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230007 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thomas%20Cubitt | Thomas Cubitt | Thomas Cubitt (25 February 1788 – 20 December 1855) was a British master builder, notable for his employment in developing many of the historic streets and squares of London, especially in Belgravia, Pimlico and Bloomsbury.
Background
The son of a Norfolk carpenter, he journeyed to India as ship's carpenter from which he earned sufficient funds to start his own building firm in 1810 on Gray's Inn Road, London where he was one of the first builders to have a 'modern' system of employing all the trades under his own management.
Work
Cubitt's first major building was the London Institution in Finsbury Circus, built in 1815. After this he worked primarily on speculative housing at Camden Town, Islington, and especially at Highbury Park, Stoke Newington (now part of Hackney).
His development of areas of Bloomsbury, including Gordon Square and Tavistock Square, began in 1820, for a group of landowners including the Duke of Bedford.
He was commissioned in 1824 by Richard Grosvenor, 2nd Marquess of Westminster, to create a great swathe of building in Belgravia centred on Belgrave Square and Pimlico, in what was to become his greatest achievement in London. Notable amongst this development are the north and west sides of Eaton Square, which exemplify Cubitt's style of building and design.
After Cubitt's workshops in Thames Bank were destroyed by fire, he remarked "Tell the men they shall be at work within a week, and I will subscribe £600 towards buying them new tools."
Cubitt was also responsible for the east front of Buckingham Palace. He also built and personally funded nearly a kilometre of the Thames Embankment. He was employed in the large development of Kemp Town in Brighton, and Osborne House on the Isle of Wight, completed in 1851. Cubitt's public works included the provision of public parks, including being an organiser of the Battersea Park Scheme.
In 1827 he withdrew from the management of his Gray's Inn Road concern leaving this to his brother William Cubitt; the firm of Cubitts still carried out the work of Thomas Cubitt and the change robbed neither partner of the credit for their work.
Family
Cubitt had two brothers, the contractor and politician William and the civil engineer Lewis who designed many houses built by Thomas.
Cubitt married Mary Anne Warner, having son George, and daughters Ann and Mary. His son George was a politician, created Baron Ashcombe in 1892.
Thomas Cubitt is a great-great-great-grandfather of Camilla, Duchess of Cornwall.
Legacy
Cubitt died in 1855 and was taken from Dorking for burial at West Norwood Cemetery on 27 December 1855.
After his death, Queen Victoria said, "In his sphere of life, with the immense business he had in hand, he is a real national loss. A better, kindhearted or more simple, unassuming man never breathed."
Another statue of Cubitt can be seen in Dorking, opposite the Dorking Halls, as he was favoured there for his architecture on his Denbies estate.
In 1883 the business was acquired by Holland & Hannen, a leading competitor, which combination became known as Holland & Hannen and Cubitts, later Holland, Hannen & Cubitts.
Restaurants, pubs and other places have been named in his honour.
References and footnotes
Footnotes
Citations
1788 births
1855 deaths
Burials at West Norwood Cemetery
English carpenters
British builders
Architects from Norfolk
Italianate architecture in the United Kingdom
People from Broadland (district)
People from Dorking
Thomas
19th-century British businesspeople | [
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230012 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dactylopteridae | Dactylopteridae | The flying gurnards are a family, Dactylopteridae, of marine fish notable for their greatly enlarged pectoral fins. As they cannot literally fly or glide in the air (like flying fish), an alternative name preferred by some authors is helmet gurnards. They have been regarded as the only family in the suborder Dactylopteroidei of the Scorpaeniformes but more recent molecular classifications put them in the order Syngnathiformes, in the superfamily Centriscoidea.
They have been observed to "walk" along sandy sea floors while looking for crustaceans, other small invertebrates and small fish by using their pelvic fins. Like the true gurnards (sea robins), to which they may be related, they possess a swim bladder with two lobes and a "drumming muscle" that can beat against the swim bladder to produce sounds. They have heavy, protective scales and the undersides of their huge pectoral fins are brightly coloured, perhaps to startle predators.
Most species are in the Indo-Pacific genus Dactyloptena, but the single member of Dactylopterus is from warmer parts of the Atlantic. The adults live on the sea bottom, but many species have an extended larval stage, which floats freely in the oceans.
Taxonomy
Morphological traits uniting the flying gurnards (Dactylopteridae) and the Syngnathiformes have long been noted. Most authors placed them with the Scorpaeniformes, but DNA sequence data quite consistently support the view that the latter are paraphyletic with the Gasterosteiformes sensu lato. Flying gurnards are particularly close to the Aulostomidae (trumpetfish) and Fistulariidae (cornetfish), and would have to be included with these.
See also
List of fish families
References
External links
FishBase entry for Dactylopteridae
Photos of the Oriental Flying Gurnard (Oriental Searobin, Helmet Gurnard)
Video of a Flying Gurnard from Wakatobi, Indonesia
Marine fish families
Taxa named by Constantine Samuel Rafinesque | [
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230014 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/NI%20Railways | NI Railways | NI Railways, also known as Northern Ireland Railways (NIR) and for a brief period Ulster Transport Railways (UTR), is the railway operator in Northern Ireland. NIR is a subsidiary of Translink, whose parent company is the Northern Ireland Transport Holding Company (NITHCo), and is one of six publicly-owned train operators in the United Kingdom, the others being Direct Rail Services, Northern Trains, Transport for Wales Rail, Southeastern, and LNER. It has a common Board of Management with the other two companies in the group, Ulsterbus and Metro (formerly Citybus).
The rail network in Northern Ireland is not part of the National Rail network of Great Britain, nor does it use Standard Gauge, instead using Irish Gauge in common with the rest of Ireland. Also, NIR is the only commercial non-heritage passenger operator in the United Kingdom to operate a vertical integration model, with responsibility of all aspects of the network including running trains, maintaining rolling stock and infrastructure, and pricing. However, since the Single European Railway Directive 2012, the company has allowed open access operations by other rail operators. In 2019, NI Railways carried over 15 million passengers.
NIR jointly runs the Enterprise train service between Belfast and Dublin with Iarnród Éireann. There is no link to the rail system in Great Britain; proposals have been made, but allowances would have to be made for the different rail gauge (standard gauge) in use in Britain and Ireland (Irish gauge).
History
From the early 20th century until 1948, the three main railway companies in Northern Ireland were the Great Northern Railway Ireland (GNRI), which had around one half of its network north of the border; the Northern Counties Committee (NCC), owned by the Midland Railway of England and later the London, Midland and Scottish Railway (LMS); and the small Belfast and County Down Railway (BCDR). The Transport Act (Northern Ireland) 1948 created the Ulster Transport Authority (UTA), which took over the BCDR later that year, followed by the NCC in 1949 as a result of the Ireland Act 1949. In 1958, the GNRI was dissolved and its lines north of the border were also taken over by the UTA. Under the UTA's management, the railway network of Northern Ireland shrank from 900 miles (1,450 km) to 225 miles (362 km). The UTA was split into rail and road operations in 1967, and the rail operations were taken over by the present company Northern Ireland Railways (NIR).
Suffering frequent disruption and damage to infrastructure caused by the Troubles and starved of investment by successive political administrations, the NIR network had become badly run down by the 1960s, with old rolling stock and poorly maintained track. NIR's last steam locomotives were withdrawn in 1970.
In 1970, NIR re-launched the once-popular Enterprise between Dublin and Belfast with three new NIR Class 101 diesel locomotives built by Hunslet in England and Mark 2B carriages built by British Rail Engineering Limited (BREL). Despite frequent interruptions due to bomb scares, the service has remained a more or less constant feature of the NIR network.
As older trains became obsolete in the 1970s, the Class 80 slam-door diesel-electric multiple unit was introduced. BREL built these units between 1974 and 1977 to British Rail's Mark 2 design with some trailer cars rebuilt from hauled stock. The power cars were powered by an English Electric 4SRKT engine, nicknamed 'Thumpers' due to their characteristic sound, and had two English Electric 538 traction motors. These entered service on the suburban lines around Belfast, becoming a stalwart on the whole network. They remained in service until 2012, latterly primarily on the Larne-Belfast line and the Coleraine-Portrush Line. In the early 1980s, NIR purchased one of the prototype LEV Railbuses built to test the railbus concept. This was intended for the Coleraine-Portrush branch, but was withdrawn due to the capacity constraints of a single car. A plan was mooted to use it on the Lisburn-Antrim line to prevent it from being closed. This proposal failed, again because of the limited capacity.
NIR has three EMD class 111 locomotives, 111–113, for freight and passenger use, built in October 1980 (111–112) and December 1984 (113). During the eighties it was apparent that additional trains would be needed. BREL built nine 450 Class sets on former Mark 1 underframes between 1985 and 1987. The power cars had an English Electric 4SRKT engine recovered from former 70 Class units (except 459, which used the engine recovered from 80 Class power car 88) and had two English Electric 538 traction motors. The sets were three-car diesel-electric multiple units, based on a more modern British design, with air-operated sliding doors. They were withdrawn from service in 2012 and replaced by new 4000 Class diesel multiple units. In 1994, NIR bought two EMD 208 Class locomotives identical to Iarnród Éireann's 201 Class. These haul the cross-border Enterprise dedicated trains of modern carriages.
Since 2002, NIR has modernised its rolling stock, with a full fleet replacement of new trains built by the Spanish company CAF. 23 Class 3000 diesel multiple units made up the first batch of trains ordered at a cost of £80million. They offered greater capacity, performance and accessibility than their predecessors when they were delivered in 2004 and 2005. The next order was for 20 Class 4000s, built 2010–2012. These offered similar benefits to the Class 3000s and completed the fleet replacement. Additionally, NIR has purchased 23 new carriages, via an option in the existing Class 4000 train procurement contract, these are to be used to extend Seven trains from three cars to six cars,which will add much more capacity and will also allow only one guard to be needed on a six-car train, which required two before.
Performance
The latest performance figures for NIR according to Translink are 99% of trains arriving at the final destination within five minutes and 100% within ten minutes of the scheduled time. Among other accolades, NIR won the UK Rail Business of the Year Award for 2008.
NIR carried 13.4million passengers in 2014–15 (up from 10.4million in 20102011), representing 417million passenger-km and earning £43.6million in ticket sales.
In 20182019, NIR recorded 15.8million passenger journeys, the largest in the company's 50-year history.
Rolling stock
Current fleet
NIR also owns two 201 Class diesel locomotives, which operate as part of a pool with Iarnród Éireann's fleet, and half of the 28 De Dietrich stock coaches used by the Enterprise Belfast-Dublin service. These units have their own unique livery, and do not operate under NIR branding or on any other services in Northern Ireland or the Republic. In 2005, NIR investigated obtaining seven Class 222 DEMUs built for English operator Midland Mainline to use for Enterprise, but these entered service with their intended operator. They would have required significant modification to enable NIR to use them, including conversion from standard gauge to Irish gauge.
NIR retained one Class 80 unit (three power cars and two driving trailers) as its sandite train during the 2012, 2013, 2014, 2015, 2016 and 2017 leaf fall seasons. It was planned that a Class 450 unit was to be used for this role. However, in 2015, Translink awarded a contract to Windhoff Bahn AG to procure a new double ended multi-purpose vehicle to undertake sandite and high-pressure water spraying, as well as weed killing operations.
"New Trains" fleet replacement
In 2004/2005, NIR received 23 Class 3000 diesel multiple units from CAF of Spain in a £80million order. The final unit, 3023, arrived in Belfast Harbour on Monday 18 July 2005. All units had entered service by 24 September 2005. A maintenance contract with CAF for these vehicles was extended in May 2020 for another 15 years.
In 2007, NIR announced plans to purchase up to 20 trains under its "New Trains 2010" proposal following the confirmation of its expected budget. This fleet replaced the remaining Class 80 and Class 450 trains by March 2012. Renamed as "New Trains Two", this project went out to tender in late 2007. In March 2009 it was announced that CAF had been selected to build the new fleet, named Class 4000. The first units were delivered in March 2011, with entry into service in September 2011
In December 2018, NIR, announced that 21 additional carriages would be purchased from CAF at the cost of £50million, via an option in the existing Class 4000 train procurement contract. The first of the new carriages arrived in Belfast in March 2021, they were integrated onto Unit 4017 and tested throughout the summer, until being put into service on 29 September 2021.
Past fleet
Routes
NIR maintains the following lines:
Belfast–Dublin, from Belfast to Dublin. Operated with Iarnród Éireann
Belfast–Portadown – Most services operate from Bangor. The most common terminus is Portadown. At peak times there are services that terminate at Lisburn and Newry. At peak times services operate to and from Belfast.
Belfast–Bangor Most services operate from Portadown. At peak times services operate from Lisburn, Belfast, and Newry
Belfast–Larne Most of this line is coastal, with a terminus at Larne harbour.
Belfast–Londonderry Longest route by time and length. This line is sometimes referred to the Maiden City Flyer, joining the two main cities of Northern Ireland.
Coleraine–Portrush Mostly used by holidaymakers getting from Belfast. This line has only 4 stations and is the shortest on the network.
Lisburn–Antrim line No passenger service since 2003. Sometimes used as a diversion for the Londonderry Line and the Newry/Portadown Line.
Signaling is controlled from Coleraine (Coleraine to Portrush), Portadown (the border to Lisburn), and Belfast Central (From Lisburn to Belfast and the rest of the network)
Services
NIR operates regular passenger trains along the following routes during the weekday inter-peak:
Suspended routes
Following the re-opening of the Antrim – Bleach Green line in June 2001, which had been closed since 1978, NIR ceased passenger operations between Lisburn and Antrim on 29 June 2003. Combined with the new Dargan Bridge across the River Lagan in Belfast, the Bleach Green route offered faster journeys between Derry, Coleraine, Ballymena, Antrim and Belfast.
The Lisburn-Antrim railway line is still maintained, and occasional crew training operations are performed. While it is also available as a diversionary route, Knockmore, Ballinderry, Glenavy, Crumlin stations remain closed to the public. The passing loops at Ballinderry and Crumlin have been removed.
Future
The development of railways in Northern Ireland has been linked to the future economic growth of the region, and as a way of reducing road congestion. One of the major challenges that NIR has faced is the limited number of trains available for service at peak times. The limited fleet size has led to services being cancelled due to failures or delays. This can lead to widespread disruption across the network and potentially a huge loss in revenue. Upon its establishment in 1998, the Northern Ireland Assembly put in place an investment programme costing £100million to bring about major improvements. This saw projects including the purchase of the 3000 Class trains, the complete relaying of the Belfast-Larne line and the construction of a new maintenance depot. Following completion of this, as part of its long-term investment programme for NIR Translink conducted a "Strategic Rail Review" in 2004, an independent review of rail services to determine its funding request under the Comprehensive Spending Review. This report determined that so-called "lesser used lines" were an important and economically viable part of the total network, and that investment should be consistent rather than in the "stop-go" manner of previous years.
A debate in the Northern Ireland Assembly on Monday 14 May 2007 raised several proposals as to how the railway network could be improved:
Reopening of existing but closed infrastructure, notably the Lisburn-Antrim line
Improvement of the infrastructure on the Belfast-Londonderry line through, at the very least, the installation of passing loops to allow service frequency to be increased, and upgrading the track to allow higher speeds.
Pressure groups have advocated the protection of former routes, where the track has been lifted but the trackbed remains intact, to enable these to be reinstated for commuter traffic as an alternative to increased road building.
In October 2007, following the CSR that provided funding allocation to the Northern Ireland Executive, the Department for Regional Development announced its draft budget. Conor Murphy, the Regional Development Minister, stated that approximately £137million could be allocated from for investment in the railways for the period 2008–2011.
In June 2008, Brian Guckian, an independent transport researcher from Dublin, presented a wide-ranging proposal to Translink for a £460million expansion of the network called Northern Ireland Network Enhancement (NINE). This proposes the return of the network to several towns that have not had access to rail services for many years; the main part of the proposal would see the Londonderry-Portadown line re-opened, which would link Omagh, Strabane and Dungannon, with branches to Enniskillen and Armagh. However none of these enhancements are programmed to go to planning over the course of the next decade as of early 2013.
Translink have plans to introduce a new ticketing system in 2018 similar to the system utilised by Irish Rail. This includes the introduction of ticket vending machines, allowing customers to purchase tickets via an electronic interface at the station (as opposed to the current system in which customers must pay staff for the ticket, who in turn print the customer's ticket for them), a 'smart card' 'tap on, tap off' system similar to the Leap Card and contactless payments.
Infrastructure
The rail network is focused on Greater Belfast. Both the Bangor and Larne lines have been re-laid in recent years, enabling timetable improvements to be delivered. The only significant "inter-city" routes are the main line between Belfast and Dublin, which covers services to Newry; and the Belfast-Derry line. This line is single track with crossing loops north of Mossley West and single track only west of , which limits the service in both frequency and speed; in the current timetable the train takes 2hr4m while the bus takes an 1hr50m. The pressure group Into the West, which campaigns for improved rail links to the North West region, has stated that the need for a quality rail service, as part of a larger integrated transport policy, is vital to the economic development not just for the city of Derry but for the wider cross-border region.
On 21 November 2007, the Regional Development Minister announced that the investment strategy being considered by the NI Executive included the relaying of the Belfast-Londonderry line north of Coleraine, planned to include new signalling and a new crossing loop, allowing more trains. The total cost was £64million, and began in 2011, lasting five years. Prior to the major relaying of the Coleraine-Londonderry section, £12million was spent on improving the section between Ballymena and Coleraine. This saw the stretch between Ballymena and Coleraine closed completely for four months, with a replacement bus service. Trains continued to run between Londonderry, Coleraine and Portrush, with a small fleet stabled at Coleraine – four trains were stabled instead of the three previously reported. Once the project was completed in 2016, there is a further proposal to add two trains per day, enabling journey times between Belfast and Londonderry to be reduced by up to 30 minutes. As part of this plan, Translink envisages an hourly service to Londonderry, half-hourly to Ballymena. There have been proposals to improve the Belfast-Dublin line between Knockmore and Lurgan, enabling journey times to be reduced and frequency increased. This will improve NIR's services and allow an hourly Enterprise service to Dublin.
In May 2008, the Regional Development Minister announced that his department would commission a study, in conjunction with Donegal County Council, to investigate the effects a resurrection of railway services in the north-west of Ireland with a long-term projection of building a railway line connecting Londonderry with Sligo through County Donegal.
As part of NIR's plans for its new rolling stock, it has built a new traincare depot next to Adelaide station on the site of the old freight yard. As a means of improving timings of its services, Belfast Great Victoria Street is planned to undergo a major refurbishment that will see the platforms lengthened and the curves reduced, together with the addition of a new fifth platform, all planned to bring about the transfer of Enterprise services from .
Further plans are afoot to double the track from Monkstown to Templepatrick, to further increase capacity on the Londonderry line.
Portadown to Armagh
In 2013, the then Minister for Regional Development, Danny Kennedy, indicated that a restoration of the route between and was under active consideration in the long term, pointing out the commercial opportunities for the city of Armagh and its hinterland to be reconnected to the railway network.
Airport links
Speculation remains that the Lisburn-Antrim route could re-open, potentially to offer an alternative Antrim – Lisburn – Belfast service. The line is maintained both for crew training and as a diversionary route, and passes close to Belfast International Airport at Aldergrove. For a number of years there have been suggestions for a station to serve the airport. The airport has marked the building of a new station in its list of future plans, while EasyJet, which is the largest operator into Belfast International, have been strong in advocating an airport rail link. The reopening of the Lisburn-Antrim line is seen not simply in terms of provision of a link to the airport – it would also allow for the further economic development of the area, which has seen increases in population as people use the towns in South Antrim as dormitory settlements for Belfast. In May 2009, the Minister for Regional Development stated that a proposal had been received from a private developer, the Kilbride Group, to restore the Knockmore line, indicating that he would be prepared to part fund a study into this if the local authorities provided the rest of the funding. The route was also included in a wider study of the development of the Northern Rail Corridor published at the end of 2009
The Belfast Metropolitan Area Plan 2015 identifies the need to improve transport links to George Best Belfast City Airport from the city centre. The BMAP proposed a light rail line from the city centre that would have interchanged with a new railway station at Tillysburn, serving both the airport and the Holywood Exchange retail development. However, in April 2008 the decision was taken not to proceed with the light rail project, with the DRD choosing to implement a new bus-based network. The pressure group Rail 21 has stated that the Tillysburn proposal is insufficient for what the new station is expected to provide – a link to the airport, transport provision for Holywood Exchange and a park and ride facility. Instead it proposes a dedicated airport station, similar to , connected directly to the terminal, with Tillysburn half a mile away serving Holywood Exchange, instead of Tillysburn providing the link to the airport.
There have also been calls, as part of the wider upgrade of the rail route to Derry, for a railway station connecting to City of Derry Airport, which is close to the railway line. However, the Government has determined that the number of passengers using the airport is not sufficient to justify a station.
Rolling stock
Although the introduction of the Class 3000 trains was a success, they were a like-for-like replacement for the Class 80 units rather than an expansion of the fleet. Due to the limited number of new units, some of NIR's older rolling stock was retained, notably the entire Class 450 on the Belfast-Larne route. To enable NIR to maintain its levels of service, it upgraded some of its older rolling stock. In 2005, the Class 450 fleet was refurbished to a standard close to that of the Class 3000 units, which saw them through to their withdrawal in 2012. Three four-car Class 80 units were refurbished and a number of locomotives and coaches were converted to push-pull operation with the addition of the DBSO obtained from 'one', to ensure that passenger rolling stock levels were maintained up to the introduction of new rolling stock in 2011 and 2012.
One of the major projects instigated by Translink was "New Trains Two" (formerly "New Trains 2010"), which saw the purchase of a new batch of rolling stock. At minimum, this was to be like-for-like replacement of the Class 450 trains, which were withdrawn in 2012. However, it was determined that to deliver improved frequency of service on the network the size of NIR's fleet had to be increased, and with that must come associated infrastructure improvements. The announcement of the investment programme confirmed "New Trains 2010", which procured 20 new trains to both replace the remaining Class 80 and Class 450 units and provide additional capacity. The specification given by the DRD stated that the new trains are to provide both inner and outer suburban commuter services and express services between Belfast and Dublin. The Class 4000 fleet entered service on Thursday 29 September 2011. Twenty, three-car units have been specified with an option to purchase an additional 20 vehicles, allowing the units to be lengthened to six cars.
In 2021, following the procurement of 21 additional vehicles purchased to extend a number of its Class 4000 units to six-cars, Translink published a new strategy indicating its intention to provide a zero emission service by 2040. As part of this, NI Railways will begin a process to purchase new rolling stock from 2026 to 2027. The intention is to procure or part procure two fleets - a total of 15 three-car units planned to be either bi-mode or tri-mode for NI Railways' own domestic services, and a fleet of 9 eight-car sets for use by Enterprise, the business case for which will be based on zero- or low-carbon technologies.
See also
Iarnród Éireann
Rail transport in Ireland
History of rail transport in Ireland
References
External links
Rail transport in Northern Ireland
Passenger rail transport in Northern Ireland
Government-owned companies of Northern Ireland
Train operating companies in the United Kingdom
Railway companies of Ireland
1968 establishments in Northern Ireland
Economy of Northern Ireland
Railway companies of the United Kingdom
Government-owned railway companies | [
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230016 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Phineas%20Redux | Phineas Redux | Phineas Redux is a novel by Anthony Trollope, first published in 1873 as a serial in The Graphic. It is the fourth of the "Palliser" series of novels and the sequel to the second book of the series, Phineas Finn.
Synopsis
His beloved wife having died during pregnancy, Phineas Finn finds Irish society and his modest government position in Ireland dull and unsatisfying after the excitement of his former career as a Member of Parliament. Back in England, the Liberals are determined to overturn the Conservative majority in Parliament. As Finn had been considered the most promising of the younger set, he is encouraged to stand for Parliament again, and he takes the risk of giving up his salaried position.
Returning to London, he renews his acquaintance with the wealthy widow Madame Max Goesler. In the past, she had offered to marry him and had been gently turned down; after an awkward first encounter, they renew their friendship.
In the political arena, Finn loses the election by a narrow margin, but his luck does not desert him. On appeal, it is found that his opponent had bribed some of the voters; their disqualification is enough to give Finn the victory.
He makes an enemy within his own party. Mr Bonteen makes disparaging remarks about his political trustworthiness, referring to an incident, described in Phineas Finn, when Finn voted with his conscience rather than his party. The conflict spirals out of control when neither man will back down, and they become bitter foes.
When Bonteen is murdered, suspicion falls on two men. One is the Reverend Mr Emilius, husband of Lady Eustace (the main character of The Eustace Diamonds). At Lady Eustace's urging, Bonteen had traveled to Prague and found evidence that Emilius was still married to another woman when he wedded Lady Eustace, thus annulling the marriage and safeguarding her wealth. The other suspect is Finn. He and Bonteen had been seen to quarrel publicly on the night of the murder and all the circumstantial evidence points to him, while Emilius did not have a key to exit his lodgings with. Finn therefore is brought to trial. Not unexpectedly, the murder of one Member of Parliament allegedly by another quickly becomes the sensation of all England.
During the trial, Madame Max travels to Prague in search of evidence against Emilius, and she finds a locksmith who had made a duplicate key for Emilius. This, along with other developments, convinces everyone that Finn is innocent and Emilius guilty. Unfortunately, it is not enough to convict the latter, but Finn is acquitted.
Afterwards, Finn, worn out by the ordeal and disillusioned with politics, refuses an invitation to take office in the government, and marries Madame Max.
Comments
Victorian literature was generally anti-Irish. Phineas Redux and its companion work, Phineas Finn, are cited as counterexamples.
References
External links
Novels by Anthony Trollope
1873 British novels
Novels first published in serial form
Works originally published in The Graphic
Novels about elections
Chapman & Hall books | [
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230018 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The%20Duke%27s%20Children | The Duke's Children | The Duke's Children is a novel by Anthony Trollope, first published in 1879 as a serial in All the Year Round. It is the sixth and final novel of the Palliser series. In 2020, the original text of The Duke's Children was restored for publication of a new edition led by editor Steven Amarnick.
Synopsis
Lady Glencora, the wife of Plantagenet Palliser, the Duke of Omnium, dies unexpectedly, leaving the devastated Duke to deal with their grownup children, with whom he has had a somewhat distant relationship. As the government in which he is Prime Minister has also fallen, the Duke is left bereft of both his beloved wife and his political position.
Before her death, Lady Glencora had given her private blessing to her daughter Mary's courtship by a poor gentleman, Frank Tregear, a friend of Mary's older brother, Lord Silverbridge. Mrs Finn, Lady Glencora's dearest confidante, somewhat uneasily remains after the funeral as a companion and unofficial chaperone for Lady Mary at the Duke's request. Once she becomes aware of the seriousness of the relationship between Mary and Frank, Mrs Finn insists that the Duke be informed.
Managing the Duke's two sons also proves troublesome. At first, Lord Silverbridge follows the wishes of his father by entering Parliament, and proposes to Lady Mabel Grex, whom he has known all his life, and of whom the Duke approves. She turns Silverbridge down, due to his immaturity, although with a hint of a more welcoming answer another time. In the meanwhile, however, Silverbridge becomes enamoured of American heiress Isabel Boncassen. She agrees to marry him only if the Duke is willing to welcome her into the family. At first, the Duke disapproves; and he disapproves even more of his daughter's suitor. To add to his troubles, Gerald, his younger son, gets expelled from Cambridge after attending the Derby without permission.
However, by the end of the book, the Duke grows closer to all three of his children; he allows the engagements of his oldest son and daughter, and he is invited once more to take a part in the government.
Historical setting
Marriages of rich American young women to British aristocrats had just begun to take place when Trollope wrote this book. One of the first such marriages had been that of Lord Randolph Churchill to Jennie Jerome, five years before the book was written -- a love match, as is that of Silverbridge and Isabel Boncassen. One difference is that, in the novel, Silverbridge will be very rich in his own right; whereas many Anglo-American marriages transpired in order to import much-needed American money into financially stressed British aristocratic families (a situation similar to that of the Gresham family in Trollope's novel Doctor Thorne).
Critical reception
A 2017 book review by Kirkus Reviews summarized the book as "A thoroughly satisfying classic for those who love long, slow Victorian family dramas." Reviewing the extended and restored version of the book in 2015 for The New York Times, Charles McGrath wrote, "The new version will most likely not change anyone’s view of “The Duke’s Children,” and yet all those tiny excisions do add up. The restored version is a fuller, richer book."
References
External links
1879 British novels
Novels by Anthony Trollope
Novels first published in serial form
Works originally published in All the Year Round
Chapman & Hall books | [
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230019 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Daniel%20Deronda | Daniel Deronda | Daniel Deronda is a novel written by Mary Ann Evans under the pen name of George Eliot, first published in eight parts (books) February to September 1876. It was the last novel she completed and the only one set in the Victorian society of her day. The work's mixture of social satire and moral searching, along with its sympathetic rendering of Jewish proto-Zionist ideas, has made it the controversial final statement of one of the most renowned Victorian novelists.
The novel has been adapted for film three times, once as a silent feature and twice for television. It has also been adapted for the stage, notably in the 1960s by the 69 Theatre Company in Manchester with Vanessa Redgrave cast as the heroine Gwendolen Harleth.
The novel has two main strands of plot, and while the "story of Gwendolen" has been described as "one of the masterpieces of English fiction", that part concerned with Daniel Deronda has been described as "flat and unconvincing". All the same Daniel's story has had a significant influence on Zionism.
Plot summary
Daniel Deronda contains two main strains of plot, united by the title character. The novel begins in late August 1865 with the meeting of Daniel Deronda and Gwendolen Harleth in the fictional town of Leubronn, Germany. Daniel finds himself attracted to, but wary of, the beautiful, stubborn, and selfish Gwendolen, whom he sees losing all her winnings in a game of roulette. The next day, Gwendolen receives a letter from her mother telling her that the family is financially ruined and asking her to come home. In despair at losing all her money, Gwendolen pawns a necklace and debates gambling again to make her fortune. In a fateful moment, however, her necklace is returned to her by a porter, and she realises that Daniel saw her pawn the necklace and redeemed it for her. From this point, the plot breaks off into two separate flashbacks, one which gives us the history of Gwendolen Harleth and one of Daniel Deronda.
In October 1864, soon after the death of Gwendolen's stepfather, Gwendolen and her family move to a new neighbourhood. It is here that she meets Henleigh Mallinger Grandcourt, a taciturn and calculating man who proposes marriage shortly after their first meeting. At first she is open to his advances, then upon discovering that Grandcourt has several children with his mistress, Lydia Glasher, she eventually flees to the German town where she meets Deronda. This portion of the novel sets Gwendolen up as a haughty and selfish, yet affectionate daughter, admired for her beauty but suspected by many in society because of her satirical observations and somewhat manipulative behaviour. She is also prone to fits of terror that shake her otherwise calm and controlling exterior.
Deronda has been raised by a wealthy gentleman, Sir Hugo Mallinger. Deronda's relationship to Sir Hugo is ambiguous, and it is widely believed, even by Deronda, that he is Sir Hugo's illegitimate son, though no one is certain. Deronda is an intelligent, light-hearted and compassionate young man who cannot quite decide what to do with his life, and this is a sore point between him and Sir Hugo, who wants him to go into politics. One day in late July 1865, as he is boating on the Thames, Deronda rescues a young Jewish woman, Mirah Lapidoth, from attempting to drown herself. He takes her to the home of some of his friends, where they learn that Mirah is a singer. She has come to London to search for her mother and brother after running away from her father, who kidnapped her when she was a child and forced her into an acting troupe. She finally ran away from him after discovering that he was planning to sell her into prostitution. Moved by her tale, Deronda undertakes to help her look for her mother (who turns out to have died years earlier) and brother; through this, he is introduced to London's Jewish community. Mirah and Daniel grow closer and Daniel, anxious about his growing affection for her, leaves for a short time to join Sir Hugo in Leubronn, where he and Gwendolen first meet.
From here, the story picks up in "real time". Gwendolen returns from Germany in early September 1865 because her family has lost its fortune in an economic downturn. Gwendolen is unwilling to marry, the only respectable way in which a woman could achieve financial security; and she is similarly reluctant to become a governess, one of the few respectable ways a woman of her background can work, because it means that her social status would be drastically lowered from wealthy landed gentry to almost that of a servant (one of the troubles of being a governess is that one's status is above that of servant, so governesses seldom socialised with servants, yet at the same time, their status was far below that of their employers, so they could not socialise with them either). She hits upon the idea of pursuing a career in singing or on the stage, but a prominent musician tells her she does not have the talent. Finally, to save herself and her family from relative poverty, she marries the wealthy Grandcourt, despite having promised Mrs. Glasher she would not marry him, and fearing that it is a mistake. She believes she can manipulate him to maintain her freedom to do what she likes; however, Grandcourt has shown every sign of being cold, unfeeling, and manipulative himself.
Deronda, searching for Mirah's family, meets a consumptive visionary named Mordecai. Mordecai passionately proclaims his wish for the Jewish people to retain their national identity and one day be restored to their Promised Land. Because he is dying, he wants Daniel to become his intellectual heir and continue to pursue his dream and be an advocate for the Jewish people. Although he is strongly drawn to Mordecai, Deronda hesitates to commit himself to a cause that seems to have no connection to his own identity. Deronda's desire to embrace Mordecai's vision becomes stronger when they discover Mordecai is Mirah's brother. Still, Deronda does not believe that he is a Jew and cannot reconcile this fact with his affection and respect for Mordecai/Ezra, which would be necessary for him to pursue a life of Jewish advocacy.
Gwendolen, meanwhile, has been emotionally crushed by her cold, self-centred, and manipulative husband. She is consumed with guilt for disinheriting Lydia Glasher's children by marrying their father. On Gwendolen's wedding day, Mrs. Glasher curses her and tells her that she will suffer for her treachery, which only exacerbates Gwendolen's feelings of dread and terror. During this time, Gwendolen and Deronda meet regularly, and Gwendolen pours out her troubles to him at each meeting. During a trip to Italy, Grandcourt is knocked from his boat into the water, and after some hesitation, Gwendolen jumps into the Mediterranean in a futile attempt to save him. After this, she is consumed with guilt because she had long wished he would die and fears her hesitation caused his death. Coincidentally, Deronda is also in Italy. He has learned from Sir Hugo that his mother lives in Italy, and he goes there to meet her. He comforts Gwendolen and advises her. In love with Deronda, Gwendolen hopes for a future with him, but he urges her onto a path of righteousness, encouraging her to help others to alleviate her suffering.
Deronda meets his mother and learns that she was a famous Jewish opera singer with whom Sir Hugo was once in love. She tells him that her father, a physician and strictly pious Jew, forced her to marry her cousin whom she did not love. She resented the rigid piety of her childhood. Daniel was the only child of that union, and on her husband's death, she asked the devoted Sir Hugo to raise her son as an English gentleman, never to know that he was Jewish. Upon learning of his true origins, Deronda finally feels comfortable with his love for Mirah, and on his return to England in October 1866, he tells Mirah this and commits himself to be Ezra/Mordecai's disciple. Before Daniel marries Mirah, he goes to Gwendolen to tell her about his origins, his decision to go to "the East" (per Ezra/Mordecai's wish), and his betrothal to Mirah. Gwendolen is devastated by the news, but it becomes a turning point in her life, inspiring her to finally say, "I shall live." She sends him a letter on his wedding day, telling him not to think of her with sadness but to know that she will be a better person for having known him. The newlyweds are all prepared to set off for "the East" with Mordecai, when Mordecai dies in their arms, and the novel ends.
Characters
Daniel Deronda — The ward of the wealthy Sir Hugo Mallinger and hero of the novel, Deronda has a tendency to help others at a cost to himself. At the start of the novel, he has failed to win a scholarship at Cambridge because of his focus on helping a friend, has been travelling abroad, and has just started studying law. He often wonders about his birth and whether or not he is a gentleman. As he moves more and more among the world-within-a-world of the Jews of the novel he begins to identify with their cause in direct proportion to the unfolding revelations of his ancestry. Eliot used the story of Moses as part of her inspiration for Deronda. As Moses was a Jew brought up as an Egyptian who ultimately led his people to the Promised Land, so Deronda is a Jew brought up as an Englishman who ends the novel with a plan to do the same. Deronda's name presumably indicates that his ancestors lived in the Spanish city of Ronda, prior to the expulsion of the Jews from Spain in 1492.
Gwendolen Harleth — The beautiful, spoiled daughter of a widowed mother. Much courted by men, she is flirtatious but ultimately self-involved. Early in the novel, her family suffers a financial crisis, and she is faced with becoming a governess to help support herself and her family. Seeking an escape, she explores the idea of becoming an actress and singer, but Herr Klesmer tells her that she has started too late, that she does not know the meaning of hard work, training, and sacrifice. Gwendolen marries the controlling and cruel Henleigh Grandcourt, although she does not love him. Desperately unhappy, she seeks help from Deronda, who offers her understanding, moral support and the possibility of a way out of her guilt and sorrow. As a psychological study of an immature egoist struggling to achieve greater understanding of herself and others through suffering, Gwendolen is for many Eliot's crowning achievement as a novelist and the real core of the book. F. R. Leavis famously felt that the novel would have benefited from the complete removal of the Jewish section and the renaming of it as Gwendolen Harleth. It is true that though the novel is named after Deronda, a greater proportion is devoted to Gwendolen than to Deronda himself.
Mirah Lapidoth — A beautiful Jewish girl who was born in England but taken away by her father at a young age to travel the world as a singer. Realising, as a young woman, that her father planned to sell her as a mistress to a European nobleman, to get money for his gambling addiction, she flees from him and returns to London to look for her mother and brother. When she arrived in London she found her old home destroyed and no trace of her family. Giving in to despair, she tries to commit suicide. Rescued by Daniel, she is cared for by his friends while searching for her family and work, so that she can support herself.
Sir Hugo Mallinger — A wealthy gentleman; Sir Hugo fell in love with the operatic diva Maria Alcharisi when she was young and agreed, out of love for her, to raise her son Daniel Deronda.
Henleigh Mallinger Grandcourt — Sir Hugo's nephew and heir-presumptive, a wealthy, manipulative, sadistic man. Grandcourt marries Gwendolen Harleth and then embarks upon a campaign of emotional abuse. He has a mistress, Lydia Glasher, with whom he has several children. He had promised to marry Lydia when her husband died but reneged on the promise to marry Gwendolen instead.
Thomas Cranmer Lush — Henleigh Grandcourt's slavish associate. He and Gwendolen take an immediate dislike to one another.
Lydia Glasher — Henleigh Grandcourt's mistress, a fallen woman who left her husband for Grandcourt and had his children. She confronts Gwendolen, hoping to persuade her not to marry Grandcourt and protect her children's inheritance. To punish both women, Grandcourt takes the family diamonds he had given to Lydia and gives them to Gwendolen. He forces Gwendolen to wear them despite her knowing that they had been previously worn by his mistress.
Ezra Mordecai Cohen — Mirah's brother. A young Jewish visionary suffering from consumption who befriends Daniel Deronda and teaches him about Judaism. A Kabbalist and proto-Zionist, Mordecai sees Deronda as his spiritual successor and inspires him to continue his vision of creating a homeland for the Jews in Palestine. Named after the biblical character Mordecai, who delivers the Jews from the machinations of Haman in the Book of Esther
Herr Julius Klesmer — A German-Jewish musician in Gwendolen Harleth's social circle; Klesmer marries Catherine Arrowpoint, a wealthy girl with whom Gwendolen is friendly. He also advises Gwendolen not to try for a life on the stage. Thought to be partly based on Franz Liszt or Anton Rubenstein.
The Princess Halm Eberstein — Daniel Deronda's mother. The daughter of a physician, she suffered under her father's dominance; he saw her main purpose was to produce Jewish sons. To please him, she agreed to marry her cousin, knowing he adored her and would let her do as she wished after her father died. When her father was dead, she became a renowned singer and actress. After her husband died, she gave her son to Sir Hugo Mallinger to be raised as an English gentleman, free of all the disadvantages she felt she had had as a Jew. Later when her voice seemed to be failing, she converted to Christianity to marry a Russian nobleman. Her voice recovered, and she bitterly regretted having given up her life as a performer. Now ill with a fatal disease, she begins to fear retribution for having frustrated her father's plans for his grandson. She contacts Daniel through Sir Hugo, asking him to meet her in Genoa, where she travels under pretense of consulting a doctor. Their confrontation in Italy is one of the novel's important scenes. Afterwards, she tells Deronda where he can recover a chest full of important documents related to his Jewish heritage, gathered by her father.
The depiction of Jews
The depiction of Jews contrasted strongly with those in other novels such as Dickens' Oliver Twist and Trollope's The Way We Live Now. Despite there being a Jewish-born Prime Minister (Benjamin Disraeli was baptised as a boy into the Church of England following his father's renunciation of Judaism), the view of Jews among non-Jewish Britons at the time was often prejudiced, sometimes to the point of derision or revulsion. In 1833 when the Jewish Civil Disabilities Bill came before Parliament the whole force of the Tory Party and the personal antagonism of King William IV was against the bill, which is reflected in opinions expressed by several of the non-Jewish Meyrick family in Chapter 32.
Influence on Jewish Zionism
On its publication, Daniel Deronda was immediately translated into German and Dutch and was given an enthusiastic extended review by the Austrian Zionist rabbi and scholar David Kaufmann. Further translations soon followed into French (1882), Italian (1883), Hebrew (1893), Yiddish (1900s) and Russian (1902).
Written during a time when Restorationism (similar to 20th century Christian Zionism) had a strong following, Eliot's novel had a positive influence on later Jewish Zionism. It has been cited by Henrietta Szold, Eliezer Ben-Yehuda, and Emma Lazarus as having been influential in their decision to become Zionists.
Palestinian-American professor Edward Said wrote that "Eliot uses the plight of the Jews to make a universal statement about the nineteenth century's need for a home", but Said felt concerned that "if there is a felt reality about 'the peoples of the West,' there is no such reality for the 'peoples of the East'". He believes that "the novel therefore serves as an indication of how much in Zionism was legitimated and indeed valorized by Gentile European thought", and he argues that it exemplifies attitudes that later underpinned the support shown by the British government for Jewish settlement in Palestine when Ottoman control gave way to the British mandate.
Plot structure
In 1948, F. R. Leavis in The Great Tradition gave the opinion that the Jewish sections of the book were its weakest, and that a truncated version called Gwendolen Harleth should be printed on its own. Conversely, some Zionist commentators have advocated the opposite truncation, keeping the Jewish section, with Gwendolen's story omitted.
Contemporary readers might ask themselves whether the seemingly bifurcated structure of the novel arose from a wish to contrast inward-looking (Gwendolen) and outward-looking (Deronda, on the Jewish 'question') moral growth, with Deronda himself the fulcrum.
Adaptations
Books
An abridged (119 page) version for younger readers, by Philip Zimmerman, focusing on the Jewish elements, was published in 1961 by Herzl Press.
Films
Film adaptations include:
Gwendolin (1914), an American short film directed by Travers Vale.
Daniel Deronda (1921), a British silent drama film starring Reginald Fox, Ann Trevor and Clive Brook. Walter Courtney Rowden made the film at Teddington Studios by Master Films.
Daniel Deronda (1970), a six-episode BBC TV drama written by Alexander Baron, produced by David Conroy and directed by Joan Craft. John Nolan starred as Daniel Deronda, with Martha Henry as Gwendolen and Robert Hardy as Grandcourt.
Daniel Deronda (2002), a three-episode BBC One serial drama written by Andrew Davies, directed by Tom Hooper and starring Hugh Dancy in the title role. The show won two British Academy Television Craft Awards, a Banff Rockie Award, and a Broadcasting Press Guild Award.
References
External links
Daniel Deronda free PDF of Blackwood's 1878 Cabinet Edition (the critical standard with Eliot's final corrections) at the George Eliot Archive
*
1876 British novels
British novels adapted into films
Fictional Jews
British novels adapted into television shows
Novels by George Eliot
Victorian novels
Zionism | [
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1321027 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/First%20Step%20%28Faces%20album%29 | First Step (Faces album) | First Step is the debut album by the British group Faces, released in early 1970. The album was released only a few months after the Faces had formed from the ashes of the Small Faces (from which Ronnie Lane, Kenney Jones and Ian McLagan hailed) and The Jeff Beck Group (from which Rod Stewart and Ronnie Wood hailed.) The album is credited to the Small Faces on all North American issues and reissues, while record labels for initial vinyl printings give the title as The First Step.
The album cover shows Ronnie Wood holding a copy of Geoffrey Sisley's seminal guitar tutorial First Step: How to Play the Guitar Plectrum Style.
While the album was recorded after the group's official formation and signing to Warner Bros. Records in the Autumn of 1969, the band members had been rehearsing, performing and recording together in various combinations since May of that year.
At 46:22, First Step is the band's lengthiest original release and many modern critics regard it as promising, but sprawling and unfocused - their least cohesive and most undisciplined offering. It is however perhaps the most democratic of the Faces releases, highlighting the band's talents as a unified whole and affording each member at least one composer credit, as opposed to the perceived dominance of Stewart and his songwriting partnership with Wood as their career progressed.
On 28 August 2015, the album was reissued in a remastered and expanded form, including two previously-unreleased bonus tracks recorded shortly after the album's release, "Behind The Sun" and "Mona: The Blues" (the latter was remade and refined by Lane and Wood in 1972 for their Mahoney's Last Stand film soundtrack).
Reception
The album reached #119 on the Billboard 200.
Reviewing in 1970 for Rolling Stone, Joel Selvin found the Faces to be "a fine rock band" but also "highly derivative" and who "play with more control than soul", going on to say, "They know exactly what they are doing and they do it well, as good musicians should, but the precision and purity of their sound seems a little sterile, and they lack the drive and power to make their music work without subtleties."
Reviewing in Christgau's Record Guide: Rock Albums of the Seventies (1981), Robert Christgau viewed the record as "one more complication in the Rod Stewart mystery", saying, "With Jeff Beck he parodies himself before he's established a self to parody. With Lou Reizner he establishes himself as a singer-songwriter of uncommon spunk and a vocal interpreter of uncommon individuality. And here he steps into the shoes of a purveyor of Humble Pie to pose as the leader of a mediocre white r&b band. Best cut: Ronnie Lane's 'Stone.'"
Track listing
All lead vocals by Rod Stewart except where indicated
Side One
"Wicked Messenger" (Bob Dylan) - 4:00
"Devotion" (Ronnie Lane) - 4:48 (lead vocals: Rod Stewart, Ronnie Lane)
"Shake, Shudder, Shiver" (Lane, Ronnie Wood) - 3:09 (lead vocals: Rod Stewart, Ronnie Lane)(duet)
"Stone" (Lane) - 5:33 (lead vocals: Ronnie Lane)
"Around The Plynth" (Rod Stewart, Wood) - 5:45
Side Two
"Flying" (Lane, Stewart, Wood) - 4:10
"Pineapple and the Monkey" (instrumental) (Wood) - 4:23
"Nobody Knows" (Lane, Wood) - 4:05 (lead vocals: Rod Stewart, Ronnie Lane)(duet) - 4:04
"Looking Out the Window" (instrumental) (Kenney Jones, Ian McLagan) - 5:00
"Three Button Hand Me Down" (McLagan, Stewart) - 5:30
2015 Reissue bonus tracks
"Behind The Sun" (Jones, Lane, McLagan, Stewart, Wood)
"Mona: The Blues" (instrumental) (Lane, Wood)
"Shake, Shudder, Shiver" [BBC Session] (Lane, Wood)(lead vocals: Rod Stewart, Ronnie Lane)(duet)
"Flying" [Take 3] (Lane, Stewart, Wood)
"Nobody Knows" [Take 2] (Lane, Wood)
The 2015 reissue replicates the US edition of the LP, containing minor edits not present on the UK original, most noticeably the omission of Stewart shouting "That's yer lot!" at the end of "Around the Plynth".
Personnel
Rod Stewart - lead and backing vocals, harmonica, banjo (track 4)
Ronnie Lane - bass, rhythm and acoustic guitars, backing vocals, lead vocal (track 4), co-lead vocal (tracks 2,3 & 8)
Ronnie Wood - lead, rhythm and acoustic guitars, second bass guitar (track 10), backing vocals
Ian McLagan - Hammond organ, Wurlitzer electric and acoustic pianos, backing vocals
Kenney Jones - drums and percussion
Martin Birch - engineer
Faces - producer
References
External links
1970 debut albums
Faces (band) albums
Warner Records albums
Albums produced by Kenney Jones
Albums produced by Ronnie Lane
Albums produced by Ian McLagan
Albums produced by Ronnie Wood
Albums produced by Rod Stewart | [
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230021 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/FGC | FGC | FGC may refer to:
Family Groove Company, an American band
Family Group Conference
Federal Government College (disambiguation)
Female genital cutting
Ferozepur Group of Colleges, in Punjab, India
, a Spanish railway company
Fifth generation computer
Fighting game community
Florida Gateway College, in Lake City, Florida, United States
Friends General Conference, a North American Quaker association
Friends of Garrity Creek, in California, United States
, a communist youth organization | [
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230022 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Charles%20Augustin%20Sainte-Beuve | Charles Augustin Sainte-Beuve | Charles Augustin Sainte-Beuve (; 23 December 1804 – 13 October 1869) was a French literary critic.
Personal and public life
Early years
He was born in Boulogne, educated there, and studied medicine at the Collège Charlemagne in Paris (1824–27). In 1828, he served in the St Louis Hospital. Beginning in 1824, he contributed literary articles, the Premier lundis of his collected Works, to the newspaper Globe, and in 1827 he came, by a review of Victor Hugo's Odes et Ballades, into close association with Hugo and the Cénacle, the literary circle that strove to define the ideas of the rising Romanticism and struggle against classical formalism. Sainte-Beuve became friendly with Hugo after publishing a favourable review of the author's work but later had an affair with Hugo's wife, Adèle Foucher, which resulted in their estrangement. Curiously, when Sainte-Beuve was made a member of the French Academy in 1845, the ceremonial duty of giving the reception speech fell upon Hugo.
Career
Sainte-Beuve published collections of poems and the partly autobiographical novel Volupté in 1834. His articles and essays were collected the volumes Port-Royal and Portraits littéraires.
During the rebellions of 1848 in Europe, he lectured at Liège on Chateaubriand and his literary circle. He returned to Paris in 1849 and began his series of topical columns, Causeries du lundi ('Monday Chats') in the newspaper, Le Constitutionnel. When Louis Napoleon became Emperor, he made Sainte-Beuve professor of Latin poetry at the Collège de France, but anti-Imperialist students hissed him, and he resigned.
Port-Royal
After several books of poetry and a couple of failed novels, Sainte-Beuve began to do literary research, of which the most important publication resulting is Port-Royal. He continued to contribute to La Revue contemporaine.
Port-Royal (1837–1859), probably Sainte-Beuve's masterpiece, is an exhaustive history of the Jansenist abbey of Port-Royal-des-Champs, near Paris. It not only influenced the historiography of religious belief, i.e., the method of such research, but also the philosophy of history and the history of esthetics.
He was made Senator in 1865, in which capacity he distinguished himself by his pleas for freedom of speech and of the press. According to Jules Amédée Barbey d'Aurevilly, "Sainte-Beuve was a clever man with the temper of a turkey!" In his last years, he was an acute sufferer and lived much in retirement.
One of Sainte-Beuve's critical contentions was that, in order to understand an artist and his work, it was necessary to understand that artist's biography. Marcel Proust took issue with this notion and repudiated it in a set of essays, Contre Sainte-Beuve ("Against Sainte-Beuve"). Proust developed the ideas first voiced in those essays in À la recherche du temps perdu (In Search of Lost Time).
Reception
In 1880 Friedrich Nietzsche, though an avowed opponent of Sainte-Beuve, prompted the wife of his friend Franz Overbeck, Ida Overbeck, to translate the Causeries du lundi into German. Until then, Sainte-Beuve was never published in German despite his great importance in France, since it was considered representative of a French way of thinking detested in Germany. Ida Overbeck's translation appeared in 1880 under the title Die Menschen des XVIII. Jahrhunderts (Men of the 18th Century). Nietzsche wrote to Ida Overbeck on August 18, 1880: "An hour ago I received the Die Menschen des XVIII. Jahrhunderts, [...] It is just a marvellous book. I think I've cried." Ida Overbeck's translation is an important document of the cultural transfer between Germany and France in a period of strong tension, but it was largely ignored. It was not until 2014 that a critical and annotated edition of this translation appeared in print.
Sainte-Beuve died in Paris, aged 64.
Publications
Non-fiction
Tableau Historique et Critique de la Poésie Française et du Théâtre Français au XVIe Siècle (2 vols., 1828).
Port-Royal (5 vols., 1840–1859).
Portraits Littéraires (3 vols., 1844; 1876–78).
Portraits Contemporains (5 vols., 1846; 1869–71).
Portraits de Femmes (1844; 1870).
Causeries du Lundi (16 vols., 1851–1881).
Nouveaux Lundis (13 vols., 1863–1870).
Premiers Lundis (3 vols., 1874–75).
Étude sur Virgile (1857).
Chateaubriand et son Groupe Littéraire (2 vols., 1860).
Le Général Jomini (1869).
Madame Desbordes-Valmore (1870).
M. de Talleyrand (1870).
P.-J. Proudhon (1872).
Chroniques Parisiennes (1843–1845 & 1876).
Les Cahiers de Sainte-Beuve (1876).
Mes Poisons (1926).
Fiction
Volupté (1834).
Madame de Pontivy (1839).
Christel (1839).
La Pendule (1880).
Poetry
Vie, Poésies et Pensées de Joseph Delorme (1829).
Les Consolations (1830).
Pensées d'août (1837).
Livre d'Amour (1843).
Poésies Complètes (1863).
Poésies françaises d'une Italienne (1854) by Agathe-Sophie Sasserno, preface by Sainte-Beuve
In English translation
Portraits of Celebrated Women (1868, trans., Harriet W. Preston).
Memoirs of Madame Desbordes-Valmore (1873, trans., Harriet W. Preston).
English Portraits (1875, a selection from Causeries du Lundi).
Monday-chats (1877, trans., William Matthews)
Essays on Men and Women (1890, trans., William Matthews and Harriet W. Preston).
Essays (1890, trans., Elizabeth Lee).
Portraits of Men (1891, trans., Forsyth Edeveain).
Portraits of Women (1891, trans., Helen Stott).
Select Essays of Sainte-Beuve (1895, trans., Arthur John Butler).
The Prince de Ligne (1899, trans., Katharine Prescott Wormeley).
The Correspondence of Madame, Princess Palatine (1899, trans., Katharine Prescott Wormeley).
The Essays of Sainte-Beuve (1901, ed., William Sharp).
Memoirs and Letters of Cardinal de Bernis (1902, trans., Katharine Prescott Wormeley).
