916 Swedish knot manual Om Knutar. The heaving line bend is similar to the sheet bend and the racking bend, and may be used to pass a thick rope to a distant receiver by first throwing the end of a thinner rope which may be weighted with a monkey fist or a heaving line knot. Tying steps The heaving line bend is tied the same way as the sheet bend with one difference: the final crossing of the thin end is done in the opposite direction, so the thin end points away from the thin line, essentially in the same direction as the thick end, towards the thick line. This avoid jamming when the thin line is pulled to carry the thick end over a distance where hands can not reach. Make a bight in the larger line. Pass the lighter line around the standing part of the bight. Cross between the larger and the lighter line on the back side. Finish by tucking the end between its turn around the standing part of the bight and that leg; pull tight. See also List of knots List of bend knots References	[ 0.13809557259082794, -0.3677889406681061, 0.05539395660161972, -0.13220606744289398, -0.38234204053878784, 0.45466622710227966, 0.5377236604690552, -0.11085017025470734, -0.44840532541275024, -0.25576508045196533, -0.32201722264289856, -0.03899085149168968, -0.3965855538845062, 0.38593319058418274, -0.15151269733905792, 0.5937197804450989, 0.15835027396678925, 0.21852613985538483, 0.16327038407325745, -0.38728877902030945, -0.40379607677459717, -0.28854039311408997, -0.011700719594955444, -0.3060472011566162, 0.42787808179855347, -0.19875416159629822, -0.04151395708322525, -0.23324957489967346, 0.14460186660289764, 0.04910905286669731, 0.3459152281284332, 0.5295125842094421, 0.10637100040912628, -0.5383957624435425, 0.04955044761300087, -0.5249835252761841, 0.33905309438705444, -0.057561952620744705, 0.2840127944946289, -0.5474832057952881, -0.18105018138885498, 0.016681993380188942, 0.7255244851112366, 0.0642755851149559, 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229933	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Soviet%20Air%20Forces	Soviet Air Forces	The Soviet Air Forces ( (VVS), literally "Military Air Forces") were one of the air forces of the Soviet Union. The other was the Soviet Air Defence Forces. The Air Forces were formed from components of the Imperial Russian Air Service in 1917, and faced their greatest test during World War II. The groups were also involved in the Korean War, and dissolved along with the Soviet Union itself in 1991–92. Former Soviet Air Forces' assets were subsequently divided into several air forces of former Soviet republics, including the new Russian Air Force. "March of the Pilots" was its song. Origins The All-Russia Collegium for Direction of the Air Forces of the Old Army (translation is uncertain) was formed on 20 December 1917. This was a Bolshevik aerial headquarters initially led by Konstantin Akashev. Along with a general postwar military reorganisation, the collegium was reconstituted as the "Workers' and Peasants' Red Air Fleet" (Glavvozduhflot), established on 24 May 1918 and given the top-level departmental status of "Main Directorate". It became the Directorate of the USSR Air Forces on 28 March 1924, and then the Directorate of the Workers-Peasants Red Army Air Forces on 1 January 1925. Gradually its influence on aircraft design became greater. From its earliest days, the force mimicked ground forces' organization especially in the 1930s, by which time it was made up of air armies, aviation corps, aviation divisions, and aviation regiments (composed of air squadrons, flights, and fireteams, respectively). After the creation of the Soviet state many efforts were made in order to modernize and expand aircraft production, led by its charismatic and energetic commander, General Yakov Alksnis, an eventual victim of Joseph Stalin's Great Purge. Domestic aircraft production increased significantly in the early 1930s and towards the end of the decade, the Soviet Air Force was able to introduce Polikarpov I-15 and I-16 fighters and Tupolev SB and SB-bis and DB-3 bombers. Spanish civil war One of the first major tests for the VVS came in 1936 with the Spanish Civil War, in which the latest Soviet and German aircraft designs were employed against each other in fierce air-to-air combat. At first, the I-16 proved superior to any Luftwaffe fighters, and managed to achieve local air superiority wherever they were employed. However, the Soviets refused to supply the plane in adequate numbers, and their aerial victories were soon squandered because of their limited use. Later, Bf 109s delivered to Franco's Spanish Nationalist air forces secured air superiority for the Nationalists, one they would never relinquish. The defeats in Spain coincided with the arrival of Stalin's Great Purge of the ranks of the officer corps and senior military leadership, which severely affected the combat capabilities of the rapidly expanding Soviet Air Forces. Newly promoted officers lacked flying and command experience, while older commanders, witnessing the fate of General Alksnis and others, lacked initiative, frequently referring minor decisions to Moscow for approval, and insisting that their pilots strictly comply with standardized and predictable procedures for both aerial attack and defence. On 19 November 1939, VVS headquarters was again titled the Main Directorate of the Red Army Air Forces under the WPRA HQ. 1930s aviation and propaganda Between 1933 and 1938, the Soviet government planned and funded missions to break numerous world aviation records. Not only did aviation records and achievements become demonstrations of the USSR's technological progress, they also served as legitimization of the socialist system. With each new success, Soviet press trumpeted victories for socialism, popularizing the mythology of aviation culture with the masses. Furthermore, Soviet media idolized record-breaking pilots, exalting them not only as role models for Soviet society, but also as symbols of progress towards the socialist-utopian future. Positive heroism The early 1930s saw a shift in ideological focus away from collectivist propaganda and towards "positive heroism." Instead of glorifying socialist collectivism as a means of societal advancement, the Soviet Communist Party began uplifting individuals who committed heroic actions that advanced the cause of socialism. In the case of aviation, the government began glorifying people who utilized aviation technology as opposed to glorifying the technology itself. Pilots such as Valery Chkalov, Georgy Baydukov, Alexander Belyakov, and Mikhail Gromov—as well as many others—were raised to the status of heroes for their piloting skills and achievements. Transpolar flights of 1937 In May 1937, Stalin charged pilots Chkalov, Baydukov, and Belyakov with the mission to navigate . On 20 June 1937, the aviators landed their ANT-25 in Vancouver, Washington. A month later, Stalin ordered the departure of a second crew to push the boundaries of modern aviation technology even further. In July 1937 Mikhail Gromov, along with his crew Sergei Danilin and Andrei Yumashev, completed the same journey over the North Pole and , creating a new record for the longest nonstop flight. The public reaction to the transpolar flights was euphoric. The media called the pilots "Bolshevik knights of culture and progress." Soviet citizens celebrated Aviation Day on 18 August with as much zeal as they celebrated the October Revolution anniversary. Literature including poems, short stories, and novels emerged celebrating the feats of the aviator-celebrities. Feature films like Victory, Tales of Heroic Aviators, and Valery Chkalov reinforced the "positive hero" imagery, celebrating the aviators' individuality within the context of a socialist government. Folkloric themes in aviation propaganda Soviet propaganda, newspaper articles, and other forms of media sought to connect Soviet citizens to relevant themes from daily life. For aviation, Stalin's propagandists drew on Russian folklore. Examples increased dramatically following the successes of the transpolar flights by Chkalov and Gromov in 1937. Aviators were referred to symbolically as sokoly (falcons), orly (eagles), or bogatyr (warriors). Newspapers told traditional Russian narratives (skazki) of fliers conquering time and space (prostranstvo), overcoming barriers and completing their missions in triumph. Even the story of each aviator suggests roots in old Russian storytelling and narratives—virtuous heroes striving to reach an end goal, encountering and conquering any obstacles in their path. By using folklore rhetoric, Stalin and Soviet propagandists connected aviation achievements to Russian heritage, making aviation seem more accessible to the Soviet population. Furthermore, the narratives emphasize the aviators' selflessness and devotion to a higher socialist ideal, pointing to Soviet leaders as inspirers and role models. Paternalism was also a theme that Soviet propagandists exploited in aviation culture. The media presented Stalin as an example and inspiration, a father figure and role model to the most prominent Soviet pilots of the period. When recounting stories of meetings between Stalin and Chkalov, for example, Soviet newspapers spoke of Stalin's paternalism towards the young pilot. The paternal metaphor was completed with the addition of a maternal figure—Russia, the motherland, who had produced "father" Stalin's heroic sons such as Chkalov. The use of familial metaphors not only evoked traditional hereditary pride and historic Russian patriotism, they boosted Stalin's image as a benevolent leader. Most importantly, paternalism served to promote the message of individual subordination to authority. Through his paternal relationships with Soviet pilots, Stalin developed an "ethos of deference and obedience" for Soviet society to emulate. Aviation and the purges The successful achievements in Soviet aviation also came during the worst days of the Great Purge. The transpolar flights in summer 1937 occurred following the arrest and execution of a large body of the Red Army officer corps. Fifteen of sixteen total army commanders were executed; more than three-fourths of the VVS senior officers were arrested, executed, or relieved of duty. News coverage of the arrests was relatively little compared to treatment of aviation exploits, deflecting attention away from the arrests. Early combat Some practical combat experience had been gained in participating in the Spanish Civil War, and against Japan in the Far Eastern border conflicts. Shortly before the start of war with Germany a Soviet Volunteer Group was sent to China to train the pilots from the Republic of China Air Force for the continuing war with the Japanese. However, these experiences proved of little use in the Winter War against Finland in 1939, where scores of inexperienced Soviet bomber and fighter pilots were shot down by a relatively small number of Finnish Air Force (FAF) pilots. The VVS soon learned established Soviet air defence procedures derived from the Spanish Civil War, such as forming defensive circles when attacked, did not work well against the Finns, who employed dive-and-zoom tactics to shoot down their Soviet opponents in great numbers. The effects of the Great Purge undoubtedly played a role in the slow reaction of the VVS and its command to the new realities of air combat. The Soviet Air Force as well as the Soviet aircraft industry would eventually learn from these combat experiences, though not before the German invasion of the Soviet Union in 1941. On 1 January 1941, six months prior to Operation Barbarossa, the Air Forces of the Soviet Red Army had 363,900 serving personnel, accounting for 8.65% of all military force personnel of the Soviet Union. The first three Air Armies, designated Air Armies of Special Purpose, were created between 1936 and 1938. On 5 November 1940 these were reformed as the Long Range Bombardment Aviation of the High Command of the Red Army (until February 1942) due to lack of combat performance during the conflict with Finland. The Air Force was hit hard by the Red Army purges in 1941. Early World War II aviation failures 1930s Soviet aviation also had a particular impact on the USSR's military failures in the beginning of World War II. By 1938, the Soviet Union had the largest air force in the world, but Soviet aeronautical design distinctly lagged behind Western technological advances. Instead of focusing on developing tactical aircraft, the Soviets engineers developed heavy bomber planes only good for long distance—in other words, planes that would be used for record-breaking flights like those of Chkalov's. The Soviet government's focus on showy stunts and phenomenal record-breaking missions drained resources needed for Soviet defense. When Nazi Germany attacked the Soviet Union in June 1941, it quickly became apparent that the Soviet Air Force was not prepared for war. Poor planning and lack of organization left planes sitting on the tarmac at airbases, allowing the Luftwaffe to destroy 4,000 Soviet planes within the first week. The disorganized Soviet defenses and technologically deficient aircraft were no match for the Luftwaffe. World War II At the outbreak of World War II, the Soviet military was not yet at a level of readiness suitable for winning a war: Joseph Stalin had said in 1931 Soviet industry was "50 to 100 years behind" the Western powers. By the end of the war, Soviet annual aircraft production had risen sharply, reaching 40,241 in 1944. Some 157,261 machines were produced during the Great Patriotic War, 125,655 being of combat types. One of the main reasons for the large aircraft losses in the initial period of war with Germany was not the lack of modern tactics, but the lack of experienced pilots and ground support crews, the destruction of many aircraft on the runways due to command failure to disperse them, and the rapid advance of Heer troops, forcing the Soviet pilots on the defensive during Operation Barbarossa, while being confronted with more modern German designs. In the first few days of the invasion of the Soviet Union, the Luftwaffe destroyed some 2,000 Soviet aircraft, most on the ground, at a loss of only 35 (of which 15 were non-combat-related). The principal VVS aircraft during World War II were the Ilyushin Il-2 Shturmovik armored ground attack monoplane and the series of AS Yakovlev OKB-115 designed single-engined fighters, beginning with the Yak-1 and its successors. The Il-2 became (at 36,183 built) the most produced military aircraft of all time, with the four main versions of Yak fighters (the Yak-1, −3, −7 and −9) being slightly more numerous, at a total of 36,716 among them. These two main types together accounted for about half the strength of the VVS for most of the Great Patriotic War. The Yak-1 was a modern 1940 design and had room for development, unlike the mature 1935-origin Messerschmitt Bf 109. The Yak-9 brought the VVS to parity with the Luftwaffe and eventually allowed it to gain the upper hand, until in 1944, many Luftwaffe pilots deliberately avoided combat with the last and best variant, the out-of-sequence numbered Yak-3. The other main VVS types were Lavochkin fighters (mainly the La-5), the Petlyakov Pe-2 twin engined attack-bombers, and a basic but functional and versatile medium bomber, the Ilyushin Il-4. The 31st Bomber Aviation Regiment, equipped with Pe-2s and commanded by Colonel Fyodor Ivanovich Dobysh, was one of the first Guards bomber units in the Air Forces – the 4th Guards Bomber Aviation Regiment (:ru:4-й гвардейский пикирующий бомбардировочный авиационный полк). The title was conferred on the regiment for its actions on the Leningrad Front in November–December 1941 during defensive operations and the Soviet counterattack near Tikhvin. Women Alone among World War II combatants, the Soviet Air Force initiated a program to bring women with existing flying training into combat air groups. Marina Raskova, one of very few women in the VVS prior to the war, used her influence with Stalin to form three all-female air regiments: the 586th Fighter Aviation Regiment, the 587th Bomber Aviation Regiment, and the 588th Night Bomber Aviation Regiment (a.k.a. the Night Witches.) Women flew aircraft so heavy that sometimes two of them were required to haul back on the joystick on takeoff. Due to their achievements in battle, the latter two air force units were honored by being renamed Guards units. Beyond the three official regiments, individual Soviet women sometimes served alongside airmen in otherwise all-male groups. Women pilots, navigators, gunners, mechanics, armament specialists and other female ground personnel made up more than 3,000 fighting members of the VVS. Women pilots flew 24,000 sorties. From this effort came the world's only two female fighter aces: Lydia Litvyak and Katya Budanova. Innovation and Lend-lease While there were scores of Red Army divisions on the ground formed from specific Soviet republics, there appears to have been very few aviation regiments formed from nationalities, among them being the 1st Latvian Night Aviation Regiment. Chief Marshal of Aviation Alexander Novikov led the VVS from 1942 to the end of the war, and was credited with introducing several innovations and weapons systems. For the last year of the war German military and civilians retreating towards Berlin were hounded by the presence of "low flying aircraft" strafing and bombing them, an activity in which even the ancient Polikarpov Po-2, a much produced flight training (uchebnyy) biplane of 1920s design, took part. However, this was but a small measure of the experience the Wehrmacht were receiving due to the sophistication and superiority of the Red Air Force. In one strategic operation alone, the Yassy-Kishinev Strategic Offensive, the 5th and 17th Air Armys and the Black Sea Fleet Naval Aviation aircraft achieved a 3.3 to 1 superiority in aircraft over Luftflotte 4 and the Royal Romanian Air Force, allowing almost complete freedom from air harassment for the ground troops of the 2nd and 3rd Ukrainian Fronts. As with many Allied countries in World War II, the Soviet Union received Western aircraft through Lend-Lease, mostly Bell P-39 Airacobras, Bell P-63 Kingcobras, Curtiss P-40 Kittyhawks, Douglas A-20 Havocs, Hawker Hurricanes, and North American B-25 Mitchells. Some of these aircraft arrived in the Soviet Union in time to participate in the Battle of Moscow, and in particular with the PVO or Soviet Air Defence Forces. Soviet fliers in P-39s scored the highest individual kill totals of any ever to fly a U.S. aircraft. Two air regiments were equipped with Spitfire Mk.Vbs in early 1943 but immediately experienced unrelenting losses due to friendly fire as the British aircraft looked too much like the German Bf 109. Lend-Lease aircraft from the U.S. and UK accounted for nearly 12% of total Soviet air power. The greatest Soviet fighter ace of World War II was Ivan Nikitovich Kozhedub, who scored 62 victories from 6 July 1943 to 16 April 1945, the top score for any Allied fighter pilot of World War II. Cold War In 1945–46, the WPKA Army Air Forces became the Soviet Air Forces once again. Its capabilities increased. The force became one of the best services of the Soviet Armed Forces due to the various types of aircraft being flown and their capabilities and the strength and training of its pilots, and its air defense arm became an independent component of the armed forces in 1949, reaching full-fledged force status in 1954. The 64th Fighter Aviation Corps (:ru:64-й истребительный авиационный корпус) fought in the Korean War. During the Cold War, the Soviet Air Force was rearmed, strengthened and modern air doctrines were introduced. At its peak in 1980, it could deploy approximately 10,000 aircraft, making it the world's largest air force of the time. The Soviet Air Force covertly participated in the Korean War, with twelve fighter divisions of 26,000 pilots participating in air-to-air combat with the United States Air Force, inflicting significant casualties. In order to keep their involvement a secret, Joseph Stalin ordered the Soviet Air Force MiG-15s participating in the conflict to fly with Korean People's Air Force and PLA Air Force markings, wear Chinese uniforms, and speak only Chinese phrases over radio in the air. In 1977 the VVS and the Soviet Air Defense Forces (PVO) were re-organised in the Baltic states and the Leningrad Oblast, as a trial run for the larger re-organisation in 1980 covering the whole country. All fighter units in the PVO were transferred to the VVS, the Air Defence Forces only retaining the anti-aircraft missile units and radar units. The 6th independent Air Defense Army was disbanded, and the 15th Air Army became the VVS Baltic Military District. Though the experiment was then applied countrywide in 1980, it was reversed in 1986, but then most of the Air Defense Forces's command and control duties and assets became part of the Air Force, as well as several educational and training institutions. According to a 1980 Time Magazine article citing analysts from RAND Corporation, allegedly Soviet non-Slavs, including Jews, Armenians, and Asians were generally barred from senior ranks and from joining elite or strategic positions in the Air Force, Strategic Rocket Forces, and the Soviet Navy because of doubts regarding the loyalty of ethnic minorities. RAND analyst S. Enders Wimbush said, "Soldiers are clearly recruited in a way that reflects the worries of society. The average Russian citizen and Soviet decision maker have questions about the allegiance of the non-Slav, especially the Central Asian." During the Cold War the VVS was divided into three main branches (equivalent to commands in Western air forces): Long Range Aviation (Dal'naya Aviatsiya – DA ), focused on long-range bombers; Frontal Aviation (Frontovaya Aviatsiya – FA), focused on battlefield air defence, close air support, and interdiction; and Military Transport Aviation (Voenno-Transportnaya Aviatsiya – VTA), which controlled all transport aircraft. The Soviet Air Defence Forces (Voyska protivovozdushnoy oborony or Voyska PVO), which focused on air defence and interceptor aircraft, was then a separate and distinct service within the Soviet military organisation. Yet another independent service was the Soviet Navy's air arm, the Soviet Naval Aviation (Aviatsiya Voenno Morskogo Flota – "AV-MF"), under the Navy Headquarters. The official day of VVS was the Soviet Air Fleet Day, that often featured notable air shows meant to display Soviet air power advancements through the years, held in Moscow's Tushino airfield. 1980s fighter programs In the 1980s the Soviet Union acknowledged the development of the Advanced Tactical Fighter in the US and began the development of an equivalent fighter. Two programs were initiated, one of which was proposed to directly confront the United States' then-projected Advanced Tactical Fighter (that was to lead to the development of the Lockheed Martin F-22 Raptor and the Northrop YF-23). This future fighter was designated as Mnogofounksionalni Frontovoi Istrebitel (MFI) (Multifunctional Frontline Fighter) and designed as a heavy multirole aircraft, with air-supremacy utmost in the minds of the designers. In response to the American Boeing X-32/Joint Strike Fighter (F-35) projects, Russia began the LFI program, which would develop a fighter reminiscent of the X-32/F-35 with a single engine, without the capabilities of a true multirole aircraft. The LFI (Lyogkiy Frontovoy Istrebitel, Light Frontline Fighter) project was intended to develop a lightweight fighter with respectable air-to-ground capabilities. Yakovlev proposed the Yak-43, an upgraded Yakolev Yak-41 with a stealthier design and more powerful engines. After neglecting the MFI competition, Sukhoi decided to submit a design for the LFI called the S-37 (unrelated to the heavyweight forward-swept wing fighter). This S-37 resembled the Gripen in that it had canard foreplanes, a delta wing and one engine. Mikoyan entered the MiG 4.12. MiG could not afford to develop both the MFI and LFI, so their LFI entry was eventually withdrawn. Developed into Mikoyan LMFS. Russia would later change the designation of the LFI project to LFS, making it a multirole aircraft with emphasis on ground attack capability. During the 1990s the Russian military cancelled the LFS projects and continued with the MFI project, with minimal funding, believing that it was more important than the production of a light fighter aircraft. No advanced fighter successor to the Su-27 and MiG-29 family has entered service. Sukhoi won the latest PAK FA competition in 2002; the aircraft's first flight took place on 29 January 2010. Breakup of the Soviet Union Following the dissolution of the Soviet Union in December 1991 the aircraft and personnel of the Soviet VVS were divided among the newly independent states. Russia received the plurality of these forces, approximately 40% of the aircraft and 65% of the manpower, with these forming the basis for the new Russian Air Force. Forces in the late 1980s The Soviet Air Force's aviation assets were organised into four types of forces (sing. вид авиации) - Long Range Aviation, Frontal Aviation, Military Transport Aviation and Army Aviation (which would transfer to the Ground Forces in case of war). Pilot training establishments were integrated into the Air Armies of the Frontal Aviation. Higher command echelons of the Air Forces In addition, the 34th Mixed Aviation Corps (:ru:34-й смешанный авиационный корпус), later re-designated to the Air Forces of the 40th Army, supported the 40th Army in Afghanistan during the Soviet–Afghan War. Its HQ was in Kabul, Democratic Republic of Afghanistan, co-located with the HQ of the 40th Army itself. Directly subordinated to the AF Main Staff Several formations and flying units were directly subordinated to the Air Forces Main Staff (Главный штаб ВВС). They provided air transport for high-ranking government and military officials, flight testing or support to other research and development fields. Units directly subordinated to the Main Staff (Структуры центрального (Главкомату ВВС) подчинения): 21st Separate Aviation Squadron of Flying Laboratories (21-я отдельная авиационная эскадрилья летающих лабораторий (21-я оаэлл)) - Kubinka - An-12, An-26, Mi-8 27th Separate Helicopter Squadron (27-я отдельная вертолетная эскадрилья (27-я овэ)) - Semipalatinsk, Kazakh SSR - Mi-8 (provided liaison flight support to the Semipalatinsk Nuclear Test Center) 101st Separate Test [Support] Aviation Squadron (101-я отдельная испытательная авиационная эскадрилья (101-я оиаэ), 287th according to some sources) - Nukus, Uzbekistan SSR - An-26, Mi-8 (provided support to the 8th Chemical Defence Station (Восьмая станция химической защиты) test range on the Ustyurt Plateau) 220th Separate Test [Support] Aviation Squadron of Specific Purpose (220-я отдельная испытательная авиационная эскадрилья особого назначения (220-я оиаэ он) - Aralsk, Kazakh SSR - An-72, An-26, Mi-26, Mi-8, An-2 (provided airborne telemetric surveillance support to the Kapustin Yar missile test range. The airfield also provided liaison flights to the top-secret "Barkhan" bacteriological warfare test range on Vozrozhdeniya Island) unidentified Separate Aviation Squadron (отдельная авиационная эскадрилья (оаэ)) - Klin - Tu-134, An-12, An-26, An-24, Mi-8 (Klin air base was also considered the 'household' airfield of the Air Defence Forces aviation and a mixed air regiment was based there with the mission to provide liaison flights to the Air Defence Forces Main Staff and flight skills refreshment for the high ranking pilot officers) Separate Transport Aviation Squadron (отдельная транспортная авиационная эскадрилья (отаэ)) - Privolzhskiy (near Astrakhan) - Il-18, An-26, Mi-8 (provided liaison flights to the 116th Combat Application Training Center of the Air Defence Aviation (116-й Центр боевого применения авиации ПВО)) 2nd State Central Test Range (2-й Государственный центральный испытательный полигон (2 ГЦИП)) (designation in some sources given as the 2-й Государственный центральный научно-исследовательский испытательный полигон (2 ГЦНИИП)) - Semipalatinsk Separate Transport Aviation Squadron (отдельная транспортная авиационная эскадрилья (отаэ)) - ZATO Kurchatov-21 (also listed sometimes as the Semipalatinsk-21) - An-30RR, An-24RR, Mi-8/9 (RR - Radiation Reconnaissance) Separate Transport Aviation Squadron (отдельная транспортная авиационная эскадрилья (отаэ)) - Semipalatinsk (Zhanasemei airfield) - An-30, An-24RR 5th Central Scientific Research Institute (5-й Центральный научно-исследовательский институт (5 ЦНИИ) (designation in some sources given as the 5-й Центральный научно-исследовательский испытательный институт (5 ЦНИИ) - Voronezh Separate Composite Aviation Squadron (отдельная смешанная авиационная эскадрилья (осаэ)) - Voronezh Airport - Il-20, Mi-8 (EW) 8th Aviation Division of Specific Purpose (8-я авиационная дивизия особого назначения (8-я ад он)) - Chkalovsky 353th Aviation Regiment of Specific Purpose (353-й авиационный полк особого назначения (353-й ап он)) - Chkalovsky - Il-62, Tu-154, Tu-134, Il-18, Il-76, An-72 354th Aviation Regiment of Specific Purpose (354-й авиационный полк особого назначения (354-й ап он)) - Chkalovsky - Il-76, Il-22, An-12, An-26, An-24 (355th Aviation Regiment of Specific Purpose (355-й авиационный полк особого назначения (355-й ап он)) - Chkalovsky - disbanded in 1989 and absorbed into the 353rd Aviation Regiment along with its Tu-134 and Tu- 154 aircraft) Separate Composite Aviation Squadron (отдельная смешанная авиационная эскадрилья (осаэ)) - Chkalovsky - Il-80 (4 aircraft), Il-76RT (2 aircraft) (attached to the 8th ADSP for air traffic control, ground support and maintenance, but reporting directly to the Ministry of Defence. The Il-80 was the airborne command center variant of the Il-86 and the Soviet counterpart to the E-4. The four Il-80 received command task force of officers detailed from the Ministry of Defence when on airborne duty. The two Il-76RT were relay aircraft (RT - 'retranslator') and had no command task force on board. They provided Ultra high frequency link between the Soviet nuclear triad and the command centers and were equipped with drag antennae array, which could extend to a total length of 6 kilometers. The Navy's SSBNs and the Air Force's Long Range Aviation normally used alternative communications channels, so the main task for the Il-76RTs remained to provide a link to the Strategic Rocket Forces. The command and control system was designated "Chain Link" ("Звено") and included the Il-80s, the Il-76RTs, the underground silo-based 'Perimetr' and the railway-based 'Gorn command alert missiles.) High Command of the Forces of the Southern Strategic Direction (Главное командование войск Южного направления (ГК ЮН)) - Baku, Azerbaijan SSR 300th Separate Composite Aviation Squadron (300-я отдельная смешанная авиационная эскадрилья (300-я осаэ)) - Kala - Tu-154, Tu-134, Il-22, An-26, An-24, Mi-6, Mi-8/9, Ka-27PS, An-2, Mi-2 High Command of the Forces of the South-Western Strategic Direction (Главное командование войск Юго-Западного направления (ГК ЮЗН)) - Kishinev, Moldavian SSR 153rd Separate Composite Aviation Squadron (300-я отдельная смешанная авиационная эскадрилья (153-я осаэ)) - Kishinev - Tu-134, Il-22, An-72, An-26, An-24, Mi-8/9 Warsaw Pact Organisation (Организация варшавского договора (ОВД)) 25th Separate Composite Aviation Squadron (25-я отдельная смешанная авиационная эскадрилья (25-я осаэ)) - Legnica and Krzywa, Polish People's Republic - Tu-134, Il-22, An-12, An-72, An-26, Mi-8 100th Separate Helicopter Flight (100-й отдельный вертолётный отряд (100-й ово)) - Damascus, Syrian Arab Republic - Mi-8PPA/SMV/MTPI (supporting the Soviet military advisors embedded in the Syrian military) 929th State Flight Test Center named after V. P. Chkalov of the Ministry of Defence of the USSR (929-й Государственный лётно-испытательный центр им. В. П. Чкалова Министерства обороны СССР (929 ГЛИЦ МО СССР)) - Akhtubinsk (testing of each type of military aircraft destined for the Air Force, Air Defence Forces, Naval Aviation and export) 75th Separate Composite Aviation Regiment (75-й отделный смешанный авиационный полк (75-й осап)) - Akhtubinsk - Ан-12, Ан-26, Ан-24, Ан-72, Ту-154, Ми-8 333rd Separate Composite Aviation Regiment (333-й отделный смешанный авиационный полк (333-й осап)) - Akhtubinsk - Tu-16, MiG-21 Air Force Test Pilots Training Center (Центр подготовки лётчиков-испытателей ВВС) - Akhtubinsk - MiG-21, L-39, Yak-40, An-26, Mi-8 Separate Composite Aviation Regiment of Specific Purpose (отдельный смешанный авиационный полк особого назначения (осап он)) Северный (Кировское) - Су-27, МиГ-29, Ка-25, Ка-27, Ми-14, Ка-29, Ан-12, Ан-72, Ил-38, Ту-142, MI-6, Mi-8, Як-38 (flight testing of naval aviation) 368th Separate Composite Aviation Squadron (368-я отдельная смешанная авиационная эскадрилья (368-я осаэ)) - Nalchik Airport - An-12, Mi-8 (mountain testing) 47th Separate Composite Aviation Squadron (47-я отдельная смешанная авиационная эскадрилья (47-я осаэ)) - Вольск - An-26, Mi-8 Separate Composite Aviation Squadron (отдельная транспортная авиационная эскадрилья (отаэ)) - Чкаловский - Il-76, An-12, An-72, An-26 Separate Helicopter Squadron (отдельная вертолётная эскадрилья (овэ)) - Чкаловский - Mi-26, Mi-6, Mi-8 Separate Aviation Flight (отдельный авиационный отряд (оао)) - Чкаловский - Ил-20, Ил-22 (possibly two separate air flights based at Chkalovsky, one flying Il-20 and another one flying Il-22) Nizhny Tagil Metal Proving Institute (Нижнетагильский институт испытания металлов (НТИИМ)) Flight Test Base (Лётно-испытательная база (ЛИБ)) - Salka airfield, Nizhny Tagil - Tu-16, Su-24, Su-25, MiG-21, An-12, An-24 (testing of aviation armaments) Military Transport Aviation The Soviet Military Transport Aviation had the following structure in the end of the 1980s:Military Transport Aviation Command''' (Командование военнотранспортной авиации), Moscow, RSFSR 18th Guards Taganrogskaya, awarded the Order of the Red Banner, the Order of Suvorov and the Order of Kutuzov Military Transport Aviation Division (18-я гвардейская Таганрогская Краснознаменная орденов Суворова и Кутузова военно-транспортная авиационная дивизия), Šiauliai, Lithuanian SSR 128th Guards Leningradskiy, awarded the Order of the Red Banner Military Transport Aviation Regiment (128-й гвардейский Ленинградский Краснознаменный военно-транспортный авиационный полк), Panevėžys, Lithuanian SSR - Ilyushin Il-76M 196th Guards Minskiy Military Transport Aviation Regiment (196-й гвардейский Минский военно-транспортный авиационный полк), Tartu, Estonian SSR - Ilyushin Il-76M 600th Military Transport Aviation Regiment (600-й военно-транспортный авиационный полк), Kėdainiai, Lithuanian SSR - Ilyushin Il-76 117th Berlinskiy, awarded the Order of Kutuzov Aviation Regiment for Radio-electronic warfare (117-й Берлинский ордена Кутузова авиационный полк РЭБ), Šiauliai, Lithuanian SSR - Antonov An-12PP/PPS 6th Guards Zaporozhskaya, awarded the Order of Bogdan Khmelnitsky Military Transport Aviation Division (6-я гвардейская Запорожская Краснознаменная ордена Богдана Хмельницкого военно-транспортная авиационная дивизия), Kryvyi Rih, Ukrainian SSR 37th Military Transport Aviation Regiment (37-й военно-транспортный авиационный полк), Artsyz, Ukrainian SSR - Ilyushin Il-76 338th Military Transport Aviation Regiment (338-й Рижский военно-транспортный авиационный полк), Zaporizhzhia, Ukrainian SSR - Ilyushin Il-76 363rd Cherkaskiy, awarded the Order of Suvorov and the Order of Bogdan Khmelnitsky Military Transport Aviation Regiment (363-й Черкасский орденов Суворова и Богдана Хмельницкого военно-транспортный авиационный полк), Kryvyi Rih, Ukrainian SSR - Ilyushin Il-76 7th Military Transport Aviation Division (7-я военно-транспортная авиационная дивизия) Melitopol, Ukrainian SSR 25th Moskovskiy Military Transport Aviation Regiment (25-й гвардейский Московский военно-транспортный авиационный полк) - Ilyushin Il-76 175th Military Transport Aviation Regiment (175-й военно-транспортный авиационный полк) - Ilyushin Il-76 369th Military Transport Aviation Regiment (369-й военно-транспортный авиационный полк) - Ilyushin Il-76 3rd Guards Smolenskaya, awarded the Order of Suvorov and the Order of Kutuzov Military Transport Aviation Division (3-я гвардейская Смоленская орденов Суворова и Кутузова военно-транспортная авиационная дивизия), Vitebsk, Belarussian SSR 110th Military Transport Aviation Regiment (110-й военно-транспортный авиационный полк), Krechevitsy (near Novgorod), RSFSR - Ilyushin Il-76 334th Berlin Red Banner Military Transport Aviation Regiment (334-й Берлинский Краснознаменный военно-транспортный авиационный полк), Pskov, RSFSR - Ilyushin Il-76 339th Awarded the Order of Suvorov Military Transport Aviation Regiment (339-й ордена Суворова военно-транспортный авиационный полк), Vitebsk, Belarussian SSR - Ilyushin Il-76 12th Mginskaya Red Banner Military Transport Aviation Division (12-я Мгинская Краснознаменная военно-транспортная авиационная дивизия), Tver, RSFSR 566th Solnechnogorskiy, awarded the Order of the Red Banner and the Order of Kutuzov Military Transport Aviation Regiment (566-й Солнечногорский Краснознаменный ордена Кутузова военно-транспортный авиационный полк), Seshta (near Bryansk), RSFSR - Antonov An-124 978th Military Transport Aviation Regiment (978-й военно-транспортный авиационный полк), Seshta (near Bryansk), RSFSR - Antonov An-124 (2 squadrons), Ilyushin Il-76 (1 squadron) 8th Military Transport Aviation Regiment (8-й военно-транспортный авиационный полк), Tver, RSFSR - Antonov An-22 81st Military Transport Aviation Regiment (81-й военно-транспортный авиационный полк), Ivanovo - Severny - Antonov An-22 separate Military Transport Aviation regiments: 192nd Guards Kerchenskiy Red Banner Military Transport Aviation Regiment (192-й гвардейский Керченский Краснознаменный военно-транспортный авиационный полк), Ukkurey, Chita Oblast, RSFSR - Ilyushin Il-76MD 708th Military Transport Aviation Regiment (708-й военно-транспортный авиационный полк), Taganrog, Rostov Oblast, RSFSR - Ilyushin Il-76MD 930th Komsomolskiy Transylvanskiy Red Banner Military Transport Aviation Regiment (930-й Комсомольский Трансильванский Краснознаменный военно-транспортный авиационный полк), Zavitinsk, Amur Oblast, RSFSR - Antonov An-12 194th Guards Bryanskiy Red Banner Military Transport Aviation Regiment named after N. F. Gastello (194-й гвардейский Брянский Краснознаменный военно-транспортный авиационный полк им.Н.Ф.Гастелло), Fergana, Uzbek SSR - Antonov An-12 training establishments 610th Center for Combat Training and Conversion of Flight Personnel of the Military Transport Aviation (610-й центр боевого применения и переучивания летного состава ВТА), Ivanovo - Severny - Ilyushin Il-76 (2 training and 1 test and evaluation squadrons) wartime mobilization assets the State-owned flag carrier Aeroflot was wartime mobilization reserve to the Military Transport Aviation, with some Il-76 aircraft of the civilian air company as much as retaining the aft self-defence gun turrets (Aeroflot Il-76MD) airlift assets outside the Military Transport Aviation 8th Aviation Division of Special Purpose (8 авиационная дивизия ОСНАЗ), Moscow - Chkalovskiy Air Base, RSFSR - transport and command aviation unit for the USSR's high officials 70th Transport Regiment of Special Purpose (70-й транспортный полк ОСНАЗ), Moscow - Chkalovskiy Air Base, RSFSR - Ilyushin Il-62, Il-86, Il-76 353rd Transport Regiment of Special Purpose (353-й транспортный полк ОСНАЗ), Moscow - Chkalovskiy Air Base, RSFSR - Antonov An-12, An-26, An-24 354th Transport Regiment of Special Purpose (354-й транспортный полк ОСНАЗ), Moscow - Chkalovskiy Air Base, RSFSR - Tupolev Tu-134, Tu-154 Separate Aviation Squadron for Command and Retranslation (отдельная авиационная эскадрилья управления и ретрансляции), Moscow - Chkalovskiy Air Base, RSFSR - Ilyushin Il-80, Il-82 Each Strategic Direction Command and each Military District also had a Separate Composite Aviation Regiment (отдельный смешанный авиационный полк (осап)), which included An-24, An-26 (possibly An-12) transport aircraft, Mi-8 (possibly) Mi-2 helicopters and a Tu-134 as the commander of the strategic direction or the military district's personal transport aircraft. Soviet Air Defence Forces Independent air defense component of the Soviet Armed Forces under Headquarters, Voyska PVO (Soviet Air Defence Forces). 2nd Air Defence Army (Soviet Air Defence Forces) (part) 4th Independent Air Defence Army 6th Independent Air Defence Army (Soviet Air Defence Forces) 8th Independent Air Defence Army (Soviet Air Defence Force) 10th Independent Air Defence Army (Soviet Air Defence Forces) 11th Independent Air Defence Army (Far East Military District) 12th Independent Air Defence Army (Soviet Air Defence Forces) 14th Independent Air Defence Army (Soviet Air Defence Forces) 19th Air Defence Army Training schools of the VVS and PVO A Krasnaya Zvezda military schools list of 17 January 1980 included 24 Air Forces schools. Nine Higher Aviation Schools of Pilots were reported (including the Borisoglebsk Higher Military Aviation School of Pilots at Borisoglebsk), two navigator schools (including the Chelyabinsk Higher Military Aviation School of Navigators/50th Anniversary of the Komsomols), the Khar'kov Higher Military Aviation Command School of Signals, five three-year technical secondary schools, six Air Force engineering schools (including the Kiev Higher Military Aviation Engineering School), and the Kurgan Higher Military-Political Aviation School. In 1988, schools included: 5th Central Course for Preparation and Improvement of Aviation Personnel, Frunze, Chui Oblast, Kyrgyz SSR (HQ VVS) 796th Red Banner Center for Preparation of Officers for Fighter and Fighter-Bomber Aviation, Totskoye, Orenburg Oblast (HQ VVS) Armavir Higher Military Aviation School of Pilots PVO (Air Forces of the North Caucasus Military District) Balashov Higher Military Aviation School of Pilots (Air Forces of the Volga-Ural Military District) Barnaul Higher Military Aviation School of Pilots (Air Forces of the Siberian Military District) Borisoglebsk Higher Military Aviation School of Pilots (Borisoglebsk, VVS NCMD) Chelyabinsk Higher Military Aviation School of Navigators Kacha Higher Military Aviation School of Pilots (Volgograd, HQ VVS)(:ru:Качинское высшее военное авиационное училище лётчиков) Kansk Military Aviation School of Air Rifle-Radio Operators VVS (Kansk, VVS Siberian Military District) Krasnodar Higher United Flight-Technical School (Krasnodar, VVS NCMD; :ru:Краснодарское высшее военное авиационное училище лётчиков) Orenburg Higher Military Aviation School of Pilots (Orenburg, VVS Volga-Ural Military District) Saratov Higher Military Aviation School of Pilots (Saratov, VVS Volga-Urals Military District; helicopter training) Stavropol Higher Military Aviation School of Pilots and Navigators PVO (Stavropol, VVS North Caucasus Military District) Syzran Higher Military Aviation School of Pilots Tambov Higher Military Aviation School of Pilots (Tambov, Tambov Oblast, Air Forces of the Moscow Military District) Ufa Higher Military Aviation School of Pilots (Ufa) Yeysk Higher Military Aviation School (Yeysk, :ru:Ейский высший военный авиационный институт) 17th Air Army (Kiev Military District, primarily a training force) Chernigov Higher Military Aviation School of Pilots (Chernigov, VVS Kiev Military District) Kharkov Higher Military Aviation School of Pilots (Kharkov-Chuguyev, VVS Kiev Military District) Voroshilovgrad Higher Military Aviation School of Navigators (Lugansk) There is also a list of Soviet Air Force bases listing the various air bases of the force. Commanders-in-Chief Soviet Air Force inventory in 1990 175 strategic bombers 160 Tupolev Tu-95 15 Tupolev Tu-160 390 medium bombers 80 Tupolev Tu-16 120 Tupolev Tu-22 190 Tupolev Tu-22M 1,275 fighters 50 Mikoyan-Gurevich MiG-21 595 Mikoyan-Gurevich MiG-23 90 Sukhoi Su-27 540 Mikoyan MiG-29 2,510 attack aircraft 535 Sukhoi Su-17 830 Sukhoi Su-24 340 Sukhoi Su-25 905 Mikoyan MiG-27 74 tankers 14 Ilyushin Il-78 40 Myasishchev M-4 'Molot' 20 Tupolev Tu-16 835 Reconnaissance and ECM aircraft 50 Mikoyan-Gurevich MiG-21 160 Mikoyan-Gurevich MiG-25 135 Sukhoi Su-17 150 Sukhoi Su-24 170 Yakovlev Yak-28 120 Tupolev Tu-16 20 Tupolev Tu-22M 30 Ilyushin Il-22 577 transport aircraft 12 Antonov An-124 55 Antonov An-22 125 Antonov An-12 385 Ilyushin Il-76 2,935 civilian and other transport aircraft, usually Aeroflot aircraft which were easily converted See also List of Russian aviators List of Russian aerospace engineers Soviet air shows References Bibliography Andersson, Lennart. Soviet Aircraft and Aviation, 1917–1941. Annapolis, MD: Naval Institute Press, 1994. . Bailes, Kendall (January 1976). "Technology and Legitimacy: Soviet Aviation and Stalinism in the 1930s". Technology and Culture 17 (1): 55–81. Bergman, Jay (January 1998). "Valerii Chkalov: Soviet Pilot as New Soviet Man". Journal of Contemporary History 33 (1): 136. Boyd, Alexander. The Soviet Air Force Since 1918. New York: Stein and Day, 1977. With section of black-and-white photographic plates, charts. maps and diagrams, together with index. First published in The Soviet Air Force by Macdonald and Janes (UK) in 1977. Guest, Carl-Fredrick. "Talkback". Air Enthusiast, No. 18, April – July 1982. pp. 78–79. . Loza, D. F. Attack of the Airacobras: Soviet Aces, American P-39s, and the Air War Against Germany. Lawrence, KS: University Press of Kansas, 2001. . Mason, Richard Anthony, and John William Ransom Taylor. Aircraft, strategy, and operations of the Soviet Air Force. London: Jane's, 1986. Palmer, Scott W. Dictatorship of the Air: Aviation Culture and the Fate of Modern Russia. New York: Cambridge University Press, 2006. . Palmer, Scott (2005). "Icarus, East: The Symbolic Contexts of Russian Flight". The Slavic and East European Journal 49 (1): 38. Pennington, Reina. (2002) Wings, Women, and War: Soviet Airwomen in World War II Combat. Lawrence, KS: University Press of Kansas, 2002. . Wagner, Ray (ed.), Fetzer, Leland, (trans.), The Soviet Air Force in World War II: The Official History, Wren Publishing, Melbourne, 1973 Whiting, Kenneth (1986). Soviet Air Power (Revised Ed).'' Boulder, Colorado: Westview Press. "Советские Войска ПВО в последние годы Союза ССР. Часть 1" by A.G. Lenskiy and M.M. Tsybin, Saint Petersburg 2013, 164 pages "Все истребительные авиаполки Сталина" by V. Anokhin and M Bykhov, Moscow 2014, 944 pages External links Dictatorship of the Air Website and blog devoted to Soviet/Russian aviation history Globalsecurity.org on Russian air arms, useful for structure of Soviet Air Force 01 Disbanded air forces Military of the Soviet Union Military history of Russia 1918 establishments in Russia 1991 disestablishments in the Soviet Union Military units and formations established in 1918 Military units and formations disestablished in 1991	[ 0.519493818283081, 0.39315682649612427, -0.360025554895401, -0.1844363510608673, -0.46243488788604736, 0.4028667211532593, 0.26445522904396057, -0.032429490238428116, -0.09945088624954224, -0.08049780130386353, -0.8588559031486511, 0.2763623297214508, -0.7005709409713745, 0.37874263525009155, -0.4281356632709503, 0.38595840334892273, 0.4299287796020508, 0.42851826548576355, 0.7254653573036194, -0.4131423830986023, -0.0277703944593668, 0.38498225808143616, 0.24153931438922882, -0.09692290425300598, 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229936	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/R%20v%20Park	R v Park	R v Park [1995] 2 S.C.R. 836, is a Supreme Court of Canada case dealing with the mistaken belief defence – i.e. that the accused had an honest but mistaken belief that he had consent to engage in sexual relations with the complainant – and the role of the Canadian Charter of Rights and Freedoms in relation to sexual assault. Facts The accused was charged with sexual assault. Two weeks before the incident, the complainant and the accused had dated for the first time. Park testified that at her apartment they became intimate; fondled one another's private parts and talked of sex and birth control; she masturbated him to ejaculation. She maintains that they only kissed and talked of birth control. She stated she was a born again Christian and did not believe in premarital sex and thus claimed there was no consensual sexual activity. On the day of the incident, the accused called the complainant early in the morning; she agreed that he could come over. He arrived shortly thereafter and she greeted him at the door with a kiss on the cheek, wearing only her bathrobe. She claimed that, a few minutes later, he drew her to him and pushed her onto the bed. He was strong and while she resisted actively he could not be stopped. At that point, feeling his weight on her, she flashbacked to a previous traumatic experience. She went into "shock". His pulling his penis out of her and ejaculating on her stomach was the next thing she remembered. The accused had a very different story. He testified that she actively participated and when things got "hot", he prematurely ejaculated on her stomach. He denied that intercourse took place. A medical report from the examination of the complainant indicated redness on the inner labia, consistent with consensual or non-consensual intercourse. At trial, the accused's defence was that either (1) that she consented to the sexual activity or, (2) alternatively, that he had an honest but mistaken belief that she was consenting. The trial judge refused to put the mistaken belief defence to the jury, finding there was no "air of reality" to it, and concluding that the issue was simply one of "consent or no consent". The accused was convicted. On appeal, the majority of the Court of Appeal set aside the conviction ordering a new trial, and that the trial judge erred by not putting the mistaken-belief defence to the jury. Held The conviction restored. Reasoning This case discusses the defence of mistaken belief and how there must be an air of reality to that defence, i.e. the accused cannot put forth the defence if there is no air of reality in relation to the evidence in the case. In this particular situation there was little if no evidence that might have substantiated his allegation that he might have had an honest belief that she was giving consent, i.e. she was a born again Christian, she did not believe in premarital sex, the objective evidence of redness on the inner labia, consistent with consensual or non-consensual intercourse. The opinion of L'Heureux-Dubé J. stresses that there is an issue of treating women and men equally in these types of cases regarding the equality rights that afforded to all by the Canadian Charter of Rights and Freedoms (at page 864): External links Supreme Court of Canada cases 1995 in Canadian case law Canadian criminal case law	[ -0.37669119238853455, 0.030419306829571724, -0.31075233221054077, -0.7752276659011841, -0.4303547143936157, 0.3275595009326935, 0.3287174105644226, -0.22473154962062836, 0.0826946273446083, 0.4383653700351715, -0.2876969575881958, 0.0839601382613182, -0.0226063784211874, 0.3447464108467102, -0.1776481717824936, 0.45453161001205444, -0.44970470666885376, 0.7309338450431824, 0.26637810468673706, -0.7029796838760376, 0.4837300777435303, -0.7635977268218994, -0.5222704410552979, 0.06947894394397736, 0.09796449542045593, 0.088387131690979, 0.11714209616184235, 0.2560827434062958, -0.3045603632926941, 0.17186622321605682, -0.09472741931676865, 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229937	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hoechst%20AG	Hoechst AG	Hoechst AG () was a German chemicals then life-sciences company that became Aventis Deutschland after its merger with France's Rhône-Poulenc S.A. in 1999. With the new company's 2004 merger with Sanofi-Synthélabo, it became a subsidiary of the resulting Sanofi-Aventis pharmaceuticals group. History The company was founded in 1863 as "Teerfarbenfabrik Meister, Lucius & Co." in Höchst, near Frankfurt and changed its name some years later to "Teerfarbenfabrik Meister Lucius & Brüning". In 1880 it became a stock company "Farbwerke vorm. Meister Lucius & Brüning AG". For the international market the name was simplified to "Farbwerke Hoechst AG". Until 1925 the Hoechst AG was independent. In 1916, the Hoechst AG was one of the co-founders of IG Farben, an advocacy group of Germany's chemicals industry to gain industrial power during and after World War I. In 1925, IG Farben turned from an advocacy group into the well-known conglomerate. World War II Various Hoechst facilities were bombed during the Oil Campaign of World War II. Its managers in charge were prosecuted along with other IG Farben managers—during the Nuremberg trials—in the IG Farben trial for their role in the exploitation of enslaved laborers and for testing drugs on concentration camp prisoners. Postwar timeline 1951 - Hoechst AG was re-founded on December 7 in Frankfurt when IG Farben was split into its founder companies. The original capitalization of the company was 100,000 Deutsche Mark. By 1953 Hoechst had acquired parts of Knapsack-Griesheim, Kalle AG, Behring Werke, Wacker Chemie and Ruhr Chemie, among others. 