Causeries du lundi (1909–11, 8 vols., trans., E.J. Trechmann).
Volupté: The Sensual Man (1995, trans., Marilyn Gaddis Rose).
References
Citations
Sources
Nicolson, Harold George (1957). Sainte-Beuve. London: Constable.
Williams, Roger L. (1957). "Sainte-Beuve, Sultan of Literature". In: Gaslight and Shadow: The World of Napoleon III. New York: Macmillan.
Further reading
Arnold, Matthew (1910). "Sainte-Beuve." In: Essays in Criticism. Boston: The Ball Publishing Co., pp. 137–152.
Babbitt, Irving (1912). The Masters of Modern French Criticism. Boston and New York: Houghton Mifflin Company, pp. 79–188.
Barlow, Norman H. (1964). Sainte-Beuve to Baudelaire: A Poetic Legacy. Durham, N.C.: Duke University Press.
Birrell, Augustine (1892). "Sainte-Beuve." In: Res Judicatæ. New York: Charles Scribner's Sons, pp. 298–308.
Calvert, George H. (1875). "Sainte-Beuve, the Critic." In: Essays Æsthetical. Boston: Lee and Shepard, pp. 158–197.
Chadbourne, Richard M. (1977). Charles-Augustin Sainte-Beuve. Boston: Twayne Publishers.
Dowden, Edward (1902). "Literary Criticism in France." In: New Studies in Literature. London: Kegan Paul, Trench, Trübner & Co., pp. 388–418.
Compagnon, Antoine (1995). "Sainte-Beuve and the Canon," MLN, Vol. 110, No. 5, French Issue, pp. 1188–1199.
Guérard, Albert Léon (1913). "Critics and Historians: Sainte-Beuve, Taine." In: French Prophets of Yesterday. New York: D. Appleton and Company, pp. 201–223.
Harper, George McLean (1897). "Sainte-Beuve," Scribner's Magazine, Vol. XXII, No. 5, pp. 594–600.
Harper, George McLean (1901). "Sainte-Beuve." In: Masters of French Literature. New York: Charles Scribner's Sons, pp. 219–275.
Harper, George McLean (1909). Charles Augustin Sainte-Beuve. Philadelphia and London: J.B. Lippincott Company.
James, Henry (1880). "Sainte-Beuve," The North American Review, Vol. CXXX, No. 278, pp. 51–69.
Kirk, John Foster (1866). "Sainte-Beuve," The Atlantic Monthly, Vol. XVII, No. 102, pp. 432–454.
Knickerbocker, William S. (1932). "Sainte-Beuve," The Sewanee Review, Vol. 40, No. 2, pp. 206–225.
Lehmann, A.G. (1962). Sainte-Beuve: A Portrait of the Critic, 1804-1842. Oxford: Clarendon Press.
MacClintock, Lander (1920). Sainte-Beuve's Critical Theory and Practice After 1849. Chicago, Ill.: The University of Chicago Press.
Marks, Emerson R. (1964). "Sainte-Beuve's Classicism," The French Review, Vol. 37, No. 4, pp. 411–418.
Mott, Lewis Freeman (1925). Sainte-Beuve. New York: D. Appleton and Company.
Mulhauser, Ruth E. (1969). Sainte-Beuve and Greco-Roman Antiquity. Cleveland: Press of Case Western Reserve University.
Nelles, Paul (2000). "Sainte-Beuve between Renaissance and Enlightenment," Journal of the History of Ideas, Vol. 61, No. 3, pp. 473–492.
Paton, J.B. (1870). "Sainte-Beuve and Renan," The London Quarterly Review, Vol. XXXIII, pp. 457–480.
Pollak, Gustav (1914). International Perspective in Criticism. New York: Dodd, Mead & Company.
Proust, Marcel (1988). Against Sainte-Beuve and Other Essays. London: Penguin.
Smith, Horatio (1942). "Sainte-Beuve on Science and Human Nature: Jouffroy, Le Play, Proudhon," Modern Language Notes, Vol. 57, No. 7, pp. 592–602.
Sutcliffe, Emerson Grant (1921). "Sainte-Beuve on Fiction," The South Atlantic Quarterly, Vol. XX, pp. 41–51.
Switzer, Richard (1960). "Sainte-Beuve and the Ottocento," Italica, Vol. 37, No. 2, pp. 109–117.
Whitridge, Arnold (1923). "The Personality of Sainte-Beuve," The North American Review, Vol. 217, No. 810, pp. 676–687.
Whitridge, Arnold (1938). "Matthew Arnold and Sainte-Beuve," PMLA, Vol. 53, No. 1, pp. 303–313.
"Hugo and Sainte-Beuve," The National Quarterly Review, Vol. XX, 1869, pp. 32–52.
"M. Sainte-Beuve," The Quarterly Review, Vol. CXIX, 1866, pp. 80–108.
"Sainte-Beuve," The Edinburgh Review, Vol. CXXXII, 1870, pp. 126–154.
External links
What Is a Classic? at Bartleby.com.
1804 births
1869 deaths
People from Boulogne-sur-Mer
French literary critics
19th-century French novelists
Writers from Hauts-de-France
French male novelists
19th-century French male writers
Collège de France faculty
Members of the Académie Française
Chevaliers of the Légion d'honneur
Burials at Montparnasse Cemetery
French male non-fiction writers | [
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230023 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Enoch%20Pratt%20Free%20Library | Enoch Pratt Free Library | The Enoch Pratt Free Library is the free public library system of Baltimore, Maryland. Its Central Library and office headquarters are located on 400 Cathedral Street (southbound) and occupy the northeastern three quarters of a city block bounded by West Franklin Street (U.S. Route 40 westbound) to the north, Cathedral Street to the east, West Mulberry Street (U.S. Route 40 eastbound) to the south, and Park Avenue (northbound) to the west. Located on historic Cathedral Hill, north of downtown, the library is also in the Mount Vernon-Belvedere-Mount Royal neighborhood and cultural and historic district.
The Cathedral Street Main Library is the flagship of the entire Enoch Pratt Free Library system, now with twenty-two community / neighborhood and regional branches, it was designated the "Maryland State Library Resource Center" by the General Assembly of Maryland in 1971. The center operates as the state library for Maryland. A state agency oversees the center.
History
Its establishment began on January 21, 1882 when the longtime local hardware merchant, banking, and steamship company executive and philanthropist Enoch Pratt (1808-1896) offered a gift of a central library, four branch libraries (with two additional shortly afterward), and a financial endowment of more than $1 million in a significant piece of correspondence, letter of offer to Mayor William Pinkney Whyte and the Baltimore City Council. His intention was to establish a public circulating library that (as he described it) "shall be for all, rich and poor without distinction of race or color, who, when properly accredited, can take out the books if they will handle them carefully and return them." The grant was soon accepted by the municipal government and approved by the voters in an election on October 25, 1882.
One of the early hires at the library was William A. Williams, the first Black Catholic seminarian in America (who later dropped out due to the prevailing racist attitudes of the day).
From 1993 to August 11, 2016, Carla Hayden (formerly of the Chicago Public Library) served as the CEO of Enoch Pratt Free Library in Baltimore and is now the Librarian of Congress in Washington, DC. Hayden and the staff of the Pennsylvania Avenue branch were praised for keeping open the library on Monday April 27, 2015 during the protests and the civil strife over the death of Freddie Gray. The library's location, at the intersection of Pennsylvania and West North Avenues in the northwest center city Sandtown-Winchester community, found itself at the center of the protests drawing nationwide and international attention, giving community members a safe place during the troubled times.
Following Hayden's departure and promotion on August 11, 2016, the acting director of the library has been Gordon Krabbe, who served as the library's chief operating officer since 1989.
In July 2017, Heidi Daniel was named the new president and CEO of the public library system.
Central Library building
Original (1886–2015)
The merchant and financier Enoch Pratt, in a letter to the Baltimore City Council on January 21, 1882, offered to donate and construct a free public library with several neighborhood branches open to all the citizens of the City of Baltimore (and its surrounding environs). After some debate and discussion which was also widely reported in the local newspapers, the mayor and council accepted the gift and the terms of its conditions later that year, which were subsequently approved by the citizens in a referendum held during an election that October, 1882. Construction of a Central Library began later that year. The original Central Library building opened on January 5, 1886 . Part of Pratt's donation to the city, it was originally valued at approximately $250,000 and was accompanied by the gift of initially four other neighborhood branches in the quadrants of the city which also opened that year and were soon joined by two others, along with an endowment of $1.058 million (in 1880s money). However, always a very thrifty man, Mr. Pratt provided that the bricks from the three 1820s-era townhouses that were to be demolished for his new city library were to be knocked off, cleaned and re-used in constructing a parish house and hall for his church, the First Independent Church of Baltimore, now the First Unitarian Church of Baltimore.
Designed by Charles L. Carson, "Old Central" occupied a fraction of the same plot of land as its successor 47 years later, facing West Mulberry Street near the corner of Cathedral Street. The structure's elaborate Romanesque Revival architecture became a target of criticism from journalists during final years of existence: H. L. Mencken of The Baltimore Sun, a frequent and prolific user of the branch at Calhoun and Hollins Streets, judged it "so infernally hideous that it ought to be pulled down by the common hangman"
Current
By the late 1920s, Old Central could no longer hold the library's continually expanding collection, even though an annex had been added at the rear. Baltimore City voters approved a loan for $3 million by an almost 3-to-1 margin on May 3, 1927. The Central Pratt Library's staff, services and 400,000 volumes were relocated to temporary quarters at the old Rouse-Hempstone Building at West Redwood Street and Hopkins Place (now the site of the Royal Farms Arena for a two-year stay during 1931–1933. At this temporary location, the Central Pratt was able to reorganize and plan for its future arrangements of departments and try out its soon-to-be famous "department store windows" displays It was razed in 1931, along with several townhouses facing Cathedral Street, including a significant one formerly owned by Robert Goodloe Harper.
The replacement structure occupies the entire block facing the Old Baltimore Cathedral. Construction began in June 1931, during the darkest, most difficult days of the financial Great Depression and along with other major construction projects occurring at that time with the building of a new U.S. Courthouse and Post Office at Battle Monument Square at North Calvert and East Lexington-Fayette Streets, and the new Municipal Office Building on Holliday Street, across from the old Baltimore City Hall and the new Federal Courthouse/Post Office, offered an important source of desperately needed employment to the hundreds of out-of-work citizens of the city.
The architects were C. and N. Friz, with consulting architects Tilton & Githens from New York. The building was completed in January 1933, and opened to the public on February 3, with a record of not one day of suspended service since the original beginnings of "Enoch Pratt's Folly" on January 5, 1886. In Spring of 2016, ground was broken on a $115 million restoration of the historic Central Library. The building remains open to the public. February 11–19, the Central Library closed to the public to relocate departments to the newly renovated upper floors, and to begin renovation of the lower levels. The restoration is expected to be complete in the Fall of 2019.
Maryland Department
The Maryland Department, located on the second floor of the 2004 Annex, contains many of the library's prized collections. These include 275,000 mounted documents (mostly newspaper articles), 2100 maps, 6000 pieces of ephemera, and 24,000 photographs, all relevant to Maryland and Maryland history. The Maryland Department also has a room full of books pertaining to Maryland, with an emphasis on Baltimore.
Most materials in the Maryland Department are non-circulating but available for patrons to examine.
Statistics
In 2010, there were two million visits to Pratt, a 58% increase over the previous two years — more people than attended Ravens games.
Pratt's award-winning website got 2.6 million hits.
106,000 children, teens and their families participated in child and teen programs.
Children and teens read 220,000 books in the Summer Reading Program.
There are 600 computers available system-wide for public use.
Branches
Pratt's branches serve the unique needs of patrons in their neighborhoods. For example, the Southeast Anchor Library has a program for new speakers of English and Spanish to practice their conversation skills informally.
There are 21 branches across the city of Baltimore, as well as three mobile units. In 2018, the Pratt expanded service hours by more than 30 percent across the system.
Branches include Brooklyn
Canton,
Clifton,
Edmondson Avenue,
Forest Park,
Govans,
Hamilton,
Hampden,
Herring Run,
Light Street,
Northwood,
Orleans Street,
Patterson Park,
Pennsylvania Avenue,
Reisterstown Road,
Roland Park,
Southeast Anchor,
Walbrook,
Washington Village,
and Waverly.
See also
Edgar Allan Poe
George Peabody Library
References
External links
Enoch Pratt Free Library website
Maryland Digital Cultural Heritage website
Explore Baltimore Heritage - Enoch Pratt Free Library Central Branch
Further reading
Education in Baltimore
Public libraries in Maryland
Buildings and structures in Baltimore
Mount Vernon, Baltimore
Libraries established in 1882
1882 establishments in Maryland
Edward Lippincott Tilton buildings | [
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230025 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pentagon%20Papers | Pentagon Papers | The Pentagon Papers, officially titled Report of the Office of the Secretary of Defense Vietnam Task Force, is a United States Department of Defense history of the United States' political and military involvement in Vietnam from 1945 to 1967. Released by Daniel Ellsberg, who had worked on the study; they were first brought to the attention of the public on the front page of The New York Times in 1971. A 1996 article in The New York Times said that the Pentagon Papers had demonstrated, among other things, that the Johnson Administration had "systematically lied, not only to the public but also to Congress."
The Pentagon Papers revealed that the U.S. had secretly enlarged the scope of its actions in the Vietnam War with coastal raids on North Vietnam and Marine Corps attacks—none of which were reported in the mainstream media. For his disclosure of the Pentagon Papers, Ellsberg was initially charged with conspiracy, espionage, and theft of government property; charges were later dismissed, after prosecutors investigating the Watergate scandal discovered that the staff members in the Nixon White House had ordered the so-called White House Plumbers to engage in unlawful efforts to discredit Ellsberg.
In June 2011, the documents forming the Pentagon Papers were declassified and publicly released.
Contents
Secretary of Defense Robert McNamara created the Vietnam Study Task Force on June 17, 1967, for the purpose of writing an "encyclopedic history of the Vietnam War". McNamara claimed that he wanted to leave a written record for historians, to prevent policy errors in future administrations, although Les Gelb, then director of Policy Planning at the Pentagon, has said that the notion that they were commissioned as a "cautionary tale" is a motive that McNamara only used in retrospect. McNamara told others, such as Dean Rusk, that he only asked for a collection of documents rather than the studies he received. Motives aside, McNamara neglected to inform either President Lyndon Johnson or Secretary of State Dean Rusk about the study. One report claimed that McNamara had planned to give the work to his friend, Robert F. Kennedy, who was seeking the Democratic presidential nomination in 1968. which he later denied, though admitting that he should have informed Johnson and Rusk.
Instead of using existing Defense Department historians, McNamara assigned his close aide and Assistant Secretary of Defense John T. McNaughton to collect the papers. McNaughton died in a plane crash one month after work began in June 1967, but the project continued under the direction of Defense Department official Leslie H. Gelb. Thirty-six analysts—half of them active-duty military officers, the rest academics and civilian federal employees—worked on the study. The analysts largely used existing files in the Office of the Secretary of Defense. In order to keep the study secret from others, including National Security Advisor Walt W. Rostow, they conducted no interviews or consultations with the armed forces, with the White House, or with other federal agencies.
McNamara left the Defense Department in February 1968, and his successor Clark M. Clifford received the finished study on January 15, 1969, five days before Richard Nixon's inauguration, although Clifford claimed he never read it. The study consisted of 3,000 pages of historical analysis and 4,000 pages of original government documents in 47 volumes, and was classified as "Top Secret – Sensitive". ("Sensitive" is not an official security designation; it meant that access to the study should be controlled.) The task force published 15 copies; the think tank RAND Corporation received two of the copies from Gelb, Morton Halperin and Paul Warnke, with access granted if at least two of the three approved.
Organization and content of the documents
The 47 volumes of the papers were organized as follows:
I. Vietnam and the U.S., 1940–1950 (1 Vol.)
A. U.S. Policy, 1940–50
B. The Character and Power of the Viet Minh
C. Ho Chi Minh: Asian Tito?
II. U.S. Involvement in the Franco–Viet Minh War, 1950–1954 (1 Vol.)
A. U.S., France and Vietnamese Nationalism
B. Toward a Negotiated Settlement
III. The Geneva Accords (1 Vol.)
A. U.S. Military Planning and Diplomatic Maneuver
B. Role and Obligations of State of Vietnam
C. Viet Minh Position and Sino–Soviet Strategy
D. The Intent of the Geneva Accords
IV. Evolution of the War (26 Vols.)
A. U.S. MAP for Diem: The Eisenhower Commitments, 1954–1960 (5 Vols.)
1. NATO and SEATO: A Comparison
2. Aid for France in Indochina, 1950–54
3. U.S. and France's Withdrawal from Vietnam, 1954–56
4. U.S. Training of Vietnamese National Army, 1954–59
5. Origins of the Insurgency
B. Counterinsurgency: The Kennedy Commitments, 1961–1963 (5 Vols.)
1. The Kennedy Commitments and Programs, 1961
2. Strategic Hamlet Program, 1961–63
3. The Advisory Build-up, 1961–67
4. Phased Withdrawal of U.S. Forces in Vietnam, 1962–64
5. The Overthrow of Ngo Dinh Diem, May–Nov. 1963
C. Direct Action: The Johnson Commitments, 1964–1968 (16 Vols.)
1. U.S. Programs in South Vietnam, November 1963–April 1965: NSAM 273 – NSAM 288 – Honolulu
2. Military Pressures Against NVN (3 Vols.)
a. February–June 1964
b. July–October 1964
c. November–December 1964
3. Rolling Thunder Program Begins: January–June 1965
4. Marine Combat Units Go to DaNang, March 1965
5. Phase I in the Build-Up of U.S. Forces: March–July 1965
6. U.S. Ground Strategy and Force Deployments: 1965–1967 (3 Vols.)
a. Volume I: Phase II, Program 3, Program 4
b. Volume II: Program 5
c. Volume III: Program 6
7. Air War in the North: 1965–1968 (2 Vols)
a. Volume I
b. Volume II
8. Re-emphasis on Pacification: 1965–1967
9. U.S.–GVN Relations (2 Vols.)
a. Volume 1: December 1963 – June 1965
b. Volume 2: July 1965 – December 1967
10. Statistical Survey of the War, North and South: 1965–1967
V. Justification of the War (11 Vols.)
A. Public Statements (2 Vols.)
Volume I: A – The Truman Administration
B – The Eisenhower Administration
C – The Kennedy Administration
Volume II: D – The Johnson Administration
B. Internal Documents (9 Vols.)
1. The Roosevelt Administration
2. The Truman Administration: (2 Vols.)
a. Volume I: 1945–1949
b. Volume II: 1950–1952
3. The Eisenhower Administration: (4 Vols.)
a. Volume I: 1953
b. Volume II: 1954–Geneva
c. Volume III: Geneva Accords – 15 March 1956
d. Volume IV: 1956 French Withdrawal – 1960
4. The Kennedy Administration (2 Vols.)
Book I
Book II
VI. Settlement of the Conflict (6 Vols.)
A. Negotiations, 1965–67: The Public Record
B. Negotiations, 1965–67: Announced Position Statements
C. Histories of Contacts (4 Vols.)
1. 1965–1966
2. Polish Track
3. Moscow–London Track
4. 1967–1968
Actual objective of the Vietnam War: Containment of China
Although President Johnson stated that the aim of the Vietnam War was to secure an "independent, non-Communist South Vietnam", a January 1965 memorandum by Assistant Secretary of Defense John McNaughton stated that an underlying justification was "not to help friend, but to contain China".
On November 3, 1965, Secretary of Defense Robert McNamara sent a memorandum to President Johnson, in which he explained the "major policy decisions with respect to our course of action in Vietnam". The memorandum begins by disclosing the rationale behind the bombing of North Vietnam in February 1965:
McNamara accused China of harboring imperial aspirations like those of Nazi Germany and Imperial Japan. According to McNamara, the Chinese were conspiring to "organize all of Asia" against the United States:
To encircle the Chinese, the United States aimed to establish "three fronts" as part of a "long-run effort to contain China":
However, McNamara admitted that the containment of China would ultimately sacrifice a significant amount of America's time, money and lives.
Internal affairs of Vietnam
Years before the Gulf of Tonkin incident occurred on August 2, 1964, the U.S. government was indirectly involved in Vietnam's affairs by sending advisors or (military personnel) to train the South Vietnamese soldiers:
Under President Harry S. Truman, the U.S. government aided France in its war against the communist-led Viet Minh during the First Indochina War.
Under President Dwight D. Eisenhower, the U.S. government played a "direct role in the ultimate breakdown of the Geneva settlement" in 1954 by supporting the fledgling South Vietnam and covertly undermining the communist country of North Vietnam.
Under President John F. Kennedy, the U.S. government transformed its policy towards Vietnam from a limited "gamble" to a broad "commitment".
Under President Johnson, the U.S. government began waging covert military operations against communist North Vietnam in defense of South Vietnam.
Role of the United States in the rise of President Diem
In a section of the Pentagon Papers titled "Kennedy Commitments and Programs", America's commitment to South Vietnam was attributed to the creation of the country by the United States. As acknowledged by the papers:
In a sub-section titled "Special American Commitment to Vietnam", the papers emphasized once again the role played by the United States:
More specifically, the United States sent US$28.4 million worth of equipment and supplies to help the Diem regime strengthen its army. In addition, 32,000 men from South Vietnam's Civil Guard were trained by the United States at a cost of US$12.7 million. It was hoped that Diem's regime, after receiving a significant amount of U.S. assistance, would be able to withstand the Viet Cong.
The papers identified General Edward Lansdale, who served in the Office of Strategic Services (OSS) and worked for the Central Intelligence Agency (CIA), as a "key figure" in the establishment of Diem as the President of South Vietnam, and the backing of Diem's regime thereafter. As written by Lansdale in a 1961 memorandum: "We (the U.S.) must support Ngo Dinh Diem until another strong executive can replace him legally."
Role of the United States in the overthrow of Diem's regime
According to the Pentagon Papers, the U.S. government played a key role in the 1963 South Vietnamese coup, in which Diem was assassinated. While maintaining "clandestine contact" with Vietnamese generals planning a coup, the U.S. cut off its aid to President Diem and openly supported a successor government in what the authors called an "essentially leaderless Vietnam":
As early as August 23, 1963, an unnamed U.S. representative had met with Vietnamese generals planning a coup against Diem. According to The New York Times, this U.S. representative was later identified to be CIA officer Lucien Conein.
Proposed operations
The Director of Central Intelligence, John A. McCone, proposed the following categories of military action:
Category 1 – Air raids on major Viet Cong supply centers, conducted simultaneously by the Republic of Vietnam Air Force and the United States Air Force (codenamed Farmgate)
Category 2 – Cross-border raids on major Viet Cong supply centers, conducted by South Vietnamese units and US military advisors.
Category 3 – Limited air strikes on North Vietnamese targets by unmarked planes flown exclusively by non-US aircrews.
However, McCone did not believe these military actions alone could lead to an escalation of the situation because the "fear of escalation would probably restrain the Communists". In a memorandum addressed to President Johnson on July 28, 1964, McCone explained:
Barely a month after the Gulf of Tonkin incident on August 2, 1964, National Security Advisor McGeorge Bundy warned that further provocations should not be undertaken until October, when the government of South Vietnam (GVN) would become fully prepared for a full-scale war against North Vietnam. In a memorandum addressed to President Johnson on September 8, 1964, Bundy wrote:
While maritime operations played a key role in the provocation of North Vietnam, U.S. military officials had initially proposed to fly a Lockheed U-2 reconnaissance aircraft over the country, but this was to be replaced by other plans.
Leak
Daniel Ellsberg knew the leaders of the task force well. He had worked as an aide to McNaughton from 1964 to 1965, had worked on the study for several months in 1967, and Gelb and Halperin approved his access to the work at RAND in 1969. Now opposing the war, Ellsberg and his friend Anthony Russo photocopied the study in October 1969 intending to disclose it. Ellsberg approached Nixon's National Security Advisor Henry Kissinger, Senators William Fulbright and George McGovern, and others, but none were interested.
In February 1971, Ellsberg discussed the study with The New York Times reporter Neil Sheehan, and gave 43 of the volumes to him in March. Before publication, The New York Times sought legal advice. The paper's regular outside counsel, Lord Day & Lord, advised against publication, but in-house counsel James Goodale prevailed with his argument that the press had a First Amendment right to publish information significant to the people's understanding of their government's policy.
The New York Times began publishing excerpts on June 13, 1971; the first article in the series was titled "Vietnam Archive: Pentagon Study Traces Three Decades of Growing US Involvement". The study was dubbed The Pentagon Papers during the resulting media publicity. Street protests, political controversy, and lawsuits followed.
To ensure the possibility of public debate about the papers' content, on June 29, US Senator Mike Gravel, an Alaska Democrat, entered 4,100 pages of the papers into the record of his Subcommittee on Public Buildings and Grounds. These portions of the papers, which were edited for Gravel by Howard Zinn and Noam Chomsky, were subsequently published by Beacon Press, the publishing arm of the Unitarian Universalist Association of Congregations. A federal grand jury was subsequently empaneled to investigate possible violations of federal law in the release of the report. Leonard Rodberg, a Gravel aide, was subpoenaed to testify about his role in obtaining and arranging for publication of the Pentagon Papers. Gravel asked the court (in Gravel v. United States) to quash the subpoena on the basis of the Speech or Debate Clause in Article I, Section 6 of the United States Constitution.
That clause provides that "for any Speech or Debate in either House, [a Senator or Representative] shall not be questioned in any other Place", meaning that Gravel could not be prosecuted for anything said on the Senate floor, and, by extension, for anything entered to the Congressional Record, allowing the papers to be publicly read without threat of a treason trial and conviction. When Gravel's request was reviewed by the U.S. Supreme Court, the Court denied the request to extend this protection to Gravel or Rodberg because the grand jury subpoena served on them related to a third party rather than any act they themselves committed for the preparation of materials later entered into the Congressional Record. Nevertheless, the grand jury investigation was halted, and the publication of the papers was never prosecuted.
Later, Ellsberg said the documents "demonstrated unconstitutional behavior by a succession of presidents, the violation of their oath and the violation of the oath of every one of their subordinates." He added that he leaked the Papers to end what he perceived to be "a wrongful war".
The Nixon administration's restraint of the media
President Nixon at first planned to do nothing about publication of the study since it embarrassed the Johnson and Kennedy administrations rather than his. But Henry Kissinger convinced the president that not opposing the publication set a negative precedent for future secrets. The administration argued Ellsberg and Russo were guilty of a felony under the Espionage Act of 1917, because they had no authority to publish classified documents. After failing to persuade The New York Times to voluntarily cease publication on June 14, Attorney General John N. Mitchell and Nixon obtained a federal court injunction forcing The New York Times to cease publication after three articles. The New York Times publisher Arthur Ochs Sulzberger said:
The newspaper appealed the injunction, and the case New York Times Co. v. United States (403 U.S. 713) quickly rose through the U.S. legal system to the Supreme Court.
On June 18, 1971, The Washington Post began publishing its own series of articles based upon the Pentagon Papers; Ellsberg had given portions to The Washington Post reporter Ben Bagdikian. Bagdikian brought the information to editor Ben Bradlee. That day, Assistant U.S. Attorney General William Rehnquist asked The Washington Post to cease publication. After the paper refused, Rehnquist sought an injunction in U.S. district court. Judge Murray Gurfein declined to issue such an injunction, writing that "[t]he security of the Nation is not at the ramparts alone. Security also lies in the value of our free institutions. A cantankerous press, an obstinate press, a ubiquitous press must be suffered by those in authority to preserve the even greater values of freedom of expression and the right of the people to know." The government appealed that decision, and on June 26 the Supreme Court agreed to hear it jointly with The New York Times case. Fifteen other newspapers received copies of the study and began publishing it.
The Supreme Court allows further publication
On June 30, 1971, the Supreme Court decided, 6–3, that the government failed to meet the heavy burden of proof required for prior restraint injunction. The nine justices wrote nine opinions disagreeing on significant, substantive matters.
Thomas Tedford and Dale Herbeck summarized the reaction of editors and journalists at the time:
Legal charges against Ellsberg
Ellsberg surrendered to authorities in Boston, and admitted that he had given the papers to the press: "I felt that as an American citizen, as a responsible citizen, I could no longer cooperate in concealing this information from the American public. I did this clearly at my own jeopardy and I am prepared to answer to all the consequences of this decision". He was indicted by a grand jury in Los Angeles on charges of stealing and holding secret documents. Federal District Judge William Matthew Byrne, Jr. declared a mistrial and dismissed all charges against Ellsberg and Russo on May 11, 1973, after it was revealed that agents acting on the orders of the Nixon administration illegally broke into the office of Ellsberg's psychiatrist and attempted to steal files; representatives of the Nixon administration approached the Ellsberg trial judge with an offer of the job of FBI directorship; several irregularities appeared in the government's case including its claim that it had lost records of illegal wiretapping against Ellsberg conducted by the White House Plumbers in the contemporaneous Watergate scandal. Byrne ruled: "The totality of the circumstances of this case which I have only briefly sketched offend a sense of justice. The bizarre events have incurably infected the prosecution of this case." Ellsberg and Russo were freed due to the mistrial; they were not acquitted of violating the Espionage Act.
In March 1972, political scientist Samuel L. Popkin, then assistant professor of Government at Harvard University, was jailed for a week for his refusal to answer questions before a grand jury investigating the Pentagon Papers case, during a hearing before the Boston Federal District Court. The Faculty Council later passed a resolution condemning the government's interrogation of scholars on the grounds that "an unlimited right of grand juries to ask any question and to expose a witness to citations for contempt could easily threaten scholarly research".
Gelb estimated that The New York Times only published about five percent of the study's 7,000 pages. The Beacon Press edition was also incomplete. Halperin, who had originally classified the study as secret, obtained most of the unpublished portions under the Freedom of Information Act and the University of Texas published them in 1983. The National Security Archive published the remaining portions in 2002. The study itself remained formally classified until 2011.
Impact
The Pentagon Papers revealed that the United States had expanded its war with the bombing of Cambodia and Laos, coastal raids on North Vietnam, and Marine Corps attacks, none of which had been reported by the American media. The most damaging revelations in the papers revealed that four administrations (Truman, Eisenhower, Kennedy, and Johnson) had misled the public regarding their intentions. For example, the Eisenhower administration actively worked against the Geneva Accords. The John F. Kennedy administration knew of plans to overthrow South Vietnamese leader Ngo Dinh Diem before his death in a November 1963 coup. President Johnson had decided to expand the war while promising "we seek no wider war" during his 1964 presidential campaign, including plans to bomb North Vietnam well before the 1964 Election. President Johnson had been outspoken against doing so during the election and claimed that his opponent Barry Goldwater was the one that wanted to bomb North Vietnam.
In another example, a memo from the Defense Department under the Johnson Administration listed the reasons for American persistence:
70% – To avoid a humiliating U.S. defeat (to our reputation as a guarantor).
20% – To keep [South Vietnam] (and the adjacent) territory from Chinese hands.
10% – To permit the people [of South Vietnam] to enjoy a better, freer way of life.
ALSO – To emerge from the crisis without unacceptable taint from methods used.
NOT – To help a friend, although it would be hard to stay in if asked out.
Another controversy was that President Johnson sent combat troops to Vietnam by July 17, 1965, before pretending to consult his advisors on July 21–27, per the cable stating that "Deputy Secretary of Defense Cyrus Vance informs McNamara that President had approved 34 Battalion Plan and will try to push through reserve call-up."
In 1988, when that cable was declassified, it revealed "there was a continuing uncertainty as to [Johnson's] final decision, which would have to await Secretary McNamara's recommendation and the views of Congressional leaders, particularly the views of Senator [Richard] Russell."
Nixon's Solicitor General Erwin N. Griswold later called the Pentagon Papers an example of "massive overclassification" with "no trace of a threat to the national security". The Pentagon Papers''' publication had little or no effect on the ongoing war because they dealt with documents written years before publication.
After the release of the Pentagon Papers, Goldwater said:
Senator Birch Bayh, who thought the publishing of the Pentagon Papers was justified, said:
Les Gelb reflected in 2018 that many people have misunderstood the most important lessons of the Pentagon Papers:
Full release in 2011
On May 4, 2011, the National Archives and Records Administration announced that the papers would be declassified and released to the Richard Nixon Presidential Library and Museum in Yorba Linda, California, on June 13, 2011. The release date included the Nixon, Kennedy, and Johnson Libraries and the Archives office in College Park, Maryland.
The full release was coordinated by the Archives's National Declassification Center (NDC) as a special project to mark the anniversary of the report. There were still eleven words that the agencies having classification control over the material wanted to redact, and the NDC worked with them, successfully, to prevent that redaction. It is unknown which 11 words were at issue and the government has declined requests to identify them, but the issue was made moot when it was pointed out that those words had already been made public, in a version of the documents released by the House Armed Services Committee in 1972.
The Archives released each volume of the Pentagon Papers as a separate PDF file, available on their website.
In films and television
Films
The Pentagon Papers (2003), directed by Rod Holcomb and executive produced by Joshua D. Maurer, is a historical film made for FX, in association with Paramount Television and City Entertainment, about the Pentagon Papers and Daniel Ellsberg's involvement in their publication. The film represents Ellsberg's life, beginning with his work for RAND Corp. and ending with the day on which his espionage trial was declared a mistrial by a federal court judge. The film starred James Spader, Paul Giamatti, Alan Arkin, and Claire Forlani.
The Most Dangerous Man in America: Daniel Ellsberg and the Pentagon Papers (2009) is an Oscar nominated documentary film, directed by Judith Ehrlich and Rick Goldsmith, that follows Ellsberg and explores the events leading up to the publication of the Pentagon Papers.
The Post (2017) is a historical drama film directed and co-produced by Steven Spielberg from a script written by Liz Hannah and Josh Singer about a pair of The Washington Post employees who battle the federal government over their right to publish the Pentagon Papers. The film stars Tom Hanks as Ben Bradlee and Meryl Streep as Katharine Graham. Daniel Ellsberg is played by Matthew Rhys.
Television
"On September 13, 2010, The New York Times Community Affairs Department and POV presented a panel discussion on the Pentagon Papers, Daniel Ellsberg, and the Times. The conversation, featuring Daniel Ellsberg, Max Frankel, former The New York Times executive editor, and Adam Liptak, The New York Times Supreme Court reporter, was moderated by Jill Abramson, managing editor of The New York Times" and former Washington bureau chief, marking the 35th anniversary of the Supreme Court ruling.
"In 1971 Defense Department analyst, former U.S. Marine company commander and anti-Communist Daniel Ellsberg leaked the Pentagon Papers to the media. In this talk, Ellsberg presents an explosive inside account of how and why he helped bring an end to the Vietnam War and Richard Nixon's presidency. He also talks about the current potential for war with Iraq and why he feels that would be a major mistake for the United States." Series: Voices [1/2003] [Public Affairs] [Humanities] [Show ID: 7033]"
See also
"Credibility gap"
Global surveillance disclosures
James L. Greenfield
Edward Snowden
United States diplomatic cables leak
WikiLeaks
Afghanistan Papers
References
Works cited
Further reading
The Pentagon Papers: The Defense Department History of United States Decisionmaking on Vietnam. Boston: Beacon Press. 5 vols. "Senator Gravel Edition"; includes documents not included in government version. & .
Neil Sheehan. The Pentagon Papers. New York: Bantam Books (1971). .
Daniel Ellsberg. Secrets: A Memoir of Vietnam and the Pentagon Papers. New York: Viking (2002). .
"Marcus Raskin: For him, ideas were the seedlings for effective action" (obituary of Marcus Raskin), The Nation, Jan 29. / Feb 5. 2018, pp. 4, 8. Marcus Raskin in 1971, on receiving "from a source (later identified as ... Daniel Ellsberg) 'a mountain of paper' ... that became known as the Pentagon Papers ... [p]lay[ed] his customary catalytic role [and] put Ellsberg in touch with The New York Times reporter Neil Sheehan ... A longtime passionate proponent of nuclear disarmament, [Raskin] would also serve in the 1980s as chair of the SANE / Freeze campaign." (p. 4.)
George C. Herring (ed.) The Pentagon Papers: Abridged Edition. New York: McGraw-Hill (1993). .
George C. Herring (ed.) Secret Diplomacy of the Vietnam War: The Negotiating Volumes of the Pentagon Papers (1983).
External links
The complete, unredacted report.
Complete text with supporting documents, maps, and photos.
a resource site that supports a currently playing docu-drama about the Pentagon Papers''. The site provides historical context, time lines, bibliographical resources, information on discussions with current journalists, and helpful links.
(audio/video and transcript).
Part of WCBS 880's celebration of 40 years of newsradio.
1967 documents
1968 documents
1969 documents
1971 in American politics
Classified documents
News leaks
Nixon administration controversies
Presidential scandals in the United States
Reports of the United States government
United States documents
Vietnam War
Whistleblowing in the United States
Works involved in a lawsuit
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230027 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Quality%20time | Quality time | Quality time is an expression referring to how an individual proactively interacts with another while they are together, regardless of the duration.
Overview
Sometimes abbreviated QT, it is an informal reference to time spent with close family, partners or friends that is in some way important, special, productive or profitable to one or everyone involved. It is time that is set aside for paying full and undivided attention to the person or matter at hand. It may also refer to time spent performing some favorite activity.
Relationship counselor Gary Chapman suggests that quality time is one of five "languages" which are used (more or less, preferentially, by a given individual) to express love and articulate their feelings and emotions.
History
Its use as a noun expression ("quality time") began in the 1970s. One of the earliest records of this phrase in print was in the Annapolis newspaper The Capital, January 1973, in the article "How To Be Liberated":
The Time Bind, a 1997 book, was mentioned in Newsweek's multi-page feature about Quality Time. The same issue of Newsweek had a full page review of another 1997 book, Time for Life, which had as a major point flaws in most people's "ability to separate faulty perception of time use from reality." Author Robinson's diary-based research shows that 15 hours per week of "free time" (the greatest category of time used) goes into TV viewing.
Quantity Time
Quantity Time: Moving Beyond the Quality Time Myth is the title of a 1997 book with a full page Newsweek review which has "3 Rs of memory making: routines, rituals and the ridiculous" with the best outcomes deriving from "to eat together at least once a day, with the TV off." 2015's "Quantity Time Begets Quality Time, and Parents Spend Enough of Both" concedes that "quality time" serves "some parents (particularly mothers)" to "release their guilt". It concludes: "It's time to look at our family calendars as half full, not half empty."
See also
Double burden
Gemütlichkeit
Kids Clubs
Work–family balance in the United States
Work–family conflict
Work–life balance
References
External links
The Idioms
The Phrase Finder
Family
Interpersonal relationships
Personal life
Sociological terminology
1970s neologisms | [
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230033 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle%20of%20Trenton | Battle of Trenton | The Battle of Trenton was a small but pivotal American Revolutionary War battle that took place on the morning of December 26, 1776, in Trenton, New Jersey. After General George Washington's crossing of the Delaware River north of Trenton the previous night, Washington led the main body of the Continental Army against Hessian auxiliaries garrisoned at Trenton. After a brief battle, almost two-thirds of the Hessian force was captured, with negligible losses to the Americans. The battle significantly boosted the Continental Army's waning morale, and inspired re-enlistments.
The Continental Army had previously suffered several defeats in New York and had been forced to retreat through New Jersey to Pennsylvania. Morale in the army was low; to end the year on a positive note, George Washington—Commander-in-Chief of the Continental Army—devised a plan to cross the Delaware River on the night of December 25–26 and surround the Hessians' garrison.
Because the river was icy and the weather severe, the crossing proved dangerous. Two detachments were unable to cross the river, leaving Washington with only 2,400 men under his command in the assault, 3,000 fewer than planned. The army marched south to Trenton. The Hessians had lowered their guard, thinking they were safe from the Americans' army, and had no long-distance outposts or patrols. Washington's forces caught them off guard, and after a short but fierce resistance, most of the Hessians surrendered and were captured, with just over a third escaping across Assunpink Creek.
Despite the battle's small numbers, the victory inspired patriots and sympathizers of the newly formed United States. With the success of the ongoing revolution in doubt a week earlier, the army had seemed on the verge of collapse. The dramatic victory inspired soldiers to serve longer and attracted new recruits to the ranks.
Background
In early December 1776, American morale was very low. The Americans had been ousted from New York by the British and their Hessian auxiliaries, and the Continental Army was forced to retreat across New Jersey. Ninety percent of the Continental Army soldiers who had served at Long Island were gone. Men had deserted, feeling that the cause for independence was lost. Washington, Commander-in-Chief of the Continental Army, expressed some doubts, writing to his cousin in Virginia, "I think the game is pretty near up."
At the time a small town in New Jersey, Trenton was occupied by four regiments of Hessian soldiers (numbering about 1,400 men) commanded by Colonel Johann Rall. Washington's force comprised 2,400 men, with infantry divisions commanded by Major Generals Nathanael Greene and John Sullivan, and artillery under the direction of Brigadier General Henry Knox.
Prelude
Intelligence
George Washington had stationed a spy named John Honeyman, posing as a Tory, in Trenton. Honeyman had served with Major General James Wolfe in Quebec at the Battle of the Plains of Abraham on September 13, 1759, and had no trouble establishing his credentials as a Tory. Honeyman was a butcher and bartender, who traded with the British and Hessians. This enabled him to gather intelligence and to convince the Hessians that the Continental Army was in such a low state of morale that they would not attack Trenton. Shortly before Christmas, he arranged to be captured by the Continental Army, who had orders to bring him to Washington unharmed. After being questioned by Washington, he was imprisoned in a hut to be tried as a Tory in the morning, but a small fire broke out nearby, enabling him to "escape".
U.S. plan
The U.S. plan relied on launching coordinated attacks from three directions. General John Cadwalader would launch a diversionary attack against the British garrison at Bordentown, New Jersey, to block off reinforcements from the south. General James Ewing would take 700 militia across the river at Trenton Ferry, seize the bridge over the Assunpink Creek and prevent enemy troops from escaping. The main assault force of 2,400 men would cross the river north of Trenton and split into two groups, one under Greene and one under Sullivan, to launch a pre-dawn attack. Sullivan would attack the town from the south, and Greene from the north. Depending on the success of the operation, the Americans would possibly follow up with separate attacks on Princeton and New Brunswick.
During the week before the battle, U.S. advance parties began to ambush enemy cavalry patrols, capturing dispatch riders and attacking Hessian pickets. The Hessian commander, to emphasize the danger his men were facing, sent 100 infantry and an artillery detachment to deliver a letter to the British commander at Princeton. Washington ordered Ewing and his Pennsylvania militia to try to gain information on Hessian movements and technology. Ewing instead made three successful raids across the river. On December 17 and 18, 1776, they attacked an outpost of jägers and on the 21st, they set fire to several houses. Washington put constant watches on all possible crossings near the Continental Army encampment on the Delaware, as he believed William Howe would launch an attack from the north on Philadelphia if the river froze over.
On December 20, 1776, some 2,000 troops led by General Sullivan arrived in Washington's camp. They had been under the command of Charles Lee and had been moving slowly through northern New Jersey when Lee was captured. That same day, an additional 800 troops arrived from Fort Ticonderoga under the command of Horatio Gates.
Hessian moves
On December 14, 1776, the Hessians arrived in Trenton to establish their winter quarters. At the time, Trenton was a small town with about 100 houses and two main streets, King (now Warren) Street and Queen (now Broad) Street. Carl von Donop, Rall's superior, had marched south to Mount Holly on December 22 to deal with the resistance in New Jersey, and had clashed with some New Jersey militia there on December 23.
Donop, who despised Rall, was reluctant to give command of Trenton to him. Rall was known to be loud and unacquainted with the English language, but he was also a 36-year veteran with a great deal of battle experience. His request for reinforcements had been turned down by British commander General James Grant, who disdained the American rebels and thought them poor soldiers. Despite Rall's experience, the Hessians at Trenton did not admire their commander.
Trenton lacked city walls or fortifications, which was typical of U.S. settlements. Some Hessian officers advised Rall to fortify the town, and two of his engineers advised that a redoubt be constructed at the upper end of town and fortifications be built along the river. The engineers went so far as to draw up plans, but Rall disagreed with them. When Rall was again urged to fortify the town, he replied, "Let them come ... We will go at them with the bayonet."
As Christmas approached, Loyalists came to Trenton to report the Americans were planning action. U.S. deserters told the Hessians that rations were being prepared for an advance across the river. Rall publicly dismissed such talk as nonsense, but privately in letters to his superiors, he said he was worried about an imminent attack. He wrote to Donop that he was "liable to be attacked at any moment". Rall said that Trenton was "indefensible" and asked that British troops establish a garrison in Maidenhead (now Lawrenceville). Close to Trenton, this would help defend the roads from Americans. His request was denied. As the Americans disrupted Hessian supply lines, the officers started to share Rall's fears. One wrote, "We have not slept one night in peace since we came to this place." On December 22, 1776, a spy reported to Grant that Washington had called a council of war; Grant told Rall to "be on your guard".
The main Hessian force of 1,500 men was divided into three regiments: Knyphausen, Lossberg and Rall. That night, they did not send out any patrols because of the severe weather.
Crossing and march
Before Washington and his troops left, Benjamin Rush came to cheer up the general. While he was there, he saw a note Washington had written, saying, "Victory or Death". Those words would be the password for the surprise attack. Each soldier carried 60 rounds of ammunition, and three days of rations. When the army arrived at the shores of the Delaware, they were already behind schedule, and clouds began to form above them. It began to rain. As the air's temperature dropped, the rain changed to sleet, and then to snow. The Americans began to cross the river, with John Glover in command. The men went across in Durham boats, while the horses and artillery went across on large ferries. The 14th Continental Regiment of Glover manned the boats. During the crossing, several men fell overboard, including Colonel John Haslet. Haslet was quickly pulled out of the water. No one died during the crossing, and all the artillery pieces made it over in good condition.
Two small detachments of infantry of about 40 men each were ordered ahead of main columns. They set roadblocks ahead of the main army and were to take prisoner whoever came into or left the town. One of the groups was sent north of Trenton, and the other was sent to block River Road, which ran along the Delaware River to Trenton.
The terrible weather conditions delayed the landings in New Jersey until 3:00 am; the plan was that they were supposed to be completed by 12:00 am. Washington realized it would be impossible to launch a pre-dawn attack. Another setback occurred for the Americans, as generals Cadwalader and Ewing were unable to join the attack because of the weather conditions.
At 4:00 am, the soldiers began to march towards Trenton. Along the way, several civilians joined as volunteers and led as guides (such as John Mott) because of their knowledge of the terrain. After marching through winding roads into the wind, they reached Bear Tavern, where they turned south onto Bear Tavern Road . The ground was slippery, but it was level, making it easier for the horses and artillery. They began to make better time. They soon reached Jacobs Creek, where, with difficulty, the Americans made it across. The two groups stayed together until they reached Birmingham (now West Trenton), where they split apart, with Greene’s force heading east to approach Trenton by the Scotch and Pennington roads and Sullivan’s heading southwest to approach via River Road. Soon after, they reached the house of Benjamin Moore, where the family offered food and drink to Washington. At this point, the first signs of daylight began to appear. Many of the troops did not have boots, so they were forced to wear rags around their feet. Some of the men's feet bled, turning the snow to a dark red. Two men died on the march.
As they marched, Washington rode up and down the line, encouraging the men to continue. General Sullivan sent a courier to tell Washington that the weather was wetting his men's gunpowder. Washington replied, "Tell General Sullivan to use the bayonet. I am resolved to take Trenton."
About outside the town, the main columns reunited with the advance parties. They were startled by the sudden appearance of 50 armed men, but they were American. Led by Adam Stephen, they had not known about the plan to attack Trenton and had attacked a Hessian outpost. Washington feared the Hessians would have been put on guard, and shouted at Stephen, "You sir! You Sir, may have ruined all my plans by having them put on their guard." Despite this, Washington ordered the advance continue to Trenton. In the event, Rall thought the first raid was the attack which Grant had warned him about, and that there would be no further action that day.
Battle
U.S. attack
At 8 am, the outpost was set up by the Hessians at a cooper shop on Pennington Road about one mile northwest of Trenton. Washington led the assault, riding in front of his soldiers. As the Hessian commander of the outpost, Lieutenant Andreas Wiederholdt, left the shop, an American fired at him but missed. Wiederholdt immediately shouted, "Der Feind!" (The Enemy!) and other Hessians came out. The Americans fired three volleys, and the Hessians returned one of their own. Washington ordered Edward Hand's Pennsylvania Riflemen and a battalion of German-speaking infantry to block the road that led to Princeton. They attacked the Hessian outpost there. Wiederholdt soon realized that this was more than a raiding party; seeing other Hessians retreating from the outpost, he led his men to do the same. Both Hessian detachments made organized retreats, firing as they fell back. On the high ground at the north end of Trenton, they were joined by a duty company from the Lossberg Regiment. They engaged the Americans, retreating slowly, keeping up continuous fire and using houses for cover. Once in Trenton, they gained covering fire from other Hessian guard companies on the outskirts of the town. Another guard company nearer to the Delaware River rushed east to their aid, leaving open the River Road into Trenton. Washington ordered the escape route to Princeton be cut off, sending infantry in battle formation to block it, while artillery formed at the head of King and Queen streets.
Leading the southern U.S. column, General Sullivan entered Trenton by the abandoned River Road and blocked the only crossing over the Assunpink Creek to cut off the Hessian escape. Sullivan briefly held up his advance to make sure Greene's division had time to drive the Hessians from their outposts in the north. Soon after, they continued their advance, attacking the Hermitage, home of Philemon Dickinson, where 50 jägers under the command of Lieutenant von Grothausen were stationed. Lieutenant von Grothausen brought 12 of his jägers into action against the advanced guard but had only advanced a few hundred yards when he saw a column of Americans advancing to the Hermitage. Pulling back to the Hessian barracks, he was joined by the rest of the jägers. After the exchange of one volley, they turned and ran, some trying to swim across the creek, while others escaped over the bridge, which had not yet been cut off. The 20 British dragoons also fled. As Greene and Sullivan's columns pushed into the town, Washington moved to high ground north of King and Queens streets to see the action and direct his troops. By this time, U.S. artillery from the other side of the Delaware River had come into action, devastating the Hessian positions.
With the sounding of the alarm, the three Hessian regiments began to prepare for battle. The Rall regiment formed on lower King Street along with the Lossberg regiment, while the Knyphausen regiment formed at the lower end of Queen Street. Lieutenant Piel, Rall's brigade adjutant, woke his commander, who found that the rebels had taken the "V" of the main streets of the town. This is where the engineers had recommended building a redoubt. Rall ordered his regiment to form up at the lower end of King Street, the Lossberg regiment to prepare for an advance up Queen Street, and the Knyphausen regiment to stand by as a reserve for Rall's advance up King Street.
The U.S. cannon stationed at the head of the two main streets soon came into action. In reply, Rall directed his regiment, supported by a few companies of the Lossberg regiment, to clear the guns. The Hessians formed ranks and began to advance up the street, but their formations were quickly broken by the U.S. guns and fire from Mercer's men who had taken houses on the left side of the street. Breaking ranks, the Hessians fled. Rall ordered two three-pound cannons into action. After getting off six rounds each, within just a few minutes, half of the Hessians manning their guns were killed by the U.S. cannon. After the men fled to cover behind houses and fences, their cannons were taken by the Americans. Following capture of the cannons, men under the command of George Weedon advanced down King Street.
On Queen Street, all Hessian attempts to advance up the street were repulsed by guns under the command of Thomas Forrest. After firing four rounds each, two more Hessian guns were silenced. One of Forrest's howitzers was put out of action with a broken axle. The Knyphausen regiment became separated from the Lossberg and the Rall regiments. The Lossberg and the Rall regiments fell back to a field outside of town, taking heavy losses from grapeshot and musket fire. In the southern part of the town, Americans under command of Sullivan began to overwhelm the Hessians. John Stark led a bayonet charge at the Knyphausen regiment, whose resistance broke because their weapons would not fire. Sullivan led a column of men to block off escape of troops across the creek.
Hessian resistance collapses
The Hessians in the field attempted to reorganize and make one last attempt to retake the town so they could make a breakout. Rall decided to attack the U.S. flank on the heights north of the town. Rall yelled "Forward! Advance! Advance!", and the Hessians began to move, with the brigade's band playing fifes, bugles and drums to help the Hessians' spirit.
Washington, still on high ground, saw the Hessians approaching the U.S. flank. He moved his troops to assume battle formation against the enemy. The two Hessian regiments began marching toward King Street but were caught in U.S. fire that came at them from three directions. Some Americans had taken up defensive positions inside houses, reducing their exposure. Some civilians joined the fight against the Hessians. Despite this, they continued to push, recapturing their cannons. At the head of King Street, Knox saw the Hessians had retaken the cannons and ordered his troops to take them. Six men ran and, after a brief struggle, seized the cannons, turning them on the Hessians. With most of the Hessians unable to fire their guns, the attack stalled. The Hessians' formations broke, and they began to scatter. Rall was mortally wounded. Washington led his troops down from high ground while yelling, "March on, my brave fellows, after me!" Most of the Hessians retreated into an orchard, with the Americans in close pursuit. Quickly surrounded, the Hessians were offered terms of surrender, to which they agreed.
Although ordered to join Rall, the remains of the Knyphausen regiment mistakenly marched in the opposite direction. They tried to escape across the bridge but found it had been taken. The Americans quickly swept in, defeating a Hessian attempt to break through their lines. Surrounded by Sullivan's men, the regiment surrendered, just minutes after the rest of the brigade.
Casualties and capture
The Hessian forces lost 22 killed in action, including their commander Colonel Johann Rall, 83 wounded, and 896 capturedincluding the wounded. The Americans suffered only two deaths during the march and five wounded from battle, including a near-fatal shoulder wound to future president James Monroe. Other losses incurred by the patriots from exhaustion, exposure, and illness in the following days may have raised their losses above those of the Hessians.
The captured Hessians were sent to Philadelphia and later Lancaster. In 1777 they were moved to Virginia. Rall was mortally wounded and died later that night at his headquarters. All four Hessian colonels in Trenton were killed in the battle. The Lossberg regiment was effectively removed from the British forces. Parts of the Knyphausen regiment escaped to the south, but Sullivan captured some 200 additional men, along with the regiment's cannon and supplies. They also captured approximately 1,000 arms and much-needed ammunition. The Americans also captured their entire store of provisions—tons of flour, dried and salted meats, ale and other liquors, as well as shoes, boots, clothing and bedding—things that were as much needed by the ragtag Continental forces, such as weapons and horses.
Among those captured by the Patriots was Christian Strenge, later to become a schoolmaster and fraktur artist in Pennsylvania.