1964 - Handok Pharmaceuticals Joint Venture Partner In South Korea 1969 - Hoechst acquired Cassella. 1987 - Hoechst acquired the American chemical company Celanese and formed a new Hoechst subsidiary in the US, Hoechst Celanese. 1995 - Hoechst merges with Marion Merrell Dow of Kansas City, Missouri forming U.S. subsidiary Hoechst Marion Roussel (HMR). 1997 - Hoechst underwent a realignment wherein its various businesses were transferred to independent companies, including Nutrinova and Clariant. 1999 (December 7) - Hoechst and Rhône-Poulenc settle Federal Trade Commission charges that merger would violate U.S. antitrust laws; 1999 - Aventis was formed when Hoechst AG merged with Rhône-Poulenc S.A. The merged company was headquartered in Strasbourg, Eastern France. As part of the merger, the company demerged many of its industrial businesses into Celanese, which became an independent company again (e.g. the engineering polymers business Ticona). 2005 - The company became a wholly owned subsidiary of Sanofi-Aventis (now called Sanofi). Key figures Wilhelm Meister (1827–1895) founded the chemical company Teerfarbenfabrik Meister, Lucius & Co. which eventually became Hoechst AG. He was the great-grandfather of William von Meister, one of the founders of Control Video Corporation which later became America Online. Pascal Soriot (the now-chief executive of AstraZeneca) held positions with the organisation from 1989 up until 2006 through Aventis. References Notes https://web.archive.org/web/20051028022652/http://www.celanese.com/index/about_index/company-profile/company-profile-history.htm. Retrieved July 24, 2005. https://web.archive.org/web/20050620220227/http://www.prnewswire.com/cgi-bin/stories.pl?ACCT=104 Retrieved July 24, 2005. Stephan H. Lindner. Inside IG Farben: Hoechst During the Third Reich. New York: Cambridge University Press. "Faith Healers: The born-again Gregory brothers worked a financial miracle from cast-off drug brands." Forbes. Zina Moukheiber. October 28, 2002. 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229938	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Canaries	Canaries	Canaries may refer to: Canary Islands, an archipelago in the Atlantic belonging to Spain Canaries, Saint Lucia, a village on the Caribbean island of Saint Lucia Canaries, birds in the genera Serinus and Crithagra Canary (court dance), a lively 16th century court dance in Europe "The Canaries", the nickname of several football teams Norwich City F.C., from England Hitchin Town F.C., from England FK Novi Sad, from Serbia FC Nantes, from France PFC Botev Plovdiv, from Bulgaria Canaries (film), 1969 film by Jerome Hill Canaries (Arrow), an episode of Arrow See also Canary (disambiguation) Canarese Canaris (disambiguation)	[ -0.1852055937051773, -0.3047167658805847, -0.18300412595272064, -0.3684998154640198, 0.07070162147283554, 0.18060457706451416, -0.045260749757289886, 1.0107858180999756, -0.7559612393379211, -0.09840583056211472, -0.2834054231643677, 0.380412220954895, -0.30994713306427, -0.1965421438217163, -0.3870389759540558, 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229939	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fractional%20calculus	Fractional calculus	Fractional calculus is a branch of mathematical analysis that studies the several different possibilities of defining real number powers or complex number powers of the differentiation operator and of the integration operator and developing a calculus for such operators generalizing the classical one. In this context, the term powers refers to iterative application of a linear operator D to a function f, that is, repeatedly composing D with itself, as in . For example, one may ask for a meaningful interpretation of as an analogue of the functional square root for the differentiation operator, that is, an expression for some linear operator that when applied twice to any function will have the same effect as differentiation. More generally, one can look at the question of defining a linear operator for every real number in such a way that, when takes an integer value , it coincides with the usual -fold differentiation if , and with the -th power of when . One of the motivations behind the introduction and study of these sorts of extensions of the differentiation operator is that the sets of operator powers defined in this way are continuous semigroups with parameter , of which the original discrete semigroup of for integer is a denumerable subgroup: since continuous semigroups have a well developed mathematical theory, they can be applied to other branches of mathematics. Fractional differential equations, also known as extraordinary differential equations, are a generalization of differential equations through the application of fractional calculus. Historical notes In applied mathematics and mathematical analysis, a fractional derivative is a derivative of any arbitrary order, real or complex. Its first appearance is in a letter written to Guillaume de l'Hôpital by Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz in 1695. Around the same time, Leibniz wrote to one of the Bernoulli brothers describing the similarity between the binomial theorem and the Leibniz rule for the fractional derivative of a product of two functions. Fractional calculus was introduced in one of Niels Henrik Abel's early papers where all the elements can be found: the idea of fractional-order integration and differentiation, the mutually inverse relationship between them, the understanding that fractional-order differentiation and integration can be considered as the same generalized operation, and even the unified notation for differentiation and integration of arbitrary real order. Independently, the foundations of the subject were laid by Liouville in a paper from 1832. The autodidact Oliver Heaviside introduced the practical use of fractional differential operators in electrical transmission line analysis circa 1890. The theory and applications of fractional calculus expanded greatly over the 19th and 20th centuries, and numerous contributors have given definitions for fractional derivatives and integrals. Nature of the fractional derivative The th derivative of a function at a point is a local property only when is an integer; this is not the case for non-integer power derivatives. In other words, a non-integer fractional derivative of a function at x = a depends on all values of , even those far away from . Therefore, it is expected that the fractional derivative operation involves some sort of boundary conditions, involving information on the function further out. The fractional derivative of a function to order is often now defined by means of the Fourier or Mellin integral transforms. Heuristics A fairly natural question to ask is whether there exists a linear operator , or half-derivative, such that It turns out that there is such an operator, and indeed for any , there exists an operator such that or to put it another way, the definition of can be extended to all real values of . Let be a function defined for . Form the definite integral from 0 to . Call this Repeating this process gives and this can be extended arbitrarily. The Cauchy formula for repeated integration, namely leads in a straightforward way to a generalization for real . Using the gamma function to remove the discrete nature of the factorial function gives us a natural candidate for fractional applications of the integral operator. This is in fact a well-defined operator. It is straightforward to show that the operator satisfies This relationship is called the semigroup property of fractional differintegral operators. Unfortunately, the comparable process for the derivative operator is significantly more complex, but it can be shown that is neither commutative nor additive in general. Fractional derivative of a basic power function Let us assume that is a monomial of the form The first derivative is as usual Repeating this gives the more general result that which, after replacing the factorials with the gamma function, leads to For and , we obtain the half-derivative of the function as To demonstrate that this is, in fact, the "half derivative" (where ), we repeat the process to get: (because and ) which is indeed the expected result of For negative integer power , the gamma function is undefined and we have to use the following relation: This extension of the above differential operator need not be constrained only to real powers; it also applies for complex powers. For example, the -th derivative of the -th derivative yields the second derivative. Also setting negative values for yields integrals. For a general function and , the complete fractional derivative is For arbitrary , since the gamma function is undefined for arguments whose real part is a negative integer and whose imaginary part is zero , it is necessary to apply the fractional derivative after the integer derivative has been performed. For example, Laplace transform We can also come at the question via the Laplace transform. Knowing that and and so on, we assert . For example, as expected. Indeed, given the convolution rule and shorthanding for clarity, we find that which is what Cauchy gave us above. Laplace transforms "work" on relatively few functions, but they are often useful for solving fractional differential equations. Fractional integrals Riemann–Liouville fractional integral The classical form of fractional calculus is given by the Riemann–Liouville integral, which is essentially what has been described above. The theory for periodic functions (therefore including the "boundary condition" of repeating after a period) is the Weyl integral. It is defined on Fourier series, and requires the constant Fourier coefficient to vanish (thus, it applies to functions on the unit circle whose integrals evaluate to zero). The Riemann-Liouville integral exists in two forms, upper and lower. Considering the interval , the integrals are defined as Where the former is valid for and the latter is valid for . By contrast the Grünwald–Letnikov derivative starts with the derivative instead of the integral. Hadamard fractional integral The Hadamard fractional integral is introduced by Jacques Hadamard and is given by the following formula, Atangana-Baleanu fractional integral The Atangana-Baleanu fractional integral of a continuous function is defined as: Fractional derivatives Unlike classical Newtonian derivatives, fractional derivatives can be defined in a variety of different ways that do often do not all lead to the same result even for smooth functions. Some of these are defined via a fractional integral. Because of the incompatibility of definitions, it is frequently necessary to be explicit about which definition is used. Riemann–Liouville fractional derivative The corresponding derivative is calculated using Lagrange's rule for differential operators. Computing th order derivative over the integral of order , the order derivative is obtained. It is important to remark that is the smallest integer greater than ( that is, ). Similar to the definitions for the Riemann-Liouville integral, the derivative has upper and lower variants. Caputo fractional derivative Another option for computing fractional derivatives is the Caputo fractional derivative. It was introduced by Michele Caputo in his 1967 paper. In contrast to the Riemann-Liouville fractional derivative, when solving differential equations using Caputo's definition, it is not necessary to define the fractional order initial conditions. Caputo's definition is illustrated as follows, where again : There is the Caputo fractional derivative defined as: which has the advantage that is zero when is constant and its Laplace Transform is expressed by means of the initial values of the function and its derivative. Moreover, there is the Caputo fractional derivative of distributed order defined as where is a weight function and which is used to represent mathematically the presence of multiple memory formalisms. Caputo-Fabrizio fractional derivative In a paper of 2015, M. Caputo and M. Fabrizio presented a definition of fractional derivative with a non singular kernel, for a function of given by: where Atangana-Baleanu fractional derivative In 2016, Atangana and Baleanu suggested differential operators based on the generalized Mittag-Leffler function. The aim was to introduce fractional differential operators with non-singular nonlocal kernel. Their fractional differential operators are given below in Riemann-Liouville sense and Caputo sense respectively. For a function of given by If the function is continuous, the Atangana-Baleanu derivative in Riemann-Liouville sense is given by: The kernel used in Atangana-Baleanu fractional derivative has some properties of a cumulative distribution function. For example, for all , the function is increasing on the real line, converges to in , and . Therefore, we have that, the function is the cumulative distribution function of a probability measure on the positive real numbers. The distribution is therefore defined, and any of its multiples, is called a Mittag-Leffler distribution of order . It is also very well-known that, all these probability distributions are absolutely continuous. In particular, the function Mittag-Leffler has a particular case , which is the exponential function, the Mittag-Leffler distribution of order is therefore an exponential distribution. However, for , the Mittag-Leffler distributions are heavy-tailed. Their Laplace transform is given by: This directly implies that, for , the expectation is infinite. In addition, these distributions are geometric stable distributions. Riesz derivative The Riesz derivative is defined as where denotes the Fourier transform. Other types Classical fractional derivatives include: Grünwald–Letnikov derivative Sonin–Letnikov derivative Liouville derivative Caputo derivative Hadamard derivative Marchaud derivative Riesz derivative Miller–Ross derivative Weyl derivative Erdélyi–Kober derivative New fractional derivatives include: Coimbra derivative Katugampola derivative Hilfer derivative Davidson derivative Chen derivative Caputo Fabrizio derivative Atangana–Baleanu derivative Generalizations Erdélyi–Kober operator The Erdélyi–Kober operator is an integral operator introduced by Arthur Erdélyi (1940). and Hermann Kober (1940) and is given by which generalizes the Riemann–Liouville fractional integral and the Weyl integral. Functional calculus In the context of functional analysis, functions more general than powers are studied in the functional calculus of spectral theory. The theory of pseudo-differential operators also allows one to consider powers of . The operators arising are examples of singular integral operators; and the generalisation of the classical theory to higher dimensions is called the theory of Riesz potentials. So there are a number of contemporary theories available, within which fractional calculus can be discussed. See also Erdélyi–Kober operator, important in special function theory , . Applications Fractional conservation of mass As described by Wheatcraft and Meerschaert (2008), a fractional conservation of mass equation is needed to model fluid flow when the control volume is not large enough compared to the scale of heterogeneity and when the flux within the control volume is non-linear. In the referenced paper, the fractional conservation of mass equation for fluid flow is: Electrochemical Analysis When studying the redox behavior of a substrate in solution, a voltage is applied at an electrode surface to force electron transfer between electrode and substrate. The resulting electron transfer is measured as a current. The current depends upon the concentration of substrate at the electrode surface. As substrate is consumed, fresh substrate diffuses to the electrode as described by Fick's Law. Taking the Laplace transform of Fick's second law yields an ordinary second-order differential equation (here in dimensionless form): whose solution C(x,s) contains a one-half power dependence on s. Taking the derivative of C(x,s) and then the inverse Laplace transform yields the following relationship: which relates the concentration of substrate at the electrode surface to the current. This relationship is applied in electrochemical kinetics to elucidate mechanistic behavior. For example, it has been used to study the rate of dimerization of substrates upon electrochemical reduction. Groundwater flow problem In 2013–2014 Atangana et al. described some groundwater flow problems using the concept of derivative with fractional order. In these works, the classical Darcy law is generalized by regarding the water flow as a function of a non-integer order derivative of the piezometric head. This generalized law and the law of conservation of mass are then used to derive a new equation for groundwater flow. Fractional advection dispersion equation This equation has been shown useful for modeling contaminant flow in heterogenous porous media. Atangana and Kilicman extended the fractional advection dispersion equation to a variable order equation. In their work, the hydrodynamic dispersion equation was generalized using the concept of a variational order derivative. The modified equation was numerically solved via the Crank–Nicolson method. The stability and convergence in numerical simulations showed that the modified equation is more reliable in predicting the movement of pollution in deformable aquifers than equations with constant fractional and integer derivatives Time-space fractional diffusion equation models Anomalous diffusion processes in complex media can be well characterized by using fractional-order diffusion equation models. The time derivative term is corresponding to long-time heavy tail decay and the spatial derivative for diffusion nonlocality. The time-space fractional diffusion governing equation can be written as A simple extension of fractional derivative is the variable-order fractional derivative, and are changed into and . Its applications in anomalous diffusion modeling can be found in reference. Structural damping models Fractional derivatives are used to model viscoelastic damping in certain types of materials like polymers. PID controllers Generalizing PID controllers to use fractional orders can increase their degree of freedom. The new equation relating the control variable in terms of a measured error value can be written as where and are positive fractional orders and , , and , all non-negative, denote the coefficients for the proportional, integral, and derivative terms, respectively (sometimes denoted , , and ). Acoustical wave equations for complex media The propagation of acoustical waves in complex media, such as in biological tissue, commonly implies attenuation obeying a frequency power-law. This kind of phenomenon may be described using a causal wave equation which incorporates fractional time derivatives: See also Holm & Näsholm (2011) and the references therein. Such models are linked to the commonly recognized hypothesis that multiple relaxation phenomena give rise to the attenuation measured in complex media. This link is further described in Näsholm & Holm (2011b) and in the survey paper, as well as the acoustic attenuation article. See Holm & Nasholm (2013) for a paper which compares fractional wave equations which model power-law attenuation. This book on power-law attenuation also covers the topic in more detail. Pandey and Holm gave a physical meaning to fractional differential equations by deriving them from physical principles and interpreting the fractional-order in terms of the parameters of the acoustical media, example in fluid-saturated granular unconsolidated marine sediments. Interestingly, Pandey and Holm derived Lomnitz's law in seismology and Nutting's law in non-Newtonian rheology using the framework of fractional calculus. Nutting's law was used to model the wave propagation in marine sediments using fractional derivatives. Fractional Schrödinger equation in quantum theory The fractional Schrödinger equation, a fundamental equation of fractional quantum mechanics, has the following form: where the solution of the equation is the wavefunction – the quantum mechanical probability amplitude for the particle to have a given position vector at any given time , and is the reduced Planck constant. The potential energy function depends on the system. Further, is the Laplace operator, and is a scale constant with physical dimension , (at , for a particle of mass ), and the operator is the 3-dimensional fractional quantum Riesz derivative defined by The index in the fractional Schrödinger equation is the Lévy index, . Variable-order fractional Schrödinger equation As a natural generalization of the fractional Schrödinger equation, the variable-order fractional Schrödinger equation has been exploited to study fractional quantum phenomena: where is the Laplace operator and the operator is the variable-order fractional quantum Riesz derivative. See also Acoustic attenuation Autoregressive fractionally integrated moving average Neopolarogram Nonlocal operator Other fractional theories Fractional dynamics Fractional Fourier transform Fractional Poisson process Fractional quantum mechanics Notes References Sources Further reading Articles regarding the history of fractional calculus Books External links From MathWorld Fractional calculus Fractional derivative Fractional Calculus at MathPages Specialized journals Fractional Calculus and Applied Analysis 1998–2014 Fractional Calculus and Applied Analysis 2015— Fractional Differential Calculus (FDC) 2011– Communications in Fractional Calculus Journal of Fractional Calculus and Applications (JFCA) 2011— collection of books, articles, preprints, etc. Fractional Calculus Modelling Introductory Notes on Fractional Calculus Power Law & Fractional Dynamics The CRONE Toolbox, a Matlab and Simulink Toolbox dedicated to fractional calculus, which is freely downloadable Generalizations	[ 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229940	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Multiplicative%20inverse	Multiplicative inverse	In mathematics, a multiplicative inverse or reciprocal for a number x, denoted by 1/x or x−1, is a number which when multiplied by x yields the multiplicative identity, 1. The multiplicative inverse of a fraction a/b is b/a. For the multiplicative inverse of a real number, divide 1 by the number. For example, the reciprocal of 5 is one fifth (1/5 or 0.2), and the reciprocal of 0.25 is 1 divided by 0.25, or 4. The reciprocal function, the function f(x) that maps x to 1/x, is one of the simplest examples of a function which is its own inverse (an involution). Multiplying by a number is the same as dividing by its reciprocal and vice versa. For example, multiplication by 4/5 (or 0.8) will give the same result as division by 5/4 (or 1.25). Therefore, multiplication by a number followed by multiplication by its reciprocal yields the original number (since the product of the number and its reciprocal is 1). The term reciprocal was in common use at least as far back as the third edition of Encyclopædia Britannica (1797) to describe two numbers whose product is 1; geometrical quantities in inverse proportion are described as in a 1570 translation of Euclid's Elements. In the phrase multiplicative inverse, the qualifier multiplicative is often omitted and then tacitly understood (in contrast to the additive inverse). Multiplicative inverses can be defined over many mathematical domains as well as numbers. In these cases it can happen that ; then "inverse" typically implies that an element is both a left and right inverse. The notation f −1 is sometimes also used for the inverse function of the function f, which is not in general equal to the multiplicative inverse. For example, the multiplicative inverse is the cosecant of x, and not the inverse sine of x denoted by or . Only for linear maps are they strongly related (see below). The terminology difference reciprocal versus inverse is not sufficient to make this distinction, since many authors prefer the opposite naming convention, probably for historical reasons (for example in French, the inverse function is preferably called the bijection réciproque). Examples and counterexamples In the real numbers, zero does not have a reciprocal because no real number multiplied by 0 produces 1 (the product of any number with zero is zero). With the exception of zero, reciprocals of every real number are real, reciprocals of every rational number are rational, and reciprocals of every complex number are complex. The property that every element other than zero has a multiplicative inverse is part of the definition of a field, of which these are all examples. On the other hand, no integer other than 1 and −1 has an integer reciprocal, and so the integers are not a field. In modular arithmetic, the modular multiplicative inverse of a is also defined: it is the number x such that . This multiplicative inverse exists if and only if a and n are coprime. For example, the inverse of 3 modulo 11 is 4 because . The extended Euclidean algorithm may be used to compute it. The sedenions are an algebra in which every nonzero element has a multiplicative inverse, but which nonetheless has divisors of zero, that is, nonzero elements x, y such that xy = 0. A square matrix has an inverse if and only if its determinant has an inverse in the coefficient ring. The linear map that has the matrix A−1 with respect to some base is then the reciprocal function of the map having A as matrix in the same base. Thus, the two distinct notions of the inverse of a function are strongly related in this case, while they must be carefully distinguished in the general case (as noted above). The trigonometric functions are related by the reciprocal identity: the cotangent is the reciprocal of the tangent; the secant is the reciprocal of the cosine; the cosecant is the reciprocal of the sine. A ring in which every nonzero element has a multiplicative inverse is a division ring; likewise an algebra in which this holds is a division algebra. Complex numbers As mentioned above, the reciprocal of every nonzero complex number is complex. It can be found by multiplying both top and bottom of 1/z by its complex conjugate and using the property that , the absolute value of z squared, which is the real number : The intuition is that gives us the complex conjugate with a magnitude reduced to a value of , so dividing again by ensures that the magnitude is now equal to the reciprocal of the original magnitude as well, hence: In particular, if \|\|z\|\|=1 (z has unit magnitude), then . Consequently, the imaginary units, , have additive inverse equal to multiplicative inverse, and are the only complex numbers with this property. For example, additive and multiplicative inverses of are and , respectively. For a complex number in polar form , the reciprocal simply takes the reciprocal of the magnitude and the negative of the angle: Calculus In real calculus, the derivative of is given by the power rule with the power −1: The power rule for integrals (Cavalieri's quadrature formula) cannot be used to compute the integral of 1/x, because doing so would result in division by 0: Instead the integral is given by: where ln is the natural logarithm. To show this, note that , so if and , we have: Algorithms The reciprocal may be computed by hand with the use of long division. Computing the reciprocal is important in many division algorithms, since the quotient a/b can be computed by first computing 1/b and then multiplying it by a. Noting that has a zero at x = 1/b, Newton's method can find that zero, starting with a guess and iterating using the rule: This continues until the desired precision is reached. For example, suppose we wish to compute 1/17 ≈ 0.0588 with 3 digits of precision. Taking x0 = 0.1, the following sequence is produced: x1 = 0.1(2 − 17 × 0.1) = 0.03 x2 = 0.03(2 − 17 × 0.03) = 0.0447 x3 = 0.0447(2 − 17 × 0.0447) ≈ 0.0554 x4 = 0.0554(2 − 17 × 0.0554) ≈ 0.0586 x5 = 0.0586(2 − 17 × 0.0586) ≈ 0.0588 A typical initial guess can be found by rounding b to a nearby power of 2, then using bit shifts to compute its reciprocal. In constructive mathematics, for a real number x to have a reciprocal, it is not sufficient that x ≠ 0. There must instead be given a rational number r such that 0 < r < \|x\|. In terms of the approximation algorithm described above, this is needed to prove that the change in y will eventually become arbitrarily small. This iteration can also be generalized to a wider sort of inverses; for example, matrix inverses. Reciprocals of irrational numbers Every real or complex number excluding zero has a reciprocal, and reciprocals of certain irrational numbers can have important special properties. Examples include the reciprocal of e (≈ 0.367879) and the golden ratio's reciprocal (≈ 0.618034). The first reciprocal is special because no other positive number can produce a lower number when put to the power of itself; is the global minimum of . The second number is the only positive number that is equal to its reciprocal plus one:. Its additive inverse is the only negative number that is equal to its reciprocal minus one:. The function gives an infinite number of irrational numbers that differ with their reciprocal by an integer. For example, is the irrational . Its reciprocal is , exactly less. Such irrational numbers share an evident property: they have the same fractional part as their reciprocal, since these numbers differ by an integer. Further remarks If the multiplication is associative, an element x with a multiplicative inverse cannot be a zero divisor (x is a zero divisor if some nonzero y, ). To see this, it is sufficient to multiply the equation by the inverse of x (on the left), and then simplify using associativity. In the absence of associativity, the sedenions provide a counterexample. The converse does not hold: an element which is not a zero divisor is not guaranteed to have a multiplicative inverse. Within Z, all integers except −1, 0, 1 provide examples; they are not zero divisors nor do they have inverses in Z. If the ring or algebra is finite, however, then all elements a which are not zero divisors do have a (left and right) inverse. For, first observe that the map must be injective: implies : Distinct elements map to distinct elements, so the image consists of the same finite number of elements, and the map is necessarily surjective. Specifically, ƒ (namely multiplication by a) must map some element x to 1, , so that x is an inverse for a. Applications The expansion of the reciprocal 1/q in any base can also act as a source of pseudo-random numbers, if q is a "suitable" safe prime, a prime of the form 2p + 1 where p is also a prime. A sequence of pseudo-random numbers of length q − 1 will be produced by the expansion. See also Division (mathematics) Exponential decay Fraction (mathematics) Group (mathematics) Hyperbola List of sums of reciprocals Repeating decimal Six-sphere coordinates Unit fractions – reciprocals of integers Notes References Maximally Periodic Reciprocals, Matthews R.A.J. Bulletin of the Institute of Mathematics and its Applications vol 28 pp 147–148 1992 Elementary special functions Abstract algebra Elementary algebra Multiplication Unary operations	[ -0.3002837002277374, 0.06447358429431915, 0.018319249153137207, -0.07796866446733475, -0.7410402894020081, 0.2970046103000641, -0.1962236762046814, -0.2237410694360733, 0.03227604553103447, -0.48681050539016724, 0.0077203712426126, 0.313757061958313, -0.40697532892227173, 0.04029525816440582, -0.2962997853755951, 0.5394188761711121, 0.46567732095718384, 0.26683518290519714, -0.6730542778968811, -0.5077702403068542, 0.3591543138027191, 0.44293656945228577, 0.1189088299870491, -0.49556270241737366, 0.10123300552368164, 0.2526054382324219, -0.010388115420937538, -0.4322328269481659, -0.1224786713719368, 0.5022763013839722, 0.11276860535144806, 0.6035255193710327, 0.16523729264736176, -0.007751974742859602, 0.12347850203514099, 0.3339063227176666, 0.32925599813461304, -0.1788584440946579, 0.34500086307525635, 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229941	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Booster	Booster	Booster may refer to: Amusement rides Booster (Fabbri ride), a pendulum ride Booster (HUSS ride), an evolution of the Breakdance ride Booster (KMG ride), a pendulum ride Arts, entertainment, and media Fictional characters Booster, a character in the animated television series and the pilot episode film Buzz Lightyear of Star Command: The Adventure Begins and Buzz Lightyear of Star Command Booster, the Japanese name for the Pokémon Flareon Booster, a character in the video game Super Mario RPG Other uses in arts, entertainment, and media Booster (newspaper), a Chicago newspaper Booster pack, a packaged set of collectable game cards or figurines that supplements the starter packs Science and technology Booster (electric power), a motor-generator set used for voltage regulation in direct current electrical power circuits Booster (rocketry), used in space flight to provide or augment the main thrust in the initial phase of the rocket's flight Booster, a co-channel repeater in broadcasting, used to improve signal strength Booster dose, or booster shot, in medicine, a vaccination given after a previous vaccination Booster engine, extra cylinders on a steam locomotive, driving the trailing truck or a tender truck, to give more power on starting Booster pump, a type of compressor Explosive booster, a bridge between a low energy explosive and a low sensitivity explosive Launch vehicle, a satellite-launching rocket, sometimes informally referred to as a booster Pegasus Booster, a powered hang glider Vacuum servo or brake booster, a component in car braking systems Other uses Booster, someone who is a member of a booster club Booster, someone who engages in boosterism Booster, someone who engages in theft, specifically to resell robbed goods Booster seat, a type of child car seat designed to properly position the vehicle's seat belt Faxe Kondi Booster and Booster Blue, Danish energy drinks See also	[ -0.08340786397457123, 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229942	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Celanese	Celanese	Celanese Corporation, formerly known as Hoechst Celanese, is an American technology and specialty materials company headquartered in Irving, Texas, United States. Part of the Fortune 500, the company is the world’s leading producer of acetic acid, producing about 1.95 million tonnes per year, representing approximately 25% of global production. Celanese is also the world's largest producer of vinyl acetate monomer (VAM). Celanese operates 25 production plants and six research centers in 11 countries, mainly in North America, Europe and Asia. The company owns and operates the world's three largest acetic acid plants, one in the Clear Lake area of Pasadena, Texas, one on Jurong Island in Singapore, and a third in Nanjing, China. History In 1918, the American Cellulose & Chemical Manufacturing Company (known as Amcelle) was founded in New York City by Swiss chemist Camille Dreyfus. The American Cellulose and Chemical Manufacturing Co. Ltd plant in Cumberland, Maryland was set up during World War I to produce cheaper fabric for airplane manufacturing. The plant location was chosen inland to protect against Zeppelin attacks. It was also situated in proximity to a ready source of water at the Potomac River and easy access to coal supplies and railroad lines. After a series of delays, production began on Christmas Day, 1924 with a series of cellulose acetate commercial fabrics and yarns intended as alternatives to silk. The plant was closed in 1983, and was later torn down to provide a space for a new state prison. The company had introduced the word “Celanese,” a combination of “cellulose” and “ease” in 1925, remarking on the ease of cleaning and care of their acetate yarn, or artificial silk, fabrics. They officially took this name in 1927, becoming Celanese Corporation of America. In 1947, Celanese started producing acetate fiber at its plant near Ocotlán, Jalisco, Mexico. The plant was closed in 2019. By 1958, Celanese had 13 domestic plants, three research and development centers, some 30 groups of products, and approximately 13,000 employees. Celanese commissioned Edward Stone, a 20th century American architect, in 1959 to build the “Celanese House,” a model home in New Canaan, Connecticut to showcase the company’s new materials and styles. Celanese bought operations of Imperial Chemicals Incorporated in 1982. This included the Fiber Industries Incorporated plant in Salisbury, North Carolina, a part of Invista since 2004. In 1983, Celanese built a $20 million plant in Rock Hill, South Carolina to produce polybenzimidazole (PBI), a material used to fabricate high-performance protective apparel used in firefighter's gear and astronaut space suits. Celanese spun off its pharmaceutical business as Celgene in 1986. In 1987, Celanese Corporation was acquired by Hoechst and merged with its American subsidiary, American Hoechst, to form Hoechst Celanese Corporation. In 1998, in a $2.7 billion deal, Hoechst Celanese sold its Trevira division to a consortium between Houston-based KoSa, a joint venture of Koch Industries, IMASAB S.A., and Grupo Xtra, both of Mexico. Also in 1998, Hoechst combined most of its industrial chemical operations into a new company, Celanese AG. In 1999, Hoechst spun off Celanese AG as a publicly traded German corporation, cross-listed on both the Frankfurt and New York stock exchanges as "CZZ" and "CZ", respectively. On 16 December 2003, the U.S. private equity firm Blackstone Group announced a takeover offer for Celanese, after two years of wooing management. Shareholders formally approved the offer from Blackstone on 16 June 2004, and Blackstone completed the acquisition of Celanese AG. The company was delisted from the New York Stock Exchange, and Blackstone changed the entity's name back to Celanese Corporation. Under Blackstone, a number of streamlining initiatives were undertaken, and several acquisitions were made. On 21 January 2005, Celanese Corporation conducted an initial public offering and became a publicly traded corporation traded on the New York Stock Exchange under the symbol "CE". When Blackstone sold the last of its shares in 2007, it had made five times what it had invested and it, and its co-investors collected a $2.9 billion profit. In June 2009, the company sold its polyvinyl alcohol (PVOH) business to Sekisui Chemical Co., Ltd. Celanese has a process to make ethanol from natural gas. Class action lawsuits In 1995, Hoechst Celanese was named along with Shell Oil and US Brass as a defendant in a class action lawsuit for $7 billion in both past and potential future damages for which they were accused of being liable because of leaks in their polybutylene (PB) plumbing systems. The lawsuit alleged a complex scheme to mislead buyers into believing that PB plumbing systems were suitable for use as potable water distribution systems and purportedly enjoying a lifetime of 50 years service. According to the lawsuit, scientists from the defendants allegedly reported that the PB plumbing systems would degrade even when exposed to low concentrations of chlorine typically found in municipal water systems. The lawsuit claimed that in spite of this knowledge, the defendants concealed the information and continued to market these products (Shell supplying PB resins to water pipe manufacturers and Hoechst Celanese providing acetal resins to manufacturers of pipe fittings) until approximately 1996. In January 2014, a class action lawsuit was filed on behalf of the citizens of Cannon’s Campground, seeking relief from health and environmental dangers posed by groundwater and surface water contamination emanating from the Hoechst-Celanese manufacturing plant in Spartanburg, South Carolina. The lawsuit alleged the dumping of a number of toxic chemicals into local waters, which has diminished property values and caused a number of illnesses. Hoechst Celanese asked the courts to dismiss these charges as spurious, claiming that its discharges have not caused substantial harm to anyone or to the environment, and further asserting that a 3-year limit on tort claims had expired, relieving the company of any responsibility for damages which might be eventually discovered. Products Acetyl intermediates Acetyl intermediates is Celanese's largest segment, with a product range consisting of basic chemicals such as acetic acid, acetic anhydride, and vinyl acetate. Customers of acetyl intermediates and industrial specialties are in the chemical, paint and coatings, construction, and adhesive industries for polymerization. Advanced engineered materials Advanced engineered materials offers plastic polymers to customers in the automotive, electronics, telecommunications, and medical industries. Major products include engineered plastics for fuel system components (provided by Ticona, the engineering polymer business of Celanese), conveyor belts, electronics, safety systems, emissions filtration, and fluid handling. Polymer production is improved by the acquisition of SO.F.TER Group, Forlì, in Italy in 2016. Consumer specialties The food ingredients business Nutrinova produces the high intensity sweetener Sunett (acesulfame K), the preservatives Nutrinova, potassium sorbate, and sorbic acid, and other food ingredients. Major end-use markets include beverages, confections, baked goods, and dairy products. In 2021, Celanese ranked 7th on FoodTalks' Global Top 20 Food Preservative Companies list. Celanese is one of the world's largest producers of cellulose acetate. Acetate products are primarily used in cigarette filters, as well as in the production of fashion apparel and linings. Celanese also manufactures Clarifoil cellulose acetate film that is wood pulp based and certified biodegradable and compostable in home and industrial composting conditions. Industrial specialties Industrial specialties, using the feedstock from acetyl intermediates, manufactures polymer and emulsions such as polyvinyl acetate emulsions, and specialty chemicals as ethylene vinyl acetate. Major end-use markets include polyvinyl alcohol producers, paper, mortar and gypsum, textiles, paints, coatings, and adhesives manufacturers. Advanced fuel technology TCX Technology is a hydrocarbon-based ethanol production process developed and marketed by Celanese and launched in November 2010. Celanese researchers developed the TCX Technology to create a fuel that helps countries reduce their need to import oil and gas. Celanese plans to invest $700 million to build one-to-two plants in China and one in Texas that will produce TCX-based ethanol. References External links Official site "Analysis of Proposed Consent Order to Aid Public Comment" Federal Trade Commission Ernest Scheyder (May 11, 2010) "Interview-Celanese CEO Looks to Shake Up Product Line" Reuters Paul Tate (May 4, 2010) "Dialogue: Innovating the Future" Manufacturing Executive Wes Iversen (April 2010) "A Pragmatic Response to Climate-Change Regulation" Automation World Lou Reade (March 25, 2010) "Celanese Health and Safety Culture is Zero Tolerance" ICIS Chemical Business Companies listed on the New York Stock Exchange American companies established in 1918 Chemical companies established in 1918 Chemical companies of the United States Manufacturing companies based in Irving, Texas 2005 initial public offerings 1918 establishments in New York (state)	[ 0.37451156973838806, 0.567926287651062, 0.461738646030426, 0.11878810822963715, 0.16163282096385956, 0.07184583693742752, -0.7319903373718262, 0.4200797379016876, 0.046567026525735855, -0.22095777094364166, 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229943	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ilyushin%20Il-76	Ilyushin Il-76	The Ilyushin Il-76 (; NATO reporting name: Candid) is a multi-purpose, fixed-wing, four-engine turbofan strategic airlifter designed by the Soviet Union's Ilyushin design bureau. It was first planned as a commercial freighter in 1967, as a replacement for the Antonov An-12. It was designed to deliver heavy machinery to remote, poorly served areas. Military versions of the Il-76 have been widely used in Europe, Asia and Africa, including use as an aerial refueling tanker or command center. The Il-76 has seen extensive service as a commercial freighter for ramp-delivered cargo, especially for outsized or heavy items unable to be otherwise carried. It has also been used as an emergency response transport for civilian evacuations as well as for humanitarian aid and disaster relief around the world. Due to its ability to operate from unpaved runways, it has been useful in undeveloped areas. Specialized models have also been produced for aerial firefighting and zero-G training. Design and development Origins The aircraft was first conceived by Ilyushin in 1967 to meet a requirement for a freighter able to carry a payload of over a range of in less than six hours, able to operate from short and unprepared airstrips, and capable of coping with the worst weather conditions likely to be experienced in Siberia and the Soviet Union's Arctic regions. It was intended to replace the Antonov An-12. Another intended version was a double-decked 250-passenger airliner but that project was cancelled. The Il-76 first flew in . Production of Il-76s was allocated to the Tashkent Aviation Production Association in Tashkent, Uzbekistan, then a republic of the Soviet Union. Some 860 of the basic transport variants were manufactured. In the 1990s, modernized variants also equipped with Soloviev D-30 turbofan engines were developed (MF, TF), with a cargo compartment long by wide by tall; these larger variants were not produced in significant quantity due to the financial difficulties being experienced by the Russian Air Force, which was the primary operator of the type. The prototype of the Il-76MF conducted its first flight on 1 August 1995. Further development From 2004 onwards, a number of aircraft in commercial service were modernized to the Il-76TD-90VD version; this involved the adoption of the newly developed PS-90 engine to comply with European noise limitations. In 2005, the People's Republic of China placed an order for 34 new Il-76MDs and four Il-78 tankers. In June 2013, Russian military export agency Rosoboronexport announced an order by China for 12 Il-76MD aircraft. The Il-76 has also been modified into an airborne refuelling tanker, designated the Il-78, around 50 aircraft having been produced. A variant of the Il-76 also serves as a firefighting waterbomber. Its airframe was used as a base for the Beriev A-50 'Mainstay' AEW&C (airborne early warning and control) aircraft; around 25 aircraft were made. Another application for the type was found in Antarctic support flights and for conducting simulated weightlessness training for cosmonauts (akin to the "Vomit Comet" used by NASA). Beriev and NPO Almaz also developed an airborne laser flying laboratory designated A-60, of which two were built, much of this project's details remaining classified. Il-76MD-90A It was announced in 2010 that the production of a modernized Il-76, the Il-76MD-90A (also known as project Il-476 during the design stage), would begin; a proposed new production line would be located in Aviastar's facility in Ulyanovsk, Russia, and be operated in cooperation with the Tashkent works. At that point, the construction of two Il-76MD-90A prototypes had begun at the Ulyanovsk facility. The first Il-76MD-90A was rolled out at Aviastar's Ulyanovsk plant on 16 June 2014. On 29 April 2015, it was reported that the Russian Air Force received the first Il-76MD-90A built at the Ulyanovsk plant "Aviastar-SP" from the 2012 contract for 39 aircraft. The Russian Ministry of Defence (MoD) received its first serial production Ilyushin Il-76MD-90A airlifter on 2 April 2019. As of mid 2021, 27 aircraft are ordered to be delivered in the period up to 2028 and 11 had been built. Operational history The first aircraft was delivered to the Soviet Air Force in June 1974. Next it became the main Soviet strategic transport aircraft. From 1976 it was operated by Aeroflot. Between 1979 and 1991, the Soviet Air Force Il-76s made 14,700 flights into Afghanistan, transporting 786,200 servicemen, and 315,800 tons of freight. The Il-76 carried 89% of Soviet troops and 74% of the freight that was airlifted. As Afghan rebels were unable to shoot down high-flying Il-76s, their tactics were to try and damage it on takeoff or landing. Il-76s were often hit by shoulder-launched Stinger and Strela heat-seeking missiles and large-calibre machine gun fire, but because the strong airframes were able to take substantial damage and still remain operational, the aircraft had a remarkably low attrition rate during this period of conflict. Building on that experience, the bulk of the Canadian Forces equipment into Afghanistan was flown in using civilian Il-76s. In 2006, the Russian Air Force had about 200 Il-76s. Civilian users in Russia have 108. On 3 August 1995, an Airstan Ilyushin Il-76 piloted by a Russian crew was forced down by a Taliban-controlled Afghanistan Air Force fighter in what became known as Airstan incident. The crew were imprisoned for nearly a year, but later escaped out of their confinement and managed to sneak into their aircraft still stuck at the airport and fly out of Afghanistan. In 2004, a Chinese People's Liberation Army Air Force (PLAAF) Il-76 carried out a flight mission in Afghanistan, and later in 2011, PLAAF Il-76s were sent to Libya to evacuate Chinese citizens. The two missions were the reported first steps of PLAAF developing long-range transportation capability. On 23 March 2007, a Transaviaexport Il-76 was shot down by an anti-aircraft missile while taking off from Mogadishu, Somalia. Everybody on board, seven crew and four passengers, was killed. Syrian Air Force Il-76s, operating as civil Syrianair aircraft, have been reportedly used to ship weapons, money, and other cargo from Russia and Iran to Syria, according to a defected Syrian military pilot. Since the start of the war, in April 2011 (and up to July 2012), around 20 military flights have been conducted to and from Tehran, via Iraqi airspace. Further information exposes that since around 2012, Syrian Il-76s have regularly flown to Moscow's Vnukovo Airport to fetch shipments of Syrian banknotes that have been useful to Bashar al-Assad's government to survive Western sanctions. On 14 June 2014, a Ukrainian Air Force Il-76 was shot down by ground fire from pro-Russian separatists while on approach to landing at Luhansk, resulting in the deaths of 40 soldiers and nine crew members on board. On 30 January 2017, an IL-76 firebomber of the Russian EMERCOM agency was deployed to Chile to assist firefighters. This assignment took 39 days. All Il-76 transport aircraft in service with the RF Aerospace Forces will receive anti-missile systems. The aircraft reconfiguration started in the spring of 2019. On 25 February 2022, in the course of the 2022 Russian invasion of Ukraine, the Ukrainian State Special Communications Agency reported two Il-76s shot down over Bila Tserkva. This has been confirmed by the US officials. Variants Prototypes and developmental variants Il-76TD-90 / Il-76MD-90 Engine upgrades to Perm PS-90s. Il-76 firebomber Firefighting aircraft to drop exploding capsules filled with fire retardant. Il-76PSD SAR version of Il-76MF Il-96 Early development of convertible passenger/cargo aircraft, (project only, designation re-used later) Il-150 proposed Beriev A-50 with Perm PS-90 engines. Beriev A-60 Airborne laser weapon testbed. (Il-76 version 1A) Special purpose / research variants Il-76LL with reinforced wing (at least 3 aircraft) to be used as test-bed aeroplane for engine prototypes flight testing in Gromov Flight Research Institute. Izdeliye-176 prototype Il-76PP. Izdeliye-576 Izdeliye-676 Telemetry and communications relay aircraft, for use during trial programmes (prototype). Izdeliye-776 Telemetry and communications relay aircraft, for use during trial programmes (prototype). Izdeliye-976 ("SKIP", Il-976, or Il-76SK) – (СКИП – Самолетный Контрольно-Измерительный Пункт, Airborne Check-Measure-and-Control Center) Il-76/A-50 based Range Control and Missile