Hessian drinking
An officer in Washington's staff wrote before the battle, "They make a great deal of Christmas in Germany, and no doubt the Hessians will drink a great deal of beer and have a dance to-night. They will be sleepy to-morrow morning." Popular history commonly portrays the Hessians as drunk from Christmas celebrations. However, historian David Hackett Fischer quotes Patriot John Greenwood, who fought in the battle and supervised Hessians afterward, who wrote, "I am certain not a drop of liquor was drunk during the whole night, nor, as I could see, even a piece of bread eaten." Military historian Edward G. Lengel wrote, "The Germans were dazed and tired but there is no truth to the legend claiming that they were helplessly drunk."
Aftermath
After the Hessians' surrender, Washington is reported to have shaken the hand of a young officer and said, "This is a glorious day for our country." On December 28, General Washington interviewed Lieutenant (later Colonel) Andreas Wiederhold, who detailed the failures of Rall's preparation. Washington soon learned however that Cadwalader and Ewing had been unable to complete their crossing, leaving his worn-out army of 2,400 men isolated. Without their 2,600 men, Washington realized he did not have the forces to attack Princeton and New Brunswick.
By noon, Washington's force had moved across the Delaware back into Pennsylvania, taking their prisoners and captured supplies with them. Washington would follow up his success a week later in the Battle of the Assunpink Creek and the Battle of Princeton solidifying Patriot gains.
Legacy
This small but decisive battle, as with the later Battle of Cowpens, had an effect disproportionate to its size. The Patriot victory gave the Continental Congress new confidence, as it proved colonial forces could defeat regulars. It also increased re-enlistments in the Continental Army forces. By defeating a European army, the colonials reduced the fear which the Hessians had caused earlier that year after the fighting in New York. Howe was stunned that the Patriots so easily surprised and overwhelmed the Hessian garrison. Colonial support for the rebellion was further buoyed significantly at this time by writings of Thomas Paine and additional successful actions by the New Jersey Militia.
Two notable U.S. officers were wounded while leading the charge down King Street: William Washington, cousin of General Washington, and Lieutenant James Monroe, the future President of the United States. Monroe was carried from the field bleeding badly after he was struck in the left shoulder by a musket ball, which severed an artery. Doctor John Riker clamped the artery, preventing him from bleeding to death.
The Trenton Battle Monument, erected at "Five Points" in Trenton, stands as a tribute to this U.S. victory. The crossing of the Delaware River and battle are reenacted by local enthusiasts every year (unless the weather is too severe on the river).
Eight current Army National Guard units (101st Eng Bn, 103rd Eng Bn, A/1-104th Cav, 111th Inf, 125th QM Co, 175th Inf, 181st Inf and 198th Sig Bn) and one currently-active Regular Army Artillery battalion (1–5th FA) are derived from U.S. units that participated in the Battle of Trenton. There are thirty current units of the U.S. Army with colonial roots.
Painting
In 1851, German-American artist Emanuel Leutze painted the second of three paintings depicting Washington crossing the Deleware. It is in the Metropolitan Museum of Art, and is "one of the most famous American paintings." At the time of its first exhibition it caused a sensation, in Europe and the United States. Leutze hoped it would stir revolutionary sentiments in Germany. After six months in Germany it was shipped to New York City where the New-York Mirror newspaper lauded it with the words, "the grandest, most majestic, and most effective painting ever exhibited in America." The painting is the center-piece of the collections in the American Wing. It is still one of the most recognizable paintings at the Metropolitan. It is central to the canon of American historical art images, its monumental popularity undimmed in the years since it was first exhibited.
See also
American Revolutionary War British New York counter-offensive. The 'Battle of Trenton' placed in overall sequence and strategic context.
List of American Revolutionary War battles
New Jersey in the American Revolution
Battle of the Assunpink Creek – also known as the Second Battle of Trenton, fought one week later
Battle of Iron Works Hill
Battle of Princeton – fought the day after the Battle of the Assunpink Creek
Battle of Yorktown
Battles of Saratoga
Battle of Bennington
Footnotes
References
Tucker, Philip Thomas (2014), George Washington's Surprise Attack: A New Look at the Battle That Decided the Fate of America, Skyhorse Publishing,
Further reading
Maloy, Mark. Victory or Death: The Battles of Trenton and Princeton, December 25, 1776 – January 3, 1777. Emerging Revolutionary War Series. El Dorado Hills, CA: Savas Beatie, 2018. .
External links
1776 in the United States
Conflicts in 1776
Trenton
Battles involving Hesse-Kassel
Battle of Trenton
1776 in New Jersey | [
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230037 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Intercity | Intercity | Intercity or Inter-city may refer to:
Inter-city rail services
InterCity, a general term for certain long-distance passenger services throughout Europe
InterCity (British Rail), a brand used by British Rail
The Inter-City, an express passenger train serving Britain starting in 1950
InterCity 125, high-speed rail serving Britain starting in 1976
InterCity 225, high-speed rail serving Britain starting in 1990
InterCity 250, a cancelled project in Britain
InterCity (Iarnród Éireann), serving the Republic of Ireland
Intercity (Deutsche Bahn), serving Germany
Intercity-Express, high-speed rail serving Germany and its surrounding countries
PKP Intercity, serving Poland
NSB InterCity Express, serving Norway
Intercity Express (Indian Railways), multiple routes called "Intercity Express"
High-speed rail in China, multiple routes called "Intercity Railway"
Metropolitan Intercity Railway Company, serving Japan starting in 1991
KTM Intercity, serving Peninsular Malaysia, Singapore and Thailand
Train types
InterCity Express (Queensland Rail), used in Australia
NS Intercity Materieel, used in The Netherlands
Intercity bus services
Inter-City Bus Terminal, a bus station in Reading, Pennsylvania, USA
InterCity (New Zealand)
Ventura Intercity Service Transit Authority, serving California, USA
Companies, organisations or services with "Intercity" or "Inter-city" in their name
Dublin and Belfast Inter-City Cup, a soccer competition in Ireland
Intercity Baseball Tournament, in Japan
Intercity Bridge, in Minnesota, USA
Inter-Cities Fairs Cup, a European football competition
Inter City Firm, an English football hooligan firm
Intercity Football League, in Taiwan
Intercity Golden Gloves, amateur boxing tournament
Inter-City League, ice hockey league in England
Intercity Shopping Centre, Ontario, Canada
Intercity Viaduct, bridge over the Kansas River, USA | [
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230049 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shozo%20Shimamoto | Shozo Shimamoto | was a Japanese artist. Having studied with Jirō Yoshihara, the future Gutai leader, from 1947, Shimamoto was a key founding member of Gutai along with Yoshihara and fifteen others in August, 1954. He was close to the leader Yoshihara and actively engaged in the early activities and group administrations. He [expand this here more in an evocative manner: holes poked on layered newspaper, bottle-throwing paintings, film experiments, stage experiments, sound art, etc. etc.] He was particularly strong with performative innovations, anticipating the future performance art. Indeed, when Yoshihara turned to focus more on painting, upon his meeting with the French art critic Michel Tapié, Shimamoto continued to urge the leader to pursue this direction, wanting to work with Allan Kaprow, for example.
After Gutai, he became known for his mail art activities with the group AU and the continuation of his painting performances which he staged around the world. He died of acute heart failure in Nishinomiya City, Hyōgo prefecture.
Early years
Prior to this, Shimamoto had been a student of Yoshihara’s since he was nineteen, beginning in 1947.
In 1950, he graduated from the School of Humanities, Kwansei Gakuin University in 1950.
Hole Series and early work
Shimamoto has cited the calligraphy work of Nantembō as an early influence, noting that “The thing that surprised me most when I went to see this master was that he used a very large paintbrush and with this he created much larger works than he contemporaries.” Of his early works from 1950 he has described “a single arrow sign on a piece of paper, a picture of only one circle drawn on the canvas, and a hole made on the center of the canvas, etc.” The latter of these refers to his “Hole” series, in which he perforated the picture plane of the painting. These works were developed out of the economic conditions following the Second World War and his inability to afford canvas. By glueing together layers of newspaper, he created a new kind of support which he called “paper-vas.” The paper-vas was adhered with a glue made from flour and water, onto which a final layer of brown cartridge paper was glued and then painted white. He found that when painting the support would tear where the glue had not dried completely. The tearing of the support inspired him to make a series of works with perforated paper-vas, resulting in artworks like his 1950 Work (Holes). In this work, the white, monochromatic surface appears on the verge of crumbling from a series of aggressive pencil gestures. A similar work, Holes (1954), is in the collection of the Tate Modern.
Prior to these works, Yoshihara had been little impressed by Shimamoto's efforts, discouraging him from pursuing painting as a career after some time. Motivated by the challenge, Shimamoto promised him a painting that hadn't been painted before. This caused Shimamoto to create the first paper-vas work, for which Yoshihara enthusiastically praised him. Shimamoto recounted that when he had shown his first Hole work to Yoshihara, they “both felt that something great had been accomplished.” He then locked himself in his room and produced more using the same method to which Yoshihara, according to Shimamoto, “gave them a glance and just told me that he had seen this stuff before.” Yoshihara discouraged him from continuing the series when they first encountered the “buchi” works of Lucio Fontana which also pierce the surface of the painting. Although the works were made contemporaneously and without knowledge of one another (according to Shimamoto), Yoshihara felt that Shimamoto's works would inevitably be regarded as derivative due to biases of the art world at the time. As Alexandra Munroe suggests, these works “defiantly opposed established notions of permanence in abstract modernist painting and introduced hin (poverty)—the appreciation of minimal and naturally weathered objects as cultivated in the arts of tea— into the context of contemporary Japanese art.” As such, the Hole series “represents the beginning of a Gutai Style” for Munroe.
Activities with Gutai Art Association
In 1954, Shimamoto participated in the “Second Genbi Exhibition,” showcasing the artist of the Gendai Bijutsu Kondankai (Contemporary Art Discussion Group) started by Hiroshi Muramatsu and strongly influenced by Yoshihara. The group sought to rethink hierarchy on every level of the art world. The exhibition, held at the Asahi Biru Gallery in Kobe, brought together many young Kansai-based artists who would soon establish Gutai with Yoshihara. Shimamoto was responsible for proposing the name Gutai, translated from Japanese as “concrete” or “embodied.” Of this name he has explained, “We did not want to show our feeling indirectly or abstractly.” Shimamoto is also responsible for approaching members of the Zero-kai group, Kazuo Shiraga, Saburo Murakami, Atsuko Tanaka, and Akira Kanayama, to join Gutai after some of the initial members left. Shimamoto's house became the first headquarters for the group, and is where the first Gutai journal was published.
Shimamoto also contributed to Gutai through his writing, published in the Gutai journal. This attitude toward painting is also shown in his 1957 text “The Idea of Executing the Paintbrush,” in which he writes, “I believe that the first thing we should do is to set paint free from the paintbrush.” He furthermore advocates the recognition that “a color without matiére cannot exist” and that therefore the artist should paint in a manner that “takes advantage of the texture of the paint and gives it a lively feeling.” In one article, “Mambo and Painting,” Shimamoto argued for the destruction of “the values established by the art elite” through the creative incorporation of audience participation. In opposition to the art “elite,” Shimamoto wrote, “it would never due for those elitist to consider a masterpiece a painting made by dancing the mambo on a canvas.”
In July 1955 Shimamoto created his work Please Walk on Here as a part of the “Experimental Outdoor Exhibition of Modern Art to Challenge the Midsummer Sun” in Ashiya City. The work consisted of two narrow sets of wooden boards arranged in a straight path. One set was stable to walk on while the other was unstable, akin to a broken rope bridge. At this exhibition Shimamoto also showed a metal giant plate perforated with small holes, a development on his former Hole series though this time as a means to intervene in the viewer's engagement with space. The plate was painted white on one side and blue on the other and was illuminated from behinds with a lamp in the evenings. Please Walk on Here was reproduced and exhibited on the occasion of the 1993 Venice Biennale.
One aspect of the elitist attitude toward art to which Shimamoto set himself in opposition seems to be the myth of artistic genius and intentionality against which he utilized accidental and incidental forms of mark-making. “I think that superior paintings can be made by paint spilt over after accidentally dropping a ball from the second floor and knocking over a can of paint… in that act there is no superfluous action or ambition.” This rejection of the conventional valorization of the artist or the artwork can also be read when he writes that, “When one’s irrepressible excitement is expressed, and it is linked to the past through direct expression, the value of the art lies not in the artist nor in the work. It lies in the will to create.” As art historian Joan Kee notes, Shimamoto's activities in the early years of Gutai are indicative of the group's “a singular kind of expression” that is neither easily categorizable as Action Painting nor ‘Happening.’
This experimentation with unconventional materials and methods as a means to painterly originality continued in Shimamoto's early Gutai work. In the Gutai Open Air Exhibition of July 1956, Shimamoto built a cannon using acetylene combustion out of which he shot paint on a sheet of red vinyl to produce Cannon Work. The performance was accompanied with background music. In October of that same year, he produced Breaking Open the Object in which he filled glass bottles with paint and shattered them on an unstretched canvas beneath him. This “Bottle Crash” method of painting, as he called it, would become a signature method of performing his painting. In an interview with Lorenzo Mango, Shimamoto describes one impetus for his initial experiments that led to the use of cannons and the “Bottle Crash” method. As opposed to the athleticism required or Kazuo Shiraga and Saburo Murakami’s activities, Shimamoto says, “I, being physically weaker than them, thought of throwing bottles filled with color paint or making it explode with a cannon.” While he initially was frustrated that media outlets would cover his unconventional process but take less interest in the final painting that resulted, he “started to think differently, both by proposing ideas to change the setting, and by taking on a certain behavior for those occasions.” Following this he notes, “So I can say that the relation between my work and my events have been taught to me by journalists.”
This thinking around an active relation to painting was brought to the stage for Gutai’s May 1957 exhibition Gutai Art on Stage at Sankei Hall in Osaka. Beginning from a completely dark stage, glass bulbs illuminated with light were lowered from the ceiling. Shimamoto then shattered the globes, extinguishing them by smashing them with a stick. After this, two large, white glass tubes were lowered and as he smashed them they released four thousand ping pong balls. In these works, Shimamoto was concerned with the act of art-making by using processes of destruction. Shimamoto also experimented with film and electronic music at this event. The music was made to accompany his The Film that Doesn’t Exist Anywhere in the World (1957), which was an overlapping, double projection of hand-painted animation on film on a single screen. Due to a lack of funds, Shimamoto had one of his junior high school students from his teaching job take discarded film from his work in a movie theater. He then washed the film with vinegar and proceeded to draw a simple animation on the frames. To create the accompanying music, Shimamoto decided to use a tape recorder, which had recently been introduced to the market. The result was similar to musique concréte, a translation of “gutai music.” However, Shimamoto disliked the structure of musique concréte, and therefore tried to make unstructured music using everyday sounds. These included the sounds of water flowing from a tap, a chair being pulled out, and a little being hit. Discouraged by a lack of attention and the daunting comparison with the privileged precedent of John Cage, discouraged Shimamoto and the film and audio sat in a storehouse undisturbed for over forty years. They have since been divided and housed in the collections of the Pompidou in Paris and the Ashiya City Museum of Art and History.
Shimamoto was also the first artist to have a solo exhibition at the Gutai Pincotheca, the Gutai gallery and center in Osaka. The exhibition ran from October 1 to 10, 1962. In the text for the exhibition written by Yoshihara he describes Shimamoto's innovative contributions to art, including “a huge work, which I still consider a masterpiece, made by simply using a broom to spread yellow paint across the surface of a large white canvas.” He also remarks on “a sculpture made up almost exclusively of razor blades” made when Shimamoto was a student, a “kaleidoscope projection,” and “a work rolled up like a tunnel and therefore only visible from the inside” which was exhibited at the Second Gutai Exhibition in Tokyo.
Michel Tapié, in his 1957 text “A Mental Reckoning of my First Trip to Japan” originally published in Bijutsu Techo, singled out Shimamoto from the Gutai group along with Yoshihara, Kazuo Shiraga and Atusko Tanaka as “four artists who should appear alongside the most established international figures.” Shimamoto expressed his belief that Gutai would have been more original and experimental had Taipé not influenced the group's direction so heavily. He remained a member of Gutai until 1971, a year before the group officially disbanded with the death of Yoshihara. Shimamoto's departure stemmed from disagreements over finances within the group over Gutai’s participation in Expo ‘70, the first World’s Fair in Asia and a landmark event for Japanese contemporary art.
After Gutai
Shimamoto became the director of the AU (Artist Union and, later, Art Unidentified) in 1967. As he notes, “artists who had studied in prestigious universities and had learned the fundamental techniques, tended to stray away from the group, while other less educated artists and those with physical or mental handicaps became members.” He cites their unconventional perspectives as responsible for art “evolving past the most common artistic sense” in a way that “generates new vigor.” Although Shimamoto had already known about mail art through Gutai’s correspondence with Ray Johnson, it was during his involvement with AU that Shimamoto grew his interest in mail art. This has been attributed to meeting Byron Black in Japan, a Texas video artist who had been involved with the alternative space Western Front where much mail art was produced. Shimamoto’s mail art activities included many irregular shaped cards that he would mail to both artists and regular people, such as cardboard cut in the shape of a hiragana “A” character. This was published on the cover of a magazine that featured some of Shimamoto's writing.
In response to his experimentation with the Japanese postal system, people began to send him bizarre items by sticking stamps on them and sending them through the mail. These included a dried squid, a grain of rice affixed with a postal tag for objects smaller than a postcard, and a wooden cabinet for sandals sent in its constituent parts (including the sandals) which had to be subsequently reassembled.
In 1976 Shimamoto made a road of 10,000 newspapers on the back of the Murogawa river. Similarly, he exhibited 10,000 newspapers as a part of the “World Symposium Invitation Show” in Alberta, Canada.
In 1986, on the occasion of Italian mail artist Guglielmo Achille Carvellini’s visit to Japan, Shimamoto shaved his head. From this point he would ask the artists he visited to treat his bald head as a picture plane. Subsequently, his head was used to carry messages and pictures as well as a surface to project slides and films onto.
Throughout his career, Shimamoto was also engaged in the art of children. Of the annual children’s painting exhibition in Ashiya (founded 1949) Shimamoto writes, “Immediately after the war, we members of Gutai created several works using new methods. It is no exaggeration to say that we owe all this to the children and this exhibition.” We may see the influence of children's creativity on his own practice in what he sees as an absence of intervening thought. Describing a video of Picasso artistically arranging terracotta pipes found lying in the street, he notes how “he enjoyed himself with the naturalness of a child, without hesitation.” This he links to the importance of useless things in a society mediated by overly rational and teleological conventions of thought, or, as Romano Gasparotti has phrased it, “a) a form of expression not yet conditioned by cultural patterns and preestablished forms, b) holistic attention to the world understood as an undivided whole and which was therefore in contrast with the hyper-analytical attitude typical of the technical-scientific mentality capable only of separating, dividing, and dissecting.” The importance of this direct engagement with material in art can be applied to the kinds of methods that Shimamoto sought in his practice.
Shimamoto's post-Gutai career was also marked by his passion for world peace activism, inspired in part by a visit in 1986 from Bern Porter. Porter, a nuclear physicist ho worked on the Manhattan Project and took up a life of austerity and expiation after the nuclear bombing of Japan, would subsequently nominate Shimamoto for a Nobel Peace Prize. In a work produced in 1999, Heiwa no Akashi (A Proof of Peace), he dropped glass bottles of paint on a concrete slab while lifted in midair at Shin Nishinomiya Yacht Harbor. The work is supposed to be continued every year for 100 years on the condition that peace remains in Japan, with new artists and members of the public contributing to the painting using Shimamoto's glass bottle technique. Similarly, in 2006 he performed A Weapon for Peace at the Piazza Dante in Naples. For this performance, the square was set with an enormous canvas with a grand piano in the center. Shimamoto then entered the area through a tube of white canvas, suggesting a kind of birth. Shimamoto, suspended by a crane from a harness, dropped “strange spheres made up of numerous plastic cups full of coloured paint” onto the canvas and piano below. Throughout the performance, Charlemagne Palestine played a different piano, set to the side of the painting area. Shimamoto has called peace the “theme” of his life.
Shimamoto's painting performances would continue in varying forms throughout his later work, including a 2008 performances at the Ducal Palace in Genoa, Certosa do Capri and Punta Campanella. His works are in museum collections such as those of the Tate Gallery and the Tate Modern (in both London and Liverpool) and the Hyōgo Prefectural Museum of Art in Kobe, Japan. New York Times art critic Roberta Smith has noted him as one of the most daring and independent experimentalists of the postwar international art scene in the 1950s. In 1997 his mail art works were shown in the solo exhibition "Shozo Shimamoto's Gutai & A.U." in the 'E-mail Art Archives' of Guy Bleus, Center for Visual Arts, Hasselt, Belgium. In 1954 he won the Association Award at the Modern Art Association in Japan, an association he would join as a member in 1957. He received the competition prize at the 9th Contemporary Art Exhibition of Japan in 1969, a Dark Blue Ribbon Medal in 1999, and the Hyōgo Prefectural Cultural Award in 2000.
References
Bibliography
Jirō Yoshihara; Shōzō Shimamoto; Michel Tapié; Gutai Bijutsu Kyōkai. Gutai [= 具体] (具体美術協会, Nishinomiya-shi : Gutai Bijutsu Kyōkai, 1955–1965) [Japanese: Serial Publication: Periodical] OCLC 53194339 [Worldcat "Other titles" information: Gutai art exhibition, Aventure informelle, International art of a new era, U.S.A., Japan, Europe, International Sky Festival, Osaka, 1960]
External links
Tate Collection, UK information on Shimamoto, with images of works in Tate collection
French page on Gutaj group with information on Shimamoto
New York Times article by art critic Roberta Smith: "ART VIEW; When Art Became a Stage and Artists Actors" (April 5, 1998). She names Shimamoto as among the most daring experimentalists on the international art scene:
Shozo Shimamoto Rare Works Exhibited in Art PAris 2016 Exhibiting a rare selection of Shozo Shimamoto's works at Art Paris 2016 (ABC-ARTE Gallery, Genoa, Italy)
"Perhaps driven by the exhilarating mixture of relief, freedom and despair that followed the end of World War II, artists around the world had been experimenting with newly physical, sometimes violent, cathartic ways of making paintings and sculptures. Others were also staging what they called events, or actions or performances that sometimes were as destructive as they were creative...
"Some of these artists were doubtlessly influenced by Pollock's example... But the same year brought independent experiments: Lucio Fontana, for example, was in Argentina (or Italy), making images by repeatedly puncturing or slashing painted canvases with knives. And in Japan, Shozo Shimamoto was symbolically penetrating the sacrosanct picture plane of painting by throwing himself through several layers of rice paper, leaving traces of the event -- the hole surrounded by jagged shards of paper -- as the work of art."
Shozo Shimamoto: Official site
Askart.com pages on Shimamoto, including color images of the work
A tribute to Shimamoto with photos, an interview written in Italian and texts by Alain Chivilò, Tapié and Achille Bonito Oliva
1928 births
2013 deaths
20th-century Japanese artists
21st-century Japanese artists
Kwansei Gakuin University alumni
Gutai group member artists
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230055 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fort%20Carillon | Fort Carillon | Fort Carillon, the precursor of Fort Ticonderoga, was constructed by Pierre de Rigaud de Vaudreuil, Governor of French Canada, to protect Lake Champlain from a British invasion. Situated on the lake some south of Fort Saint Frédéric, it was built to prevent an attack on Canada and slow the advance of the enemy long enough for reinforcements to arrive.
Assigned to remedy Fort Saint Frédéric's inability to resist a constant British threat to the south, French King's Engineer Michel Chartier de Lotbinière began construction of Fort Carillon where Lake George, at that time called Lac Saint Sacrement, joins Lake Champlain by the La Chute river. Construction began in October 1755.
Location
Fort Carillon was situated south of Lake Champlain and north of Lake George, a natural point of conflict between the French forces, which were advancing south from Quebec City through the Richelieu River towards Lake Champlain and the Hudson Valley, and the British forces, which were hoping to move north. The area was chosen so as to control the southern point of Lake Champlain as well as access to the Hudson Valley. The fort is surrounded by water on three sides, and on half of the fourth side by a moat. The portion remaining was strongly fortified by deep trenches, sustained by three batteries of cannon and, in front of the fort, blocked by trees which had been cut down and the pointed ends strengthened by fire, creating a formidable defensive system.
Handicapped by corruption, the construction continued at a slow pace. By mid-July 1756, four bastions with cannon were placed at a height of . Two of the bastions were directed to the northeast and northwest, away from the lake. They were the Reine and Germaine bastions, with two demilunes (an outwork in front of a fort, shaped like a crescent moon) further extending the works on the land side. The two other bastions provided cover for the landing area outside the fort. They were the Joannes and Languedoc bastions, which overlooked the lake to the south. The walls were high and thick, and the whole works was surrounded by a glacis and a dry moat deep and wide. The fort was armed with cannon brought in from Fort St. Frédéric and Montréal.
By fall, the fort was still not finished when an important discovery was made: as soon as the trees of the peninsula were cut, the French realized that the location they chose did not join well with the junction between the two lakes. To correct this, a second but smaller fort was built closer to the lake, known as Redoute des Grenadiers. By January 1757, the fort was still incomplete and composed of earth and moats, mounted by 36 cannon waiting for an attack that the French were anticipating. The French and Canadians did not want to wait passively for the British assault however, and decided to attack first. In April, 8,000 men, under the command of Marquis de Montcalm, mustered at Fort Carillon. In August 1757, they crossed Lake George to take Fort William Henry. The operation was a success and Montcalm brought back his men to Fort Carillon for the summer.
Lower and upper town of Carillon
In 1756, the Canadian and French troops developed "le Jardin du Roi" on the sandy plain below the heights. It was intended to feed the summer garrison charged with constructing the new fort.
By 1758, Fort Carillon and its surroundings were composed of a lower town, an upper town, two hospitals, hangars, and barracks for the soldiers. The lower town itself took the form of a triangle with the fort as its northern tip, and the lower town the southern part of the triangle. There, taverns with wine cellars for the soldiers, bakeries, and nine ovens were located.
It was important to construct batteries for the lower town, and the earth removed for construction of the lower town was taken closer to the fort.
On July 22, 1759, when orders were given to set fire to the town, the Indians could not believe that the French and Canadians would abandon what they had worked so hard to build. Heavy smoke rose from the two hospitals, the hangars of the lower and upper town, and the soldiers' barracks. All was to be abandoned to the advancing British army. None of the buildings were ever reconstructed as was the case in Louisbourg, Cape Breton.
Garrison at Fort Carillon
Les troupes de terre
The troupes de la terre were composed of professional soldiers of the French Army, sent from France to America, who were disciplined and well trained. At Fort Carillon in 1758, these troops were made up of the second battalions of seven regiments sent from different regions of France. The regiments represented in the garrison were those of La Reine (345 soldiers), Guyenne (470 soldiers), Berry (450 soldiers), Béarn (410 soldiers), La Sarre (460 soldiers), Royal Roussillon (480 soldiers), and Languedoc (426 soldiers). The Berry regiment also had a second battalion, but their numbers were not known. The requisite white uniform of the French regular infantry is likely to have been similarly modified for all the battalions. The uniform of the Régiment de Guyenne and Régiment Berry was a bit like the Régiment de la Reine: a white-grey coat with red reversed sleeves with three ornate buttons, red vest, white-grey pants, and black shoes with metallic buckles. However, contrary to La Reine, the tricorn hat was black felt with a gold medallion. The uniforms of the other regiments had blue vests and blue cuffs, except for Régiment de La Sarre which had red vests and blue cuffs. The French musket was of a smaller caliber than the British musket.
Les troupes de la Marine
The Troupes de la Marine were led by Chevalier de Lévis with 150 Canadians. There were also about 250 Canadian Indians at Fort Carillon, for a total of 3,500 soldiers. The French and Canadians often made use of guns placed on the walls of the fort, although for the Battle of Carillon, because the fighting took place 3/4 of a mile from the fort, it was essentially a battle of musket and bayonet.
Fort Carillon 1757
Louis-Joseph de Montcalm, in command of the French troops at Fort Carillon decided to attack Fort William Henry from Fort Carillon. On August 9, 1757, Montcalm, with an army of 7,000 men consisting of French soldiers, Canadian militia, and Indians from various tribes, took Fort William Henry, situated at the southern point of Lake George. The Indians, who thought that an agreement had been made without their consent, revolted. What ensued were violent attacks by the Indians intoxicated by alcohol. There were, according to sources, between 70 and 150 people killed, scalped, and decapitated. After this massacre, the French soldiers accompanied the survivors to Fort Edward to avoid further bloodshed.
After his victory, Montcalm could have taken Fort Edward, but he took instead the destroyed Fort William Henry, and returned to Fort Carillon. The British had been humiliated and Montcalm had shown the compassion of a great general by stopping any further bloodshed by the Indians and accompanying the survivors. However, Montcalm knew that he had to withdraw because of the anger and loss of the Indians as allies, as well as a shortage of provisions.
In 1756, New France had suffered a disastrous crop failure. Montcalm was forced to release the Canadian militiamen who made up more than half of his force. The Canadians were urgently needed to return home for the harvest. However, in 1757, disaster struck again and the harvest was the worst in Canadian history. Conditions were particularly bad around Montreal, which was "the granary of Canada." By late September, the inhabitants were subsisting on a half-pound of bread a day, and those at Quebec on a quarter-pound of bread. A month later, there was no bread at all. "The distress is so great that some of the inhabitants are living on grass," Bougainville wrote. There was a feeling of dispirited despair in the colony and the conclusion was that its military prospects would soon become indefensible.
After a string of French victories in 1757, the British were prompted to organize a large-scale attack on the fort as part of a multifaceted campaign strategy against Canada. In June 1758, British General James Abercrombie began amassing a large force at Fort William Henry in preparation for the military campaign directed up the Champlain Valley. These forces landed at the north end of Lake George, only four miles from the fort, on July 6. The French general Louis-Joseph de Montcalm, who had only arrived at Carillon in late June, engaged his troops in a flurry of work to improve the fort's outer defenses. They built, over two days, entrenchments around a rise between the fort and Mount Hope, about three-quarters of a mile (one kilometer) northwest of the fort, and then constructed an abatis (felled trees with sharpened branches pointing out) below these entrenchments. Abercrombie's failure to advance directly to the fort on July 7 made much of this defensive work possible. Brigadier General George Howe, Abercromby's second-in-command, had been killed when his column encountered a French reconnaissance troop. Abercrombie "felt [Howe's death] most heavily" and may have been unwilling to act immediately.
1757 was therefore a bad year for the British in North America, not only because of their defeat in northern New York, but in the Ohio Valley and Nova Scotia as well. That year, British Prime-Minister William Pitt named General James Wolfe commander of the British troops in North America.
British force sent against Fort Carillon
The British force sent against Fort Carillon was made up of regular British regiments and provincial regiments. The British units were the 27th (Enniskillen) Regiment of Foot, the 42nd (Highland) Regiment of Foot, the 44th Regiment of Foot, 46th Regiment of Foot, the 55th Regiment of Foot, the 1st and 4th battalions of 60th (Royal American) Regiment, and Gage's Light Infantry.
The British regiments were in their customary red coats with the exception of Gage's light infantry, which wore grey. The soldiers were armed with muskets, bayonets, hatchets or tomahawks, and knives. The standard battle issue for British soldiers was 24 rounds of ammunition; Howe may have ordered his soldiers to carry as many rounds as they could. The provincial regiments wore blue, but extensive modification of uniform was made to suit forest warfare with coats being cut back and any form of headgear and equipment permitted. Rogers' Rangers most likely wore their distinctive green. Along with Rogers' Rangers, there were regiments from New York, Massachusetts, Rhode Island, Connecticut, and New Jersey.
Early preparations to the Battle of Carillon (1758)
Although the French government knew that the British had dispatched 8,000 men to North America, Canada had only received 1,800 men, most of whom were assigned to Louisbourg. The army's small size forced Major-General Louis-Joseph de Montcalm, commander of French forces in Canada, to rely on Indians, and although traditional French allies like the Nipissing, Algonkin, and Abenaki contributed a thousand warriors, it was not enough. Determined to capture both Fort William Henry and Fort Edward, Governor Vaudreuil also recruited a thousand warriors from tribes around the upper Great Lakes. The large number of different tribes meant that there were not enough interpreters, and potentially dangerous tribal rivalries needed attention. Dealing with Indians was never an easy matter, but these Indians did not see themselves as subjects of New France, just temporary allies in search of loot. However, even traditional French allies had scalped wounded British when the garrison at Oswego surrendered, and then forced the French to buy back a number of English prisoners.
While Montcalm and Vaudreuil were raising an army, American rangers proved to be too few to stop Indians from raiding the area around Fort William Henry at will. In late June, a powerful Indian raiding party discovered that the road between the two forts was basically unguarded. The French had a clear picture of the strategic situation in June, but six separate scouting parties were unable to penetrate the Indian screen to learn anything more detailed than that there was a large force at Fort Carillon.
The destruction of Fort William Henry should have guaranteed the safety of Fort Carillon, but the British government had made North America the priority, while France had not, so another attempt was made at Fort Carillon.
Battle of Fort Carillon
The British were alarmed by the outcome of losing Fort William Henry, which was their northernmost fort. They decided to prepare for a massive attack against Fort Carillon. Close to 16,000 men (the largest troop deployment ever assembled on the North American continent) was united under the orders of General James Abercrombie, commander in chief of the British forces in North America. The actual officer in charge of the land operation was Brigadier-General Lord Howe. On July 8, 1758, the British army of General James Abercrombie with 16,000 men, (6,000 British soldiers and 10,000 colonials) and their allies the Mohawks (who did not participate in the battle), attacked Fort Carillon commanded by Louis-Joseph de Montcalm with 3,600 soldiers, including 400 Canadians from Lévis and 300 Abenakis. Abercrombie was determined to go ahead with his advancement before he lost the advantage. The British however faced a well-fortified position. While the fort was still under construction,, the French forces dug deep trenches flanked by three batteries of cannon. The fort was also defended by a line of sharpened trees pointed towards the exterior and intertwined with branches and spikes installed during the night on orders from Montcalm. Part of the French forces were dispersed in the adjoining forest. The land around the fort gave way to only one opening, since the fort was surrounded on three sides by water and at half of the rear by a moat.
Abercrombie could have gone around the French, but wanting a quick victory, he decided against this maneuver. Informed by his lieutenant that it would be possible to take the French by assault, he opted for a massive frontal attack. However, the French defenses proved to be well prepared and they were not in danger of enemy fire. The French easily decimated the British ranks with cannon fire. (The French were lined up in 3 rows: the first row fired while the third was reloading their rifles, permitting a strong even fire).
The British soldiers had to climb on each other's shoulders in order to reach the top of the trenches, so it was easy for the French to repulse them as they arrived near the summit of the defenses. Only one time were the British capable of breaking through the French defenses, only to be repulsed by a charge of bayonets. The British tried to take the fort, but were driven back time and time again by the French artillery. Abercrombie sent his men to assail the fort several times; he lost 551 soldiers, 1,356 were wounded and 77 disappeared. They retreated to Fort William Henry. As for the French and Canadians, they had 104 killed and 273 wounded.
British capture
Jeffery Amherst, now commander in chief of the British forces in America with 12,000 soldiers, prepared to move against Fort Carillon on July 21, 1759. On July 22 and 23, Bourlamaque left the fort with 3,600 men and deployed 400 soldiers to set fire to the two hospitals, hangars, barracks, and to the lower part of the town. During four days, from July 23 to 26, the British bombed the fort, using artillery positioned where Captain Hébécourt and his men were retrenched. On July 26, they left at 10 PM, and at midnight, the explosives demolished most of the fort. They then moved out to Fort Saint Frédéric with the regiment of Hébécourt, captain of the La Reine regiment. Bourlamaque did the same to Fort Saint Frédéric on July 31. After that, they moved up to Isle-aux-Noix where Amherst declined to advance against them, preferring to consolidate his forces in the lower Lake Champlain area. In withdrawing, the French used explosives to destroy what they could of the fort and spiked or dumped cannon they did not take with them. The British moved in on July 27 and, though they worked in 1759 and 1760 to repair and improve the fort (which they renamed Fort Ticonderoga), the fort saw no more significant action in the war. After the war, the British garrisoned it with a small number of troops but allowed it to fall into disrepair. Colonel Frederick Haldimand, in command of the fort in 1773, wrote that it was in "ruinous condition".
Photos of Fort Carillon
Legacy of Fort Carillon
The importance of Fort Carillon, the Battle of Carillon, and the Flag of Carillon; have long been a source of pride for French Canadians and to the people of Quebec. The Flag of Quebec was modeled after the Carillon flag and the Fort and its history bring honor to Canada as well as the province of Quebec.
See also
Battle on Snowshoes (1757)
Battle on Snowshoes (1758)
Fort Chambly
Fort Île-aux-Noix
Fort Saint Frédéric
Fort Saint-Jean (Quebec)
Fort Sainte Thérèse
List of French forts in North America
Military of New France
References
External links
Visit to Fort Carillon 2008 http://www.lestafette.net/t1760-vv-86-visite-au-fort-carillon
Béarn regiment at Fort Carillon http://reconstitution.fr/histoire_fort_carillon.html
Artwork depicting Fort Carillon in 1759 http://faculty.marianopolis.edu/c.belanger/quebechistory/encyclopedia/FortCarillon.html
Carillon
Military history of Canada
National Historic Landmarks in New York (state)
Carillon
Carillon
Carillon
New France
1755 establishments in the French colonial empire | [
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230056 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2nd%20Golden%20Raspberry%20Awards | 2nd Golden Raspberry Awards | The 2nd Golden Raspberry Awards were held on March 29, 1982, at an Oscar night potluck party to recognize the worst the film industry had to offer in 1981.
James Coco, nominated for worst supporting actor for his performance in Only When I Laugh, also received a nomination for the Academy Award for Best Supporting Actor for the same performance, a feat not repeated until double supporting actress nominee Amy Irving in 1984.
Winners and nominees
Films with multiple nominations
These films received multiple nominations:
See also
1981 in film
54th Academy Awards
35th British Academy Film Awards
39th Golden Globe Awards
1981 Stinkers Bad Movie Awards
References
External links
Official summary of awards
Nomination and award listing at the Internet Movie Database
Golden Raspberry Awards
02
Golden Raspberry Awards
Golden Raspberry Awards
Golden Raspberry | [
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230057 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/USS%20Austin | USS Austin | Three ships of the United States Navy have been named Austin.
, originally a sloop-of-war in the Texas Navy, was named in honor of Stephen Fuller Austin.
, a destroyer escort, honored Chief Carpenter John Arnold Austin.
, was an amphibious transport dock named for Austin, Texas.
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230061 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Antispasmodic | Antispasmodic | An antispasmodic (synonym: spasmolytic) is a pharmaceutical drug or other agent that suppresses muscle spasms.
Smooth muscle spasm
One type of antispasmodics is used for smooth muscle relaxation, especially in tubular organs of the gastrointestinal tract. The effect is to prevent spasms of the stomach, intestine or urinary bladder.
Both dicyclomine and hyoscyamine are antispasmodic due to their anticholinergic action. Both of these drugs have general side effects and can worsen gastroesophageal reflux disease.
Mebeverine is a muscolotropic spasmolytic with a strong and selective action on the smooth muscle spasm of the gastrointestinal tract, particularly of the colon. It does not have the acetylecholine side effect commonly seen in an anticholinergic antispasmodic.
Papaverine is an opium alkaloid used to treat visceral spasms, erectile dysfunction and investigated as antipsychotic drug due to its potency to inhibit phosphodiesterase PDE10A.
Peppermint oil has been traditionally used as an antispasmodic, and a review of studies on the topic found that it "could be efficacious for symptom relief in IBS" (as an antispasmodic) although more carefully controlled studies are needed. A later study showed it is an effective antispasmodic when test-applied topically to the intestine during endoscopy.
Bamboo shoots have been used for gastrointestinal and antispasmodic symptoms.
Anisotropine, atropine, clidinium bromide are also the most commonly used modern antispasmodics.
Skeletal muscle spasm
Pharmacotherapy may be used for acute musculoskeletal conditions when physical therapy is unavailable or has not been fully successful. Another class of antispasmodics for such treatment includes cyclobenzaprine, carisoprodol, diazepam, orphenadrine, and tizanidine. Meprobamate is another effective antispasmodic which was first introduced for clinical usage in 1955 mainly as an anxiolytic and soon afterward became a blockbuster psychotropic drug. While clinical usage of meprobamate has largely become obsolete since the development of benzodiazepines due to its liability for developing physical dependence and severe toxicity during instances of acute overdose, it is still manufactured and available by prescription. Carisoprodol is similar to meprobamate as they both belong to the carbamate drug class and meprobamate is a clinically significant active metabolite of carisoprodol, although carisoprodol itself possesses additional antispasmodic properties which are distinct from its metabolites. Effectiveness has not been clearly shown for metaxalone, methocarbamol, chlorzoxazone, baclofen, or dantrolene. Applicable conditions include acute back or neck pain, or pain after an injury.
Spasm may also be seen in movement disorders featuring spasticity in neurologic conditions such as cerebral palsy, multiple sclerosis, and spinal cord disease. Medications are commonly used for spastic movement disorders, but research has not shown functional benefit for some drugs. Some studies have shown that medications have been effective in decreasing spasticity, but that this has not been accompanied by functional benefits. Medications such as baclofen, tizanidine, and dantrolene have been used.
See also
Muscarinic antagonist
Parasympatholytic
Phloroglucinol
Spasticity
References
External links
Drugs acting on the gastrointestinal system and metabolism | [
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230066 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Skeppsholmen | Skeppsholmen | Skeppsholmen is one of the islands of Stockholm. It is connected with Blasieholmen and Kastellholmen by bridges. It is accessible by foot from Kungsträdgården, past the Grand Hôtel and Nationalmuseum, by bus number 65, or by boat from Slussen, Djurgården or Nybroplan.
Positioned strategically at the Baltic Sea entrance to Stockholm, it has traditionally been the location of several military buildings. Today, the military presence is low, and several museums can be found there instead, such as the Museum of Modern Art (Moderna museet), the main modern art museum of Stockholm, the architectural museum in the same building, and the East-Asian museum (Östasiatiska Muséet). It is also home to the Teater Galeasen. On the southern shore is the old sailing ship af Chapman which is now used as a youth hostel. Stockholm Jazz Festival is a popular annual summer event held on Skeppsholmen.
Eric Ericsonhallen (formerly Skeppsholmen Church) was the venue for an official dinner for foreign royalty, celebrating the Wedding of Victoria, Crown Princess of Sweden, and Daniel Westling in June 2010.
See also
Buildings on Skeppsholmen
Admiralty House (Stockholm)
Exercishuset
Intendenturförrådet
Långa raden
Prästgården
Sjökarteverket
Royal Swedish Naval Academy
Tyghuset
Bridges to Skeppsholmen
Kastellholmsbron
Skeppsholmsbron
References
External links
Districts of Stockholm
Islands of Stockholm
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230072 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Four-force | Four-force | In the special theory of relativity, four-force is a four-vector that replaces the classical force.
In special relativity
The four-force is defined as the rate of change in the four-momentum of a particle with respect to the particle's proper time:
.
For a particle of constant invariant mass , where is the four-velocity, so we can relate the four-force with the four-acceleration as in Newton's second law:
.
Here
and
where , and are 3-space vectors describing the velocity, the momentum of the particle and the force acting on it respectively.
Including thermodynamic interactions
From the formulae of the previous section it appears that the time component of the four-force is the power expended, , apart from relativistic corrections . This is only true in purely mechanical situations, when heat exchanges vanish or can be neglected.
In the full thermo-mechanical case, not only work, but also heat contributes to the change in energy, which is the time component of the energy–momentum covector. The time component of the four-force includes in this case a heating rate , besides the power . Note that work and heat cannot be meaningfully separated, though, as they both carry inertia. This fact extends also to contact forces, that is, to the stress–energy–momentum tensor.
Therefore, in thermo-mechanical situations the time component of the four-force is not proportional to the power but has a more generic expression, to be given case by case, which represents the supply of internal energy from the combination of work and heat, and which in the Newtonian limit becomes .
In general relativity
In general relativity the relation between four-force, and four-acceleration remains the same, but the elements of the four-force are related to the elements of the four-momentum through a covariant derivative with respect to proper time.
In addition, we can formulate force using the concept of coordinate transformations between different coordinate systems. Assume that we know the correct expression for force in a coordinate system at which the particle is momentarily at rest. Then we can perform a transformation to another system to get the corresponding expression of force. In special relativity the transformation will be a Lorentz transformation between coordinate systems moving with a relative constant velocity whereas in general relativity it will be a general coordinate transformation.
Consider the four-force acting on a particle of mass which is momentarily at rest in a coordinate system. The relativistic force in another coordinate system moving with constant velocity , relative to the other one, is obtained using a Lorentz transformation:
where .
In general relativity, the expression for force becomes
with covariant derivative . The equation of motion becomes
where is the Christoffel symbol. If there is no external force, this becomes the equation for geodesics in the curved space-time. The second term in the above equation, plays the role of a gravitational force. If is the correct expression for force in a freely falling frame , we can use then the equivalence principle to write the four-force in an arbitrary coordinate :
Examples
In special relativity, Lorentz four-force (four-force acting to charged particle situated in electromagnetic field) can be expressed as:
,
where
is the electromagnetic tensor,
is the four-velocity, and
is the electric charge.
See also
four-vector
four-velocity
four-acceleration
four-momentum
four-gradient
References
Four-vectors
Force | [
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230073 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ofwat | Ofwat | The Water Services Regulation Authority, or Ofwat, is the body responsible for economic regulation of the privatised water and sewerage industry in England and Wales. Ofwat's main statutory duties include protecting the interests of consumers, securing the long-term resilience of water supply and wastewater systems, and ensuring that companies carry out their functions and are able to finance them.
Overview
Ofwat primarily sets limits on the prices charged for water and sewerage services, taking into account proposed capital investment schemes (such as building new wastewater treatment works) and expected operational efficiency gains. The most recent review was carried out in 2014; reviews are carried out every five years, with the next due to take place in December 2019.
The Water Act 2014 extended retail competition to all non-household customers of English water companies from April 2017 and provided for possible future competition in wholesale markets. Ofwat's role includes regulating such water and wastewater markets and promoting effective competition wherever appropriate.
Ofwat consists of a board, plus an office of staff which carries out work delegated to them by the board.
The Environment Agency is responsible for environmental regulation, and the Drinking Water Inspectorate for regulating drinking water quality. Water in Northern Ireland is regulated by the Northern Ireland Authority for Utility Regulation, and the supply and treatment is carried out by the government-owned Northern Ireland Water. There is no separate charge for water for residents or companies in Northern Ireland. Instead, water is paid for by the rates system. The water industry regulator in Scotland is the Water Industry Commission for Scotland.
History
Ofwat was set up in 1988, at the same time as 10 water authorities in England and Wales were privatised by flotation on the stock market. Its duties and powers are defined by the Water Industry Act 1991. The resulting companies are known as "water and sewerage companies"; this distinguishes them from around a dozen smaller companies which only provide water services, which were already in private hands in 1989 (having remained in private ownership since their creation in the 19th century). The water-only companies provide water to around 25% of the population in England and Wales.
Before 1 April 2006, all regulatory powers rested with the Director General of Water Services. The staff who supported the role of the Director General were collectively known as the "Office of Water Services", which was abbreviated to "Ofwat". Ian Byatt was the Director General between 1989 and 2000; Philip Fletcher was Director General until 2006 and chairman until 2012. On 1 April 2006, the Director General was replaced by the Water Services Regulation Authority. The name "Office of Water Services" is no longer used, as it had no legal basis.
Key people
The current chairman is Jonson Cox, who took up his position in November 2012. The current interim chief executive (effective April 2021) is David Black, replacing Rachel Fletcher who was chief executive from January 2018.
Price reviews
Every five years, Ofwat set limits on the prices which water companies in England and Wales can charge to their customers; this process is known as a price review or periodic review. Ofwat has carried out six price reviews so far – in 1994 (PR94), 1999 (PR99), 2004 (PR04), 2009 (PR09), 2014 (PR14) and 2019 (PR19). The most recent, PR19, set price limits for 2020–2025. Ofwat sets a so-called "K factor" in companies' licences which determine the average value of price rises above the rate of inflation (RPI) for the next five year asset management plan period.
See also
List of United Kingdom water companies
Water supply and sanitation in England and Wales
References
External links
Water supply and sanitation in England and Wales
Water in Wales
Regulators of the United Kingdom
2006 establishments in the United Kingdom
Organizations established in 2006 | [
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230074 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/August%20Palm | August Palm | August Teodor Palm (5 February 1849 – 14 March 1922) was a Swedish socialist activist and a key person in introducing the then revolutionary social democratic labour movement in Sweden.
Life
Early activism
The son of a school teacher near Malmö, he was orphaned at the age of 10, after which he was trained to be a tailor. At the age of 18, he made an educational trip through Denmark and Germany, after which, in 1874, he settled as a tailor in Haderslev in Northern Schleswig. Also in 1874 he married Johanna Larsson.
During his travels in Germany, he learnt about socialist ideas, and in 1877 he was expelled from that country because of his socialist agitation. He then stayed in Storheddinge in Denmark until 1881, when he returned to his native Sweden. On 6 November of the same year, while in Malmö, Palm gave the first socialist speech ever in Sweden, and started on a political tour to Gothenburg and Stockholm.
Agitator
In March 1882, Palm started the newspaper Folkviljan (Will of the People) in Malmö, and acted as its editor until 1885, when it was discontinued. Palm moved to Stockholm and on 25 September 1885 began printing the newspaper Social-Demokraten (The Social Democrat), acting as its editor for its first year. From the fall of 1886, Hjalmar Branting took over as editor-in-chief. The government sent him to prison for three months in 1889 on account of statements made in the socialist press.
Palm's greatest contribution was as an agitator for trade union and socialist ideas, constantly touring around the country, often making speeches by the roadside - since he was barred from using lecture halls. Another of his messages, and perhaps the most important, was to expose the liberal middle-class discourse, with its claim to originate with "friends of the workers", as self-seeking and power-hungry careerism. Palm's constant argument was that working-class members were fully competent to look after their own interests.
Visit to the US
In 1900, August Palm was invited by the Scandinavian club of the Socialist Labor Party of America in Providence, Rhode Island, in co-operation with similar clubs in New York City and Brooklyn, to visit the United States, as a means to attract more members to these clubs. The trip started on 1 September 1900 and is described in the Swedish book Ögonblicksbilder från en tripp till Amerika (Snapshots from a Trip to America), published in 1901.
Books by August Palm
Några drag ur mitt lif ("Some Excerpts from My Life"), 1899
Ögonblicksbilder från en tripp till Amerika ("Snapshots from a Trip to America"), 1901
Ur en agitators lif ("From the Life of an Agitator"), 1904
See also
Swedish Social Democratic Party
Swedish labour movement
Atterdag Wermelin
The Branting Monument
Torsten Billman August Palm is the central historical figure in buon fresco painting Development of Society (1947) in The People's House in Gävle.
External links
August Palm Internet Archive at Marxists.org
1849 births
1922 deaths
People from Malmö
Swedish journalists
Swedish political writers
Swedish prisoners and detainees
Swedish socialists
Swedish Social Democratic Party politicians
19th-century travel writers
Swedish travel writers | [
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230078 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alah%C3%A4rm%C3%A4 | Alahärmä | Alahärmä is a former municipality of Finland. It was consolidated, together with Kortesjärvi and Ylihärmä, to Kauhava on 1 January 2009.
It is located in the province of Western Finland and is part of the Southern Ostrobothnia region. The municipality had a population of 4,661 (as of 31 December 2008) and covered a land area of . The population density was .
Alahärmä stands in connection with the coast and the Gulf of Bothnia by the river Lapuanjoki. It was probably in combination with the fertile earth important for the first settlers in the area. The municipality, situated northeast of the town Vaasa, is dominated by the beautiful countryside and nature, but there are also small villages filled with activities. The companies are mainly within the metal industry, fur-farming, starch and milk production. The unemployment rate is one of the lowest in Finland.
There is also a supply of cultural activities for instance the annual folk festival "Härmälääset Häjyylyt", theatre, art exhibitions, concerts. The local greystone church was built in 1903.
Alahärmä is also the home of the northernmost wooden rollercoaster in the world, named Thunderbird at PowerPark resort and amusement park. The resort area has also hotels, camping area, restaurants, the largest indoor go-kart track in Europe and The Mika Salo Circuit outdoor go-kart track (designed by Mika Salo)
The municipality that is unilingually Finnish abuts areas in Ostrobothnia with mixed Swedish and Finnish speaking population.
Villages
Ekola, Hakola, Hanhila, Hanhimäki, Hilli, Huhtamäki, Kennetti, Kirkonkylä, Kivihuhta, Kojola, Kuoppala, Köykkäri, Lahdenkylä, Ojala, Poromaa, Pelkkala, Perkiömäki, Pesola, Vakkuri, Voltti, Yliviitala
References
External links
Power Park resort & Mika Salo Circuit
Härmänmaa Museums
Populated places disestablished in 2009
2009 disestablishments in Finland
Former municipalities of Finland
Kauhava | [
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230079 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cross-cultural%20communication | Cross-cultural communication | Cross-cultural communication is a field of study that looks at how people from differing cultural backgrounds communicate, in similar and different ways among themselves, and how they endeavor to communicate across cultures. Intercultural communication is a related field of study.
Origins and culture
During the Cold War, the economy of the United States was largely self-contained because the world was polarized into two separate and competing powers: the East and the West. However, changes and advancements in economic relationships, political systems, and technological options began to break down old cultural barriers. Business transformed from individual-country capitalism to global capitalism. Thus, the study of cross-cultural communication was originally found within businesses and government, both seeking to expand globally. Businesses began to offer language training to their employees and programs were developed to train employees to understand how to act when abroad. With this also came the development of the Foreign Service Institute, or FSI, through the Foreign Service Act of 1946, where government employees received training and prepared for overseas posts. There began also implementation of a "world view" perspective in the curriculum of higher education.
In 1974, the International Progress Organization, with the support of UNESCO and under the auspices of Senegalese President Léopold Sédar Senghor, held an international conference on "The Cultural Self-comprehension of Nations" (Innsbruck, Austria, 27–29 July 1974) which called upon United Nations member states "to organize systematic and global comparative research on the different cultures of the world" and "to make all possible efforts for a more intensive training of diplomats in the field of international cultural co-operation ... and to develop the cultural aspects of their foreign policy."