tracking platform. Initially built to support Raduga Kh-55 cruise missile tests. Izdeliye-1076 Special mission aircraft for unknown duties. Izdeliye-1176 ELINT electronic intelligence aircraft, or Il-76-11 Military variants Il-76-Tu160 tailplane transporter One-off temporary conversion to support Tu-160 emergency modification programme. Il-76D ('D' for "Desantnyi", Десантный – "Paratrooper transport") has a gun turret in the tail for defensive purposes. Il-76K/Il-76MDK/Il-76MDK-II Zero-g cosmonaut trainer (dlya podgotovki kosmonavtov), used by Yuri Gagarin Cosmonaut Training Center. Il-76LL Engine testbed, (ooniversahl'naya letayuschchaya laboratoriya). Il-76M Military transport version, (modifitseerovannyy – modified). Il-76MD Improved military transport version, (modifitseerovannyy Dahl'ny – modified, long-range). Il-76MD Skal'pel-MT Mobile Hospital Il-76M / Il-76MD Built without military equipment but designated as Ms and MDs (Gordon – 'Falsies') Il-76MD-90 An Il-76MD with quieter and more economical Aviadvigatel PS-90 high-bypass turbofan engines. Il-76MF Stretched military version with a 6.6 m longer fuselage, PS-90A-76 engines, maximum takeoff weight of 210 tonnes and a lift capability of 60 tonnes. First flew in 1995, not built in series so far, just built for Jordan. Il-76PP ECM aircraft, major problems with ECM equipment on the Izdeliye-176 only. Il-76MD-M Modernized Il-76MD for the Russian Air Force. Il-76MD-90A An upgraded version with a new glass cockpit, upgraded avionics, new one-piece carbon-fibre wing, and Aviadvigatel PS-90A-76 engines. It was also known as Il-476 while in development. Il-76T/Il-76TD Built as military aircraft but given civilian designations. (Gordon – 'Falsie') Ilyushin Il-78/Il-78M/Il-78MD-90A Aerial refuelling tanker. Il-78 MKI A customized version of the Il-78 developed for the Indian Air Force. Il-82 Airborne Command Post/communications relay aircraft, (alternative designation – Il-76VKP-'version65S'). Il-84 Maritime Search and Rescue aircraft, (alternative designation – Il-76PS-poiskovo-spasahtel'nyy), not produced. Beriev A-50/Beriev A-50M/Beriev A-50I/Beriev A-50E Airborne Early Warning & Control aircraft. Beriev given control over the program. Beriev A-100 An AEW&C version of the Il-76MD-90A. Civil variants Il-76MGA Initial Commercial freighter. (two prototypes and 12 production) equipped with Soloviev D-30 Turbofan engines. Il-76MD to Il-76TD conversions Complete removal of military equipment, identified by crude cover over OBIGGS inlet in Starboard Sponson. Il-76P / Il-76TP / Il-76TDP / Il-76MDP Firefighting aircraft. The Il-76 waterbomber is a VAP-2 1.5-hour install/removal tanking kit conversion. The Il-76 can carry up to 13,000 U.S. gallons (49,000 liters) of water; 3.5 times the capacity of the C-130 Hercules. Since this kit can be installed on any Il-76, the designation Il-76TP, Il-76TDP are also used when those versions of the Il-76 are converted into waterbombers. The Il-76P was first unveiled in 1990. Il-76T ('T' for Transport, Транспортный) unarmed civil cargo transport version. NATO code-name "Candid-A". It first flew on November 4, 1978. Il-76TD The civil equivalent of the Il-76MD, first flew in 1982, equipped with Soloviev D-30 Turbofan engines. Il-76TD-90 An Il-76TD with Aviadvigatel PS-90 engines and a partial glass cockpit. Il-76TD-90VD An Il-76TD with Aviadvigatel PS-90 engines and a partial glass cockpit. It was developed specially for Volga-Dnepr cargo company, which operates five aircraft as of 2021. Il-76TD-S Civilian mobile Hospital, similar to Il-76MD Skal'pel-MT. Il-76TF Civil transport stretched version with Aviadvigatel PS-90 engines. It is the civil version of the Il-76MF (none produced). Foreign variants Beriev A-50E/I For the Indian Air Force. Hosts Israeli Phalcon radar for AEW&C and Aviadvigatel PS-90 engines. Il-76MD tanker Iraqi Air Force tanker conversions. KJ-2000 Domestic Chinese airborne early warning and control conversion of Il-76, developed after A-50I was cancelled and currently in service with the armed forces of China. CFTE engine testbed The China Flight Test Establishment (CFTE) currently operates a flying testbed converted from a Russian-made Il-76MD jet transport aircraft to serve as a flying testbed for future engine development programmes. The first engine to be tested on the aircraft is the WS-10A "Taihang" turbofan, currently being developed as the powerplant for China's indigenous J-10 and J-11 fighter aircraft. Il-76MD #76456, acquired by the AVIC 1 from Russia in the 1990s, is currently based at CFTE's flight test facility at Yanliang, Shaanxi Province. Baghdad-1 Iraqi development with a radar mounted in the cargo hold enabling it to serve as AEW&C, used in the Iran–Iraq War. Baghdad-2Iraqi development (with French assistance) with fibreglass-reinforced plastic radome over the antenna of the Thomson-CSF Tiger G surveillance radar with a maximum detection range of . One was destroyed on the ground during the 1991 Persian Gulf War; two others were flown to Iran where they remained. At least one went into service with the IRIAF. One aircraft crashed following a midair collision with a HESA Saeqeh fighter, during the annual Iranian military parade in Teheran. It can be distinguished from the Beriev A-50 by having the Il-76 navigator windows in the nose, which the A-50 does not. Operators Military and civil operators in 38 countries have operated 850+ Il-76 in large numbers. While Russia is the largest military operator of the Il-76, followed by Ukraine and India, Belarus' TransAVIAexport Airlines is the largest civilian operator. Military Algerian Air Force - 17 Il-76 (3 Il-76MD, 8 Il-76TD, and 6 Il-78 Mid) in service as of May 2020 Angolan Air Force - 6 II-76TD. Armenian Air Force - 3 Il-76s Azerbaijan Air Force Belarusian Air Force inherited a number of Il-76s from the Soviet Air Force. Four in service. People's Liberation Army Air Force operates 17 Il-76 aircraft, including three kJ-2000 AEW&C versions and some Il-78 tankers, with a further 30 due for delivery. However, the deal for new IL-476 is canceled, instead China received ten refurbished IL-76 from Russia and developed its own transport the Xian Y-20. Egyptian Air Force - 2 Il-76MF in service (from the Royal Jordanian Air Force). Indian Air Force - 26 Il-76 (17 Il-76MDs, 6 Il-78MKIs, and 3 Beriev A-50 for AEW&C) Islamic Republic of Iran Air Force - 15 Il-76 (5 in operation, 10 in storage) Islamic Revolutionary Guards Corps Air Force - 2 Il-76 Iraqi Air Force operated the Il-76, but none remain in service. The Libyan Air Force has operated the Il-76 although it may not remain in service. North Korean Air Force Russian Air Force – operates about 110 (2016) The Border Service of the Federal Security Service of the Russian Federation (2016) The National Guard Forces Command – operates 9 (2016) Soviet Air Force operated hundreds of the aircraft, with an inventory of 310 in 1987. Most were dispersed to the successor states upon the breakup of the Soviet Union. Syrian Air Force -5 Il-76 in service Ukrainian Air Force inherited a large number of Il-76 aircraft from the Soviet Air Force, with 7 aircraft remaining in service. Uzbekistan Air and Air Defence Forces - 6 in service Yemen Air Force - 3 Il-76 in service Air Force of Zimbabwe Civil Air Highnesses owned and operated Il-76T (EK-76300) on behalf of Aéro-Service. Azal Avia Cargo operates one Il-76TD. Silk Way Airlines operates seven, including five Il-76TD and two Il-76TD-90. TransAVIAexport Airlines operates six Il-76TDs. Faso Airways operates a Il-76TD. Former civil operators Angola Air Charter has operated an Il-76. Dvin Airlines operated an Il-76TD. Yerevan-Avia operated two Il-76 (EK86724 and EK86817). Global Aviation Services Belavia operated the Il-76 before its closure in 1999. Gomelavia operated five Il-76TD. Imtrec Aviation operated a Laotian registered Il-76. Air Congo operated an Il-76TD. The Republic of the Congo operates an Il-76. Trans Air Congo has operated an Il-76T. Cubana used to operate two Il-76s. Ecuatorial Cargo operated one Il-76TD. Express International Cargo Sun Way has operated the Il-76TD. Atlant Hungary has operated the Il-76. Hungarian Ukrainian Air Cargo has operated the Il-76. Atlas Air has operated at least eight Il-76TD. Chabahar Air has operated at least two Il-76TD. Mahan Air has operated the Il-76. Payam Air operated two Il-76TD. Qeshm Air operated two Il-76TD (airline disestablished). Safiran Airlines is a former operator. Yas Air operates two Il-76TD (registered as EP-GOL and EP-GOM). Iraqi Airways operates a single Il-76. Jordan International Air Cargo – has operated two Il-76MF delivered in 2011. and operated for the Royal Jordanian Air Force which were sold to Egypt in 2018 and were delivered in 2019. The Government of Kazakhstan operates one Il-76. Air Almaty operates an Il-76TD for leased operations. Air Kazakhstan operated Il-76 aircraft until its closure in 2004. GST Aero operates 1 Il-76T. Kazakhstan Airlines operated the Il-76TD before its closure in 1997. Sayakhat Airlines operated the Il-76 previously. Botir Avia operates three, including one Il-76MD and two Il-76TD. Kyrgyzstan Airlines operates one Il-76TD. Reem Air Imtrec aviation of Cambodia operates Laos registered Il-76TD. Inversija operated three, including two Il-76T and one Il-76TD. Jamahiria Air Transport operated the Il-76M, Il-76TD, and Il-78. Libyan Air Cargo, the cargo division of Libyan Arab Airlines, operates 21, including one Il-76M and 15 Il-76TD. Transafrica Airlines Aerocom operated an Il-76MD as well as an Il-76T until as late as January 2005. Airline Transport operated a number of Il-76 aircraft, losing three in accidents in 2004 and 2005. Jet Line International operates the Il-76. Tiramavia Air Koryo The Ministry of Emergency Situations operates an Il-76TD. Abakan Avia operates 3 Il-76TD. Aeroflot operated large numbers of aircraft, especially during Soviet years, often on behalf of the Soviet military. However, none remain in service with the airline. Air STAN operated an Il-76TD. Airlines 400 operates two Il-76TD. Airstars Airways operates four Il-76TD on cargo services. ALAK operated Il-76 aircraft before its closure in 1999. Alrosa-Avia operates four Il-76TD on charter services. Aram Air Atlant-Soyuz Airlines operates six, including two Il-76MD and four Il-76TD. ATRAN Cargo Airlines operates five, including three Il-76T and two Il-76TD. At least one Il-76M may have been operated in the past. Atruvera Aviation operates three, including one Il-76MD and two Il-76TD. Aviacon Zitotrans operates five, including four Il-76TD. Aviaenergo operated the aircraft, but none remain in service. Aviast operates four, including one Il-76MD and three Il-76TD. Border Guard Service of Russia Continental Airways has operated the Il-76 in the past, but does not do so currently. Dacono Air has operated the Il-76. Domodedovo Airlines has operated the Il-76, but none is currently in service. East Line operates the Il-76. Ilavia Airline operates six, including two Il-76MD and four Il-76TD. KrasAir operated the Il-76, but none is currently in service. Krylo Airlines operated two Il-76TD into 2005. Magadan Avia Leasing is a lease and charter operator of the Il-76. Moscow Airways operated an Il-76TD in the early 1990s. Novosibirsk Air Enterprise operated the Il-76, but none is currently in service. Pulkovo Aviation Enterprise operated the Il-76, but none is currently in service. Samara Airlines operates two Il-76TD. Spair Airlines Tesis Aviation Enterprise operates nine Il-76TD. Tyumen Airlines Uralinteravia Volga-Dnepr operates 8, four Il-76TD and four Il-76TD-90VD. Air Tomisko operated 3 Il-76TD. Two were leased from GST Aero which had been before in service of Kosmas Air, and one more was added in May 2006. Kosmas Air operated two Il-76TD leased from GST Aero. Aerolift Sierra Leone operates Il-76 aircraft for special charter and cargo lift operations. Aeroflot was the main civil user of the aircraft during the period of the Soviet Union, although many of its aircraft were operated on behalf of the military. Jet Air Cargo was one of the first civil operators of the Il-76 in Russia other than Aeroflot. Air West operated at least six aircraft, although it is unclear how many remain in service. Azza Transport operates two Il-76TD. East West Cargo operated a number of Il-76 aircraft. Juba Air Cargo operates the Il-76. Badr Airlines operates two Il-76. Trans Attico operated two Il-76TD. Alfa Airlines Green Flag Airlines Syrian Arab Airlines operates four, including three Il-76M. Turkmenistan Airlines operates eight Il-76TD. Air Service Ukraine operated the Il-76MD. Air Ukraine and Air Ukraine Cargo operated the aircraft, although none were in service at the time of bankruptcy. ATI Aircompany operates a number of Il-76 models. Azov Avia Airlines operates two Il-76MD. BSL Airline operated as many as six Il-78. Busol Airlines operated the Il-76 before its closure in 1998. Khors Aircompany operates two Il-76MD. Lviv Airlines operates three Il-76MD. South Airlines is a former operator. Ukraine Air Alliance operates four, including one Il-76MD and three Il-76TD. Ukrainian Cargo Airways operates 21, including 19 Il-76MD. Veteran Airlines Volare Airlines operates three, including two Il-76MD and one Il-76TD. Yuzhmashavia operates 2 Il-76TD. The United Nations Humanitarian Air Service have operated several of the type from the early to mid-1990s to now. Most of them are either ex-Aeroflot or one that the Russian Air Force has lent to the UN. Air Support Systems, LLC operates the Il-76/78 in firefighting duties in the US. Gulf Aviation Technology and Services operates a number of Il-76 aircraft on charter or lease. Phoenix Aviation operates 2 Il-76TD. Avialeasing operates the Il-76 on a charter and lease basis. Uzbekistan Airways operates 14 Il-76TD. Yemenia operates two Il-76TD. Accidents As of April 2018, a total of 80 Il-76 series aircraft have been written off in crashes and other accidents. There were at average two Il-76 crashes or similar accidents per year since 1979, with more than 1000 casualties. On 23 November 1979, a Soviet Air Forces Il-76, registration CCCP-86714, banked left during an approach to Vitebsk Airport. Control of the aircraft was lost and the aircraft crashed, killing the crew of seven; this was the first loss of an Il-76. On 11 December 1988, an Aeroflot Il-76 crashed on approach to Leninakan, Armenia killing 77 of the 78 on board. The aircraft was on an air relief operation following the 1988 Armenian earthquake. On 1 February 1990, a Soviet Air Forces Il-76 registration СССР-86021 crashed 14 minutes after takeoff from Panevėžys Air Base. The crashed killed all 8 members of the crew. On 19 August 1996, an Il-76T operating Spair Airlines Flight 3601, crashed while trying to land at Belgrade Nikola Tesla Airport, killing all 14 occupants on board. On 12 November 1996, Kazakhstan Airlines Flight 1907, an Il-76 had a mid-air collision near New Delhi, India with a Saudi Arabian Airlines Boeing 747, resulting in the loss of all 349 lives aboard both aircraft. The accident was ruled as pilot error, with the Il-76 aircraft failing to follow air traffic controller instructions. On 27 November 1996, a Russian Air Force Ilyushin Il-76MD, registration RA-78804, flew into the hillside of a mountain, minutes after it departed Abakan Airport, and crashed from the airport. All 21 occupants on board lost their lives in the accident. In July 1998, a Ukrainian Ilyushin-76 cargo plane took off from Ras Al Khaimah airport and crash landed into the sea nearby. All crew members on board died. On 2 December 2001, Armed Forces of the Russian Federation Flight 9064 crashed at Novaya Inya, Russia, following an onboard fire, killing 18 on board. On 19 February 2003, an Ilyushin Il-76 crashed near Kerman, Iran under unspecified reasons (possibly weather-related). The crash killed 275 people, including hundreds of the Iranian Revolutionary Guard. On 8 May 2003, the rear loading ramp of an Il-76 leased by the Congolese government unexpectedly opened at 10,000 feet after taking off from the capital Kinshasa. Initial reports stated that over 120 policemen and their families had been sucked out in 45 minutes, but 14 people actually died. On 30 June 2008, an Ababeel Aviation Il-76 crashed while taking off from Khartoum on a relief flight, killing the 4 crew members, the only people on board the plane. On 2 July 2008, Click Airways Flight 1002, operated using an Ilyushin Il-76TD from Bagram Air Base to Al-Fujairah-Fujairah International Airport, suffered an Uncontained Engine Failure of its no. 3 engine at FL280. The failed engine parts struck the no. 4 engine resulting in its failure, as well as the fuselage and fuel tanks. The flight crew managed to successfully make an emergency landing at Zahedan, Iran. All three crew sustained no injuries. On 15 January 2009, two Russian Ministry of Interior Il-76MDs were involved in a ground collision at Makhachkala Airport. One of the aircraft, registration RA-76825, was ready to depart and was positioned at the runway end when the other one, RA-76827, came into land. The wing of the landing aircraft struck the flight deck of RA-76825 and a fire erupted. There were three fatalities in the departing aircraft, out of seven occupants on board. None of the 31 occupants aboard RA-76827 were hurt. RA-76825 was written off as a consequence of the accident. On 9 March 2009 Aerolift Il-76 S9-SAB crashed into Lake Victoria just after takeoff from Entebbe Airport, Uganda, killing all 11 people on board. Two of the engines had caught fire on takeoff. The aircraft was chartered by Dynacorp on behalf of AMISOM. The accident was investigated by Uganda's Ministry of Transport, which concluded that all four engines were time-expired and that Aerolift's claim that maintenance had been performed to extend their service lives and the certification of this work could not be substantiated. On 22 September 2009, Il-76MD "5-8208" of the Islamic Republic of Iran Air Force crashed near Varamin killing all seven people on board. The crash was possibly the result of a midair collision with a Northrop F-5E Tiger II. On 1 November 2009, an Il-76 belonging to the Russian Ministry of the Interior, crashed near the city of Mirny within 2 kilometers after taking off. Eleven people on board were confirmed as killed. On 28 November 2010 Sun Way Flight 4412, Il-76 4L-GNI, crashed in a populated area of Karachi, Pakistan, shortly after taking off from Jinnah International Airport. All eight people on board were killed, along with two people on the ground. The aircraft was reported to have been trying to return to Jinnah after suffering an uncontained engine failure and fire. On 6 July 2011 a Silk Way Il-76, tail number 4K-AZ55, crashed into a mountain in Afghanistan, while on final to Bagram Air Force Base. Eight people on board were initially confirmed as killed, with one unaccounted. On 30 November 2012 an Aéro-Service Il-76T (also reported as being operated by Trans Air Congo in the days after the accident) crashed 850 meters short of runway 5L of the Congo's Maya-Maya Airport in Brazzaville while landing during a violent storm, killing 32, including the 5 aircrew, another person on board and 26 people on the ground. Aircraft on display UR-UCI (cn 083414444) preserved in the State Museum of Aviation, Kyiv-Zhulyany. Specifications (Il-76TD) See also References External links Il-76TD, Il-76TD-90, and Il-76TF pages on Ilyushin's website The Ilyushin Il-76 and variants on Airvectors.net Il-476 production line photos on Englishrussia.com Ilyushin beriev Il-76 Candid (Gajraj) at Indian military database site Training aircraft at Yuri Gagarin Cosmonauts Training Center AWACS aircraft Il-076 1970s Soviet cargo aircraft 1970s Soviet military transport aircraft Quadjets T-tail aircraft High-wing aircraft Aircraft first flown in 1971	[ 0.7520468235015869, 0.16080981492996216, -0.1437549591064453, -0.010568711906671524, -0.0763353630900383, 0.2903911769390106, -0.022164685651659966, -0.3752472400665283, 0.2949909269809723, -0.013837027363479137, -1.0611127614974976, 0.8644821643829346, -0.9204792380332947, -0.22002817690372467, -0.03071955405175686, -0.047713909298181534, 0.7726396918296814, 0.05692882835865021, -0.17024801671504974, -0.44864359498023987, -0.04655370116233826, 0.22003686428070068, 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229951	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alive	Alive	Alive may refer to: Life Books, comics and periodicals Alive (novel), a 2015 novel by Scott Sigler Alive: The Final Evolution, a 2003 shonen manga by Tadashi Kawashima and Adachitoka Alive: The Story of the Andes Survivors, a 1974 book by Piers Paul Read Alive (magazine), a monthly Canadian natural health magazine Alive! (newspaper), an Irish Catholic newspaper Film Alive (1993 film), a film by Frank Marshall based on the book Alive: The Story of the Andes Survivors Alive: 20 Years Later, a 1993 documentary about the book Alive: The Story of the Andes Survivors and the Frank Marshall film Alive (2002 film), a Japanese horror film by Ryuhei Kitamura based on the manga ALIVE Alive, a 2003 DVD by Audio Adrenaline Alive (2006 film), a Russian film by Aleksandr Veledinsky Alive (Meshuggah video), a 2010 concert film Alive (2014 film), a South Korean film by Park Jung-bum Alive, a 2016 Overwatch animated short film #Alive (2020 film), a South Korean film by Cho Il-hyung Alive Films, an American production company co-founded by Carolyn Pfeiffer Music Albums Alive (10cc album), 1993 Alive (3rd Party album), 1997 Alive!! (Becca album), 2008 Alive (Big Bang album) or the title song, 2012 Alive (Bruce Dickinson album), 2005 Alive (Chick Corea album), 1991 Alive (Do As Infinity album) or the title song, 2018 Alive (Dr. Sin album), 1999 Alive (Ed Kowalczyk album), 2010 Alive! (Grant Green album), 1970 Alive (Hiromi album) or the title song, 2014 Alive (Jacky Terrasson album), 1998 Alive (Jessie J album) or the title song, 2013 Alive (Kate Ryan album) or the title song (see below), 2006 Alive (Kim Kyung-ho album), 2009 Alive! (Kiss album), 1975 Alive (Nitty Gritty Dirt Band album), 1969 Alive (Rising Appalachia album), 2017 Alive (Sa Dingding album) or the title song, 2007 Alive (Shawn Desman album) or the title song, 2013 Alive! (Snot album), 2002 Alive! (Turbo album), 1986 Alive (in concert), by Axelle Red, 2000 Alive! The Millennium Concert, by Kiss, 2006 Kenny Loggins Alive, 1980 Alive or the title song, by Ben Haenow, 2018 Alive, by Cimorelli, 2016 Alive, by Crystal Bowersox, 2017 Alive, by Julie Roberts, 2011 Alive 1997, by Daft Punk Alive 2007, by Daft Punk EPs Alive (Adler's Appetite EP) or the title song, 2012 Alive (Big Bang EP) or the title song, 2012 Alive, by Target, 2018 Songs "Alive" (Beastie Boys song), 1999 "Alive" (Bee Gees song), 1972 "Alive" (Black Eyed Peas song), 2009 "Alive" (Breed 77 song), 2006 "Alive" (Chase & Status song), 2013 "Alive" (Dami Im song), 2013 "Alive" (Empire of the Sun song), 2013 "Alive" (Goldfrapp song), 2010 "Alive" (Jennifer Lopez song), 2002 "Alive" (Kate Ryan song), 2006 "Alive" (Krewella song), 2013 "Alive" (Lo-Pro song), 2010 "Alive" (Melissa O'Neil song), 2005 "Alive!" (Mondotek song), 2007 "Alive" (Natalie Bassingthwaighte song), 2008 "Alive" (Pearl Jam song), 1991 "Alive" (P.O.D. song), 2001 "Alive" (Rebecca St. James song), 2005 "Alive" (Rüfüs Du Sol song), 2021 "Alive" (S Club song), 2002 "Alive" (Sia song), 2015 "Alive" (Sonique song), 2003 "Alive" (Vincent Bueno song), 2020 "Alive"/"Physical Thing", by Koda Kumi, 2009 "Alive", by Adelitas Way from Home School Valedictorian, 2011 "Alive", by Breed 77 from In My Blood (En Mi Sangre), 2006 "Alive", by Cheap Trick from The Latest, 2009 "Alive", by Daft Punk from The New Wave, 1994 "Alive", by Dala from Everyone Is Someone, 2009 "Alive", by Drugstore, 1993 "Alive", by Edwin from Another Spin Around the Sun, 1999 "Alive", by Gravity Kills from Perversion, 1998 "Alive", by Hawk Nelson from Live Life Loud, 2009 "Alive", by Jennifer Brown, 1998 "Alive", by Khalid from Free Spirit, 2019 "Alive", by Kid Cudi from Man on the Moon: The End of Day, 2009 "Alive", by Korn from Neidermayer's Mind, 1993 "Alive", by Leona Lewis from Echo, 2009 "Alive", by Meat Loaf from Bat Out of Hell III: The Monster Is Loose, 2006 "Alive", by Milky Chance from Blossom, 2017 "Alive", by Monni, 2019 "Alive", by Mýa from K.I.S.S. (Keep It Sexy & Simple), 2011 "Alive", by Oasis from Shakermaker, 1994 "Alive", by One Direction from Midnight Memories, 2013 "Alive", by Ozzy Osbourne from Down to Earth, 2001 "Alive", by Shihad from Love Is the New Hate, 2005 "Alive", by Sick Individuals, 2016 "Alive", by SR-71 from Now You See Inside, 2000 "Alive", by Steve Aoki, 2017 "Alive", by X Japan from Vanishing Vision, 1998 "Alive!", from the musical Jekyll & Hyde, 1997 "Alive", from the video game The Idolmaster Dearly Stars, 2009 "Alive (N' Out Of Control)", by Papa Roach from The Paramour Sessions, 2006 Events Alive 2006/2007, a concert tour by Daft Punk Alive! Tour, a 1975–1976 concert tour by Kiss Alive Festival, a Christian music festival in Mineral City, Ohio, US Other music Alive Naturalsound Records, a record label "Alive", a television news music package by 615 Music Other uses "Alive!" (Justice League Unlimited), a television episode Alive 90.5, a radio station based in Sydney, Australia Alive, a 1998 PlayStation video game developed by General Entertainment See also Alive 1997, 2001 Daft Punk live album Alive 2007'', 2008 Daft Punk live album Life (disambiguation) Live (disambiguation) Living (disambiguation)	[ 0.3907228112220764, 0.1535181850194931, -0.4922393560409546, 0.37936004996299744, 0.01006252970546484, 0.04106463864445686, 0.31784841418266296, -0.046253398060798645, -0.19163778424263, -0.12439229339361191, -0.2287401705980301, 0.3666156232357025, 0.24071916937828064, -0.12585285305976868, 0.23509767651557922, 0.009376720525324345, 0.3421456515789032, 0.2949891984462738, -0.18173865973949432, -0.6150431036949158, -0.5479351878166199, -0.2628788352012634, 0.41442757844924927, -0.14464156329631805, -0.5961014628410339, 0.2799997627735138, -0.12352991104125977, 0.30823323130607605, -0.14407815039157867, 0.14329110085964203, -0.35975533723831177, 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229952	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Loud	Loud	Loud most commonly refers to: Loudness, the subjective quality of sound of great intensity Loud may also refer to: Music Albums Loud (Half Japanese album), 1981 Loud (Rihanna album), 2010 Loud (Timo Maas album), 2001 Loud (Wicked Tinkers album), 1999 Loud, a 2000 album by Lexy & K-Paul Loud (EP), by American Pop-Rock band R5 Loud, a 2018 album by Marwa Loud Songs "Loud" (Mac Miller song), 2012 "Loud" (Shannon Noll song), 2007 "Loud" (Stan Walker song), 2011 "Loud" (R5 song), 2013 "Loud" (Tim Hicks song), 2018 "Loud", a song by Silk City, featuring GoldLink and Desiigner "Loud", a 2007 single by Big & Rich from the album Between Raising Hell and Amazing Grace "Loud", a song by Chocolate USA from the 1992 album All Jets Are Gonna Fall Today "Loud", a song by Kutless from the 2008 album To Know That You're Alive "Loud", a 2006 single by Masters at Work with Beto Cuevas "Loud", a song by Matt Nathanson from the 1999 album Still Waiting for Spring "Loud", an additional song by Paulina Rubio included on some reissues of the album Brava! "Loud", a song by Reks from his 2016 album The Greatest X "LOUD", a song by Sammy Hagar from the 2008 album Cosmic Universal Fashion "Loud", a collaboration by several artists appearing on the 2012 album The Gates Mixed Plate by Tech N9ne Other music Loud Tour (R5), a 2013 concert tour by R5 to promote their EP Loud Loud Tour, a 2011 concert tour by Rihanna in support of the album Loud Loud Records, a subsidiary of SRC Records founded in 1992 Loud (band), a British 1990s band Loudness (band), a Japanese rock band Loud (electronic music act), an Israeli psytrance music group Loud (rapper), a Canadian rapper from Quebec Television Loud (TV series), a Canadian television show The Loud House, an American animated television series Loud Kiddington, a character from the animated television show Histeria! Loud (South Korean TV series), a South Korean survival reality show Other uses Loud (surname), an uncommon surname Loud Mine, a gold mine in White County, Georgia LOUD Technologies, an American audio equipment manufacturer Loud Township, Michigan, U.S. River Loud, a river in Lancashire, England See also Louder (disambiguation)	[ 0.1368572860956192, 0.14643384516239166, -0.1974579393863678, 0.1378651112318039, -0.5819553732872009, 0.018966875970363617, 0.7867838144302368, 0.05278070643544197, -0.30295783281326294, -0.2861284911632538, 0.12827926874160767, 1.054202914237976, 0.18649204075336456, 0.19778506457805634, -0.09067133069038391, 0.3155989646911621, 0.44632914662361145, 0.10189952701330185, -0.5665428042411804, -0.06167100369930267, 0.42490118741989136, -0.5876460075378418, 0.5675334930419922, -0.08311674743890762, 0.09051311761140823, 0.19595211744308472, -0.5253410935401917, 0.2721077799797058, -0.03876754641532898, 0.3894851803779602, 0.11358217149972916, 0.39235007762908936, 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229954	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vooruit%20%28political%20party%29	Vooruit (political party)	Vooruit (Dutch for Forward, ) is a Flemish social democratic political party in Belgium. The party was known as the Flemish Socialist Party (1978–2001: Socialistische Partij, SP; 2001–2021: Socialistische Partij Anders, SP.A) until 21 March 2021, when its current name was adopted. The party was founded following the linguistic split of the Belgian Socialist Party in 1978, which also produced the Francophone Socialist Party. The Belgian Socialist Party itself consisted of former members of the Belgian Labour Party. From December 2011 to September 2014, the party was part of the Di Rupo Government, along with its Francophone counterpart. In 2020, it re-entered federal government as part of the De Croo Government. The party has been a part of the Flemish Government several times. History 1885–1940 1940–1978 Since 1978 The party was the big winner in the 2003 election, running on the SP.A–Spirit joint list (cartel) with the social-liberal party Spirit. Their share of the vote went up from 9% (of the total Belgian vote) to almost 15%, a second place in the number of votes. The main victim of this resurgence was the Green! party (formerly known as Agalev). SP.A was part of the "purple" federal coalitions of Prime Minister Guy Verhofstadt from 12 July 1999 until 10 June 2007, which contained both the Flemish and Francophone liberal and social-democratic parties. In 2004, the SP.A along with its partner Spirit lost the elections for the Flemish Parliament. Although they won more seats in comparison to the Flemish elections of 1999, their percentage of the vote compared to the successful 2003 federal elections was considerably down. The reputation of then party leader Steve Stevaert took a beating too. The party was briefly led by Caroline Gennez, after former president Steve Stevaert left to become governor of Limburg. Johan Vande Lanotte, who served as Minister of the Budget in the federal Government, was elected President and resigned as minister to become President on 17 October 2005. He resigned 11 June 2007, after SP.A–Spirit lost the elections for the federal parliament of 10 June 2007. In these federal elections, the cartel won 14 out of 150 seats in the Chamber of Representatives and 4 out of 40 seats in the Senate. Afterwards, Caroline Gennez was elected President by the party members. As of May 2009, SP.A was in opposition in federal politics. Unlike its Francophone counterpart, the Socialist Party (PS), SP.A was not a participant in the Leterme II Government. In January 2009, the party had apparently changed its name to Socialists and Progressive Differently (Dutch: Socialisten en Progressieven Anders). This name change was retracted and the party baseline was changed from Social Progressive Alternative (Dutch: Sociaal Progressief Alternatief) to Socialists and Progressive Differently (Dutch: Socialisten en Progressieven Anders). In the 2010 federal election, SP.A won 13 seats with 9% of the overall vote. The party was a member of the Di Rupo Government formed on 6 December 2011, until the elections in 2014. In the elections for the Chamber of Representatives on 25 May 2014, SP.A scored again 9% and received 13 seats, in contrast to their francophone Socialist Party counterparts, who lost 3 seats and whose share of the vote decreased by 2%. In the Flemish Parliament, SP.A have 18 representatives, deriving from around 14% of the vote—this is a small reduction on the 2009 parliament, where SP.A had 19 seats, deriving from 15% of the popular vote. From 2009–2014, SP.A participated in the Flemish Government, in an uneasy coalition with the CD & V and the N-VA. From 2014 onwards, SP.A formed part of the opposition in Flanders, as the regional government reflected the Flemish component of the federal administration, consisting of coalition of the Open-VLD, CD & V and the N-VA. In January 2018, the party advocated for a "new socialism" and a "new equality". In September 2020, party leader Conner Rousseau announced a renaming of the party to Vooruit ("Forward"). The new name was made official on 21 March 2021. Presidents Members holding notable public offices European politics Federal politics Regional politics Provincial politics ° In Limburg, SP.A formed a cartel with Groen. Electoral results Chamber of Representatives Senate Regional Brussels Parliament Flemish Parliament European Parliament Symbols Notes References Further reading Johan Vande Lanotte (2010), Vlugschrift – over welvaart en geluk, (retrievable on the website sp.a-ledenbeheer), 96 p., . Patrick Vander Weyden, Koen Abts (2010), De basis spreekt — onderzoek naar de leden, mandatarissen en kiezers van sp.a (research on members sp.a by Ghent University), Acco (Leuven/Den Haag), 239 p., . 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229955	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anne%20Caldwell	Anne Caldwell	Anne Caldwell (née Anne Payson Caldwell; 30 August 1868 – 22 October 1936), also known as Anne Caldwell O'Dea, was an American playwright and lyricist. She wrote both pop songs and Broadway shows, sometimes working with composer Jerome Kern. Biography Anne Caldwell was born Anne Marsh Caldwell in Boston, Massachusetts. She began her career at the Juvenile Opera Co. as one of only four female songwriters active in the early 1900s. She was a charter member of the American Society of Composers, Authors and Publishers where her output between 1907 through 1928 focused mainly on Broadway scores. In 1929, lured by producer William LeBaron, she went to Hollywood where she became a script doctor and write lyrics for RKO Pictures. It was announced that she was engaged by Max Hart to write songs with Harry Tierny. By October she was signed to write the lyrics for the film Dixiana. From 1900 to the mid 1920s, she mostly collaborated with composer Jerome Kern. Her first collaboration with Kern was the musical, She’s a Good Fellow, followed by The Night Boat (1920), and Sally (1920). The Night Boat was one of Caldwell and Kern's more successful shows but is generally not considered revivable today. The plots and comedy of their shows don’t satisfy contemporary audiences. Her final credited work was a radio adaptation of the 1933 film (on which she had also worked) Flying Down to Rio. Until the careers of Caldwell, along with Rida Johnson Young and Dorothy Donnelly, writing American musical comedy was a male profession. They helped established the idea that a female writer could create works for the stage that were equally as satirical, witty, timely, and simply as comical as the work of any man. Caldwell married William L. Vinal (1855–1897) on August 2, 1885, in Manhattan, New York. They had a daughter, Marianna Sarah Vinal, aka Molly (1886–1950). William Vinal was killed on March 4, 1897, in a gas explosion in Boston on the Tremont Street Subway at the Boylston station. She remarried lyricist James J. O'Dea (1870–1914) on August 15, 1904, in Brooklyn. She died in Beverly Hills, California after a short illness. Her son Anthony Patrick O'Day (1900–1961) and daughter Molly O'Day (née Marianna Sarah Vinal; 1886–1950) were with her. Legacy Upon her passing, Variety called her "one of the most prolific librettists known to show business. A quiet, unassuming woman she developed a technique that rarely failed and was both book writer and lyricist." She was inducted into the Songwriters Hall of Fame in 1970. Shows Caldwell wrote lyrics and/or dialogue for dozens of Broadway shows: Sergeant Brue (1905) The Top o’ th’ World (1907) The Nest Egg (1910) Uncle Sam (1911) The Lady of the Slipper (1912) When Claudia Smiles (1914) Chin Chin (1914) Pom-pom (1916) Go to It (1916) Jack O’Lantern (1917) The Canary (1918) She’s a Good Fellow (1919) The Lady in Red (1919) The Night Boat (1920) The Sweetheart Shop (1920) Tip Top (1920) Hitchy-Koo (1920) Good Morning Dearie (1921) The Bunch and Judy (1922) Sally (1923) Stepping Stones (1923) Peg-O’-My-Dreams (1924) The Magnolia Lady (1924) The City Chap (1925) Criss Cross (1926) Yours Truly (1927) Lucky (1927) Take the Air (1927) Yours Truly (1928) Three Cheers (1928) Notes References Specific External links The lady of the slipper: Musical with book by Caldwell and music by Victor Herbert Vocal score from Sibley Music Library Digital Scores Collection Anne Caldwell at the Songwriters Hall of Fame 1868 births 1936 deaths American librettists American 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229958	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Groen%20%28political%20party%29	Groen (political party)	Groen (English: Green; , ), founded as Agalev (see Name below), is a green Flemish political party in Belgium. Its French-speaking equivalent is Ecolo; the two parties maintain close relations with each other. Party history Before 1979 Many of the founders of political party Agalev came from or were inspired by the social movement Agalev. This movement was founded by the Jesuit Luc Versteylen, who had founded the environmental movement Agalev in the 1970s. Core values of this social movement were quiet, solidarity and soberness. This movement combined progressive Catholicism with environmentalism. It sought to spread environmental consciousness first on a small scale, but since 1973 it took action to protect the environment and promote environmental consciousness. In the 1974 and 1977 elections Agalev supported several candidates from traditional parties, these however soon forgot the promises they made. In 1977 the movement entered the elections in several municipalities not to gain seats, but to promote its ideals. 1979–1999 In reaction to these broken promises, a debate erupted within Agalev on whether to set up a political party or to remain independent of politics. In the same year the party contested several municipal elections to no avail. A national level Agalev Working Group was founded to coordinate the new party. It also set up a separate association that could enter in elections. It participated in the 1979 European elections. Although the party won 2.3% of the votes, it won no seats. In the 1981 election the party won 4% of vote and two seats in the Chamber of Representatives and one in the Senate. Ecolo, the Walloon green party also won two seats in the Chamber and three seats in the Senate. The political party Agalev was officially founded in 1982. It remained separate of the social movement. Prominent members of the movement Agalev, such as founder Versteylen chose not to join the political party Agalev. In the municipal elections of 1982 the party performed particularly well winning more than 10% in several municipalities. In its first periods in parliament the party functioned as a protest party forcing the other parties to take more action against environmental pollution and Third World poverty. The party campaigned on specific environmental issues, such as local anti-nuclear energy protests. The party won two additional seats in the 1985 elections, two additional seats in 1987 and one in 1991: in that year it won seven seats in parliament. Agalev had become a serious political partner for other parties. In 1992 Agalev was asked to support a constitutional change called the Sint-Michiels accords, which would make Belgium a federation. Agalev gave its support in exchange of a tax on bottles, the first ecotax in Belgium. In the 1995 the party campaigned on a clean hands theme, after a series of political scandals was revealed. The party however lost two seats. 1999–now In the 1999 elections Agalev and its Walloon sister party Ecolo performed exceptionally well. A scandal surrounding dioxine in for-consumption chickens just before the elections, played an important role in the party's performance. The party won 7,0% of vote and nearly doubled its seats from 5 to 9. The Greens joined the first cabinet Verhofstadt. The cabinet further consisted of the liberal Flemish Liberals and Democrats (VLD) and Reformist Movement (MR) and the socialist Different Socialist Party (SP.A) and Parti Socialiste (PS). The cabinet was called Purple-Green cabinet or the Rainbow cabinet, because of the many political colours in the coalition. Agalev supplied two ministers, Magda Aelvoet who became vice-prime minister and minister for Public health and the Environment, and Eddy Boutmans who became minister for Development Cooperation. The party also joined the Flemish Government, which was composed of the same Flemish parties Agalev, SP.A and VLD. Mieke Vogels became the Flemish minister for Wellbeing and Development Cooperation and Vera Dua became minister for Agriculture and the Environment. On the national level, the greens, both Ecolo and Agalev were able to enact legislation on several key green issues: the cabinet decided to opt out of nuclear energy, it opened marriage to homosexuals, legalized several thousands of illegal foreigners, enacted an anti-discrimination law and promised to in time spend 0,7% of the national income on development aid. On the Flemish level organic agriculture was promoted, people with handicaps got personal budgets and a system of time credits was enacted to allow people to combine work, care and free time better. The party however faced several crises. Magda Aelvoet left the federal cabinet in August 2002 over a cabinet decision to trade arms with Nepal, which was at civil war at the time. She was replaced by Jef Tavernier. The Ecolo minister for mobility Isabelle Durant left the cabinet just before the elections over the issue of nighttime airplane flights over Brussels. Finally the party voted in favour of a new election law that enacted a 5% Election threshold in both the Senate and the Chamber. The 2003 federal election formed a turning point for the party. The party was reduced to 2,6% of the vote, well below the 5% limit and the party lost its seats in the Chamber and Senate. In response to the election results the Flemish ministers Mieke Vogels and Vera Dua stepped down. They were replaced by Adelheid Byttebier and Ludo Sannen respectively. The party renewed is its political profile and made some important strategic decisions. Agalev would continue as an independent Flemish progressive Green party. The party congress rejected the proposal of Agalev-Limburg to form a federal cartel with the SP.A and Spirit. The party also ruled out any participation in the future Flemish Government. The party would allow provincial and municipal cartels. The party changed its name to Groen!. The party changed the function of political secretary to party president, bringing the party more in line with other Belgian parties. Vera Dua became the first party president. The decision to continue separately led to considerable upheaval within the party, several prominent members, such as Antwerpen councillor Fauzaya Talhaoui and Flemish minister Sannen left the party and joined either Spirit or SP.A. Sannen was replaced as minister by Tavernier. Before the 2004 elections Dua announced that if the party was supported by less than 280.000 votes, the independent green political project would end. The party gained enough support to meet this limit, although it lost half of it seats in Flanders compared to the 2000 elections. The party won seats in every provincial district except Limburg, where the support to cooperate with SP.A and Spirit was greatest. In the 10 June 2007 federal election, the party regained representation in both the Chamber and the Senate. It got 265,828 votes (4% of total) and four seats. The regional (for Flemish Parliament) and European elections of June 2009 were generally devoted to promote the concept of a green economy as an answer to the national and global economic crisis. The results of the election were below the expected and stranded on a status quo. Chairwoman Mieke Vogels chose to give up her presidency and was succeeded by Wouter Van Besien in October 2009. On 11 January the Party unveiled its new logo and announced the dropping of its trademark exclamation point from the end of the party's name, after 8 years of usage. The new party slogan is "Works for all" to highlight the party's desire to look after the needs of all of society, not just its traditional voter base. 2010 federal election Party chairperson Name 1982–2003: Agalev 2003–2012: Groen! 2012–present: Groen The party was founded as Agalev, which meant Anders Gaan Leven (English: to start living differently). This conveyed the green message that humans need to choose alternative lifestyles that are more sustainable. When the party registered at the election authority, it was forced to supply a meaning for each initial. The party thus ran under the name Anders Gaan Arbeiden, Leven, En Vrijen (English: going to work, live and have sex differently), improvised and not entirely serious, but legally correct. After the 2003 election defeat the party renewed its political profile. This also involved a name change to Groen! (English: Green!). The name conveyed a closer alliance to the worldwide green movement with the word green and an independent and positive nature with exclamation mark. In January 2012 the party underwent another name change by removing the exclamation mark from the end of its name. Ideology and issues As a traditional green party, the three core values of Agalev were ecology, peace and participatory democracy. In the early years the party specifically sought to overcome traditional cleavages (liberal-socialist, Catholic-secular and Flemish-Belgian). Since the 1980s the ideals of diversity and social justice have also taken a prominent role. In its current political program it connected these three values by the concept of quality of life. Representation In this table the election results of Agalev/Groen!/Groen in House of Representatives, Senate and European elections is represented, as well as the results of regional elections for Flanders and Brussels. The party's political leadership is represented as well. If it was part of the governing federal coalition, then its minister is listed. Members of the European Parliament After the 2004 European Parliament elections, the party has one representative in the European Parliament: Bart Staes. The Green! delegation is part of The Greens–European Free Alliance group in the European Parliament. Together with the two MEPs of the Dutch GreenLeft he forms one transnational delegation. Municipal government Green! participates in several municipal governments. The party is especially strong in university cities like Leuven and Ghent. Electorate The support of Green! has strongly fluctuated recently. It draws most of its support from Flemish voters who do not feel bound to the strong social organizations and pillars. The party is strongest in urban areas with concentrated student populations like Ghent and Leuven. Green!'s support is distributed in the following way between the electoral districts in the 2014 general election: Electoral results Chamber of Representatives Senate Regional Brussels Parliament Flemish Parliament European Parliament Elected politicians Current Provincial councilors 2012 – 2018: Greet Bockx Tom Caals Koen Kerremans Diederik Vandendriessche Loes Van Cleemput Karin Van Hoffelen Yasmina Beldjoudi Inge De Bal Elisabet Dooms Jan Fiers Rik Franck Riet Gillis Stephan Boogaerts Luc Debraekeleer Luc Robijns Tie Roefs Sarah Sneyers Bernadette Stassens Erik Torbeyns Alex Colpaert Herman Lodewyckx Gerda Schotte Maarten Tavernier Past Chamber of Representatives 1987 – 1991 (6): Jozef Cuyvers Wilfried De Vlieghere Jos Geysels Hugo Van Dienderen Wilfried Van Durme Mieke Vogels 1991 – 1995 (7): Magda Aelvoet → Lodewijk Steenwegen Luc Barbé Wilfried De Vlieghere Vera Dua Jos Geysels Hugo Van Dienderen Mieke Vogels → Peter Luyten 1995 – 1999 (5): Frans Lozie Jef Tavernier Hugo Van Dienderen Lode Vanoost Joos Wauters 1999 – 2003 (9): Eddy Boutmans → Leen Laenens Anne-Mie Descheemaeker Kristien Grauwels Simonne Leen Fauzaya Talhaoui Jef Tavernier → Liliane De Cock Peter Vanhoutte Lode Vanoost Joos Wauters 2007 – 2010 (4): Meyrem Almaci Wouter De Vriendt Tinne Van der Straeten Stefaan Van Hecke 2010 – 2014 (5): Meyrem Almaci Eva Brems Kristof Calvo Wouter De Vriendt Stefaan Van Hecke Brussels Parliament 1989 – 1995 (1): Dolf Cauwelier 1999 – 2004 (1): Adelheid Byttebier → Anne Van Asbroeck (SP.A) 2004 – 2009 (1): Adelheid Byttebier 2009 – 2014 (2): Bruno De Lille → Elke Van den Brandt Annemie Maes European Parliament 1984 – 1989 (1): Paul Staes 1989 – 1994 (1): Paul Staes 1994 – 1999 (1): Magda Aelvoet 1999 – 2004 (2): Patsy Sörensen Bart Staes (left Spirit for Groen! in July 2002) Luckas Vander Taelen → Jan Dhaene (left Groen! for SP.A in January 2004) 2004 – 2009 (1): Bart Staes 2009 – 2014 (1): Bart Staes Flemish Parliament 1995 – 1999 (7): Vera Dua Jos Geysels Johan Malcorps Ludo Sannen Jos Stassen Ria Van Den Heuvel Cecile Verwimp 1999 – 2004 (12): Magda Aelvoet → Ann De Martelaer Veerle Declercq Jos Geysels Eloi Glorieux Dirk Holemans Johan Malcorps Frans Ramon Ludo Sannen → Flor Ory → Ludo Sannen Jos Stassen Ria Van Den Heuvel Jo Vermeulen Vera Dua → Isabel Vertriest → Vera Dua 2004 – 2009 (6): Rudi Daems Vera Dua Eloi Glorieux Jos Stassen Jef Tavernier Mieke Vogels 2009 – 2014 (7): Bart Caron Elisabeth Meuleman Dirk Peeters Hermes Sanctorum Luckas Vander Taelen Mieke Vogels Filip Watteeuw Provincial councilors 1985 – 1991: Province of Brabant Johan Hamels 2006 – 2012: Rita Boden Ethel Brits Tom Caals Diederik Vandendriessche Organization Organizational structure The highest organ of Green is the party congress, which is open to all members. The party has a relatively decentralized organization with strong municipal branches and a relatively small national organization. For a long time the party did not have a party president who set out the political strategy, but a party secretary with far less power. In 2003 the party changed this situation. In contrast to other parties, Green MPs face relatively strong regulation: the party does not allow multiple offices per person, while it is traditional for Belgian MPs to be both mayor of municipality and federal MP for instance; furthermore MPs are not allowed to run for more than two terms; to ensure gender equality every second candidate on the party list has to be female; finally a high percentage of the income of MPs is taxed by the party. By Belgian standards Green has relatively few members, ranging from 2,000 to 6,500. This is only about 1% of the Green voters. Generally Belgian parties have about 10% of their voter base as members. The party's youth organization, Young Green (earlier Young Agalev), grew out of local groups of young Groen members, active since the late eighties and early nineties. These local groups started coordinated action in 1996. In 1998 Jong Groen was officially founded. International organisations Green is a member of the European Green Party and the Global Greens. The party hosted the founding congress of the European Federation of Green Parties. Relationships to social organisations Green is ideologically and historically linked to the environmental movement Agalev, which was founded by the Jesuit Luc Versteylen. The party and the social movement are separate entities. Green still has strong contacts with environmental organizations. It has not developed a pillar of social organizations around it as other parties have. Relationships to other parties The party has relatively good relations with the SP.A-SPIRIT cartel. It was asked to join them in 2003, but it refused. Furthermore, the party has maintained good relations with its Walloon sister party, Ecolo, with whom they form one group in the federal chamber of representatives. International comparison Internationally, Groen is comparable to the larger European Green parties, especially the German Alliance '90/The Greens, which has also been in government, although more successfully. See also Ecolo the Walloon (Francophone) green party Green party Green politics List of environmental organizations References External links Groen (Green) Dossier Groen!—collection of news articles and video fragments at VRTnieuws.net (in Dutch) Dossier Groen!—collection of newspaper articles and their results in the 2004 elections at De Standaard (in Dutch) 1982 establishments in Belgium Political parties established in 1982 Green political parties in Belgium Flemish political parties in Belgium European Green Party Global Greens member parties Anderlecht Pro-European political parties in Belgium	[ 0.19326244294643402, -0.19650031626224518, 0.04371071234345436, -0.37844300270080566, -0.4950006902217865, 0.2599766254425049, -0.40911415219306946, 0.10210800170898438, -1.0347954034805298, -0.05819335952401161, 0.2645392417907715, 0.1514684557914734, -0.2114042043685913, 0.5272700190544128, -0.17166294157505035, 0.8281951546669006, 0.5215967893600464, 0.7948621511459351, 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229962	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Feral%20pigeon	Feral pigeon	Feral pigeons (Columba livia domestica), also called city doves, city pigeons, or street pigeons, are descended from the domestic pigeons that have returned to the wild. The domestic pigeon was originally bred from the wild rock dove, which naturally inhabits sea-cliffs and mountains. Rock, domestic, and feral pigeons are all the same species and will readily interbreed. Feral pigeons find the ledges of buildings to be a substitute for sea cliffs, have become adapted to urban life, and are abundant in towns and cities throughout much of the world. Owing to their abilities to create large amounts of excrement and be an occasional disease vector to humans combined with crop and property damage, pigeons are largely considered a nuisance and an invasive species, often being disparagingly referred to as 'rats with wings'. Actions are taken in many municipalities to lower their numbers or completely eradicate them. Physical characteristics Feral pigeons are essentially the same size and shape as the original wild rock dove, but often display far greater variation in colour and pattern compared to their wild ancestors. The blue-barred pattern which the original wild rock dove displays is generally less common in more urban areas. Urban pigeons tend to have darker plumage than those in more rural areas. Protection status In the U.K., pigeons are covered under the "General Licences" and can be humanely culled by the land owner or their agent for a variety of reasons (mainly crop protection). It is illegal to kill/destroy nests for any reason other than those listed under the general licences. In the U.S., the Migratory Bird Treaty Act of 1918, which protects native birds, does not apply to feral pigeons, common starlings or house sparrows, because they are introduced species. It is usually legal to kill feral pigeons in the United States; methods such as poisons may be regulated, however. In India, pigeons are protected under Section 428 and Section 429 of the Indian Penal Code. Wild pigeons are further protected under the Wildlife Protection Act, 1972. City squares famous for pigeons Many city squares have large pigeon populations, such as Washington Square Park in New York City, George Square in Glasgow, the Piazza San Marco in Venice, Dam Square in Amsterdam, The Gateway of India and Kabutarkhana in Mumbai and (prior to 2000) Trafalgar Square in London. Population control Feral pigeons often only have small populations within cities. For example, the breeding population of feral pigeons in Sheffield, England, has been estimated at only 12,130 individuals. Despite this, feral pigeons usually reach their highest densities in the central portions of cities, so they are frequently encountered by people, which may lead to conflict. Potential health risk to humans Feral pigeons are widely considered pests, and are famous for being reservoirs and vectors of multiple human and livestock diseases. However, It is rare that a pigeon will transmit a disease to humans due to their immune system. Although feral pigeons pose sporadic health risks to humans, the risk is very low, even for humans involved in occupations that bring them into close contact with nesting sites. Property damage Pigeons often cause significant pollution with their droppings, though there is little evidence of them driving out other bird species. Pigeons are labeled an invasive species in North America by the USDA. Predators Peregrine falcons, which are also originally cliff dwellers, have also adapted to the skyscrapers of large cities and often feed exclusively on rock doves. Some cities actively encourage this through falcon breeding programs. Projects include the Unibase Falcon Project and the Victorian Peregrine Project. Other predators of the pigeon have been recorded, including Eurasian sparrowhawks, crows and gulls. In London, the population of Great white pelicans at St. James's Park have also been recorded killing and consuming pigeons despite alternative food sources being available. In cities in Western Europe, European herring gulls may occasionally hunt and consume feral pigeons in addition to other birds and small mammals. Larger birds of prey occasionally take advantage of this population as well. In New York City, the abundance of feral pigeons (and other small animals) has created such a conducive environment for predators that the red-tailed hawk has begun to return in very small numbers, including the notable Pale Male. Poison Due to their non-selective nature, most avian poisons have been banned. In the United States market, only 4-aminopyridine (Avitrol) and DRC-1339 remain registered by EPA. DRC-1339 is limited to USDA use only, while 4-AP is a restricted-use pesticide, for use only by licensed applicators. The use of poisons has been proven to be fairly ineffective, however, as pigeons can breed very quickly, and their numbers are determined by how much food is available; that is, they breed more often when more food is provided to them. When pigeons are poisoned, surviving birds do not leave the area. On the contrary, they are left with more food per bird than before. This attracts pigeons from outside areas as well as encouraging more breeding, and populations are re-established quickly. An additional problem with poisoning is that it also kills pigeon predators. Due to this, in cities with peregrine falcon programs it is typically illegal to poison pigeons. Reducing food supply A more effective tactic to reduce the number of feral pigeons is deprivation. Cities around the world have discovered that not feeding their local birds results in a steady population decrease in only a few years. As scavengers, pigeons will still pick at garbage bags containing discarded food or at leftovers carelessly dropped on the ground, but securely disposing of foodstuffs will greatly reduce scavenger populations. Feeding of pigeons is banned in parts of Venice, Italy. Long-term reduction of feral pigeon populations can be achieved by restricting food supply, which in turn involves legislation and litter (garbage) control. Some cities have deliberately established favorable nesting places for pigeons—nesting places that can easily be reached by city workers who regularly remove eggs, thereby limiting their reproductive success. In addition, pigeon populations may be reduced by bird control systems that successfully reduce nesting sites. Avian contraceptives In 1998, in response to conservation groups and the public interest, the National Wildlife Research Center (NWRC), a USDA/APHIS laboratory in Fort Collins, Colorado, started work on nicarbazin, a promising compound for avian contraception. Originally developed for use in resident Canada geese, nicarbazin was introduced for use as a contraceptive for feral pigeons in 2007. The active ingredient, nicarbazin, interferes with the viability of eggs by binding the ZP-3 sperm receptor site in the egg. This unique contraceptive action is non-hormonal and fully reversible. Registered by the EPA as a pesticide (EPA Reg. No. 80224-1), "OvoControl P", brand of nicarbazin, is increasingly used in urban areas and industrial sites to control pigeon populations. Declared safe and humane, the new technology is environmentally benign and does not represent a secondary toxicity hazard to raptors or scavengers. Avian contraception has the support of a range of animal welfare groups including the Humane Society of the United States, the American Society for the Prevention of Cruelty to Animals and People for the Ethical Treatment of Animals. Avian contraceptives are also perceived by civilians as an acceptable method for population control, over other methods such as prohibition to feeding or extermination. Dummy egg nesting When eggs are removed in artificial pigeon houses, the interval between reproductive attempts is strongly reduced, which reduces the efficiency of the method. Dummy egg nesting programs have therefore been tested in some cities with mixed results. There, the eggs are removed and replaced with dummy eggs. The real eggs are then destroyed. One such structure, in Batman Park in Melbourne, Australia, was unsuccessful in attracting pigeons and has since been removed. The loft used in Melbourne is on stilts, with a cage door allowing access from beneath for accessing the structure at night when the pigeons are asleep. Monitoring dove population Estimating the population size of pigeons, is necessary for monitoring and control programs of pigeons in parks and other urban areas. The methods used for estimating populations sizes are: Stratified grids: This method consists in dividing the area where pigeons occur in 500x500m squares. 34% of the squares are selected randomly and pigeons are counted in a 5 meters radius for 5 minutes. Point-counts: standing in the center of a park, the observer makes a 360 degree turn while counting individuals with a manual mechanical counter in a radius of approximately 50m, limited by the streets and buildings that surround the park. Panoramas: taking 360 panoramic photographs, while standing at the center of the park, and using a software to place a number above the counted pigeon in the panoramic photograph. This method has been proved as the most effective of all. See also Bird feeding – typically thought of as an activity of bird enthusiasts, studies have revealed it may have both positive and negative impact Doves as symbols – appearing, usually white in color, in many settings as symbols of love, peace or as messengers, in the symbolism of various religions and of both military and pacifist groups Squab – a young pigeon, typically under four weeks old, or its meat References Books External links Cornell Lab of Ornithology - Pigeon Colors Columba (genus) Pigeon, Feral Pigeon, Feral Cosmopolitan birds Cosmopolitan species Domesticated birds Introduced birds Invasive bird species Pigeon, Feral Birds of Europe Birds of North America Articles containing video clips Birds described in 1789 Taxa named by Johann Friedrich Gmelin	[ 0.49860087037086487, 0.025437958538532257, -0.9523724913597107, 0.1121116504073143, 0.262300044298172, 0.5183702111244202, 0.4513087868690491, 0.4877930283546448, -0.5340842008590698, -0.2576521337032318, 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229963	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Otto%20Kretschmer	Otto Kretschmer	Otto Kretschmer (1 May 1912 – 5 August 1998) was a German naval officer and submariner in World War II and the Cold War. From September 1939 until his surrender in March 1941, he sank 44 ships, including one warship, a total of 274,333 tons. For this he received the Knight's Cross of the Iron Cross with Oak Leaves and Swords, among other awards. He earned the nickname "Silent Otto" both for his successful use of the "silent running" capability of U-boats as well as for his reluctance to transmit radio messages during patrols. After the war he served in the German Federal Navy, from which he retired in 1970 with the rank of Flottillenadmiral (flotilla admiral). Early life and career Kretschmer was born in Heidau near Neisse, then in the German Empire on 1 May 1912 to Friedrich Wilhelm Otto and Alice (née Herbig) Kretschmer. His father was a teacher at the local Volkschule (primary school), which Otto attended from 1918 to 1921. He then moved to a Realgymnasium (secondary school). In the aftermath of World War I the Kretschmer family remained aloof from the political turbulence of the Weimar era. Kretschmer indulged in sporting pastimes and scientific interests. Kretschmer achieved good results in mathematics and chemistry and passed his Abitur (school-leaving certificate) at 17. The report contained the remark, "Kretschmer demonstrated his extraordinary courage in many instances. He wants to be a naval officer." Kretschmer was too young to enlist at 17 and his father sent him to England to broaden his horizons. He enrolled at Exeter University (then University College of the South West of England) and studied under Professor Jacob Wilhelm Schopp (b. 1871), a German–born naturalised Briton. He mastered the English language and came to respect British education: its practical focus complemented his scientific and theoretical–based German background. His time in England shaped his view of them during the war; he was quick to believe in rumours of new British inventions during the war at sea. He returned home upon his mother's death from tetanus in a medical malpractice incident. He did not return to England from his hiatus, but travelled through France, Switzerland and Italy. Reichsmarine Kretschmer entered the Reichsmarine (Weimar Navy) on 1 April 1930 as See Offizier Anwärter (naval officer cadet). Kretschmer formed part of "Crew 30" (the incoming class of 1930), 78–strong intake of officer candidates. He underwent basic military training in the 2nd department of the standing ship division of the Baltic Sea in Stralsund (1 April 1930 – 30 June 1930). Kretschmer was transferred to the training ship Niobe (1 July 1930 – 9 October 1930), attaining the rank of Seekadett (cadet) on 9 October 1930 before embarking on a 14-month stay on board the cruiser Emden (10 October 1930 – 4 January 1932), which took him to the Far East through the Mediterranean and Suez canal. The Emden made stops in Ceylon, the Philippines, China and Japan; then Guam, South Africa, Angola and Spain on the return journey. A month after the Emden'''s return to Wilhelmshaven on 2 December 1931, Kretschmer and his crew mates were promoted to the rank of Fähnrich zur See (midshipman) on 1 January 1932. Following his journey on Emden, Kretschmer attended a naval infantry course for cadets at Stralsund (5 January–31 March 1932), before starting with the main cadet course at the Naval Academy Mürwik on 1 April 1932, including his first U-boat course at Mürwik (25 September – 1 October 1933). On 2 October 1933, Kretschmer was transferred to the pocket battleship as a gunnery officer during a trip to Denmark. This stay was interrupted for an aerial defense training course at Warnemünde (5–10 March 1934). On 19 March 1934, his stay on Deutschland ended and he was transferred to the light cruiser (20 March – 26 September 1934). Kretschmer was present for gunnery exercises in the North and Baltic Sea. At Eckernförde on the 25/26 July 1934 Hitler boarded the ship to observe the exercise. During this assignment, Kretschmer was promoted to Oberfähnrich zur See (Senior Midshipman) on 1 April 1934. During another torpedo training course at Flensburg-Mürwik (27 September – 21 December 1934), Kretschmer received his commission as Leutnant zur See (Junior Sub-Lieutenant/Ensign) on 1 October 1934. On 22 December 1934, Kretschmer was again on Köln serving as the ship's second torpedo officer. Kriegsmarine In 1933 Adolf Hitler and the Nazi Party came to power. The establishment of the Wehrmacht (Nazi German Armed Forces) in 1935 divided the major branches of the armed forces. The Reichsmarine was renamed the Kriegsmarine, a Nazi creation. The OKM was established as the supreme command of the navy responsible for all facets of naval warfare. The renaming of the navy was a symbolic gesture, to erase the unpleasant memories of the 1920s and symbolise a new era. According to one historian, Kretschmer was a patriot and loyal to the government, but later "eschewed Nazi efforts to glorify his success through propaganda." During Kretschmer's stay on Köln, he attended an aircraft catapult course at Travemünde. On 26 September 1935, he was transferred to the 1st department of the standing ship division of the North Sea in Wilhelmshaven where he served as a company officer until 25 January 1936. Kretschmer joined the U-boat service in January 1936. After the completion of his submariner training he was promoted to Oberleutnant zur See (senior-sub lieutenant/Lieutenant Junior Grade) on 1 June 1936. Kretschmer's first operational experience on a submarine was as a lieutenant on the in 1937 as first watch officer under the command of Klaus Ewerth and then Hans-Rudolf Rösing. Rösing brought his own watch officer, and Kretschmer was demoted to second watch officer. While Kretschmer was discharging his responsibilities for the operational readiness of the deck gun, Rösing dived the ship, leaving Kretschmer stranded in the freezing water. He clung to the periscope in the hope of being seen through the optics. Kretschmer was soon missed and the U-boat surfaced to find him before he succumbed to the cold. He was given interim command of U-35 in August 1937, and this appointment coincided with Germany's involvement in the Spanish Civil War. The boat was ordered to patrol the Bay of Biscay off the Spanish-French border. The crew were permitted ashore at the resort town of San Sebastián. Rösing's successor, Hermann Michahelles, was killed in a car accident and Kretschmer assumed command for two weeks. U-35 returned to Germany after an uneventful patrol during which no ships were sunk. On 1 October 1937, Kretschmer took command of . Through the remaining Interwar period, Kretschmer developed his own approach to combat, which can be summarized by the phrase "one torpedo, one ship". He dispensed with the standard practice of firing salvoes of torpedoes from a large distance. Kretschmer favoured surfaced attacks as opposed to the recommended submerged engagement, listing 11 Points of Submarine Warfare: Efficient lookouts are of prime importance It is essential not simply to spot the target, but to spot it in good time Lone ships should be attacked on the surface with gunfire in order to save expensive torpedoes Survivors should be assisted where possible Convoys should only be attacked in daylight if it is not feasible to wait for nightfall Attack at night from the dark side of the convoy, so that the target is silhouetted and the submarine is in shadow When there is little or no moonlight, attack from the windward side (to avoid a visible white bow-wave when motoring into the wind) Fire one torpedo per target, not fanned salvoes Fire at close range Once the attack is launched, do not submerge except in circumstances of dire necessity. Remember that on the surface it is easier for you to spot the enemy than for the enemy to spot you Dive only for two hours before dawn each day, to rest the crew, sweep with the sound detection equipment, etc.; otherwise, remain on the surface The 'one torpedo, one ship' tactics implemented by Kretschmer resulted in a very effective usage of torpedoes, as each attack was designed to maximize the chances of a hit. In fact, out of 116 torpedoes fired in action, Kretschmer scored 74 hits (equivalent to a 69.8% success rate). The vast majority of Kretschmer's attacks - at least 83 - were launched on the surface. Kretschmer was promoted to Kapitänleutnant (Lieutenant/Lieutenant Senior Grade) on 1 June 1939. World War II U-23: Patrols 1–8 The German invasion of Poland on 1 September 1939 began the war in Europe. Karl Dönitz, Befehlshaber der Unterseeboote (BdU), ordered attacks on Allied shipping at sea, beginning the Battle of the Atlantic. The short range of the Type II submarine allowed for operations in the North Sea, but no further. Kretschmer and U-23 had departed from Wilhelmshaven on 25 August, one week before the start of World War II. His first patrol, with Oberleutnant zur See Adalbert Schnee as first watch officer, took U-23 into the North Sea and along the coast of the Netherlands. The boat returned to Wilhelmshaven on 4 September. Further patrols took U-23 around the British coast. The main area of operations were the seas and estuaries off East of England and Scotland, with mine-laying operations in the Baltic, to counter the Royal Navy Submarine Service at the end of 1939. A second patrol (9–21 September) yielded no success either. Kretschmer departed from Kiel for the third war patrol on 1 October. On 4 October 1939 he sank the coastal ship Glen Farg (). The small freighter was carrying pulp and Ferrochrome. Kretschmer waited for the crew to take to the lifeboats before destroying the ship with a torpedo. He returned to Kiel, rather than Wilhelmshaven, on 16 October. The next day, Kretschmer was awarded the Iron Cross 2nd Class (). The fourth patrol (1–9 November) was unsuccessful. On his fifth patrol (5–15 December) he was ordered to explore the inner waters around the Orkney Islands and engage any remaining Home Fleet units that had departed from Scapa Flow in the aftermath of Günther Prien's attack. Kretschmer targeted the Danish Scotia, a on 7 December. The ship was accompanied by three other vessels, but she was darkened and the black out aroused Kretschmer's suspicions. 19 men were killed in the sinking; only two were saved. Following this patrol, he received the Iron Cross 1st Class () on 17 December.U-23 departed from Kiel on 8 January 1940 for its sixth war patrol and Schnee had been replaced by Oberleutnant zur See Hans-Dietrich von Tiesenhausen. The Norwegian Fredville, only was sunk on 11 January 1940 without warning. The single torpedo attack killed 11 men. Only five sailors survived. Kretschmer's next success came in the Inganess Bay, Kirkwall, where he attacked and sank the Danish tanker Danmark on 12 January 1940 while she lay at anchor. There were no deaths among the crew. Kretschmer returned to Wilhelmshaven on 15 January. Three days later he departed for his seventh war patrol. Another neutral Scandinavian ship was sunk. The Norwegian Varild was sunk east of the Shetland Islands. The attack was conducted with no warning, and consequently all 15 crewmen died. U-23 returned to port on 29 January. He departed from Wilhelmshaven for his eighth war patrol on 9 February. On 18 February, Kretschmer sank the 1,300 ton British fleet destroyer off the Pentland Firth while she was escorting convoy HN 12 from Norway. The destroyer crew lifted the black-out curtains, making the attack easy. A single torpedo was fired, then Kretschmer ordered a u-turn and sped away on the surface; the destroyers neither sighted him nor detected him with ASDIC. Kretschmer sighted the British submarine soon afterwards, and fired a second torpedo which missed. Thistle was sunk weeks later by U-4. 157 of the Daring crew were killed, including Commander Sydney Cooper. Only five survived. The next day, he sank , , in the Moray Firth. All 33 men aboard died. Loch Maddy , , was sunk on 22 February. The ship had been torpedoed by U-57 and abandoned. Kretschmer returned to Wilhelmshaven on 25 February after 17 days at sea—his longest to date. U-99: Battle of the Atlantic On 2 April 1940, after eight patrols on U-23, Kretschmer was ordered to the Germaniawerft, the shipbuilding works in Kiel, for construction training of the new Type VIIB . He commissioned U-99 on 18 April 1940 which was part of the 7th U-boat Flotilla. After two months' training and shakedown manoeuvres in German waters, Kretschmer took the boat into action on 18 June 1940. On 21 June, his ninth patrol, his boat was damaged by an Arado Ar 196 floatplane from in the belief U-99 was a British submarine. U-99s first patrol ended in Wilhelmshaven on 25 June. During U-99s first four patrols, Kretschmer commenced attacking convoys at night on the surface, sinking merchant ships with highly accurate shots, using only one torpedo per target ship; the quote "one torpedo ... one ship" is attributed to Kretschmer around this time. His particularly brazen and risky innovation was to execute these night surface attacks inside the convoy. Admiral Sir George Creasy considered the manoeuvre so dangerous he thought it had been done by mistake. Kretschmer's tenth patrol (27 June–21 July) yielded over . After sinking Magog—the submarine's first victim—Kretschmer gave the crew a bottle of brandy and directions to Ireland. Acts of compassion in submarine warfare were "selective and fickle", one historian wrote when describing Kretschmer's rescue of a lone man in a raft. Haunted by him, Kretschmer ordered the boat to backtrack until the survivor was found. They provided clothes and alcohol, then transferred him to a lifeboat at the first opportunity. Among the victims was the Estonian ship, Merisaar, . Kretschmer captured the vessel, the only such ship seized by U-99. The crew abandoned ship and were questioned by Kretschmer. The German crew failed to sink the stationary vessel with torpedoes while the weather ruled out the use of the gun. A prize crew boarded to sail it to Bordeaux. The ship did not reach port. German aircraft bombed and sank it three days later. Kretschmer docked in Lorient on 21 July. The BdU acquired new bases along the French Atlantic coast after the Battle of France. A notable failure on the patrol occurred in the interception of HMS Manistee. Kretschmer attempted to sink the ship with gunfire, but return fire and the appearance of an aircraft forced him to submerge. Under water U-99 had no chance of catching her. Four days later Kretschmer began his eleventh patrol which concluded on 5 August. This third patrol on U-99, took the boat into the North Atlantic, into the North Channel and west of Ireland. He sank four ships and damaged three. His greatest success was the sinking of Auckland Star, a ship on 28 July followed by another two totalling on 29 and 31 July. Kretschmer was guided onto convoy OB-191. The 28-ship convoy was poorly defended by a destroyer and a corvette. Kretschmer was presented with an opportunity to put his "one torpedo, one ship" mantra into practice. Kretschmer hit and sank the cargo ship Jersey City northwest of Tory Island while damaging three others, including the Strinda. The ships used barrels for ballast to prevent them sinking. The crew remained in lifeboats nearby for reboarding once the attack was over. Following his third war patrol with U-99, Kretschmer was awarded the Knight's Cross of the Iron Cross () on 4 August. The presentation was made by Dönitz following his return to Lorient. On U-99s fourth war patrol in September 1940, Kretschmer formed part of a wolfpack that struck against Convoy HX 72. The convoy suffered heavy losses while the U-boats escaped unscathed. Kretschmer sank one and damaged two–which he and Prien dispatched the following day. Joachim Schepke arrived in U-100 and sank seven. Heinrich Bleichrodt hit and sank two. 12 ships were sunk in total. Kretschmer's logbook recorded the chaos. It noted that the destroyers "did not know how to help" and busied themselves firing star shells on a moonlit night. The following month, Kretschmer formed part of the pack that attacked and devastated Convoy SC 7. Bleichrodt reported it and Dönitz succeeded in bringing a number of boats in on it. Kretschmer sank six and disabled a seventh. Kretschmer recommended his helmsman Stabsobersteuermann Heinrich Petersen for the Knight's Cross after twelve war patrols for saving U-99 from enemy detection. The nomination was approved on 5 November 1940. Petersen had served as Kretschmer's helmsman on every war patrol on both U-23 and U-99. In November and December 1940 U-99 sank three British armed merchant cruisers (AMC), HMS Laurentic, HMS Patroclus and . Laurentic and Patroclus were attacked on the night of 3/4 November. 51 men died aboard Laurentic, 367 survived. Patroclus lost 56 crew; 230 survived. Kretschmer was awarded the 6th Knight's Cross of the Iron Cross with Oak Leaves () on 4 November 1940. U-99 docked four days later, concluding Kretschmer's fourteenth patrol after just ten days at sea. Upon reaching port, he was summoned to Berlin to meet Erich Raeder. He was given the opportunity to convey his opinions on the state of the U-boat war. Kretschmer purportedly confined his remarks to the lack of air support from the Luftwaffe, a point Raeder was fully aware of. Kretschmer then met Hitler at the Reich Chancellery and he repeated his opinions on the war situation. Hitler invited Kretschmer to sit in on a lunch meeting with Hitler and Vyacheslav Molotov, the Soviet Union's ambassador to the Third Reich. Kretschmer's thoughts on Hitler and the subsequent conference are not known. Kretschmer departed for his fifteenth patrol on 27 November and returned on 12 December. In December Kretschmer tried to intercept Convoy HX 90 but encountered only stragglers. Forfar was one, and during the sinking HMS Viscount appeared, forcing Kretschmer to dive. He assumed most of the crew went down with the ship; but there were 159 survivors. 176 men died. Laurentic and Patroclus had been loaded with wooden barrels to increase buoyancy. It took nine torpedoes and one dud to sink them; the latter was sunk after it stopped to pick up survivors from the former. Kretschmer was forced to engage Patroclus with the deck gun when it appeared to resist the torpedo damage, but retreated when the ship fired back. A Short Sunderland appeared briefly, and Kretschmer was forced to accomplish the destruction of the ship with torpedoes, submerged. On 7 December 1940, Kretschmer sank the Dutch freighter Farmsum; the last success of the year. The ship was loaded with coal, set for Buenos Aires, Argentina. The ship sank slowly. Kretschmer learned its identity from frantic radio signals. Defeat and capture Several of Kretschmer's senior officers left the boat before the final patrol. Klaus Bargsten served aboard U-99 under Kretschmer, before being promoted to captain himself and becoming the sole survivor of on 2 June 1942. On 22 February 1941 U-99 left Lorient for the final time. For 13 days Kretschmer sailed without success. U-99 tried in vain to assist Prien in U-47, against OB 290. Prien achieved several sinkings, Kretschmer did not; the pair was chased off by destroyers. Prien's reports were picked up by the Luftwaffe which sent Focke-Wulf Fw 200s from I. Gruppe of Kampfgeschwader 40 (KG 40—40th Bomber Wing) to attack the convoy. The air crews sank eight and damaged several more. Kretschmer continued to search for stragglers and found SS Holmlea. He fired a single torpedo that missed before he lost the ship in thick mist. Prien sank the ship the following day. Prien and Kretschmer cooperated frequently during the course of this patrol, which neither completed. The operation against Convoy OB 293 proved disastrous for the Lorient group. Prien and Kretschmer, along with (Matz) and , attacked the convoy. The ships were protected by an escort group of two destroyers, and , and two corvettes, and . As with the group that eventually sank Kretschmer ten days later, they were experienced and competent. Kretschmer attempted a surface night attack using his favourite tactic. On 7 March Kretschmer sank two ships from the convoy including the Terje Viken. Four ships were sunk, but two U-boats were sunk, one of which was U-47. Prien along with his crew disappeared, presumably in a depth charge attack. British reports of the action mention a large red glow appearing deep below the surface amid the depth charge explosions. On 16 March 1941 Kretschmer attacked Convoy HX 112. Kretschmer sank all but one of the ships lost by the convoy. During a counterattack by the escorts U-99 was disabled after repeated depth charge attacks by the destroyers and . U-99 was driven down to 700 feet—beyond the recognised crush depth— before control was regained and the ballast tanks blown. Kretschmer surfaced and, under fire from the British vessels, scuttled his boat. Three of his men were lost, but Kretschmer and the remainder of U-99s crew were captured. That same day the British escorts scored another success against the Kriegsmarine when the noted U-boat skipper Joachim Schepke was killed aboard , having been depth charged, rammed and sunk by Vanoc. Kretschmer's usual standards of conduct were evident during the sinking of his boat. One signalman sent a message to the escorts "we are sinking" and the firing stopped. He then sent a message to BdU, "Two destroyers—depth charges—50,000 tons—Kretschmer." Kretschmer signalled Walker asking for rescue for his men, taking care to ensure as many left the submarine as possible, and assisted some of his crew towards the rescue nets hung from the British destroyer. Kretschmer's strength was evidently failing in the cold ocean; his own rescue was at the hands of a British sailor who climbed down the nets and plucked him from the water. Prisoner of war Kretschmer and his crew were landed in Liverpool. They were sent to Lime Street Station to be transported to London for interrogation. Kretschmer was taken separately, but his crew had to negotiate the streets of Liverpool and were subjected to missiles thrown by angry civilians; the city had been heavily bombed and was closely linked with the Atlantic war. He was transported to the London Cage, a facility for MI19 to hold valuable enemy prisoners. The building was located at number 8 Kensington Palace Gardens. Winston Churchill disclosed the capture of Kretschmer to the House of Commons on 21 March. German radio acknowledged the capture and the death of Schepke. Prien's demise was not disclosed. German propagandists feared the triple loss might be too damaging to morale. Once in London, Royal Navy interrogators questioned the crew. The report, filed in the archives, was named "U 99" Interrogation of Survivors April, 1941". The British report noted of Kretschmer, "His political views were less extremely Nazi than had been assumed. On seeing the craters of a stick of bombs near Buckingham Palace he was genuinely shocked that an attempt had so obviously been made by his countrymen to bomb the Palace. He spoke English quite well, though he lacked practice. His whole demeanour was calm and quiet, and he seemed anxious to be friendly; he was also less suspicious of British Officers than was his First Lieutenant. Kretschmer stated that he was unmarried." Of his personality and view of the war it stated, "He gave the impression of being a quiet, deliberate man, and looked more like a student than a U-Boat Captain. He prided himself on being able to take advantage of whatever the passing moment offered and made no elaborate plans for attacking convoys. He admitted that he had become weary of the war some time ago, and latterly had got no satisfaction from sinking ship after ship." Following his capture, Kretschmer spent almost seven years as a prisoner of war (POW) in the hands of the British, initially at No 1 POW camp Grizedale Hall in Cumbria. In March 1942, the prisoners were transported to Bowmanville Camp near Lake Ontario in Canada. During his captivity, Kretschmer was promoted in rank to Korvettenkapitän (Lieutenant-Commander) on 19 March 1941, effective as of 1 March 1941, and to Fregattenkapitän (Commander) on 1 September 1944. In addition, he was awarded the Knight's Cross of the Iron Cross with Oak Leaves and Swords () on 26 December 1941. He was the fifth member of the German armed forces to be so honored. On 27 August 1941, U-570 was captured by the Royal Navy. The officers were also taken to the prisoner-of-war camp at Grizedale Hall. Kretschmer was senior officer at the camp. An illegal "Court of Honour" was convened and headed by Kretschmer. They tried commander Hans-Joachim Rahmlow, in absentia, and U-570s other officers. Rahmlow and his second-in-command, Bernhard Berndt, were found "guilty of cowardice"; the other two officers were "acquitted". On the night of 18/19 October, Berndt escaped from the camp. A detachment of the Home Guard apprehended him, shooting him when he tried to escape. Allied courts and Rahmlow sought justice against Kretschmer after the war, but he was never vigorously pursued for trial for his role in the death of Berndt. Kretschmer was also involved in a second illegal court of honour hearing against the commander of . Its commander, Hugo Förster, was repatriated to Germany and committed suicide before the end of the war. In 1943, the German navy tried to rescue him in Operation Kiebitz but that daring plan (later dramatized in the novel The Bowmanville Break and the film, The McKenzie Break) failed. Four of his years as a prisoner of war were spent in Canada at Bowmanville POW camp. Kretschmer was released from captivity on 31 December 1947, and returned to Germany. Postwar career In 1955, Sir Donald McIntyre returned Kretschmer's binoculars, which he had kept in 1941. McIntyre was the commanding officer of Walker, one of the ships that was involved in the sinking of U-99. At the time, Kretschmer was president of the Deutscher Marinebund, a member club of the International Maritime Confederation. On 1 December 1955, Kretschmer joined West Germany's navy, at the time named the Bundesmarine (Federal Navy), holding the rank of Fregattenkapitän (Commander). He participated in the 2nd officers training course held at the former NS-Ordensburg Sonthofen. There, he became inspection group leader at the acceptance organization. On 16 June 1956, he was tasked with the creation of 1. Geleitgeschwader (1st Escort Squadron) which he commanded from 3 January to 15 October 1957. He then attended a training course (16 October 1957 – 28 February 1958) for amphibious forces in the United States. From 1 March to 31 October 1958, Kretschmer served as Admiralstabsoffizier (Asto—officer of the admiralty staff) with the Fleet Command. On 1 November 1958, he was transferred to the position of commander of the Bundesmarines Amphibische Streitkräfte ("amphibious forces"), a position he held until 15 January 1962. During this command, he was promoted to Kapitän zur See (captain at sea/captain) on 12 December 1958. On 16 January 1962, Kretschmer was appointed head of the department for naval task force training and naval tactics with the Führungsstab der Marine (Navy Staff) with the Federal Ministry of Defence. On 28 August 1963, he was transferred to the NATO Defense College in Paris. Kretschmer served in this function until 18 June 1964 when he was appointed chief-of-staff of the Befehlshaber der Seestreitkräfte der Nordsee (German national Commander Naval Forces North Sea). On 1 June 1965, he was promoted to Flottillenadmiral (flotilla admiral/Commodore/Rear Admiral), a rank which he initially held on probation. That day, he was made chief-of-staff of the NATO command COMNAVBALTAP at Kiel, taking command on 15 June. Six months later, on 15 December, he officially became Flottillenadmiral. His command ended on 31 March 1969. The next day, Kretschmer was transferred to the Amt für Militärkunde (Department of Military Studies), retiring on 30 September 1970. While on holiday in Bavaria in the summer of 1998, Kretschmer died in an accident during a boating expedition on the Danube to celebrate his 50th wedding anniversary, at the age of 86. He was on a holiday cruise from Regensburg to Budapest when he tried climbing some almost vertical steps. A fall caused fatal injuries. His body was cremated, and his ashes were scattered at sea. Awards Wehrmacht Long Service Award 4th Class (2 October 1936) Memel Medal (26 October 1939) Iron Cross (1939) 2nd Class (17 October 1939) 1st Class (17 December 1939) U-boat War Badge (1939) (9 November 1939) Sudetenland Medal (20 December 1939) Knight's Cross of the Iron Cross with Oak Leaves and Swords Knight's Cross on 4 August 1940 as Kapitänleutnant and commander of U-99 6th Oak Leaves on 4 November 1940 as Kapitänleutnant and commander of U-99 5th Swords on 26 December 1941 as Korvettenkapitän and commander of U-99'' Notes References Citations Bibliography External links Telegraph On-line edition, February 4, 2008 On line interviews (RealAudio) 1912 births 1998 deaths People from Nysa County People from the Province of Silesia World War II prisoners of war held by the United Kingdom U-boat commanders (Kriegsmarine) Recipients of the Knight's Cross of the Iron Cross with Oak Leaves and Swords Bundesmarine admirals German prisoners of war in World War II Reichsmarine personnel 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229966	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/USS%20Delaware%20%281820%29	USS Delaware (1820)	The third USS Delaware of the United States Navy was a 74-gun ship of the line, named for the state of Delaware. She was laid down at Norfolk Navy Yard in August 1817 and launched on 21 October 1820. She was roofed over and kept at the yard in ordinary until on 27 March 1827, when she was ordered repaired and fitted for sea. Delaware put to sea on 10 February 1828 under the command of Captain J. Downs to become the flagship of Commodore W. M. Crane in the Mediterranean. Arriving at Algeciras Bay, Spain on 23 March, she served in the interests of American commerce and diplomacy in that area until returning to Norfolk on 2 January 1830. According to Ned Myers, who shipped on her maiden voyage, "...it required some little time to get her trim and sailing. She turned out, however, to be a good vessel; sailing fairly, steering well, and proving to be an excellent sea-boat." Delaware was decommissioned on 10 February, and lay in ordinary at Norfolk until 1833. Recommissioned on 15 July 1833, she received President Andrew Jackson aboard on 29 July, firing a 24-gun salute at both his arrival and departure. The following day she set sail for the Mediterranean where she served as flagship for Commodore D. T. Patterson and cruised on goodwill visits and for the protection of the rights and property of American citizens until her return to Hampton Roads on 16 February 1836. She was placed in ordinary from 10 March 1836 until recommissioned on 7 May 1841 for local operations from Norfolk. Delaware sailed on 1 November for a tour of duty on the Brazil Station as flagship for Commodore Charles Morris. She patrolled the coasts of Brazil, Uruguay, and Argentina to represent American interests during political unrest in those countries. On 19 February 1843, she sailed from Rio de Janeiro for another cruise in the Mediterranean. Delaware returned to Hampton Roads on 4 March 1844 and was decommissioned at Norfolk Navy Yard on the 22nd. Still in ordinary there in 1861, she was burned on 20 April along with other ships and the yard facilities to prevent their falling into Confederate hands. Notes External links Howard Chapelle, The History of the American Sailing Navy: the Ships and their Development (New York: Norton, 1949) Remarks and Occurrences on Board the U.S. Ship of the Line Delaware, 1835-1836, MS 16 held by Special Collections & Archives, Nimitz Library at the United States Naval Academy Ships of the line of the United States Navy Ships of the Union Navy United States Navy Delaware-related ships 1820 ships Ship fires Shipwrecks of the American Civil War Shipwrecks of the Virginia coast Ships built in Portsmouth, Virginia Maritime incidents in April 1861	[ -1.0743333101272583, -0.026723742485046387, -0.8887941241264343, 0.0493115559220314, 0.13596299290657043, 0.43504270911216736, 0.7447280883789062, -0.6458949446678162, -0.4571091830730438, -0.11976257711648941, 0.6721444725990295, 0.13004615902900696, -0.2694031894207001, 0.4030887484550476, -0.48705512285232544, 0.47417303919792175, 0.023929791525006294, 0.18865592777729034, 0.521737277507782, 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229967	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/New%20Flemish%20Alliance	New Flemish Alliance	The New Flemish Alliance (, N-VA) is a Flemish nationalist and conservative political party in Belgium. The party was founded in 2001 by the right-leaning fraction of the centrist-nationalist People's Union (VU). The N-VA is a regionalist and separatist movement that self-identifies with the promotion of civic nationalism. It is considered part of the Flemish Movement; the party strives for the peaceful and gradual secession of Flanders from Belgium. In recent years it has become the largest party of Flanders as well as of Belgium as a whole, and it participated in the 2014–18 Belgian Government until 9 December 2018. The N-VA was established as a centre-right party with the main objective of working towards furthering Flemish autonomy and redefining Belgium as a confederal country through gradually obtaining more powers for both Belgian communities separately with the belief that this will pave the way for eventual Flemish independence. During its early years, the N-VA mostly followed the platform of the former People's Union by characterising itself as a big tent party combining policies from the left and right with Flemish nationalism as its central theme. Furthermore, it emphasized a pragmatic and non-revolutionary image (as opposed to the far-right character of the Vlaams Belang) in order to legitimise increased Flemish autonomy. The party also espoused non-interventionalist and pro-individual freedom messages in its original platform. In subsequent years, the N-VA moved to the right and has adopted a distinctly conservative identity under the leadership of Bart De Wever, who succeeded the founding leader Geert Bourgeois. The party is also known for its insistence on the exclusive use of Dutch, Flanders' sole official language, in dealings with government agencies, and for the promotion of the use of Dutch in Flanders. The N-VA advocates free-market economics and immediate tax reductions to stimulate the economy. It also supports stricter law and order and controlled immigration policies. The party previously advocated deepening ties with the European Union, but have since shifted to a more "Eurorealist" or "Eurocritical" stance. Since the 2014 European elections, the New Flemish Alliance has sat with the European Conservatives and Reformists (ECR) parliamentary group in the European Parliament. History Fall of the People's Union The N-VA stems from the right-leaning faction of the People's Union (, VU), a Belgian political party and broad electoral alliance of Flemish nationalists from both sides of the political spectrum. Towards the end of the 20th century, with a steadily declining electorate and the majority of the party's federalist agenda implemented, friction between several wings of the People's Union emerged. In the beginning of the 1990s, Bert Anciaux became party president and led the party in an ever more progressive direction, combining the social-liberal and social democratic ideas of his iD21-movement with the regionalist course of the People's Union. These experiments were opposed by the more traditional right-wing party base. Many of the VU's more ardent national-conservative members defected to the Vlaams Blok after becoming disgruntled with direction of the party, prompting a further decline in support. Around this time, VU member Geert Bourgeois, de-facto leader of the VU's traditionalist and centre-right nationalist wing, put together the so-called "Oranjehofgroep" (which would go on to become the bedrock of the N-VA) which included fellow VU members Frieda Brepoels, Eric Defoort, Ben Weyts and Bart De Wever. The Oranjehofgroep opposed the direction in which the party was being taken by Anciaux and wanted the VU to pursue a more conservative, Flemish nationalist and separatist direction, while the wing helmed by Anciaux was looking to merge the Volksunie with its progressive programme with another political party. Tension rose towards the end of the decade, as Geert Bourgeois was elected chairman by party members, in preference to the incumbent and progressive Patrik Vankrunkelsven who belonged to the iD21 wing. Factions subsequently clashed multiple times, over the future course of the party and possible support for current state reform negotiations. On 13 October 2001 the party openly split into three factions: the progressive wing around Bert Anciaux, which would later become the Spirit party; the conservative nationalist wing around Geert Bourgeois; and a centrist group opposing the imminent split. An internal referendum was held on the future course of the party. The right wing gained a substantial plurality of 47% and inherited the party infrastructure. Since no faction got an absolute majority, however, the name Volksunie could no longer be used under Belgian constitutional law and the VU was dissolved. The centre-right orientated faction of the VU went on to found the N-VA while the remaining centre-left faction reorganized itself as Spirit and the centrist-liberal wing mostly folded into the Open VLD. Foundation and the election threshold In the autumn of 2001, the New Flemish Alliance (, N-VA) was officially registered. Seven members of parliament from the People's Union joined the new party. The new party council created a party manifesto and a statement of principles. The first party congress was held in May 2002, voting on a party program and permanent party structures. Geert Bourgeois was elected chairman. The N-VA initially continued some of the VU's former policies. The party participated in elections for the first time in the 2003 federal elections, but struggled with the election threshold of 5%. This threshold was only reached in West Flanders, the constituency of Geert Bourgeois. With only one federal representative and no senator, the party lost government funding and faced irrelevance. Cartel with CD&V In February 2004, the N-VA entered into an electoral alliance, commonly known in Belgium as a cartel, with the Christian Democratic and Flemish (CD&V) party, the traditionally largest party, which was then in opposition. They joined forces in the regional elections in 2004 and won. Both parties joined the new Flemish government, led by CD&V leader Yves Leterme. Geert Bourgeois became a minister, and Bart De Wever became the new party leader in October 2004. The cartel was briefly broken when the former right-wing liberal Jean-Marie Dedecker left the Open Flemish Liberals and Democrats (Open VLD) and entered the N-VA on behalf of the party executive. However, the party congress did not put Dedecker on the election list, instead preferring to continue the cartel with CD&V, who had strongly opposed placing him on a joint cartel list. Dedecker saw this as a vote of no confidence, and left the party after only 10 days, to form his own party, List Dedecker (LDD). Deputy leader Brepoels, who supported Dedecker, stepped down from the party board afterwards. In the Belgian federal election of 2007 the CD&V/N-VA cartel won a major victory again, with a campaign focusing on good governance, state reform and the division of the electoral district Brussels-Halle-Vilvoorde. The N-VA won five seats in the Chamber of Representatives and two seats in the Senate. Yves Leterme initiated coalition talks, which repeatedly stalled (see 2007–2008 Belgian government formation). On 20 March 2008, a new federal government was finally assembled. N-VA did not join this government, but gave its support pending state reform. The cartel ended definitively on 24 September 2008, due to lack of progression in state reform matters and a different strategy on future negotiations. N-VA left the Flemish Government and gave up its support of Leterme at the federal level. Mainstream party In the regional elections of June 2009, N-VA won an unexpected 13% of the votes, making them the winner of the elections, along with their old cartel partner CD&V. N-VA subsequently joined the government, led by Kris Peeters (CD&V). Bart De Wever chose to remain party leader and appointed Geert Bourgeois and Philippe Muyters as ministers in the Flemish Government and Jan Peumans as speaker of the Flemish Parliament. In December 2018, a political crisis emerged over whether to sign the Global Compact for Migration; N-VA was against this, whereas the other three parties in the federal government supported it. On 4 December 2018, the Prime Minister of Belgium, Charles Michel, announced that the issue would be taken to parliament for a vote. On 5 December, parliament voted 106 to 36 in favor of backing the