There has become an increasing pressure for universities across the world to incorporate intercultural and international understanding and knowledge into the education of their students. International literacy and cross-cultural understanding have become critical to a country's cultural, technological, economic, and political health. It has become essential for universities to educate, or more importantly, "transform", to function effectively and comfortably in a world characterized by close, multi-faceted relationships and permeable borders. Students must possess a certain level of global competence to understand the world they live in and how they fit into this world. This level of global competence starts at ground level- the university and its faculty- with how they generate and transmit cross-cultural knowledge and information to students.
Interdisciplinary orientation
Cross-cultural communication endeavors to bring together the relatively unrelated fields of cultural anthropology with established areas of communication. At its core, cross-cultural communication involves understanding the ways in which culturally distinct individuals communicate with each other. Its charge is to also produce some guidelines with which people from different cultures can better communicate with each other.
Cross-cultural communication requires an interdisciplinary approach. It involves literacy in fields such as anthropology, cultural studies, psychology and communication. The field has also moved both toward the treatment of interethnic relations, and toward the study of communication strategies used by co-cultural populations, i.e., communication strategies used to deal with majority or mainstream populations.
The study of languages other than one's own can serve not only to help one understand what we as humans have in common, but also to assist in the understanding of the diversity which underlines our languages' methods of constructing and organizing knowledge. Such understanding has profound implications with respect to developing a critical awareness of social relationships. Understanding social relationships and the way other cultures work is the groundwork of successful globalization business affairs.
Language socialization can be broadly defined as "an investigation of how language both presupposes and creates anew, social relations in cultural context". It is imperative that the speaker understands the grammar of a language, as well as how elements of language are socially situated in order to reach communicative competence. Human experience is culturally relevant, so elements of language are also culturally relevant. One must carefully consider semiotics and the evaluation of sign systems to compare cross-cultural norms of communication. There are several potential problems that come with language socialization, however. Sometimes people can over-generalize or label cultures with stereotypical and subjective characterizations. Another primary concern with documenting alternative cultural norms revolves around the fact that no social actor uses language in ways that perfectly match normative characterizations. A methodology for investigating how an individual uses language and other semiotic activity to create and use new models of conduct and how this varies from the cultural norm should be incorporated into the study of language socialization.
Global rise
With increasing globalization and international trade, it is unavoidable that different cultures will meet, conflict, and blend together. People from different culture find it is difficult to communicate not only due to language barriers, but also are affected by culture styles. For instance, in individualistic cultures, such as in the United States, Canada, and Western Europe, an independent figure or self is dominant. This independent figure is characterized by a sense of self relatively distinct from others and the environment. In interdependent cultures, usually identified as Asian, Latin American, African, and Southern European cultures, an interdependent figure of self is dominant. There is a much greater emphasis on the interrelatedness of the individual to others and the environment; the self is meaningful only (or primarily) in the context of social relationships, duties, and roles. In some degree, the effect brought by cultural difference override the language gap. This culture style difference contributes to one of the biggest challenges for cross-culture communication. Effective communication with people of different cultures is especially challenging. Cultures provide people with ways of thinking—ways of seeing, hearing, and interpreting the world. Thus the same words can mean different things to people from different cultures, even when they speak the "same" language. When the languages are different, and translation has to be used to communicate, the potential for misunderstandings increases. The study of cross-cultural communication is a global research area. As a result, cultural differences in the study of cross-cultural communication can already be found. For example, cross-cultural communication is generally considered part of communication studies in the US, but is emerging as a sub-field of applied linguistics in the UK.
Cross-cultural communications in the workplace
Corporations have grown into new countries, regions, and continents around the world, which has caused people of various cultures to move and learn to adapt to their environment. This has led to cross-cultural communication becoming more important in the work environment. Over the past few decades, many Western corporations have expanded into Sub-Saharan Africa. James Baba Abugre conducted a study on western expatriates who have moved to work in Ghana. Abugre interviewed both the expatriates and Ghanaians, and found that cultural competence is essential to working with others of different cultures in order to avoid conflict between the Western and Eastern cultural norms. It is important that workers understand both verbal and non-verbal communication styles. Expatriates who move to work in a culture that is not their own should be prepared, be properly trained, and have access to educational resources to help them succeed and to appreciate the culture they have moved into, in order to navigate it effectively. Abugre's main finding is that cultural competency is important to cross-cultural communication.
Yaila Zotzmann, Dimitri van der Linden, and Knut Wyra looked at Asia, Europe, and North America. Together they had a focus on employees in each continent with a focus on error orientation. The authors define this as "one's attitude toward dealing with, communicating about, and learning from errors". They studied employees from China, Germany, Hungary, Japan, Malaysia, the Netherlands, the United States of America, and Vietnam. Country differences, cultural values, and personality factors were also accounted for. The study was quantitave and looked at a single organization that had offices in eight countries. Results showed error orientation varied based on the culture they were in. Americans tend to be more open to errors and learn from them as well as speaking about their mistakes, whereas Japanese subjects had the lowest tolerance for errors. The Japanese showed concern about how it may impact those around them and the organization. The study also referred to Hofstede's cultural dimensions theory. The findings show a potential relationship between error orientation and an employee's culture. Other important factors are the country they live in or personality dimensions.
Cross-cultural communications and boundaries are present in all sectors. In Europe, cross-cultural communication in primary care is important, for example in dealing with migrants in the present European migrant crisis. Maria van den Muijsenbergh conducted a study on primary care in Europe as well as a new program, RESTORE. The program stands for: "REsearch into implementation STrategies to support patients of different ORigins and language background in a variety of European primary care settings". The countries participating are Ireland, England, Scotland, Austria, the Netherlands, and Greece. Muijsenbergh found in her study that there was a range of issues in primary care for migrants in Europe. There are both language and culture barriers between medical professionals and patients, which has an impact on their communication. The study also found that migrants were more likely to use emergency services, which was consistent in countries with a steady influx of migrants or few migrants, and during times of economic prosperity or recession. Muijsenbergh found that migrants have worse health than native Europeans, with her findings suggesting that this is a result of the language and cultural barriers. She recommends medical professionals use different training and educational resources in order to become cross-cultural communicators.
Incorporation into college programs
The application of cross-cultural communication theory to foreign language education is increasingly appreciated around the world. Cross-cultural communication classes can now be found within foreign language departments of some universities, while other schools are placing cross-cultural communication programs in their departments of education.
With the increasing pressures and opportunities of globalization, the incorporation of international networking alliances has become an "essential mechanism for the internationalization of higher education". Many universities from around the world have taken great strides to increase intercultural understanding through processes of organizational change and innovations. In general, university processes revolve around four major dimensions which include: organizational change, curriculum innovation, staff development, and student mobility. Ellingboe emphasizes these four major dimensions with his own specifications for the internationalization process. His specifications include: (1) college leadership; (2) faculty members' international involvement in activities with colleagues, research sites, and institutions worldwide; (3) the availability, affordability, accessibility, and transferability of study abroad programs for students; (4) the presence and integration of international students, scholars, and visiting faculty into campus life; and (5) international co-curricular units (residence halls, conference planning centers, student unions, career centers, cultural immersion and language houses, student activities, and student organizations).
Above all, universities need to make sure that they are open and responsive to changes in the outside environment. In order for internationalization to be fully effective, the university (including all staff, students, curriculum, and activities) needs to be current with cultural changes, and willing to adapt to these changes. As stated by Ellingboe, internationalization "is an ongoing, future-oriented, multidimensional, interdisciplinary, leadership-driven vision that involves many stakeholders working to change the internal dynamics of an institution to respond and adapt appropriately to an increasingly diverse, globally focused, ever-changing external environment". New distance learning technologies, such as interactive teleconferencing, enable students located thousands of miles apart to communicate and interact in a virtual classroom.
Research has indicated that certain themes and images such as children, animals, life cycles, relationships, and sports can transcend cultural differences, and may be used in international settings such as traditional and online university classrooms to create common ground among diverse cultures (Van Hook, 2011).
Many Master of Science in Management programs have an internationalization specialization which may place a focus on cross-cultural communication. For example, the Ivey Business School has a course titled Cross Cultural Management.
Jadranka Zlomislić, Ljerka Rados Gverijeri, and Elvira Bugaric study inter-cultural competency of students. As globalization progresses the world has become more interconnected, leading to job and study opportunities abroad in different countries and cultures, where the students are surrounded by a language that is not their mother tongue. Findings suggest that the internet is helpful but, not the answer; students should enroll in language and inter-cultural courses in order to fight stereotypes and develop inter-cultural competence and make them into better cross-cultural communicators.
Cross-cultural communication gives opportunities to share ideas, experiences, and different perspectives and perception by interacting with local people.
Challenges in cross-language qualitative research
Cross-language research refers to research involving two or more languages. Specifically, it can refer to: 1) researchers working with participants in a language that they are not fluent in, or; 2) researchers working with participants utilizing a language that is neither of their native languages, or; 3) translation of research or findings in another language, or; 4) researchers and participants speak the same language (not English). However, the research process and findings are directed to an English-speaking audience.
Cross-language issues are of growing concern in research of all methodological forms, but they raise particular concerns for qualitative research. Qualitative researchers seek to develop a comprehensive understanding of human behavior, using inductive approaches to investigate the meanings people attribute to their behavior, actions, and interactions with others. In other words, qualitative researchers seek to gain insights into life experiences by exploring the depth, richness, and complexity inherent to human phenomenon. To gather data, qualitative researchers use direct observation and immersion, interviews, open-ended surveys, focus groups, content analysis of visual and textual material, and oral histories. Qualitative research studies involving cross-language issues are particularly complex in that they require investigating meanings, interpretations, symbols, and the processes and relations of social life.
Although a range of scholars have dedicated their attention to challenges in conducting qualitative studies in cross-cultural contexts, no methodological consensus has emerged from these studies. For instance, Edwards noticed how the inconsistent or inappropriate use of translators or interpreters can threaten the trustworthiness of cross-language qualitative research and the applicability of the translated findings on participant populations. Researchers who fail to address the methodological issues translators/interpreters present in a cross-language qualitative research can decrease the trustworthiness of the data as well as compromise the overall rigor of the study Temple and Edwards also describe the important role of translation in research, pointing out that language is not just a tool or technical label for conveying concepts; Indeed, language incorporates values and beliefs and carries cultural, social, and political meanings of a particular social reality that may not have a conceptual equivalence in the language into which will be translated. In the same veing, it has also been noted that the same words can mean different things in different cultures. For instance, as Temple et al. observe, the words we choose matter. Thus, it is crucial to give attention to how researchers describe the use of translators and/or interpreters since it reflects their competence in addressing language as a methodological issue.
Historical discussion of cross-language issues and qualitative research
In 1989, Saville-Troike was one of the first to turn to apply the use of qualitative research (in the form of ethnographic investigation) to the topic of cross-cultural communication. Using this methodology, Saville-Troike demonstrated that for successful communication to take place, a person must have the appropriate linguistic knowledge, interaction skills, and cultural knowledge. In a cross-cultural context, one must be aware of differences in norms of interaction and interpretation, values and attitudes, as well as cognitive maps and schemata. Regarding cross-cultural interviews, subsequently Stanton argued in 1996 that in order to avoid misunderstandings, the interviewer should try to walk in the other person's shoes. In other words, the interviewer needed to pay attention to the point of view of the interviewee, a notion dubbed as "connected knowing," which refers to a clear and undistorted understanding of the perspective of the interviewee.
Relationship between cross-language issues and qualitative research
As one of the primary methods for collecting rich and detailed information in qualitative research, interviews conducted in cross-cultural linguistic contexts raise a number of issues. As a form of data collection, interviews provide researchers with insight into how individuals understand and narrate aspects of their lives. Challenges may arise, however, when language barriers exist between researchers and participants. In multilingual contexts, the study of language differences is an essential part of qualitative research. van Ness et al. claim that language differences may have consequences for the research process and outcome, because concepts in one language may be understood differently in another language. For these authors, language is central in all phases of qualitative research, ranging from data collection to analysis and representation of the textual data in publications.
In addition, as van Ness et al. observe, challenges of translation can be from the perspective that interpretation of meaning is the core of qualitative research. Interpretation and representation of meaning may be challenging in any communicative act; however, they are more complicated in cross-cultural contexts where interlingual translation is necessary.). Interpretation and understanding of meanings are essential in qualitative research, not only for the interview phase, but also for the final phase when meaning will be represented to the audience through oral or written text. Temple and Edwards claim that without a high level of translated understanding, qualitative research cannot shed light on different perspectives, circumstances that could shut out the voices of those who could enrich and challenge our understandings.
Current state of affairs of cross-language studies in qualitative research
According to Temple et al., a growing number of researchers are conducting studies in English language societies with people who speak little or no English. However, few of these researchers acknowledge the influence of interpreters and translators. In addition, as Temple et al. noticed, little attention is given to the involvement of interpreters in research interviews and even less attention to language difference in focus group research with people who do not speak English. An exception would be the work of Esposito. There is some work on the role of interpreters and translators in relation to best practice and models of provision, such as that of Thomson et al., However, there is a body of literature aimed at English speaking health and social welfare professionals on how to work with interpreters.
Temple and Edwards point out the absence of technically focused literature on translation. This is problematic because there is strong evidence that communication across languages involves more than just a literal transfer of information. In this regard, Simon claims that the translator is not someone who simply offers words in a one-to-one exchange. Rather, the translator is someone who negotiates meanings in relation to a specific context. These meanings cannot be found within the language of translation, but they are embedded in the negotiation process, which is part of their continual reactivation. For this reason, the translator needs to make continuous decisions about the cultural meanings language conveys. Thus, the process of meaning transfer has more to do with reconstructing the value of a term, rather than its cultural inscription.
Significant contributions to cross-language studies in qualitative research
Jacques Derrida is widely acknowledged to be one of the most significant contributors to the issue of language in qualitative social research. The challenges that arise in studies involving people who speak multiple languages have also been acknowledged.
Today, the main contributions concerning issues of translation and interpretation come from the nursing field. In a globalized era, setting the criteria for qualitative research that is linguistically and culturally representative of study participants is crucial for improving the quality of care provided by health care professionals. Scholars in the health field, like Squires, provide useful guidelines for systematically evaluating the methodological issues in cross-language research in order to address language barriers between researchers and participants.
Cross-language concerns in qualitative research
Squires defines cross-language as the process that occurs when a language barrier is present between the researcher and participants. This barrier is frequently mediated using a translator or interpreter. When the research involves two languages, interpretation issues might result in loss of meaning and thus loss of the validity of the qualitative study. As Oxley et al. point out, in a multilingual setting interpretation challenges arise when researcher and participants speak the same non-English native language, but the results of the study are intended for an English-speaking audience. For instance, when interviews, observation, and other methods of gathering data are used in cross-cultural environments, the data collection and analysis processes become more complicated due to the inseparability of the human experience and the language spoken in a culture Oxley et al. (2017). Therefore, it is crucial for researchers to be clear on what they know and believe. In other words, they should clarify their position in the research process.
In this context, positionality refers to the ethical and relational issues the researchers face when choosing a language over another to communicate their findings. For example, in his study on Chinese international students in a Canadian university, Li considers the ethical and relational issues of language choice experienced when working with the Chinese and English language. In this case, it is important that the researcher offers a rationale behind his/her language choice. Thus, as Squires observes, language plays a significant role in cross-cultural studies; it helps participants represent their sense of self.
Similarly, qualitative research interviews involve a continuous reflection on language choices because they may impact the research process and outcome. In his work, Lee illustrates the central role that reflexivity plays in setting researcher's priorities and his/her involvement in the translation process. Specifically, his study focuses on the dilemma that researchers speaking the same language of participants face when the findings are intended to an English-speaking audience only. Lee introduces the article by arguing that "Research conducted by English-speaking researchers about other language speaking subjects is essentially cross-cultural and often multilingual, particularly with QR that involves participants communicating in languages other than English" (p. 53). Specifically, Lee addresses the problems that arise in making sense of interview responses in Mandarin, preparing transcriptions of interviews, and translating the Mandarin/Chinese data for an English-speaking/reading audience. Lee's work then, demonstrates the importance of reflexivity in cross-language research since the researcher's involvement in the language translation can impact the research process and outcome.
Therefore, in order to ensure trustworthiness, which is a measure of the rigor of the study, Lincoln & Guba, Sutsrino et al. argue that it is necessary to minimize translation errors, provide detail accounts of the translation, involve more than one translator, and remain open to inquiry from those seeking access to the translation process. For example, in research conducted in the educational context, Sutsrino et al. recommend bilingual researchers the use of inquiry audit for establishing trustworthiness. Specifically, investigators can require an outside person to review and examine the translation process and the data analysis in order to ensure that the translation is accurate, and the findings are consistent.
International educational organizations
The Society for Intercultural Education, Training and Research
SIETAR is an educational membership organization for those professionals who are concerned with the challenges and rewards of intercultural relations. SIETAR was founded in the United States in 1974 by a few dedicated individuals to draw together professionals engaged in various forms of intercultural learning and engagement research and training. SIETAR now has loosely connected chapters in numerous countries and a large international membership.
WYSE International
WYSE International is a worldwide educational charity specializing in education and development for emerging leaders established in 1989. It is a non-governmental organization associated with the Department of Public Information of the United Nations.
Over 3000 participants from 110 countries have attended their courses, they have run in 5 continents. Its flagship International Leadership Programme is a 12-day residential course for 30 people from on average 20 different countries (aged 18 – 35).
WYSE International's website states its aims are to:
"provide education independently of political, religious or social backgrounds and promote visionary leadership capable of responding to evolving world needs."
Middle East Entrepreneurs of Tomorrow
Middle East Entrepreneurs of Tomorrow is an innovative educational initiative aimed at creating a common professional language between Israeli and Palestinian young leaders. Israeli and Palestinian students are selected through an application process and work in small bi-national teams to develop technology and business projects for local impact. Through this process of cross-cultural communication, students build mutual respect, cultural competence and understanding of each others.
Theories
The main theories for cross-cultural communication are based on the work done looking at value differences between different cultures, especially the works of Edward T. Hall, Richard D. Lewis, Geert Hofstede, and Fons Trompenaars. Clifford Geertz was also a contributor to this field. Also Jussi V. Koivisto's model on cultural crossing in internationally operating organizations elaborates from this base of research.
These theories have been applied to a variety of different communication theories and settings, including general business and management (Fons Trompenaars and Charles Hampden-Turner) and marketing (Marieke de Mooij, Stephan Dahl). There have also been several successful educational projects which concentrate on the practical applications of these theories in cross-cultural situations.
These theories have been criticized mainly by management scholars (e.g. Nigel Holden) for being based on the culture concept derived from 19th century cultural anthropology and emphasizing on culture-as-difference and culture-as-essence. Another criticism has been the uncritical way Hofstede's dimensions are served up in textbooks as facts (Peter W. Cardon). There is a move to focus on 'cross-cultural interdependence' instead of the traditional views of comparative differences and similarities between cultures. Cross-cultural management is increasingly seen as a form of knowledge management. While there is debate in academia, over what cross-cultural teams can do in practice, a meta-analysis by Günter Stahl, Martha Maznevski, Andreas Voigt and Karsten Jonsen on research done on multicultural groups, concluded "Research suggests that cultural diversity leads to process losses through task conflict and decreased social integration, but to process gains through increased creativity and satisfaction."
Aspects
There are several parameters that may be perceived differently by people of different cultures:
High- and low-context cultures: context is the most important cultural dimension and also difficult to define. The idea of context in culture was advanced by the anthropologist Edward T Hall. He divides culture into two main groups: High and Low context cultures. He refers to context as the stimuli, environment or ambiance surrounding the environment. Depending on how a culture relies on the three points to communicate their meaning, will place them in either high or low- context cultures. For example, Hall goes on to explain that low-context cultures assume that the individuals know very little about what they are being told, and therefore must be given a lot of background information. High-context cultures assume the individual is knowledgeable about the subject and has to be given very little background information.
Nonverbal, oral and written: the main goal behind improving intercultural audiences is to pay special attention to specific areas of communication to enhance the effectiveness of the intercultural messages. The specific areas are broken down into three sub categories: nonverbal, oral and written messages.
Nonverbal contact involves everything from something as obvious as eye contact and facial expressions to more discreet forms of expression such as the use of space. Experts have labeled the term kinesics to mean communicating through body movement. Huseman, author of Business Communication, explains that the two most prominent ways of communication through kinesics are eye contact and facial expressions.
Eye contact, Huseman goes on to explain, is the key factor in setting the tone between two individuals and greatly differs in meaning between cultures. In the Americas and Western Europe, eye contact is interpreted the same way, conveying interest and honesty. People who avoid eye contact when speaking are viewed in a negative light, withholding information and lacking in general confidence. However, in the Middle East, Africa, and especially Asia, eye contact is seen as disrespectful and even challenging of one's authority. People who make eye contact, but only briefly, are seen as respectful and courteous.
Facial expressions are their own language by comparison and universal throughout all cultures. Dale Leathers, for example, states that facial expression can communicate ten basic classes of meaning.
The final part to nonverbal communication lies in our gestures, and can be broken down into five subcategories:
Emblems
Emblems refer to sign language (such as, thumbs up, one of the most recognized symbols in the world)
Illustrators
Illustrators mimic what is spoken (such as gesturing how much time is left by holding up a certain number of fingers).
Regulators
Regulators act as a way of conveying meaning through gestures (raising up a hand for instance indicates that one has a certain question about what was just said) and become more complicated since the same regulator can have different meanings across different cultures (making a circle with a hand, for instance, in the Americas means agreement, in Japan is symbolic for money, and in France conveys the notion of worthlessness).
Affect displays
Affect displays reveal emotions such as happiness (through a smile) or sadness (mouth trembling, tears).
Adaptors
Adaptors are more subtle such as a yawn or clenching fists in anger.
The last nonverbal type of communication deals with communication through the space around people, or proxemics. Huseman goes on to explain that Hall identifies three types of space:
Feature-fixed space: deals with how cultures arrange their space on a large scale, such as buildings and parks.
Semifixed feature space: deals with how space is arranged inside buildings, such as the placement of desks, chairs and plants.
Informal space: the space and its importance, such as talking distance, how close people sit to one another and office space are all examples. A production line worker often has to make an appointment to see a supervisor, but the supervisor is free to visit the production line workers at will.
Oral and written communication is generally easier to learn, adapt and deal with in the business world for the simple fact that each language is unique. The one difficulty that comes into play is paralanguage, how something is said.
Differences between Western and Indigenous Australian communication
According to Michael Walsh and Ghil'ad Zuckermann, Western conversational interaction is typically "dyadic", between two particular people, where eye contact is important and the speaker controls the interaction; and "contained" in a relatively short, defined time frame. However, traditional Australian Aboriginal conversational interaction is "communal", broadcast to many people, eye contact is not important, the listener controls the interaction; and "continuous", spread over a longer, indefinite time frame.
See also
Footnotes
Mary Ellen Guffey, Kathy Rhodes, Patricia Rogin. "Communicating Across Cultures." Mary Ellen Guffey, Kathy Rhodes, Patricia Rogin. Business Communication Process and Production. Nelson Education Ltd., 2010. 68–89.
References
Bartell, M. (2003). Internationalization of universities: A university culture-based framework. Higher Education, 45(1), 44, 46, 48, 49.
Cameron, K.S. (1984). Organizational adaptation and higher education. Journal of Higher Education 55(2), 123.
Ellingboe, B.J. (1998). Divisional strategies to internationalize a campus portrait: Results, resistance, and recommendations from a case study at a U.S. university, in Mestenhauser, J.A. and Elllingboe, B.J (eds.), Reforming the Higher Education Curriculum: Internationalizing the Campus. Phoenix, AZ: American Council on Education and Oryx Press, 199.
Everett M. Rogers, William B. Hart, & Yoshitaka Miike (2002). Edward T. Hall and The History of Intercultural Communication: The United States and Japan. Keio Communication Review No. 24, 1-5.
Hans Köchler (ed.), Cultural Self-comprehension of Nations. Tübingen: Erdmann, 1978, , Final Resolution, p. 142.
Rudzki, R. E. J. (1995). The application of a strategic management model to the internationalization of higher education institutions. Higher Education, 29(4), 421–422.
Rymes, (2008). Language Socialization and the Linguistic Anthropology of Education. Encyclopedia of Language and Education, 2(8, Springer), 1.
Teather, D. (2004). The networking alliance: A mechanism for the internationalisation of higher education? Managing Education Matters, 7(2), 3.
External links
"Voices on Antisemitism," Interview with Diego Portillo Mazal, from the U.S. Holocaust Memorial Museum
Communicating Across Cultures
Inter cultural Research: The Current State of Knowledge
A Dozen Rules of Thumb for Avoiding Inter cultural Misunderstandings
Inter cultural Teachers Training Project INNOCENT: teachers learn cross-cultural communication by doing a free Web Based Training WBT
International Association for Intercultural Communication Studies (IAICS)
International Association for Translation and Intercultural Studies (IATIS)
Human communication
Cross-cultural psychology
Cross-cultural studies
Communication studies | [
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] |
230081 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Philadelphia%20Stock%20Exchange | Philadelphia Stock Exchange | Philadelphia Stock Exchange (PHLX), now known as NASDAQ OMX PHLX, is the oldest stock exchange in the United States. It is now owned by Nasdaq Inc. Founded in 1790, the exchange was originally named the Board of Brokers of Philadelphia, also referred to as the Philadelphia Board of Brokers. In 1875, the Board of Brokers changed its name to the Philadelphia Stock Exchange.
The exchange merged with the Baltimore Stock Exchange in 1949 and was named the Philadelphia-Baltimore Stock Exchange. It merged with the Washington Stock Exchange in 1954, becoming known as the Philadelphia-Baltimore-Washington Stock Exchange (often abbreviated as PBW). In 1969, the exchange acquired the Pittsburgh Stock Exchange. In 2007, PHLX was purchased by NASDAQ for $652 million.
History
1790–1875: Board of Brokers
Over its 200 years the exchange has had various titles and has been located in various buildings around Philadelphia. Founded in 1790 as the "Board of Brokers," it was located at the Merchants Coffee House, now known as the City Tavern, at the corner of Second and Walnut Streets.
In 1831, Stephen Girard’s Bank had formed the "Philadelphia Merchant’s Exchange Company" to erect a new building to house the Board of Brokers and other groups. The Board of Brokers moved into the Merchants Exchange Building at 3rd and Dock Streets in 1834 following a fire at the coffee house.
On June 20, 1857, the Board of Brokers of Philadelphia transacted no business in the stock board, as their annual dinner was held that day.
As of January 1, 1874, the par price for membership in the Philadelphia Board of Brokers was $1,000, with 198 seats, and "not others are attainable under $2,000 each." The board represented a market capital of around $350,000.
1875–1949: Philadelphia Stock Exchange
In 1875, the Board of Brokers changed its name to the Philadelphia Stock Exchange.
In 1876, the exchange moved to the rear of the Girard Bank Building, formerly the First Bank of the United States. It stayed there until 1888. From 1888 to 1902, the exchange moved to the Drexel Building which was located near Fifth Street and Chestnut. Between 1902 and 1912, the exchange returned to the Merchants Exchange Building. In 1913, it moved to a building at 1411 Walnut Street, now a national landmark.
In 1951, the exchange moved to the Central Penn Bank Building at 1401 Walnut Street. It stayed there until 1966 when it moved to a newly constructed building (currently the Sofitel Hotel) at 17th and Sansom. The 1700 block of Ionic Street, a narrow thoroughfare just north of this building, was renamed Stock Exchange Place and was still signed as such as of 2017.
In December 1968, in response to a fiscal crisis, Philadelphia imposed a $0.05 per share stock transfer tax for all transactions on the PHLX. On January 2, 1969, the PHLX moved its trading floor to an office building, then known as the Decker Building, just across a street from the city boundaries in Bala Cynwyd to avoid the tax. In February, a court ruled that the tax was illegal, and the PHLX moved its trading floor back to its headquarters in the city.
In 1981, the exchange moved to 19th and Market, where it stayed until 2017 when it moved to its current location in the newly built FMC Tower.
1949–2017: Mergers
The exchange merged with the Baltimore Stock Exchange in 1949. The exchange was then named the Philadelphia-Baltimore Stock Exchange. The Baltimore Stock Exchange then migrated out of its Baltimore Stock Exchange Building, later renamed the Totman Building, to a new home base in Philadelphia.
The exchange merged with the Washington Stock Exchange in 1954. The exchange was known as the Philadelphia-Baltimore-Washington Stock Exchange (often abbreviated as PBW) after those mergers. In 1969, the exchange acquired the Pittsburgh Stock Exchange, and maintained an auxiliary trading floor in Pittsburgh until 1974.
On October 22, 1981, trading was halted on both the Chicago Board of Trade and the Philadelphia Stock Exchange after anonymous callers said bombs had been placed in those buildings.
In 2005, a number of large financial firms purchased stakes in the exchange as a hedge against growing consolidation of stock trading by the New York Stock Exchange and Nasdaq. These firms—Morgan Stanley, Citigroup, Credit Suisse First Boston, UBS, Merrill Lynch and Citadel LLC—collectively owned about 89% of the exchange.
On October 20, 2007, The Wall Street Journal reported that the exchange was for sale by a group of its shareholders, and was expected to be sold for about $600 million.
On November 7, 2007, NASDAQ announced a "definitive agreement" to purchase PHLX for $652 million, with the transaction expected to close in early 2008. On July 24, 2008, the acquisition was completed, creating the third-largest options market in the U.S.
As of 2014, the exchange handles trades for approximately 3,600 equity options, 15 index options, and a number of FX options. The PHLX has more than 16% of United States market share in exchange-listed stock and ETF options trading.
Hours
The exchange's normal trading sessions are from 9:30 am to 4:00 pm on all days of the week except Saturdays, Sundays and holidays declared by the exchange in advance.
See also
Merchants' Exchange Building
Philadelphia Bourse
List of stock exchanges
List of stock exchanges in the Americas
List of stock exchange mergers in the Americas
References
Further reading
Domenic Vitiello with George E. Thomas. The Philadelphia Stock Exchange and the City It Made (University of Pennsylvania Press; 2010) 256 pages
Book Review (by Thomas J. Walsh) of The Philadelphia Stock Exchange and the City It Made (UPenn Press): http://planphilly.com/book-review-philly-stock-exchange-and-city-it-left-unfinished (www.PlanPhilly.com)
External links
NASDAQ OMX U.S. Options Main Page
PHLX Officers
Article on PHLX history and sale
NASDAQ OMX Group to Complete Acquisition of The Philadelphia Stock Exchange
The Philadelphia Stock Exchange Papers, documenting the history and activities of the exchange from 1746 to 2005, are available for research use at the Historical Society of Pennsylvania.
Financial services companies established in 1790
Economy of Philadelphia
Stock exchanges in the United States
Organizations based in Philadelphia
Buildings and structures on the National Register of Historic Places in Philadelphia
Self-regulatory organizations in the United States
Nasdaq, Inc.
Rittenhouse Square, Philadelphia
1790 establishments in Pennsylvania
Options exchanges in the United States
Horace Trumbauer buildings | [
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230088 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pacific%20Exchange | Pacific Exchange | The Pacific Exchange was a regional stock exchange in California, from 1956 to 2006. Its main exchange floor and building were in San Francisco, California, with a branch building in Los Angeles, California.
In 1882, the San Francisco Stock and Bond Exchange was founded; and in 1899 the Los Angeles Oil Exchange was founded. In 1956, these two exchanges merged to create the Pacific Coast Stock Exchange, with trading floors maintained in both cities.
In 1973, it was renamed the Pacific Stock Exchange. The Pacific Exchange was bought by Archipelago Holdings in 2005, which merged with the New York Stock Exchange in 2006. Pacific Exchange equities and options trading now takes place exclusively through the NYSE Arca platform.
History
Two separate exchanges were founded; the San Francisco Stock and Bond Exchange in 1882 and the Los Angeles Oil Exchange in 1899. In 1956, they merged to create the Pacific Coast Stock Exchange, though separate trading floors were maintained in both cities. In 1973, it was renamed the Pacific Stock Exchange and it began trading options three years later in 1976.
In 1999, the exchange became the first U.S. stock exchange to demutualize. The trading floor in Los Angeles was closed in 2001, followed by the floor in San Francisco a year later. 2003 saw the exchange launch PCX Plus, an electronic options trading platform.
By 2005, the Pacific Exchange was bought by the owner of the ArcaEx platform, Archipelago Holdings, which then merged with the New York Stock Exchange in 2006. The New York Stock Exchange conducts no business operations under the name Pacific Exchange, essentially ending its separate identity. Pacific Exchange equities and options trading now takes place exclusively through the NYSE Arca (formerly known as ArcaEx) platform, an Electronic communication network (ECN), as NYSE Arca Equities and NYSE Arca Options, respectively.
San Francisco Pacific Exchange building history
The San Francisco Pacific Exchange building, which once housed the equities trading floor, is located on Pine Street at the corner of Sansome Street in the Financial District in San Francisco. The building was initially designed in a neoclassical style by architect Milton Dyer in 1915.
It was remodel in 1930 by the firms Miller and Pflueger, architects James Rupert Miller and Timothy Pflueger; and the interior design was done by Michael Goodman Architect. The exterior building sculptures were created in Yosemite granite by artist Ralph Stackpole. Sketches made by Pflueger for the remodel of this building can be found in the permanent collection at San Francisco Museum of Modern Art. After the 1930 remodel, the building was in an Art Deco Moderne style, with its street facade was clad in Yule marble.
The building was sold to private developers and converted by Equinox Fitness into a fitness center.
Mills Building
An options trading floor in the city of San Francisco still operates in the adjacent Mills Building on the second floor. It was originally connected to the main building and underwent an expansion in September 1984 and expanded again in the mid-1990s with major changes to the layout.
See also
Los Angeles Stock Exchange Building
List of former stock exchanges in the Americas
List of stock exchange mergers in the Americas
References
External links
San Francisco Chronicle: "Exchange Ending an Era. Pacific is phasing out its historic stock trading floor."
Youtube.com: SF options floor live trading in 1997 — filmed by a floor broker.
First Cut episode: "What options trading really is"
Former stock exchanges in the United States
Buildings and structures in San Francisco
Buildings and structures in Downtown Los Angeles
Economy of Los Angeles
Economy of San Francisco
Self-regulatory organizations in the United States
Buildings and structures completed in 1930
Buildings and structures completed in 1931
1930s architecture in the United States
Moderne architecture in California
2006 disestablishments | [
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230089 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nine%20Princes%20in%20Amber | Nine Princes in Amber | Nine Princes in Amber is a fantasy novel by American writer Roger Zelazny, the first in the Chronicles of Amber series. It was first published in 1970, and later spawned a computer game of the same name. The first (Doubleday hardcover) edition of the novel is unusually rare; the publisher pulped a significant part of the original print run in error when the order went out to destroy remaining copies of Zelazny's older book Creatures of Light and Darkness.
In the story, Carl Corey wakes up in a secluded New York hospital with amnesia. He escapes and investigates, discovering the truth, piece by piece: he is really Prince Corwin, of Amber, the one true world of which our Earth is just a shadow. He is one of nine men who might rule Amber, if he can fight his way past the armies of his older brother Eric.
Plot
Carl Corey wakes in a medical clinic, with little to no knowledge of who he is or how he got there. He suspects he is being over-medicated, so he overpowers the nurse and doctor and escapes his room. He finds the manager of the clinic, and learns that he was recovering from a car accident in a private clinic, paid for by his sister, Evelyn Flaumel.
He flees and heads to her house. She addresses him as Corwin and calls herself Flora. Hiding his lack of memory, he convinces her to let him stay. In Flora's library he locates a set of customized Tarot cards— the Trumps—whose Major Arcana are replaced with images which he recognizes as his family. As he looks over the cards he remembers all his brothers: sneaky Random, Julian the hunter, well-built Gérard, arrogant Eric, himself, Benedict the master tactician and swordsman, sinister Caine, scheming Bleys, and the mysterious Brand. He also views his four sisters: Flora who offered him sanctuary, Deirdre who was dear to him, reserved Llewella, and Fiona, whom Corwin hated.
His brother Random contacts him via telephone and Corwin promises to give him protection. Random arrives, pursued by mysterious spined, bloodshot-eyed humanoid creatures, and during the ensuing battle Corwin learns that he has superhuman strength. The combined efforts of Corwin, Random, and Flora's dogs ultimately defeat the attacking creatures. Later, in a guarded conversation in which Corwin continues to mask his memory loss, Random asks Corwin whether he wishes to "try", to which Corwin agrees, only learning later that he has agreed to attempt to seize the throne of Amber. They set off in a car and the world begins to change around them as they drive. Corwin realizes that Random is somehow causing the changes. They ultimately end up in the Forest of Arden, the territory of their brother Julian who is allied with Corwin's enemy, Eric. Julian's beasts confront Random and Corwin, and eventually Julian himself appears on his steed Morgenstern to hunt them down. In the ensuing chase, Corwin unhorses Julian and takes him prisoner. Seeing that their leader is held hostage, Julian's men let Corwin and Random proceed through the forest. After setting Julian free and proceeding on foot to Amber, they encounter their sister Deirdre who reveals she has fled from Eric's court. Corwin finally reveals that he has very little memory of his identity or their destination, so Deirdre convinces him to walk the Pattern, which she believes will cure his amnesia.
The three then travel to Rebma, a reflection of Amber underwater, and there they meet Moire, the queen of Rebma, and explain their intentions. Because Rebma is a reflection of Amber, there is also a reflection of the Pattern, which Corwin is to walk to restore his memory. Although Random is imprisoned for past offenses in Rebma and sentenced to wed a blind girl named Vialle, Corwin convinces the queen to allow him to walk the Pattern. After receiving advice from Random and Deirdre, he succeeds in negotiating the Pattern, experiencing flashbacks of his previous life, which stretches back over centuries to his time in Amber, and recalling the incident that caused his amnesia, when Eric beat him unconscious and left him to die of the Black Death in medieval England on our Earth. He remembers the powers which his heritage and the Pattern grant him - the power to walk through shadow, and to pronounce a powerful curse before dying. After he completes the Pattern he uses its power to project himself into the Castle of Amber.
Searching the castle library, Corwin finds a pack of the Trumps and encounters an old servant friend. However, Eric enters the library and he and Corwin begin to duel. Although intimidated at first by Eric's immense skill, Corwin gets the upper hand in the swordfight and injures Eric on the arm. When soldiers of the castle move in to protect Eric, Corwin retreats and uses a Trump to contact his brother Bleys, who teleports Corwin to his location in Shadow.
Corwin then agrees to aid Bleys in his attempt to assault Amber and defeat Eric. Corwin gathers a large group of warriors from Shadow and assembles a navy, while Bleys creates an army on land. From here Corwin attempts to contact his brothers, looking for allies. Caine, although supporting Eric, gives Corwin a promise of safe passage by sea, as does his brother Gérard. When he attempts to reach Brand, he views him in a prison and Brand desperately asks Corwin to free him before his image disappears. Unable to reach Benedict, on a whim Corwin attempts to use a Trump to contact his father Oberon, who has been missing for years and is presumed dead. Corwin succeeds in reaching Oberon, who encourages him to seize the throne, but the contact is quickly lost. When Corwin contacts Random, Random reveals that Eric has contacted him and revealed the full extent of his defenses, which are vast and powerful. Furthermore, Random tells Corwin that Eric has gained control over the mysterious Jewel of Judgment, which allows him to control the weather among other things. Despite Random's misgivings, Corwin remains resolute in his desire to attack Amber with Bleys.
As the invasion begins, Corwin travels with the navy by sea but finds Caine waiting for him with a superior force, apparently in violation of their agreement. Eric then contacts Corwin by Trump and reveals that he knew about his plans from Caine. The two engage in a mental duel which Corwin is unable to break free from. After the two exchange taunts, Corwin launches a full mental assault on Eric, which defeats him and leaves him with the knowledge that Corwin is his superior. Corwin then joins in the battle although it is hopeless: Caine's forces are already destroying Corwin's navy and he escapes via Trump to Bleys and his army. Bleys has been constantly assaulted by creatures of Shadow and the poor weather conditions that have been created by Eric's use of the Jewel of Judgment. Although they eventually reach Amber, their forces have dwindled and they barely fight their way up Kolvir, the mountain on which Castle Amber is situated. Bleys is ultimately pushed off a cliff, although Corwin throws him his pack of Trumps to allow him to escape the fall. Corwin then uses his few remaining forces and pushes through, eventually reaching the castle grounds, but before he can reach the throne or Eric, his remaining forces are surrounded and he is captured.
Corwin is brought forth in chains to endure Eric's coronation. Julian, who is at Eric's side, instructs Corwin to hand the crown of Amber to Eric, who will crown himself King of the one true world. Corwin instead crowns himself King of Amber, but he is quickly beaten by the guards and eventually throws the crown at Eric. Eric then crowns himself, and sentences Corwin to be imprisoned, and his eyes burned out. As hot irons are used to destroy his eyes, Corwin utters a powerful curse on Eric and Amber.
Blind and imprisoned beneath the castle, Corwin is driven to near insanity, although rare visits and smuggled gifts from his friend Lord Rein help him maintain his spirit and hope. After a year has passed in blindness and solitude, he is let out to eat at Eric's table on the anniversary of the coronation before being thrown into the dungeons again. After years have passed, Corwin's eyesight begins to regenerate, and he begins an escape attempt by whittling the door with a spoon he stole from Eric's table. Before he can escape in this manner, Dworkin, the mad sorcerer and creator of the Trumps, appears out of nowhere, having seemingly walked through the dungeon wall. He explains that he entered Corwin's cell by drawing a picture and walking through it, and wishes to return in the same way. Dworkin uses Corwin's sharpened spoon to draw a Trump image of his quarters on the wall, but before he leaves, Corwin persuades him to draw the Lighthouse of Cabra on the opposite wall. Using this drawing as a Trump, Corwin projects himself out of his prison.
At Cabra he meets Jopin, the keeper of the lighthouse, but does not reveal his true identity. Jopin helps Corwin rehabilitate from his prison ordeal as Corwin aids Jopin in his activities around the lighthouse. Once he is fully recovered, Jopin recognizes Corwin, and shows him that the Vale of Garnath, previously a pleasant valley adjacent to Amber, has become a warped and twisted evil place, which Corwin recognizes as the result of his own curse. Corwin takes Jopin's craft Butterfly and sails away, while sending a message to Eric via a black bird, stating that he will return to claim the throne.
Characters
The Machiavellian royal family of Amber is headed by Oberon, the former king, now absent. His five daughters are Florimel, Deirdre, Fiona, Llewella, and Coral (who doesn't come into play until book 9) but the major players of the novel are the nine princes of the title:
Benedict. The oldest surviving prince, uninvolved in the current struggle for the crown, he is the master tactician of the family and a man who seldom smiles. He is presumed to be dead by the rest of the family.
Corwin. The protagonist. A cross between a cruel rogue and a reluctant poet, his years on Earth seem to have softened him somewhat: "And remember who it was who gave you your life where another would have taken it".
Eric. The arrogant yet competent would-be king of Amber; he commands the loyalty of Julian, Caine and Gérard.
Caine. Calculating and realistic.
Bleys. Dashing and charming; Corwin's other ally in his fight against Eric.
Brand. Like Oberon, mysteriously unavailable.
Julian. A sinister hunter.
Gérard. Physically strongest of the nine, affable and liked even by his enemies.
Random. A sneaky rascal albeit Corwin's ally. A gambler and the youngest of Oberon's children.
Adaptations
A three-part comic adaptation was done by Terry Bisson in 1996. As of July 2016, a TV adaptation is being produced by the creators of the Walking Dead TV series.
References
Further reading
External links
The Chronicles of Amber books
1970 American novels
American fantasy novels
1970 fantasy novels
Doubleday (publisher) books
Novels adapted into comics
Novels adapted into video games | [
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230091 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Elio%20Di%20Rupo | Elio Di Rupo | Elio Di Rupo (; born 18 July 1951) is a Belgian socialist politician who is the Minister-President of Wallonia. He served as the Prime Minister of Belgium from 6 December 2011 to 11 October 2014, and headed the Di Rupo Government. Di Rupo was the first francophone to hold the office since Paul Vanden Boeynants in 1979, and the country's first socialist Prime Minister since Edmond Leburton left office in 1974. He was also Belgium's first Prime Minister of non-Belgian descent, and the world's second openly gay person and first openly gay man to be head of government in modern times.
Background and early life
Di Rupo was born in Morlanwelz, Wallonia, to Italian parents. His father was born in San Valentino in Abruzzo Citeriore. While Di Rupo was born in Belgium, his brothers and sisters were all born in Italy. When he was one year old, his father died in a car crash and his mother was unable to raise all seven children. Due to the poor financial state of his family, three of his brothers were raised in a nearby orphanage.
When he was 12, he attended boarding school. Due to medical issues, Di Rupo had to re-do his first year of high school twice, but eventually excelled in science at the end of his high school years. This led him to pursue a degree in chemistry at the University of Mons, where he eventually obtained a PhD in Chemistry, after being a part-time lecturer at Leeds University as well.
Political career
Di Rupo came in contact with the socialist movement for the first time during his studies in Mons, where he first obtained a master's degree and afterwards a PhD in chemistry. He went during the preparation of his doctorate to the University of Leeds (United Kingdom), where his function was that of lecture member of staff in 1977–1978.
He started his political career as an attaché at the cabinet of Jean-Maurice Dehousse in 1980–81. His first political mandate came in 1982, when he was Councillor of Mons (until 1985, and again from 1988 until 2000). In 1986, he was mayor of health, urban renewal and social affairs. Professionally, Di Rupo was at the same time cabinet member and then Deputy Head of Cabinet of the minister of finance of that time of the Walloon region and consequently Deputy Head of Cabinet of the minister of finance and energy of the Walloon region at that time Philippe Busquin (1981–85) and superintendent of the energy-inspection of the ministry of the Walloon region.
He is a deputy (MP) for the Arrondissement of Mons in the Belgian Chamber of Representatives. He once described François Mitterrand as being "a character from a novel".
In 2000, he became the mayor of Mons, which is the capital of the province of Hainaut.
In 1987, he got his national political breakthrough. He was elected as member of the Chamber of Deputies and went two years later for a short time to the European Parliament.
In 1991, Di Rupo was chosen as a senator, but shortly afterwards (1992), he took in the French-speaking community his first ministerial function in Education and later also Media. These were his responsibilities until Guy Coëme, who was mentioned in the Agusta-scandal, resigned and Di Rupo went to the federal government in 1994 as Deputy Prime Minister and Minister of Traffic and Governmental companies. Following the elections in 1995, he remained the Vice-Prime Minister of Belgium and was appointed minister of Economics and Telecommunications. In 1995 he signed the merger of the Belgian airline Sabena with Swiss Air that eventually led to the bankruptcy of Sabena with thousands of unemployed employees as result.
In 1996, at the time of the Dutroux affair, Olivier Trusgnach, a prostitute, alleged that Di Rupo paid him for sex while Trusgnach was still a minor. This accusation could have meant the end of his political career. Di Rupo denied the accusations.
After the federal and regional elections of June 1999 in which, due to the Dioxin Affair, the Christian-Democrats lost many of their votes, Di Rupo negotiated with the Flemish socialists of sp.a, the Liberals and Green Party to form a "purple-green" government. Di Rupo himself was in charge of the function of minister-president of the Walloon region, but already in October of the same year the members of the party chose him as president and in April 2000, he was succeeded in his function of minister-president by Jean-Claude Van Cauwenberghe.
As new president of the party, Di Rupo was forced to make a generation change within the PS and go down a new path. During the regional and federal elections of 1995 and 1999, the PS lost many of its votes, partly because of corruption scandals in the 1990s (named Agusta-scandal and UNIOP-affair), in which the most prominent PS-politicians were involved. PS had been in the government subsequently since 1988 (in the regional government and in the federal government), but the liberal PRL (now MR) became in the 1999-elections as strong as the PS. Apart from those two, Ecolo also became an important political party. Di Rupo realised that drastic action was required to regain the position of the PS. By several measures, such as "Contrat d'avenir pour la Wallonie" (Contract for the Future of Wallonia) and a new generation of party leaders, by which Marie Arena was important, he tried to reassemble the left wing-forces around him. Successfully, because in the elections of 2003, PS regained the electoral score of 1991 and was by far the most important political party before MR. During the regional elections of 2004, it also became the most important party in the Brussels capital region.
Di Rupo changed, in 2004, the liberal coalition partner for the Christian-democratic party, in the Walloon Government and in the Brussels Capital Government (in the last also the green party Ecolo was part of the government). By doing this, coalitions were made which differed from the federal coalition at that time. In October 2005, he became Minister-President of Wallonia after Jean-Claude Van Cauwenberghe resigned amid a corruption scandal, involving several members of Di Rupo's party. He continued as party leader though and has had to deal with the PS's ICDI affair that emerged in May 2006.
In 2006 and 2007, Di Rupo and his party appeared unsuccessful in trying to clean out corruption. This was probably instrumental in the party's losing its first place amongst French community parties 2007 federal election. Di Rupo then decided to take a firmer stance against corruption in Charleroi: he virtually took control of the city's Socialist Party and ordered the Socialist mayor and aldermen to resign.
After former PS president Guy Spitaels urged him to choose between the presidency of the party and of the Walloon Government, Di Rupo decided to organise internal elections for party president in July 2007 rather than in October of that year and announced that he would resign from his mandate as Minister-President if re-elected. On 11 July 2007, he was re-elected president of the Socialist Party with 89.5% of the votes.
Prime Minister of Belgium
Following the 2010 Belgian general election, in which the PS emerged as the largest of the Francophone parties and the second largest political party in Belgium, speculation emerged as to whether Di Rupo could be the Prime Minister in a new government. The RTBF raised questions, however, about whether Di Rupo's limited fluency in Dutch would be a stumbling block in seeking that office; every prime minister since 1979 had been a Fleming.
In May 2011, he was appointed Formateur by King Albert II, which gave Di Rupo the task of forming a government. Traditionally, the Formateur also becomes the Prime Minister of the government he forms. He became prime minister of the Di Rupo I Government on 6 December 2011.
With Di Rupo's appointment, Belgium ended 589 days without a government, believed to be the longest such streak ever for a country in the developed world. Yves Leterme had resigned on 26 April 2010 and had been serving as caretaker prime minister since then.
Board of directors
Between 2004 and 2005, Elio Di Rupo was on the board of directors of what was then Dexia bank, currently Belfius.
Personal life
Di Rupo describes himself as an "atheist, rationalist, and Freemason." He is fluent in Italian, French and English. After becoming Prime Minister, he took Dutch lessons to address his previous limited fluency in the language and this improved enough for him to be able to address the parliament in Dutch and conduct TV interviews in the language.
Di Rupo came out as gay in 1996, and when asked by a confrontational "media pack" if he was gay, he responded, "Yes. So what?" He is the first openly gay man to lead a sovereign state, and the first openly gay person to win the position through an election.
Between Di Rupo's election and 2013, he was one of the only three openly gay or lesbian national heads of government, the other ones being Icelandic Prime Minister Jóhanna Sigurðardóttir, and Luxemburgish Prime Minister Xavier Bettel.
Honours
: Knight Grand Cross of the Order of Leopold II by royal decree of 21 May 2014.
See also
List of the first LGBT holders of political offices
List of openly LGBT heads of government
Notes
References
Visite à domicile Interview with Di Rupo in French (17 May 2007)
Hilariteit om bizarre tweet van Elio Di Rupo, Tweeting behaviour of Elio Di Rupo (in Dutch), published on 17 March 2013 in De Standaard
External links
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1951 births
Living people
Recipients of the Grand Cross of the Order of Leopold II
Belgian atheists
Belgian chemists
Belgian Ministers of State
Belgian people of Italian descent
Belgian socialists
Belgian Freemasons
Former Roman Catholics
Gay politicians
Government ministers of Belgium
LGBT heads of government
LGBT politicians from Belgium
Mayors of places in Belgium
Members of the Chamber of Representatives (Belgium)
Members of the Senate (Belgium)
Ministers-President of Wallonia
Parti Socialiste (Belgium) MEPs
Prime Ministers of Belgium
21st-century Belgian politicians
LGBT mayors
LGBT legislators | [
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230092 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The%20Guns%20of%20Avalon | The Guns of Avalon | The Guns of Avalon is fantasy novel by American writer Roger Zelazny, the second book in the Chronicles of Amber series. The book continues straight from the previous volume, Nine Princes in Amber, although it includes a recapitulation.
Plot introduction
Corwin has escaped the dungeons of Amber, where he was imprisoned by his hated brother Eric, who has seized the throne. All of Corwin's siblings believe that guns can never be brought to the medieval world of Amber, as all gunpowders seem inert there. But Corwin has secret knowledge: in the shadow world of Avalon, where he once ruled, there exists a jeweler's rouge that will function as gunpowder in Amber. Corwin plans to raise a legion of shadow soldiers, and arm them with automatic rifles from the shadow world Earth.
Plot summary
Corwin sets out through the endless worlds of shadow in search of Avalon, his one-time home. As Corwin nears Avalon, he passes through a land called Lorraine. As it is near to Avalon in Shadow, some aspects of it are similar — it is a medieval kingdom, ruled once by a shadow version of Corwin, more recently by a king named Uther. The shadow Corwin that once ruled Lorraine, is remembered as a demonic tyrant and Corwin assumes an incognito identity as Sir Corey of Cabra.
Corwin comes across a wounded man, whom he recognizes as a shadow of Lance, a knight of Avalon. Corwin carries Lance back to a nearby fortress, the Keep of Ganelon. Along the way, Corwin slays two giant hellcats — feline demons who call him the "opener", confirming his fears that he is responsible for the corruption of the vale of Garnath.
Corwin meets with Ganelon, whom he also knows, though Ganelon does not recognize him. Ganelon had once been Corwin's right-hand man in Avalon, until Ganelon betrayed him (alluding to Ganelon the Traitor, of medieval literature), for which crime Corwin banished him into an unfamiliar shadow — this one, apparently — and left him to die. But Ganelon lived and, as he tells Corwin, rose from leading an outlaw band to become leader of all the forces of Lorraine fighting against a strange evil: a constantly expanding dark circle of toadstools from which demonic creatures and soulless men emerge. Suspecting that this relates to the blood curse he pronounced against Amber (at the end of the previous volume), Corwin agrees to help.
While recuperating from his imprisonment and training with the soldiers of Lorraine, Corwin meets a local camp follower, also named Lorraine. Corwin senses that someone is trying to speak to him by means of the Trumps (magical tarot cards), and blocks the attempt; Lorraine describes seeing a vision of a man whom Corwin recognizes as his father. She also reveals that her daughter — whom she had conceived by witchcraft — was the first person to die in the dark circle. A winged demon, Strygalldwir, arrives at the window to challenge Corwin; Corwin, after demonstrating a little-seen spellcasting capability, kills Strygalldwir with his Pattern-sword Grayswandir.
Corwin, Ganelon, and Lance lead an army against the dark circle. On the top floor of a tower, Corwin slays the enemy leader, a goat-headed creature. The enemy is revealed to come from the Courts of Chaos, a place far across Shadow from Amber, past where the shadows cease to follow ordinary rules of reality. Lorraine runs off with an officer called Melkin. Corwin pursues them; finding that Melkin has murdered and robbed Lorraine, he kills Melkin with his bare hands.
Corwin and Ganelon journey on toward Avalon. A young deserter tells them that the forces of Avalon, led by a man known as the Protector, have recently been battling a horde of demonic, cave-dwelling hellmaids — a force of evil somehow similar to the dark circle in Lorraine. Corwin and Ganelon journey on and meet the Protector, who turns out to be Corwin's long-lost brother Benedict, the most formidable swordsman and military strategist in existence. Benedict's forces have defeated the hellmaids, but he has lost his arm in the battle. Benedict greets Corwin cordially, but refuses to support his claim to the throne. Benedict also reveals that their father, King Oberon, did not abdicate, as Corwin had believed, but simply vanished.
Benedict sends Corwin and Ganelon on to his country house. There, Corwin meets a young woman named Dara, who tells him that she is Benedict's great-granddaughter. Because of her bloodline, she is anxious to learn more about the Pattern of Amber. Walking the Pattern gives the royalty of Amber the ability to walk in Shadow. Trading information with her, Corwin learns that Benedict has been visited there by brothers Julian, Gérard, and Brand. In Avalon, Corwin arranges to purchase large amounts of jeweler's rouge, obtaining capital by journeying through Shadow to a parallel Earth where he harvests diamonds from an African coast that has never seen human habitation. Returning to Benedict's house, he encounters Ganelon, who jokingly tells him that several fresh human bodies are buried in the garden. Corwin is reluctant to get involved in the local intrigue. Later, Dara finds him, and they become lovers.
Corwin sets off into Shadow with his jeweler's rouge. He and Ganelon notice a strange phenomenon: a black road, similar to the dark circle in Lorraine, cuts through Shadow, apparently stretching from Amber to all the Shadows. The grass along the black road encircles the ankles of Ganelon, and Corwin has to free him. Corwin is able to destroy a section of the black road by focusing his mind on the Pattern, then Corwin receives a Trump contact, which he assumes to be from Benedict. Corwin believes Benedict to be angry at having discovered either that Corwin has been using Avalon to arm himself for an attempt on the throne (compromising Benedict's neutrality) or that Corwin has slept with Dara. Corwin tries to escape further into Shadow, but Benedict pursues and eventually catches him. Benedict accuses Corwin of being a murderer, to Corwin's surprise, and a duel ensues. Completely outmatched, Corwin tricks Benedict into moving into a patch of the strange black grass, allowing Corwin to knock him unconscious. Corwin summons Gérard via Trump to care for Benedict.
Corwin journeys to our Earth, and has an assembly line set up to produce the ammunition he needs to assault Amber. While that is happening, he visits his old house in New York, where he finds a message from Eric, pleading for peace. Corwin rejects this. He recruits his army from a similar Shadow to the one home to the army he recruited for his assault with Bleys, and trains them in the use of firearms. Then he leads them through shadow to attack Amber. However, upon reaching Amber, Corwin finds a desperate battle against wyvern riders from the Courts of Chaos. He also finds Dara wandering about the battlefield, and orders some men to guard her. After assisting in the battle and dispatching the threat, he confronts Eric, who has been wounded during the battle. Before he dies, Eric passes the Jewel of Judgement to Corwin and pronounces his death curse on the enemies of Amber.
Dara, having disposed of her guards, rides past Corwin on horseback, toward Amber. Corwin, suddenly apprehensive, contacts his brother Random via trump, and has Random teleport him into Amber. They reach the chamber of the Pattern to find that Dara is already walking it, shifting into all manner of strange and grotesque shapes as she does. Completing her Pattern walk, she announces to Corwin in a low, inhuman voice that "Amber will be destroyed", then vanishes.
Reception
Avram Davidson gave the novel a lukewarm review, complaining that he did not "feel for any of [its] characters the slightest empathy, sympathy, or even osteopathy" and concluding that "there is nothing outrageously bad in [this] book of magic, intrigue, and warfare, but very little that is very good".
Cultural allusions
In all probability, the title is a tongue-in cheek reference to the similarly titled novel The Guns of Navarone by Alistair MacLean. In addition to sounding alike, both Avalon and Navarone are fictional islands.
Some of the imagery in the book is inspired by Tarot art. For example, when Ganelon ties the golden-haired youth by one ankle to a tree branch, this mimics the Tarot card "The Hanged Man". The wheel that Corwin dreams about is inspired by the Tarot card "Wheel of Fortune".
In addition to being a character in French medieval literature, Ganelon is also the name of the main character in The Dark World by Henry Kuttner — one of the chronicles' main inspirations.
The poem about Avalon that Corwin quotes to Ganelon alludes to both Psalm 137 ("By the rivers of Babylon, there we sat down, yea, we wept when we remembered Zion") as well as to a classic nursery rhyme ("How many miles to Babylon? Threescore miles and ten").
History
Roger Zelazny wrote an explicit sex scene (by 1970s American publishing standards) between Corwin and Dara and was amused when the book's editor asked him to remove it so that sales to libraries would not be jeopardized. That deleted scene has never appeared with the novel but has been printed for the first time in The Collected Stories of Roger Zelazny, Volume 3: This Mortal Mountain.
Other media
Dara appears as one of the illustrated characters in the 1996 collection Barlowe's Guide to Fantasy.
A three-part comic adaptation was done by Terry Bisson in 1996.
Similarity with later works
The basic strategic concept underlying the book's military struggle - Corwin fundamentally "changing the rules" by managing to introduce fire powder and guns to where that was considered impossible - is shared with Modesitt's 1995 The Death of Chaos. In the world of that book, fire powder is considered virtually useless militarily, since any wizard can easily blow it up from a distance. Thus, nations of that world prefer to fight their wars by swords and bows and arrows, only deploying guns if certain that the other side has no wizards at all. The situation is changed fundamentally by a predatory Empire finding a way of insulating gun powder from magic, and then embarking on a mighty wave of conquest. To stop big artillery pieces and a mighty fleet of dreadnaughts, wizards must use truly earthshaking magic, which can cause volcanic eruptions and cause msassive destruction.
References
Further reading
The Chronicles of Amber books
1972 American novels
American fantasy novels
1972 fantasy novels
Doubleday (publisher) books | [
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230094 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sign%20of%20the%20Unicorn | Sign of the Unicorn | Sign of the Unicorn is a fantasy novel by American writer Roger Zelazny, the third book in the Chronicles of Amber series. It was first published in serial format in Galaxy Science Fiction.
Plot introduction
Eric is dead, and Corwin now rules Amber as Regent — but someone has murdered Caine and framed Corwin. Random tells his part of the story. Corwin decides to find out what happened to Brand who is either missing or dead, and begins to find his obsession with the throne is a two-edged sword that may cost him his life, as it has his brothers'.
Plot summary
Corwin returns to Castle Amber bearing the body of one of the spined, bloodshot-eyed humanoid creatures that had pursued Random to Flora's house on Earth—one that had moments earlier killed his brother, Caine. Fearing that he has been framed for Caine's murder, Corwin summons Random, who tells him the story how he came to be chased across shadow to end up in New York City:
Random had been enjoying life out in a shadow, Texorami, that he had selected/created to be an ideal place to gamble, hang-glide and especially play the drums. One day he received an unusual Trump call in the form of the Jack of Diamonds, that spoke to him as his brother, Brand, asking for help to escape from an unfamiliar shadow.
Random set out to rescue Brand from the shadow, a land lit without a sun, where boulders orbit each other in complicated patterns. He found the tower where Brand was imprisoned, but could not overcome its guardian, a transparent, glass, prismatic, dragon-like creature. Spined humanoids pursued Random through shadow. Seeking an ally, he headed for Earth, hoping to exploit Flora, but finds Corwin instead. Since Corwin had been missing for so long. Random assumes the creatures belonged to him, and though confused when Corwin fights the creatures, is sufficiently frightened to aid Corwin in getting to Amber.
After hearing Random's story, Corwin descends to the chamber of the Pattern, to attune himself to the Jewel of Judgement, a powerful artifact given to Corwin by Eric as he lay dying, which gives its wearer among other powers control of weather in Amber. He walks the pattern, and then commands it to project him into the Jewel. He is metaphysically carried through a higher-dimensional Pattern within the Jewel, emerging with what he describes as a "higher octave" of awareness.
Corwin then teleports himself to a high tower of the castle. After testing his new attunement to the Jewel, he summons Flora. He learns that most of his brothers had sought him in shadow during his absence — some to try to find him; some to implicate Eric in their father, Oberon's death.
Gérard accompanies Corwin to the Grove of the Unicorn, where Caine was killed. Gérard fights Corwin, and later threatens him physically while all of the siblings are watching through trumps and is told that if he turns out to be responsible for Caine's death, Gérard will kill him, and that if Gérard is killed, the siblings will know Corwin did it. Corwin points out that if someone wants to kill Corwin and free themselves from suspicion, they now only have to kill Gérard. Gérard, angered, accuses him of trying to complicate matters. The two brothers return to Caine's body, and see a glimpse of the Unicorn.
Corwin then arranges a family meeting, allowing Random to re-tell his tale. While not entirely convinced of Corwin's innocence, they agree to attempt to recover the one remaining person who has seen these creatures — Brand. With their combined efforts, they are able to contact Brand through the trump, and pull him through to Amber. Although Brand was relatively intact in his cell, they find he has been stabbed as he is brought to them. Gérard pushes the others aside and gives first aid to Brand, while the others realize the implications of the stabbing — one of them must have tried to kill their brother.
The siblings guardedly discuss who the would-be murderer might be. Fiona points out that only she and Julian are sensible suspects — and she is "innocent of all but malice". She also warns Corwin that the Jewel is more than just a weather-control device; in truth, it is an artifact of great power which draws upon its bearer's life force — and may well have been what killed Eric. She says that when people around the bearer seem to be statue-like, the bearer is near death.
Corwin heads for his rooms, discussing matters with Random, who has a hard time keeping up with Corwin. Corwin enters his room, but notices too late a figure poised to stab him. However the stab itself appears to be so slow that it only grazes him. Corwin blacks out.
He awakens in his former home on Earth, bleeding and nearing death. He drops a pillow, but it hangs in the air. He realizes that the Jewel is killing him, so he hides it in the house's compost heap and heads for the road, hoping to hitch-hike to a hospital where he can recover. He is eventually picked up by Bill Roth, a lawyer who recognizes him as Carl Corey, the name Corwin had used in the past to pass for a human. In hospital, he learns that his car accident happened during his escape from a mental asylum, where he had been committed by a Dr. Hillary B. Rand by his brother Brandon Corey. He is contacted via Trump by Random, who returns him to Amber, saying that Brand has woken up and wishes to speak to him.
Brand gradually tells Corwin about how he, Bleys and Fiona had removed Oberon and tried to claim the throne, but were opposed by the triumvirate of Eric, Julian and Caine. He says that after he objected to Bleys and Fiona's plan to ally with the forces of Chaos, he was pursued and came to Earth seeking Corwin as an ally—trying to restore his memories with shock therapy—but was captured and imprisoned in the tower where Random found him. During the conversation, Brand displays pyrokinetic abilities.
Corwin then heads to Tir-na Nog'th, the mysterious, moonlit Amber-in-the-sky where he hopes to gain insight into the situation. His sword Grayswandir has special properties in the moonlit city, having been forged upon the stairway to Tir-na Nog'th. With Random and Ganelon watching him from mount Kolvir, he ascends to Tir-na Nog'th, and in the throne room sees Dara as queen, flanked by Benedict wearing a metallic arm. This dream-version of Dara tells him her origins and the ghostly Benedict is able to reach Corwin with the arm. A fight ensues. Corwin cuts off the arm, and is trumped back to Kolvir by Random, with the arm still clutching his shoulder.
The three set off for Amber, but are drawn through shadow — which should be impossible this close to Amber — and come to an enlarged version of the Grove of the Unicorn, where they see the eponymous beast. They are led back to where Amber should stand, but instead there is a plateau on which there is a copy of the Pattern. With a shock, Corwin and Ganelon realize that this is the true, Primal Pattern, of which the one in Amber is but the first shadow.
References
External links
The Chronicles of Amber books
American fantasy novels
1975 American novels
1975 fantasy novels
Works originally published in Galaxy Science Fiction
Novels first published in serial form
Doubleday (publisher) books | [
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230095 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The%20Hand%20of%20Oberon | The Hand of Oberon | The Hand of Oberon is a fantasy novel by American writer Roger Zelazny, the fourth book in The Chronicles of Amber, published in book form by Doubleday in 1976. It was first published in serial format in Galaxy Science Fiction.
Plot introduction
Corwin explores the true Amber, and finds the source of the Black Road, in the damaged primal Pattern. He learns that to repair the damage will require the Jewel of Judgement, which he must retrieve from Earth.
Plot summary
Corwin, Random and Ganelon go down to the Primal Pattern and see that it is damaged, with a dark stain obscuring the pattern from the center to one edge, in the shape of the corrupted Vale of Garnath. They also see a pair of objects at the pattern's centre. While Corwin and Random discuss whether it would be safe to walk a damaged pattern, Ganelon runs through the stain to the center and retrieves the objects - a dagger, and a pierced Trump card. A purple griffin-like beast emerges from a cave, and Random's horse runs onto the pattern. The horse is consumed/ripped apart by a rainbow-coloured tornado.
Ganelon discusses what it was like to run on the stain, and asks Random to drop a small amount of blood on the pattern. The blood drop stains the pattern in the same way, and they realize that the trump must have been used to spill blood onto the pattern by someone at its centre. Random recognizes the trump as that of his Rebman son, Martin. Corwin recognises the style of the trump as that of Brand.
Ganelon proposes that Corwin use the Trumps to contact Benedict, who transports them to the slopes of mount Kolvir. Random and Benedict, who had known and was fond of Martin, set off through shadow to find him, or if necessary avenge his death. Corwin returns to Amber to inform Random's wife, Vialle, that Random will be gone for a while. Discussing matters with her, he realizes that now Eric is dead he no longer wants the throne - but he still loves Amber and wishes to repair the damage, even though he is no longer sure it is his fault.
Corwin then descends into the depths of the castle to find his former cell in the dungeons. On the way to his cell, Corwin meets Roger Zelazny, who makes an appearance in his own book. The author describes himself as a "...lean, cadaverous figure... smoking his pipe, grinning around it". In his dialogue with Corwin, Roger states that he is "...writing a philosophical romance shot through with elements of horror and morbidity". This may or may not be a not-so-subtle description of the entire Chronicles of Amber series.
Once in his former cell, Corwin uses the trump that Dworkin drew on the wall to project himself to the mad sorcerer's chambers. Dworkin incorrectly assumes that Corwin is Oberon, and reveals to him in a vaguely metaphoric manner that he, Dworkin, is Oberon's father (and that the mother was the Unicorn), and that he drew the Pattern using the "Jewel of Judgement", which was given to him by the Unicorn after he fled from Chaos. Dworkin then describes how the damage to the Pattern could be fixed if he destroyed himself, erasing the pattern and allowing Oberon to draw another.
Dworkin takes Corwin to the Primal Pattern, past the purple griffin, Wixer. Dworkin then realizes that it is Corwin, and explains that there is a way to mend the Pattern using the Jewel of Judgement, though that would be more difficult, and probably fatal to the person who attempted it. Dworkin then loses control of his madness, transforming into a monstrous beast and pursuing Corwin back into his chambers. Corwin escapes via a Trump which he finds there.
He finds himself in the Courts of Chaos, a great castle which looks out over the Abyss, a swirling black/white hole, under a half-colored-stripy, half-black-swirly sky. Corwin remembers being brought here as a child by Oberon, to see that this is in fact the true source of all creation, not Amber. A strange, pale rider attacks Corwin, but is defeated. A familiar-seeming man approaches with a crossbow, but spares Corwin after recognizing him by his blade.
Corwin contacts Gérard via Trump, and learns that because of the time differential between Amber and Chaos he has been missing for eight days. Corwin takes the pierced trump of Martin to Brand, who admits stabbing Martin through the trump in order to damage the pattern, as part of his cabal's scheme to capture Oberon. He tries to persuade Corwin to use the Trump to kill Bleys and Fiona, as he was stabbed. He asks for the Jewel to help him to restrain them, but Corwin is unconvinced.
Ganelon, who is with Benedict, contacts Corwin via Trump. Benedict is now wearing the metallic arm from Tir-na Nog'th. Corwin gives Benedict the trump of the Courts.
Gérard arrives via Trump. Brand has gone missing, and his room is covered in blood. Gérard becomes convinced that Corwin has finished Brand off, and starts to fight Corwin. Ganelon stops Gérard's punch and knocks him unconscious with several blows, giving Corwin time to escape.
Corwin flees into the forest of Arden, hoping to retrieve the Jewel from Earth. A manticora follows him, but Julian arrives and kills it. Julian explains that the Eric-Julian-Caine triumvirate arose only to oppose Brand's cabal, taking the throne to prevent Bleys from claiming it. When Corwin arrived with Bleys, they assumed he had joined the cabal, but when (after his capture) they realized he only wanted the throne, Julian suggested blinding him as an alternative to killing him. Julian tells Corwin how Brand has acquired strange powers, including becoming a "living Trump", capable of teleporting himself or other objects through shadow.
Corwin proceeds to Earth, musing on his new-found respect for Julian. He arrives to find that the compost heap where he hid the Jewel of Judgment is gone. With the help of Bill Roth, he tracks down the heap, but the Jewel has been claimed by a red-headed artist.
Corwin contacts Amber and has guards posted on the Patterns in Amber and Rebma, hoping to prevent Brand from using them to attune himself to the Jewel. Fiona contacts him via Trump, and projects herself to Earth. She then leads Corwin to the Primal Pattern, taking a short-cut through a starry tunnel. She explains that she and Bleys had imprisoned Brand because he had decided to destroy the Pattern and re-create, reshaping the multiverse according to his own liking. They kept him alive because they believed he might be helpful in repairing the damage. She also explains that Brand tried to kill Corwin on Earth because he saw a vision in Tir-na Nog'th that Corwin would defeat him. Fiona confirms that Bleys survived the fall from the cliff in the first book.
They arrive to find Brand already on the Primal Pattern. Corwin follows, hoping to slay Brand while he is distracted, but he realises that slaying Brand would further damage the Pattern. He instead gets close enough to ask the Jewel to summon a tornado, which seems to destroy Brand as it did Random's horse, but Fiona assures Corwin that Brand survived.
Leaving Fiona to guard the Primal Pattern, Corwin goes to his tomb to meet Random and Martin, who have just arrived. Martin tells Corwin how he was attacked by Brand, and how he met Dara in shadow. Ganelon contacts Corwin to tell him that Tir-na Nog'th will appear tonight, along with its version of the Pattern. Reasoning that Brand will attempt to attune himself there, Ganelon asks Benedict to walk the Pattern in Amber, ready to teleport himself there when it appears and tells Corwin to keep permanent contact with Benedict through the Trump to teleport him out in case the city becomes immaterial.
Corwin rides to the top of Kolvir and contacts Benedict via the Trump. Tir-na Nog'th appears, and Benedict teleports himself there. Brand appears shortly afterwards, and tries to persuade Benedict to allow him to re-create the Pattern. Benedict refuses and Brand, partly attuned to the Jewel, uses it to freeze Benedict in place. Neither Corwin nor Benedict can now prevent Brand from walking Tir-na Nog'th's Pattern and fully attuning himself to the Jewel, but the mechanical arm moves of its own accord, snatching the Jewel and choking Brand with the chain. Brand teleports away, leaving the chain.
Corwin and Benedict decide that the arm being the right weapon in the right place at the right time is too unlikely a coincidence to be true, and so it must have been arranged by some guiding force — Oberon. Together, they try Oberon's Trump, and find that contact comes easily. They are answered by a grinning Ganelon.
Authorial appearance
Roger Zelazny (or possibly one of his doppelgängers) makes a cameo in his own novel as "Roger" — a cadaverous, grinning, pipe-smoking guard in Amber's dungeon who is writing a "philosophical romance shot through with elements of horror and morbidity". Some of the themes of the series as a whole are shadows, doubles and the nature of reality.
Sources
External links
1976 American novels
The Chronicles of Amber books
American fantasy novels
1976 fantasy novels
Works originally published in Galaxy Science Fiction
Novels first published in serial form
Doubleday (publisher) books | [
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230096 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The%20Courts%20of%20Chaos | The Courts of Chaos | The Courts of Chaos is fantasy novel by American writer Roger Zelazny, the fifth book in the Chronicles of Amber series. It was first published in serial format in Galaxy Science Fiction.
This book ends the original series narrated by Corwin. The next series begins with Trumps of Doom following his son, Merlin, as the protagonist.
Corwin must ride the entire length of the multiverse, from Amber to the Courts of Chaos, while Oberon attempts to repair the Pattern. All the while, Brand pursues him, trying to steal the Jewel of Judgement.
Plot summary
Corwin sulks in Castle Amber's library while Oberon gives the family orders. Random persuades Corwin to leave, but they are held back by an invisible force. They watch as Corwin's sword appears and chops off Benedict's new arm.
Dara and Martin are with Benedict. Corwin learns from Martin's trumps that the crossbowman who spared him is Merlin. Dara tells how Brand bargained with the Courts of Chaos. They wished to replace him with Merlin, but Dara feared that neither would keep their word.
Still unconvinced, Corwin contacts Fiona. She confirms Dara's authority, and says that Oberon is about to repair the Pattern. Hoping to save Oberon, Corwin grabs the Jewel, but he is paralyzed by Oberon's magics.
Oberon has a final talk with his son. Corwin explains that he no longer wants to rule.
Once Corwin confirms Dara's authority, Benedict uses the trump of the Courts of Chaos to begin his attack. Dara talks to Corwin. Dara then leaves to give the rest of the family their orders. Gérard is ordered to stay and guard Amber, while Julian and Random are to stay in Arden.
Oberon arrives, and asks Corwin for some of his blood. He breathes life into the blood, and it becomes a red raven. Oberon tells Corwin that the raven will follow him through shadow. Corwin's orders are to hellride towards Chaos as fast as possible. He must bear the Jewel through shadow.
Corwin says goodbye to his father, and sets off. Now that he knows that Amber is just the first Shadow, he finds he can shift shadow there more easily. As he rides towards Chaos, he follows the Black Road. After a time, he notices the black road begin to come apart; shortly after, the raven arrives and gives him the Jewel. Corwin is unsure whether this means that Oberon has succeeded or failed.
Brand arrives, telling him that he watched Oberon fail, and that Corwin must give him the Jewel so he can create a new Pattern. Corwin refuses, and forces Brand to leave. He notices an unusually large storm following him, and takes refuge in a cave. The cave's other occupant, a nameless stranger who has also sought shelter from the storm, casually mentions some local legends about the Archangel Corwin, who, according to scripture will ride before a storm at the end of the world. The real Corwin dismisses this story as nonsense and commands the Jewel to quell the storm. Eventually he falls asleep.
When he wakes, his horse has been kidnapped. He says goodbye to the stranger and tracks his horse to a cave, blocked off by a large boulder, which he shatters. Inside, leprechauns are celebrating a feast. Observing his great strength, they return his horse and invite him to join them. Succumbing to their odd charm, he starts to fall asleep, but rouses himself in time to see them preparing to slaughter him. He awakes and rushes outside. As he leaves, the leader of the wee folk recognizes him as the Archangel Corwin from local legends, mentioned before by the nameless stranger.
He starts to move into shadow, but as he moves further from the cave where he slept the universe starts to come apart around him. He realizes that the storm was a wave of Chaos, moving away from Amber as the multiverse is destroyed. He begins to doubt whether Oberon was successful.
Using the jewel, he is able to overtake the storm and return to the diminishing multiverse. A strange lady dines with him and attempts to seduce him, but remembering his encounter with the pale lady on the black road (who may or may have not been a copy of Dara), and that he's working to a deadline, he declines. Brand ambushes him with a crossbow, mortally wounding his horse, but the blood raven reappears and plucks out one of Brand's eyes. Corwin puts down his horse and continues striding through shadow.
Corwin cuts a branch off a tree as a walking aid. The tree complains, but when it learns that he is Oberon's son it gives him its blessing. It says that it is Ygg, and that Oberon planted it in Amber's distant past to mark the boundary between Order and Chaos. It tells him to plant the staff somewhere it will have the chance to grow.
A talking raven named Hugi (of the usual color) arrives, and tries to distract Corwin with fatalistic philosophy. It shows Corwin the head of a mostly-drowned Giant, who will not even allow the possibility of rescue. A mythological jackal offers to lead Corwin on a short-cut to the Courts, but instead leads him to its lair, where Corwin kills it in self-defense. He finally finds a shadow with the Courts' sky, but is aghast to discover that the Courts still lie across a huge wasteland. The raven Hugi returns and pointedly tells him it knew all along, so he kills it for his dinner.
As the metaphysical storm approaches Chaos, Corwin decides that Oberon must have failed, so he plants his staff and begins to use the Jewel to inscribe a new Pattern. The process evokes memories of his former life in Paris, France, and is given the impression that these somehow shape the new Pattern. He finishes, but is exhausted, and he collapses at the new Pattern's center. Brand projects himself to Corwin and steals the Jewel. Corwin loses consciousness.
Corwin awakes to find the area surrounding his Pattern transformed. The sky is now white, and the staff has grown into a tree. Corwin realises that he is at the center of a Pattern, and commands it to teleport him to the Courts.
He arrives in the courts, only to be challenged to single combat by someone who introduces himself as Borel, Master at Arms of the Courts of Chaos. He removes his armour to make the fight fair, but Corwin, having no time for a fair fight, slays him then and there, although he does feel slightly guilty about it afterward.
Corwin finds Brand with Fiona, Random and Deirdre, at the edge of the Abyss. Fiona is keeping him psychically bound, but Brand has Deirdre as a hostage. Suddenly an image of Oberon fills the sky, telling them that Corwin must use the Jewel to save them from the oncoming Chaos storm, and gives them a blessing. Corwin makes use of the distraction and his attunement to the jewel to super-heat Brand, but Brand realizes what's happening and starts to cut Deirdre. She pulls herself free, and Brand is shot in the chest and throat with a bow. He staggers, and grabs Deirdre's hair. They both fall into the Abyss. Corwin tries to follow her, and Random has to knock him out.
Corwin wakes up to see Caine there, alive and well. He explains how he faked his own death and spied on the others using the Trumps. It was him who shot Brand, using silver-tipped arrows, just in case. They watch Amber's armies crush the forces of Chaos while the storm continues to advance. A funeral procession, led by Dworkin, emerges from the storm front, accompanied by all sorts of various fantastic beasts. Fiona appears with Dara and Corwin's son, Merlin. Corwin discusses with Fiona the possibility that two Patterns now exist; she can't decide whether that is good or bad. Dara arrives, angry with Corwin for killing Borel, and then leaves. Merlin arrives with her, but stays, eager to learn more about his father.
The Unicorn appears from the Abyss, wearing the Jewel of Judgement. It examines each of the Amberites in turn, then kneels in front of Random. The rest of the family kneel in front of him too, and pledge their allegiance to him as the new King. Random takes the Jewel, and Corwin is able to guide him through the attunement process. Corwin is exhausted, and stays with Random while the others go to the Courts, where they think they should be safe. Merlin stays, and asks to hear about his father's adventures. Corwin begins narrating the Chronicles to his son.
Random is successful, and the Trumps become active. They contact Gérard, who tells them that the multiverse is fine, although seven years have passed. Corwin reflects on his changed attitudes towards his family, and on the changes in himself.
Literary allusions
Corwin's encounter with "Lady" contains various allusions to the ballad "La Belle Dame sans Merci" by John Keats.
Corwin's meeting with Ygg parallels Dante's meeting with a talking tree in the middle ring of the seventh circle of hell in the "Inferno (Dante)". Ygg might also be an allusion to Yggdrasil, the mythological tree of the Norse mythology.
Hugi might allude to Huginn, one of the two mythical ravens of Odin also from the Norse mythology.
Corwin's valedictory to Dara, "Carmen, voulez-vous venir avec moi? No? Then goodbye to you too, Princess of Chaos" probably alludes to Lolita; the "Carmen" line is included by Humbert Humbert in his narration of speaking to Dolores Haze near the end of the novel. The allusions grow deep here however; the line in Lolita is itself an allusion to Bizet's Carmen as well as Mérimée's novella upon which it is based. That the reference is to Lolita rather than directly to Carmen is suggested by Corwin's mixed feelings about Dara's apparent age while she is seducing him, and the creation of a literary reference with three degrees of parentage is consistent with Zelazny's occasional predilection for subtle literary stunts.
References
External links
1978 American novels
The Chronicles of Amber books
American fantasy novels
1978 fantasy novels
Novels first published in serial form
Works originally published in Galaxy Science Fiction
Doubleday (publisher) books | [
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230098 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/George%20Grote | George Grote | George Grote (; 17 November 1794 – 18 June 1871) was an English political radical and classical historian. He is now best known for his major work, the voluminous History of Greece.
Early life
George Grote was born at Clay Hill near Beckenham in Kent. His grandfather, Andreas, originally a Bremen merchant, was one of the founders (on 1 January 1766) of the banking-house of Grote, Prescott & Company in Threadneedle Street, London (the name of Grote did not disappear from the firm till 1879). His father, another George, married (1793) Selina, daughter of Henry Peckwell (1747–1787), minister of Selina, Countess of Huntingdon's chapel in Westminster, and his wife Bella Blosset (descended from a Huguenot officer Salomon Blosset de Loche who left the Dauphiné on the revocation of the Edict of Nantes), and had one daughter and ten sons, of whom George was the eldest. Arthur Grote was a brother. (John Russell RA painted portraits of Henry Peckwell and Bella Blosset.)
Educated at first by his mother, George Grote was sent to Sevenoaks grammar school (1800–1804) and afterwards to Charterhouse School (1804–1810), where he studied under Dr Raine in company with Connop Thirlwall, George and Horace Waddington and Henry Havelock. In spite of Grote's school successes, his father refused to send him to university and sent him to work at the bank. He spent all his spare time in the study of classics, history, metaphysics and political economy and in learning German, French and Italian. Driven by his mother's Puritanism and his father's contempt for academic learning, he sought other friends, one of whom was Charles Hay Cameron, who strengthened him in his love of philosophy. Through another friend, George W. Norman, he met his wife, Harriet Lewin (1792–1878), a writer and later the biographer of the artist Ary Scheffer. After various difficulties the marriage took place on 5 March 1820, and was a happy one. His wife's nephew was the actor William Terriss, the father of Ellaline Terriss. His brother was the moral philosopher John Grote.
Work and writing
Meanwhile, Grote had finally decided his philosophic and political attitude. In 1817 he came under the influence of David Ricardo, and through him of James Mill and Jeremy Bentham. He settled in 1820 in a house attached to the bank in Threadneedle Street, where his only child died a week after its birth. During Mrs Grote's convalescence at Hampstead, he wrote his first published work, the "Statement of the Question of Parliamentary Reform" (1821), in reply to Sir James Mackintosh's article in the Edinburgh Review, advocating popular representation, vote by ballot and short parliaments. In April 1822 he published in the Morning Chronicle a letter against George Canning's attack on Lord John Russell, and edited, or rather re-wrote, some discursive papers of Bentham, which he published under the title Analysis of the Influence of Natural Religion on the Temporal Happiness of Mankind by Philip Beauchamp (1822). The book was published in the name of Richard Carlile, then in gaol at Dorchester. Though not a member of John Stuart Mill's Utilitarian Society (1822–1823), he took a great interest in a society for reading and discussion, which met from 1823 onwards in a room at the bank before business hours, twice a week.
Mrs Grote claimed to have first suggested the History of Greece in 1823; but the book was already in preparation in 1822. In April 1826 Grote published in The Westminster Review a criticism of William Mitford's History of Greece, which shows that his ideas were already in order. From 1826 to 1830 he was hard at work with John Stuart Mill and Henry Brougham in the organization of University College London. He was a member of the council which organized the faculties and the curriculum. In 1830, owing to a difference with Mill as to an appointment to one of the philosophical chairs (Grote objected to John Hoppus), he resigned his position. He rejoined the council in 1849 and was appointed Treasurer in 1860, then President in 1868. In his will Grote left £6000 as an endowment for the Chair of Philosophy of Mind and Logic at University College London.
He went abroad in 1830, and spent some months in Paris with the Liberal leaders. Recalled by his father's death (6 July), he became manager of the bank, and took a leading position among the City Radicals. In 1831 he published his important Essentials of Parliamentary Reform (an elaboration of his previous "Statement"), and, after refusing to stand as parliamentary candidate for the City of London in 1831, changed his mind and was elected head of the poll, with three other Liberals, in December 1832. As an MP, Grote spent much of his time unsuccessfully advocating for the secret ballot. After serving in three parliaments, he resigned in 1841, by which time his party ("the Philosophical Radicals") had dwindled away.
During these years of active public life, his interest in Greek history and philosophy had increased, and after a trip to Italy in 1842, he severed his connection with the bank and devoted himself to literature. In 1846 the first two volumes of the History appeared. The remaining ten appeared between 1847 and the spring of 1856. In 1845, with William Molesworth and Raikes Currie, he gave money to Auguste Comte, then in financial difficulties. The formation of the Sonderbund (20 July 1847) led him to visit Switzerland and study for himself a condition of things in some sense analogous to that of the ancient Greek states. This visit resulted in the publication in The Spectator of seven weekly letters, collected in book form at the end of 1847 (see a letter to de Tocqueville in Mrs Grote's reprint of the Seven Letters, 1876). Grote was elected a Foreign Honorary Member of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences in 1853.
In 1856, Grote began to prepare his works on Plato and Aristotle. Plato and the Other Companions of Sokrates (3 vols.) appeared in 1865. That work made him known by some as "the greatest nineteenth-century Plato scholar". The work on Aristotle he did not complete. He had finished the Organon and was about to deal with the metaphysical and physical treatises when he died at his home in Mayfair, London, and was buried in Westminster Abbey. The house, No. 12 Savile Row, now has a commemorative brown plaque on it.
He is said, in some estimations, to have been a man of strong character and self-control, unfailing courtesy and unswerving devotion to what he considered the best interests of the nation. Other historians, such as Guy MacLean Rogers, consider he can reasonably be accused of anti-clerical bias. Grote's time on the Council at University College London was characterised by his contentious approach to two liberal nonconformists: John Hoppus and James Martineau, both of whom found ways to work around his opposition. Grote's life has attracted a wide variety of biographical comment due to his strong views.
Principal works
1821 – Statement of the Question of Parliamentary Reform
1822 – Analysis of the Influence of Natural Religion on the Temporal Happiness, of Mankind (From Jeremy Bentham's notes)
1831 – Essentials of Parliamentary Reform
1831 – Speech of George Grote, Esq. M.P., delivered April 25th, 1833, in the House of Commons, on moving for the introduction of the vote by ballot at elections
1846–1856 – A History of Greece; from the Earliest Period to the Close of the Generation Contemporary with Alexander the Great (12 vols.)
1847 – Seven Letters on the Recent Politics of Switzerland
1859 – Life, Teachings, and Death of Socrates. From Grote's History of Greece
1860 – Plato's Doctrine Respecting the Rotation of the Earth, and Aristotle's Comment upon that Doctrine.
1865 – Plato, and the Other Companions of Sokrates (3 vols.). 2nd edition, 1867; 3rd edition in 4 volumes with some re-organisation, 1885.
1868 – Review of the Work of Mr. John Stuart Mill Entitled 'Examination of Sir William Hamilton's philosophy'
1872 – Poems, 1815–1823
1872 – Aristotle (ed. by Alexander Bain and George Croom Robertson).<ref>Aristotle (ed. by Alexander Bain and George Croom Robertson, volumes 1 and 2</ref> A 2nd edition with some extra material but in one volume was published in 1880.
1873 – The Minor Works of George Grote 1876 – Fragments on Ethical Subjects, a Selection from his Posthumous PapersRecognition
The Grote prize for outstanding research in Greek History, funded by a legacy from V. L. Ehrenberg and awarded annually by the Institute of Classical Studies at the University of London, is named after George Grote.
Grote Street, a principal business strip in the city of Adelaide, South Australia was named for him.
Notes
References
"Grote, George." British Authors of the Nineteenth Century. H.C. Wilson Company, New York, 1936.
Attribution
Further reading
Calder, William M., ed. (1996). George Grote Reconsidered: A 200th Birthday Celebration. Hildesheim: Weidmann. .
Clarke, Martin L. (1962). George Grote: A Biography. London: Athlone Press.
Davies, James (1873). "George Grote," The Contemporary Review, Vol. 22, pp. 393–411.
Demetriou, Kyriacos N. (1999). George Grote on Plato and Athenian Democracy, a Study in Classical Reception. Frankfurt am Main; Berlin; Bern; Bruxelles; New York; Wien: Lang. ;
Dow, Elizabeth Flagg (1956). "George Grote, Historian of Greece: Some Notes for the Centennial", The Classical Journal, Vol. 51, No. 5, pp. 211–19.
Hamburger, Joseph (1965). Intellectuals in Politics: John Stuart Mill and the Philosophical Radicals. New Haven: Yale University Press.
Johnson, W. (1994). "Edward Gibbon and George Grote: A Bicentenary in Common", Notes and Records of the Royal Society of London, Vol. 48, No. 2, pp. 221–26.
Jones, Tom B. (1935). "George Grote and His History of Greece", The Classical Weekly, Vol. 29, No. 8, pp. 59–61.
"Modern Historians," Part II, The British Controversialist, Vol. 1, 1869, pp. 1–19, 161–86.
Momigliano, Arnaldo (1952). George Grote and the Study of Greek History. London: H.K. Lewis and Co., Ltd.
Thomas, William (1979). "George Grote and the Ballot." In: The Philosophic Radicals: Nine Studies in Theory and Practice, 1817–1841. Oxford: Clarendon Press.
Tritle, Lawrence (1999). "The Athens of George Grote: Historiography and Philosophic Radicalism." In: Text and Tradition: Studies in Greek History and Historiography. Claremont, California: Regina Books.
Whedbee, Karen E. (2004). "Reclaiming Rhetorical Democracy: George Grote's Defense of Cleon and the Athenian Demagogues", Rhetoric Society Quarterly, Vol. 34, No. 4, pp. 71–95.
Whedbee, Karen E. (2005). "Authority and Critical Reason: George Grote's Defense of Democratic Justice." Victorians Institute Journal'', Vol. 33, pp. 97–115.
External links
Works by George Grote at Hathi Trust
Library of George Grote held at Senate House Library, University of London
1794 births
1871 deaths
People from Beckenham
British historians
British classical scholars
Scholars of ancient Greek history
English people of German descent
Consequentialists
Utilitarians
People educated at Charterhouse School
People educated at Sevenoaks School
Fellows of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences
Fellows of the Royal Society
Presidents of the Royal Historical Society
Burials at Westminster Abbey
Liberal Party (UK) MPs for English constituencies
UK MPs 1832–1835
UK MPs 1835–1837
UK MPs 1837–1841
Vice-Chancellors of the University of London | [
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230102 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/NYSE%20Chicago | NYSE Chicago | NYSE Chicago, formerly known as the Chicago Stock Exchange (CHX), is a stock exchange in Chicago, Illinois, US. The exchange is a national securities exchange and self-regulatory organization, which operates under the oversight of the U.S. Securities and Exchange Commission (SEC). Intercontinental Exchange (ICE) acquired CHX in July 2018 and the exchange rebranded as NYSE Chicago in February 2019.
History
1882–1900
The Chicago Stock Exchange was founded in a formal meeting on March 21, 1882. At this time, Charles Henrotin was elected the chairman and president. In April that year, a lease was taken out at 115 Dearborn Street for the location of the exchange and during that year 750 memberships were sold. On May 15, 1882, the Chicago Stock Exchange officially became public and opened its offices, with Henrotin being the first to promote it along with some business associates.
In 1894, the Chicago Stock Exchange moved its trading floor to the old Chicago Stock Exchange building, designed by the firm of Adler & Sullivan, which was located at corner of Washington and LaSalle streets. The old Chicago Stock Exchange building was demolished in 1972, but the original trading floor and main entrance can now be found at the Art Institute of Chicago. The exchange began to flourish significantly in the late 1880s, with the rate of transactions of stocks and bonds increasing and earning them big profits.
1901–2000
In July 1914, the Exchange closed as a result of World War I, and remained closed until December 11. In October 1915, the basis of quoting and trading in stocks changed from percent to par value to dollars. On April 26, 1920, the Chicago Stock Exchange Stock Clearing Corporation was established. On October 29, 1929, the stock market crashed, resulting in a very difficult time period for the Chicago Stock Exchange, and the stock market in general.
In 1949, the CHX merged with the exchanges of St. Louis, Cleveland and Minneapolis/St. Paul to form the Midwest Stock Exchange, which kept its headquarters in Chicago. In 1959, the New Orleans Stock Exchange became part of the Midwest Stock Exchange, and in the early 1960s the Midwest Stock Exchange Service Corporation was established to provide centralized accounting for member firms.
In April 1978, the Chicago Stock Exchange launched an Intermarket Trading System (ITS), a system that allowed orders to be sent from one exchange to another to ensure that customers received the best execution available. In the 1980s, the Chicago Stock Exchange made several technological advancements to improve trading. In 1982, the CHX launched the MAX system, which allowed CHX to be one of the first stock exchanges to provide fully automated order execution. In 1987, the CHX implemented programs to trade Nasdaq securities.
In the 1990s, the Exchange had a rebirth, and in 1993 changed its name back to the Chicago Stock Exchange, reflecting its roots and identity within the Chicago financial community. In 1997 the Chicago Stock Exchange began trading exchange-traded funds (ETFs).
2001–present
At the beginning of the new millennium, several major changes occurred. In 2005, the SEC approved a change of the ownership structure of the CHX from a not-for-profit, member-owned company to a for-profit, stockholder-owned corporation. The CHX now operates as a direct and wholly owned subsidiary of CHX Holdings, Inc., a Delaware corporation. Later in 2005, the CHX implemented the Electronic Book trading platform; the predecessor technology of the New Trading Model's Matching System. In 2006, the Exchange announced regulatory and shareholder approval of an investment in CHX by Bank of America Corporation, Bear Stearns (acquired by JP Morgan Chase in 2008), E*TRADE FINANCIAL Corporation, and Goldman, Sachs & Co. In the same year, the CHX announced that it had completed the migration to the New Trading Model platform (the CHX Matching System).
The National Stock Exchange ceased trading operations on May 30, 2014, bringing the number of active stock exchanges in the United States to 11. Wrote Bloomberg, that left "just one public exchange, Chicago Stock Exchange Inc., that isn't owned Bats, Nasdaq OMX Group or IntercontinentalExchange Group Inc."
On February 5, 2016, Chongqing Casin Enterprise Group, a Chinese-led investment group, entered into a definitive agreement to acquire CHX Holdings, Inc., the parent corporation of the Chicago Stock Exchange, for an undisclosed amount, which is subject to regulatory approvals. The privately held Casin Group was founded in 1997. A minority ownership position is held by Bank of America, E-Trade, Goldman Sachs and JPMorgan Chase. The acquisition is valued to be less than $100 million. However, the deal was questioned by then-candidate Donald Trump during his 2016 presidential campaign. Moreover, Congressman Robert Pittenger urged the United States Department of the Treasury to look into the Casin Group's background. By August 2017, the deal was still pending, with the U.S. Securities and Exchange Commission expressing reservations. The sale was blocked by the government in February 2018.
The New York Stock Exchange's parent company, Intercontinental Exchange Inc., agreed to acquire the 136-year-old market for an undisclosed amount. CHX will continue to operate as a registered national securities exchange till the end of 2019 when CHX will cease to exist.
Trading on the CHX
The CHX Matching System was designed for full electronic trade matching. Publicly traded companies do not need to be listed on the CHX to be traded at CHX; SEC rules allow the CHX to trade stocks listed on other exchanges.
In 2016, CHX rolled out its on-demand auction product, CHX SNAP (Sub-second Non-displayed Auction Process), which received regulatory approval from the Securities and Exchange Commission in October 2015 and a thorough review from the Federal Reserve Bank of Chicago. CHX SNAP is designed to facilitate bulk trading of securities on a lit market and to minimize speed and information advantages enjoyed by only a few market participants.
See also
Chicago Stock Exchange Arch
Chicago Curb Exchange
List of stock exchanges in the Americas
List of stock exchange mergers in the Americas
Notes
References
Chicago Stock Exchange. 2008. Retrieved February 18, 2008.
External links
Emporis on old building
Assets of Splendor From a Stock Exchange Eve M. Kahn, The New York Times May 28, 2009
Chongqing Casin Enterprise Group website
1882 establishments in Illinois
Companies based in Chicago
Financial services companies established in 1882
Economy of Chicago
Historic American Buildings Survey in Chicago
Self-regulatory organizations in the United States
Stock exchanges in the United States | [
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230103 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Matteo%20P%C3%A9rez | Matteo Pérez | Matteo Pérez de Alesio (1547–1628) was an Italian painter of devotional, historical and maritime subjects during the Mannerist period. He was also known as Matteo da Lecce by virtue of his hometown of Lecce. He spent the majority of his entire artistic career in Peru, where he lived more than 40 years, between 1588 and 1628.
Biography
Matteo Pérez was the son of Antonio de Alessio and Madama Lucente. He was born in Lecce in the Apulia region.
Italy, Malta and Seville
He studied under Michelangelo, working on the Sistine Chapel, in the Vatican, painting the Fall of the Angels in the facade facing Michelangelo's Last Judgment. He was a member of the Accademia di San Luca in Rome. He also painted an altarpiece for Sant'Eligio degli Orefici.
He travelled to Naples where he met the artist Pablo Moron, who became his long standing assistant. Perez's works in Rome include the fresco The Dispute over the Body of Moses (circa 1574) in the Sistine Chapel; frescoes in the Villa d'Este in Tivoli and the Villa Mondragone in Frascati. He also worked in Malta (from 1576), Seville (in the 1580s) and Lima (from 1589), where he died.
The Hall of St Michael and St George, also known as the Throne Room, of the Grandmaster's Palace, Valletta, is decorated with 13 of his frescoes showing the events of the great siege of Malta by the Turks in 1565. He is credited with having introduced mannerism to Malta with his frescoes. These were painted from 1575 to 1581, at the same time as the oil paintings of the same scene, four of which can be found in the Cube Room of the Queen's House, Greenwich, London. Among his other works in Malta there is the Baptism of Christ which was originally the titular painting of the St. John's Co-Cathedral.
He migrated to Spain in 1583. He completed a monumental fresco, in 1584, in the cathedral of Seville, representing a giant St. Christopher carrying the Infant Saviour on his shoulder. He painted in 1587 the same subject for the church of San Miguel, and he also painted in other public edifices at Seville.
Peru
Pérez de Alesio came to Lima from Rome, accompanied by his disciple and helper Pedro Pablo Morón whom he had contracted as an apprentice in 1583. Morón was to serve him as a helper with a salary of 200 ducados for the 10 years that the contract would last. In 1593, Pérez de Alesio renewed the contract for another 2 and a half years, giving Morón three times the original agreed upon amount. He renewed the contract again for another two years in 1595.
Contracts dating from 1588 to 1628 place Pérez de Alesio in Lima. He brought with him a collection of prints by Dürer and opened a workshop that attracted a number of students and disciples, including Pedro Pablo Morón but also Francisco García (in 1595); the Augustinian friar Francisco Bejarano (in 1599); Domingo Gil from 1600 to 1603; Cosme Ferrero Figueroa and later his son Adriano; forming what Rubén Vargas Ugarte described as one of the first art academies in Lima. In 1590 he painted a portrait of the viceroy García Hurtado de Mendoza, the fourth Marques of Cañete, and as a result he signed a document as "Painter of his Lordship the Lord Viceroy." In 1592 he achieved the degree of Gentleman of the Company of Arcabuz Horsemen of the "Guard of this Kingdom of Peru"
According to a document dated 1591 from the Peruvian Nacional Archive, recorded by the scribe Córdova [f. 376] he contracted to make several paintings for the general Don Antonio Picado for 300 pesos, among these paintings an image of the Virgin Mary on a copper plate; and a full-length portrait of Picado's wife, Doña Mayor Bravo de Saravia. Antonio Picado was procurador for the city of Arequipa, where Pérez de Alesio made the main altarpiece of the church of Saint Dominic. He carved an altarpiece for the Mercedarian church of Huánuco as well.
In 1595 Pérez de Alesio acquired from Francisco López, for 350 pesos, 50 portraits of figures that López had brought from Castille. Aside from his art, Pérez de Alesio also tried to make his fortune in the gold and silver mines of Vilcabamba (Cusco) and Huancavelica. Many documents of mercantile and business exchanges survive that attest to his activity in these areas; these documents rarely mention his artistic facet.
In 1600 he was charged with the adornment of the main chapel of the church of Saint Dominic of Lima, along with Morón, but some documents suggest that this work had already begun between 1593 and 1594 thanks to a donation from Don Alonso Picado in support of Pérez de Alesio's work.
In 1606, at the request of Juan de Vega, he painted seven paintings for one of the churches of Huánuco. The paintings were of relatively small size and included as themes "Christ with the Cross on his back and his Holy Mother" and another representing Jesus in on the cross.
Many biographies describe him as dying in 1616, but a contract of 1628 rejects this theory; in that year he sold an image of the Virgin Mary to the friar Francisco Puche of the order of Saint Benito for the church of Monserrate. In the same year he also decorated, with Morón, the funerary chapel of Captain Bernardo de Villegas and his wife Marcela de Montoya in the church of La Merced in Lima.
Works
In Europe
Villa d’Este Tívoli: Private Chapel of Cardinal Hipólito (1572), with Federico Zuccari.
Villa Mondragone
Chapel of Gonfalone
Church of Saint Catherine of the Rotta: The Virgin with Child between Saint Catherine and Saint Apollonia
Church of San Eglio degli Orefici (1570 – 1571):
Frescos:
Virgin with Child surrounded by saints, the Holy Father, and the Crucifixion (dome)
Prophets (side)
Sistine Chapel:
Defense of the Body of Moses 1574-75
Portrait of Pope Marcelo I (according to Redig de Campos)
Cathedral of Seville:
Saint Christopher (fresco)
Church of Saint James of Seville:
Saint James the Moor-killer at the Battle of Clavijo
In Peru
Portrait of the Viceroy García Hurtado de Mendoza
Church of Saint Dominic:
Life of Saint Dominic (church and cloister of the monastery)
Saint Jerome with Donor (crossing of the church)
Contested works
Mercedarian Church of Lima:
Fresco in the cupula and pendetives of the chapel of Captain Villegas (according to the Argentinian historian Prof. Schenone)
Small altarpiece of Huánuco - Painting on wood of Saint Augustine (copper on wood) and Saint Nicholas Tolentine (proposed by the historian Luis Enrique Thorn)
Basílica y Convento de San Francisco de Lima (Church and Monastery of Saint Francis of Lima):
Murals of the life of Saint Francis
Convent of Saint Rose:
Virgin of the Milk
References
External links
Italian Renaissance painters
Mannerist painters
1547 births
1616 deaths
Catholic painters
People from Lecce
Italian Roman Catholics
16th-century Italian painters
Italian male painters
17th-century Italian painters | [
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230105 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Boston%20Stock%20Exchange | Boston Stock Exchange | The Boston Stock Exchange (now NASDAQ BX, formerly BSE) is a regional stock exchange located in Boston, Massachusetts. It was founded in 1834, making it the third-oldest stock exchange in the United States. On October 2, 2007, NASDAQ agreed to acquire BSE for $61 million.
History
The Boston Stock Exchange was founded in 1834.
In 2002, the BSE co-founded the Boston Options Exchange (BOX), an automated equity options exchange, with partners the Montreal Exchange (MX), a derivatives exchange, and Interactive Brokers, a discount brokerage. In 2007, controlling interest in the Boston Options Exchange was sold to Montreal Exchange by BSE and Interactive Brokers.
In 2007, NASDAQ acquired the BSE.
See also
List of former stock exchanges in the Americas
List of stock exchange mergers in the Americas
References
External links
Official website
Financial services companies established in 1834
1834 establishments in Massachusetts
Companies based in Boston
Economy of Boston
Nasdaq exchanges
Stock exchanges in the United States
2007 mergers and acquisitions | [
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230106 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Richard%20Rothe | Richard Rothe | Richard Rothe (28 January 1799 – 20 August 1867) was a German Lutheran theologian.
Biography
Richard Rothe was born at Posen, then part of Prussia. He studied theology in the universities of Heidelberg and Berlin (1817–20) under Karl Daub, Schleiermacher and Neander, the philosophers and historians G. W. F. Hegel, Friedrich Creuzer and F. C. Schlosser exercising a considerable influence in shaping his thought. From 1820 to 1822 he was in the clerical seminary at Wittenberg. In the autumn of 1823 he was appointed chaplain to the Kingdom of Prussia embassy in Rome, of which Baron Bunsen was the head. This post he exchanged in 1828 for a professorship in the Wittenberg theological seminary, of which in 1832 he became also second director and ephorus, and hence in 1837 he removed to Heidelberg as professor and director of a new clerical seminary; in 1849 he accepted an invitation to Bonn as professor and university preacher, but in 1854 he returned to Heidelberg as professor of theology, and afterwards became a member of the Oberkirchenrath, a position he held until his death. He died in Heidelberg.
Theology
As a youth Rothe had a bent towards a supernatural mysticism; his chosen authors were those of the romantic school, and Novalis remained throughout his life a special favourite. In Berlin and Wittenberg he came under the influence of Pietism as represented by such men as Rudolf Stier and Friedrich Tholuck, though Tholuck pronounced him a "very modern Christian." He afterwards confessed that, though he had been a sincere Pietist, he was never a happy one. In Rome, under the broadening influence of classical and ecclesiastical art, he learned to look at Christianity in its human and universalistic aspects, and began to develop his great idea, the inseparable relation of religion and morals. He began then, and particularly after the revolution of July 1830, likewise to give a more definite form to his peculiar view of the relations of church and state. He thus became out of harmony with the pietistic thought and life of Wittenberg. His removal to Heidelberg and the publication of his first important work, Die Anfänge der christlichen Kirche und ihrer Verfassung (1837), coincide with the attainment of the principal theological positions with which his name is associated. During the middle period of his career (1837–61) he led the life of a scholastic recluse. During the last six years of his life he came forward as the advocate of a free theology and of the Protestantenverein.