agreement. Michel stated that he would endorse the pact on behalf of parliament, not on behalf of the divided government. Consequently, N-VA quit the federal government; the other three parties continue as a minority government (Michel II). During the 2019 federal elections the party again polled in first place in the Flemish region but saw a decline in vote share for the first time, falling to 25.6% of the Flemish vote. Foundation and ideology The New Flemish Alliance is a relatively young political party, founded in the autumn of 2001. Being one of the successors of the Volksunie (1954–2001), it is, however, based on an established political tradition. The N-VA works towards the same goal as its predecessor: to redefine Flemish nationalism in a contemporary setting. Party leader De Wever calls himself a conservative and a nationalist. The N-VA has previously argued for a Flemish Republic as a member state of a democratic European confederation. In its initial mission statement, the party stated that the challenges of the 21st century can best be answered by strong communities and by well-developed international co-operation, a position which reflected in their tagline: "Necessary in Flanders, useful in Europe." (.) During the N-VA's early years a label for the political orientation for the party was difficult to find. Borrowing from its People's Union predecessor, the N-VA was initially considered a big tent or catch-all party and a socially liberal nationalist movement that combined left- and right-wing policies, and a focus on individual responsibility. The N-VA also summed up its initial platform with the slogan evolution, not revolution, arguing for a more pragmatic approach to Flemish nationalism by pursuing gradual independence for Flanders through reforms and increased autonomy for both the Flemish and Walloon regions of Belgium. This strategy assumed that through successive transfers of powers from the federal level to both regions on the one hand, and the European Union on the other, the Belgian state will gradually become obsolete. The party's early platform also supported pacifist politics and the non-aggression principle. In its 2009 election programme, the N-VA described itself as economically liberal and ecologically green. The party supported public transport, open source software, renewable energy and taxing cars by the number of kilometres driven. It wanted more aid for developing countries and more compulsory measures to require that immigrants learn Dutch. The party has generally been supportive of LGBT rights by backing same-sex marriage and relaxing laws for gay couples to adopt. It calls for measures to protect weaker members of society but also robust welfare reform to encourage people into work and reduce unemployment. The N-VA also supports abolishing the Belgian Senate. In recent years, the N-VA has shifted from a big tent to an avowedly conservative party by basing some of its socio-economic policies on that of the British Conservative Party. Political scientist Glen Duerr has described the N-VA's current position as evolving to somewhere between that of Vlaams Belang and CD&V. Since 2014, the N-VA has been described as continuing to move ideologically further to the right under the influence of Bart De Wever and Theo Francken by adopting tougher stances on immigration, integration of minorities, requirements to obtain Belgian citizenship, law and order, national security and repatriation of foreign born criminals and illegal immigrants. In 2015, German weekly Die Zeit published a list of 39 successful radical political parties in Europe. The paper described N-VA as right-wing populist and separatist because it reduces complex political problems to territorial issues. N-VA responded that "foreign media find the party difficult to place, so they just label us as extremists." In 2018, the party opposed the UN Global Compact for Migration and subsequently withdrew its participation in the Belgian government in protest of its passing. Some commentators have attributed these shifts as a response to a revival in support for the Flemish nationalist Vlaams Belang, which also campaigned against the Migration Compact. In contrast to other Belgian parties, the N-VA is more critical of the cordon sanitaire placed on Vlaams Belang and recently has been more open to negotiating with the party (although accepting former Vlaams Blok/Vlaams Belang members as defectors into the N-VA still remains controversial within some ranks of the party). In terms of foreign policy, the N-VA's stance on the European Union began as strongly pro-European in character (which it regarded as an important means of gaining legitimacy for Flemish nationalism on an international stage) and in 2010 the party called for "an ever stronger and more united Europe." However, the party has since moved in a Eurocritical direction and takes a more critical stance on European integration by no longer endorsing a European confederation, calling for less EU interference at national decision making levels, more democratic reform of the EU and arguing that economically unstable nations should leave the Eurozone. The party is critical of the EU's stance on illegal immigration (in particular its handling of the migrant crisis) and the role played by NGOs in picking up migrants. The N-VA argues that the EU should emulate the Australian model of border protection to reinforce its external border and work with nations outside of Europe to stem the flow of illegal migrants arriving by sea. At European level, the N-VA is part of the European Free Alliance (EFA), a European political party consisting of regionalist, pro-independence and minority interest political parties, of which the People's Union was a founder member. During the 7th European Parliament of 2009–2014, the N-VA was a member of The Greens–European Free Alliance (Greens/EFA) group in the European Parliament. However, following the 2014 European elections, the N-VA announced it was moving to a new group and chose the European Conservatives and Reformists (ECR) over the Alliance of Liberals and Democrats for Europe. Party chairmen Faction leaders Party chairman: Bart De Wever Chamber of Representatives: Peter De Roover Senate: Karl Vanlouwe Flemish Parliament: Wilfried Vandaele European Parliament: Geert Bourgeois Brussels Parliament: Cieltje Van Achter Electorate In the federal elections in 2003 N-VA received 3.1% of the votes, but won only one seat in the federal parliament. In February 2004 they formed an electoral alliance (cartel) with the Christian Democratic and Flemish party (CD&V). The cartel won the elections for the Flemish Parliament. The N-VA received a total of 6 seats. However, on 21 September 2008 the N-VA lost its faith in the federal government and the following day minister Geert Bourgeois resigned. In a press conference he confirmed the end of the CD&V/N-VA cartel. In the 2004 European elections, N-VA had 1 MEP elected as part of the cartel with CD&V. In the 10 June 2007 federal elections, the cartel won 30 out of 150 seats in the Chamber of Representatives and 9 out of 40 seats in the Senate. In the regional elections of 11 June 2009, N-VA (now on its own after the split of the cartel with CD&V) won an unexpected 13% of the votes, making them the winner of the elections along with their former cartel partner. In the 2009 European elections held on the same day, the N-VA had one MEP elected. In the 2010 federal elections, N-VA became the largest party of Flanders and of Belgium altogether. In the 2014 federal elections, N-VA increased their dominant position, taking votes and seats from the far-right Flemish Interest. In the simultaneous 2014 regional elections and 2014 European elections, the N-VA also became the largest party in the Flemish Parliament and in the Belgian delegation to the European Parliament. In the 2019 federal elections the party remained in first place in the Chamber of Representatives, European Parliament and Flemish Parliament, but saw a decline of their vote share for the first time, obtaining 16.03% of the votes in the Federal Parliament. With a decline of 24,7 procent of their votes compared to 2014, the N-VA suffered the biggest election defeat of any Flemish government party in the last fifty years. The decline in votes was in part due to a sudden upsurge in support for the Flemish Interest. Electoral results Chamber of Representatives Senate Regional Brussels Parliament Flemish Parliament European Parliament Representation European politics N-VA holds three seats in the ninth European Parliament (2019–2024) for the Dutch-speaking electoral college. Federal politics Regional politics Flemish Government Former Flemish Ministers Geert Bourgeois, former Minister-President (2014-2019) and Minister (2004-2014) Liesbeth Homans, former Minister-President (2019) and Minister (2014-2019) Philippe Muyters, former Minister (2009-2019) Flemish Parliament Parliament of the Brussels-Capital Region References External links Civic nationalism European Conservatives and Reformists member parties Flemish political parties in Belgium Separatism in Belgium Secessionist organizations in Europe Political parties established in 2001 Ethnicity in politics European Free Alliance Pro-independence parties 2001 establishments in Belgium Conservatism in Belgium Conservative parties in Belgium Right-wing parties in Europe Liberal conservative parties Centre-right parties in Europe Regionalist parties	[ 0.1954653114080429, -0.7637348175048828, 0.6091486811637878, -0.25092145800590515, -0.48713594675064087, 0.4675651788711548, -0.12862542271614075, 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229968	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ecolo	Ecolo	Ecolo, officially Écologistes Confédérés pour l'organisation de luttes originales, (English: Confederate Ecologists for the Organisation of Original Struggles) is a French-speaking political party in Belgium based on green politics. The party is active in Wallonia, the Brussels-Capital Region, and the German-speaking Community of Belgium. Ecolo's Flemish equivalent is Groen; the two parties maintain close relations with each other. Name Ecolo is officially a backronym for Écologistes Confédérés pour l'organisation de luttes originales "Confederated Ecologists for the Organisation of Original Struggles", but is really just short for écologistes, French for environmentalists. History Ecolo was part of the 1999 Verhofstadt I Government, but withdrew from the coalition before the 2003 general election, which saw it lose nearly two thirds of its 14 federal parliamentary seats in the face of a resurgent Socialist Party. The party made quite a comeback, however, in the 2007 general election, though failing to match the peak popularity it had enjoyed in 1999. In the general election of 10 June 2007, the party won eight out of 150 seats in the Chamber of Representatives and two out of the 40 directly elected seats in the Senate. In the 2010 elections the party again won eight seats in the Chamber of Representatives and two in the Senate. Electoral results Chamber of Representatives Senate Regional Brussels Parliament German-speaking Community Parliament Walloon Parliament European Parliament Elected politicians Current European Parliament Philippe Lamberts Chamber of Representatives 2010 – 2014: Ronny Balcaen Juliette Boulet Olivier Deleuze (resigned in 2012; replaced by Lahssaini Fouad) Zoé Genot Muriel Gerkens George Gilkinet Eric Jadot Thérèse Snoy et d'Oppuers Brussels-Capital Region Parlement 2009 – 2014: Aziz Albishari Dominique Braeckman Jean-Claude Defosse Céline Delforge Anne Dirix Anne Herscovici Zakia Khattabi Vincent Lurquin Alain Maron Jacques Morel Ahmed Mouhssin Marie Nagy Yaron Pesztat Arnaud Pinxteren Barbara Trachte Vincent Vanhalewyn Past Chamber of Representatives 1995 – 1999: Philippe Dallons Olivier Deleuze Thierry Detienne Mylène Nys (20 April 1999) Martine Schüttringer Jean-Pierre Viseur 1999 – 2003: Marie-Thérèse Coenen Martine Dardenne Vincent Decroly Olivier Deleuze → Zoé Genot (14 July 1999) Thierry Detienne → Muriel Gerkens (23 July 1999) Claudine Drion Michèle Gilkinet Mirella Minne Géraldine Pelzer-Salandra Paul Timmermans → Bernard Baille (1 September 2002) Jean-Pierre Viseur → Gérard Gobert (10 January 2001) 2003–2007: Zoé Genot Muriel Gerkens Gérard Gobert Marie Nagy 2007–2010: Juliette Boulet Zoé Genot Muriel Gerkens Georges Gilkinet Philippe Henry Fouad Lahssaini Jean-Marc Nollet Thérèse Snoy et d'Oppuers Brussels-Capital Region Parlement 2004–2009: Dominique Braeckman Alain Daems Céline Delforge Christos Doulkeridis Josy Dubié Paul Galand Yaron Pesztat Important figures José Daras Josy Dubié Isabelle Durant Muriel Gerkens Evelyne Huytebroeck Jacky Morael Patrick Dupriez Zakia Khattabi Hélène Ryckmans See also Green party Green politics List of environmental organizations References Green political parties in Belgium Francophone political parties in Belgium European Green Party Global Greens member parties	[ 0.5308560132980347, -0.4335566759109497, 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229969	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Liberal%20Reformist%20Party%20%28Belgium%29	Liberal Reformist Party (Belgium)	The Liberal Reformist Party (, PRL) was a liberal political party active in Wallonia and Brussels in Belgium. The PRL grew out of the Francophone part of the unitary liberal Party for Freedom and Progress (PVV-PLP) in 1971 and merged into the Reformist Movement (RM) in 2002. History In 1971, the Party for Freedom and Progress (PVV-PLP), inheritor to the historical Liberal Party of Belgium, split into a Flemish and a Francophone party, anticipating the political devolution bill of 1980. Initially keeping the French version of the old party name (Parti de la liberté et du progrès), the party relaunched as the Party of Reforms and Freedom of Wallonia (Parti des réformes et de la liberté de Wallonie, PRLW) after taking over the Walloon Rally. In Brussels, the French-speaking Liberals co-operated intensively with the Democratic Front of the Francophones (FDF). In 1979, the Francophone liberals of the capital merged into the PRLW, which took the new name of Liberal Reformist Party (PRL). The Walloon liberals participated in the federal government from 1973 to 1977 (Leburton governments I-II, Tindemans governments I-III), in 1980 (Martens government III), from 1981 to 1988 (Martens governments V-VII), and from 1999 to 2003 (Verhofstadt I Government). In 1993, the PRL formed an alliance with the Democratic Front of the Francophones (FDF), a party standing up for the rights of French-speakers in and around Brussels. In 1998, the Citizens' Movement for Change, a split-off from the Christian Social Party, joined the alliance, making it the PRL-FDF-MCC Federation. On a congress in 2002, the German-speaking liberals of the Party for Freedom and Progress also joined and the alliance took the name of Reformist Movement (MR). After this congress, the PRL completely merged in the MR. Presidents 1972–1973: Milou Jeunehomme 1973–1979: André Damseaux 1979–1982: Jean Gol 1982–1990: Louis Michel 1990–1992: Antoine Duquesne and Daniel Ducarme (co-presidency) 1992–1995: Jean Gol 1995–1999: Louis Michel 1999–2003: Daniel Ducarme Notable members André Damseaux, party chairman 1973-1974, MEP, Prime Minister of the Walloon Region, 1982 Jean Defraigne, President of the Belgian Chamber of Representatives 1980, 1981-1988 François-Xavier de Donnea, Defence Minister and Minister for the Brussels Region 1984-1988, Mayor of Brussels 1995-2000, Prime Minister of the Brussels Region 2000-2003 Antoine Duquesne, party chairman 1990-1992, Education Minister 1987-1988, Interior Minister of Belgium 1999-2003, MEP 2004-2009 Jean Gol, party chairman 1979-1981, Vice-Premier and Justice Minister of Belgium 1981-1988 Louis Michel, party chairman 1982-1990, 1995-1999, Foreign Minister 1999-2004, European Commissioner 2004-2009 Charles Poswick, Defence Minister 1966-1968, 1980, President of the Parliament of the French Community 1984-1985 Didier Reynders, chairman of the National Railway Company of Belgium 1986-1991, Finance Minister of Belgium 1999-2004 Jacques Simonet, Prime Minister of the Brussels Region 1999-2000, 2004 Pierre Van Halteren, Mayor of Brussels 1975-1982 See also Liberalism in Belgium References Defunct political parties in Belgium Francophone political parties in Belgium Liberal parties in Belgium Defunct liberal political parties 1971 establishments in Belgium 2002 disestablishments in Belgium	[ -0.08322524279356003, -0.3782753348350525, 0.15723706781864166, 0.07694141566753387, -0.5695759654045105, 0.2642180323600769, -0.3951590061187744, -0.0754290297627449, -1.0620286464691162, -0.46341800689697266, 0.14182935655117035, 0.23715779185295105, -0.2888003885746002, 0.7058526873588562, 0.3556922972202301, 0.8108053803443909, 0.4310053586959839, 0.2369627207517624, -0.06452175229787827, -0.3841780126094818, -0.30546334385871887, 0.2457510381937027, 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229970	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Western%20Electric	Western Electric	The Western Electric Company was an American electrical engineering and manufacturing company officially founded in 1869. A wholly owned subsidiary of AT&T for most of its lifespan, it served as the primary equipment manufacturer, supplier, and purchasing agent for the Bell System from 1881 to 1984 when it was dismantled. The company was responsible for many technological innovations as well as developments in industrial management. History In 1856, George Shawk, a craftsman and telegraph maker, purchased an electrical engineering business in Cleveland, Ohio. On December 31, 1869, he entered a partnership with Enos M. Barton, and later sold his share to inventor Elisha Gray. In 1872, Barton and Gray moved the business to Clinton Street, Chicago, Illinois, and incorporated it as the Western Electric Manufacturing Company. They manufactured a variety of electrical products including typewriters, alarms, and lighting and had a close relationship with telegraph company Western Union, to whom they supplied relays and other equipment. In 1875, Gray sold his interests to Western Union, including the caveat that he had filed against Alexander Graham Bell's patent application for the telephone. The ensuing legal battle between Western Union and the Bell Telephone Company over patent rights ended in 1879 with Western Union withdrawing from the telephone market and Bell acquiring Western Electric in 1881. This purchase was a crucial step in standardizing telephone instruments and concentrating manufacturing in a single entity. Western Electric was the first company to join in a Japanese joint venture with foreign capital. In 1899, it invested in a 54% share of the Nippon Electric Company, Ltd. Western Electric's representative in Japan was Walter Tenney Carleton. In 1901, Western Electric secretly purchased a controlling interest in a principal competitor, the Kellogg Switchboard & Supply Company, but in 1909 was forced by a lawsuit to sell back to Milo Kellogg. On July 24, 1915, employees of the Hawthorne Works boarded the SS Eastland in downtown Chicago for a company picnic. The ship rolled over at the dock and over 800 people died. In 1920, Alice Heacock Seidel was the first of Western Electric's female employees to be given permission to stay on after she had married. This set a precedent in the company, which previously had not allowed married women in their employ. Miss Heacock had worked for Western Electric for sixteen years before her marriage, and was at the time the highest-paid secretary in the company. In her memoirs, she wrote that the decision to allow her to stay on "required a meeting of the top executives to decide whether I might remain with the Company, for it established a precedent and a new policy for the Company - that of married women in their employ. If the women at the top were permitted to remain after marriage then all women would expect the same privilege. How far and how fast the policy was expanded is shown by the fact that a few years later women were given maternity leaves with no loss of time on their service records." In 1925, ITT purchased the Bell Telephone Manufacturing Company of Brussels, Belgium, and other worldwide subsidiaries from AT&T, to avoid an antitrust action. The company manufactured rotary system switching equipment under the Western Electric brand. Early on, Western Electric also managed an electrical equipment distribution business, furnishing its customers with non-telephone products made by other manufacturers This electrical distribution business was spun off from Western Electric in 1925 and organized into a separate company, Graybar Electric Company, in honor of the company's founders, Elisha Gray and Enos Barton. Bell Telephone Laboratories, created from the engineering department of Western Electric in 1925, was half-owned by Western Electric, the other half belonging to AT&T. Company logos Western Electric used various logos during its existence. Starting in 1914 it used an image of AT&T's statue Spirit of Communication. Development of a monopoly In 1915, the assets of Western Electric Manufacturing were transferred to a newly incorporated company in New York, New York, named Western Electric Company, Inc, a wholly owned subsidiary of AT&T. The sole reason for the transfer was to provide for the issuance of a non-voting preferred class of capital stock, disallowed under the statutes of the state of Illinois. Western Electric telephones were owned not by end customers but by the local Bell System telephone companies—all of which were subsidiaries of AT&T, which also owned Western Electric. Each phone was leased from the phone company on a monthly basis by customers who generally paid for their phone as part of the recurring lease fees. This system had the effect of subsidizing basic telephone service, keeping local phone service inexpensive, under $10 per month, including the leased phone. After divestiture, basic service prices increased, and customers were now responsible for inside building wiring and telephone equipment. The Bell System had an extensive policy and infrastructure to recycle or refurbish phones taken out of service, replacing all defective, weak, or otherwise unusable parts for new installations. This resulted in extraordinary longevity of Western Electric telephones, and limited the variety of new designs introduced into the market place. AT&T also strictly enforced policies against using telephone equipment by other manufacturers on their network. A customer who insisted on using a telephone not supplied by the Bell System had to first transfer the phone to the local Bell operating company, who leased the phone back to the customer for a monthly charge in addition to a re-wiring fee. In the 1970s when consumers increasingly bought telephone sets from other manufacturers, AT&T changed the policy for its Design Line telephone series by selling customers the phone housing, retaining ownership of the internal mechanical and electrical components, which still required paying AT&T a monthly leasing fee. Until 1983, Western Electric telephones or their components could only be leased by subscribers and never resold, and were repaired by the Bell System operating companies at no charge to the customer. This led Western Electric to pursue extreme reliability and durability in design to minimize service calls. In particular, the work of Walter A. Shewhart, who developed new techniques for statistical quality control in the 1920s, helped lead to the legendary quality of manufacture of Western Electric telephones. Starting in 1983, Western Electric telephones could be sold to the public under the brand name American Bell, a newly created subsidiary of AT&T. One of the terms of the Modification of Final Judgment in the Bell System divestiture procedures prohibited AT&T from using the name Bell after January 1, 1984; prior to this, AT&T's plan was to market products and services under the American Bell name, accompanied by the now familiar AT&T globe logo. One of AT&T's competitors in providing telephone service in the U.S., General Telephone and Electronics (GTE), also operated an equipment manufacturing unit, Automatic Electric near Lisle, Illinois. Manufacturing plants In 1905, Western Electric began construction of the Hawthorne Works on the outskirts of Chicago and which, by 1914 had absorbed all manufacturing work from Clinton Street and Western Electric's other plant in New York City. Later large factories included the Kearny Works in Kearny, New Jersey, Columbus Works in Columbus, Ohio, and Kansas City Works in Lee's Summit, Missouri. By the time AT&T was dissolved in the early 1980s, more than twenty production plants around the country ("Works" locations) had been established. Locations of these facilities included: Allentown Works, Allentown, Pennsylvania (555 Union Blvd., microelectronics, later Agere Systems) Atlanta Works, Norcross, Georgia (2000 Northeast Expressway, undersea cables, later fiber-optic cables) Baltimore Works, Baltimore, Maryland (Broening Highway, opened 1929, plant operated from 1930 to 1984, coaxial and marine cables, wire, cords) Buffalo Plant Tonawanda, New York (telephone cords and switches, ceased operation Nov. 4, 1977) Columbia River Switching Equipment Works, Vancouver, Washington (crossbar switching equipment - 590 IBEW employees in 1974) Columbus Works, Columbus, Ohio (6200 E. Broad St., switching equipment) Dallas Works, Mesquite, Texas (electronic switches and power equipment/supplies) Denver Works, Westminster, Colorado (12110 Pecos St., Dimension and Horizon business PBX systems) Engineering Research Center (ERC), Hopewell Township, New Jersey (Carter Road, R&D on manufacturing technologies) Greensboro Works, Greensboro, North Carolina (military equipment) Hawthorne Works, Cicero, Illinois (metal parts/tools, capacitors, thin-film circuits, switchboards) Indianapolis Works, Indianapolis, Indiana (consumer telephone sets) Kansas City Works, Lee's Summit, Missouri (777 N. Blue Pkwy, electronics, switching equipment) Kearny Works, Kearny, New Jersey (Opened for operation in 1925, power supplies and other equipment) Merrimack Valley Works, North Andover, Massachusetts (1600 Osgood St., transmission equipment) Montgomery Works, Montgomery, Illinois (telephone parts) New River Valley Plant, Radford, Virginia (Caller 21, opened about 1980) North Illinois Works, Lisle, Illinois (4513 Western Ave, built 1970s, manufacturing of 3ESS, 4ESS switches, 3B5/15/4000 computer systems) Oklahoma City Works, Oklahoma City, Oklahoma (payphones, switching equipment) Omaha Works, Omaha, Nebraska (opened 1958, Crossbar, dial, and PBX equipment, cable, relays) Orlando Works, Orlando, Florida (9701 and 9333 John Young Parkway, microelectronics, built in the early 1980s, later Agere Systems) Phoenix Works, Phoenix, Arizona (505 N. 51St., built in the 1960s for the manufacturing of cable and wire) Pittsburgh Works, Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania (plates/glass, 260 employees in 1966, established 1904) Reading Works, Reading, Pennsylvania (2525 North 12th St., microelectronics, later Agere Systems) Richmond Works, Richmond, Virginia (4500 Laburnum Ave, built in the 1970s) Shreveport Works, Shreveport, Louisiana (9595 Mansfield Rd., business and consumer telephone sets, payphones) Winston-Salem Works, Winston-Salem, North Carolina (3300 Lexington Rd. S.E., military and wave guide equipment) St. Paul, MN: In 1944, Western Electric purchased a factory in St. Paul, Minnesota to restart manufacture of telephone sets for civilian installation as authorized by War Production Board. By 1946, some of these facilities were relocated to the Hawthorne plant as space became available from war-production scale down. At Hawthorne Works, Cicero, Illinois, Elton Mayo conducted research of the effect on manufacturing productivity of lighting changes and work structure changes, such as working hours or break times. The reactivity identified in the studies became known as the Hawthorne effect. Technological innovations In 1926, Western Electric issued the first Bell System telephone with a handset containing both the transmitter and receiver in the same unit. Previous telephones had been of the candlestick type which featured a stationary transmitter in the desktop set or the wall-mounted unit, and a hand-held receiver to be placed on the user's ear. The first version of the desktop unit was constructed by shortening the candlestick shaft to about an inch in height and placing a handset cradle on the top. This was the A-type handset mounting, which was replaced by 1928 by the B handset mounting, which featured a streamlined shape integrating the shaft as a short neck for the cradle. It still had the same circular footprint of the candlestick, which proved too unstable when dialing numbers, and was henceforth replaced with a wider design using an oval footprint, the D-type base in 1930. Concurrently with the mechanical advances, the electrical circuitry of Western Electric telephones saw advances in sidetone reduction. Sidetone is electronic feedback by which the users of the telephone can hear their own voice in the receiver. While a desirable property, this feedback, when too loud, causes most users to lower their voice volume to unacceptable levels. Until after the introduction in 1930 of the D handset mountings, sets still contained no active sidetone compensation. Such handset telephone types were designated with the assembly code 102 (model 102 telephone), while later models containing anti-sidetone circuitry were the model 202 telephone set. These early desktop telephones relied on an additional desk set box or subscriber set (subset) containing the ringer with gongs, the induction coil, and capacitors to interface with the telephone network. These subscriber sets were typically mounted on a wall near the operating location for the phone. In 1936 the model 302 telephone was announced, which was the first Western Electric instrument that combined the desktop telephone set with the subscriber set and ringer in one unit. It became the mainstay of American telephone service well into the 1950s, and was followed by the model 500 telephone starting in 1950, which became the most extensively produced telephone model in the industry's history. The 500-set was continually updated over time, reflecting new materials and manufacturing processes, such as quieter and smoother dial gearing and a printed circuit board for the network electronics. The model 500 was discontinued in 1986, in favor of the type 2500, that had been available since 1969. The 2500-series employed dual-tone multi-frequency (DTMF) signaling for transmitting digits to the central office, replacing the rotary dial. DTMF technology was referred to by the trademark Touch-Tone. Other innovations included the Princess telephones of the 1960s, followed shortly by the Trimline models. Western Electric's switching equipment development commenced in the mid-1910s with the rotary system and the panel switch, later several generations of cross-bar switches, and finally the development of several generations of electronic switching systems (ESS). The No. 1 ESS was first installed in 1965. The 4ESS was the first digital toll switching system, implemented in 1976. Finally, in 1981, the 5ESS was implemented throughout the United States. In 1929, Western Electric entered as a market competitor for early cinema sound systems. It created the Western Electric Universal Base, a device by which early silent cinema projectors could be adapted to screen sound films. Western Electric designed a wide-audio-range horn loudspeaker for cinemas. This was estimated to be 25% efficient, thus allowing a cinema to be filled with sound from a 3-watt amplifier. This was an important breakthrough in 1929 because high-powered audio valves (tubes) were not generally available. In addition to being a supplier to the Bell System, Western Electric played a major role in the development and production of professional sound recording and reproducing equipment, including: the Vitaphone system which brought sound to the movies; the electrical recording technology adopted by record companies in the late 1920s (despite the popular electrical system used by Autograph Records and its manager, Orlando R. Marsh); the Orthophonic phonograph, an acoustical phonograph with a flat frequency response tailored for reproduction of electrically recorded disks; the Westrex (variable density) optical sound that succeeded it for motion picture film production and release prints; the Westrex magnetic sound (mono and stereo) that succeeded it for motion picture film production (until the Swiss made Kudelski monaural Nagra III was adopted by Hollywood) and a few production's release prints; the Westrex stereo variable-area optical sound that succeeded it for low-cost stereo release prints; the Westrex (Model 3, and derivatives) cutter and system for recording stereophonic sound in a single-groove gramophone record (StereoDisk®) that was compatible with monophonic equipment. For these reasons, many American films of this period feature the Western Electric/Westrex logo in their on-screen credits. In 1950, at the start of the Cold War, Western Electric was selected to build the first demonstrator for the SOSUS anti-submarine sound surveillance system. Later, the company was prime contractor for the Safeguard anti-ballistic missile system, which operated briefly from 1975. Manufacturing innovations Western Electric also invested heavily in improving processes and equipment to manufacture their products. In 1958, the company established the Engineering Research Center (ERC) near Princeton, New Jersey. With a charter distinct from Bell Labs, Western Electric's ERC was one of the first research organizations solely dedicated to the advancement of manufacturing-focused, rather than product-focused science. Here, more than 400 researchers and engineers worked to bring new manufacturing technologies into the company's production environment. Their developments included computer-driven mathematical models and related statistical quality-control systems to improve production flow and logistics, novel metal-forming techniques, circuit board assembly automation, fiber-optic waveguide manufacturing techniques, application of lasers for industrial processes and early efforts in cleanroom robotics for semiconductor production. In the early 1970s, some of the first practical Ion Implanters to make integrated circuits were also developed at ERC and later deployed at Western Electric's chip-making factories. Although the ERC was later integrated into Bell Labs, it - along with AT&T's nearby Corporate Education Center - was closed by the late 1990s, victims of the deregulation of telecommunications, shrinking revenues from long-distance calls and accelerating innovation in telephone equipment by an increasing number of global manufacturing players. Management innovations Western Electric were pioneers of the scientific management of Frederick Winslow Taylor. Walter A. Shewhart developed the control chart at the Hawthorne Works in 1924. The Hawthorne experiments in industrial productivity were conducted there from 1924 to 1936. Joseph M. Juran pioneered the use of statistical analysis for quality assurance at the Hawthorne Works. Western Electric's reputation for sound management was such that in 1949 President Truman requested that Western Electric manage a major defense laboratory, Sandia National Labs. NASA and Project Mercury In 1960, NASA awarded Western Electric a contract for over $33,000,000 () for engineering and construction of a tracking system for the Project Mercury program. As part of this effort, Western Electric engineers trained remote-site flight controllers and Project Mercury control center and operations personnel. Closure As of January 1, 1984, a newly formed company, AT&T Technologies, Inc., assumed the corporate charter of Western Electric, which was split into several divisions, each focusing on a particular type of customer, e.g., AT&T Technology Systems, and AT&T Network Systems. Telephones made by Western Electric prior to the breakup continued to be manufactured and marked with the company emblem, however, lacking the Bell System logo, or having it hidden by metal filler inside of all telephone housings and most components, including new electronic integrated circuits with the initials WE. Electronic switching systems, outside plant materials, and other equipment produced for the consumption of the RBOCs continued to be marked "AT&T Western Electric" well into the 1990s. Cost-cutting measures resulted in the consumer telephones being redesigned and modernized in 1985, as well as more plastic being used in place of metal in the 500 & 2500 series phones, as well as the Princess. In 1986, the Indianapolis Works telephone plant closed, and US production of AT&T single-line home telephones ended. Business telephones and systems continued production in the Shreveport Works plant until 2001. Home telephones were redesigned, and production was moved to Hong Kong, Singapore, China, and Thailand. Western Electric no longer marked housings of telephones with "WE", but continued to mark the modular plugs of telephone cords with "WE". Western Electric came to an end in 1995 when AT&T changed the name of AT&T Technologies to Lucent Technologies, in preparation for its spinoff. Lucent became independent in 1996, and sold more assets into Advanced American Telephones, Agere Systems, Avaya, and Consumer Phone Services. Lucent itself merged with Alcatel, forming Alcatel-Lucent, which was acquired by Nokia in 2016. Western Electric's structured cabling unit, once known as AT&T Network Systems or SYSTIMAX, was spun off from Avaya and became part of CommScope. Legacy Since the demise of Western Electric, telephone equipment design and manufacturing is an open market place in which numerous manufacturers compete. As a result, modern telephones are now manufactured in Asia, generally using less expensive components and labor. Some telephone subscribers never purchased their existing telephones after the AT&T breakup, and continue to lease their existing Western Electric models from QLT Consumer Lease Services, formerly known as AT&T Consumer Lease Services. Such subscribers have paid leasing fees for their telephones far in excess of the purchase price, but the phones are perceived by some users to be superior to telephones commonly made today in aspects of durability and sound quality. Today, many of these Western Electric telephones have become collector's items. Western Electric's audio equipment from the 1920s and 30s, designed to be used in movie theaters, is now prized by collectors and audiophiles due to its quality construction and sound reproduction. This includes its massive horn loudspeakers designed to fill a large theater with sound from a relatively low-powered tube amplifier. As of 2013, the stylized Western Electric brand name survives as the trademark of the Western Electric Export Corporation, a privately owned high-end audio company in Rossville, Georgia. Publications During the span of its existence of over a dozen decades, Western Electric published a variety of publications for various audiences, including periodicals for employees and customers. The first employee magazine was Western Electric News, commencing in March 1912 (Volume 1, Number 1) under company president Harry Bates Thayer. Its purpose was to provide a forum where ideas could be exchanged, the company events and activities could be recorded, and to serve as clearing house for technical and commercial information of value to the employee. In 1948, Western Electric began publishing the monthly house organ WE for employees of the company. The magazine was published into the 1980s. Starting in 1957, Western Electric published The Western Electric Engineer (), later known as The Engineer, on a subscription basis. See also Graybar Electric Company Lucent Technologies References Bibliography Adams, Stephen B., and Orville R. Butler. Manufacturing the Future: A History of Western Electric. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1999. . Fagen, M. D., ed. A History of Engineering and Science in the Bell System: Volume 1 The Early Years (1875–1925). New York: The [Bell Telephone] Laboratories, 1975. . Fagen, M. D., ed. A History of Engineering and Science in the Bell System: Volume 2 National Service in War and Peace (1925–1975). New York: The [Bell Telephone] Laboratories, 1978. . External links Western Electric brand audio vacuum tubes Western Electric Dial Telephone Models Western Electric Historical Background, History of theater sound products The Papers of Ernest Galen Andrews at Dartmouth College Library Western Electric History (from Bell System Memorial), History of theater sound products Alcatel-Lucent American companies established in 1869 American companies disestablished in 1996 Bell System Companies based in Manhattan Defunct manufacturing companies based in New York City Manufacturing companies established in 1869 Manufacturing companies disestablished in 1996 Defunct telecommunications companies of the United States History of Chicago Telecommunications companies disestablished in 1996 1881 mergers and acquisitions Telecommunications equipment vendors Defunct manufacturing companies based in Illinois Academy Award for Technical Achievement winners	[ 0.5382735729217529, -0.006589256227016449, -0.12575680017471313, 0.3631059229373932, 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229971	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reformist%20Movement	Reformist Movement	The Reformist Movement (, MR) is a liberal French-speaking political party in Belgium. MR is traditionally a conservative-liberal party, but it is also evaluated as a social-liberal party. The party is in coalition as part of the Michel Government then Wilmès Government since October 2014, having provided two prime ministers since. After the 2007 general election the MR was the largest Francophone political formation in Belgium, a position that was regained by the Socialist Party in the 2010 general election. The MR is an alliance between three French-speaking and one German-speaking liberal parties. The Liberal Reformist Party (PRL) and the Francophone Democratic Federalists (FDF) started the alliance in 1993, and were joined in 1998 by the Citizens' Movement for Change (MCC). The alliance was then known as the PRL-FDF-MCC federation. The alliance became the MR during a congress in 2002, where the German-speaking liberal party, the Party for Freedom and Progress joined as well. The label PRL is no longer used, and the three other parties still use their own names. The MR is member of Liberal International and the Alliance of Liberals and Democrats for Europe (ALDE) Party. However, on 25 September 2011, the FDF decided to leave the coalition. They did not agree with the manner in which president Charles Michel defended the rights of the French-speaking people in the agreement concerning the splitting of the Brussels-Halle-Vilvoorde district, during the 2010–11 Belgian government formation. Ideology and policies Although the MR's original ideology emphasised classical liberalism and free market economics, it has of late joined the general trend of Belgian liberals to accept elements of social liberalism under the influence of Dirk Verhofstadt, whose brother Guy Verhofstadt led the MR's Flemish counterpart, the Open VLD. On its current platform, the party states that it is economically and socially liberal. It supports lower taxes, aims to maximize the well-being of citizens but also wants to fight tax evasion. MR also supports Belgian participation in the European Union and NATO. Presidents 2002–2003: Daniel Ducarme 2003–2004: Antoine Duquesne 2004–2011: Didier Reynders 2011–2014: Charles Michel 2014–2019: Olivier Chastel 2019: Charles Michel 2019–present: Georges-Louis Bouchez Representation in EU Institutions In the European Parliament, Mouvément Reformateur sits in the Renew Europe group with two MEPs. In the European Committee of the Regions, Mouvément Reformateur sits in the Renew Europe CoR group, with two full and one alternate member for the 2020-2025 mandate. Willy Borsus is a member of the Renew Europe CoR Bureau. Electoral results Chamber of Representatives Senate Regional Brussels Parliament Walloon Parliament European Parliament Notable figures Willy Borsus Christine Defraigne Alain Destexhe Daniel Ducarme Antoine Duquesne Jean Gol Sabine Laruelle Charles Michel Louis Michel Didier Reynders Jacques Simonet See also Liberalism Liberalism in Belgium Contributions to liberal theory Liberalism worldwide Liberal Archive References External links Francophone political parties in Belgium Liberal International Liberal parties in Belgium Alliance of Liberals and Democrats for Europe Party member parties Political parties established in 2002 2002 establishments in Belgium Pro-European political parties in Belgium	[ 0.3853275775909424, -0.1541280895471573, 0.2650907337665558, -0.1962692141532898, -0.08768369257450104, 0.29017484188079834, -0.0031071165576577187, 0.058580875396728516, -1.1002670526504517, -0.2051289975643158, -0.20662416517734528, 0.4810361862182617, -0.5644553303718567, 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229972	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Humanist%20Democratic%20Centre	Humanist Democratic Centre	The Humanist Democratic Centre (, cdH) is a Christian-democratic and humanist French-speaking political party in Belgium. Until 2002, the party was known as the Christian Social Party (, PSC). The cdH currently participates in the Government of the Brussels-Capital Region, the Government of the French Community, and the Government of Wallonia, but not the federal government. History The PSC was officially founded in 1972. The foundation was the result of the split of the unitary Christian Social Party–Christian People's Party (PSC-CVP) into the Dutch-speaking Christian People's Party (CVP) and the French-speaking Christian Social Party (PSC), following the increased linguistic tensions after the crisis at the Catholic University of Leuven in 1968. The PSC performed particularly badly in the 1999 general election. This was linked to several scandals, such as the escape of Marc Dutroux and the discovery of dioxine in chickens (the PSC was a coalition partner in the Dehaene government). The decline in votes was also explained by declining adherence to Catholicism. The party was confined to opposition on all levels of government. The party started a process of internal reform. In 2001 a new charter of principles the "Charter of Democratic Humanism" was adopted and 2002 the party adopted a new constitution and a new name, Humanist Democratic Centre. In the 2003 general election the party did not perform much better and was still confined to opposition. After the 2004 regional elections the party returned to power in Brussels, in Walloon Region and the French Community together with the Socialist Party and Ecolo in Brussels, and with the Socialist Party in Walloon Region and the French Community. The current president of the party is Joëlle Milquet. In the 2007 general elections, the party won 10 out of 150 seats in the Chamber of Representatives and two out of 40 seats in the Senate. In the 2010 general elections, the party lost one seat in the Chamber and kept its two seats in the Senate, a result which was repeated in the 2014 general elections. In the 2019 general elections the party registered its worst ever performance, winning only 5 seats and 3.7% of the vote, as well as its worst performance in the Walloon and Brussels parliaments as part of the general trend of Belgians turning away from the traditional political parties. Ideology Its ideology is "democratic humanism, inspired by personalism inherited notably from Christian humanism", which includes a centre-left policy towards the economy, supporting state interventionism and calling for the unity of Belgium. Presidents CVP/PSC 1945–1947 August De Schryver 1949–1950 François-Xavier van der Straten Waillet 1950–1961 Théo Lefèvre 1961–1966 Paul Vanden Boeynants 1966–1972 Robert J. Houben PSC 1972–1976 Charles-Ferdinand Nothomb 1976–1977 Georges Gramme 1977–1979 Charles-Ferdinand Nothomb 1979–1981 Paul Vanden Boeynants 1981–1996 Gérard Deprez 1996–1998 Charles-Ferdinand Nothomb 1998–1999 Philippe Maystadt 1999–2002 Joëlle Milquet cdH 2002–2011 Joëlle Milquet 2011–2019 Benoît Lutgen 2019–present Until 1968 this lists gives the president of the Walloon part of the unitary CVP/PSC. The party changed its name from PSC to cdH on 18 May 2002. Electoral results Chamber of Representatives Results for the Chamber of Representatives, in percentages for the Kingdom of Belgium. Senate Regional Brussels Parliament Walloon Parliament European Parliament Further reading References External links cdH students cdH page on the website of the European People's Party Francophone political parties in Belgium Christian democratic parties in Europe Catholic political parties Conservatism in Belgium Conservative parties in Belgium Political parties established in 2002 2002 establishments in Belgium Member parties of the European People's Party Centrist parties in Belgium	[ 0.11822407692670822, 0.022130543366074562, 0.21276064217090607, -0.07153584808111191, -0.6872700452804565, -0.08460166305303574, -0.5048696398735046, -0.03842756524682045, -0.22423149645328522, -0.29562899470329285, -0.3436972498893738, 0.2073182612657547, -0.27114611864089966, 0.016742108389735222, -0.1107734963297844, 0.5201101303100586, -0.06594322621822357, 0.17021587491035461, -0.5834023356437683, -0.6547464728355408, -0.25138136744499207, -0.5062706470489502, -0.06048337370157242, 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229974	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Friedland%2C%20Mecklenburg-Vorpommern	Friedland, Mecklenburg-Vorpommern	Friedland is a town in the district Mecklenburgische Seenplatte, Mecklenburg-Vorpommern, Germany. It is only 22 km from the district seat and bigger town Neubrandenburg, but still Friedland remains a local center for surrounding communities like Galenbeck (Kotelow, Lübbersdorf, Schwichtenberg), Brunn and Boldekow, and has approximately 6,500 citizens. The former municipality Genzkow was merged into Friedland in May 2019. It was founded in 1244 by the Prince-electors Otto and Johann of Brandenburg, then having the name Vredeland. Notable people Sons and daughters of the city Andreas Helvigius (1572-1643), philologist, educator Friederike Krüger (1789-1858), participant of the Liberation War Emilie Mayer (1812-1883), composer Rudolf Berlin (1833-1897), ophthalmologist People who have worked here Ernst Boll (1817-1868), natural scientist, was a house teacher in Friedland Fritz Reuter (1810-1874), low German poet, studied at the school in Friedland Daniel Runge (1804-unknown), theologian and parliamentarian, attended the scholars’ school here Wilhelm Sauer (1831-1916), organ builder, spent his youth in Friedland Johann Heinrich von Thünen (1783-1850), agriculturist and economist, led the Liepen family in 1806 and married the Friedland mayor and estate owner Helena Sophia Berlin. References External links Official website Towns in Mecklenburg-Western Pomerania Cities and towns in Mecklenburg Populated places established in the 1240s Grand Duchy of Mecklenburg-Strelitz Bezirk Neubrandenburg 1240s establishments in the Holy Roman Empire 1244 establishments in Europe	[ 0.16454964876174927, 0.3063143193721771, 0.3335389792919159, -0.03969970718026161, 0.03548296540975571, 0.39483144879341125, 0.3608860373497009, -0.058793239295482635, -0.5985831022262573, -0.3056621551513672, -0.18202121555805206, 0.030302951112389565, 0.22232535481452942, 0.5633103251457214, -0.30747541785240173, 0.7942864298820496, 0.6374148726463318, 0.3538128733634949, -0.328355610370636, -0.8951572775840759, -0.00887623243033886, -0.5488491654396057, 0.5358941555023193, 0.564424455165863, -0.5899659395217896, 0.16496829688549042, 0.7560520768165588, 0.15173077583312988, -0.13537243008613586, -0.026388149708509445, -0.619411289691925, 0.9280697703361511, -0.5310229659080505, 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229975	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/National%20Front%20%28Belgium%29	National Front (Belgium)	The National Democratie () is a francophone Belgian far-right political party. The party advocated a strong unitary Belgian nationalism, strongly opposed immigration, and reached out to Flemish voters. The party's acting leader is Marco Santi. In the 2003 federal election, it won one seat in the Chamber of Representatives, with 2% of the vote. It also had two seats in the Senate. A 2006 poll showed that it had the backing of about 9.4% of the Walloon voters. Despite this poll it won in the 10 June 2007 federal elections, 1 out of 150 seats in the Chamber of Representatives and 1 out of 40 seats in the Senate. Development The DN was established by Daniel Féret, a former member of Jeune Europe who subsequently was active with the populist . The party clashed with the Party of New Forces (PFN) from its foundation as Féret sought to distance his group from the far-right but despite his efforts a number of extremist activists soon joined the DN. The party's ideology soon became one of ultra-nationalism, xenophobia, racism and anti-Flemish sentiment, combined with a strong support for neo-liberal economics. They also look to their French namesake and followed many of their ideas, although the interest was not reciprocated as Jean-Marie Le Pen generally looked elsewhere in Belgium for allies, that is also the reason why the changed their name into National Democratie. In 1989 a number of PFN members switched to the FN due to internal difficulties in their party and as a result the FN again shifted policy, abandoning its earlier pro-NATO stance in favour opposition to both the USA and the Soviet Union. After electing some local councillors in 1988 and 1989 the FN made a surprise breakthrough at the 1991 election by getting a member elected to parliament. The election caused a furore in Belgium and the other parties declared a Cordon sanitaire around the party. In response the FN adopted a more anti-establishment and anti-politics attitude, which struck a chord with some voters, resulting in the party sending a member to the European parliament in 1994 and returning two members of parliament in 1995. Despite these successes the DN was in a state of turmoil due to personality clashes and internal ideological differences, precipitating a long court case between two factions, both claiming use of the FN name. With most of their elected representatives leaving the party, the FN appeared moribund until in 1997 Agir, a far-right party with support in Liège, merged into them following internal difficulties of their own. With the influx of new members they were able to regroup for the 1999 elections, gaining a new member of the Senate and three members of the regional parliament. Brussels Appeals Court conviction The party's original leader, Daniel Féret, was sentenced to 250 hours of community service on April 18, 2006, for the incitement of hatred, discrimination and segregation in the party's flyers and website. He is also barred from running for political office for 10 years. The webmaster of the National Front site was also convicted, and barred for 7 years. Their convictions were upheld by a superior court in October 2006. 