Rothe was one of the most profound and influential of modern German theologians. Like Schleiermacher he combined with the keenest logical faculty an intensely religious spirit, while his philosophical tendencies were in sympathy rather with Hegel than with Schleiermacher, and theosophic mysticism was more congenial to him than the abstractions of Spinoza, to whom Schleiermacher owed so much. He classed himself among the theosophists, and claimed to be a convinced and happy supernaturalist in a scientific age. His system, though it may seem to contain doubtful or even fantastic elements, is in its general outlines a noble massive whole, constructed by a profound, comprehensive, fearless and logical mind. A peculiarity of his thought was the realistic nature of his spiritualism: his abstractions are all real existences; his spiritual entities are real and corporeal; his truth is actual being. Hence Rothe, unlike Schleiermacher, lays great stress, for instance, on the personality of God, on the reality of the worlds of good and evil spirits, and on the visible second coming of Christ. Hence his religious feeling and theological speculation demanded their realization in a kingdom of God coextensive with man's nature, terrestrial history and human society.
Theologische Ethik
Thus Rothe's theological system became a Theologische Ethik, as he entitled one of his books (3 vols., 1845-1848). It is on this work that Rothe's permanent reputation as a theologian and ethical writer will rest. The first edition remained twelve years out of print before the second (5 vols., 1867–71) appeared. It was the author's purpose to rewrite the whole, but he died when he had completed the first two volumes. The remainder was reprinted from the first edition by Professor Heinrich Holtzmann, with the addition of some notes and emendations left by the author.
The Theologische Ethik begins with a general sketch of the author's system of speculative theology in its two divisions, theology proper and cosmology, cosmology falling into the two subdivisions of Physik (the world of nature) and Ethik (the world of spirit). It is the last subdivision with which the body of the work is occupied. After an analysis of the religious consciousness, which yields the doctrine of an absolute personal and spiritual God, Rothe proceeds to deduce from his idea of God the process and history of creative development, which is eternally proceeding and bringing forth, as its unending purpose, worlds of spirits, partially self-creative and sharing the absolute personality of the Creator.
Rothe regards the natural man as the consummation of the development of physical nature, and obtains spirit as the personal attainment, with divine help, of those beings in whom the further creative process of moral development is carried on. His theory leaves the natural man, without hesitation, to be developed by the natural processes of animal evolution. The attainment of the higher stage of development is the moral and religious vocation of man; this higher stage is self-determination, the performance of every human function as a voluntary and intelligent agent, or as a person, having as its cosmical effect the subjection of all material to spiritual existences. This personal process of spiritualization is the continuation of the eternal divine work of creation. Thus the moral life and the religious life coincide, and when normal are identical; both have the same aim and are occupied with the same task, the accomplishment of the spiritualization of the world. "Piety, that it may become truth and reality, demands morality as its fulfilment, as the only concrete element in which the idea of fellowship with God is realized; morality, that it may find its perfect unfolding, requires the aid of piety, in the light of which alone it can comprehend its own idea in all its breadth and depth."
The process of human development Rothe regards as necessarily taking an abnormal form and passing through the phase of sin. This abnormal condition necessitates a fresh creative act, that of salvation, which was, however, from the first, part of the divine plan. As a preparation for this salvation supernatural revelation was required for the purifying and revivification of the religious consciousness, and the Saviour Himself had to appear in human history as a fresh miraculous creation, born of a woman but not begotten by a man. In consequence of His supernatural birth the Saviour, or the second Adam, was free from original sin. By His own moral and religious development He made possible a relation of perfect fellowship between God and man, which was the new and highest stage of the divine creation of mankind. This stage of development inaugurated by the Saviour is attained by means of His kingdom or the community of salvation, which is both moral and religious, and in the first instance and temporarily only religious—that is, a church. As men reach the full development of their nature, and appropriate the perfection of the Saviour, the separation between the religious and the moral life will vanish, and the Christian state, as the highest sphere of human life representing all human functions, will displace the church. "In proportion as the Saviour Christianizes the state by means of the church must the progressive completion of the structure of the church prove the cause of its abolition." The decline of the church is therefore not to be deplored, but recognized as the consequence of the independence and completeness of the Christian life. It is the third section of his work—the Pflichtenlehre—which is generally most highly valued, and where his full strength as an ethical thinker is displayed, without any mixture of theosophic speculation.
Other works
Since Rothe's death several volumes of his sermons and of his lectures (on dogmatics, the history of homiletics) and a collection of brief essays and religious meditations under the title of Stille Stunden (Wittenberg, 1872) have been published. Jane Stoddart's translation of his work was called Still Hours when it was published in 1886.
References
References
This work in turn cites:
Friedrich Wilhelm Franz Nippold, Richard Rothe, ein christliches Lebensbild (2 vols., Wittenberg, 1873–74)
Daniel Schenkel, "Zur Erinnerung an Dr R. Rothe," in the Allgemeine kirchliche Zeitschrift (1867–68)
H. Holtzmann, "Richard Rothe," in the Jahrbuch des Protestantenvereins (1869)
K. H. W. Schwarz, Zur Geschichte der neuesten Theologie (4th ed., Leipzig, 1869, pp. 417–444)
Otto Pfleiderer, Religionsphilosophie auf geschichtlicher Grundlage (2nd ed., Berlin, 1884, vol. i. pp. 611–615)
Otto Pfleiderer, The Development of Theology in Germany since Kant (1890)
Heinrich Bassermann, Richard Rothe als praktischer Theologe (1899)
W. Hönig, Richard Rothe, sein Charakter, Leben und Denken (1898)
Adolf Hausrath, Richard Rothe und seine Freunde (1902)
External links
1799 births
1867 deaths
Clergy from Poznań
People from the Grand Duchy of Posen
German Lutheran theologians
19th-century German Protestant theologians
University of Bonn faculty
19th-century German male writers
German male non-fiction writers
19th-century Lutherans | [
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230107 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Grey%20Cup | Grey Cup | The Grey Cup () is both the championship game of the Canadian Football League (CFL) and the trophy awarded to the victorious team playing in the namesake championship of professional Canadian football. The game is contested between the winners of the CFL's East and West Divisional playoffs and is one of Canadian television's largest annual sporting events. The Toronto Argonauts have the most Grey Cup wins (17) since its introduction in 1909, while the Edmonton Elks (formerly the Edmonton Eskimos) have the most Grey Cup wins (11) since the creation of the CFL in 1958. The latest, the 108th Grey Cup, took place in Hamilton, Ontario, on December 12, 2021, when the Winnipeg Blue Bombers defeated the Hamilton Tiger-Cats 33–25 in overtime.
The Grey Cup game is Canada's largest annual sports and television event, regularly drawing a Canadian viewing audience of about 4 million. Two awards are given for play in the game, Most Valuable Player and the Dick Suderman Trophy as most valuable Canadian player. As a member of the Winnipeg Blue Bombers, Andrew Harris is the only player to win both the Grey Cup's Most Valuable Canadian and Most Valuable Player the same year, which he did in 2019.
The trophy was commissioned in 1909 by The Earl Grey, then Canada's governor general, who originally hoped to donate it for the country's senior amateur hockey championship. After the Allan Cup was later donated for that purpose, Grey instead made his trophy available as the "Canadian Dominion Football Championship" (national championship) of Canadian football. The trophy has a silver chalice attached to a large base on which the names of all winning teams, players and executives are engraved. The Grey Cup has been broken on several occasions, stolen twice, and held for ransom. It survived a 1947 fire that destroyed numerous artifacts housed in the same building.
The Grey Cup was first won by the University of Toronto Varsity Blues. Play was suspended from 1916 to 1918 due to the First World War and in 1919 due to a rules dispute. The game has typically been contested in an east-versus-west format since the 1920s. The game was always played on a Saturday until 1968, but since 1969 (except for 1970) has always been on a Sunday. Held in late November (in some years in early December, most recently in 2021), and mostly in outdoor stadiums, the Grey Cup has been played in inclement weather at times, including the 1950 "Mud Bowl", in which a player reportedly came close to drowning in a puddle, then the 1962 "Fog Bowl", when the final minutes of the game had to be postponed to the following day due to a heavy fog, and the 1977 "Ice Bowl", contested on the frozen-over artificial turf at Montreal's Olympic Stadium. Most recently, in the 2017 game snow fell, at times heavily, throughout the game.
The then-Edmonton Eskimos formed the Grey Cup's longest dynasty, winning five consecutive championships from 1978 to 1982. Competition for the trophy has been exclusively between Canadian teams, except for a three-year period from 1993 to 1995, when an expansion of the CFL south into the United States resulted in the Baltimore Stallions winning the 1995 championship and taking the Grey Cup south of the border for the only time in its history.
History
National championships before 1909
Serious efforts to organize a national governing body and eventually a Dominion championship for what at that time was still a game called and practically identical to rugby union began in the early 1880s, culminating in the creation of the Canadian Rugby Union in 1891 and the first CRU-recognized national championship the following year. After that, national championship games were held every year prior to the creation of the Grey Cup except 1899, 1903 and 1904.
Creation and early years (1909–1921)
While the Stanley Cup was created in 1893 as the Canadian amateur hockey championship, professional teams were openly competing for the trophy by 1907. Albert Grey, 4th Earl Grey, the Governor General of Canada, planned to donate a new trophy to serve as the senior amateur championship; however, Sir Montague Allan donated the Allan Cup before he could finalize his plans. Grey instead offered an award for the Canadian amateur rugby football championship beginning in 1909. He initially failed to follow through on his offer; the trophy was not ordered until two weeks prior to the first championship game.
The first Grey Cup game was held on December 4, 1909, between two Toronto clubs: the University of Toronto Varsity Blues defeated the Parkdale Canoe Club 26–6 before 3,800 fans. The trophy was not ready for presentation following the game, and the Varsity Blues did not receive it until March 1910. They retained the trophy in the following two years, defeating the Hamilton Tigers in 1910 and the Toronto Argonauts in 1911. The University of Toronto failed to reach the 1912 Grey Cup, which was won by the Hamilton Alerts over the Argonauts. The Varsity Blues refused to hand over the trophy on the belief they could keep it until they were defeated in a title game. They kept the trophy until 1914 when they were defeated by the Argonauts, who made the trophy available to subsequent champions.
Canada's participation in World War I resulted in the cancellation of the championship from 1916 to 1918, during which time the Cup was forgotten. Montreal Gazette writer Bob Dunn claimed that the trophy was later rediscovered as "one of the family heirlooms" of an employee of the Toronto trust company where it had been sent for storage. The Grey Cup game was also cancelled in 1919 due to a lack of interest from the Interprovincial Rugby Football Union (IRFU) and the intercollegiate unions, along with rules conflicts between the Canadian Rugby Union (CRU) and the western union; Canada was still struggling in its recovery from the Spanish flu epidemic that occurred during the last months of World War I. Competition finally resumed in 1920 with the 8th Grey Cup game, won 16–3 by the Varsity Blues over the Argonauts. It was the University of Toronto's fourth, and final, championship.
Western participation (1922–1932)
Competition for the Grey Cup was limited to member unions of the CRU, the champions of which petitioned the league body for the right to challenge for the national championship. The Western Canada Rugby Football Union (WCRFU) was formed in 1911, but the CRU did not come to a participation agreement with it until 1921, allowing the Edmonton Eskimos (no lineage to the team that used that name 1949–2020) of the WCRFU to challenge. Facing the Argonauts in the 9th Grey Cup, the Eskimos became the first western teamand the first from outside Toronto or Hamiltonto compete for the trophy. The Argonauts entered the game with an undefeated record, having outscored their opposition 226 to 55 during the season. They dominated Edmonton, recording the first shutout in Grey Cup history with a 23–0 victory. Multi-sport star Lionel Conacher was Toronto's top player, scoring 15 of his team's points before leaving the game after the third quarter to join his hockey team for their game. The same Edmonton team (renamed as Edmonton Elks) challenged for the trophy again in 1922, but lost 13–1 to their eastern opposition, the Queen's University Golden Gaels. For Queen's, it was the first of three consecutive titles.
Western teams continued to vie for the trophy, but were consistently outclassed for several years. Eastern teams and critics felt the quality of the western game was inferior to theirs, and when Queen's defeated the Regina Rugby Club 54–0 in the 1923 final, the critics felt they deliberately ran up the score to prove that point. Regina was western Canada's dominant team, appearing in the Grey Cup on six occasions between 1928 and 1934, but lost to their eastern opponents each time. Regina helped revolutionize Canadian football in 1929, however, as they attempted the first forward pass in Grey Cup history. The Winnipeg 'Pegs (now the Blue Bombers) became the first western Grey Cup champion in 1935 when they defeated the Hamilton Tigers, 18–12. While the Grey Cup was slow to achieve national popularity, the advent of the east versus west format helped make the game the nation's largest sporting event.
Progress towards professionalism (1933–1956)
As the quality of senior football improved, university teams realized they were no longer able to compete on equal footing and withdrew from competition for the Grey Cup in 1933. By 1938, only three unions continued to compete under the banner of the CRU: the IRFU and the Ontario Rugby Football Union (ORFU) in the east, and the Western Interprovincial Football Union (WIFU) in the west. The CRU experimented with a two-game, total points series to determine the champion in 1940. The Ottawa Rough Riders won both games against Toronto's Balmy Beach, 8–2 and 12–5. The Grey Cup returned to its one-game format the following year.
Both the IRFU and WIFU suspended operations in 1942 due to the Second World War. Grey Cup play was expected to be suspended along with the unions; however, the military felt the game and sport would serve as a morale booster and organized teams at bases across the country. For the following three years, Grey Cup competition was limited to military teams, and in the 1942 Grey Cup, the Toronto RCAF Hurricanes defeated the Winnipeg RCAF Bombers 8–5 to become the first non-civilian team to win the national championship. Two years later, the St. Hyacinthe–Donnacona Navy defeated the Hamilton Flying Wildcats, 7–6; no Grey Cup championship since then has featured two eastern teams. The conclusion of the war led to the reformation of civilian teams; the IRFU resumed play in 1945, and the WIFU the following year.
A push by the sport's organizers to adopt an increasingly professional attitude dominated the post-war period: poor field conditions, previously accepted as part of the game, resulted in numerous complaints against the CRU following the 1949 and 1950 Grey Cups. Field conditions at Toronto's Varsity Stadium were so poor in 1950 that the game has since gained infamy as the "Mud Bowl". Deep ruts in the field and poor weather in the days leading up to the game resulted in a sloppy field covered in large puddles of water. The game also gained notoriety for the near drowning of Winnipeg's Buddy Tinsley, who was found face down in a large puddle, apparently unconscious. Tinsley later said that he had not lost consciousness, but his leg had gone numb from a hard hit to a preexisting injury. Toronto won the game 13–0, the last time a team has been shut out in a Grey Cup game.
The ORFU, the last purely amateur union competing for the Grey Cup, withdrew from Cup competition in 1954. Although the IRFU and WIFU champions had faced each other in the Grey Cup final since 1945, the ORFU's withdrawal left the IRFU and WIFU unchallenged as Canada's top football unions. The Eskimos faced the Montreal Alouettes in three consecutive Grey Cups in the mid-1950s, winning all three. Edmonton's first title in 1954 ended in bizarre fashion after Jackie Parker scored a touchdown (converted by Bob Dean) from a fumble recovery late in the game that gave Edmonton a 26–25 lead. At the time in Canadian football, touchdowns were only worth 5 points. Parker's 90-yard fumble return was the longest in league history until Toronto's Cassius Vaughn returned a Calgary fumble 109 yards in the 2017 Grey Cup game which was won by Toronto. The 1954 game also marked the end of the amateur era as the top teams completed their transition to professional organizations.
As the 1950s wore on, the IRFU and WIFU distanced themselves from the CRU, forming the Canadian Football Council in 1956 to administer the game at the professional level. Two years later, on January 18, 1958, the CFC withdrew from the CRU and reorganized as the Canadian Football League (CFL). The new league formally assumed control of the Grey Cup from the CRU.
Canadian Football League kicks off (1957–1969)
In the CFL's initial seasons, the Hamilton Tiger-Cats were the league's dominant team, appearing in nine Grey Cups and winning four titles between 1957 and 1967. The Winnipeg Blue Bombers opposed Hamilton on six of those occasions, winning four titles. The two teams were involved in a series of bizarre incidents, the first occurring during the 1957 Grey Cup. Toronto-based lawyer and fan David Humphrey had talked his way past stadium security and had been allowed to watch the game from the sidelines. Ten minutes into the fourth quarter, Hamilton's Ray Bawel intercepted a pass and it appeared he would return the ball for a touchdown when Humphrey stuck his leg out and tripped Bawel as he ran up the sideline. Unsure how to handle the situation as there was no rule designed to cover it, referee Paul Dojack invented one on the spot. He placed the ball half the distance to the Winnipeg goal line from the point Bawel was tripped. The incident did not affect the final score, as Hamilton won 32–7. The league also created a new rule during the 1961 Grey Cup as it was the first in history to end regulation time in a tie: CFL Commissioner Sid Halter determined the teams would play an overtime period that consisted of two five-minute halves. That rule remained the CFL standard into the 2000s. Winnipeg scored the lone touchdown in overtime to defeat Hamilton 21–14.
Winnipeg and Hamilton met again in 1962, the 50th Grey Cup, immortalized as the "Fog Bowl". The game was held at Toronto's Exhibition Stadium, and began on Saturday, December 1, 1962. The fog rolled in early in the second quarter and became increasingly dense as the game progressed. By the fourth quarter, the players were unable to see the sideline markers and the fans unable to see the play. The players were unable to see the ball in the air – kick returners listened for the sound of the ball hitting the ground – and the action was largely invisible to the television audience. With nine minutes and twenty-nine seconds remaining in the game and Winnipeg holding onto a 28–27 lead, officials made the unprecedented decision to suspend play until the next day. Though the league feared that continuing fog on the morning of December 2 would force the complete abandonment of the game, it lifted in time for the contest to resume. Around 15,000 of the original 32,655 spectators watched Winnipeg win the Grey Cup without further scoring by either team. It was the first title game completed on a Sunday; the Grey Cup moved from its traditional Saturday start to Sunday in 1969; however, the game was played on a Saturday for the last time in 1970.
Eskimos' dynasty (1970–1988)
The Montreal Alouettes' 1970 Grey Cup championship, an upset win over the favoured Calgary Stampeders, served as a morale booster for the city of Montreal, which was reeling in the aftermath of the October Crisis. The 1970s belonged to the Edmonton Eskimos, however, as they ended the decade as one of the most dominant teams in CFL history, reaching the Grey Cup nine times between 1973 and 1982. The team competed in three consecutive finals early in the decade, losing to Ottawa in 1973 and Montreal in 1974, before winning the franchise's fourth championship in 1975. The 1975 championship was held in Calgary and was the first Grey Cup played on the Canadian Prairies. A young woman infamously streaked across the field during the national anthem despite frigid temperatures well below freezing. The only time the Eskimos did not reach the Grey Cup final during this span was in 1976, when the Saskatchewan Roughriders met the Ottawa Rough Riders, in the final all-"Roughriders" Grey Cup game. Both teams fought a see-saw battle, which was decided in the dying seconds of the game when Ottawa quarterback Tom Clements threw to Tony Gabriel, which stood out as the winning touchdown, 23–20. The 1977 Grey Cup was the first held at Olympic Stadium in Montreal, contested by the home town Alouettes and the Eskimos in front of a record crowd of 68,318. The game became known as the "Ice Bowl", as low temperatures froze snow on the field that had been melted by groundskeepers with salt, making the artificial turf extremely slippery. The Alouettes adapted to the field conditions by affixing staples to the soles of their shoes, improving their traction, and won the game by a 41–6 score.
Upset at losing the 1977 game under poor weather conditions, the Eskimos hoped for a rematch with Montreal in 1978. Both teams reached the final game, which Edmonton won 20–13. It was the first of five consecutive championships, a streak that remains unmatched in the history of the Grey Cup. The Eskimos' dynasty dominated the league, losing a total of only six games during the three seasons from 1979 to 1981. The 1981 Grey Cup was expected to be yet another easy win for Edmonton, who posted a 14–1–1 record during the season and were considered overwhelming favourites against the 5–11 Ottawa Rough Riders. The first half did not go as Edmonton hoped, though, as Ottawa emerged with a 20–1 lead. Quarterback Warren Moon led the Eskimos back in the second half, and with the game tied at 23, Dave Cutler kicked the game-winning field goal with just three seconds remaining.
Edmonton's championship run came to an end in 1983 when they lost in the West Semi-Final game; the Argonauts defeated the BC Lions to win the championship that year, ending the team's 31-year Grey Cup title drought. Despite Toronto's win, the CFL felt that the overall quality of play in the East Division had deteriorated compared to that of the West. In 1986, it altered the playoff format to allow the first non-playoff team in one division to take the last playoff spot, but stay in their division if they had a better record. The consequences of the new rules were felt immediately, as the league gave a playoff spot to the Stampeders having a better record than the Alouettes, and decided the East Division Final would be a 2-game-total-point Final between the Toronto Argonauts and the Hamilton Tiger-Cats, who finished first and second, respectively. The crossover, if necessary, would begin in 1987. In financial difficulty, the loss of the playoff spot was disastrous for Montreal, which ceased operations one year later. The crossover rule was eliminated and not revisited until a decade later due to Montreal's folding (ironically, the crossover rule returned with the Alouettes' revival). Reduced to eight teams, the CFL shifted Winnipeg to the East Division, making the 1988 Grey Cup between the Blue Bombers and Lions the first championship game between two western Canadian teams.
CFL USA (1989–1995)
The 1989 Grey Cup is considered one of the finest games in Canadian football history: The Saskatchewan Roughriders defeated the Hamilton Tiger-Cats 43–40 in the highest scoring Grey Cup game of all-time. Saskatchewan kicker Dave Ridgway's last-second field goal won the game and made him a legend in the prairie province.
Declining interest in the CFL during the 1990s left the league in financial difficulty. Hoping to restore the league's credibility with fans, a new ownership group featuring Bruce McNall, hockey player Wayne Gretzky and actor John Candy purchased the Toronto Argonauts in 1991 and lured American college standout Rocket Ismail to Canada with a four-year, $26.2 million contract which made him the highest paid player in football history at that time. The Argonauts reached the 1991 Grey Cup and defeated the Calgary Stampeders 36–21. With 261 all-purpose yards on the game, including a then-Grey Cup record 87-yard kickoff return for a touchdown, Ismail was named Grey Cup Most Valuable Player.
The potential for the league to enter the American market was discussed in 1987 when operators of the defunct United States Football League approached the CFL about merging the two leagues. The league showed little interest at the time, but as it continued its decline, the CFL reevaluated its position. In 1992, the CFL announced that it would expand into the United States. The Sacramento Gold Miners joined the league and became the first American team eligible to win the Grey Cup. The league added three additional American teams in 1994 and two in 1995 (with one team folding), but the initiative failed in most markets, and by 1996, the CFL again operated exclusively within Canada.
The lone successful American market was in Baltimore, home to the Stallions. The team averaged over 35,000 fans per game in its inaugural season, nearly double that of Toronto or Hamilton. They matched that success on the field by becoming the first American team to play in the Grey Cup. The BC Lions kept the Grey Cup in Canada with a 26–23 victory in the 1994 final. Baltimore returned to the title game one year later and became the only American team to win the trophy by defeating the Calgary Stampeders, 37–20. The relocation of the National Football League's Cleveland Browns to Baltimore (to become the Ravens) in 1996 caused the Stallions to seek a new city to avoid direct competition with an NFL team. The team moved to Montreal, forming the current incarnation of the Alouettes franchise and ending the CFL's excursion into the United States.
Renaissance (1996–present)
The league approached the 1996 Grey Cup in dire financial straits: the American expansion had been a failure, the 120-year-old Ottawa Rough Riders franchise ceased operations at the conclusion of the regular season, and out of the eight remaining teams, seven had lost money and two required direct assistance from the league to stay afloat. The Edmonton Eskimos could not afford to bring their players' families to the championship game. The Toronto Star echoed fears spoken by fans and media across the country when it asked if the 1996 championship, won by Toronto over Edmonton, would be the final Grey Cup.
While the league struggled, the Grey Cup game itself retained its popularity and remained a national institution. The strength of the contest allowed the league to endure its challenges. The CFL survived into 1997 and was buoyed by an interest-free loan from the NFL, a new television deal with The Sports Network which, along with the launch of its popular Friday Night Football program, has been credited with saving the league. That year's Grey Cup, held in Edmonton and won by Toronto, drew nearly 22,000 more fans than the previous year. The CFL restored its reputation over time, enjoying new popularity into the 2000s such that it no longer had to rely on an exciting Grey Cup final to achieve stability for the next season.
In 2000, the 8–10 BC Lions made history when they defeated the Montreal Alouettes, 28–26, becoming the first team in history to win the Grey Cup with a losing record in the regular season. In the game, 25-year veteran Lui Passaglia ended the longest career in CFL history by kicking what was ultimately the game-winning field goal. The Calgary Stampeders matched the Lions' feat the next year by becoming the second 8–10 team to win the Grey Cup, defeating the Winnipeg Blue Bombers by a 27–19 score in front of 65,255 fans, the second largest crowd in the game's history.
The 2005 Grey Cup was the second overtime game in Grey Cup history, and the first one using the league's shootout overtime format (introduced in 2000). Both the Eskimos and Alouettes scored touchdowns on their first possessions, while Edmonton scored a field goal in its second and held Montreal scoreless to win the game by a 38–35 score. The game was played in the middle of a stretch of eight Grey Cup appearances by the Alouettes between 2000 and 2010. In 2009, they defeated the Roughriders in dramatic fashion: placekicker Damon Duval missed a last-second field goal attempt that appeared to give Saskatchewan the victory. However, the Riders were penalized for having too many men on the field, allowing Duval a second opportunity. His second attempt was successful, giving Montreal a 28–27 victory.
The 100th Grey Cup game was played on November 25, 2012, at the Rogers Centre in Toronto between the Toronto Argonauts and the Calgary Stampeders. The Toronto Argonauts won the Grey Cup with a score of 35–22.
As per a new title sponsorship deal with Shaw Communications announced in May 2015, the event was thenceforth known as the Grey Cup presented by Shaw.
The 104th Grey Cup game was played at BMO Field in Toronto, which became the new home of the Argonauts beginning in the 2016 season. After being promised the 102nd Grey Cup game as an incentive to rejoin the league, the 105th Grey Cup game was played at TD Place Stadium in Ottawa in 2017, as part of celebrations to mark 150 years of Confederation. The 55th Grey Cup, played at the end of the 1967 CFL season, was also held in Ottawa as part of celebrations to mark 100 years of Confederation.
In May 2020, due to postponement of the regular season and other factors relating to the COVID-19 pandemic, it was announced that the 108th Grey Cup festivities in Regina, Saskatchewan (which were to be the first to be hosted by the new Mosaic Stadium) had been cancelled and postponed to 2022, and that the site of the game, if held, would be based on regular season records rather than as a neutral site. The Grey Cup itself was later cancelled in August along with the 2020 CFL season, which was the first year that the Grey Cup was not contested since 1919.
Trophy
The trophy was commissioned in 1909 at a cost of $48. The chalice is made of sterling silver and stands tall. Its original base was made of wood, with silver shields listing each championship year and winning team's name, beginning with the University of Toronto Varsity Blues. The players of the 1915 championship Hamilton team, apparently as revenge for Toronto's refusal to relinquish the trophy in 1912 and 1913, added a shield for the 1908 Tigers team to give the appearance that their organization had won the first Grey Cup.
A 1947 fire destroyed the clubhouse of the Toronto Argonaut Rowing Club and damaged the Grey Cup. Many other trophies and artifacts in the clubhouse melted or were damaged beyond repair but the Grey Cup survived by catching onto a nail attached to a surviving wall when the shelf upon which it sat collapsed. The trophy has been broken on six other occasions: in 1978, when it was dropped by celebrating Edmonton Eskimos players; in 1987, when an Eskimos' player sat on it; in 1993, when Edmonton's Blake Dermott head-butted it; in 2006, when the chalice broke away from its base as the BC Lions celebrated their victory; in 2012 when one of the handles broke off as the Toronto Argonauts celebrated; in 2014 when the chalice broke away from its base again as the Calgary Stampeders celebrated their win. The CFL commissioned a replica of the trophy in 2008.
The Grey Cup has been stolen on two occasions: it disappeared for three days in 1967 when it was taken from the Hamilton Tiger-Cats as a prank, and in December 1969 it was stolen from the offices of the Ottawa Rough Riders at Lansdowne Park. The thieves attempted to ransom the trophy, but the CFL refused to pay and made plans to replace it with a duplicate. An anonymous phone call led to the trophy's recovery two months later in a locker at Toronto's Royal York Hotel. The thieves were never found.
The current design of the Grey Cup's base was introduced in 1987, coinciding with the 75th anniversary of the first Grey Cup championship. The base stands high and is made of black-lacquered aluminum with silver plates engraved with the names of each winning team's players and executives since 1909. The trophy, one of Canada's best known symbols, ran out of room for new additions following the 2012 Grey Cup. The league announced that the base would be redesigned but remain similar in shape to its current design. In 2020 the new base required the removal of the 1909 plaque. To accommodate all the plaques within the base of the Grey Cup, they were redesigned using laser etching and a modern typeface that allowed for vertical reduction of the characters and letters that had improved legibility. The trophy is customarily escorted to the new champions by two members of the Royal Canadian Mounted Police and presented by the commissioner of the CFL.
Similar to the more famous Stanley Cup used exclusively today by the NHL, members of the winning teams are allowed time to celebrate with the trophy in their own fashion, often taking it to their home towns or tours in locations across Canada. The board of directors for the Canadian Football Hall of Fame act as the Grey Cup's trustees and control its rental for events. The trophy is accompanied by a designated representative of the Hall of Fame at all times. Like the Stanley Cup, but unlike the Vince Lombardi Trophy for the NFL's Super Bowl, a new trophy is not made every year for the winning team to keep; rather, the Grey Cup is loaned to the winning team for a year.
Languages
English and French are the official languages of the game.
Grey Cup festival
Each year, the host city organizes numerous events as part of the annual Grey Cup festival. Gala concerts, parties, and fan festivals are held in the days leading up to the championship game. The CFL hands out its annual awards during the festival, and an annual Grey Cup parade is held. Historically, the festival also featured the "Miss Grey Cup" beauty pageant; this was discontinued in 1992. The game itself includes a performance of the Canadian national anthem (usually sung in both English and French, the official languages of the game) and a halftime show, often featuring performances by well-known Canadian musical acts such as Nickelback, who performed at the 2011 game. The coin toss was usually presented by a former football player or a special guest to recognize their community involvement or significance.
Nicknamed Canada's "Grand National Drunk", the Grey Cup party originated in the 1948 championship when hundreds of Calgary Stampeders fans descended on Toronto for their team's first appearance in the game. Bringing chuckwagons and horses, the fans organized a pancake breakfast – a staple of the Calgary Stampede – for bewildered Torontonians. According to historian Hugh Dempsey, "The Grey Cup was just another game until Calgary went down to Toronto with chuckwagons and everything and turned it into an event." The Stampeders won the game on the strength of the "sleeper play", a touchdown scored by Norm Hill after he hid himself from the Ottawa defence by lying down on the sidelines, as if asleep. He received the pass from quarterback Keith Spaith while still on his back. The victory completed the only undefeated season in the history of Canadian professional football. The boisterous celebrations that followed the win gave rise to the legend of Calgary alderman and future mayor Don Mackay riding his horse into the lobby of the Royal York Hotel. This event was repeated in the 2012 Grey Cup game in Toronto to much of the delight of the fans of both teams. The Calgary Grey Cup Committee maintains the tradition of organizing a pancake breakfast at each year's championship.
A 2012 survey found that Canadians consider the Grey Cup to be the most important annual event to attend. Fans of all teams converge at the game venue, including some who have attended 60 or more Grey Cups. The influx of people from across the country is estimated to have an economic impact of over $120 million for the region hosting the championship game.
Champions
The Toronto Argonauts have won the most Grey Cup championships (17), followed by the Edmonton Eskimos (now Elks) (14) and Winnipeg Blue Bombers (12). The Winnipeg Blue Bombers have made the most Grey Cup appearances (26). Since the Canadian Football League began in 1958, the Eskimos have won the most Grey Cup Championships (11) and have made the most Grey Cup appearances (19). The Saskatchewan Roughriders have the most losses in Grey Cup play (15), including five consecutive losses between 1928 and 1932. The defending champions are the Winnipeg Blue Bombers who won the 108th Grey Cup in 2021, their second consecutive title. Six teams in CFL history have won the Grey Cup at home, the 2013 Saskatchewan Roughriders, the 2012 Toronto Argonauts, the 2011 BC Lions, the 1994 BC Lions, the 1977 Montreal Alouettes, and 1972 Hamilton Tiger-Cats.
Individually, three players have won seven Grey Cups: Jack Wedley (Toronto, Montreal Navy), Bill Stevenson (Edmonton) and Hank Ilesic (Edmonton, Toronto). Ilesic is one of seven players to appear in nine Grey Cup games. Among quarterbacks, Anthony Calvillo appeared in a record eight games, winning three. Five coaches share the record for Grey Cup championships at five: Wally Buono (the CFL's all-time leader in total games won), Don Matthews, Frank Clair, Hugh Campbell and Lew Hayman.
Two individual awards are handed out following each game. The Most Valuable Player award is given to the top performer in the Grey Cup. Between 1974 and 1990, the league named both offensive and defensive most valuable players. Three people have been named MVP on three occasions: Doug Flutie, Damon Allen and Sonny Wade. The Dick Suderman Trophy is given to the most valuable Canadian. It is named in honour of Dick Suderman, who died of a brain hemorrhage in 1972 while an active player for the Edmonton Eskimos. Dave Sapunjis and Don Sweet have each won the award three times (however, Sapunjis is the only player to win the award in back-to-back years). Andrew Harris was the first person to win both awards in the 107th Grey Cup for the Winnipeg Blue Bombers.
Venue
Host cities
The city of Toronto has hosted the most Grey Cup games with 48, including 30 of the first 45 games played. The first game was held on December 4, 1909, at Rosedale Field. Hamilton and Ottawa hosted several early games while Sarnia and Kingston each hosted one as the game's early years were dominated by teams in southern Ontario. The Grey Cup game and champion first left the province in 1931, when Montreal hosted the event and the Montreal AAA Winged Wheelers won the 19th Grey Cup. The game did not leave central Canada until 1955 when the 43rd Grey Cup was played in Vancouver. That contest achieved what was at the time an all-time Canadian football attendance record of 39,491. It was the first of 16 games hosted by the British Columbia city, second among all host cities.
The four highest attended Grey Cup games have been held at the Olympic Stadium in Montreal, with an all-time record of 68,318 set in 1977.
The 1940 Grey Cup was a two-game series, Toronto and Ottawa each hosted a game.
Stadiums
22 separate stadiums have hosted the Grey Cup. The following lists stadiums which have hosted Grey Cups. Scheduled future Grey Cups are noted in italics.
The 1940 Grey Cup was a two-game series, Varsity Stadium and Lansdowne Park each hosted a game.
Broadcasting
The Grey Cup game was first broadcast on radio in 1928. The Canadian Broadcasting Corporation (CBC) carried radio coverage of the game for 51 years until 1986, when a network of private broadcasters took over.
Canadian television was in its infancy in 1952 when Toronto's CBLT paid $7,500 for the rights to carry the first televised broadcast of a Grey Cup game. Within two years, it was estimated that 80 percent of the nation's 900,000 television sets were tuned into the game, even though the first national telecast did not occur until 1957. The Grey Cup continues to be one of Canada's most-viewed sporting events. The 1962 "Fog Bowl" game was the first Grey Cup to be broadcast on American television.
The CBC carried the first national telecasts exclusively, but the CTV Television Network purchased rights to the 1962 game. The move sparked concern across Canada as the newly formed network was not yet available in many parts of the country. The debate over whether an "event of national interest" should be broadcast by the publicly funded CBC or private broadcasters reached the floor of Parliament as members of the federal government weighed in. It was decided that both networks would carry the game. The two networks continued with the simulcast arrangement until 1986 when CTV ceased its coverage.
The CFL operated the Canadian Football Network, a coalition of private broadcasters that shared league games and the Grey Cup with the CBC, from 1987 to 1990. CBC then broadcast the championship game alone until 2007, when the CFL sold exclusive rights to all games, including the Grey Cup, to specialty channel The Sports Network (TSN) and its French-language sister station Réseau des sports (RDS), a deal that was criticized by Canadians without cable access. Nonetheless, TSN and RDS achieved a record audience for the 2009 Grey Cup, with 6.1 million Canadians watching the game in its entirety, and over 14 million viewing at least part of the contest. Viewership has declined in recent years, and in 2014, about 33%, of Canadians watched at least some of the game, peaking at 5.1 million viewers in the fourth quarter.
See also
List of awards named after Governors General of Canada
List of Grey Cup-winning head coaches
Super Bowl, the American equivalent hosted by the NFL
References
Bibliography
Further reading
External links
Grey Cup Web Site
CBC Digital Archives – Grey Cup: The Fans and the Fanfare
Custom Grey Cup Ring Web Site at topchampionshiprings.com
1909 establishments in Canada
Canadian Football League trophies and awards
Canadian football trophies and awards
Recurring sporting events established in 1909
Awards established in 1909
Annual television shows
November sporting events
Annual sporting events in Canada | [
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230108 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stephen%20Hopkins%20%28politician%29 | Stephen Hopkins (politician) | Stephen Hopkins (March 7, 1707 – July 13, 1785), a Founding Father of the United States, was a governor of the Colony of Rhode Island and Providence Plantations, a chief justice of the Rhode Island Supreme Court, and a signer of the Continental Association and the Declaration of Independence. He was from a prominent Rhode Island family, the grandson of William Hopkins who was a prominent colonial politician. His great grandfather Thomas Hopkins was an original settler of Providence Plantations, sailing from England in 1635 with his cousin Benedict Arnold who became the first governor of the Rhode Island colony under the Royal Charter of 1663.
As a child, Hopkins was a voracious reader, becoming a serious student of the sciences, mathematics, and literature. He became a surveyor and astronomer and was involved in taking measurements during the 1769 transit of Venus across the Sun. He began his public service at age 23 as a justice of the peace in the newly established town of Scituate, Rhode Island. He soon became a justice of the Inferior Court of Common Pleas, while also serving at times as the speaker of the House of Deputies and president of the Scituate Town Council. While active in civic affairs, he also was part owner of an iron foundry and was a successful merchant who was portrayed in John Greenwood's 1750s satirical painting Sea Captains Carousing in Surinam. In May 1747, Hopkins was appointed as a justice of the Rhode Island Supreme Court, serving until May 1749. He became the third chief justice of this body in May 1751, serving until May 1755. In 1755, he was elected to his first term as governor of the colony, and he served in this capacity for 9 out of the next 15 years.
One of the most contentious political issues of his day was the use of paper money versus hard currency. His bitter political rival Samuel Ward championed hard currency, whereas Hopkins advocated the use of paper money. The rivalry between the two men became so heated that Hopkins sued Ward for £40,000, but he lost the case and had to pay costs. By the mid-1760s, the contention between the two men became a serious distraction to the government of the colony, and realizing this they attempted to placate each other—initially without success. Ultimately, both agreed to not run for office in 1768, and Josias Lyndon was elected governor of the colony as a compromise candidate.
In 1770, Hopkins once again became chief justice of the Rhode Island Supreme Court and during this tenure became a principal player in the colony's handling of the 1772 Gaspee Affair, when a group of irate Rhode Island citizens boarded a British revenue vessel and burned it to the waterline. In 1774, he was given an additional important responsibility as one of Rhode Island's two delegates to the First Continental Congress—his former rival Samuel Ward being the other. Hopkins had become well known in the Thirteen Colonies ten years earlier when he published a pamphlet entitled The Rights of Colonies Examined which was critical of British Parliament and its taxation policies.
Hopkins signed the Declaration of Independence in the summer of 1776 with worsening palsy in his hands. He signed it by holding his right hand with his left and saying, "My hand trembles, but my heart does not." He served in the Continental Congress until September 1776, when failing health forced him to resign. He was a strong backer of the College of the English Colony of Rhode Island and Providence Plantations (later named Brown University) and became the institution's first chancellor. He died in Providence in 1785 at age 78 and is buried in the North Burial Ground there. Hopkins has been called Rhode Island's greatest statesman. In 1774, Hopkins owned six or seven enslaved people, making him among the top five percent of slaveholders in Providence at the time.
Ancestry and early life
Hopkins was born in Providence in the Colony of Rhode Island and Providence Plantations, the second of nine children of William and Ruth (Wilkinson) Hopkins. His grandfather William Hopkins was very prominent in colonial affairs, having served for more than 40 years as a deputy from Providence, assistant, speaker of the House of Deputies, and major. His grandmother Abigail Whipple Hopkins was a daughter of Providence settler John Whipple, sister of wealthy Providence merchant Joseph Whipple, and aunt to Deputy Governor Joseph Whipple Jr. His great grandfather was Thomas Hopkins, one of the earliest settlers of Providence Plantations. Thomas Hopkins was orphaned and raised by his uncle William Arnold, and he sailed to New England in 1635 with his Arnold relatives, including his cousin Benedict Arnold who became the first governor of the colony under the Royal Charter of 1663.
The early part of Hopkins' life was spent in the wooded northern part of Providence known as Chopmist Hill, an area that became Scituate, Rhode Island. There were no schools in this area at the time, but the books belonging to the family were supplemented by a small circulating collection and provided him with reading material, which he consumed voraciously. Historian Irving Richman refers to Hopkins as "a close and severe student, filling up all the spare hours of his life with reading." John Sanderson writes, "He attached himself in early youth to the study of books and men." Hopkins gained skills in surveying from his grandfather Samuel Wilkinson. He used his surveying skills to revise the streets and create a map of Scituate, and later he did the same for Providence. His father gave him of land when he was 19 because of his responsibility as a youth, and his grandfather Hopkins gave him an additional .
Hopkins was interested in astronomy and other scientific endeavors, as well, and he was involved in the observation of the transit of Venus across the face of the sun on June 3, 1769. Joseph Brown had obtained a complete set of the necessary instruments, including a reflecting telescope, a micrometer, and a sextant, and an observatory was erected on a hill in Providence (later named "Transit Street" in honor of the event). Brown was assisted by a group that included Hopkins, Benjamin West, and others who were also interested in science. The observation enabled them to very accurately determine the latitude of Providence (to the nearest second of arc), after which the longitude was determined by comparing observations of the Moons of Jupiter with similar observations made in Cambridge, England. He was elected to the revived American Philosophical Society in 1768.
Political and mercantile pursuits
Hopkins began his public service in 1730 at age 23 when he became a justice of the peace in the newly formed town of Scituate, a position that he held until 1735. He also became the clerk of Scituate in 1731 which he held for 11 years until moving to Providence in 1742. Following his tenure as justice of the peace, he became a justice of the Inferior Court of Common Pleas and General Sessions from 1736 to 1746, serving as the clerk of the court for the last five of those years. Other positions that he held during this time period included president of the Town Council, deputy, and speaker of the House of Deputies. In 1744, he was elected as a deputy from Providence which he held for seven years and was the speaker of the House of Deputies during two of those years.
In 1742, Hopkins sold his farm in Scituate and moved to the settled part of Providence. Here he devoted much energy to commercial interests which helped Providence grow. He became a merchant who built, owned, and outfitted ships, and he was part owner of the privateering vessel Reprisal in 1745, in partnership with John Mawney, sheriff of Providence and son of Colonel Peter Mawney. In the mid-1750s, Boston portraitist John Greenwood was commissioned by a group of sea captains and merchants, including Hopkins, to create a satirical painting. The men were stopped at a major trading port in Suriname on the north coast of South America where Greenwood was living at the time. Greenwood concocted a 22-figure tavern scene, showing himself among the affluent traders, many of whom were caricatured as intoxicated.
One of Hopkins' enterprises later in life was as a manufacturer, and he became a partner with brothers Moses, Nicholas, Joseph, and John Brown in establishing the Hope Furnace. This enterprise was concerned with iron works which made pig iron and cannons for use during the Revolutionary War. Hopkins' son Rufus managed the business for four decades.
Governorships
In 1755, Hopkins was elected to his first term as governor, defeating his predecessor William Greene by a small margin. The year was mostly occupied with legislation and work related to the pending war with France. Braddock's defeat and the occupation of Crown Point led the colony to send forces to Albany. Late in the previous year, Hopkins and his Attorney-General Daniel Updike were delegates from Rhode Island to a meeting in New York called the Albany Congress, which convened to discuss the common defense of the collective colonies and to hold a conference with the five nations of Indians to secure their assistance in thwarting French encroachment. Here, he and others considered Benjamin Franklin's early plan for uniting the colonies, but the principles of the plan were rejected in both the colonies and Great Britain. As the war with France developed in February 1756, the General Assembly ordered the raising of 500 Rhode Island men for the expedition to Lake George in New York.
After two years in office, Hopkins was defeated by William Greene for the governorship, but Greene died in office in February 1758, and Hopkins once again became governor. The most divisive political issue of the day was the use of hard money, or specie, versus the use of paper money, and Hopkins sided with the latter group. Another issue was Newport interests versus Providence interests. For several years, Hopkins was locked in a bitter rivalry with Samuel Ward of Westerly, a strong supporter of hard currency and also a champion of Newport, his town of origin. So bitter was the animosity between these two men that Hopkins commenced an action for slander against Ward, putting damages at £40,000. The case was moved to Massachusetts for a fair trial, and the judgment went against Hopkins by default in 1759, and he paid the costs.
For ten years, the two men went back and forth as Governor of the colony, each at the head of a powerful party. Ward led the wealth and conservatism of Newport, Narragansett, and Kent County, while Hopkins represented the growing strength of Providence and Bristol Counties. The two men had been likened to gladiators in an arena, thirsting for each others' life. Hopkins eventually lost to Ward, who was finally elected Governor in 1762.
In 1763, Hopkins won back the governorship, and signs of reason between the two men appeared the following year when Ward wrote to Hopkins proposing that both resign their "pretensions to the chief seat of government." On the same day, without the knowledge of this letter, Hopkins wrote to Ward inviting him to accept the position of deputy governor, which had just been vacated by the death of John Gardner. Neither man accepted the proposal of the other, but the stage had been set for future cooperation.
Towards the end of Hopkins' term, one of the most contentious issues of the age arose, uniting the divided elements into a common cause. In early 1765, the Stamp Act was passed by both houses of Parliament in England. This act was a scheme for taxing the colonies, directing that all commercial and legal documents, to be valid in a court of law, must be written on stamped paper sold at fixed prices by governmental officers, and also directing that a duty be applied to newspapers. Parliament assumed the right to tax the colonies and put additional duties on sugar, coffee, and other articles, and required that lumber and iron from the colonies only be exported to England.
The news of the act infuriated the colonists, and Samuel Adams of Massachusetts invited all the colonies to a congress of delegates to meet in New York to discuss relief from the unjust taxes. In August 1765, with Ward once again governor, the Rhode Island General Assembly passed resolutions following the lead of Patrick Henry of Virginia. Rhode Island's appointed stamp distributor was Attorney General Augustus Johnson, who refused to execute his office "against the will of our Sovereign Lord the People." The Rhode Island General Assembly met again at East Greenwich in September 1765, choosing delegates to the New York congress and appointing a committee to consider the Stamp Act. The committee reported six resolutions that pointed to absolving all allegiance to the British Crown unless the grievances were removed. Ultimately, the act was repealed, with news reaching the colonies in May 1766 to public rejoicing. The conflict for independence was delayed, but not abandoned.
Another event of great importance to the future of the Rhode Island colony also found agreement between Ward and Hopkins. In 1764, the act was passed incorporating the college in Rhode Island. Both men strongly supported an institution of higher learning within the colony, and both became trustees, with the name Stephen Hopkins appearing first on the list of 36 trustees, and that of Samuel Ward being third. Hopkins also became one of the school's most generous supporters and became the school's first chancellor, which position he held until his death in 1785.
Rhode Island's election of 1767 was as hotly contested as ever, but Hopkins beat Ward by the widest margin of any of their previous elections. In 1768, Hopkins proposed to Ward that the two men should relinquish their claims on the elections and agree to a compromise candidate. Ward accepted the proposal, Josias Lyndon was elected as governor, and Ward and Hopkins met and united in a cordial friendship for the remainder of their lives.
The Rights of Colonies Examined
In November 1764, a pamphlet by Hopkins was published by the Rhode Island General Assembly entitled The Rights of Colonies Examined. This pamphlet was directed primarily at the Stamp Act, and helped build Hopkins' reputation as a revolutionary leader, with its broad distribution and criticism of taxation and Parliament. The text begins with the words, "Liberty is the greatest blessing that men enjoy, and slavery the heaviest curse that human nature is capable of," and goes on to present a clear and logical review of the relationship of the American colonies to the mother country. The paper received widespread circulation and brought hearty approval from throughout the colonies. Historian Thomas Bicknell called it "the most remarkable document that was issued during the period preceding the War of the Revolution." Massachusetts Governor Thomas Hutchinson wrote of the paper, "it was conceived in a higher strain than any that were sent out by other colonies." With this paper, Hopkins became to Rhode Island what Samuel Adams was to Massachusetts and what Thomas Jefferson was to Virginia. It was printed widely, and Hopkins became recognized as one of the leaders of public opinion in the colonies.
Chief Justice
In May 1747, Hopkins was first appointed as a Justice of the Rhode Island Superior Court, whose long title was the "Superior Court of Judicature, Court Of Assize, and General Gaol Delivery." In 1751, he became the third Chief Justice of this court, which position he held until 1755 when he became governor. Following a total of nine years as governor over the next 15 years, Hopkins was once again appointed as Chief Justice of the court in 1770, and served until October 1775, while simultaneously serving as a delegate to the Continental Congress.
One of the most important events with which Hopkins dealt during his final tenure as Chief Justice was the Gaspee Affair. In March 1772, Deputy Governor Darius Sessions in Providence sent a letter of concern to Governor Joseph Wanton in Newport, having consulted with Chief Justice Hopkins. Sessions expressed alarm that the British schooner Gaspee had been cruising the Narragansett Bay, disrupting the traffic by stopping and searching commercial ships. Sessions wrote:
Sessions went on to request that the governor take measures to bring the ship's commander to account. A chain of threatening correspondence ensued between the governor and the commander of the Gaspee Lieutenant William Dudingston, and the commander's superior Admiral John Montagu. On the night of June 9–10, a party of incensed colonists attacked the vessel and burned it to the waterline. Officially, Sessions was outraged at the incident and offered the colony's assistance in bringing the perpetrators to justice. To ameliorate retribution by the British authorities, Rhode Island officials took visible steps to find the culprits who burned the ship. Behind the scenes, however, Sessions and Hopkins did all they could to thwart any attempts to identify and find the attackers.
A royal commission was appointed by the British to investigate the incident, and they demanded that any indicted person be sent to England for trial. This egregious threat to local liberty prompted the colonists to form the Committees of Correspondence. Loyalist Massachusetts Governor Hutchinson further aggravated the colonists' sensitivities by urging Britain to rescind the Rhode Island charter.
Sessions conferred with Chief Justice Hopkins, lawyer John Cole, and Moses Brown, and the four men drafted a letter to Massachusetts' statesman Samuel Adams. Adams replied by urging Rhode Island to remain defiant, or at least to stall matters by appealing the creation of the royal commission. Governor Wanton was put at the head of this commission but was compliant with Sessions' and Hopkins' attempts to frustrate the aims of the commission. Sessions, Hopkins, and others coordinated their efforts to lose evidence, threaten potential witnesses, and discredit those who testified. The vast majority of Rhode Island's citizens were supportive of the attackers and kept quiet about their identities. A year after the incident, the royal commission was terminated without a single indictment.
Continental Congress
In 1774, the First Continental Congress convened, and both Ward and Hopkins were chosen as the delegates from Rhode Island. Hopkins, at age 68, was senior to every delegate there, and was only one of two of the 55 delegates (the other being Benjamin Franklin) who had attended the Albany Congress 20 years earlier. Over the previous several years Hopkins had developed palsy in his hands, and this greatly affected his ability to write. At the seating of this congress, Henry Arniett Brown wrote, "yonder sits the oldest of them all. His form is bent, his thin locks, fringing a forehead bowed with age and honorable service, and his hands shake tremulously as he folds them in his lap. It is Stephen Hopkins."
The congress was called to protest the actions of Great Britain, and to secure the rights and privileges of the 13 colonies. Both Hopkins and Ward had already predicted that independence would only come with war. To his associates in congress Hopkins said, "Powder and ball will decide this question. The gun and bayonet alone will finish the contest in which we are engaged, and any of you who cannot bring your minds to this mode of adjusting the quarrel, had better retire in time."
Hopkins was again elected as a delegate to the Second Continental Congress, which met on May 10, 1775 following the April attacks on Concord and Lexington. This congress convened to manage the war effort, and eventually declare independence from Great Britain. In July 1775 a national postal system, devised by William Goddard, was adopted, with Benjamin Franklin appointed as the first Postmaster General. This was an idea that had already been implemented in Rhode Island a month earlier. In December 1775 Hopkins was on a committee to report a plan for furnishing the colonies with naval armament. His knowledge of the shipping business made him particularly useful as a member of the naval committee established by Congress to purchase, outfit, man and operate the first ships of the new Continental Navy. Through his participation on that committee, Hopkins was instrumental in framing naval legislation and drafting the rules and regulations necessary to govern the fledgling organization during the American War for Independence. The first American naval squadron was launched on February 18, 1776. Hopkins used his influence to secure the position of commander in chief of the new navy for his brother Esek Hopkins, an appointment that proved to be unfortunate.
On May 4, 1776, by a nearly unanimous vote of the Rhode Island General Assembly, the Rhode Island colony declared its absolute independence from Great Britain. Exactly two months later, on July 4, 1776, the Continental Congress performed its supreme act by adopting the United States Declaration of Independence. The aged Stephen Hopkins had to support his palsied right hand with his left as he signed the document, remarking, "my hand trembles, but my heart does not." The gathering of the Founding Fathers was depicted in John Trumbull's Declaration of Independence where Hopkins is easily distinguishable as the gentleman standing in the back wearing a hat.
Future United States President John Adams appreciated Hopkins' contributions during the congressional sessions, writing:
Hopkins and slavery
Stephen Hopkins was a slave owner, like the majority of the signers of the Declaration of Independence, and he mentioned five enslaved people in his 1760 will consisting of a man, woman, and three boys. They were bequeathed to close members of his family with instructions for their care; this was highly unusual for any slave owner. The enslaved woman was named Fibbo (or Phibo, Phebe) was to go to his wife Anne and be treated "so that Servitude may not be a Burthen to her"; the enslaved man was named Saint Jago and was to go to his oldest son Rufus and be treated "so that his Life may be rendered easy and comfortable." The will was never proved because Hopkins lived another 25 years, and circumstances changed its provisions.
On October 28, 1772, Hopkins manumitted Saint Jago, and wrote the following in the manumission document:
Hopkins felt that the bondage of self-sufficient "rational creatures" was against God's will; he also thought that unconditional freedom for some slaves would be irresponsible on his part. To this end, he refused to manumit his enslaved woman, Fibbo, even though it cost him his membership in the Quaker meeting. His rationale was that "she had Children that needed the Immediate Care of a Mother." It appears that Hopkins' remaining people he enslaved were not freed until after his death, but at least two of them (Primus and Bonner Jr.) had been living semi-independently for several years before his death.
Hopkins introduced a bill in 1774 while serving in the Rhode Island Assembly that prohibited the importation of slaves into the colony. This became one of the first anti-slave trade laws in the United States. There were several pressures occurring in the colony which led to greater restrictions on the slave trade, the greatest of which was the pressure applied by the Quakers, who were a large percentage of Rhode Island's population. Hopkins' second wife was a Quaker, and as a consequence he became an active follower of this faith. Pressure from the Quakers may have been one reason for him to begin freeing the people he enslaved and introduce his anti-slavery bill. Other forces included the influence of Congregationalist minister Samuel Hopkins, and also the poor profit margin derived from the trade in New England.
Death and legacy
In September 1776, poor health forced Hopkins to resign from the Continental Congress and return to his home in Rhode Island, though he remained an active member of Rhode Island's general assembly from 1777 to 1779. He died at his home in Providence on July 13, 1785, at the age of 78 and is buried in the North Burial Ground there.
Hopkins helped to found a subscription library, the Providence Library Company, in 1753, and was a member of the Philosophical Society of Newport. The town of Hopkinton, Rhode Island, was later named after him. Also, the SS Stephen Hopkins, a liberty ship named in his honor, was the first U.S. ship to sink a German surface warship in World War II.
Although largely self-educated, Hopkins was instrumental in the establishment of the College in the English Colony of Rhode Island and Providence Plantations (now Brown University) as a founding trustee or fellow along with the Reverend James Manning, Samuel Ward, John Brown, Nicholas Brown Sr., Moses Brown, the Baptist Reverend Isaac Backus, the Baptist Reverend Samuel Stillman, and the Congregationalist Reverend Ezra Stiles. Hopkins served as Brown's first chancellor from 1764 to 1785. His home, the Governor Stephen Hopkins House, originally located at the corner of Hopkins and South Main Streets in Providence, was moved twice after his death, both times to other locations on Hopkins Street. It is now located at 15 Hopkins Street, at the corner of Benefit Street, on the edge of the Brown University campus, and is a U.S. National Historic Landmark.
In his diary, the Reverend Ezra Stiles wrote of Hopkins, "I well knew Gov. Hopkins. He was a man of penetrating astutious Genius, full of Subtlety, deep Cunning, intriguing & enterprizing..." adding that he was a "man of a Noble fortitude & resolution" and "a glorious Patriot!" Hopkins, has been given strong accolades from numerous historians including Sanderson, Arnold and Bicknell, but was simply called by Richman "the greatest statesman of Rhode Island."
Family
Hopkins married Sarah Scott in 1726, the daughter of Sylvanus Scott and Joanna Jenckes and a descendant of Providence Plantations settlers Richard Scott and Katharine Marbury, the youngest sister of the noted religious dissident Anne Hutchinson. Richard Scott was the first Quaker in Providence. Hopkins had seven children, five of whom lived to maturity. His wife died on September 9, 1753 at age 46, and Hopkins married Anne Smith, the daughter of Benjamin Smith. They did not have children together. Hopkins' younger brother Esek Hopkins became the first commander in chief of the Continental Navy, and his brother William became a celebrated merchant. Hopkins' cousin was Quaker preacher Jemima Wilkinson, with whom he was friends.
See also
List of colonial governors of Rhode Island
List of Chief Justices of the Rhode Island Supreme Court
List of Brown University people
Colony of Rhode Island and Providence Plantations
Memorial to the 56 Signers of the Declaration of Independence
References
Bibliography
Online sources
External links
Chronological list of Rhode Island leaders
Stephen Hopkins' Biography by Rev. Charles A. Goodrich (1856) at ColonialHall.com
Encyclopedia Brunoniana
Biography VI - Stephen Hopkins
Report of the Brown University Steering Committee on Slavery and Justice
National Park Service biography
Descent of Stephen Hopkins from Lady Joan Beaufort through his mother
1707 births
1785 deaths
American abolitionists
American people of English descent
American politicians with physical disabilities
Chancellors of Brown University
Chief Justices of the Rhode Island Supreme Court
Colonial governors of Rhode Island
Continental Congressmen from Rhode Island
18th-century American politicians
Foundrymen
Governors of Rhode Island
Members of the Rhode Island General Assembly
Patriots in the American Revolution
Politicians from Providence, Rhode Island
People from Scituate, Rhode Island
People of Rhode Island in the American Revolution
Political leaders of the American Revolution
People of colonial Rhode Island
Signers of the United States Declaration of Independence
University and college founders
Burials at North Burying Ground (Providence)
American slave owners
Signers of the Continental Association | [
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230109 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Object-oriented%20operating%20system | Object-oriented operating system | An object-oriented operating system is an operating system that is designed, structured, and operated using object-oriented programming principles.
An object-oriented operating system is in contrast to an object-oriented user interface or programming framework, which can be run on a non-object-oriented operating system like DOS or Unix.
There are already object-based language concepts involved in the design of a more typical operating system such as Unix. While a more traditional language like C does not support object-orientation as fluidly as more recent languages, the notion of, for example, a file, stream, or device driver (in Unix, each represented as a file descriptor) can be considered a good example of objects. They are, after all, abstract data types, with various methods in the form of system calls which behavior varies based on the type of object and which implementation details are hidden from the caller.
Object-orientation has been defined as objects + inheritance, and inheritance is only one approach to the more general problem of delegation that occurs in every operating system. Object-orientation has been more widely used in the user interfaces of operating systems than in their kernels.
Background
An object is an instance of a class, which provides a certain set of functionalities. Two objects can be differentiated based on the functionalities (or methods) they support. In an operating system context, objects are associated with a resource. Historically, the object-oriented design principles were used in operating systems to provide several protection mechanisms.
Protection mechanisms in an operating system help in providing a clear separation between different user programs. It also protects the operating system from any malicious user program behavior. For example, consider the case of user profiles in an operating system. The user should not have access to resources of another user. The object model deals with these protection issues with each resource acting as an object. Every object can perform only a set of operations. In the context of user profiles, the set of operations is limited by privilege level of a user.
Present-day operating systems use object-oriented design principles for many components of the system, which includes protection.
Examples
Athene
Athene is an object-based operating system first released in 2000 by Rocklyte Systems. The user environment was constructed entirely from objects that are linked together at runtime. Applications for Athene could also be created using this methodology and were commonly scripted using the object scripting language Dynamic Markup Language (DML). Objects could have been shared between processes by creating them in shared memory and locking them as needed for access. Athene's object framework was multi-platform, allowing it to be used in Windows and Linux environments for developing object-oriented programs. The company went defunct and the project abandoned sometime in 2009.
BeOS
One attempt at creating a truly object-oriented operating system was the BeOS of the mid 1990s, which used objects and the C++ language for the application programming interface (API). But the kernel was written in C with C++ wrappers in user space. The system did not become mainstream and proved commercially unviable. Now it is being used and developed by a small group of enthusiasts.
Choices
Choices is an object-oriented operating system developed at the University of Illinois at Urbana–Champaign. It is written in C++ and uses objects to represent core kernel components like the central processing unit (CPU), processes, and so on. Inheritance is used to separate the kernel into portable machine-independent classes and small non-portable dependent classes. Choices has been ported to and runs on SPARC, x86, and ARM.
GEOS
PC/GEOS is a light-weight object-oriented multitasking graphical operating system with sophisticated window and desktop management featuring scalable fonts. It is mostly written in an object-oriented x86 assembly language dialect and some C/C++ and is designed to run on DOS (similar to Microsoft Windows up to Windows Me). GEOS was developed originally by Berkeley Softworks in 1990, which later became GeoWorks Corporation, and it is continued to be maintained by BreadBox Computer Company. Related software suites were named Ensemble and New Deal Office. Adaptations exist for various palmtops, and 32-bit systems with non-x86-CPUs.
Haiku
After the discontinuation of BeOS, an effort to create an open-source replacement began. Haiku (originally named OpenBeOS) reached its first milestone in September 2009 with the release of Haiku R1/Alpha 1. The x86 distribution is compatible with BeOS at both source and binary level. Like BeOS, it is written primarily in C++ and provides an object-oriented API. It is actively developed.
IBM i (OS/400, i5/OS)
IBM introduced OS/400 in 1988. This OS ran exclusively on the AS/400 platform. Renamed IBM i in 2008, this operating system and runs exclusively on Power Systems which also can run AIX and Linux. IBM i uses an object-oriented methodology and integrates a database (Db2 for i). The IBM i OS has a 128-bit unique identifier for each object.
IBM OS/2 2.0
IBM's first priority based pre-emptive multitasking, graphical, windows-based operating system included an object-oriented user shell. It was designed for the Intel 80386 that used virtual 8086 mode with full 32-bit support and was released in 1992. ArcaOS, a new OS/2 based operating system initially called Blue Lion is being developed by Arca Noae. The first version was released in May 2017.
IBM TopView
TopView was an object-oriented operating environment that loaded on a PC on DOS, and then took control from DOS. At that point it effectively became an object-oriented operating system with an object-oriented API (TopView API). It was IBM's first multi-tasking, window based, object-oriented operating system for the PC led by David C. Morrill and released in February 1985.
Java-based
Given that Oracle's (formerly Sun Microsystems') Java is today one of the most dominant object-oriented languages, it is no surprise that Java-based operating systems have been attempted. In this area, ideally, the kernel would consist of the bare minimum needed to support a Java virtual machine (JVM). This is the only component of such an operating system that would have to be written in a language other than Java. Built on the JVM and basic hardware support, it would be possible to write the rest of the operating system in Java; even parts of the system that are more traditionally written in a lower-level language such as C, for example device drivers, can be written in Java.
Examples of attempts at such an operating system include JavaOS, JOS, JNode, and JX.
Lisp-based
An object-oriented operating system written in the Lisp dialect Lisp Machine Lisp (and later Common Lisp) was developed at MIT. It was commercialized with Lisp Machines from Symbolics, Lisp Machines Inc. and Texas Instruments. Symbolics called their operating system Genera. It was developed with the Flavors object-oriented extension of Lisp, then with New Flavors, and then with the Common Lisp Object System (CLOS).
Xerox developed several workstations with an operating system written in Interlisp-D. Interlisp-D provided object-oriented extensions like LOOPS and CLOS.
Movitz and Mezzano are two more recent attempts at operating systems written in Common Lisp.
Medos-2
Medos-2 is a single user, object-oriented operating system made for the Lilith line of workstations (processor: Advanced Micro Devices (AMD) 2901), developed in the early 1980s at ETH Zurich by Svend Erik Knudsen with advice from Niklaus Wirth. It is built entirely from modules of the programming language Modula-2. It was succeeded at ETH Zurich by the Oberon system, and a variant named Excelsior was developed for the Kronos workstation, by the Academy of Sciences of the Soviet Union, Siberian branch, Novosibirsk Computing Center, Modular Asynchronous Developable Systems (MARS) project, Kronos Research Group (KRG).
Microsoft Singularity
Singularity is an experimental operating system based on Microsoft's .NET Framework. It is comparable to Java-based operating systems.
Microsoft Windows NT
Windows NT is a family of operating systems (including Windows 7, 8, Phone 8, 8.1, Windows 10, Xbox) produced by Microsoft, the first version of which was released in July 1993. It is a high-level programming language-based, processor-independent, multiprocessing, multi-user operating system. It is best described as object-based rather than object-oriented as it does not include the full inheritance properties of object-oriented languages.
The Object Manager is in charge of managing NT objects. As part of this responsibility, it maintains an internal namespace where various operating system components, device drivers, and Win32 programs can store and lookup objects. The NT Native API provides routines that allow user space (mode) programs to browse the namespace and query the status of objects located there, but the interfaces are undocumented. NT supports per-object (file, function, and role) access control lists allowing a rich set of security permissions to be applied to systems and services. WinObj is a Windows NT program that uses the NT Native API (provided by NTDLL.DLL) to access and display information on the NT Object Manager's name space.
Component Object Model
On the user mode side of Windows, the Component Object Model (COM) is an application binary interface standard for software components introduced by Microsoft in 1993. It is used to enable interprocess communication and dynamic object creation in a large range of programming languages. COM is the basis for several other Microsoft technologies and frameworks, including Object Linking and Embedding (OLE), OLE Automation, ActiveX, COM+, Distributed Component Object Model (DCOM), the Windows shell, DirectX, and Windows Runtime. OLE is a proprietary technology developed by Microsoft that allows embedding and linking to documents and other objects. On a technical level, an OLE object is any object that implements the IOleObject interface, possibly along with a wide range of other interfaces, depending on the object's needs. Its primary use is for managing compound documents, but it is also used for transferring data between different applications using drag and drop and clipboard operations.
Compound File Binary Format
Compound File Binary Format (CFBF) is a file format for storing many files and streams within one file on a disk. CFBF is developed by Microsoft and is an implementation of Microsoft COM Structured Storage. Structured storage is widely used as main file format in Microsoft Office applications including Microsoft Word, Microsoft Excel, Microsoft PowerPoint, Microsoft Access and is the basis of Advanced Authoring Format.
Object Linking and Embedding
Object Linking and Embedding (OLE) was part of a grander plan named Cairo, the code name for a project at Microsoft from 1991 to 1996. Its charter was to build technologies for a next generation operating system that would fulfill Bill Gates' vision of "information at your fingertips". Cairo never shipped, although parts of its technologies have since appeared in other products. The Windows 95 graphical user interface was based on the initial design work that was done on the Cairo user interface. The remaining component is the object-based file system. It was once planned to be implemented in the form of Windows Future Storage (WinFS) as part of Windows Vista. WinFS is the code name for data storage and management system project based on relational databases, running on the Windows NT file system (NTFS), which is object-oriented in that it can store the NT objects including its NT object identifier. Each NTFS object has an object identifier; a shortcut with a target that's on an NTFS volume also records the object identifier of the shortcut target, and the object identifier of the drive. WinFS was first demonstrated in 2003 as an advanced storage subsystem for the Microsoft Windows operating system, designed for persistence and management of structured, semi-structured, and unstructured data. WinFS development was cancelled in June 2006, with some of its technologies merged into other Microsoft products such as Microsoft SQL Server 2008 and Microsoft SharePoint. It was subsequently confirmed in an interview with Bill Gates that Microsoft planned to migrate applications like Windows Media Player, Windows Photo Gallery, Microsoft Office Outlook, etc., to use WinFS as the data storage back-end.
NeXTSTEP
During the late 1980s, Steve Jobs formed the computer company NeXT. One of NeXT's first tasks was to design an object-oriented operating system, NeXTSTEP. They did this by adding an object-oriented framework on Mach and BSD using the Objective-C language as a basis. It achieved a niche status in the computing market, notably used by Tim Berners-Lee developing the first implementation of the World Wide Web.
NeXTStep later evolved into OpenStep and the Cocoa API on Mac OS X and iOS.
OpenStep was provided as an API layer on many operating systems, namely HP-UX, NextStep, Solaris, and Windows.
Oberon
Oberon is a single user, object-oriented operating system made for the Ceres line of workstations (processor: National Semiconductor NS32000), developed in the later 1980s at ETH Zurich by Niklaus Wirth and Jürg Gutknecht. It is built entirely from modules of the programming language Oberon. A later evolution was named Active Object System (AOS), then renamed Bluebottle, then renamed A2.
OOSMOS
The Object-Oriented State Machine Operating System (OOSMOS), written in C, promotes object-oriented encapsulation and implements a full table-driven hierarchical state machine architecture. It generates C code directly from state charts drawn with the open source tool UMLet. OOSMOS also supports a unique feature call 'state threads' which allows a thread of execution per state. OOSMOS operates on a bare board or in cooperation with an existing operating system.
ReactOS
ReactOS is an open-source operating system intended to be binary compatible with application software and device drivers made for Microsoft Windows NT versions. Written from scratch, it aims to follow the architecture of Windows NT designed by Microsoft from the hardware level right through to the application level. This is not a Linux-based system, and shares none of the unix architecture.
Self
Self (programming language) was invented at Xerox PARC. It was then developed at Stanford University and Sun Microsystems.
Smalltalk
Smalltalk was invented at Xerox in the 1970s. The Smalltalk system is fully object-oriented and needs very little support by BIOS and the run-time system.
Syllable
Syllable makes heavy use of C++ and for that reason is often compared to BeOS.
Symbolics Genera
Genera from Symbolics is an operating system for Lisp machines written in ZetaLisp and Symbolics Common Lisp. It makes heavy use of Flavors (an early object-oriented extension to Lisp) and the Common Lisp Object System (CLOS). Development began in the mid 70s at MIT.
Taligent
Taligent was an object-oriented operating system project, begun by Apple Inc. and jointly developed with IBM in the 1990s. It was later spun off to an IBM subsidiary and transformed from an operating system to a programming environment.
See also
Operating system
Object-oriented design
Object-oriented programming
Plan 9 from Bell Labs
References
External links
Apertos
Choices
Hermes, former IBM project
OOSMOS
Rebol aspirations to displace the OS with the language environment
Object-oriented programming
Operating system technology | [
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230110 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/St%20Giles%20Circus | St Giles Circus | St Giles Circus is a road junction in the St Giles district of the West End of London at the eastern end of Oxford Street, where it connects with New Oxford Street, Charing Cross Road and Tottenham Court Road, which it is more often referred to owing to the location of Tottenham Court Road Underground station directly under the junction. It is near to Soho, Covent Garden, Bloomsbury and Fitzrovia.
Formation
The circus derives its name from the nearby church of St Giles-in-the-Fields, after which the area is named. From the Middle Ages until the fifteenth century, gallows were located at St Giles Circus alongside a cage for prisoners, and a cattle enclosure known as St Giles's Pound. The area was an infamous rookery until it was cleared in the mid-19th century with the creation of New Oxford Street parallel to St Giles High Street by clearances.
Tottenham Court Road Underground station was opened in July 1900 as part of the Central London Railway, with the platforms under Oxford Street to the west of St Giles Circus, and the station opening on the south west side of the circus, on Oxford Street. The Charing Cross, Euston and Hampstead Railway joined the station with what is now part of the Northern Line in September 1908, with station entrance on the south east side of the circus. The main station ticket hall was later moved underground, built below the circus in the 1920s. The junction became known as St Giles Circus in 1921.
Modern development
The area today is dominated by Centre Point Tower, located on the south-east corner on New Oxford Street and Charing Cross Road. Built between 1963 and 1966 by developer Harry Hyams, the brutalist tower was London's first "skyscraper", and is now a Grade II listed building.
St Giles Circus has been since 2009 the site of construction for Crossrail, which have disrupted road flows and led to several buildings being demolished.
The Dominion Theatre is close to the north-east corner, on Tottenham Court Road just above New Oxford Street. The London Astoria theatre was on the south west side. A new theatre to replace the Astoria is planned. An auditorium/gallery is planned for the south-east corner.
References
Execution sites in England
Streets in the London Borough of Camden
Streets in the City of Westminster
St Giles, London
Odonyms referring to religion | [
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230114 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Veinticinco%20de%20agosto%2C%201983 | Veinticinco de agosto, 1983 | Veinticinco de agosto, 1983 (August the 25th, 1983) is a chamber opera by Juan María Solare, to a Spanish libretto by Javier Adúriz based on the life by Jorge Luis Borges. Solare composed the opera from 1992 to 1993.
The opera is approximately 37.5 minutes in length and consists of one act with fifteen scenes.
Characters
Old Borges (bass)
Young Borges (tenor)
Speaker (baritone or tenor)
Owner of the hotel (baritone or bass)
Chorus
Orchestra
Flute
Tenor Saxophone
String Quartet
Piano
Percussion (Suspended cymbal, 2 anvils, glockenspiel, vibraphone, 5 temple blocks, 3 tomtoms, tenor drum)
Operas by Juan Maria Solare
Spanish-language operas
Chamber operas
One-act operas
1993 operas
Operas
Compositions by Juan María Solare
Operas about writers
Fiction set in 1983
Operas set in the 20th century
Operas set in Argentina
Jorge Luis Borges
Cultural depictions of Argentine men
Cultural depictions of writers
Cultural depictions of poets | [
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230118 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Diez%20Estudios%20Esc%C3%A9nicos | Diez Estudios Escénicos | Diez Estudios Escénicos (Ten scenic Etudes) is a musical work for the stage by Juan María Solare.
It was composed at Cologne (Germany) and Mollina (Spain), June–July 1996, and is 20'00" in length, without text. For two actors, one actress, diverse objects and instrumental sextet: violin, doublebass, horn, bass clarinet, vibraphone and piano. It is dedicated to Mauricio Kagel.
Compositions by Juan María Solare | [
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230122 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arriba%20los%20de%20abajo | Arriba los de abajo | Arriba los de abajo (Above those who are below) is a musical work by Juan María Solare.
It consists of seven pieces for Trio Basso (viola, violoncello and doublebass). (Cologne and Stuttgart, 18 May to 20 November 1998). [11'35"] It is dedicated to Heidrun Kiegel. Third prize in the composition contest of the "Viola Foundation Walter Witte" (Frankfurt) in May 2001. Premiered on 12 October 2002 during the German Viola Days at the Musikakademie in Trossigen by the Trio Basso (Othello Liesmann, Wolfgang Güttler).
Compositions by Juan María Solare | [
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230124 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Antibes | Antibes | Antibes (, also , ; ) is a coastal city in the Alpes-Maritimes department of southeastern France, on the Côte d'Azur between Cannes and Nice.
The town of Juan-les-Pins is in the commune of Antibes and the Sophia Antipolis technology park is northwest of it.
History
Origins
Traces of occupation dating back to the early Iron Age have been found in the areas of the castle and cathedral. Remains beneath the Holy Spirit Chapel show there was an indigenous community with ties with Mediterranean populations, including the Etruscans, as evidenced by the presence of numerous underwater amphorae and wrecks off Antibes. However, most trade was with the Greek world, via the Phocaeans of Marseille.
Greek colony of Marseille
Antibes was founded as a Greek colony by Phocaeans from Massalia. They named it Antipolis (Greek: , "Opposite-City") from its position on the opposite side of the Var estuary from Nice (Greek: ).
Current research suggests that Antipolis was founded relatively late in classical Greek period (4th century BC), to benefit from the protection of Marseille with its trade routes along the coast and strongholds like Olbia at Hyères, and trading posts such as Antipolis itself and later Nikaia; it is mentioned by Strabo.
The exact location of the Greek city is not well known. Given Greek colonial practices, it is likely that it was set at the foot of the rock of Antibes, in today's old city. Traces of occupation in the Hellenistic period have been identified around the castle and the church (former cathedral). The goods unearthed during these excavations show the dominance of imported products of the Marseilles region, associated with Campanian and indigenous ceramics.
Early in the second century BC the Ligurian Deceates and Oxybiens tribes launched repeated attacks against Nikaia and Antipolis. The Greeks of Marseille appealed to Rome as they had already done a few years earlier against the federation of Salyens. In 154 BC the consul Quintus Opimius defeated the Décéates and Oxybiens and took Aegythna from the Décéates.
Roman Antipolis
Rome gradually increased its hold over the Mediterranean coast. In 43 BC, Antipolis was officially incorporated in the propraetorial (senatorial from 27 BC) province of Narbonesian Gaul, in which it remained for the next 500 years. Antipolis grew into the largest town in the region and a main entry point into Gaul. Roman artifacts such as aqueducts, fortified walls, and amphoræ can still be seen today.
Excavations in the old town have discovered well-preserved houses showing some luxury. Among them, the most monumental are those in the rectory garden of rue Clemenceau. These show a comparable level to that of the Gallo-Roman domus such as those of Saint-Romain-en-Gal. Large parts of the floor mosaic are organised around a courtyard with a marble fountain. The building dates from the late third century, although parts date from the end of the Hellenistic era or the end of the Roman Republic. Another house paved with porphyry and green stone was excavated between rue des Palmiers and the rue de la Blancherie. The finds at the Antibes Museum of Archaeology suggests the main occupation between the 2nd and 4th century. Finds from the end of the Hellenistic era and the end of the Roman Republic is present on both sites.
Aqueducts
The city was supplied with water by two aqueducts.
The Fontvieille aqueduct rises in Biot, and eventually joins the coast below the RN7 and the railway track at the Fort Carré. It was rediscovered and restored in the 18th century by the Chevalier d'Aguillon to supply the modern city.
The aqueduct called the Bouillide or Clausonnes rises near the town of Valbonne. Monumental remains of aqueduct bridges are located in the neighbourhood of Fugaret, in the forest of Valmasque and near the town of Vallauris.
Theatre and amphitheatre
Like most Roman towns, Antipolis possessed buildings for shows and entertainment. A Roman theatre is attested by the tombstone of the child "Septentrion". The inscription says "he danced and was popular on the stage of the theatre". The theatre was located, like the amphitheatre, between Rue de la République and Rue de Fersen, near the Porte Royale. The back wall is positioned substantially next to Rue Fourmillère. A radial wall was found on the right side of the bus station. A plan of the theatre made in the 16th century is in the Marciana National Library of Venice.
The remains of the amphitheatre were still visible at the end of the 17th century during the restructuring of the fortifications of the city. A concentric oval was still visible in many plans of the seventeenth century and in a map of Antibes from the early nineteenth century. These remains are now covered by the Fersen middle school.
Late Antiquity
The Bishopric of Antibes was established c.450 by Pope Leo I, the first two bishops being Armentarius and Agroecius. Shortly after the bishopric was established the Western Roman Empire collapsed, and by the end of the century the Antibes region had become part of the Kingdom of the Franks, which later grew into the Carolingian Empire. The Frankish empire provided three centuries of stability but then fell apart itself in the mid-ninth century, leading to a further period of upheaval.
Middle Ages
The dust eventually settled to leave Antibes within the territory of the County of Provence, itself part of the Kingdom of Burgundy-Arles and from 1033 the Holy Roman Empire. In the tenth century the coastal areas of Provence were menaced by 'Saracen' raiders from Muslim Spain, who were finally driven out when Count William I of Provence captured their stronghold at Fraxinetum in 975. William rewarded the knights who had fought for him in this campaign by enfeoffing them with the liberated lands in southern Provence. One of these knights was a certain Rodoald, who became Lord of Antibes.
Rodoald's great-grandson Raimbaud appears to have relocated inland to Grasse around 1050, and sold the Lordship of Antibes to the bishopric during the episcopate of Bishop Bertrand (fl.1166-76).
During this period Antibes was still being raided periodically by Saracen pirates, and in 1124 they burned down Antibes Cathedral. The marauders continued to prey on the town over the following century, and in 1244 the Prince-Bishops of Antibes moved to Grasse to escape their depredations. They remained there for the next five centuries, despite an attempt to lure them back to Antibes by rebuilding the cathedral in 1250.
When the Western Schism began in 1378, splitting the Catholic world between two rival popes, the Bishop of Grasse backed Pope Urban VI even though Marie de Blois, mother of and regent to the infant Count Louis II of Provence, was a supporter of Urban's enemy Antipope Clement VII. In 1383 Marie therefore confiscated the Lordship of Antibes from the Bishops of Grasse and two years later awarded it to the brothers Marc and Luc Grimaldi, of the Genoese House of Grimaldi. The new Grimaldi lords built the Château Grimaldi as their residence in the town.
After the deaths of the Grimaldi brothers (Marc in 1398 and Luc in 1409), control of the Lordship of Antibes passed to five co-heirs. As a result of this fragmentation of power, the actions of individual local lords became increasingly irrelevant to the town's history, with the higher authority of the Count of Provence assuming greater significance instead.
Early Modern era
With the death in 1481 of Count Charles III, Provence was inherited by King Louis XI of France and thereby annexed to France. As Antibes was in the far southeast of the County of Provence it therefore became the border town at France's southeastern extremity, guarding the frontier with the County of Nice, which was part of the Savoyard state. As such it was on the front line during the Italian Wars waged by France against Emperor Charles V, and was sacked in 1536 by Andrea Doria, a Genoese admiral in imperial service. Henry II of France therefore ordered the construction of Fort Carré in 1550 to guard the town against any future attacks, and the citadel was later reinforced by the renowned French military engineer Vauban.
In December 1746, during the War of the Austrian Succession, an Austro-Savoyard army under the command of Maximilian Ulysses Browne invaded France and besieged Antibes, subjecting the town to a heavy bombardment. The arrival of French reinforcements, and a revolt against the Austrian garrison at Genoa, obliged Browne to lift the siege on 1 February 1747, but by that point his guns had levelled 350 houses and also destroyed the cathedral again. The latter was subsequently rebuilt by Louis XV of France, and this version of the building is the one that has survived to the present day.
Modern era
On March 1, 1815, Napoléon Bonaparte landed on the beach at Golfe-Juan, 5 km southwest of Antibes, having escaped exile on the island of Elba. He hoped for a warm welcome in Antibes, which had been supportive of his regime, but the townspeople closed their gates to him and he was therefore obliged to move on northward without stopping. He successfully reached Paris and seized power again, only to be conclusively defeated at the Battle of Waterloo. Today Golfe-Juan marks the beginning of the Route Napoléon, which traces the path taken by the emperor on his return from exile.
Under the Treaty of Turin (1860), Nice was ceded to France by the new Kingdom of Italy, and Antibes therefore ceased to be a border town as the frontier moved 50 km eastward to Menton.
From around the middle of the 19th century the Antibes area regained its popularity, as wealthy people from around Europe discovered its natural environment and built luxurious homes there. It was transferred from its former department of Var to the new one of Alpes Maritimes in 1860. The harbor was again used for a "considerable" fishing industry and the area exported dried fruit, salt fish, and oil.
By the First World War, it had been connected by rail with Nice and most of its fortifications had been demolished to make way for new residential districts. In 1926, the old Château Grimaldi was bought by the local municipality and later restored for use as a museum. Pablo Picasso came to the town in 1946, having visited his friend and fellow painter Gerald Murphy and his wife Sara there in 1923, and was invited to stay in the castle. During his six-month stay, Picasso painted and drew, as well as crafting ceramics and tapestries. When he departed, Picasso left a number of his works to the municipality. The castle has since become the Picasso Museum.
Culture
Conservation
On 25 May 1999, the town was the first in the départment to sign the State Environment Charter, which pledges to actively conserve the natural environment.
Sports
Sport is an important part of the local culture; the town hosts the National Training Centre for basketball. The now demolished Jean Bunoz Sports Hall hosted several games of the 1999 FIBA EuroBasket. The city is home to Olympique Antibes, a professional basketball team of France's top division LNB Pro A, which plays its home games at the Azur Arena Antibes.
The local football team is FC Antibes, who play at the Stade du Fort Carré, best known for when it hosted one game of the 1938 World Cup, between Sweden and Cuba.
The town is also home to the Antibes 6 Day Race and the Antibes Yacht Show.
Music
There is a jazz festival, Jazz à Juan, in July.
Population
Politics
Presidential Elections 2nd Round
Sights
Beaches
There are 48 beaches along the of coastline that surround Antibes and Juan les Pins.
Museums
Archaeology Museum This museum sits atop the Promenade Amiral de Grasse in the old Bastion St Andre, a 17th-century fortress. The museum's collection focuses on the classical history of Antibes. Many artifacts, sculptures and amphorae found in local digs and shipwrecks from the harbour are displayed here.
Naval Museum of Napoleon Housed in a 17th-century stone fort and tower, this museum presents a collection of Napoleonic memorabilia, paintings and naval models. Several wall paintings show historic moments in Napoleon's reign and there are also pieces of his clothing including one of the hats he wore.
Picasso Museum This museum houses one of the world's greatest Picasso collections: 24 paintings, 44 drawings, 32 lithographs, 11 oils on paper, 80 pieces of ceramics, two sculptures and five tapestries.
La Tour Museum This small museum in the centre of town brings the contemporary history of Antibes to life through its exhibit of costumes, tools, photographs and other objects used by the local people.
Absinthe Museum The Absinthe Museum is located in a basement in the Roman foundations of Old Antibes. It is dedicated to the manufacture and appreciation of this green liqueur.
Parks and gardens
The Exflora Park The Exflora Park is a five-hectare () garden open to the public. Next to the large olive grove, there are different styles of Mediterranean gardens, from ancient Rome to the exuberant Riviera of the 19th century. Fountains and ponds stretch along the terrace, making a waterway long. Antibes is renowned for rose production, and rose bushes line the path leading to the sea. The exotic garden and palm grove is reminiscent of the belle époque, when English gardeners succeeded in planting flowers that bloom in winter, the season when the aristocracy visited the Côte d'Azur.
A little further on is the Théâtre de Verdure, inspired by Italian gardens, and a panoramic viewpoint with a view of the sea and the Iles des Lerins. In the style of Provençal gardens of the 18th century, there is a maze with sculpted hedges. Further on, Islamic gardens are featured, with an orange grove where the ground is patterned with terracotta irrigation pipes similar to those in the celebrated Seville Cathedral in Spain. The vegetable gardens and orchards in the Arsat are planted in hollows as in Morocco to protect them from the sun and maximise shadow and humidity. A representation of a Moroccan house pays homage to the painter Majorelle, creator of the blue garden in Marrakesh. In another area, the winter garden contains plants that flower in winter, such as mimosa and camellias.
The Eilenroc Gardens Villa Eilenroc was built on a rock in the middle of a virtual desert. The area was transformed into a garden through the patience and talent of Jacques Greber, landscape architect and consultant to the Great Exhibition in New York City in 1939. He was commissioned by Mr Beaumont to create this park of .
The gardens lie thirty metres above the sea with a view across the bay of the Cap. Planted with traditional Mediterranean species such as marine and parasol pines, Alep and Canary pines, cypress, oaks, olive trees, arbutus, lavender, thyme, rosemary, eucalyptus, ficus etc., as well as three kilometres () of pittosporum hedges, a whole part of the park has been created with plants found in the Antibes area in 1920.
Thuret Park In 1857, Gustave Thuret discovered the Cap d'Antibes and bought five hectares () of land where he built a villa and began the creation of a park. Bequeathed to the state by his heirs, the Jardin botanique de la Villa Thuret is now managed by the INRA (National Institute of Agronomic Research). The collection of trees and exotic plants, and the rich earth, provide many opportunities for learning, and the cross-fertilisation of plant species that grow on the Mediterranean coast.
Marineland In 1970, Roland de la Poype created this animal exhibition park in Antibes. First, it was a small oceanarium with a few pools and animals, but now it is one of the biggest in the world and receives more than 1,200,000 visitors per year. It is the only French sea park featuring two cetacean species: killer whales and dolphins.
Garoupe Lighthouse
The old lighthouse of Antibes provides views from its lofty hilltop. To get here, you must walk about one kilometre up the Chemin de Calvaire from the Plage de la Salis. It makes for a nice half-day stroll.
Church of the Immaculate Conception (Antibes Cathedral)
The cathedral in Antibes was first built by Bishop Armentarius in the fifth century. It was destroyed multiple times during its history, notably by Saracen pirates in 1124 and by Austrian bombardment during the 1746-7 Siege of Antibes. Its current façade dates to the rebuilding that followed the latter catastrophe, and blends Latin classical symmetry and religious fantasy. The interior houses some impressive pieces such as a Baroque altarpiece and life-sized wooden carving of Christ's death from 1447.
Hôtel du Cap-Eden Roc
This villa, set in "a forest" at the tip of the Cap d'Antibes peninsula, re-creates a nineteenth-century château. Since 1870 the glamorous white-walled Hotel du Cap on the French Riviera has been one of the most storied and luxurious resorts in the world. Guests who flocked there included Marlene Dietrich, the Duke and Duchess of Windsor and Winston Churchill. Elizabeth Taylor and Richard Burton conducted an affair and honeymooned there.
Ports
There are many yachting harbours which provide moorings for a range of ships ranging from fishing vessels to full sized yachts.
Port Vauban: The largest yachting harbour in Europe, with more than 2,000 moorings, can accommodate craft of more than 100 metres. This old port was the heart of the ancient Greek city of Antipolis and has a long and colourful history which includes Ligurians, Romans and Crusaders on their way to the Holy Land. Today, it is the largest marina in Europe, serving both local fishing boats and luxury yachts.
Port Galice: 542 moorings
Port de la Salis: 233 moorings
Port du Croûton: 390 moorings
Port de l'Olivette: Situated in the sheltered cove of the same name, this is a harbour for sailors and their wooden fishing boats who enjoy the old marine, provencal traditions.
Theatre and music
The Théâtre Antibea, Théâtre des Heures Bleues and Café Théâtre la Scène sur Mer all offer a variety of performances from orchestra music to dramatic plays. Music of all types, from live jazz to DJs spinning techno, can be found in the bars and nightclubs and there are a number of festivals and special outdoor concerts during the summer. Jazz is still the speciality around here, and the Juan les Pins Jazz Festival is one of the best in the world.
M83 (an electronic band) hails from Antibes.
Festivals
Antibes and Juan les Pins host a number of festivals, mainly during the summer months. There's not much in the way of traditional cultural festivals in Antibes; most of the festivals focus on music and contemporary activities.
Jazz à Juan remains one of the top jazz festivals in the world. Since its inception in 1960, it has attracted many jazz artists each year to play outdoors. (July).
Antibes Yacht Show
The Antique Show of Antibes attracts thousands of collectors for two weeks in April. It's one of the largest shows of its kind in France (April).
Voiles d'Antibes is one of the world's biggest gatherings of old teak and brass sailing vessels. They converge on the port for one of the most regal regattas in the Mediterranean (June).
The Festival of Saint Peter is the annual celebration of the patron saint of fishermen. A colourful procession through the town is followed by all the local fishermen adorning their boats and floating along the coast (June).
The Festival of Notre Dame de Bon Port begins on the first Thursday of July and continues to the following Sunday, celebrating Notre Dame de Bon Port, the local manifestation of the Virgin Mary. At sunrise on the Thursday a mass is held in the chapel next to the Garoupe lighthouse and fishermen dressed in traditional sailors' outfits subsequently carry the statue of Notre Dame de Bon Port from the chapel (where it resides for most of the year) down the Chemin de Calvaire to Antibes Cathedral at the head of a large procession. The statue remains in the cathedral for the remaining four days of the festival, which includes multiple masses, a torchlit procession through the town on the Saturday evening, and parties at which pissaladière is traditionally eaten.
The Festival of Sacred Music takes place in Antibes Cathedral, which has renowned acoustics. Sacred music is the theme of this popular festival, which attracts huge crowds each year (January).
Climate
Antibes enjoys a Mediterranean climate.
Shopping
Marché Provençal
Transport
The Antibes station is the railway station serving the town, offering connections to Nice, Cannes, Marseille, Grasse, St Raphael, Les Arcs, Milan, Ventimiliga, Paris and several other destinations. This railway station is in the centre of town. There is another railway station, Juan-les-Pins. The nearest airports are Nice Côte d'Azur Airport and Cannes Airport.
Notable people
André Masséna, Napoleonic general and Marshal of the Empire
Mike Cumberlege, Royal Navy officer
Ignazio Dracopoli, Anglo–French cartographer and explorer
Graham Greene lived in a small apartment in Antibes in his later years
Gloria Guinness then Princess Fakhry married Thomas "Loel" Guinness in April 1951
Nikos Kazantzakis, writer of the novel Zorba the Greek, owned a villa in Old Town
M83, electronic artist
Ruth Madoff (born 1941), wife of Bernie Madoff
Gerald and Sara Murphy, wealthy Americans credited with establishing the French Riviera as a summer resort
Guillaume Musso, writer
Pablo Picasso, painter
Gabriel Guevrekian, architect
Halima Soussi, basketball player
Nicolas de Staël, painter
Luc-Arthur Vebobe, basketball player
Duke of Windsor, Aristotle Onassis and Stavros Niarchos, at different times, lived in Château de la Croë
Nicholas I of Montenegro (1841–1921), prince and king of Montenegro, died here
Richard Aurili, sculptor, died here
Twin towns – sister cities
Antibes is twinned with:
Aalborg, Denmark
Desenzano del Garda, Italy
Eilat, Israel
Kinsale, Ireland
Krasnogorsk, Russia
Newport Beach, United States
Olympia, Greece
Schwäbisch Gmünd, Germany
See also
Communes of the Alpes-Maritimes department
Route Napoléon
Stade du Fort Carré
Notes
References
External links
Antibes official website
Antibes pictures website
Archaeological sites in France
Communes of Alpes-Maritimes
French Riviera
Massalian colonies
Populated places established in the 6th century BC
Roman towns and cities in Provence
Vauban fortifications in France | [
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230134 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Friedrich%20Christoph%20Schlosser | Friedrich Christoph Schlosser | Friedrich Christoph Schlosser (17 November 1776 – 23 September 1861) was a German historian, Professor of History at the University of Heidelberg and a Privy Councillor in Prussia.
Early years
He was born at Jever in the District of Friesland. He studied theology, mainly at Göttingen, and then tutored privately. Turning to the study of history, he became and remained for a quarter of a century the most popular German historian.
Work
In 1807, inspired by his study of Dante, he published his first work Abélard und Dulcin, a defence of scholasticism and medieval thought. Two years later biographical studies of Theodore Beza and Peter Martyr Vermili (Leben des Theodor de Bela und des Peter Martyr Vermili, Heidelberg, 1809) revealed more great scholarship. In 1812 his History of the Iconoclastic Emperors of the East (Geschichte der bilderstürmenden Kaiser des oströmischen Reichs) was published, in which he contradicted some points in Edward Gibbon's highly opinionated work and sought to avoid painting the past in present-day colours. It won him the favour of Archbishop Karl Theodor Dalberg and secured him a Professorship in the Frankfurt Lyceum.
In 1815 the first volume of his World History (Weltgeschichte in zusammenhängender Erzählung) was published. This work, though never completed, extended through many volumes, bespeaking an inexhaustible energy and a vast erudition. A translation of the pedagogical handbook of Vincent of Beauvais and the accompanying monograph are still considered of value.
The next noteworthy work was a history of antiquity and its culture (Universalhistorische Übersicht der Geschichte der alten Welt und ihrer Kultur, 1st part, 1826; 2nd part, 1834), which, while revealing little knowledge of the new criticism of sources inaugurated by F.A. Wolf and B.G. Niebuhr, won its way by its unique handling of the subject and its grand style. In 1823 he published in two volumes a Geschichte des 18ten Jahrhunderts. This work, enlarged and improved, appeared in six volumes as Geschichte des 18ten Jahrhunderts und des 19ten bis zum Sturz des französischen Kaiserreichs (1836–1848). The history had a most extraordinary success, especially among the common people, owing to the fact that the author boldly and sternly sat in judgment upon men and events, and in his judgments voiced the feelings of the German nation in his day. It has been translated into English by D. Davison (8 vols, 1843–1852). Finally, Schlosser undertook a popular World History for the German People (Weltgeschichte für das deutsche Volk, 1844–1857), which also enjoyed the favour of those for whom it was written.
He left Frankfurt in 1819 to become professor of history at Heidelberg where he resided until his death. He was an elected member of the Royal Danish Academy of Sciences of Copenhagen, and of the Society of Literature of Leyden and other learned societies.
Works in English translation
History of the Eighteenth Century and of the Nineteenth Century Till the Overthrow of the French Empire, Vol. 2, Vol. 3, Vol. 4, Vol. 5, Vol. 6, Vol. 7, Vol. 8, Chapman and Hall. London, 1843–1852.
Criticism
Schlosser stands apart from the movement towards scientific history in Germany in the 19th century. Refusing to limit himself to political history, as did Leopold von Ranke, he never learned to handle his literary sources with the care of the scientific historian. History was to him, as it had been to Cicero, a school for morals; but he had perhaps a juster conception than Ranke of the breadth and scope of the historian's field.
Notes
References
This publication, which is highly jaundiced and opinionated cites his detractors only:
G. G. Gervinus (Schlosser's pupil), F. C. Schlosser, ein Nekrolog (1861)
Georg Weber, F. C. Schlosser, der Historiker, Erinnerungsblätter (Leipzig, 1876)
Ottokar Lorenz, F. C. Schlosser (Vienna, 1878)
M. Martirano, Religion, Kulturgeschichte und moralisches Urteil in der Geschichtsauffassung Friedrich Christoph Schlossers, in «Geschichte und Gegenwart», 16 (1997) 4, pp. 211–229.
External links
1776 births
1861 deaths
People from Jever
German historians
University of Göttingen alumni
Heidelberg University faculty
Recipients of the Pour le Mérite (civil class)
German male non-fiction writers | [
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230135 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List%20of%20Sesame%20Street%20Muppets | List of Sesame Street Muppets | The Muppets are a group of puppet characters created by Jim Henson, many for the purpose of appearing on the children's television program Sesame Street. Henson's involvement in Sesame Street began when he and Joan Ganz Cooney, one of the creators of the show, met in the summer of 1968, at one of the show's five three-day curriculum planning seminars in Boston. Author Christopher Finch reported that director Jon Stone, who had worked with Henson previously, felt that if they could not bring him on board, they should "make do without puppets".
Henson was initially reluctant but agreed to join Sesame Street in support of its social goals. He also agreed to waive his performance fee for full ownership of the Sesame Street Muppets and to split any revenue they generated with the Children's Television Workshop (renamed to the Sesame Workshop in 2000), the series' non-profit producer. The Muppets were a crucial part of the show's popularity and it brought Henson national attention. The Muppet segments of the show were popular since its premiere, and more Muppets were added during the first few seasons. The Muppets were effective teaching tools because children easily recognized them, they were predictable, and they appealed to adults and older siblings.
During the production of Sesame Streets first season, producers created five one-hour episodes to test the show's appeal to children and examine their comprehension of the material. Not intended for broadcast, they were presented to preschoolers in 60 homes throughout Philadelphia and in day care centers in New York City in July 1969. The results were "generally very positive"; children learned from the shows, their appeal was high, and children's attention was sustained over the full hour. However, the researchers found that although children's attention was high during the Muppet segments, their interest wavered during the "Street" segments, when no Muppets were on screen. This was because the producers had followed the advice of child psychologists who were concerned that children would be confused if human actors and Muppets were shown together. As a result of this decision, the appeal of the test episodes was lower than the target.
The Street scenes were "the glue" that "pulled the show together", so producers knew they needed to make significant changes. The producers decided to reject the advisers' advice and reshot the Street segments; Henson and his coworkers created Muppets that could interact with the human actors, specifically Oscar the Grouch and Big Bird, who became two of the show's most enduring characters. These test episodes were directly responsible for what writer Malcolm Gladwell called "the essence of Sesame Street—the artful blend of fluffy monsters and earnest adults". Since 2001, the full rights for the Muppets created for Sesame Street (which do not include Kermit the Frog) have been owned by Sesame Workshop.
Muppets
See also
List of human Sesame Street characters
List of Muppets
Notes
References
Borgenicht, David (1998). Sesame Street Unpaved. New York: Hyperion Publishing.
Clash, Kevin, Gary Brozek & Louis Henry Mitchell (2006). My Life as a Furry Red Monster: What Being Elmo Has Taught Me About Life, Love and Laughing Out Loud. New York: Random House.
Davis, Michael (2008). Street Gang: The Complete History of Sesame Street. New York: Viking Penguin.
Finch, Christopher (1993). Jim Henson: The Works: The Art, the Magic, the Imagination. New York: Random House.
Fisch, Shalom M.; Lewis Bernstein, "Formative Research Revealed: Methodological and Process Issues in Formative Research". In Fisch, Shalom M. & Truglio, Rosemarie T.. G" is for Growing: Thirty Years of Research on Children and Sesame Street. Mahweh, New Jersey: Lawrence Erlbaum Publishers. .
Gikow, Louise A. (2009). Sesame Street: A Celebration—Forty Years of Life on the Street. New York: Black Dog & Leventhal Publishers. .
Gladwell, Malcolm (2000). The Tipping Point: How Little Things Can Make a Big Difference. New York: Little, Brown, and Company.
Hellman, Peter (November 23, 1987). "Street Smart: How Big Bird & Co. do it". New York Magazine. 20 (46): 48—53. Retrieved August 2, 2019.
Lesser, Gerald S. (1974). Children and Television: Lessons from Sesame Street. New York: Vintage Books.
Morrow, Robert W. (2006). Sesame Street and the Reform of Children's Television. Baltimore, Maryland: Johns Hopkins University Press.
External links
Sesame Workshop Muppet and Puppeteer Bios
Lists of children's television characters | [
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230140 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fritz%20Houtermans | Fritz Houtermans | Friedrich Georg "Fritz" Houtermans (January 22, 1903 – March 1, 1966) was a Dutch-Austrian-German atomic and nuclear physicist and Communist born in Zoppot near Danzig, West Prussia to a Dutch father, who was a wealthy banker. He was brought up in Vienna, where he was educated, and moved to Göttingen when he was 18 to study. It was in Göttingen where he obtained his Ph.D. under James Franck.
Education
Houtermans began his studies at the University of Göttingen in 1921, and he received his doctorate under James Franck in 1927, the same year Robert Oppenheimer received his doctorate under Max Born. He completed his Habilitation under Gustav Hertz at the Technical University of Berlin, in 1932. Hertz and Franck were Nobel Prize laureates; they shared the 1925 Nobel Prize in Physics.
While at Göttingen, Houtermans met Enrico Fermi, George Gamow, Werner Heisenberg, Wolfgang Pauli, and Victor Frederick Weisskopf. Houtermans and Gamow did pioneering work on quantum tunneling in 1928. Houtermans, in 1929, with Robert d'Escourt Atkinson, made the first calculation of stellar thermonuclear reactions. Their pioneering calculations were the impetus for Carl Friedrich von Weizsäcker and Hans Bethe, in 1939, to put forth the correct theory of stellar thermonuclear energy generation.
Charlotte Riefenstahl, who received her doctorate in physics at the University of Göttingen in 1927, the same year as Houtermans and Robert Oppenheimer, was courted by both men. She was no relation to Leni Riefenstahl, the notable German filmmaker. In 1930, she left her teaching position at Vassar College and went back to Germany. During a physics conference at the Black Sea resort of Batumi, Riefenstahl and Houtermans were married in August 1930, in Tbilisi, with Wolfgang Pauli and Rudolf Peierls as witnesses to the ceremony. (Three other references cite the year as being 1931.)
Career
From 1932 to 1933, Houtermans taught at the Technical University of Berlin and was an assistant to Hertz. While there, he met Patrick Blackett, Max von Laue, and Leó Szilárd.
Houtermans was a Communist; he had been a member of the German Communist Party since the 1920s. After the election of Adolf Hitler in 1933, Charlotte Houtermans insisted that they leave Germany. They went to Great Britain, near Cambridge, where he worked for the EMI (Electrical and Musical Instruments, Ltd.) Television Laboratory. In 1935 Houtermans emigrated to the Soviet Union, as the result of a proposal by Alexander Weissberg, who had emigrated to there in 1931. Houtermans took an appointment at the Kharkov Physico-Technical Institute and worked there for two years with the Russian physicist Valentin P. Fomin. In the Great Purge, Houtermans was arrested by the NKVD in December 1937. He was tortured and confessed to being a Trotskyist plotter and German spy, out of fear from threats against Charlotte. However, Charlotte had already escaped from the Soviet Union to Denmark, after which she went to England and finally the USA. After the Hitler-Stalin Pact of 1939, Houtermans was turned over to the Gestapo in May 1940 and imprisoned in Berlin. Through efforts of Max von Laue, Houtermans was released in August 1940, whereupon he took a position at Forschungslaboratorium für Elektronenphysik, a private laboratory of Manfred Baron von Ardenne, in Lichterfelde, a suburb of Berlin. In 1944, Houtermans took a position as a nuclear physicist at the Physikalisch-Technische Reichsanstalt.
While imprisoned in the Soviet Union, a cellmate of Houtermans was the Kiev University historian Konstantin Shteppa. They would later write a book together, Russian Purge and the Extraction of Confession, under the pseudonyms of Beck and Godin to protect their many friends and colleagues back in the USSR.
At the Forschunsinstitut Manfred von Ardenne, Houtermans showed that transuranic isotopes, such as neptunium and plutonium, could be used as fissionable fuels in substitution for uranium. In an act of espionage against his country, Houtermans sent a telegram from Switzerland to Eugene Wigner at the Met Lab warning the USA's Manhattan Project of German work on fission: "Hurry up. We are on the track."
During Houtermans's employment at the Physikalisch-Technische Reichsanstalt (PTR), he got himself into serious trouble as a result of his habit of being a chain-smoker and suffering great distress if he did not have a supply of tobacco. On official PTR stationery, he wrote to a Dresden cigarette manufacturer to obtain a kilogram of Macedonian tobacco, claiming that he could extract heavy water from the tobacco, and thus that it was "kriegswichtig", i.e., important for the war effort. When he had smoked the tobacco, he again wrote for more, however, the letter fell into the hands of an official at the PTR, who had him fired. Werner Heisenberg and Carl Weizsäcker came to the rescue of Houtermans and arranged an interview for him with Walter Gerlach, the plenipotentiary (Bevollmächtiger) for German nuclear research under the Reich Research Council. As a result, Houtermans moved to Göttingen in 1945, where Hans Kopferman and Richard Becker got him positions at the Institut für Theoretische Physik and II. Physikalischen Institut der Universität Göttingen.
From 1952, Houtermans took a position as ordinarius professor of physics at the University of Bern. During his tenure there, he founded Berner Schule, whose thrust was the application of radioactivity to astrophysics, cosmochemistry, and geosciences.
Personal
Houtermans was married four times. Charlotte was his first and third wife in four marriages. They had two children, a daughter Giovanna (born in Berlin, 1932) and a son Jan (born in Kharkov, 1935), and they were divorced the first time in 1943, due to a new law in Germany and enforced wartime separation. In February 1944, Houtermans married Ilse Bartz, a chemical engineer; they worked together during the war and published a paper. Houtermans and Ilse had three children, Pieter, Elsa, and Cornelia. In August 1953, again with Pauli standing as a witness, Charlotte and Houtermans were again married, but they divorced again in only a few months. In 1955, Houtermans married Lore Müller, sister of his stepbrother, Hans. She brought her four-year-old daughter to the marriage, and she and Houtermans had a son, Hendrik, born in 1956.
Houtermans died of lung cancer on 1 March 1966.