2006 elections In Wallonia, members of the National Front could not run using the party name during the 2006 municipal elections, because the party failed to use the correct electoral procedure. In Brussels, the National Front ran under its acronym: FN. Election results (1985–2010) References Belgian nationalism Francophone political parties in Belgium Right-wing populism in Belgium Nationalist parties in Belgium 1985 establishments in Belgium Political parties established in 1985 Political parties disestablished in 2012 Far-right political parties in Belgium	[ -0.12259023636579514, -0.5898253917694092, 0.1797707974910736, -0.31133225560188293, -0.5966618061065674, 0.3049609661102295, -0.39831554889678955, 0.1624046117067337, -0.8685503005981445, -0.47235503792762756, 0.036937206983566284, 0.4804535210132599, -0.3584079146385193, 0.5100263357162476, -0.009656797163188457, 0.7695603966712952, 0.20629359781742096, 0.27121055126190186, 0.1902613788843155, -0.4433818459510803, -0.6622546911239624, -0.28951379656791687, 0.672581672668457, 0.03097742237150669, 0.027654580771923065, -0.05838349089026451, 0.907271683216095, 0.4808805286884308, -0.018863637000322342, -0.037673573940992355, -0.18584714829921722, 0.41253671050071716, 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229976	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/David%20Seaman	David Seaman	David Andrew Seaman, MBE (born 19 September 1963) is an English former footballer who played as a goalkeeper. In a career lasting from 1981 to 2004, he is best known for his time playing for Arsenal. He won 75 caps for England, and is the country's second-most capped goalkeeper, after Peter Shilton. In 1997, he was awarded the MBE for services to football. The peak of Seaman's career was during his period as Arsenal and England goalkeeper in the 1990s and early 2000s. During his time at Arsenal, he won three league championships (1991, 1998, 2002), four FA Cups (1993, 1998, 2002, 2003), the League Cup in 1993 and the European Cup Winners Cup in 1994. During this time he also played for England in the 1998 and 2002 FIFA World Cups, and Euro 96 and Euro 2000. As well as Arsenal, he also played in the Premier League for Manchester City, as well as making appearances in the Football League for Peterborough United, Birmingham City and Queens Park Rangers. His save from Paul Peschisolido of Sheffield United in the 2002–03 FA Cup semi-final was described in the media as one of the best ever. Notable lows came with two costly errors, both from long-range efforts—conceding a last-minute goal in the 1995 UEFA Cup Winners' Cup Final to Nayim of Real Zaragoza, and conceding to a Ronaldinho free kick against Brazil in the 2002 FIFA World Cup quarter-final. Seaman is left-handed, but threw the ball with his right arm and kicked with his right foot. He retired in 2004 due to a recurring shoulder injury. In June 2012, he was appointed goalkeeping coach of Combined Counties League club Wembley. Club career Early career Seaman was born in Rotherham, West Riding of Yorkshire. He attended Kimberworth Comprehensive School. He began his career at Leeds United, the club he supported as a boy. However (much to his disappointment), he was not wanted by then-manager Eddie Gray, who had been his favourite player. Seaman went to Division 4 club Peterborough United for a £4,000 fee in August 1982, where he began to make a name for himself. Just over two years later, in October 1984, Second Division Birmingham City paid £100,000 for Seaman's services. They ended up winning promotion at the end of that season, but were relegated again at the end of the following season. Seaman was not to follow them back to Division Two, however. In August 1986, Seaman moved to Queens Park Rangers for £225,000. Playing in a higher profile club on a plastic pitch, he earned his first England cap, which came under Bobby Robson in a friendly against Saudi Arabia in November 1988. Whilst at QPR, Seaman was coached by Arsenal double-winner (of 1971) Bob Wilson, who was to work with him for more than a decade. Arsenal In 1990, long before the current transfer window system had come to English football, there was still a transfer deadline a few weeks before the end of the season. Arsenal, who had won the league in 1989, wanted to sign Seaman, but the deal involved Arsenal's keeper John Lukic heading the opposite way on loan. Lukic did not want to do this, and the deal broke down and remained unresolved when the deadline passed. As soon as the season ended and clubs were allowed to buy players again, Arsenal manager George Graham came back for Seaman, with £1.3 million (at the time a British record for a goalkeeper) being the agreed fee. Lukic, who was highly popular amongst Arsenal fans, left to rejoin Leeds. Seaman's time at Arsenal coincided with one of the most successful periods in the club's history. The 1990–91 season saw Seaman concede only 18 goals when playing in every match of the 38-game season as Arsenal regained the league title. Arsenal won both the FA Cup and the League Cup in 1993 and supplemented this a year later with the European Cup Winners' Cup. Arsenal began their victorious League Cup campaign against Millwall and after two legs the game went to a penalty shootout. Seaman saved three of the four Millwall penalties from Malcolm Allen, Jon Goodman and Colin Cooper to help his side progress. In 1995, George Graham was sacked, and Arsenal came close to becoming the first club to retain the Cup Winners' Cup, with Seaman earning a reputation as a penalty-saving specialist after saving from Siniša Mihajlović, Vladimir Jugović and Attilio Lombardo in Arsenal's semi-final shoot-out against U.C. Sampdoria, all the while playing with two cracked ribs. However, Arsenal lost in the final to Real Zaragoza, at the Parc des Princes in Paris, when Nayim scored a goal in the final minute of extra time with a 40-yard lob over Seaman. In August 1996, Arsène Wenger became the new manager of Arsenal. Wenger rated Seaman highly and in 1998, Seaman helped the team to the Premier League and FA Cup double. In 1998–99, Seaman played all 38 league matches, conceding only 17 league goals as Arsenal came within one point of retaining the Premier League and lost in the FA Cup semi-finals to Manchester United. The following season Seaman managed to reach the 2000 UEFA Cup Final, which Arsenal drew 0–0 with Galatasaray, but lost on penalties. In 2002, Seaman won the Premier League and the FA Cup again to complete his second career double, although Arsenal's other goalkeepers Stuart Taylor (10 appearances) and Richard Wright (12 appearances) also won championship medals, due mainly to Seaman's absence through injuries. A highlight of this season was when Seaman dramatically saved a Gareth Barry penalty as Arsenal won 2–1 at Aston Villa. Despite his international career ending so flatly and accusations his mobility had faded with age, the 2002–03 season—Seaman's last at Arsenal—ended on a high note. He began the season with saving a Freddie Kanoute penalty in a draw at Upton Park. In the FA Cup, he made a save against Sheffield United's Paul Peschisolido in the semi-finals, which former Manchester United goalkeeper Peter Schmeichel, a pundit for the BBC on the day, dubbed "the best save I've ever seen". Arsenal were defending a 1–0 lead, when with less than ten minutes to go, Peschisolido had a header towards an apparently open goal from six yards out with Seaman seemingly stranded at the near post. However, the goalkeeper leapt sideways and backwards, managing to stretch his right arm behind him and scoop the ball back and away from both his goal and the opposing players ready to pounce on a rebound. The match was Seaman's 1,000th professional career game. Seaman went on to captain the team during the 2003 FA Cup Final in the absence of injured Patrick Vieira and keep another clean sheet at the Millennium Stadium as they defeated Southampton 1–0. His final act with Arsenal was to lift the FA Cup, which was his ninth major trophy with his team. Seaman played in goal for Arsenal more times than anyone else, and is second after Ray Parlour in the all-time Premier League appearances chart for Arsenal, with 325 to his name. In June 2008 he was voted seventh in the list of 50 Gunners' Greatest Players. Manchester City Released by Arsenal, Seaman joined up with Kevin Keegan at Manchester City in the summer of 2003, but Seaman's career at the City of Manchester Stadium did not last long. Whilst out of action due to injury, Seaman announced his immediate retirement in January 2004 at the age of 40. His last act at City was to help Keegan select his successor in goal, David James — the man who had ousted him as England's first-choice goalkeeper a little over a year earlier. In November 2005, Paul Merson and Walsall approached Seaman, and later ex-Wales goalkeeper Neville Southall and Chris Woods, to play in an FA Cup game at Merthyr Tydfil as their two first-choice keepers, Joe Murphy and Andy Oakes, were unavailable. However, Seaman was forced to turn this offer down, as it would have constituted a breach in the terms of his retirement insurance pay-out for his recurring shoulder injury. International career Seaman made his England debut in 1988 and appeared for the side in fifteen consecutive years, a national record, since equalled by Rio Ferdinand. He earned his first England cap under Bobby Robson in a friendly against Saudi Arabia in November 1988. Robson selected him as England's third-choice goalkeeper behind Peter Shilton and Chris Woods at the 1990 FIFA World Cup, but after arriving in Italy he had to pull out of the squad due to injury and was replaced by Dave Beasant. Seaman remained a member of the England squad under new manager Graham Taylor, although he was not selected for Euro 92. During qualification for the 1994 World Cup, Seaman played in the crucial game against the Netherlands, which England lost 2–0; he also played in the final match against San Marino, in which Davide Gualtieri scored after 8.3 seconds before England recovered to win 7–1. England ultimately failed to qualify for the tournament. Seaman cemented his place as the undisputed number-one keeper with the arrival of Terry Venables as manager, and played every minute of every match during Euro 96. Seaman saved two spot-kicks in the tournament; the first a penalty in normal play from Scotland's Gary McAllister in a group match, while England were 1–0 up (Paul Gascoigne scored soon after to make it 2–0). Then, after England's quarter-final against Spain ended scoreless, Seaman saved Miguel Angel Nadal's kick in the shootout to knock Spain out of the tournament. England eventually were eliminated in the semi-final by Germany on penalties, after Andreas Köpke saved the penalty taken by Gareth Southgate. Seaman was named alongside Golden Boot winner Alan Shearer and winger Steve McManaman in the UEFA "Team of the Tournament". Euro 96 sponsor Philips named him "Player of the Tournament". Seaman remained the first choice under the management of Glenn Hoddle for the 1998 FIFA World Cup in France. Seaman kept two clean sheets in the group stage as England finished second behind Romania. In the round of 16 England faced Argentina. Seaman conceded a penalty as the game finished 2–2, before England lost on penalties. Kevin Keegan selected him for UEFA Euro 2000, where he started against both Portugal and Germany but sustained an injury in his warm-up exercises for the third game against Romania and was replaced by Nigel Martyn. England lost the match and went out in the first round. Seaman was part of Sven-Göran Eriksson's 2002 FIFA World Cup squad and played every game as England reached the quarter-finals, turning back a second-half offensive to shut out arch-rivals Argentina 1–0 in the group stage after English captain David Beckham scored a penalty. However, in the quarter-final against Brazil, Seaman was caught off his line by Ronaldinho's long-range free kick, as England lost 2–1; he blamed himself for the error. The result led to a debate about whether Seaman should remain England's number one. He remained England's first-choice goalkeeper until a Euro 2004 qualifier in October 2002 against Macedonia. In this match, he let in a goal directly from a corner kick by Artim Sakiri in a 2–2 draw and brought further press criticism. This was Seaman's last appearance for the England national team, as Eriksson dropped him in favour of David James. Style of play At his peak, Seaman was regarded as one of the best goalkeepers in the world during the 1990s, earning praise from other goalkeepers such as Sepp Maier and Francesco Toldo. A tall and well–rounded keeper, with a large frame, he was known for his bravery, quick reflexes, agility, and excellent positional sense, as well as his reliable handling and ability to judge the ball, which allowed him to come out and collect crosses and command his area effectively, earning him the nickname "safe hands" in the media; although he was not particularly flashy in his style of goalkeeping, he was regarded as an efficient and generally reliable goalkeeper, who was known for his cool demeanour, authoritative presence, and calm composure in goal, as well as his leadership and ability to organise his back–line, which inspired a sense of confidence in his teammates. He was also adept at stopping penalties. However, despite his ability in his prime, and his overall longevity, he was also known for being inconsistent and prone to errors on occasion, in particular in his later career, following a series of injuries, and also due to his own advancing age, which ultimately led to his physical decline and a series of less convincing performances; he also frequently struggled to deal with long–range shots throughout his career. In 2014, when recounting his famous lobbed goal against Seaman in the 1995 Cup Winners' Cup final, Nayim stated that his attempt was premeditated, as during his time in England, he came to learn that Arsenal usually played with a high defensive line, with Seaman essentially acting as a sweeper-keeper due to his tendency to stay off his line. In 2006, The Irish Times described Seaman as a "serial choker," due to several high-profile errors he committed in key matches, in particular at international level, and described him as one of several unreliable keepers that played for England since the end of the "tradition of solid goalkeeping which seemed unbreakable through the era of Banks, Clemence, Shilton, etc.", a notion with which Sriram Ilango of Bleacher Report concurred in 2009. In 2018, Eurosport noted that: "Since the retirement of Peter Shilton, the position of England's goalkeeper has claimed plenty of casualties. Even the most stable of its occupants, David Seaman, will be remembered for the embarrassment caused when Ronaldinho sent a free-kick floating over his head at the 2002 World Cup." Moreover, while Seaman possessed a deep goal kick and a long throw, which suited Arsenal's quick counter–attacking style of play under manager Arsène Wenger, he was not particularly adept with the ball at his feet, and his distribution was also not always reliable; as such he preferred to clear the ball away when receiving back-passes, rather than attempting to play it out from the back. Considered to be one of the greatest English goalkeepers of all time, as well as one of the best shot-stoppers in Premier League and English football history, he placed second in the IFFHS World's Best Goalkeeper of the Year award in 1996, behind Andreas Köpke, while he placed 32nd, alongside Enrico Albertosi, in the European Keeper of the Century vote, which was organised by the same organisation, the fourth–highest ranked English goalkeeper. In 2013, James McNicholas of Bleacher Report described Seaman as: "the greatest goalkeeper in Arsenal's history." Seaman is left-handed, but threw the ball with his right arm, and also kicked with his right foot. In addition to his goalkeeping ability, Seaman was also a highly recognisable figure on the pitch due to his moustache and the ponytail hairstyle he wore for part of his career. Later career Seaman began working on his coaching badge with a view to coaching goalkeepers but decided to pause after learning that he would first need a badge in outfield coaching in which he had no interest. His on-screen presence made him a popular choice for chat shows and televised appearances during his sporting career, and he can occasionally be spotted on British television. Whilst still a player, he acted in a cameo role in a BBC film based around the events of England's successful Euro 96 tournament, starring Rachel Weisz and Neil Morrissey, entitled My Summer with Des. He also became the spokesman for Yorkshire Tea during the early 1990s. He briefly replaced Gary Lineker as team captain on the television quiz They Think It's All Over before producers decided to drop him in favour of former Arsenal teammate Ian Wright. In December 2004, following his retirement from professional football, he became one of the celebrities to take part in Strictly Ice Dancing, an ice dance version of Strictly Come Dancing, in which celebrities are paired with professional dancers. He joined the show at late notice, replacing Paul Gascoigne. With just eight days to prepare for the show, broadcast on BBC One on 26 December, Seaman and his professional partner Zoia Birmingham managed to win the competition. The other competitors spent a month in training for the show. In late 2005 he had his trademark ponytail cut off on live television for charity, which ended negotiatory talks with such companies as L'Oréal who wanted to sponsor his hair as they had with David Ginola. He returned to the ice for another ice-dancing series, Dancing on Ice, broadcast on ITV. The series started on 14 January 2006, and Seaman ended in fourth place. He has also appeared on All Star Family Fortunes. Seaman also hosts a "Safe Hands" charity golf event annually, and has released two football-themed DVDs entitled David Seaman's Goalkeeping Nightmares in 2003 and Jeepers Keepers in 2004. Seaman has also played in all six Soccer Aid matches for England. In 2008 The Lobbing of David Seaman, a poem in ballad form by Murray Lachlan Young about Nayim's 1995 goal, was included in the radio programme The Loneliness of the Goalkeeper. It began with these lines: Ah, come all ye teenage goalkeepers And listen unto me, I'll tell you of a goalie Who went out to gay Paree; The Gunners called him 'Safe Hands', David Seaman was his name, But that lonely night in Paris Was his world consumed in flames.... In June 2012, Seaman joined Combined Counties League club Wembley as goalkeeping coach for their 2012–13 FA Cup campaign, as part of a television documentary following the club's attempt to play at Wembley Stadium. Former international players Graeme Le Saux, Ray Parlour, Martin Keown, Claudio Caniggia and Brian McBride joined the playing squad, with former England manager Terry Venables as technical advisor. In 2021, he began presenting his own podcast series Seaman Says. The series followed England throughout Euro 2020 with a second series starting at the beginning of the new season in August. Personal life Seaman met his second wife, Debbie Rodgers, in 1995. They were married at Castle Ashby House in Castle Ashby in Northamptonshire on 15 July 1998; the couple separated in 2009 and were divorced in 2010. On 7 February 2015, Seaman married his Dancing on Ice partner Frankie Poultney. Seaman announced their engagement in December 2013; the pair met in 2008, and had been in a relationship since 2009. It was his third marriage. He has four children. Seaman's autobiography – Safe Hands – was released in 2000, published by Orion. Career statistics Club International Honours Arsenal Football League First Division: 1990–91 Premier League: 1997–98, 2001–02 FA Cup: 1992–93, 1997–98, 2001–02, 2002–03 Football League Cup: 1992–93 FA Charity/Community Shield: 1991 (shared), 1998, 2002 European Cup Winners' Cup: 1993–94 Individual Premier League Player of the Month: April 1995 UEFA European Championship Team of the Tournament: 1996 PFA Team of the Year: 1996–97 Premier League Premier League 10 Seasons Awards (1992–2002): Domestic Team of the Decade Goalkeeper with most clean sheets (130) See also List of men's footballers with the most official appearances References Bibliography External links Photos and stats at sporting-heroes.net Profile at UpThePosh! The Peterborough United Database David Seaman in the Goalkeeping Museum 1963 births Living people People from Bovingdon Footballers from Rotherham English footballers Association football goalkeepers Leeds United F.C. players Peterborough United F.C. players Birmingham City F.C. players Queens Park Rangers F.C. players Arsenal F.C. players Manchester City F.C. players English Football League players Premier League players England under-21 international footballers England B international footballers England international footballers UEFA Euro 1996 players 1998 FIFA World Cup players UEFA Euro 2000 players 2002 FIFA World Cup players English Football Hall of Fame inductees Members of the Order of the British Empire FA Cup Final players Association football goalkeeping coaches	[ -0.24491018056869507, -0.33780041337013245, -0.16842113435268402, -0.6927588582038879, 0.39530691504478455, 0.7924708127975464, 0.18662118911743164, -0.5597274303436279, -0.674578845500946, 0.11683596670627594, 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229981	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Optimist%20%28disambiguation%29	Optimist (disambiguation)	An optimist is a person with a positive outlook on life. Optimist, (The) Optimist(s), or similar may also refer to: Albums and songs The Optimist LP and The Optimist Live, albums by Turin Brakes The Optimist (Anathema album), 2017, or the title song The Optimist (DD Smash album), 1984, or the title song The Optimist (New Young Pony Club album), 2010, or the title song Optimist (album), a 2021 album by Finneas O'Connell "The Optimist", a song from The Dreams on their 2010 album Revolt "The Optimist", a song by Emma Pollock from her 2007 album Watch the Fireworks Film and television The Optimist (TV series), a 1983 British television comedy series The Optimists (film), a 2006 Serbian film directed by Goran Paskaljević The Optimists of Nine Elms, a 1974 British film also known as The Optimists The Optimists (original title: Оптимисты), a 2017 Russian historical drama series directed by Alexei Popogrebski Other uses Optimist (dinghy), a class of small sailing dinghy intended for use by children The Optimists (novel), a 2005 novel by Andrew Miller A member of Optimist International See also Optimistic (disambiguation) Optimism (disambiguation) Optimization (disambiguation) Optimum (disambiguation)	[ 0.15768319368362427, 0.17861108481884003, -0.12859705090522766, 0.01450546644628048, -0.020231761038303375, 0.03832788020372391, 0.5424876809120178, 0.4150296449661255, 0.16723933815956116, -0.4459075927734375, -0.43240249156951904, 0.6800568103790283, -0.5656346678733826, -0.12159169465303421, -0.14857222139835358, 0.43247026205062866, 0.05359456315636635, 0.606137216091156, -0.0931454673409462, -0.020460810512304306, -0.12916262447834015, 0.09421028196811676, -0.1698937863111496, -0.3485565185546875, 0.30196571350097656, 0.03686711937189102, 0.34250715374946594, -0.3670029938220978, -0.2361002415418625, 0.19223777949810028, 0.04776538535952568, 0.9436694979667664, -0.22475391626358032, -0.2346414029598236, 0.1652471423149109, 0.1924474835395813, 0.1764439344406128, -0.12940332293510437, -0.2185428887605667, 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229984	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rorqual	Rorqual	Rorquals (Balaenopteridae) are the largest group of baleen whales, a family with ten extant species in three genera. They include what is believed to be the largest animal that has ever lived, the blue whale, which can reach , and the fin whale, which reaches ; even the smallest of the group, the northern minke whale, reaches . Rorquals take their name from French , which derives from the Norwegian word , (the first element originated from the Old Norse name for this type of whale, , probably related to the Norse word for "red", and the second from the Norse word hvalr meaning "whale" in general). The family name Balaenopteridae is from the type genus, Balaenoptera. Characteristics All members of the family have a series of longitudinal folds of skin running from below the mouth back to the navel (except the sei whale and common minke whale, which have shorter grooves). These furrows allow the mouth to expand immensely when feeding, "permitting them to engorge great mouthfuls of food and water in a single gulp". These "pleated throat grooves" distinguish balaenopterids from other whales. Rorquals are slender and streamlined in shape, compared with their relatives the right whales, and most have narrow, elongated flippers. They have a dorsal fin, situated about two-thirds the way back. Most rorquals feed by gulping in water, and then pushing it out through the baleen plates with their tongue; the exception is the gray whale, which gulps in and filters large amounts of marine sediments from the seafloor. They feed on crustaceans, such as krill, but also on various fish, such as herrings and sardines. Gestation in rorquals lasts 11–12 months, so that both mating and birthing occur at the same time of year. Cows give birth to a single calf, which is weaned after 6–12 months, depending on species. Of some species, adults live in small groups, or "pods" of two to five individuals. For example, humpback whales have a fluid social structure, often engaging behavioral practices in a pod, other times being solitary. Distribution and habitat Distribution is worldwide: the blue, fin, humpback, and the sei whales are found in all major oceans; the common (northern) and Antarctic (southern) minke whale species are found in all the oceans of their respective hemispheres; either of Bryde's whale and Eden's whale occur in the Atlantic, Pacific, and Indian oceans, being absent only from the cold waters of the Arctic and Antarctic; and the gray whale is found in the northern Pacific Ocean, although it was also found in the Atlantic Ocean in historic times. Rice's whale has the smallest distribution of rorquals and possibly baleen whales in general, being endemic to a small portion of the Gulf of Mexico west of the Florida peninsula and south of Alabama and the Florida panhandle, although it likely formerly had a much wider distribution in the Gulf. Most rorquals are strictly oceanic: the exceptions are the gray whale, Bryde's whale, Eden's whale, and Rice's whale (which are usually found close to shore all year round) and the humpback whale (which is oceanic but passes close to shore when migrating). It is the largest and the smallest types — the blue whale and Antarctic minke whale — that occupy the coldest waters in the extreme south; the fin whale tends not to approach so close to the ice shelf; the sei whale tends to stay further north again. (In the northern hemisphere, where the continents distort weather patterns and ocean currents, these movements are less obvious, although still present.) Within each species, the largest individuals tend to approach the poles more closely, while the youngest and fittest ones tend to stay in warmer waters before leaving on their annual migration. Most rorquals breed in tropical waters during the winter, then migrate back to the polar feeding grounds rich in plankton and krill for the short polar summer. Feeding habits As well as other methods, rorquals obtain prey by lunge-feeding on bait balls. Lunge feeding is an extreme feeding method, where the whale accelerates to a high velocity and then opens its mouth to a large gape angle. This generates the water pressure required to expand its mouth and engulf and filter a huge amount of water and fish. The gray whale does not lunge feed, as it gulps in sediments from the seafloor rather than water. Rorquals have a number of anatomical features that enable them to do this, including bilaterally separate mandibles, throat pleats that can expand to huge size, and a unique sensory organ consisting of a bundle of mechanoreceptors that helps their brains to coordinate the engulfment action. Furthermore, their large nerves are flexible so that they can stretch and recoil. In fact, they give rorquals the ability to open their mouths so wide that they would be capable of taking in water at volumes greater than their own sizes. These nerves are packed into a central core area that is surrounded by elastin fibers. Opening the mouth causes the nerves to unfold, and they snap back after the mouth is closed. According to Potvin and Goldbogen, lunge feeding in rorquals represents the largest biomechanical event on Earth. Taxonomy Formerly, the rorqual family Balaenopteridae was split into two subfamilies, the Balaenopterinae and the Megapterinae, with each subfamily containing one genus, Balaenoptera and Megaptera, respectively. However, the phylogeny of the various rorqual species shows the current division is paraphyletic, and in 2005, the division into subfamilies was dropped. Two genetic studies, one in 2018 and one in 2020, suggest that the gray whale (Eschrichtius robustus) be counted among the rorquals, being more derived than the two minke whales but basal to the humpback whale, fin whale, and the other taxa classified in Balaenoptera. The discovery of a new species of balaenopterid, Omura's whale (Balaenoptera omurai), was announced in November 2003, which looks similar to, but smaller than, the fin whale; individuals of this species were found in Indo-Pacific waters. The discovery of the highly endangered Rice's whale was announced in 2021 after a genetic study found it to be distinct from Eden's whale; this species is known from a small portion of the northeastern Gulf of Mexico. Extant species Family Balaenopteridae: Rorquals Balaenoptera Fin whale, Balaenoptera physalus Northern fin whale, Balaenoptera physalus physalus Southern fin whale, Balaenoptera physalus quoyi Sei whale, Balaenoptera borealis Bryde's whale, Balaenoptera edeni Eden's whale, Balaenoptera edeni edeni Rice's whale, Balaenoptera ricei Blue whale, Balaenoptera musculus Pygmy blue whale, Balaenoptera musculus brevicauda Common minke whale, Balaenoptera acutorostrata Antarctic minke whale, Balaenoptera bonaerensis Omura's whale, Balaenoptera omurai Eschrichtius Gray whale, Eschrichtius robustus Megaptera Humpback whale, Megaptera novaeangliae Fossil genera Archaebalaenoptera Archaeschrichtius Cetotheriophanes Diunatans Eschrichtioides Gricetoides Incakujira Miobalaenoptera Nehalaennia Parabalaenoptera Plesiobalaenoptera Plesiocetus Praemegaptera Protororqualus Alternative generic taxonomy for living rorquals In 2012, the following alternate taxonomy was presented: Balaenoptera Fin whale, Balaenoptera physalus Megaptera Humpback whale, Megaptera novaeangliae Pterobalaena Common minke whale, Pterobalaena acutorostrata Antarctic minke whale, Pterobalaena bonaerensis Rorqualus Sei whale, Rorqualus borealis Bryde's whale, Rorqualus brydei Eden's whale, Rorqualus edeni Blue whale, Rorqualus musculus Omura's whale, Rorqualus omurai References Notes Sources External links Baleen whales Taxa named by John Edward Gray	[ -0.45836371183395386, -0.0975542888045311, 0.21894899010658264, 0.4773883521556854, -0.4757576584815979, 0.6221507787704468, 0.35096317529678345, 0.22578851878643036, -0.40350428223609924, 0.13748407363891602, 0.22573226690292358, 0.3151889145374298, -0.03978584706783295, 0.24153217673301697, 0.09423225373029709, 1.1427969932556152, 0.1625054031610489, 0.18722881376743317, -0.06979978084564209, -0.6080901026725769, -0.30354073643684387, -0.8277812004089355, 0.6848523616790771, -0.30387401580810547, 0.6075109839439392, 0.1657838374376297, 0.1149444431066513, 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229985	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Isotretinoin	Isotretinoin	Isotretinoin, also known as 13-cis-retinoic acid and sold under the brand name Accutane among others, is a medication primarily used to treat severe acne. It is also used to prevent certain skin cancers (squamous-cell carcinoma), and in the treatment of other cancers. It is used to treat harlequin-type ichthyosis, a usually lethal skin disease, and lamellar ichthyosis. It is a retinoid, meaning it is related to vitamin A, and is found in small quantities naturally in the body. Its isomer, tretinoin, is also an acne drug. The most common adverse effects are dry lips (cheilitis), dry and fragile skin, and an increased susceptibility to sunburn. Uncommon and rare side effects include muscle aches and pains (myalgias), and headaches. Isotretinoin is known to cause birth defects due to in-utero exposure because of the molecule's close resemblance to retinoic acid, a natural vitamin A derivative that controls normal embryonic development. It is also associated with psychiatric side effects, most commonly depression but also, more rarely, psychosis and unusual behaviours. Other rare side effects include hyperostosis, and premature epiphyseal closure, have been reported to be persistent. In the United States, a special procedure is required to obtain the pharmaceutical. In most other countries, a consent form is required which explains these risks. In other countries, it is prescribed like any other medicine from a dermatologist (after proper blood tests). Women taking isotretinoin must not get pregnant during and for one month after the discontinuation of isotretinoin therapy. Sexual abstinence or effective contraception is advised during this period and may be mandated by clinicians in both the US and EU. Barrier methods by themselves (e.g., condoms) are not considered adequate due to the unacceptable failure rates of approximately 3%. Women who become pregnant while taking isotretinoin therapy are generally counseled to have an abortion. It was patented in 1969 and approved for medical use in 1982. It sold well, but in 2009, Roche decided to discontinue manufacturing due to diminishing market share due to the availability of the many generic versions and the settling of multiple lawsuits over side effects. It continues to be manufactured as of 2019 by Absorica, Amnesteem, Claravis, Myorisan, Sotret, and Zenatane. Medical uses Isotretinoin is used primarily for severe cystic acne and acne that has not responded to other treatments. Many dermatologists also support its use for treatment of lesser degrees of acne that prove resistant to other treatments, or that produce physical or psychological scarring. Isotretinoin is not indicated for treatment of prepubertal acne and is not recommended in children less than 12 years of age. It is also somewhat effective for hidradenitis suppurativa and some cases of severe rosacea. It can also be used to help treat harlequin ichthyosis, lamellar ichthyosis and is used in xeroderma pigmentosum cases to relieve keratoses. Isotretinoin has been used to treat the extremely rare condition fibrodysplasia ossificans progressiva. It is also used for the treatment of neuroblastoma, a form of nerve cancer. Isotretinoin therapy has furthermore proven effective against genital warts in experimental use, but is rarely used for this indication as there are more effective treatments. Isotretinoin may represent an efficacious and safe alternative systemic form of therapy for recalcitrant condylomata acuminata (RCA) of the cervix. In most countries this therapy is currently unapproved and only used if other therapies failed. Prescribing restrictions Isotretinoin is a teratogen; there is about a 20–35% risk for congenital defects in infants exposed to the drug in utero, and about 30–60% of children exposed to isotretinoin prenatally have been reported to show neurocognitive impairment. Because of this, there are strict controls on prescribing isotretinoin to women who may become pregnant and women who become pregnant while taking isotretinoin are strongly advised to terminate their pregnancies. In most countries, isotretinoin can only be prescribed by dermatologists or specialist physicians; some countries also allow limited prescription by general practitioners and family doctors. In the United Kingdom and Australia, isotretinoin may be prescribed only by or under the supervision of a consultant dermatologist. Because severe cystic acne has the potential to cause permanent scarring over a short period, restrictions on its more immediate availability have proved contentious. In New Zealand, isotretinoin can be prescribed by any doctor but subsidised only when prescribed by a vocationally-registered general practitioner, dermatologist or nurse practitioner. In the United States, since March 2006 the dispensing of isotretinoin is run through a website called iPLEDGE. The FDA required the companies marketing the drug in the US, which at the time that iPLEDGE was launched were Roche, Mylan, Barr, and Ranbaxy, to put this website in place as a risk evaluation and mitigation strategy. These companies formed a group called the Isotretinoin Products Manufacturing Group, and it hired Covance to run the website. Prescribers, pharmacists, and all people to whom the drug is prescribed need to register on the site and log information into it. Women with child-bearing potential must commit to using two forms of effective contraception simultaneously for the duration of isotretinoin therapy and for a month immediately preceding and a month immediately following therapy. Additionally, they must have two negative pregnancy tests 30 days apart and have negative pregnancy tests before each prescription is written. Adverse effects Increasingly higher dosages will result in higher toxicity, resembling vitamin A toxicity. Adverse effects include: Possible permanent effects Isotretinoin may stop long bone growth in young people who are still growing. Premature epiphyseal closure can occur in people with acne receiving recommended doses of Accutane. Generally, though, premature epiphyseal closure seems to be primarily related to: high doses of isotretinoin beyond the recommended dose of 1 mg/kg/day long-duration beyond the usual course of what is required for an acne patient for treatment (usually 5–7 months) early onset of treatment (young teenage age 12–14 or younger) Isotretinoin is known to cause meibomian gland dysfunction which causes persistent keratoconjunctivitis sicca (dry eye). Problems with the meibomian and salivary glands are likely due to the non-selective apoptosis of the cells of the exocrine glands. Decreased night vision has been reported to persist in some people after discontinuation of isotretinoin therapy. Sexual Isotretinoin is also associated with sexual side effects, namely erectile dysfunction and reduced libido. In October 2017, the UK MHRA issued a Drug Safety Update to physicians in response to reports of these problems. This was in response to an EU review, published in August 2017, which states that a plausible physiological explanation of these side effects "may be a reduction in plasma testosterone". The review also stated that "the product information should be updated to include ‘sexual dysfunction including erectile dysfunction and decreased libido’ as an undesirable effect with an unknown frequency". There have also been reports of spermatogenesis disorders, such as oligospermia. 27 cases of sexual dysfunction report either negative dechallenge or positive dechallenge. Skin The most common side effects are mucocutaneous: dry lips, skin and nose. Other common mucocutaneous side effects are inflammation and chapping of the lips (cheilitis), redness of the skin (erythema), rashes, peeling, eczema (dermatitis), itching (pruritus) and nose bleeds (epistaxis). Absence of dryness of the lips is considered an indication of non-compliance with treatment (not taking the drug as advised), as it occurs in almost all people who take it. Regular use of lip balm and moisturizer is recommended throughout a course of treatment to reduce these problems. The dose may need to be decreased to reduce the severity of these side effects. The skin becomes more fragile—especially to frictional forces—and may not heal as quickly as normal. Wound healing is delayed. For this reason, elective surgery, waxing of hair, tattooing, tattoo removal, piercings, dermabrasion, exfoliation, etc., are not recommended. Treatment of acne scars is generally deferred until 12 months after completion of a course of isotretinoin. Acne usually flares up 2–3 weeks into the treatment and is usually mild and tolerable. Occasionally this flare-up is severe, necessitating oral antibiotics such as doxycycline. A short course of oral prednisolone may be required. Some dermatologists favour a few weeks of pre-treatment with oral antibiotics before commencing isotretinoin to reduce the chance of a severe flare. A "stepped" course may also be used to reduce the chance of this initial flare, by which the initial dose is low (e.g. 0.5 mg/kg) and subsequently increased throughout the course. Isotretinoin use can rarely lead to a more severe form of acne, acne fulminans. Teratogenicity Isotretinoin is a teratogen highly likely to cause birth defects if taken by women during pregnancy or even a short time before conception. A few of the more common birth defects this drug can cause are hearing and visual impairment, missing or malformed earlobes, facial dysmorphism, and abnormalities in brain function. Isotretinoin is classified as FDA Pregnancy Category X and ADEC Category X, and use is contraindicated in pregnancy. In the EU, isotretinoin (oral) is contraindicated in pregnancy and must not be taken by women able to have children unless the conditions of a pregnancy prevention programme are met. The manufacturer recommends pregnancy be ruled out two weeks prior to commencement of isotretinoin, and women should use two simultaneous forms of effective contraception at least one month prior to commencement, during, and for at least one month following isotretinoin therapy. In the U.S., around 2000 women became pregnant while taking the drug between 1982 and 2000, with most pregnancies ending in abortion or miscarriage. About 160 babies with birth defects were born. After the FDA put the more strict iPLEDGE program in place for the companies marketing the drug in the US, in 2011, 155 pregnancies occurred among 129,544 women of childbearing potential taking isotrentinoin (0.12%). People taking isotretinoin are not permitted to donate blood during and for at least one month after discontinuation of therapy due to its teratogenicity. Psychological effects Rare psychological side effects may include depression, worsening of pre-existing depression, aggressive tendencies, irritable mood and anxiety. Very rare effects include abnormal behaviour, psychosis, suicidal ideation, suicide attempts and suicide. In a total of 5577 adverse reactions reported to the UK's MHRA up to 31 March 2017, the plurality (1207, or 22%) concerned psychiatric effects. There were 85 reports of suicidal ideation, 56 of suicide and 43 of suicide attempts. The association between isotretinoin use and psychopathology has been controversial. Beginning in 1983, isolated case reports emerged suggesting mood change, particularly depression, occurring during or soon after isotretinoin use. A number of studies have been conducted since then of the drug's effect on depression, psychosis, suicidal thoughts and other psychological effects. Depression and suicidality Isotretinoin is the only non-psychiatric drug on the FDA's top 10 list of drugs associated with depression and is also within the top 10 for suicide attempts. A black box warning for suicide, depression and psychosis has been present on isotretinoin's packaging in the United States since 2005. In March 2018, European Medicines Agency issued a warning on a possible risk of neuropsychiatric disorders (such as depression, anxiety and mood changes) following the use of oral retinoids, including isotretinoin, though the limitations of the available data did not allow them to clearly establish whether this risk was due to the use of retinoids. In 2012, a systematic review covering all articles in the literature related to isotretinoin, depression and suicide, as well as articles related to class effect, dose response, and biologic plausibility found that the literature reviewed was consistent with an association of isotretinoin administration and depression and with suicide in a subgroup of vulnerable individuals. Following this systematic review, in a 2014 review a group of Australian dermatologists and psychiatrists collaborated on a set of recommendations for safe prescribing of isotretinoin. However, whether isotretinoin use is causally associated with mental illness remains controversial. Evidence for depression being causally associated with isotretinoin use includes 41 reports of positive challenge/dechallenge/rechallenge with isotretinoin, involving administering isotretinoin, withdrawing the drug, and then re-administering it. The majority of these cases had no psychiatric history. There is also a temporal relationship between the development of depression and initiation of isotretinoin treatment, with most cases developing after 1–2 months of treatment. Further, higher doses of isotretinoin increase the risk of developing depression, with 25% of people showing depression on a dose of 3 mg/kg/day as compared with 3–4% at normal doses. Studies have uncovered several biological processes which may credibly explain the affective changes induced by isotretinoin. Psychosis Isotretinoin has also been linked to psychosis. Many of the side effects of isotretinoin mimic hypervitaminosis A, which has been associated with psychotic symptoms. The dopamine hypothesis of schizophrenia and psychosis suggests that an increase in dopaminergic stimulation or sensitivity in the limbic system causes psychotic symptoms. It has been suggested that dysregulation of retinoid receptors by retinoids such as isotretinoin may cause schizophrenia. The evidence for this is threefold: transcriptional activation of the dopamine D2 receptor – in addition to serotonin and glutamate receptors – is regulated by retinoic acid; schizophrenia and the retinoid cascade have been linked to the same gene loci; and retinoid dysfunction causes congenital anomalies identical to those observed in people with schizophrenia. Further, the expression of dopamine receptors has indeed been shown to be regulated by retinoic acid. Musculoskeletal Isotretinoin has a number of muscoloskeletal effects. Myalgia (muscular pain) and arthralgia (joint pain) are rare side effects. Retinoids, such as high dose etretinate, are well known to cause bone changes, the most common type of which is hyperostotic changes (excessive bone growth), especially in growing children and adolescents. Other problems include premature epiphyseal closure and calcification of tendons and ligaments. The bones of the spine and feet are most commonly affected. Risk factors for skeletal effects include older age, greater dosage and longer course of treatment. Most bone changes cause no symptoms and may only be noticed using X-ray imaging. Gastrointestinal Isotretinoin may cause non-specific gastrointestinal symptoms including nausea, diarrhea and abdominal pain. The drug is associated with inflammatory bowel disease (IBD)—ulcerative colitis, but not Crohn's disease. There are also reports of people developing irritable bowel syndrome (IBS) and worsening of existing IBS. Eyes Isotretinoin and other retinoids are well known to affect the eyes. Dry eyes are very common during treatment and is caused by isotretinoin's apoptotic effect on the meibomian glands. Some people develop contact lens intolerance as a result. In some people, these changes are long-lasting or irreversible and represent Meibomian Gland Dysfunction (MGD). Other common effects on the eyes include inflammation of the eyelid (blepharitis), red eye caused by conjunctivitis and irritation of the eye. More rare ocular side effects include blurred vision, decreased night vision (which may be permanent), colour blindness, development of corneal opacities, inflammation of the cornea (keratitis), swelling of the optic disk (papilloedema, associated with IIH), photophobia and other visual disturbances. Pharmacology Mechanism of action Isotretinoin's exact mechanism of action is unknown, but several studies have shown that isotretinoin induces apoptosis (programmatic cell death) in various cells in the body. Cell death may be instigated in the meibomian glands, hypothalamic cells, hippocampus cells and—important for treatment of acne—in sebaceous gland cells. Isotretinoin has a low affinity for retinoic acid receptors (RAR) and retinoid X receptors (RXR), but may be converted intracellularly to metabolites that act as agonists of RAR and RXR nuclear receptors. One study suggests the drug amplifies production of neutrophil gelatinase-associated lipocalin (NGAL) in the skin, which has been shown to reduce sebum production by inducing apoptosis in sebaceous gland cells, while exhibiting an antimicrobial effect on Cutibacterium acnes. The drug decreases the size and sebum output of the sebaceous glands. Isotretinoin is the only available acne drug that affects all four major pathogenic processes in acne, which distinguishes it from alternative treatments (such as antibiotics) and accounts for its efficacy in severe, nodulocystic cases. The effect of Isotretinoin on sebum production can be temporary, or remission of the disease can be "complete and prolonged." Isotretinoin has been speculated to down-regulate the enzyme telomerase and hTERT, inhibiting "cellular immortalization and tumorigenesis." In a 2007 study, Isotretinoin was proven to inhibit the action of the metalloprotease MMP-9 (gelatinase) in sebum without any influence in the action of TIMP1 and TIMP2 (the tissue inhibitors of metalloproteases). It is already known that metalloproteases play an important role in the pathogenesis of acne. CNS activities A possible biological basis for the case reports of depression involves decreased metabolism in the orbitofrontal cortex (OFC) of the frontal lobe. It has also been found that decreased OFC metabolism was correlated with headaches. People reporting headache as a side effect often report comorbid neuropsychiatric symptoms, especially depression; a statistically significant relationship between headache and depression has been established. It is suggested that people sensitive to isotretinoin-induced CNS effects may also be susceptible to other psychiatric side effects such as depression. Studies in mice and rats have found that retinoids, including isotretinoin, bind to dopaminergic receptors in the central nervous system. Isotretinoin may affect dopaminergic neurotransmission by disrupting the structure of dopamine receptors and decreasing dopaminergic activity. The dopaminergic system is implicated in numerous psychological disorders, including depression. Isotretinoin is also thought to affect the serotonergic system – it increases expression of 5-HT1A receptors in the pre-synaptic neuron, which inhibit serotonin secretion. Isotretinoin also directly and indirectly increases the translation of the serotonin transporter protein (SERT), leading to increased reuptake and consequently reduced synaptic availability of serotonin. Inhibition of hippocampal neurogenesis may also play a role in the development of isotretinoin-induced depression. A further effect of isotretinoin on the brain involves retinoic acid function in the hypothalamus, the hormone regulatory centre of the brain and part of the hypothalamus-pituitary-adrenal axis, a key part of the body's stress response. Other brain regions regulated by retinoic acid and potentially disrupted by isotretinoin include the frontal cortex and the striatum. Pharmacokinetics and pharmacodynamics Oral Isotretinoin is best absorbed when taken with a high-fat meal, because it has a high level of lipophilicity. The efficacy of isotretinoin doubles when taken after a high-fat meal compared to when taken without food. Due to Isotretinoin's molecular relationship to Vitamin A, it should not be taken with Vitamin A supplements due to the danger of toxicity through cumulative overdosing. Accutane also negatively interacts with tetracycline, another class of acne drug, and with micro-dosed ('mini-pill') progesterone preparations, norethisterone/ethinylestradiol ('OrthoNovum 7/7/7'), St. John's Wort, phenytoin, and systemic corticosteroids. Isotretinoin is primarily (99.9%) bound to plasma proteins, mostly albumin. Three metabolites of Isotretinoin are detectable in human plasma after oral administration: 4-oxo-isotretinoin, retinoid acid (tretinoin), and 4-oxo-retinoic acid (4-oxo-tretinoin). Isotretinoin also oxidizes, irreversibly, to 4-oxo-isotretinoin—which forms its geometric isomer 4-oxo-tretinoin. After an orally-administered, 80 mg dose of liquid suspension 14C-isotretinoin, 14C-activity in blood declines with a half-life of 90 hours. The metabolites of isotretinoin and its conjugates are then excreted in the subject's urine and faeces in relatively equal amounts. After a single, 80 mg oral dose of Isotretinoin to 74 healthy adult subjects under fed conditions, the mean ±SD elimination half-life (t1/2) of isotretinoin and 4-oxo-isotretinoin were 21.0 ± 8.2 hours and 24.0 ± 5.3 hours, respectively. After both single and multiple doses, the observed accumulation ratios of isotretinoin ranged from 0.90 to 5.43 in people with cystic acne. History The compound 13-cis retinoic acid was first studied in the 1960s at Roche Laboratories in Switzerland by Werner Bollag as a treatment for skin cancer. Experiments completed in 1971 showed that the compound was likely to be ineffective for cancer and, surprisingly, that it could be useful to treat acne. However, they also showed that the compound was likely to cause birth defects, so in light of the events around thalidomide, Roche abandoned the product. In 1979, the New England Journal of Medicine published an article demonstrating the drug's effectiveness as a treatment of cystic and conglobate acne on fourteen patients, thirteen of which experienced complete clearing of their disease. Roche resumed work on the drug. In clinical trials, subjects were carefully screened to avoid including women who were or might become pregnant. Roche's New Drug Application for isotretinoin for the treatment of acne included data showing that the drug caused birth defects in rabbits. The FDA approved the application in 1982. Scientists involved in the clinical trials published articles warning of birth defects at the same time the drug was launched in the US, but nonetheless, isotretinoin was taken up quickly and widely, both among dermatologists and general practitioners. Cases of birth defects showed up in the first year, leading the FDA to begin publishing case reports and to Roche sending warning letters to doctors and placing warning stickers on drug bottles, and including stronger warnings on the label. Lawsuits against Roche started to be filed. In 1983 the FDA's advisory committee was convened and recommended stronger measures, which the FDA took and were that time unprecedented: warning blood banks not to accept blood from people taking the drug and adding a warning to the label advising women to start taking contraceptives a month before starting the drug. However, the use of the drug continued to grow, as did the number of babies born with birth defects. In 1985 the label was updated to include a boxed warning. In early 1988 the FDA called for another advisory committee, and FDA employees prepared an internal memo estimating that around 1,000 babies had been born with birth defects due to isotretinoin, that up to around 1,000 miscarriages had been caused, and that between 5,000 and 7,000 women had had abortions due to isotretinoin. The memo was leaked to the New York Times a few days before the meeting, leading to a storm of media attention. In the committee meeting, dermatologists and Roche each argued to keep the drug on the market but to increase education efforts; pediatricians and the CDC argued to withdraw the drug from the market. The committee recommended restricting physicians who could prescribe the drug and requiring a second opinion before it could be prescribed. The FDA, believing it did not have authority under the law to restrict who had the right to prescribe the drug, kept the drug on the market but took further unprecedented measures: it required Roche to make warnings yet more visible and graphic, provide doctors with informed consent forms to be used when prescribing the drug, and to conduct follow up studies to test whether the measures were reducing exposure of pregnant women to the drug. Roche implemented those measures, and offered to pay for contraception counseling and pregnancy testing for women prescribed the drug; the program was called the "Pregnancy Prevention Program". A CDC report published in 2000 showed problems with the Pregnancy Prevention Program and showed that the increase in prescriptions was from off-label use, and prompted Roche to revamp its program, renaming it the "Targeted Pregnancy Prevention Program" and adding label changes like requirements for two pregnancy tests, two kinds of contraception, and for doctors to provide pharmacists with prescriptions directly; providing additional educational materials, and providing free pregnancy tests. The FDA had another advisory meeting in late 2000 that again debated how to prevent pregnant women from being exposed to the drug; dermatologists testified about the remarkable efficacy of the drug, the psychological impact of acne, and demanded autonomy to prescribe the drug; others argued that the drug be withdrawn or much stricter measures be taken. In 2001 the FDA announced a new regulatory scheme called SMART (the System to Manage Accutane Related Teratogenicity) that required Roche to provide defined training materials to doctors, and for doctors to sign and return a letter to Roche acknowledging that they had reviewed the training materials, for Roche to then send stickers to doctors, which doctors would have to place on prescriptions they give people after they have confirmed a negative pregnancy test; prescriptions could only be written for 30 days and could not be renewed, thus requiring a new pregnancy test for each prescription. In February 2002, Roche's patents for isotretinoin expired, and there are now many other companies selling cheaper generic versions of the drug. On June 29, 2009, Roche Pharmaceuticals, the original creator and distributor of isotretinoin, officially discontinued both the manufacture and distribution of their Accutane brand in the United States due to what the company described as business reasons related to low market share (below 5%), coupled with the high cost of defending personal injury lawsuits brought by some people who took the drug. Generic isotretinoin will remain available in the United States through various manufacturers. Roche USA continues to defend Accutane and claims to have treated over 13 million people since its introduction in 1982. F. Hoffmann-La Roche Ltd. apparently will continue to manufacture and distribute Roaccutane outside of the United States. Among others, actor James Marshall sued Roche over allegedly Accutane-related disease that resulted in removal of his colon. The jury, however, decided that James Marshall had a pre-existing bowel disease. Several trials over inflammatory bowel disease claims have been held in the United States thus far, with many of them resulting in multimillion-dollar judgments against the makers of isotretinoin. Society and culture Brands As of 2017 isotretinoin was marketed under many brand names worldwide: A-Cnotren, Absorica, Accuran, Accutane, Accutin, Acne Free, Acnecutan, Acnegen, Acnemin, Acneone, Acneral, Acnestar, Acnetane, Acnetin A, Acnetrait, Acnetrex, Acnogen, Acnotin, Acnotren, Acretin, Actaven, Acugen, Acutret, Acutrex, Ai Si Jie, Aisoskin, Aknal, Aknefug Iso, Aknenormin, Aknesil, Aknetrent, Amnesteem, Atlacne, Atretin, Axotret, Casius, Ciscutan, Claravis, Contracné, Curacne, Curacné, Curakne, Curatane, Cuticilin, Decutan, Dercutane, Effederm, Epuris, Eudyna, Farmacne, Flexresan, Flitrion, I-Ret, Inerta, Inflader, Inotrin, Isac, Isdiben, Isoacne, Isobest, Isocural, Isoderm, Isoface, IsoGalen, Isogeril, Isolve, Isoprotil, Isoriac, Isosupra, Isosupra Lidose, Isotane, Isotina, Isotinon, Isotren, Isotret, Isotretinoin, Isotretinoina, Isotretinoína, Isotretinoine, Isotretinoïne, Isotrétinoïne, Isotretinoinum, Isotrex, Isotrin, Isotroin, Izotek, Izotziaja, Lisacne, Locatret, Mayesta, Myorisan, Neotrex, Netlook, Nimegen, Noitron, Noroseptan, Novacne, Oralne, Oraret, Oratane, Piplex, Policano, Procuta, Reducar, Retacnyl, Retin A, Roaccutan, Roaccutane, Roacnetan, Roacta, Roacutan, Rocne, Rocta, Sotret, Stiefotrex, Tai Er Si, Teweisi, Tretin, Tretinac, Tretinex, Tretiva, Tufacne, Zenatane, Zerocutan, Zonatian ME, and Zoretanin. As of 2017 it was marketed as a topical combination drug with erythromycin under the brand names Isotrex Eritromicina, Isotrexin, and Munderm. Research While excessive bone growth has been raised a possible side effect, a 2006 review found little evidence for this. 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229988	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wolf%E2%80%93Rayet%20star	Wolf–Rayet star	Wolf–Rayet stars, often abbreviated as WR stars, are a rare heterogeneous set of stars with unusual spectra showing prominent broad emission lines of ionised helium and highly ionised nitrogen or carbon. The spectra indicate very high surface enhancement of heavy elements, depletion of hydrogen, and strong stellar winds. The surface temperatures of known Wolf–Rayet stars range from 20,000 K to around 210,000 K, hotter than almost all other kinds of stars. They were previously called W-type stars referring to their spectral classification. Classic (or Population I) Wolf–Rayet stars are evolved, massive stars that have completely lost their outer hydrogen and are fusing helium or heavier elements in the core. A subset of the population I WR stars show hydrogen lines in their spectra and are known as WNh stars; they are young extremely massive stars still fusing hydrogen at the core, with helium and nitrogen exposed at the surface by strong mixing and radiation-driven mass loss. A separate group of stars with WR spectra are the central stars of planetary nebulae (CSPNe), post-asymptotic giant branch stars that were similar to the Sun while on the main sequence, but have now ceased fusion and shed their atmospheres to reveal a bare carbon-oxygen core. All Wolf–Rayet stars are highly luminous objects due to their high temperatures—thousands of times the bolometric luminosity of the Sun () for the CSPNe, for the Population I WR stars, to for the WNh stars—although not exceptionally bright visually since most of their radiation output is in the ultraviolet. The naked-eye stars Gamma Velorum and Theta Muscae, as well as one of the most massive known stars, R136a1 in 30 Doradus, are all Wolf–Rayet stars. Observation history In 1867, using the 40 cm Foucault telescope at the Paris Observatory, astronomers Charles Wolf and Georges Rayet discovered three stars in the constellation Cygnus (HD 191765, HD 192103 and HD 192641, now designated as WR 134, WR 135, and WR 137 respectively) that displayed broad emission bands on an otherwise continuous spectrum. Most stars only display absorption lines or bands in their spectra, as a result of overlying elements absorbing light energy at specific frequencies, so these were clearly unusual objects. The nature of the emission bands in the spectra of a Wolf–Rayet star remained a mystery for several decades. Edward C. Pickering theorized that the lines were caused by an unusual state of hydrogen, and it was found that this "Pickering series" of lines followed a pattern similar to the Balmer series, when half-integer quantum numbers were substituted. It was later shown that these lines resulted from the presence of helium, the chemical element having just been discovered in 1868. Pickering noted similarities between Wolf–Rayet spectra and nebular spectra, and this similarity led to the conclusion that some or all Wolf–Rayet stars were the central stars of planetary nebulae. By 1929, the width of the emission bands was being attributed to Doppler broadening, and hence that the gas surrounding these stars must be moving with velocities of 300–2400 km/s along the line of sight. The conclusion was that a Wolf–Rayet star is continually ejecting gas into space, producing an expanding envelope of nebulous gas. The force ejecting the gas at the high velocities observed is radiation pressure. It was well known that many stars with Wolf–Rayet type spectra were the central stars of planetary nebulae, but also that many were not associated with an obvious planetary nebula or any visible nebulosity at all. In addition to helium, Carlyle Smith Beals identified emission lines of carbon, oxygen and nitrogen in the spectra of Wolf–Rayet stars. In 1938, the International Astronomical Union classified the spectra of Wolf–Rayet stars into types WN and WC, depending on whether the spectrum was dominated by lines of nitrogen or carbon-oxygen respectively. In 1969, several CSPNe with strong OVI emissions lines were grouped under a new "OVI sequence", or just OVI type. These were subsequently referred to as [WO] stars. Similar stars not associated with planetary nebulae were described shortly after and the WO classification was eventually also adopted for population I WR stars. The understanding that certain late, and sometimes not-so-late, WN stars with hydrogen lines in their spectra are at a different stage of evolution from hydrogen-free WR stars has led to the introduction of the term WNh to distinguish these stars generally from other WN stars. They were previously referred to as WNL stars, although there are late-type WN stars without hydrogen as well as WR stars with hydrogen as early as WN5. Classification Wolf–Rayet stars were named on the basis of the strong broad emission lines in their spectra, identified with helium, nitrogen, carbon, silicon, and oxygen, but with hydrogen lines usually weak or absent. The first system of classification split these into stars with dominant lines of ionised nitrogen (NIII, NIV, and NV) and those with dominant lines of ionised carbon (CIII and CIV) and sometimes oxygen (OIII – OVI), referred to as WN and WC respectively. The two classes WN and WC were further split into temperature sequences WN5–WN8 and WC6–WC8 based on the relative strengths of the 541.1 nm HeII and 587.5 nm HeI lines. Wolf–Rayet emission lines frequently have a broadened absorption wing (P Cygni profile) suggesting circumstellar material. A WO sequence has also been separated from the WC sequence for even hotter stars where emission of ionised oxygen dominates that of ionised carbon, although the actual proportions of those elements in the stars are likely to be comparable. WC and WO spectra are formally distinguished based on the presence or absence of CIII emission. WC spectra also generally lack the OVI lines that are strong in WO spectra. The WN spectral sequence was expanded to include WN2–WN9, and the definitions refined based on the relative strengths of the NIII lines at 463.4–464.1 nm and 531.4 nm, the NIV lines at 347.9–348.4 nm and 405.8 nm, and the NV lines at 460.3 nm, 461.9 nm, and 493.3–494.4 nm. These lines are well separated from areas of strong and variable He emission and the line strengths are well correlated with temperature. Stars with spectra intermediate between WN and Ofpe have been classified as WN10 and WN11 although this nomenclature is not universally accepted. The type WN1 was proposed for stars with neither NIV nor NV lines, to accommodate Brey 1 and Brey 66 which appeared to be intermediate between WN2 and WN2.5. The relative line strengths and widths for each WN sub-class were later quantified, and the ratio between the 541.1 nm HeII and 587.5m, HeI lines was introduced as the primary indicator of the ionisation level and hence of the spectral sub-class. The need for WN1 disappeared and both Brey 1 and Brey 66 are now classified as WN3b. The somewhat obscure WN2.5 and WN4.5 classes were dropped. The WC spectral sequence was expanded to include WC4–WC11, although some older papers have also used WC1–WC3. The primary emission lines used to distinguish the WC sub-types are CII 426.7 nm, CIII at 569.6 nm, CIII/IV465.0 nm, CIV at 580.1–581.2 nm, and the OV (and OIII) blend at 557.2–559.8 nm. The sequence was extended to include WC10 and WC11, and the subclass criteria were quantified based primarily on the relative strengths of carbon lines to rely on ionisation factors even if there were abundance variations between carbon and oxygen. For WO-type stars the main lines used are CIV at 580.1 nm, OIV at 340.0 nm, OV (and OIII) blend at 557.2–559.8 nm, OVI at 381.1–383.4 nm, OVII at 567.0 nm, and OVIII at 606.8 nm. The sequence was expanded to include WO5 and quantified based the relative strengths of the OVI/CIV and OVI/OV lines. A later scheme, designed for consistency across classical WR stars and CSPNe, returned to the WO1 to WO4 sequence and adjusted the divisions. Detailed modern studies of Wolf–Rayet stars can identify additional spectral features, indicated by suffixes to the main spectral classification: h for hydrogen emission; ha for hydrogen emission and absorption; o for no hydrogen emission; w for weak lines; s for strong lines; b for broad strong lines; d for dust (occasionally vd, pd, or ed for variable, periodic, or episodic dust). The classification of Wolf–Rayet spectra is complicated by the frequent association of the stars with dense nebulosity, dust clouds, or binary companions. A suffix of "+OB" is used to indicate the presence of absorption lines in the spectrum likely to be associated with a more normal companion star, or "+abs" for absorption lines with an unknown origin. The hotter WR spectral sub-classes are described as early and the cooler ones as late, consistent with other spectral types. WNE and WCE refer to early type spectra while WNL and WCL refer to late type spectra, with the dividing line approximately at sub-class six or seven. There is no such thing as a late WO-type star. There is a strong tendency for WNE stars to be hydrogen-poor while the spectra of WNL stars frequently include hydrogen lines. Spectral types for the central stars of planetary nebulae are qualified by surrounding them with square brackets (e.g. [WC4]). They are almost all of the WC sequence with the known [WO] stars representing the hot extension of the carbon sequence. There are also a small number of [WN] and [WC/WN] types, only discovered quite recently. Their formation mechanism is as yet unclear. Temperatures of the planetary nebula central stars tend to the extremes when compared to population I WR stars, so [WC2] and [WC3] are common and the sequence has been extended to [WC12]. The [WC11] and [WC12] types have distinctive spectra with narrow emission lines and no HeII and CIV lines. Certain supernovae observed before their peak brightness show WR spectra. This is due to the nature of the supernova at this point: a rapidly expanding helium-rich ejecta similar to an extreme Wolf–Rayet wind. The WR spectral features only last a matter of hours, the high ionisation features fading by maximum to leave only weak neutral hydrogen and helium emission, before being replaced with a traditional supernova spectrum. It has been proposed to label these spectral types with an "X", for example XWN5(h). Similarly, classical novae develop spectra consisting of broad emission bands similar to a Wolf–Rayet star. This is caused by the same physical mechanism: rapid expansion of dense gases around an extremely hot central source. Slash stars The separation of Wolf–Rayet stars from spectral class O stars of a similar temperature depends on the existence of strong emission lines of ionised helium, nitrogen, carbon, and oxygen, but there are a number of stars with intermediate or confusing spectral features. For example, high luminosity O stars can develop helium and nitrogen in their spectra with some emission lines, while some WR stars have hydrogen lines, weak emission, and even absorption components. These stars have been given spectral types such as O3If∗/WN6 and are referred to as slash stars. Class O supergiants can develop emission lines of helium and nitrogen, or emission components to some absorption lines. These are indicated by spectral peculiarity suffix codes specific to this type of star: f for N and He emission f* for N and He emission with N stronger than N f+ for emission in Si in addition to N and He parentheses indicating He absorption lines instead of emission, e.g. (f) double parentheses indicating strong He absorption and N emission diluted, e.g. ((f+)) These codes may also be combined with more general spectral type qualifiers such as p or a. Common combinations include OIafpe and OIf, and Ofpe. In the 1970s it was recognised that there was a continuum of spectra from pure absorption class O to unambiguous WR types, and it was unclear whether some intermediate stars should be given a spectral type such as O8Iafpe or WN8-a. The slash notation was proposed to deal with these situations and the star Sk−67°22 was assigned the spectral type O3If/WN6-A. The criteria for distinguishing OIf, OIf/WN, and WN stars have been refined for consistency. Slash star classifications are used when the Hβ line has a P Cygni profile; this is an absorption line in O supergiants and an emission line in WN stars. Criteria for the following slash star spectral types are given, using the nitrogen emission lines at 463.4–464.1 nm, 405.8 nm, and 460.3–462.0 nm, together with a standard star for each type: Another set of slash star spectral types is in use for Ofpe/WN stars. These stars have O supergiant spectra plus nitrogen and helium emission, and P Cygni profiles. Alternatively they can be considered to be WN stars with unusually low ionisation levels and hydrogen. The slash notation for these stars was controversial and an alternative was to extend the WR nitrogen sequence to WN10 and WN11 Other authors preferred to use the WNha notation, for example WN9ha for WR 108. A recent recommendation is to use an O spectral type such as O8Iaf if the 447.1 nm He line is in absorption and a WR class of WN9h or WN9ha if the line has a P Cygni profile. However, the Ofpe/WN slash notation as well as WN10 and WN11 classifications continue to be widely used. A third group of stars with spectra containing features of both O class stars and WR stars has been identified. Nine stars in the Large Magellanic Cloud have spectra that contain both WN3 and O3V features, but do not appear to be binaries. Many of the WR stars in the Small Magellanic Cloud also have very early WN spectra plus high excitation absorption features. It has been suggested that these could be a missing link leading to classical WN stars or the result of tidal stripping by a low-mass companion. Nomenclature The first three Wolf–Rayet stars to be identified, coincidentally all with hot O companions, had already been numbered in the HD catalogue. These stars and others were referred to as Wolf–Rayet stars from their initial discovery but specific naming conventions for them would not be created until 1962 in the "fourth" catalogue of galactic Wolf–Rayet stars. The first three catalogues were not specifically lists of Wolf–Rayet stars and they used only existing nomenclature. The fourth catalogue numbered the Wolf–Rayet stars sequentially in order of right ascension. The fifth catalogue used the same numbers prefixed with MR after the author of the fourth catalogue, plus an additional sequence of numbers prefixed with LS for new discoveries. Neither of these numbering schemes is in common use. The sixth Catalogue of Galactic Wolf–Rayet stars was the first to actually bear that name, as well as to describe the previous five catalogues by that name. It also introduced the WR numbers widely used ever since for galactic WR stars. These are again a numerical sequence from WR 1 to WR 158 in order of right ascension. The seventh catalogue and its annex use the same numbering scheme and insert new stars into the sequence using lower case letter suffixes, for example WR 102ka for one of the numerous WR stars discovered in the galactic centre. Modern high volume identification surveys use their own numbering schemes for the large numbers of new discoveries. An IAU working group has accepted recommendations to expand the numbering system from the Catalogue of Galactic Wolf–Rayet stars so that additional discoveries are given the closest existing WR number plus a numeric suffix in order of discovery. This applies to all discoveries since the 2006 annex, although some of these have already been named under the previous nomenclature; thus WR 42e is now numbered WR 42-1. Wolf–Rayet stars in external galaxies are numbered using different schemes. In the Large Magellanic Cloud, the most widespread and complete nomenclature for WR stars is from "The Fourth Catalogue of Population I Wolf–Rayet stars in the Large Magellanic Cloud" prefixed by , for example . Many of these stars are also referred to by their third catalogue number, for example Brey 77. As of 2018, 154 WR stars are catalogued in the LMC, mostly WN but including about twenty-three WCs as well as three of the extremely rare WO class. Many of these stars are often referred to by their RMC (Radcliffe observatory Magellanic Cloud) numbers, frequently abbreviated to just R, for example R136a1. In the Small Magellanic Cloud SMC WR numbers are used, usually referred to as AB numbers, for example AB7. There are only twelve known WR stars in the SMC, a very low number thought to be due to the low metallicity of that galaxy Properties Wolf–Rayet stars are a normal stage in the evolution of very massive stars, in which strong, broad emission lines of helium and nitrogen ("WN" sequence), carbon ("WC" sequence), and oxygen ("WO" sequence) are visible. Due to their strong emission lines they can be identified in nearby galaxies. About 500 Wolf–Rayets are catalogued in our own Milky Way Galaxy. This number has changed dramatically during the last few years as the result of photometric and spectroscopic surveys in the near-infrared dedicated to discovering this kind of object in the Galactic plane. It is expected that there are fewer than 1,000 WR stars in the rest of the Local Group galaxies, with around 166 known in the Magellanic Clouds, 206 in M33, and 154 in M31. Outside the local group, whole galaxy surveys have found thousands more WR stars and candidates. For example, over a thousand WR stars have been detected in M101, from magnitude 21 to 25. WR stars are expected to be particularly common in starburst galaxies and especially Wolf–Rayet galaxies. The characteristic emission lines are formed in the extended and dense high-velocity wind region enveloping the very hot stellar photosphere, which produces a flood of UV radiation that causes fluorescence in the line-forming wind region. This ejection process uncovers in succession, first the nitrogen-rich products of CNO cycle burning of hydrogen (WN stars), and later the carbon-rich layer due to He burning (WC and WO-type stars). It can be seen that the WNh stars are completely different objects from the WN stars without hydrogen. Despite the similar spectra, they are much more massive, much larger, and some of the most luminous stars known. They have been detected as early as WN5h in the Magellanic clouds. The nitrogen seen in the spectrum of WNh stars is still the product of CNO cycle fusion in the core, but it appears at the surface of the most massive stars due to rotational and convectional mixing while still in the core hydrogen burning phase, rather than after the outer envelope is lost during core helium fusion. Some Wolf–Rayet stars of the carbon sequence ("WC"), especially those belonging to the latest types, are noticeable due to their production of dust. Usually this takes place on those belonging to binary systems as a product of the collision of the stellar winds forming the pair, as is the case of the famous binary WR 104; however this process occurs on single ones too. A few (roughly 10%) of the central stars of planetary nebulae are, despite their much lower (typically ~0.6 solar) masses, also observationally of the WR-type; i.e. they show emission line spectra with broad lines from helium, carbon and oxygen. Denoted [WR], they are much older objects descended from evolved low-mass stars and are closely related to white dwarfs, rather than to the very young, very massive population I stars that comprise the bulk of the WR class. These are now generally excluded from the class denoted as Wolf–Rayet stars, or referred to as Wolf–Rayet-type stars. Metallicity The numbers and properties of Wolf–Rayet stars vary with the chemical composition of their progenitor stars. A primary driver of this difference is the rate of mass loss at different levels of metallicity. Higher metallicity leads to high mass loss, which affects the evolution of massive stars and also the properties of Wolf–Rayet stars. Higher levels of mass loss cause stars to lose their outer layers before an iron core develops and collapses, so that the more massive red supergiants evolve back to hotter temperatures before exploding as a supernova, and the most massive stars never become red supergiants. In the Wolf–Rayet stage, higher mass loss leads to stronger depletion of the layers outside the convective core, lower hydrogen surface abundances and more rapid stripping of helium to produce a WC spectrum. These trends can be observed in the various galaxies of the local group, where metallicity varies from near-solar levels in the Milky Way, somewhat lower in M31, lower still in the Large Magellanic Cloud, and much lower in the Small Magellanic Cloud. Strong metallicity variations are seen across individual galaxies, with M33 and the Milky Way showing higher metallicities closer to the centre, and M31 showing higher metallicity in the disk than in the halo. Thus the SMC is seen to have few WR stars compared to its stellar formation rate and no WC stars at all (one star has a WO spectral type), the Milky Way has roughly equal numbers of WN and WC stars and a large total number of WR stars, and the other main galaxies have somewhat fewer WR stars and more WN than WC types. LMC, and especially SMC, Wolf–Rayets have weaker emission and a tendency to higher atmospheric hydrogen fractions. SMC WR stars almost universally show some hydrogen and even absorption lines even at the earliest spectral types, due to weaker winds not entirely masking the photosphere. The maximum mass of a main-sequence star that can evolve through a red supergiant phase and back to a WNL star is calculated to be around in the Milky Way, in the LMC, and in the SMC. The more evolved WNE and WC stages are only reached by stars with an initial mass over at near-solar metallicity, in the LMC. Normal single star evolution is not expected to produce any WNE or WC stars at SMC metallicity. Rotation Mass loss is influenced by a star's rotation rate, especially strongly at low metallicity. Fast rotation contributes to mixing of core fusion products through the rest of the star, enhancing surface abundances of heavy elements, and driving mass loss. Rotation causes stars to remain on the main sequence longer than non-rotating stars, evolve more quickly away from the red supergiant phase, or even evolve directly from the main sequence to hotter temperatures for very high masses, high metallicity or very rapid rotation. Stellar mass loss produces a loss of angular momentum and this quickly brakes the rotation of massive stars. Very massive stars at near-solar metallicity should be braked almost to a standstill while still on the main sequence, while at SMC metallicity they can continue to rotate rapidly even at the highest observed masses. Rapid rotation of massive stars may account for the unexpected properties and numbers of SMC WR stars, for example their relatively high temperatures and luminosities. Binaries Massive stars in binary systems can develop into Wolf–Rayet stars due to stripping by a companion rather than inherent mass loss due to a stellar wind. This process is relatively insensitive to the metallicity or rotation of the individual stars and is expected to produce a consistent set of WR stars across all the local group galaxies. As a result, the fraction of WR stars produced through the binary channel, and therefore the number of WR stars observed to be in binaries, should be higher in low metallicity environments. Calculations suggest that the binary fraction of WR stars observed in the SMC should be as high as 98%, although less than half are actually observed to have a massive companion. The binary fraction in the Milky Way is around 20%, in line with theoretical calculations. Nebulae A significant proportion of WR stars are surrounded by nebulosity associated directly with the star, not just the normal background nebulosity associated with any massive star forming region, and not a planetary nebula formed by a post-AGB star. The nebulosity presents a variety of forms and classification has been difficult. Many were originally catalogued as planetary nebulae and sometimes only a careful multi-wavelength study can distinguish a planetary nebula around a low mass post-AGB star from a similarly shaped nebula around a more massive core helium-burning star. Wolf–Rayet galaxies A Wolf–Rayet galaxy is a type of starburst galaxy where a sufficient number of WR stars exist that their characteristic emission line spectra become visible in the overall spectrum of the galaxy. Specifically a broad emission feature due to the 468.6 nm He and nearby spectral lines is the defining characteristic of a Wolf–Rayet galaxy. The relatively short lifetime of WR stars means that the starbursts in such galaxies must have lasted less than a million years and occurred within the last few million years, or else the WR emission would be swamped by large numbers of other luminous stars. Evolution Theories about how WR stars form, develop, and die have been slow to form compared to the explanation of less extreme stellar evolution. They are rare, distant, and often obscured, and even into the 21st century many aspects of their lives are unclear. History Although Wolf–Rayet stars have been clearly identified as an unusual and distinctive class of stars since the 19th century, the nature of these stars was uncertain until towards the end of the 20th century. Before the 1960s, even the classification of WR stars was highly uncertain, and their nature and evolution was essentially unknown. The very similar appearance of the central stars of planetary nebulae (CSPNe) and the much more luminous classical WR stars contributed to the uncertainty. By about 1960, the distinction between CSPNe and massive luminous classical WR stars was more clear. Studies showed that they were small dense stars surrounded by extensive circumstellar material, but not yet clear whether the material was expelled from the star or contracting onto it. The unusual abundances of nitrogen, carbon, and oxygen, as well as the lack of hydrogen, were recognised, but the reasons remained obscure. It was recognised that WR stars were very young and very rare, but it was still open to debate whether they were evolving towards or away from the main sequence. By the 1980s, WR stars were accepted as the descendants of massive OB stars, although their exact evolutionary state in relation to the main sequence and other evolved massive stars was still unknown. Theories that the preponderance of WR stars in massive binaries and their lack of hydrogen could be due to gravitational stripping had been largely ignore or abandoned. WR stars were being proposed as possible progenitors of supernovae, and particularly the newly-discovered type Ib supernovae, lacking hydrogen but apparently associated with young massive stars. By the start of the 21st century, WR stars were largely accepted as massive stars that had exhausted their core hydrogen, left the main sequence, and expelled most of their atmospheres, leaving behind a small hot core of helium and heavier fusion products. Current models Most WR stars, the classical population I type, are now understood as being a natural stage in the evolution of the most massive stars (not counting the less common planetary nebula central stars), either after a period as a red supergiant, after a period as a blue supergiant, or directly from the most massive main-sequence stars. Only the lower mass red supergiants are expected to explode as a supernova at that stage, while more massive red supergiants progress back to hotter temperatures as they expel their atmospheres. Some explode while at the yellow hypergiant or LBV stage, but many become Wolf–Rayet stars. They have lost or burnt almost all of their hydrogen and are now fusing helium in their cores, or heavier elements for a very brief period at the end of their lives. Massive main-sequence stars create a very hot core which fuses hydrogen very rapidly via the CNO process and results in strong convection throughout the whole star. This causes mixing of helium to the surface, a process that is enhanced by rotation, possibly by differential rotation where the core is spun up to a faster rotation than the surface. Such stars also show nitrogen enhancement at the surface at a very young age, caused by changes in the proportions of carbon and nitrogen due to the CNO cycle. The enhancement of heavy elements in the atmosphere, as well as increases in luminosity, create strong stellar winds which are the source of the emission line spectra. These stars develop an Of spectrum, Of* if they are sufficiently hot, which develops into a WNh spectrum as the stellar winds increase further. This explains the high mass and luminosity of the WNh stars, which are still burning hydrogen at the core and have lost little of their initial mass. These will eventually expand into blue supergiants (LBVs?) as hydrogen at the core becomes depleted, or if mixing is efficient enough (e.g. through rapid rotation) they may progress directly to WN stars without hydrogen. WR stars are likely to end their lives violently rather than fade away to a white dwarf. Thus every star with an initial mass more than about 9 times the Sun would inevitably result in a supernova explosion, many of them from the WR stage. A simple progression of WR stars from low to hot temperatures, resulting finally in WO-type stars, is not supported by observation. WO-type stars are extremely rare and all the known examples are more luminous and more massive than the relatively common WC stars. Alternative theories suggest either that the WO-type stars are only formed from the most massive main-sequence stars, and/or that they form an extremely short-lived end stage of just a few thousand years before exploding, with the WC phase corresponding to the core helium burning phase and the WO phase to nuclear burning stages beyond. It is still unclear whether the WO spectrum is purely the result of ionisation effects at very high temperature, reflects an actual chemical abundance difference, or if both effects occur to varying degrees. Key: O: O-type main-sequence star Of: evolved O-type showing N and He emission BSG: blue supergiant RSG: red supergiant YHG: yellow hypergiant LBV: luminous blue variable WNh: WN plus hydrogen lines WNL: "late" WN-class Wolf–Rayet star (about WN6 to WN11) WNE: "early" WN-class Wolf–Rayet star (about WN2 to WN6) WN/WC: Transitional (transitioning from WN to WC) Wolf–Rayet star (may be WN#/WCE or WC#/WN) WC: WC-class Wolf–Rayet star WO: WO-class Wolf–Rayet star Wolf–Rayet stars form from massive stars, although the evolved population I stars have lost half or more of their initial masses by the time they show a WR appearance. For example, γ2 Velorum A currently has a mass around 9 times the Sun, but began with a mass at least 40 times the Sun. High-mass stars are very rare, both because they form less often and because they have short lives. This means that Wolf–Rayet stars themselves are extremely rare because they only form from the most massive main-sequence stars and because they are a relatively short-lived phase in the lives of those stars. This also explains why type Ib/c supernovae are less common than type II, since they result from higher-mass stars. WNh stars, spectroscopically similar but actually a much less evolved star which has only just started to expel its atmosphere, are an exception and still retain much of their initial mass. The most massive stars currently known are all WNh stars rather than O-type main-sequence stars, an expected situation because such stars show helium and nitrogen at the surface only a few thousand years after they form, possibly before they become visible through the surrounding gas cloud. An alternative explanation is that these stars are so massive that they could not form as normal main-sequence stars, instead being the result of mergers of less extreme stars. The difficulties of modelling the observed numbers and types of Wolf–Rayet stars through single star evolution have led to theories that they form through binary interactions which could accelerate loss of the outer layers of a star through mass exchange. WR 122 is a potential example that has a flat disk of gas encircling the star, almost 2 trillion miles wide, and may have a companion star that stripped its outer envelope. Supernovae It is widely suspected that many type Ib and type Ic supernova progenitors are WR stars, although no conclusive identification has been made of such a progenitor. Type Ib supernovae lack hydrogen lines in their spectra. The more common type Ic supernovae lack both hydrogen and helium lines in their spectra. The expected progenitors for such supernova are massive stars that respectively lack hydrogen in their outer layers, or lack both hydrogen and helium. WR stars are just such objects. All WR stars lack hydrogen and in some WR stars, most notably the WO group, helium is also strongly depleted. WR stars are expected to experience core collapse when they have generated an iron core, and resulting supernova explosions would be of type Ib or Ic. In some cases it is possible that direct collapse of the core to a black hole would not produce a visible explosion. WR stars are very luminous due to their high temperatures but not visually bright, especially the hottest examples that are expected to make up most supernova progenitors. Theory suggests that the progenitors of type Ibc supernovae observed to date would not be bright enough to be detected, although they place constraints on the properties of those progenitors. A possible progenitor star which has disappeared at the location of supernova iPTF13bvn may be a single WR star, although other analyses favour a less massive binary system with a stripped star or helium giant. The only other possible WR supernova progenitor is for SN 2017ein, and again it is uncertain whether the progenitor is a single massive WR star or binary system. In 2022 astronomers from the Gran Telescopio Canarias reported the first supernova explosion of a Wolf-Rayet star. SN 2019hgp was a type Icn supernova and is also the first in which the element neon has been detected. Examples By far the most visible example of a Wolf–Rayet star is γ2 Velorum (WR 11), which is a bright naked eye star for those located south of 40 degrees northern latitude, although most of the light comes from an O7.5 giant companion. Due to the exotic nature of its spectrum (bright emission lines in lieu of dark absorption lines) it is dubbed the "Spectral Gem of the Southern Skies". The only other Wolf–Rayet star brighter than magnitude 6 is θ Muscae (WR 48), a triple star with two O class companions. Both are WC stars. The "ex" WR star WR 79a (HR 6272) is brighter than magnitude 6 but is now considered to be a peculiar O8 supergiant with strong emission. The next brightest at magnitude 6.4 is WR 22, a massive binary with a WN7h primary. The most massive and most luminous star currently known, R136a1, is also a Wolf–Rayet star of the WNh type that is still fusing hydrogen in its core. This type of star, which includes many of the most luminous and most massive stars, is very young and usually found only in the centre of the densest star clusters. Occasionally a runaway WNh star such as VFTS 682 is found outside such clusters, probably having been ejected from a multiple system or by interaction with other stars. An example of a triple star system containing a Wolf–Rayet binary is Apep. It releases huge amounts of carbon dust driven by their extreme stellar winds. As the two stars orbit one another, the dust gets wrapped into a glowing sooty tail. All of the very hottest non-degenerate stars (the hottest few) are Wolf–Rayet stars, the hottest of which being WR 102, which seems to be as hot as 210,000 K, followed by WR 142 which is around 200,000 K in temperature. LMC195-1, located in the Large Magellanic Cloud, should have a similar temperature, but at the moment this temperature is unknown. Only a minority of planetary nebulae have WR type central stars, but a considerable number of well-known planetary nebulae do have them. See also Markarian 50 References Further reading External links The Twisted Tale of Wolf–Rayet 104 Perry Berlind's page on Wolf–Rayet Spectral Classifications Online catalog of galactic Wolf–Rayet Stars Big Old Stars Don't Die Alone (NASA) Hubble observes Nasty 1 Star types	[ 0.4249836802482605, 0.1265455186367035, -0.19128373265266418, -0.19196641445159912, -0.8407050371170044, -0.09925104677677155, 0.43748077750205994, 0.22643180191516876, 0.11724326014518738, -0.21879909932613373, -0.7501624822616577, 0.04796991124749184, -0.2969478368759155, 0.5295550227165222, -0.060793716460466385, 0.6980987191200256, 0.7574874758720398, 0.8887218236923218, -0.3192441761493683, -0.6442321538925171, -0.020779158920049667, -0.06213569641113281, 0.41382867097854614, -0.05938250198960304, 0.07545314729213715, 0.24766238033771515, -0.3164966106414795, -0.07604975998401642, 0.22832518815994263, 0.08151638507843018, -0.2111903727054596, 1.0978912115097046, 0.018890302628278732, 0.2955161929130554, 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229989	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/USS%20Franklin	USS Franklin	USS Franklin may refer to: , a 6-gun schooner, fitted out in 1775 and returned to the owner in 1776 , an 8-gun brig built in 1795, captured by corsairs from Tripoli in 1802, bought back by the United States Navy in 1805, and sold in 1807 , a 74-gun ship of the line launched in 1815 and broken up in 1852 , a screw frigate launched in 1864 and in active service until 1877, thereafter used as a receiving ship until 1915 , an aircraft carrier commissioned in 1944 and crippled by bombs in March 1945, later repaired but remaining in reserve until stricken in 1964 See also , a ballistic missile submarine. , an aircraft carrier , a fictional starship featured in the film Star Trek Beyond (2016) United States Navy ship names	[ -0.40363427996635437, -0.04998752102255821, -0.5667651295661926, 0.2179802507162094, 0.47159403562545776, 0.4919569492340088, 0.5800687670707703, -0.3368263840675354, -0.5971776843070984, 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229990	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Catenaccio	Catenaccio	Catenaccio () or The Chain is a tactical system in football with a strong emphasis on defence. In Italian, catenaccio means "door-bolt", which implies a highly organised and effective backline defence focused on nullifying opponents' attacks and preventing goal-scoring opportunities. History Predecessors and influences Italian catenaccio was influenced by the verrou (also doorbolt or chain in French) system invented by Austrian coach Karl Rappan. As coach of Switzerland in the 1930s and 1940s, Rappan played a defensive sweeper called the verrouilleur, positioned just ahead of the goalkeeper. Rappan's verrou system, proposed in 1932, when he was coach of Servette, was essentially a modification of the 2–3–5 system, and in some ways resembled the modern 4–4–2 or 4–3–3 formations; his system implemented with four defenders, three of which were fielded in a fixed role playing a strict man-to-man marking system, plus an attacking centre-half, who would also act as a playmaker, in the middle of the field, who played the ball together with two midfield wings. The system was essentially a 1–3–3–3 formation, with the verouiller as the last player in front of the goalkeeper, and with the two outside forwards or wingers functioning as forwards high up the pitch (with the right winger sitting slightly further back), but who would often drop off into deeper midfield roles when possession was lost. The team would often sit back and defend during matches, which enabled them to overcome stronger teams or physically fitter opponents successfully. In his 2009 book Inverting the Pyramid, Jonathan Wilson notes that the: "verrou [...] is best understood as a development from the old 2–3–5 [...]. Rather than the centre-half dropping in between the two full-backs, as in the W-M, the two wing-halves fell back to flank them. They retained an attacking role, but their primary function was to combat the opposition wingers. The two full-backs then became in effect central defenders, playing initially almost alongside each other, although in practice, if the opposition attacked down their right, the left of the two would move towards the ball, with the right covering just behind, and vice versa. In theory, that always left them with a spare man–the verouller as the Swiss press of the time called him or the libro as he would become–at the back." Wilson notes that a weakness of the verrou system was that it placed excessive demands on the centre-half, as the player deployed in this role was required to attack and act as a playmaker when on the ball, while instead dropping back into the defence, acting almost as a centre-back, off the ball. However, with this system, Rappan won two league titles with Servette, and five more with Grasshopper, after joining the club in 1935. During his time with Soviet club Krylya Sovetov Kuybyshev in the 1940s, Alexander Kuzmich Abramov also used a similar defensive tactic known as the Volzhskaya Zashchepka, or the "Volga Clip." Unlike the verrou, his system was not as flexible, and was a development of the 3–2–5 or WM, rather than the 2–3–5, but it also featured one of the half-backs dropping deep; this allowed the defensive centre-half to sweep in behind the full-backs, essentially acting as a sweeper. In Spain, starting in the 1940s and reaching great success in the 1950s, Helenio Herrera developed an early version of his 1960s catenaccio. With Atlético Madrid (1949–1953), he won two consecutive league titles with a defence nicknamed "the Iron Curtain". He kept on developing his system later on in other Spanish clubs until reaching his well-known 5–3–2 formation when he went years later to Inter in Italy (see below). Italian Catenaccio also has its roots with Mario Villini of Triestina in 1941 season, Ottavio Barbieri of Spezia in the campionato Alta Italia 1944, Gipo Viani, of Salernitana in the 1948 season. "Mezzo sistema" was influenced by Rappan's verrou and originated from an idea that one of the club's players – altered the English WM system – known as the sistema in Italy – by having his centre-half-back – known as the centromediano metodista or "metodista," in Italy – retreat into the defensive line to act as an additional defender and mark an opposing centre-forward, instead leaving his full-back (which, at the time, was similar to the modern centre-back role) free to function as what was essentially a sweeper, or libero ("free," in Italian). Although this ultra-defensive strategy was initially criticised by members of the Italian press, including journalist Gianni Brera, Andrea Schianchi of La Gazzetta dello Sport notes that this modification was designed to help smaller teams in Italy, as the man–to–man system often put players directly against one another, favouring the larger and wealthier teams with stronger individual players. Ottavio Barbieri in the 1946 season had introduced the sweeper role to Italian football during his time as Genoa's manager. He was influenced by Rappan's verrou, and made several alterations to the English WM system or sistema, which led to his system being described as mezzosistema. Gipo Viani, after him, called this "Vianema". His system used a man-marking back-line, with three man-marking defenders and a full-back who was described as a terzino volante (or vagante, as noted at the time by former footballer and Gazzetta dello Sport journalist Renzo De Vecchi); the latter position was essentially a libero. The team's midfield played in a triangular shape, with the centre-half-back or "metodista" fielded in front of the back-line. His formation also made use of three forwards in attacking trident, but the right-sided winger was also tasked with assisting the midfield defensively, and therefore acted in the manner of a right-sided wide midfielder, known as the tornante in Italian football. Italian catenaccio In the 1950s, Nereo Rocco's Padova pioneered catenaccio in Italy where it would be used again by other Italian teams throughout the 1960s; his strategy was initially also known as the mezzosistema, as, like the vianema, it modified elements of the sistema. Rocco's tactic, often referred to as the real Catenaccio, was shown first in 1947 with Triestina: the most common mode of operation was a 1–3–3–3 formation with a strictly defensive team approach, while his team would look to score by starting quick counter-attacks with long balls after winning back possession. With catenaccio, Triestina finished the Serie A tournament in a surprising second place. Some variations include 1–4–4–1 and 1–4–3–2 formations. He later had great success with Milan using the catenaccio system during the 60s and 70s, winning several titles, including two Serie A titles, three Coppa Italia titles, two European Cups, two European Cup Winners' Cups, and an Intercontinental Cup. Alfredo Foni also used the catenaccio tactic successfully with Inter during the 1950s; unlike Rocco, however, the teams's strong defensive play off the ball did not limit the offensive manner in which his team played while in possession of the ball. In his system, his team's right winger, Gino Armano, would drop back to mark the opposing the team's left winger (essentially acting as a tornante, allowing Ivano Blason, the right-back, to shift across and act as a sweeper and clear balls away. Blason also played as a sweeper under Rocco; as such, he is often considered to be the first true sweeper in Italian football. The key innovation of Catenaccio was the introduction of the role of a libero ("free") defender, also called "sweeper", who was positioned behind a line of three defenders. The sweeper's role was to recover loose balls, nullify the opponent's striker and double-mark when necessary. Another important innovation was the counter-attack, mainly based on long passes from the defence. In Helenio Herrera's version of catenaccio in the 1960s, he used a 5–3–2 formation, in which four man-marking defenders were tightly assigned to the opposing attackers while an extra player, the sweeper, would pick up any loose ball that escaped the coverage of the defenders. The emphasis of this system in Italian football spawned the rise of many top Italian defenders who became known for their hard-tackling and ruthless defending. However, despite the defensive connotations, Herrera claimed shortly before his death that the system was more attacking than people remembered, saying 'the problem is that most of the people who copied me copied me wrongly. They forgot to include the attacking principles that my Catenaccio included. I had Picchi as a sweeper, yes, but I also had Facchetti, the first full back to score as many goals as a forward.' Indeed, although his Grande Inter side were known primarily for their defensive strength, they were equally renowned for their ability to score goals with few touches from fast, sudden counter-attacks, due to Herrera's innovative use of attacking, overlapping full-backs. Under Herrera, Inter enjoyed a highly successful spell, which saw them win three Serie A titles, two European Cups, and two Intercontinental Cups. Manager Ferruccio Valcareggi also used tactics inspired by the Italian catenaccio system, which was popularised by Inter manager Herrera during the 1960s, with the Italian national team, employing a sweeper behind two man–marking central defenders and a full-back, as well as a strategy which made use of heavy defending, focussing predominantly on stability, grinding out results while conceding few goals and defending narrow leads; although his tactics were controversial – in particular as during the 1970 World Cup in Mexico, he devised his infamous staffetta (relay) policy of playing one of his two star playmakers, Sandro Mazzola and Gianni Rivera, in each half, to avoid offsetting the defensive balance within his team – and not particularly exciting, they proved to be effective. Moreover, although at times he drew criticism in the Italian media over Italy's dull, slow gameplay and lack of goals, Italy also demonstrated their offensive capabilities throughout the tournament, as well as their technical capabilities, which enabled them to conserve energy and cope with the altitude in Mexico. He had a successful spell as Italy's manager, winning UEFA Euro 1968 on home soil, and leading Italy to the 1970 World Cup final. However, in the latter match, Italy suffered a heavy 4–1 defeat to a much more offensive minded and stylish Brazilian side. His team adopted a more attractive playing style in the lead-up to the 1974 World Cup, however, which saw them considered among the favourites to win, but suffered a surprising first-round elimination in the final tournament. Decline of catenaccio with the advent of total football, and the birth of zona mista Jock Stein's Celtic defeated the catenaccio system in the 1967 European Cup Final with a highly offensive strategy. They beat Herrera's Inter Milan 2–1 on 25 May 1967 creating the blue print for Rinus Michels' total football, a continuation of Stein's free flowing attacking football. Total Football, which was invented by Dutch manager Rinus Michels in the 1970s, exposed the weaknesses of the Catenaccio system. Unlike previous systems, in Total Football, no out–field player is fixed in their nominal role; anyone can assume in the field the duties of an attacker, a midfielder or a defender, depending on the play. Due to players often switching positions with one another, man-marking strategies, such as catenaccio, were no longer effective at coping with this fluid system. Despite previously losing out 4–1 to Milan in the 1969 European Cup Final, who were managed by Rocco, a manager known for his defensive catenaccio strategy, in 1972, Michels' Ajax defeated Inter 2–0 in the European Cup final, and Dutch newspapers announced the "destruction of Catenaccio" at the hands of Total Football. The following year, Ajax defeated Cesare Maldini's Milan 6–0 in the second leg of the European Super Cup, in a match in which the defensive catenaccio system employed by Milan was unable to stop Ajax, which saw the Dutch side win the title 6–1 on aggregate; this was the worst defeat for an Italian team in an UEFA competition final. As man-marking alone was insufficient to cope with the fluidity of total football, coaches consequently began to create a new tactical system that mixed man-marking with zonal defence in order to counter this strategy, which came to be known as zona mista ("mixed zone," in Italian), or gioco all'italiana ("gameplay in the Italian manner," in Italian), in Italian football, as it mixed elements of Italian catenaccio (man-marking) with elements of total football (zonal marking). Italian manager Giovanni Trapattoni, who had played under Rocco at Milan, and was initially influenced by Rocco's catenaccio system, was one of the main proponents of this system from the 1970s onwards, and used it to great success. Modern use of catenaccio Derivative defensive strategies Highly defensive structures with little attacking intent – which are colloquially often referred to as "anti-football" or "parking the bus" – are often arbitrarily and incorrectly labelled as Catenaccio, but this deviates from the original design of the system; while catenaccio was similarly an organised system that involved tactical discipline and deep, heavy, and patient defending off – or even behind – the ball, it also made use of a sweeper, who was tasked with protecting and back-line and also starting plays after winning back possession, as well as employing sudden counter–attacks to score goals. Italian football Although Catenaccio has still come to be associated with the Italian national side and Italian club teams, due to its historic association with Italian football, it is actually used quite infrequently by Serie A and Italian national teams in contemporary football, who instead currently prefer to apply balanced tactics and formations, mostly using the 5–3–2 or 3–5–2 system. For example, under manager Cesare Prandelli, the Italian national football team also initially used the 3–5–2 formation, which had been popularised by Juventus manager Antonio Conte throughout the previous Serie A season following his success in the league; although Prandelli used a ball–playing sweeper, he also used attacking wing-backs and a more offensive–minded approach with Italy. In their first two clashes of UEFA Euro 2012 Group C, the system resulted in two 1–1 draws against Spain and Croatia. He subsequently switched to a stylish attacking possession-based system using their 'standard' 4–4–2 diamond formation for the knockout stages; the switch proved to be effective, as the team went on to reach the final, where they suffered a 4–0 defeat to a similarly more offensive-minded Spanish side, who used a possession–based strategy based on passing known as tiki-taka. Rob Smyth of The Guardian was critical of Spain's striker–less formation and particular brand of tiki-taka at UEFA Euro 2012, however, believing that the lack of emphasis on the offensive aspect of the game led to fewer goals, and that the team's seemingly endless passing and preoccupation with ball–possession was in fact boring, dubbing it "Tiki-takanaccio," a reference to the defensive–minded catenaccio tactical system, despite the fact that tiki-taka had ironically originated from the more offensive minded Dutch total football strategy. Several of Italy's previous coaches, such as Cesare Maldini and Giovanni Trapattoni, used elements of catenaccio to a greater extent at international level, and both failed to go far in the tournaments in which they took part; under Maldini, Italy lost on penalties to hosts France in the 1998 FIFA World Cup quarter-finals, following a 0–0 draw, while Trapattoni lost early in the second round of the 2002 FIFA World Cup to co-hosts South Korea on a golden goal, and subsequently suffered a first-round elimination at UEFA Euro 2004. Other Italian managers have often deviated from the catenaccio system, despite still employing aspects of the strategy into their gameplay, and maintaining a strong defensive unit. While Dino Zoff's 5–2–1–2 system initially largely differed from the more defensive-minded approach of his predecessors who were in charge of the Italian national side, by introducing younger players and adopting a more attractive and offensive-minded approach, he also made use of a sweeper, a tight back-line, and put Catenaccio to good use for Italy in the semi-final of UEFA Euro 2000 against co-hosts Netherlands, when the team went down to ten men; despite coming under criticism in the media for his defensive playing style during the match, following a penalty shoot-out victory after a 0–0 draw, he secured a place in the final. In the final, Italy only lost on the golden goal rule to France. Previously, Azeglio Vicini, on the other hand, had led Italy to the semi-finals of both UEFA Euro 1988 and the 1990 FIFA World Cup, on home soil, thanks to a more attractive, offensive-minded possession based system, which was combined with a solid back-line and elements of the Italian zona mista ("mixed zone," in Italian) approach (or "Gioco all'Italiana"), which was a cross between zonal marking and man-marking systems, such as catenaccio. Despite their more aggressive attacking approach under Vicini during the latter tournament, Italy initially struggled in the first round, before recovering their form in the knock-out stages, and produced small wins in five hard-fought games against defensive sides, in which they scored little but risked even less, totalling only seven goals for and none against leading up to the semi-finals of the competition. Italy would then lose a tight semifinal on penalties following a 1–1 draw to Argentina, due in no small part to a more defensive strategy from Carlos Bilardo, who then went on to lose the final 1–0 to a much more offensive-minded Germany side led by manager Franz Beckenbauer. Italy then claimed the bronze medal match with a 2–1 victory over England. Vicini's successor as the Italian national side's manager, Arrigo Sacchi, also attempted to introduce his more attacking–minded tactical philosophy, which had been highly successful with Milan, to the Italian national team; his tactics, which were inspired by Dutch total football, made use of an aggressive high-pressing system, which used a 4–4–2 formation, an attractive, fast, attacking, and possession-based playing style, and which also used innovative elements such as zonal marking and a high defensive line playing the offside trap, which largely deviated from previous systems in Italian football, despite still maintaining defensive solidity. Italy initially struggled to replicate the system successfully, however, and encountered mixed results: under Sacchi, Italy reached the final of the 1994 FIFA World Cup after a slow start, only to lose on penalties following a 0–0 draw with a defensive–minded Brazilian side, but later also suffered a first-round exit at Euro 1996. Previously, at the 1978 FIFA World Cup, Enzo Bearzot's Italian side also often adopted an attractive, offensive-minded possession game based on passing, creativity, movement, attacking flair, and technique, due to the individual skill of his players; the front three would also often change positions with one another, in order to disorient the opposing defenders. Italy finished the tournament in fourth place, a result they replicated two years later at UEFA Euro 1980 on home soil. At the 1982 FIFA World Cup, he instead adopted a more flexible and balanced tactical approach, which was based on the zona mista system, and which used a fluid 4–3–3 formation, with Gaetano Scirea as a sweeper, who held both defensive and creative duties. While the team were organised and highly effective defensively, they were also capable of getting forward and scoring from quick counter-attacks, or keeping possession when necessary. The system proved to be highly effective as Italy went on to win the title. Bearzot's Italy side were also known for their solidity, aggression, and defensive strength, possessing a number of hard–tackling players in their team, such as midfielder Marco Tardelli, and defenders Claudio Gentile and Giuseppe Bergomi. Gentile, who served as the team's stopper, or man-marking centre-back, gained a degree of infamy in the media for his highly physical man-marking of Diego Maradona in Italy's second-round match against Argentina; although controversial, the strategy proved to be effective as Gentile essentially nullified the Argentine playmaker's impact on the game, with Italy winning the match 2–1. Similarly, although Italy successfully used a more offensive-minded approach under manager Marcello Lippi during the 2006 FIFA World Cup, which saw a record ten of the team's 23 players find the back of the net, with the side scoring 12 goals in total as they went on to claim the title, the team's organised back-line only conceded two goals, neither of which came in open play. Notwithstanding their more attacking minded playing style throughout the tournament, when Italy was reduced to ten men in the 50th minute of the 2nd round match against Australia, following Marco Materazzi's red card, coach Lippi changed the Italians' formation to a defensive orientation which caused the British newspaper The Guardian to note that "the timidity of Italy's approach had made it seem that Helenio Herrera, the high priest of Catenaccio, had taken possession of the soul of Marcello Lippi." The ten-man team was playing with a 4–3–2 scheme, just a midfielder away from the team's regular 4–4–2 system. In a tightly-contested match, Italy went on to keep a clean sheet and earned a 1–0 victory through a controversial injury-time penalty. Other examples However, Catenaccio in its purer form has also had its share of success stories in recent years. German coach Otto Rehhagel used a similarly defensive approach for his Greece side in UEFA Euro 2004, with the team defending deeply behind the ball, and putting pressure on their opponents, while Traianos Dellas operated as a sweeper behind the back-line. Under Rehhagel, Greece surprisingly went on to win the tournament, despite Greece being considered as underdogs prior to the competition. Despite strong emphasis on defence, only one Greek game went into extra time, which the Greeks won with a silver goal by Traianos Dellas. Trapattoni himself also successfully employed aspects of the system in securing a Portuguese Liga title with Benfica in 2005 – the club's first in 11 years – and had also successfully used elements of the strategy in his gioco all'Italiana or zona mista tactical system with several Italian clubs throughout his career, which blended aspects of zonal marking from Dutch total football with aspects of man-marking found in Italian catenaccio. In contrast to previous editions of the tournament, during the 2018 FIFA World Cup, several teams found success against opponents who dominated possession by adopting a more defensive style and instead maintaining a deep, disciplined, and narrow defensive line, while also looking to score on counter-attacks. Legacy Although pure catenaccio is no longer as commonplace in Italian football, the stereotypical association of ruthless defensive tactics with the Serie A and the Italian national team continues to be perpetuated by foreign media, particularly with the predominantly Italian defences of A.C. Milan of the 1990s and Juventus from the 2010s onwards being in the spotlight. Rob Bagchi wrote in British newspaper The Guardian: "Italy has also produced defenders with a surplus of ability, composure and intelligence. For every Gentile there was an Alessandro Nesta." Critics and foreign footballers who have played in the Serie A have described Italian defenders as being "masters of the dark arts" motivated by a Machiavellian philosophy of winning a game at all costs by cunning and calculating methods. Historian John Foot summed up the mentality: "...the tactics are a combination of subtlety and brutality. [...] The 'tactical foul' is a way of life for Italian defenders". See also Zona mista Formation (association football) Football tactics and skills Total Football Anti-football Marking (association football) References Notes Giulianotti, Richard, Football: A Sociology of the Global Game. London: Polity Press 2000. 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229998	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kopete	Kopete	Kopete is a multi-protocol, free software instant messaging client released as part of the KDE Software Compilation. Although it can run in numerous environments, it was designed for and integrates with the KDE Plasma Workspaces. Kopete was started because ICQ blocked Licq from their network in 2001. According to the original author, Duncan Mac-Vicar Prett, the name comes from the Chilean Spanish word copete, meaning "a drink with your friends". Kopete has been nominated for multiple awards. The designated successor is KDE Telepathy from the KDE RTCC Initiative. Protocols Kopete allows users to connect to the following protocols: MSNP (Microsoft Messenger service, commonly known as MSN, .NET, or Live) was also supported until the protocol was discontinued by Microsoft. Features Plugins By default, Kopete supports the following plugins (not all of which are currently functional): With third-party plugins, Kopete supports: Off-the-Record Messaging enabling for encrypted conversations with deniable authentication and perfect forward secrecy. Antispam by asking a simple question to unknown contacts. OpenPGP cryptography is available from the Debian package kopete-cryptography. See also Comparison of instant messaging clients Comparison of instant messaging protocols Comparison of Internet Relay Chat clients Kadu Konversation References Notes External links Old official website (archived) 2010 software AIM (software) clients Free instant messaging clients Free Internet Relay Chat clients Free XMPP clients Instant messaging clients that use Qt Internet Relay Chat clients KDE Applications Videoconferencing software that uses Qt Voice over IP clients that use Qt Yahoo! instant messaging clients	[ -0.16388960182666779, 0.17199915647506714, -0.23256170749664307, 0.22244411706924438, -0.4860673248767853, 0.0023106150329113007, 0.260107159614563, 0.16836178302764893, -0.020957816392183304, 0.03277680277824402, -0.5129422545433044, 0.20800015330314636, -0.5485362410545349, 0.08601705729961395, -0.048081591725349426, -0.5084378719329834, 0.5349096059799194, 0.5877728462219238, -0.2001614272594452, -0.4301103949546814, -0.09980621188879013, -0.3920762538909912, 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230000	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rensis%20Likert	Rensis Likert	Rensis Likert ( ; August 5, 1903 in Cheyenne, Wyoming, US, to September 3, 1981 in Ann Arbor, Michigan) was an American social psychologist principally known for developing the Likert scale, an approach to creating a psychometrically sound scale based on responses to multiple questions or "items." The scale has become a time-honored way to measure people's thoughts and feelings from opinion surveys to personality tests. In 1926, Likert earned a B.A. in Economics and Sociology from the University of Michigan; in 1932 he earned a Ph.D. in Psychology from Columbia University. He went on to work for the U.S. Department of Agriculture until 1946, when, amidst World War II, he came to work for the Office of War Information (OWI). At the OWI, he was appointed head of the United States Strategic Bombing Survey Morale Division (USSBS) in 1944. After retiring at the age of 67, he formed Rensis Likert Associates, an institution that based its ideas on his theories of management in organizational psychology. He wrote many books about management, conflict, and behavioral research applications. His works include "Human Organization: Its Management and Value" (1967) and "New Ways of Managing Conflict" (1976). Likert's contributions to business management helped managers organize subordinates more effectively. Likert also founded the theory of participative management, used to engage employees in the workplace and ultimately let them to enjoy their jobs more. Likert's contributions in psychometrics, research samples, and more (including open-ended interviewing) have helped form and shape current social and organizational psychology. Early life and personal life Rensis Likert was born in 1903 to George Herbert Likert and Cornelia Adrianna (Cora) Likert in Cheyenne, Wyoming. Influenced by his father, an engineer with the Union Pacific Railroad, Likert studied civil engineering at the University of Michigan in Ann Arbor for three years. He worked as an intern with the Union Pacific Railroad during the watershed 1922 strike, which sparked his interest in studying organizational behavior. Likert switched from studying civil engineering to economics and sociology at the University of Michigan, because of an influential professor Robert Angell. Likert received a B.A. in sociology in 1926. Upon graduation, he studied at the Union Theological Seminary for a year. He then went on to earn a Ph.D. in psychology at Columbia University in 1932. While studying at Columbia University, he approached the discipline of social psychology, a nascent field at the time. Amidst his work, he co-authoring a book, "Public Opinion and the Individual" (1938) with his mentor at Columbia, Gardner Murphy. Likert married Jane Gibson while at Columbia University; they had met at the University of Michigan. They had two daughters: Elizabeth and Patricia. In 1969, Likert retired as Director of the Institute for Social Research. He and his wife moved to Honolulu, Hawaii, where he continued on with his work by forming Rensis Likert Associates. Likert died at 78 years of age on September 3, 1981, in Ann Arbor, Michigan. He was survived by his wife, Jane Gibson (3 June 1902 – 19 November 1997). Career Life Insurance Agency Management Association In 1935, Likert became Director of Research for the Life Insurance Agency Management Association (LIAMA) in Hartford, Connecticut. While there, Likert began a research program to compare and evaluate the effectiveness of different modes of supervision. United States Department of Agriculture In 1939, Likert was invited to organize the Division of Program Surveys (DPS) at the Bureau of Agriculture Statistics (BAS). Its purpose was to gather farmers' thoughts about USDA-sponsored New Deal programs and to confront the effects of the Great Depression. Soon after, it was used in other government agencies during WWII, such as the U.S. Treasury Department, the Federal Reserve Board, the Office of War Information, and the U.S. Strategic Bombing Survey. Likert continued to recruit other social psychologists into his growing government survey department. During World War II, as Director of the Program Surveys Division in the U.S. Department of Agriculture's Bureau of Agricultural Economics (B.A.E.), Likert ran surveys first for U.S.D.A. but, as the war progressed, the Division ran surveys for many different governmental agencies including the Office of War Information, the U.S. Department of the Treasury, the Federal Reserve Board and, in 1944–45, the U.S. Strategic Bombing Survey. In 1943, he developed the first national geographic sampling frame. Likert, although not at a university at the time, was actively recruiting other social psychologists into his expanding government survey shop during the war. Institute for Social Research At war's end, the Department of Agriculture were forced by conservative Congressmen to stop its social survey work. Likert and his team (many of them academics on temporary wartime duty) decided to move together to a university. After scouting Cornell and Chicago, they accepted an offer in summer 1946 from the University of Michigan. They formed the Survey Research Center (SRC) at the University of Michigan. This became the Institute for Social Research (ISR) in 1949 when Dorwin Cartwright moved the Center for Group Dynamics from MIT to the University of Michigan. Likert was the director of ISR until 1970, when he retired. Rensis Likert Associates Upon retirement, he founded Rensis Likert Associates to consult for numerous corporations. He also helped start what is now known as the Institute for Corporate Productivity. During his tenure, Likert devoted particular attention to research on organizations. During the 1960s and 1970s, his books on management theory were closely studied in Japan and their impact can be seen across modern Japanese organizations. He did research on major corporations around the world, and his studies have accurately predicted the subsequent performance of the corporations. Contributions Open-ended interviewing Likert contributed to the field of psychometrics by developing open-ended interviewing, a technique used to collect information about a person's thoughts, experience, and preferences. It was common in the 1930s for researchers to use objective, closed-ended questions in order for the coding process to be valid. While this technique was used well in many domains, Likert saw the need for more opportunity to ask people about their attitudes towards various issues. Within open-ended interviewing, he and his colleagues invented the "funneling technique", which is a way to keep the interview open for comments, but directed in a specific way. The interview would begin with the open-ended questions, but gradually move into more narrowed questions. Open-ended interviewing is highly used today in research studies when there is a need to understand people's attitudes. Likert scale The method of creating a Likert scale is Rensis Likert's best-known contribution. He devised the method in 1932 as a part of his Ph.D. thesis as a way to identify the extent of a person's attitudes and feelings towards international affairs. The Likert scale is useful in conducting surveys, with applications to business-related areas such as marketing or customer satisfaction, the social sciences and attitude-related research projects. A Likert scale consists of the sum or average of scores from responses to a group of survey questions ("items"). Those individual-item scores are combined into a scale score according to specific psychometric methods. Management systems Likert's management systems are management styles developed by Rensis Likert in the 1950s. He outlined four systems of management to describe the relationship, involvement, and roles of managers and subordinates in industrial settings. The four management systems are: Exploitative Authoritative Benevolent Authoritative Consultative System Participative System. Professional achievements President, American Statistical Association 1959 Developed scales for attitude measurement Development of Likert Scale (1932) Appointed head of the United States Strategic Bombing Survey Morale Division (USSBS) (1944) Fellow of the American Statistical Association (1949) Honorary Degree, Tilburg University, the Netherlands (1967) Developed Open-ended Interviewing Funneling Technique for interviewing Introduced Participative management Books The following are books that Rensis Likert authored, or contributed to: A Method for Coping with Conflict in Problem Solving Groups (1978) New Ways of Managing Conflict (1976) (with Jane Gibson Likert) Human Organization : Its Management and Value (1967) New Patterns of Management (1961) The Presidents Column (1959) Developing patterns in management (American Management Association, 1955) Technique for the Measurement of Professional Attitudes (1932) Co-editor: Some applications of Behavioral Research (1957) Moral and Agency Management (1940-1944) Public Opinion and the Individual (1938) References Further reading Brewer, J. D. (1968). Review of The Human Organization. American Sociological Review, 33(5), 825-826 Converse, Jean M. (1987) Survey Research in the United States: Roots and Emergence 1890-1960 (U of California Press) Effrat, A. (1968). Review: Democratizing and Producing. Science, 162(3859), 1260–1261. Hall, J. W. (1972). A Comparison of Halpin and Croft's Organizational Climates and Likert and Likert's Organizational Systems. Administrative Science Quarterly, 17(4), 586–590. Huczynski, A.A. and Buchanan, D.A. (2007). Organizational Behaviour''. 6th Edition, Pearson Education. 1903 births 1981 deaths American statisticians Public administration scholars Columbia University alumni University of Michigan College of Literature, Science, and the Arts alumni 20th-century American mathematicians Fellows of the American Statistical Association Presidents of the American Statistical Association Mathematicians from Wyoming	[ 0.056641899049282074, 0.3937554657459259, -0.5670647025108337, 0.27927032113075256, -0.2193918526172638, 0.8430851697921753, 0.704055905342102, -0.05468347668647766, 0.08128433674573898, 0.04514449089765549, 0.0715794637799263, 0.3661532402038574, -0.16680310666561127, 0.31554126739501953, -0.37690043449401855, -0.14866919815540314, 0.3270489275455475, -0.18614372611045837, -0.37201642990112305, -0.06355200707912445, -0.39163702726364136, -0.42802464962005615, 0.3300577700138092, -0.37612029910087585, 0.20025452971458435, 0.3206862509250641, 0.24205540120601654, -0.22161884605884552, 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230004	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scratching	Scratching	Scratching, sometimes referred to as scrubbing, is a DJ and turntablist technique of moving a vinyl record back and forth on a turntable to produce percussive or rhythmic sounds. A crossfader on a DJ mixer may be used to fade between two records simultaneously. While scratching is most associated with hip hop music, where it emerged in the mid-1970s, from the 1990s it has been used in some styles of rap rock, rap metal and nu metal. In hip hop culture, scratching is one of the measures of a DJ's skills. DJs compete in scratching competitions at the DMC World DJ Championships and IDA (International DJ Association), formerly known as ITF (International Turntablist Federation). At scratching competitions, DJs can use only scratch-oriented gear (turntables, DJ mixer, digital vinyl systems or vinyl records only). In recorded hip hop songs, scratched "hooks" often use portions of other songs. History Precursors A rudimentary form of turntable manipulation which is related to scratching was developed in the late 1940s by radio music program hosts, disc jockeys (DJs), or the radio program producers who did their own technical operation as audio console operators. It was known as back-cueing, and was used to find the very beginning of the start of a song (i.e., the cue point) on a vinyl record groove. This was done to permit the operator to back the disc up (rotate the record or the turntable platter itself counter-clockwise) in order to permit the turntable to be switched on, and come up to full speed without ruining the first few bars of music with the "wow" of incorrect, unnaturally slow-speed playing. This permitted the announcer to time their remarks, and start the turntable in time for when they wanted the music on the record to begin. Back cueing was a basic skill that all radio production staff needed to learn, and the dynamics of it were unique to the brand of professional turntable in use at a given radio station. The older, larger and heavier turntables needed a 180 degree backward rotation to allow for run up to full speed; some of the newer 1950s models used aluminum platters and cloth-backed rubber mats which required a third of a rotational turn or less to achieve full speed when the song began. All this was done in order to present a music show on air with the least amount of silence ("dead air") between music, the announcer's patter and recorded advertising commercials. The rationale was that any "dead air" on a radio station was likely to prompt a listener to switch stations, so announcers and program directors instructed DJs and announcers to provide a continuous, seamless stream of sound–from music to an announcer to a pre-recorded commercial, to a "jingle" (radio station theme song), and then immediately back to more music. Back-cueing was a key function in delivering this seamless stream of music. Radio personnel demanded robust equipment and manufacturers developed special tonearms, styli, cartridges and lightweight turntables to meet these demands. Turntablism Modern scratching techniques were made possible by the invention of direct-drive turntables, which led to the emergence of turntablism. Early belt-drive turntables were unsuitable for scratching, since they had a slow start-up time, and they were prone to wear-and-tear and breakage, as the belt would break from backspinning or scratching. The first direct-drive turntable was invented by Shuichi Obata, an engineer at Matsushita (now Panasonic), based in Osaka, Japan. It eliminated belts, and instead employed a motor to directly drive a platter on which a vinyl record rests. In 1969, Matsushita released it as the SP-10, the first direct-drive turntable on the market, and the first in their influential Technics series of turntables. In the 1970s, hip hop musicians and club DJs began to use this specialized turntable equipment to move the record back and forth, creating percussive sounds and effects–"scratching"–to entertain their dance floor audiences. Whereas the 1940s–1960s radio DJs had used back-cueing while listening to the sounds through their headphones, without the audience hearing, with scratching, the DJ intentionally lets the audience hear the sounds that are being created by manipulating the record on the turntable, by directing the output from the turntable to a sound reinforcement system so that the audience can hear the sounds. Scratching was developed by early hip hop DJs from New York City such as Grand Wizzard Theodore, who described scratching as, "nothing but the back-cueing that you hear in your ear before you push it [the recorded sound] out to the crowd." He developed the technique when experimenting with the Technics SL-1200, a direct-drive turntable released by Matsushita in 1972 when he found that the motor would continue to spin at the correct RPM even if the DJ wiggled the record back and forth on the platter. Afrika Bambaataa made a similar discovery with the SL-1200 in the 1970s. The Technics SL-1200 went on to become the most widely used turntable for the next several decades. Jamaican-born DJ Kool Herc, who immigrated to New York City, influenced the early development of scratching. Kool Herc developed break-beat DJing, where the breaks of funk songs—being the most danceable part, often featuring percussion—were isolated and repeated for the purpose of all-night dance parties. He was influenced by Jamaican dub music, and developed his turntable techniques using the Technics SL-1100, released in 1971, due to its strong motor, durability, and fidelity. Although previous artists such as writer and poet William S. Burroughs had experimented with the idea of manipulating a reel-to-reel tape manually to make sounds, as with his 1950s recording, "Sound Piece"), vinyl scratching as an element of hip hop pioneered the idea of making the sound an integral and rhythmic part of music instead of an uncontrolled noise. Scratching is related to "scrubbing" (in terms of audio editing and production) when the reels of an open reel-to-reel tape deck (typically 1/4 inch magnetic audiotape) are gently rotated back and forth while the playback head is live and amplified, to isolate a specific spot on the tape where an editing "cut" is to be made. In the 2010s, both scratching and scrubbing can be done on digital audio workstations (DAWs) which are equipped for these techniques. Christian Marclay was one of the earliest musicians to scratch outside hip hop. In the mid-1970s, Marclay used gramophone records and turntables as musical instruments to create sound collages. He developed his turntable sounds independently of hip hop DJs. Although he is little-known to mainstream audiences, Marclay has been described as "the most influential turntable figure outside hip hop" and the "unwitting inventor of turntablism." In 1981 Grandmaster Flash released the song "The Adventures of Grandmaster Flash on the Wheels of Steel" which is notable for its use of many DJ scratching techniques. It was the first commercial recording produced entirely using turntables. In 1982, Malcolm McLaren & the World's Famous Supreme Team released a single "Buffalo Gals", juxtaposing extensive scratching with calls from square dancing, and, in 1983, the EP, D'ya Like Scratchin'?, which is entirely focused on scratching. Another 1983 release to prominently feature scratching is Herbie Hancock's Grammy Award-winning single "Rockit". This song was also performed live at the 1984 Grammy Awards, and in the documentary film Scratch, the performance is cited by many 1980s-era DJs as their first exposure to scratching. The Street Sounds Electro compilation series which started in 1983 is also notable for early examples of scratching. Also, a notable piece was "For A Few Dollars More" by Bill Laswell-Michael Beinhorn band Material, released on 12" single in Japan and containing scratch performed by Grand Mixer DXT, another pioneer of scratching. Basic techniques Vinyl recordings Most scratches are produced by rotating a vinyl record on a direct drive turntable rapidly back and forth with the hand with the stylus ("needle") in the record's groove. This produces the distinctive sound that has come to be one of the most recognizable features of hip hop music. Over time with excessive scratching, the stylus will cause what is referred to as "cue burn", or "record burn". The basic equipment setup for scratching includes two turntables and a DJ mixer, which is a small mixer that has a crossfader and cue buttons to allow the DJ to cue up new music in their headphones without the audience hearing. When scratching, this crossfader is utilized in conjunction with the scratching hand that is manipulating the record platter. The hand manipulating the crossfader is used to cut in and out of the record's sound. Digital vinyl systems Using a digital vinyl system (DVS) consists of playing vinyl discs on turntables whose contents is a timecode signal instead of a real music record. The turntables' audio outputs are connected to the audio inputs of a computer audio interface. The audio interface digitizes the timecode signal from the turntables and transfers it to the computer's DJ software. The DJ software uses this data (e.g., about how fast the platter is spinning) to determine the playback status, speed, scratch sound of the hardware turntables, etc., and it duplicates these effects on the digital audio files or computer tracks the DJ is using. By manipulating the turntables' platters, speed controls, and other elements, the DJ thus controls how the computer plays back digitized audio and can therefore produce "scratching" and other turntablism effects on songs which exist as digital audio files or computer tracks. There is not a single standard of DVS, so that each form of DJ software has its own settings. Some DJ software such as Traktor Scratch Pro or Serato Scratch Live support only the audio interface sold with their software, requiring multiple interfaces for one computer to run multiple programs. Some digital vinyl systems software include: Traktor Scratch Pro Cross DVS Virtual DJ Pro Serato Scratch Live M-Audio Torq Deckadance Xwax Non-vinyl scratching While some turntablists consider the only true scratching media to be the vinyl disc, there are other ways to scratch, as: Specialized DJ-CD players (CDJ) with jog wheels, allowing the DJ to manipulate a CD as if it were a vinyl record, have become widely available in the 2000s. A vinyl emulation is an emulation software, which may be combined with hardware elements, which allows a DJ to manipulate the playback of digital music files on a computer via a DJ control surface (generally MIDI or a HID controller). DJs can scratch, beatmatch, and perform other turntablist operations that cannot be done with a conventional keyboard and mouse. DJ software performing computer scratch operations include Traktor Pro, Mixxx, Serato Scratch Live & Itch, Virtual DJ, M-Audio Torq, DJay, Deckadance, Cross. DJs have also used magnetic tape, such as cassette or reel to reel to both mix and scratch. Tape DJing is rare, but Ruthless Ramsey in the US, TJ Scratchavite in Italy and Mr Tape in Latvia use exclusively tape formats to perform. Sounds Sounds that are frequently scratched include but are not limited to drum beats, horn stabs, spoken word samples, and vocals/lyrics from other songs. Any sound recorded to vinyl can be used, and CD players providing a turntable-like interface allow DJs to scratch not only material that was never released on vinyl, but also field recordings and samples from television and movies that have been burned to CD-R. Some DJs and anonymous collectors release 12-inch singles called battle records that include trademark, novel or hard-to-find scratch "fodder" (material). The most recognizable samples used for scratching are the "Ahh" and "Fresh" samples, which originate from the song "Change the Beat" by Fab 5 Freddy. There are many scratching techniques, which differ in how the movements of the record are combined with opening and closing the crossfader (or another fader or switch, such as a kill switch, where "open" means that the signal is audible, and "closed" means that the signal is inaudible). This terminology is not unique; the following discussion, however, is consistent with the terminology used by DJ QBert on his Do It Yourself Scratching DVD. Sophisticated techniques Baby scratch - The simplest scratch form, it is performed with the scratching hand only, moving the record back and forth in continuous movements while the crossfader is in the open position. Forward and backward scratch - The forward scratch, also referred to as scrubbing, is a baby scratch where the crossfader is closed during the backwards movement of the record. If the record is let go instead of being pushed forward it is also called "release scratch". Cutting out the forward part of the record movement instead of the backward part gives a "backward scratch". Tear scratch - Tear scratches are scratches where the record is moved in a staggered fashion, dividing the forward and backward movement into two or more movements. This allows creating sounds similar to "flare scratches" without use of the crossfader and it allows for more complex rhythmic patterns. The term can also refer to a simpler, slower version of the chirp. Scribble scratch - The scribble scratch is by rapidly pushing the record back and forth. The crossfader is not used. Chirp scratch - The chirp scratch involves closing the crossfader just after playing the start of a sound, stopping the record at the same point, then pushing it back while opening the fader to create a "chirping" sound. When performed using a recording of drums, it can create the illusion of doubled scratching speed, due to the attack created by cutting in the crossfader on the backward movement. Hydrophonic scratch - A baby scratch with a "tear scratch" sound produced by the thumb running the opposite direction as the fingers used to scratch. This rubbing of the thumb adds a vibrating effect or reverberation to forward movements on the turntable. Transformer scratch - with the crossfader closed, the record is moved with the scratching hand while periodically "tapping" the crossfader open and immediately closing it again. Flare scratch - Begins with the crossfader open, and then the record is moved while briefly closing the fader one or more times to cut the sound out. This produces a staggering sound which can make a single "flare" sound like a very fast series of "chirps" or "tears." The number of times the fader is closed ("clicks") during the record's movement is usually used as a prefix to distinguish the variations. The flare allows a DJ to scratch continuously with less hand fatigue than would result from the transformer. The flare can be combined with the crab for an extremely rapid continuous series of scratches. Crab scratch - Consists of moving the record while quickly tapping the crossfader open with each finger of the crossfader hand. In this way, DJs are able to perform transforms or flares much faster than they could by manipulating the crossfader with the whole hand. It produces a fading/increasing transforming sound. Twiddle scratch - A crab scratch using only the index and middle fingers. Orbit scratch - Describes any scratch, most commonly flares, that are repeated during the forward and backward movement of the record. "Orbit" is also used as a shorthand for two-click flares. Tweak scratch - Performed while the turntable's motor is not running. The record platter is set in motion manually, then "tweaked" faster and slower to create a scratch. This scratch form is best performed with long, sustained sounds. Euro scratch - A variation of the "flare scratch" in which two faders are used simultaneously with one hand to cut the sound much faster. It can also be performed by using only the up fader and the phono line switch to cut the sound. Subculture While scratching is becoming more and more popular in pop music, particularly with the crossover success of pop-hip hop tracks in the 2010s, sophisticated scratching and other expert turntablism techniques are still predominantly an underground style developed by the DJ subculture. The Invisibl Skratch Piklz from San Francisco focuses on scratching. In 1994, the group was formed by DJs Q-Bert, Disk & Shortkut and later Mix Master Mike. In July 2000, San Francisco's Yerba Buena Center for the Arts held Skratchcon2000, the first DJ Skratch forum that provided “the education and development of skratch music literacy”. In 2001, Thud Rumble became an independent company that works with DJ artists to produce and distribute scratch records. In 2004, Scratch Magazine, one of the first publications about hip hop DJs and record producers, released its debut issue, following in the footsteps of the lesser-known Tablist magazine. Pedestrian is a UK arts organisation that runs Urban Music Mentors workshops led by DJs. At these workshops, DJs teach youth how to create beats, use turntables to create mixes, act as an MC at events, and perform club sets. Use outside hip hop Scratching has been incorporated into a number of other musical genres, including pop, rock, jazz, some subgenres of heavy metal (notably nu metal) and some contemporary and avant-garde classical music performances. For recording use, samplers are often used instead of physically scratching a vinyl record. DJ Product©1969, formerly of the rap rock band Hed PE, recalled that the punk rock band the Vandals was the first rock band he remembered seeing use turntable scratching. Product©1969 also recalled the early rap metal band Proper Grounds, which was signed to Madonna's Maverick Records, as being another one of the first rock bands to utilize scratching in their music. Guitarist Tom Morello, known for his work with Rage Against the Machine and Audioslave, has performed guitar solos that imitate scratching by using the kill switch on his guitar. Perhaps the best-known example is "Bulls on Parade", in which he creates scratch-like rhythmic sounds by rubbing the strings over the pick-ups while using the pickup selector switch as a crossfader. Since the 1990s, scratching has been used in a variety of popular music genres such as nu metal, exemplified by Linkin Park, Slipknot and Limp Bizkit. It has also been used by artists in pop music (e.g. Nelly Furtado) and alternative rock (e.g. Incubus). Scratching is also popular in various electronic music styles, such as techno. See also List of turntablists Tape-bow violin Vinyl emulation software Sources Allmusic's Grand Wizard Theodore biography (also at Artist Direct) DJ Grandmaster Flash quoted in Toop, David (1991). Rap Attack 2, 65. New York: Serpent's Tail. . 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