Internal report
The following was published in (Research Reports in Nuclear Physics), an internal publication of the German Uranverein. Reports in this publication were classified Top Secret, they had very limited distribution, and the authors were not allowed to keep copies. The reports were confiscated under the Allied Operation Alsos and sent to the United States Atomic Energy Commission for evaluation. In 1971, the reports were declassified and returned to Germany. The reports are available at the Karlsruhe Nuclear Research Center and the American Institute of Physics.
Fritz Houtermans . G-94.
Works (selection)
Atkinson, R. and Houtermans, F.G. "Aufbaumöglichkeit in Sternen" (Z. für Physik 54, 656-665, 1929)
Houtermans, F.G. "Über ein neues Verfahren zur Durchführung chemischer Altersbestimmungen nach der Blei-Methode" (Springer, 1951)
Houtermans, Fritz "Publikationen von Friedrich Georg Houtermans aus den Jahren 1926-1950" (Zusammengestellt im Physikalischen Institut Universität Bern, 1955)
Geiss, J. and E. D. Goldberg and F. G. Houtermans "Earth Science and Meteoritics- dedicated to F. G. Houtermans on his sixtieth birthday F.G. Houtermans" (North Holland, 1963)
For a partial list of works by Houtermans, see the Wolfram biography.
See also
Directed-energy weapon
Excimer laser
Stellar nucleosynthesis
ZETA (fusion reactor)
Notes
Sources
Beck, F. and Godin, W. "Russian Purge and the Extraction of Confession" (Hurst and Blackett, 1951). Houtermans and Konstantine F. Shteppa, the authors of this book, took the pseudonyms Beck and Godin to protect their many friends and colleagues back in the USSR.
Amaldi, E. “The Adventurous Life of Friedrich Georg Houtermans, Physicist (1903-1966)”, S. Braccini, A. Ereditato, P. Scampoli Eds. (SpringerBriefs in Physics, 2010)
Further reading
Bernstein, Jeremy, Hitler's Uranium Club: The Secret Recordings at Farm Hall (Copernicus, 2001)
Buttlar, H. von, "Leonium und andere Anekdoten um den Physikprofessor Dr. F. G. Houtermans" (Bochum, 1982)
Bird, Kai and Martin J. Sherwin, American Promethius: The Triumph and Tragedy of J. Robert Oppenheimer (Vintage, 2005)
Frenkel, Viktor, Professor Houtermans, Works, Life, Fate (biography in Russian), (Academy of Sciences, St. Petersburg, 1997)
Frisch, Otto Robert, What Little I Remember (Cambridge, 1980)
Gamow, George, My World Line: An Informal Autobiography (Viking, 1970)
Hentschel, Ann M. "The Physical Tourist: Peripatetic Highlights in Bern", Physics in Perspective, Volume 7, Number 1, 107-129 (2005). The author is cited as being at the Wissenschaftstheorie und Wissenschaftsgeschichte, University of Bern, Uni-Tobler, Länggassstrasse 49a, CH-3012 Bern 9, Switzerland.
Hentschel, Klaus (editor) and Ann M. Hentschel (editorial assistant and translator) Physics and National Socialism: An Anthology of Primary Sources (Birkhäuser, 1996)
Houtermans, F. "Determination of the Age of the Earth from the Isotopic Composition of Meteoritic Lead", Nuovo Cimento, 10 1623-1633 (1953)
Jungk, Robert, Brighter Than a Thousand Suns (Harcourt, Brace, 1958)
Khriplovich, Iosif B. "The Eventful Life of Fritz Houtermans", Physics Today, Volume 45, Issue 7, 29 – 37 (1992). The author is cited as being at the Gersh Budker Institute of Nuclear Physics in Novosibirsk, Russia, and professor at the Novosibirsk University.
Landrock, Konrad, "Friedrich Georg Houtermans (1903–1966) – Ein bedeutender Physiker des 20. Jahrhunderts", Naturwissenschaftliche Rundschau, Volume 56, Number 4, 187 – 199 (2003)
Marvin, U.B. "Oral histories in meteoritics and planetary sciences: VIII Friedrich Begemann", Meteoritics & Planetary Science, 37, B69-B77 (2002)
Patterson, C. "Age of meteorites and the Earth", Geochimica et Cosmochimica Acta, 10 230-237 (1956)
Powers, Thomas, Heisenberg's War: The Secret History of the German Bomb (Knopf, 1993)
Rhodes, Richard, The Making of the Atomic Bomb (Simon and Schuster, 1986)
Walker, Mark, German National Socialism and the Quest for Nuclear Power 1939–1949 (Cambridge, 1993)
Wigner, Eugene P. and Andrew Szanton. The Recollections of Eugene P. Wigner as told to Andrew Szanton (Plenum, 1992)
External links
Annotated Bibliography for Fritz Hourtermans from the Alsos Digital Library for Nuclear Issues
Biography with a list of published works - Wolfram
Fritz Houtermans - Österreichische Akademie der Wissenschaften
Konrad Landrock - Friedrich Georg Houtermans (1903–1966) – Ein bedeutender Physiker des 20. Jahrhunderts
1903 births
1966 deaths
German communists
German nuclear physicists
Deaths from lung cancer
People from West Prussia
People from Sopot
University of Göttingen alumni
Technical University of Berlin alumni
Technical University of Berlin faculty
Nuclear program of Nazi Germany
German people imprisoned abroad
Prisoners and detainees of the Soviet Union
Refugees from Nazi Germany in the Soviet Union
20th-century German physicists | [
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230141 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Karl%20Daub | Karl Daub | Karl Daub (20 March 176522 November 1836) was a German Protestant theologian.
Biography
He was born at Kassel. He studied philosophy, philology and theology at Marburg in 1786, and eventually (1795) became professor ordinarius of theology at the University of Heidelberg, where he remained until his death. He became rector of the university in 1816 and 1824. He was married in 1801 to Sophie Wilhelmine Charlotte Blum.
Daub was one of the leaders of a school which sought to reconcile theology and philosophy, and to bring about a speculative reconstruction of orthodox dogma. In the course of his intellectual development, he came successively under the influence of Immanuel Kant, Friedrich von Schelling and G. W. F. Hegel, and on account of the different phases through which he passed he was called the Talleyrand of German thought. There was one great defect in his speculative theology: he ignored historical criticism. His purpose was, as Otto Pfleiderer says,
"to connect the metaphysical ideas, which had been arrived at by means of philosophical dialectic, directly with the persons and events of the Gospel narratives, thus raising these above the region of ordinary experience into that of the supernatural, and regarding the most absurd assertions as philosophically justified. Daub had become so hopelessly addicted to this perverse principle that he deduced not only Jesus as the embodiment of the philosophical idea of the union of God and man, but also Judas Iscariot as the embodiment of the idea of a rival god, or Satan."
The three stages in Daub's development are clearly marked in his writings. His Lehrbuch der Katechetik (1801) was written under the spell of Kant. His Theologumena (1806), his Einleitung in das Studium der christlichen Dogmatik (1810), and his Judas Ischarioth (2 vols., 1816, 2nd ed., 1818), were all written in the spirit of Schelling, the last of them reflecting a change in Schelling himself from theosophy to positive philosophy. Daub's Die dogmatische Theologie jetziger Zeit oder die Selbstsucht in der Wissenschaft des Glaubens (1833), and Vorlesungen über die Prolegomena zur Dogmatik (1839), are Hegelian in principle and obscure in language.
He died in Heidelberg.
Legacy
Søren Kierkegaard is notable among those who were prominently influenced by Daub's thought. In From the Papers of One Still Living, Kierkegaard wrote:
There must come a moment, I say, when as Daub observes, life is understood backward through the idea…
Some years later, Kierkegaard expanded on this idea in his journal, in a passage that is often quoted or paraphrased:
Philosophy is perfectly right in saying that life must be understood backwards. But then one forgets the other claim – that it must be lived forwards.
References
Attribution
External links
19th-century German Protestant theologians
19th-century German philosophers
1765 births
1836 deaths
19th-century German male writers
German male non-fiction writers
Hegelian philosophers
Heidelberg University faculty
German Freemasons | [
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230147 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Karl%20Rosenkranz | Karl Rosenkranz | Johann Karl Friedrich Rosenkranz (April 23, 1805 – July 14, 1879) was a German philosopher and pedagogue.
Life
Born in Magdeburg, he read philosophy at Berlin, Halle and Königsberg, devoting himself mainly to the doctrines of Hegel and Schleiermacher. After holding the chair of philosophy at Halle for two years, he became, in 1833, professor at the University of Königsberg. In his last years he was blind.
He died in Königsberg.
Philosophy
Throughout his long professorial career, and in all his numerous publications he remained, in spite of occasional deviations on particular points, loyal to the Hegelian tradition as a whole. In the great division of the Hegelian school, he, in company with Michelet and others, formed the "centre," midway between Erdmann and Gabler on the one hand, and the "extreme left" represented by Strauss, Feuerbach and Bruno Bauer.
Selected works
Philosophical
Kritik der Schleiermacherschen Glaubenslehre (1836)
Psychologie oder Wissenschaft vom subjektiven Geist (1837; 3rd ed., 1863)
Kritische Erläuterungen des Hegelschen Systems (1840)
Vorlesungen über Schelling (1842)
Hegels Leben (1844)
System der Wissenschaft (1850)
Meine Reform der Hegelschen Philosophie (1852)
Ästhetik des Häßlichen" (Königsberg 1853). English: Aesthetics of Ugliness. A Critical Edition. Bloomsbury 2015.Wissenschaft der logischen Idee (1858–59), with a supplement (Epilegomena, 1862)Diderot's Leben und Werke (1866)Hegels Naturphilosophie und die Bearbeitung derselben durch Vera (1868)Hegel als deutscher Nationalphilosoph (1870)Erläuterungen zu Hegels Encyklopädie der philosophischen Wissenschaften'' (1871).
Between 1838 and 1840, Rosenkranz published an edition of the works of Kant in conjunction with F. W. Schubert, to which he appended a history of the Kantian doctrine.
References
External links
Almost complete collection of Rosenkranz' works as PDFs (most from GoogleBooks)
1805 births
1879 deaths
19th-century German philosophers
Writers from Magdeburg
People from the Province of Saxony
Humboldt University of Berlin alumni
Martin Luther University of Halle-Wittenberg alumni
Martin Luther University of Halle-Wittenberg faculty
Heidelberg University alumni
University of Königsberg faculty
Denis Diderot
German male writers | [
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230149 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Foie%20gras | Foie gras | Foie gras (, ; ) is a specialty food product made of the liver of a duck or goose. According to French law, foie gras is defined as the liver of a duck or goose fattened by gavage (force feeding). In Spain and other countries, it is occasionally produced using natural feeding. Ducks are force-fed twice a day for 12.5 days and geese three times a day for around 17 days. Ducks are typically slaughtered at 100 days and geese at 112 days.
Foie gras is a popular and well-known delicacy in French cuisine. Its flavour is described as rich, buttery, and delicate, unlike that of an ordinary duck or goose liver. Foie gras is sold whole or is prepared into mousse, parfait, or pâté, and may also be served as an accompaniment to another food item, such as steak. French law states that "Foie gras belongs to the protected cultural and gastronomical heritage of France."
The technique of gavage dates as far back as 2500 BC, when the ancient Egyptians began keeping birds for food and deliberately fattened the birds through force-feeding. Today, France is by far the largest producer and consumer of foie gras, though there are producers and markets worldwide, particularly in other European nations, the United States, and China.
Gavage-based foie gras production is controversial, due mainly to the animal welfare concerns about force-feeding, intensive housing and husbandry, and enlarging the liver to 10 times its usual volume. A number of countries and jurisdictions have laws against force-feeding, as well as the production, import, or sale of foie gras. Even where it is legal, a number of retailers decline to stock it.
History
Ancient times
As early as 2500 BC, the ancient Egyptians learned that many birds could be fattened through forced overfeeding and began this practice. Whether they particularly sought the fattened livers of birds as a delicacy remains undetermined. In the necropolis of Saqqara, in the tomb of Mereruka, an important royal official, there is a bas relief scene wherein workers grasp geese around the necks in order to push food down their throats. At the side stand tables piled with more food pellets, and a flask for moistening the feed before giving it to the geese.
The practice of goose fattening spread from Egypt to the Mediterranean. The earliest reference to fattened geese is from the 5th century BC Greek poet Cratinus, who wrote of geese-fatteners, yet Egypt maintained its reputation as the source for fattened geese. When the Spartan king Agesilaus visited Egypt in 361 BC, he noted Egyptian farmers fattened geese and calves.
It was not until the Roman period, however, that foie gras is mentioned as a distinct food, which the Romans named iecur ficatum; iecur means liver and ficatum derives from ficus, meaning fig in Latin. The emperor Elagabalus fed his dogs on foie gras during the four years of his reign. Pliny the Elder (1st century AD) credits his contemporary, Roman gastronome Marcus Gavius Apicius, with feeding dried figs to geese in order to enlarge their livers:
Hence, the term iecur ficatum, fig-stuffed liver; feeding figs to enlarge a goose's liver may derive from Hellenistic Alexandria, since much of Roman luxury cuisine was of Greek inspiration. Ficatum was closely associated with animal liver and it became the root word for "liver" in each of these languages: foie in French, hígado in Spanish, fígado in Portuguese, fegato in Italian, fetge in Catalan and Occitan and ficat in Romanian, all meaning "liver"; this etymology has been explained in different manners.
Postclassical Europe
After the fall of the Roman empire, goose liver temporarily vanished from European cuisine. Some claim that Gallic farmers preserved the foie gras tradition until the rest of Europe rediscovered it centuries later, but the medieval French peasant's food animals were mainly pig and sheep. Others claim that the tradition was preserved by the Jews, who learned the method of enlarging a goose's liver during the Roman colonisation of Judea or earlier from Egyptians. The Jews carried this culinary knowledge as they migrated farther north and west to Europe.
The Judaic dietary law, Kashrut, forbade lard as a cooking medium, and butter, too, was proscribed as an alternative since Kashrut also prohibited mixing meat and dairy products. Jewish cuisine used olive oil in the Mediterranean, and sesame oil in Babylonia, but neither cooking medium was readily available in Western and Central Europe, so poultry fat (known in Yiddish as schmaltz), which could be abundantly produced by overfeeding geese, was substituted in their stead. The delicate taste of the goose's liver was soon appreciated; Hans Wilhelm Kirchhof of Kassel wrote in 1562 that the Jews raise fat geese and particularly love their livers. Some Rabbis were concerned that eating forcibly overfed geese violated Jewish food restrictions. Some rabbis contended that it is not a forbidden food (treyf) as none of its limbs are damaged and the geese did not feel any pain in their throats from the process. This matter remained a debated topic in Jewish dietary law until the Jewish taste for goose liver declined in the 19th century. Another kashrut matter, still a problem today, is that even properly slaughtered and inspected meat must be drained of blood before being considered fit to eat. Usually, salting achieves that; however, as liver is regarded as "(almost) wholly blood", broiling is the only way of kashering. Properly broiling a foie gras while preserving its delicate taste is difficult, and therefore rarely practised. Even so, there are restaurants in Israel that offer grilled goose foie gras. Foie gras also bears resemblance to the Jewish food staple, chopped liver.
Appreciation of fattened goose liver spread to gastronomes outside the Jewish community, who could buy in the local Jewish ghetto of their cities. In 1570, Bartolomeo Scappi, chef de cuisine to Pope Pius V, published his cookbook Opera, wherein he writes that "the liver of [a] domestic goose raised by the Jews is of extreme size and weighs [between] two and three pounds". In 1581, Marx Rumpolt of Mainz, chef to several German nobles, published the massive cookbook Ein Neu Kochbuch, describing that the Jews of Bohemia produced livers weighing more than three pounds; he lists recipes for it—including one for goose liver mousse. János Keszei, chef to the court of Michael Apafi, the prince of Transylvania, included foie gras recipes in his 1680 cookbook A New Book About Cooking, instructing cooks to "envelop the goose liver in a calf's thin skin, bake it and prepare [a] green or [a] brown sauce to accompany it. I used goose liver fattened by Bohemian Jews, its weight was more than three pounds. You may also prepare a mush of it."
Production and sales
In the 21st century, France is by far the largest producer and consumer of foie gras, though it is produced and consumed in several other countries worldwide, particularly in some other European nations, the United States, and China. Approximately 30,000 people work in the French foie gras industry, with 90% of them residing in the Périgord (Dordogne), Aquitaine in the southwest, and Alsace in the east. The European Union recognizes the foie gras produced according to traditional farming methods (label rouge) in southwestern France with a protected geographical indication.
Hungary is the world's second-largest foie gras (libamáj) producer and the largest exporter. France is the principal market for Hungarian foie gras – mainly exported raw. Approximately 30,000 Hungarian goose farmers are dependent on the foie gras industry. French food companies spice, process, and cook the foie gras so it may be sold as a French product in its domestic and export markets.
2005
In 2005, France produced 18,450 tonnes of foie gras (78.5% of the world's estimated total production of 23,500 tonnes), of which 96% was duck liver and 4% goose liver. Total French consumption of foie gras in this year was 19,000 tonnes. In 2005, Hungary, the world's second-largest foie gras producer, exported 1,920 tonnes and Bulgaria produced 1,500 tons of foie gras.
The demand for foie gras in the Far East is such that China has become a sizeable producer. Madagascar is a small but rapidly growing producer of high quality foie gras.
2011
In 2011 in Bulgaria (which started production in 1960), 5 million mule ducks were raised for foie gras on 800 farms, making Bulgaria the second-largest producer in Europe.
2012
In 2012, France produced approximately 19,000 tonnes of foie gras, representing 75% of the world's production in that year. This required the force-feeding of around 38 million ducks and geese. World production in 2015 is estimated as 27,000 tonnes.
2014–2015
In 2014, the whole of the EU produced approximately 25,000 tonnes of foie gras – 23,000 tonnes of duck foie gras and 2,000 tonnes of goose foie gras. The same year, France was producing 72% of world foie gras production, of which 97% was from ducks.
In 2014, France produced 19,608 tons of foie gras (74.3% of the world's estimated total production).
In 2015, it was reported that in France, sales of foie gras may be waning and an OpinionWay poll found that 47% of the French population supported a ban on force-feeding.
2015–2016
In 2016, it was reported that France produces an estimated 75% of the world's foie gras and southwestern France produces approximately 70% of that total. In 2016, it can retail for upwards of $65 a pound.
In late 2015, there were several outbreaks of the highly contagious H5N1 bird flu in France, which escalated during 2016. This led to Algeria, China, Egypt, Japan, Morocco, South Korea, Thailand and Tunisia banning French poultry exports, including foie gras, and France to initiate increased bio-security protocols which will cost an estimated 220 million euros. One of these measures was the halting of production in southwestern France from early April, 2016 for an anticipated period of three months to reduce the spread of the virus. Exports of foie gras from France are expected to decrease from 4,560 tonnes in 2015 to 3,160 tonnes in 2016.
In the United States, the largest producer is Hudson Valley Foie Gras, which uses approximately 350,000 ducks each year.
Forms
In France, foie gras exists in different, legally defined presentations, ordered by expense:
("whole foie gras"), made of one or two whole liver lobes; either ("cooked"), ("semi-cooked"), or ("fresh");
, made of pieces of livers reassembled together;
, a fully cooked, moulded block composed of 98% or more foie gras; if termed ("with pieces"), it must contain at least 50% foie gras pieces for goose, and 30% for duck.
Additionally, there is , (either must contain 50% or more foie gras), (must contain 75% or more foie gras), and other preparations (no legal obligation established).
Fully cooked preparations are generally sold in either glass containers or metal cans for long-term preservation. Whole, fresh foie gras is usually unavailable in France outside the Christmas period, except in some producers' markets in the producing regions. Frozen whole foie gras sometimes is sold in French supermarkets.
Whole foie gras is readily available from gourmet retailers in Canada, the United States, Hungary, Argentina and regions with a sizeable market for the product. In US, raw foie gras is classified as Grade A, B or C. Grade A is typically the highest in fat and especially suited for low-temperature preparation, because the veins are relatively few and the resulting terrine will be more aesthetically appealing because it displays little blood. Grade B is accepted for higher temperature preparation, because the higher proportion of protein gives the liver more structure after being seared. Grade C livers are generally reserved for making sauces as well as other preparations where a higher proportion of blood-filled veins will not impair the appearance of the dish.
Production methods
Species, breeds and sex used
Geese
Traditionally, foie gras was produced from special breeds of geese. However, by 2004, geese accounted for less than 10% of the total global foie gras production and by 2014 only 5% of total French production. Goose breeds used in modern foie gras production are primarily the grey Landes goose (Anser anser) and the Toulouse goose.
In 2016, Hungary was producing 80% of the world's goose foie gras; however, production rates are likely to drop in 2017 due to outbreaks of bird flu.
Ducks
In 2014, ducks accounted for 95% of foie gras production. The breeds primarily used are the Muscovy duck (Cairina moschata) (also called the Barbary duck) and the hybrid cross of a male Muscovy duck and a female Pekin duck (Anas platyrhynchos domestica) called the Mulard duck. This hybrid is sterile and is therefore sometimes referred to as a "mule" duck. Mulards are estimated to account for about 35% of all foie gras consumed in the US. About 95% of duck foie gras production from France comes from force-fed Mulards, and the remaining 5% from the Muscovy duck.
After hatching, the Mulard ducklings are sexed. Males put on more weight than females, so the females are slaughtered.
Physiological basis
The basis of foie gras production is the ability that some waterfowl have to expand their esophagus and to gain weight, particularly in the liver, in preparation for migration. Wild geese may consume 300 grams of protein and another 800 grams of grasses per day. Farmed geese allowed to graze on carrots adapt to eating 100 grams of protein, but may consume up to 2500 grams of the carrots per day. The increasing amount of feed given prior to force-feeding and during the force-feeding itself cause expansion of the lower part of the esophagus.
Pre-feeding phase
The pre-force feeding phase consists of three stages.
The first stage ("start-up") lasts from 1 to 28 days of age (0–4 weeks). During this stage, the young birds are housed in large, indoor groups (e.g. 2,100), usually on straw.
The second stage ("growth") lasts from 28 to 63 days of age (4–9 weeks). The birds are moved outside to feed on grasses ad libitum. The birds are given additional feed, but access to this is limited by time. This stage aims to take advantage of the natural dilation capacity of the esophagus of some wildfowl.
The third stage ("pre-fattening") lasts from 63 to 90 days of age (9–13 weeks). The birds are brought inside for gradually longer periods while introduced to a high starch diet. This is a feeding transition where the food is distributed by meals, first in restricted amount and time and thereafter greatly increased.
Feeding phase
The next production phase, which the French call or , or "completion of fattening", involves forced daily ingestion of controlled amounts of feed for 12 to 15 days with ducks and for 15 to 18 days with geese. During this phase, ducks are usually fed twice daily while geese are fed up to three times daily. To facilitate handling of ducks during gavage, these birds are typically housed throughout this phase in individual cages or small group pens.
Typical foie gras production involves force-feeding birds more food than they would eat in the wild, and much more than they would voluntarily eat domestically.
In modern production, the bird is typically fed a controlled amount of feed, depending on the stage of the fattening process, the bird's weight, and the amount of feed the bird last ingested. At the start of production, a bird might be fed a dry weight of of food per day and up to (in dry weight) by the end of the process. The actual amount of food force-fed is much greater, because the birds are fed a mash with a composition of about 53% dry and 47% liquid (by weight). This is the equivalent to around 1,900 grams per day in total mass.
The feed is administered using a funnel fitted with a long tube (20–30 cm long), which forces the feed into the bird's esophagus. If an auger is used, the feeding takes about 45 to 60 seconds, however, modern systems usually use a tube fed by a pneumatic pump with an operation time of 2 to 3 seconds per duck. During feeding, efforts are made to avoid damaging the bird's esophagus, which could cause injury or death, although researchers have found evidence of inflammation of the walls of the proventriculus after the first session of force-feeding. There is also indication of inflammation of the esophagus in the later stages of fattening. Several studies have also demonstrated that mortality rates can be significantly elevated during the gavage period.
The feed, usually corn boiled with fat (to facilitate ingestion), deposits large amounts of fat in the liver, thereby producing the buttery consistency sought by some gastronomes.
Ducks reared for foie gras are typically slaughtered at 100 days of age and geese at 112 days. At this time, the bird's liver is 6 to 10 times its ordinary size. Storage of fat in the liver produces steatosis of the liver cells.
Alternative production
Fattened liver can be produced by alternative methods without gavage, and this is often referred to either as "fatty goose liver" or as foie gras (outside France), though it does not conform to the French legal definition. This method involves timing the slaughter to coincide with the winter migration, when livers are naturally fattened.
The winner of the Coup de Coeur award at the Salon International d'Alimentation, SIAL 2006, Patería de Sousa produces fattened livers without force-feeding. This has only recently been produced commercially, and is a very small fraction of the market.
Producers outside France do not always force-feed birds to produce fattened livers considered to be foie gras, instead allowing them to eat freely, termed ad libitum. Interest in alternative production methods has grown recently due to ethical concerns in gavage-based foie gras production. Such livers are alternatively termed fatty goose liver, ethical foie gras, or humane foie gras. The British supermarket chain Waitrose also provides a version of ethical foie gras which it calls (and has been trademarked) faux gras. This is not to be confused with the American product by the same name, produced by Regal Vegan, which has the US trademark for faux gras, and is actually a vegan, nut-based spread.
The term ethical foie gras or humane foie gras is also used for gavage-based foie gras production that is more concerned with the animal's welfare (using rubber hoses rather than steel pipes for feeding). Others have expressed skepticism at these claims of humane treatment, as earlier attempts to produce fattened livers without gavage have not produced satisfactory results.
A more humane version of foie gras was pioneered in the Spanish region of Extremadura, whereby the bird is tricked into preparing for migration rather than force-fed.
More radical approaches have been studied. A duck or goose with a ventromedian hypothalamic (VMH) lesion will tend not to feel satiated after eating, and will therefore eat more than a non-lesioned animal. By producing such lesions surgically, it is possible to increase the bird's food consumption when permitted to eat ad libitum, by a factor of more than two.
Currently, one of the few producers in the world of patented and certified goose- and ducklivers without force-feeding but up to the same standards as the traditional foie gras is the German company Foie Royale. The products of Foie Royale are being used by several Michelin star chefs throughout the world. Foie Royale developed a process together with the German Institute of Food Technologies (DIL) to get the same result as the traditional Foie Gras, but without the force-feeding.
Human obesity and microbiome studies led French researchers at a startup company called Aviwell to use probiotic preparations to produce fatty livers in geese over 6 months without forced feeding.
Preparations
Generally, French preparations of foie gras are made over low heat, as fat melts faster from the traditional goose foie gras than the duck foie gras produced in most other parts of the world. American and other New World preparations, typically employing duck foie gras, have more recipes and dish preparations for serving foie gras hot, rather than cool or cold.
In Hungary, goose foie gras traditionally is fried in goose fat, which is then poured over the foie gras and left to cool; it is also eaten warm, after being fried or roasted, with some chefs smoking the foie gras over a cherry wood fire.
In other parts of the world foie gras is served in dishes such as foie gras sushi rolls, in various forms of pasta or alongside steak tartare or atop a steak as a garnish.
Cold preparations
Traditional low-heat cooking methods result in terrines, pâtés, parfaits, foams and mousses of foie gras, often flavored with truffle, mushrooms or brandy such as cognac or armagnac. These slow-cooked forms of foie gras are cooled and served at or below room temperature.
In a very traditional form of terrine, au torchon ("in a towel"), a whole lobe of foie is molded, wrapped in a towel and slow-cooked in a bain-marie. For added flavor (from the Maillard reaction), the liver may be seared briefly over a fire of grape vine clippings (sarments) before slow-cooking in a bain-marie; afterwards, it is pressed served cold, in slices.
Raw foie gras is also cured in salt ("cru au sel"), served slightly chilled.
Strasbourg pie
A pastry containing fatty goose liver and other ingredients is known as the "Strasburg pie" since Strasbourg was a major producer of foie gras.
The Strasburg pie is mentioned in William Makepeace Thackeray's novel Vanity Fair as being popular with the diplomatic corps.
T.S. Eliot's poem "The Ad-Dressing of Cats", part of Old Possum's Book of Practical Cats and also the last song in its musical adaptation Cats, contains the line "And you might now and then supply/Some caviar or Strasbourg pie".
Capt. Aubrey and Dr. Maturin enjoy a "Strasburg pie" in Patrick O'Brian's 1988 Napoleonic sea adventure The Letter of Marque.
Hot preparations
Given the increased internationalization of cuisines and food supply, foie gras is increasingly found in hot preparations not only in the United States, but in France and elsewhere. Duck foie gras ("foie gras de canard") has slightly lower fat content and is generally more suitable in texture to cooking at high temperature than is goose foie gras ("foie gras d'oie"), but chefs have been able to cook goose foie gras employing similar techniques developed for duck, albeit with more care.
Raw foie gras can be roasted, sauteed, pan-seared (poêlé) or (with care and attention), grilled. As foie gras has high fat content, contact with heat needs to be brief and therefore at high temperature, lest it burn or melt. Optimal structural integrity for searing requires the foie gras to be cut to a thickness between 15 and 25 mm (½ – 1 inch), resulting in a rare, uncooked center. Some chefs prefer not to devein the foie gras, as the veins can help preserve the integrity of the fatty liver. It is increasingly common to sear the foie gras on one side only, leaving the other side uncooked. Practitioners of molecular gastronomy such as Heston Blumenthal of The Fat Duck restaurant first flash-freeze foie gras in liquid nitrogen as part of the preparation process.
Hot foie gras requires minimal spices; typically black pepper, paprika (in Hungary) and salt. Chefs have used fleur de sel as a gourmet seasoning for hot foie gras to add an "important textural accent" with its crunch.
Consumption
Foie gras is regarded as a gourmet luxury dish. In France, it is mainly consumed on special occasions, such as Christmas or New Year's Eve réveillon dinners, though the recent increased availability of foie gras has made it a less exceptional dish. In some areas of France foie gras is eaten year-round.
Duck foie gras is the slightly cheaper and, since a change of production methods in the 1950s to battery, by far the most common kind, particularly in the US. The taste of duck foie gras is often referred to as musky with a subtle bitterness. Goose foie gras is noted for being less gamey and smoother, with a more delicate flavor.
Animal welfare
Gavage-based foie gras production is controversial due to the animal welfare consequences of the force-feeding procedure, intensive housing and husbandry, an enlarged liver and the potential for being detrimental to human health. Some countries find foie gras to be "morally objectionable". One EU committee report noted that up to 1998, there was only a small number of scientific studies on the welfare of birds used for foie gras production; however, the Committee found sufficient evidence to conclude that "force-feeding, as currently practised, is detrimental to the welfare of the birds". The industry repeatedly faces accusations of torture and cruelty.
Suitability of breeds and species
The production of foie gras occurs on the argument that migrating wildfowl seasonally eat such that their liver naturally enlarges. However, the bird used predominantly in foie gras production is a hybrid of a male Muscovy duck and a female Pekin duck. It has been noted that the Muscovy duck is non-migratory, and both the Pekin and the mulard hybrid cannot fly. Domestic ducks (including the Pekin) are derived from the mallard duck, which is sometimes migratory and sometimes not. Therefore, although the domestic goose might well be adapted to store food before migration, it is less likely that the Mulard hybrid duck has the same potential.
Force-feeding procedure
Fear
Geese and ducks show avoidance behaviour (indicating aversion) toward the person who feeds them and the feeding procedure. Although an EU committee in 1998 reported seeing this aversion, they noted that at the time, there was no "conclusive" scientific evidence on the aversive nature of force-feeding. The AVMA (Animal Welfare Division) when considering foie gras production stated "The relatively new Mulard breed used in foie gras production seems to be more prone than its parent breeds to fear of people".
Injury
An EU committee in 1998 reported that there was usually clear evidence of tissue damage in the esophagus of birds which had been gavage fed, although one 1972 study cited by the report observed no alteration of the esophageal tissue. More recent scientific studies have shown that the esophagus of birds can be injured or inflamed by gavage feeding.
Stress
After measuring a range of physiological parameters in male Mulard ducks, it was concluded in one study that the acute stress caused by force feeding is similar at the beginning and end of the commercial production of foie gras. A similar study on Muscovy ducks found that gavage feeding was related to an increase in panting behaviour and serum corticosterone levels, indicating increased stress attributable to this feeding method.
Housing and husbandry
In France, at the end of 2015, individual cages were prohibited to improve animal welfare. They were to be replaced by cages housing 4 to 5 birds.
Behavioural restriction
During the force-feeding period, the birds are kept in individual cages, with wire or plastic mesh floors, or sometimes in small groups on slatted floors. Individual caging restricts movements and behaviours by preventing the birds from standing erect, turning around, or flapping their wings. Birds cannot carry out other natural waterfowl behaviours, such as bathing and swimming. Furthermore, ducks and geese are social animals and individual cages prevent such interactions.
During the force feeding period, when the birds are not being fed, they are sometimes kept in near-darkness; this prevents normal investigatory behaviour and results in poor welfare.
Injury
Lesions can occur on the sternum of the birds due to necrosis of the skin. This is observed more frequently in birds reared in cages rather than on the floor. The prevalence is higher in Mulard ducks (40–70%) compared to under 6% in Muscovy ducks. This is due to the larger pectoralis profundus major and minor muscles in Muscovy ducks compared to Mulards. The relatively new Mulard breed used in foie gras production seems more prone to developing lesions in the area of the sternum when kept in small cages, and to bone breakage during transport and slaughter.
Where ducks are fattened in group pens, it has been suggested that the increased effort required to capture and restrain ducks in pens might cause them to experience more stress during force feeding. Injuries and fatalities during transport and slaughter occur in all types of poultry production, however, fattened ducks are more susceptible to conditions such as heat stress.
Enlarged liver
Foie gras production results in the bird's liver being swollen. In some species of ducks, liver size changes seasonally, increasing by as much as 30% to 50%, with more pronounced changes in females. However, foie gras production enlarges the livers up to 10 times (or 1,000%) their normal size. This impairs liver function due to the obstruction of blood flow and expands the abdomen, making it difficult for the birds to breathe. Death occurs if the force-feeding is continued.
Mortality rates
The mortality rate in force-fed birds varies from 2% to 4%, compared with approximately 0.2% in age-matched, non-force-fed drakes. Mortality rates do not differ between the force-feeding period and the previous rearing phase, with both being approximately 2.5%.
Controversy
The controversial nature of foie gras production was identified in a paper that juxtaposed the views of "foie gras production as the apotheosis of murderous meat production, and those who consider it to be a co-production between humans and animals".
Animal rights and welfare advocates such as PETA, Viva!, and the Humane Society of the United States contend that foie gras production methods, and force-feeding in particular, constitute cruel and inhumane treatment of animals.
An Ipsos MORI poll found that 63% of the UK population would like to see a complete ban on the sale of foie gras in the UK.
In April–May 2013, an investigator from Mercy for Animals recorded undercover video at Hudson Valley Foie Gras farm in New York state. The video showed workers forcefully pushing tubes down ducks' throats. One worker said of the force-feeding process: "Sometimes the duck doesn't get up and it dies. There have been times that 20 ducks were killed." Hudson Valley operations manager Marcus Henley replied that the farm's mortality statistics are not above average for the poultry industry. Because Hudson Valley provides foie gras to Amazon.com, Mercy for Animals began a campaign urging Amazon to stop selling foie gras, a move that has already been made by Costco, Safeway, and Target.
In November 2013, the Daily Mirror published a report based on the video they obtained depicting cruelty towards ducks in a farm owned by French firm Ernest Soulard, which is a supplier to celebrity chef Gordon Ramsay's restaurants. The restaurant chain suspended purchasing from the supplier following the exposé.
Animal research
The process of force-feeding can make animals sick by stressing the liver. If the stress is prolonged, excess protein may build up and clump together as amyloids, consumption of which has been found to induce amyloidosis in laboratory mice. It has been hypothesized this may be a route of transmission in humans too and so be a risk for people with inflammatory complaints such as rheumatoid arthritis.
Legislation and bans
A number of countries and regions have laws against force-feeding or the sale or importation of foie gras, and even where it is legal some retailers have ceased to sell it.
In 2017, foie gras production was banned in Brussels, a largely symbolic measure because of the small number of producers within the city limits. Belgium is one of a number of countries that continues to produce foie gras legally.
See also
Shen Zhu – the fattening of pigs in manner similar to gavage
List of delicacies
List of duck dishes
Ortolan bunting
Specialty foods
Nonalcoholic fatty liver disease, with homologous pathophysiologic aspects
Notes
References
Books
Larousse Gastronomique, by Prosper Montagne (Ed.), Clarkson Potter, 2001. .
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Articles
External links
Video of foie gras production.
Scientific studies
Report of the EU Scientific
Alternatives
Foie Gras without force-feeding
Faux Gras – "Foie Gras Without The Cruelty"
Foie Gras history and using microbiome manipulation without forced feeding
Chef Dan Barber tells the story of a small farm in Spain that has found a humane way to produce foie gras
Can Ethical Foie Gras Happen in America? TIME, 12 August 2009
Cruelty to animals
Force-feeding
French cuisine
Liver (food)
Occitan cuisine
Offal
Poultry dishes
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230151 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geneva%2C%20New%20York | Geneva, New York | Geneva is a city in Ontario and Seneca counties in the U.S. state of New York. It is at the northern end of Seneca Lake; all land portions of the city are within Ontario County; the water portions are in Seneca County. The population was 13,261 at the 2010 census. The city is supposedly named after the city and canton of Geneva in Switzerland. The main settlement of the Seneca was spelled Zoneshio by early white settlers, and was described as being two miles north of Seneca Lake.
The city borders and was once (the portion in Ontario County) part of the Town of Geneva. The city identifies as the "Lake Trout Capital of the World."
History
The area was long occupied by the Seneca tribe, which had established a major village of Kanadaseaga here by 1687. The British helped fortify the village against the French of Canada during the Seven Years' War (locally known as the French and Indian War); later they added defensive fortifications against the Americans during the Revolutionary War. During the latter warfare, the punitive Sullivan Expedition of 1779 mounted by rebel forces destroyed many of the dwellings, as well as the winter stores of the people, and they abandoned the ruins. Following the war and the forced removal of the Seneca from their native land, European-Americans settled here about 1793. They developed a town encouraged by the Pulteney Association, which owned the land and was selling plots.
At the end of the Revolutionary War, Lt. Col. Seth Reed (né Read), who had fought at Bunker Hill, was one of many pioneers who moved from Massachusetts into Ontario County. By trade with the Seneca, he bought a tract of land eighteen miles in extent. (This was illegal, as only the US government was authorized to make land deals with the Native Americans.) This occurred in 1787, while his wife Hannah stayed in Uxbridge, Massachusetts with their family. "Seth Read moved, his wife Hannah and their family to Geneva, Ontario County, New York in the winter of 1790".
The settlement at Geneva was not yet permanent; the European Americans continued to harass the Seneca on the frontier. In 1795 Read and his family removed to Erie, Pennsylvania, where they became the earliest European-American settlers.
The "Village of Geneva" was incorporated in 1806, formally separating it from the surrounding area of Geneva Town. Later the village became a city through a 1871 charter.
In the 1830s, a government surveyor named John Brink named both Geneva Lake and Lake Geneva in Wisconsin after Geneva, New York. Geneva, Nebraska, founded in 1871, is considered to have been named after the one in New York, rather than directly for the Swiss city.
Geography
The town is at the two-mile wide northern outlet of Seneca Lake, a lake that spans 34 miles south to Watkins Glen. Geneva is in the Finger Lakes region, the largest wine-producing area in New York State. The Cayuga-Seneca Canal is part of the watershed of Keuka Lake. It flows north through Geneva, connecting to the Erie Canal, which was completed in 1825, giving access for the region to the Great Lakes and midwestern markets for their produce, as well as to buy natural resource commodities.
According to the United States Census Bureau, the city has a total area of 5.8 square miles (15.2 km2). 4.3 square miles (11.0 km2) of it is land and 1.6 square miles (4.1 km2) of it (27.18%) is water.
Geneva is connected via the east–west US 20, concurrent with NY 5. NY 14 is a north–south highway through the city. It is approximately equidistant from Rochester and Syracuse, each being about 45 miles away.
Cityscape
Government
Geneva uses a mayor-council form of government. The mayor is elected at large. The council consists of eight members. Six are elected from one of six wards. The other two are elected at large. Former Ward 3 councilor Steve Valentino is the Mayor of the City of Geneva. The current mayoral and council term runs from January 1, 2020 through December 31, 2024.
Education
The Geneva City School District operates the local public primary and secondary schools. The district has two elementary schools, North Street School (3rd-5th) and West Street School (K-2). The district's secondary schools are Geneva Middle School and Geneva High School.
Private schools include:
Children's Hours School, a private school for toddlers through first grade. Its enrollment is about 27 students. The current director is Ms. Mary Bohle.
St. Francis-St. Stephen's School, a Roman Catholic elementary school that teaches grades PreK-8 in Geneva. The current principal is Mrs. Mary Mantelli.
Rose Academy, a school of Experiential Learning for grades 1–5. The curriculum includes GLOBAL Science, Reading A-Z Program, Touch Point Math, Art, Music, Physical Education. It was founded by Dr. Lorraine Williams.
Colleges and universities include:
Hobart and William Smith Colleges, the successor institution to Geneva College.
The New York State Agricultural Experiment Station of Cornell University's College of Agriculture and Life Sciences.
Finger Lakes Community College has two campuses in Geneva: the Geneva Campus Center and the Viticulture and Wine Center.
Demographics
As of the census of 2000, there were 13,617 people, 5,014 households, and 2,933 families residing in the city. The population density was 3,199.5 inhabitants per square mile (1,234.2/km2). There were 5,564 housing units at an average density of 1,307.4 per square mile (504.3/km2). The racial makeup of the city was 81.52% White, 10.22% African American, 0.25% Native American, 1.23% Asian, 0.05% Pacific Islander, 3.39% from other races, and 3.34% from two or more races. Hispanic or Latino of any race were 8.50% of the population.
There were 5,014 households, out of which 29.5% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 38.6% were married couples living together, 15.9% had a female householder with no husband present, and 41.5% were non-families. 34.1% of all households were made up of individuals, and 14.8% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2.35 and the average family size was 3.03.
In the city, the population was spread out, with 23.2% under the age of 18, 18.9% from 18 to 24, 24.3% from 25 to 44, 18.1% from 45 to 64, and 15.5% who were 65 years of age or older. The median age was 32 years. For every 100 females, there were 87.4 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 84.5 males.
The median income for a household in the city was $31,600, and the median income for a family was $41,224. Males had a median income of $31,315 versus $23,054 for females. The per capita income for the city was $15,609. About 13.7% of families and 17.5% of the population were below the poverty line, including 27.2% of those under age 18 and 7.8% of those age 65 or over.
Tourism
One of the major industries in and around Geneva is winemaking. The area is becoming increasingly popular for agritourism: there are over 100 wineries in the Finger Lakes Region, and the Seneca Lake wine trail provides easy access to many of these from Geneva. As Geneva grows as a tourist destination so do the number of rooms available. Along with this growth, FLX Table opened in 2016 under the vision of a master sommelier, soon after winning the USA Today recognition of best new restaurant in the country.
In 2015, the National Civic League chose Geneva as one of ten cities from across the country to receive its annual All-America City Award. In June 2017, it was announced Geneva would receive $10 million from New York (state) as part of a downtown revitalization initiative as well as an additional $5 million for a welcome center.
Notable people
Maria Abbey, American Civil War volunteer nurse
Debito Arudou/Dave Aldwinckle, English teacher, author and activist in Japan.
Elizabeth Blackwell studied here, graduating from the medical school at what was then Geneva College in 1849; she was the first woman qualified as a medical doctor in the United States.
Robert Stanley Breed, American Biologist, known especially for his researches on the post-embryonic development of insects and for his contributions to scientific journals on the public milk supply.
Maria Cook, first woman to be recognized as a Universalist preacher.
Travie McCoy, frontman of the alternative hip-hop group Gym Class Heroes.
Cynthia DeFelice, children's book author
Timothy DiDuro, drummer for the American rock bands Skid Row and Slaughter.
Arthur Dove, artist
Charles J. Folger, lawyer, jurist and statesman.
Rocky Fratto, NABF Boxing Champion and #2 rated contender in the world.
Libby Gill, business coach and consultant.
Gym Class Heroes, music group
Michael Hashim, jazz musician
Thomas Hillhouse, farmer, banker and statesman
U.P. Hedrick horticulturist, Experiment Station scientist 1905–47; Director 1928–37.
Robert Holley, Nobel Prize Winner in Science, 1968. Experiment Station scientist 1948–58.
John H. Hobart, Episcopal bishop of New York, founded Geneva College (predecessor of Hobart College), namesake of Hobart, Wisconsin.
Lauren Holly, actress
David Hudson, lawyer, writer and statesman.
Luther Sage "Yellowstone" Kelly. Sioux War Indian scout, western hunter and adventurer, and government administrator. Born in Geneva on July 27, 1849. Buried in Billings, Montana at Kelly Mountain.
Michael Muhammad Knight, author
Scott LaFaro, influential Jazz bassist, most notably with the first Bill Evans Trio.
Christine Lavin, folk singer
Sara Miranda Maxson Cobb (1858–1917), art educator
John Nicholas, former US Congressman
Robert C. Nicholas, former New York State Senator
John Raines, former US Congressman
Seth Reed, Lt. Colonel who fought at Bunker Hill, early settler of Geneva, (1790–1795), was instrumental in adding E Pluribus Unum to US coins, and founded Erie, PA in 1795.
Robert L. Rose, former US Congressman
William Smith, entrepreneur, namesake of William Smith College
Ada L. F. Snell, English professor at Mount Holyoke College
Otto Stern, Inventor of Miracle-Gro
Mark Thornton, economist, author, libertarian politician
Jerry Wall, Medal of Honor recipient in the American Civil War
Marshall P. Wilder, humorist
Wilmer & the Dukes, R&B band
William W. Wright, politician
John Zakour, novelist / humorist
References
External links
City's website
Chamber of Commerce website
Early history of Geneva area
Cities in New York (state)
Populated places established in 1793
Cities in Rochester metropolitan area, New York
Cities in Seneca County, New York
Cities in Ontario County, New York
1793 establishments in New York (state)
Rochester metropolitan area, New York | [
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230152 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Johann%20Philipp%20Gabler | Johann Philipp Gabler | Johann Philipp Gabler (4 June 1753 – 17 February 1826) was a German Protestant Christian theologian of the school of Johann Jakob Griesbach and Johann Gottfried Eichhorn.
Gabler was born at Frankfurt-am-Main. In 1772 he entered the University of Jena as a theological student. In 1776 he was on the point of abandoning theology when the arrival of Griesbach inspired within him a new enthusiasm for the subject. After having been successively Repetent in the University of Göttingen and teacher in the public schools of Dortmund (Westphalia) and Altdorf (Bavaria), he was appointed second professor of theology at the University of Altdorf in 1785, then promoted to a chair in Jena in 1804, where he succeeded Griesbach in 1812 and remained until his death.
At Altdorf, Gabler published (1791–93) a new edition, with introduction and notes, of Eichhorn's Urgeschichte. This was followed, two years later, by a supplement entitled Neuer Versuch uber die mosaische Schopfungsgeschichte. He also wrote many essays characterized by critical acumen, and which had considerable influence on the course of German thought in various issues within theology and Biblical studies.
From 1798 to 1800 he was editor of the Neuestes theologisches Journal, first jointly with H.K.A. Hänlein (1762–1829), Christoph Friedrich von Ammon and Heinrich Eberhard Gottlob Paulus, and afterwards as sole editor; from 1801 to 1804 of the Journal für theologische Litteratur; and from 1805 to 1811 of the Journal für auserlesene theologische Litteratur. Some of his essays were published by his sons (2 vols., 1831); and a memoir appeared in 1827 by W. Schröter.
Gabler is widely considered to be the father of modern biblical theology because of his 1787 inaugural address at University of Altdorf: On the Correct Distinction Between Dogmatic and Biblical Theology and the Right Definition of Their Goals. Gabler sharply distinguished between biblical and dogmatic theology. For him, biblical theology was simply historical investigation into the beliefs of the biblical authors as they stand in the text. It is purely descriptive and uninfluenced by the viewpoints of modern thinkers. On the other hand, dogmatic theology is a systematized construction, built on the foundation of biblical theology and contextualized — applied to the context or era in which it is to be proclaimed.
References
1753 births
1826 deaths
Writers from Frankfurt
18th-century German Protestant theologians
19th-century German Protestant theologians
19th-century German male writers
German male non-fiction writers
18th-century German male writers
18th-century biblical scholars
18th-century Christian biblical scholars | [
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230154 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Johann%20Eduard%20Erdmann | Johann Eduard Erdmann | Johann Eduard Erdmann (13 June 1805 – 12 June 1892) was a German religious pastor, historian of philosophy, and philosopher of religion, of which he wrote on the mediation of faith and knowledge. He was known to be a follower of Friedrich Schleiermacher, whom he studied under August Carlblom (1797-1877), and Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel, whom he regarded as his mentor. Erdmann also studied the works of Karl Daub. Historians of philosophy usually include Erdmann as a member of the Right Wing of the Hegelian movement, a group of thinkers who were also referred to variously as the Right Hegelians (Rechtshegelianer), the Hegelian Right (die Hegelsche Rechte), and/or as the Old Hegelians (Althegelianer).
Biography
Erdmann was born on 13 June 1805 in Wolmar, Livonia, where his father was a pastor. Ferdinand Walter (1801-1869), a Lutheran pastor, theologian, and General Superintendent of Livland was Erdmann's maternal uncle. Erdmann and Ferdinand Walter both attended Hegel's lectures on the Phenomenology of Spirit in 1827 in Berlin. Ferdinand Walter's son, Julius Walter (1841-1922), was a professor of philosophy at the Univ. of Königsberg. Erdmann studied theology at Dorpat (Tartu) and afterward at Berlin, where he fell under the influence of Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel, and was known never to miss Hegel's lectures. Then, from 1829 to 1832 he was a minister of religion in his native town of Wolmar. Afterwards he resigned from his position as pastor to devote himself to education and philosophy, but continued to minister throughout his life. He obtained a doctoral degree from the University of Kiel with the treatise, Quidnam sit discrimen philosophiam inter et theologiam (What is the Distinction between Philosophy and Theology?), written in 1830, in which he argued that philosophy and religion converge to a common truth, even though they differ in form of approach. In 1834 he began writing his Habilitation thesis to qualify in Berlin. This became volume 1 of his work titled Versuch einer wissenschaftlichen Darstellung der Geschichte der neuern Philosophie (6 vols., 1834-1853) (Attempt at a Scientific Presentation of the History of Modern Philosophy). In 1836 he was professor-extraordinary at Halle, became a full professor in 1839, and remained there until his death. He died on June 12, 1892 aged 86, in Halle. One day before his 87th birthday
He published many philosophical textbooks and treatises, and a number of sermons; but his chief claim to remembrance rests on his elaborate Grundriss der Geschichte der Philosophie (Outline of the History of Philosophy, 2 vols, 1866), the 4th edition of which has been translated into English. Erdmann's special merit is that he does not rest content with being a mere summarizer of opinions, but tries to exhibit the history of human thought as a continuous and ever-developing effort to solve the great speculative problems with which man has been confronted in all ages. His chief other works were: Leib und Seele (Body and Soul, 1837), Grundriss der Psychologie (Outline of Psychology, 1840), Grundriss der Logik und Metaphysik (Outline of Logic and Metaphysics, 1841), and Psychologische Briefe (Psychological Letters, 1851).
Erdmann had many readers, students, and followers, and influenced many intellectuals of his time. Some of these include Niels Thulstrup, his student Albrecht Ritschl, his colleague Martin Kähler, and members the Hegelian school, such as Kuno Fischer, Bruno Bauer, Ludwig Feuerbach and Karl Ludwig Michelet. Søren Kierkegaard studied and was inspired in his early studies by Erdmann's works, in particular his Vorlesungen über Glauben und Wissen als Einleitung in die Dogmatic und Religionphilosophie (Lectures on Faith and Knowledge as an Introduction to Dogma the Philosophy of Religion). Although Kierkegaard integrated much of Erdmann's work into his own, the only work in which Erdmann was cited by him was his dissertation On the Concept of Irony with Continual Reference to Socrates.
Commentary on Erdmann
John Dewey wrote in the Andover Review:
The combination of qualities necessary to produce a work of the scope and grade of Erdmann's is rare. ...Erdmann wrote his book [A History of Philosophy: Ancient and Mediaeval Philosophy], not as a reference book... but as a genuine history of philosophy, tracing in a genetic way the development of thought in its treatment of philosophic problems. Its purpose is to develop philosophic intelligence rather than to furnish information. ...Erdmann unites a minute and exhaustive knowledge of philosophic sources at first hand, equalled over the entire field of philosophy probably by no other one man... To the student who wishes... a somewhat detailed knowledge of the evolution of thought, and of what this and the other writers have contributed to it, Erdmann is indispensable; there is no substitute.
Selected works
A History of Philosophy Vol. 1 Ancient and Mediæval Philosophy (1893)
A History of Philosophy Vol. 2 Modern Philosophy (1897)
A History of Philosophy Vol. 3 German Philosophy Since Hegel (1890)
Outlines of Logic and Metaphysics (1896)
References
External links
Almost complete collection of Erdmann's works as PDFs (most from GoogleBooks)
1805 births
1892 deaths
People from Valmiera
People from Kreis Wolmar
Baltic-German people
Emigrants from the Russian Empire to Germany
German Protestants
Protestant philosophers
19th-century philosophers
Philosophers of religion
German philosophers
German historians of philosophy
19th-century German people
German male non-fiction writers
19th-century German writers
19th-century German male writers
University of Tartu alumni
Humboldt University of Berlin alumni
Martin Luther University of Halle-Wittenberg faculty | [
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230155 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zen%20and%20the%20Art%20of%20Motorcycle%20Maintenance | Zen and the Art of Motorcycle Maintenance | Zen and the Art of Motorcycle Maintenance: An Inquiry into Values is a book by Robert M. Pirsig first published in 1974. It is a work of fictionalized autobiography, and is the first of Pirsig's texts in which he explores his "Metaphysics of Quality".
Pirsig received 121 rejections before an editor finally accepted the book for publication—and he did so thinking it would never generate a profit. It was subsequently featured on best-seller lists for decades, with initial sales of at least 5 million copies worldwide. The title is an apparent play on the title of the 1948 book Zen in the Art of Archery by Eugen Herrigel. In its introduction, Pirsig explains that, despite its title, "it should in no way be associated with that great body of factual information relating to orthodox Zen Buddhist practice. It's not very factual on motorcycles, either."
Structure
According to Edward Abbey, the book is a fictionalized autobiography of a 17-day journey that Pirsig made on a motorcycle from Minnesota to Northern California along with his son Chris. The story of this journey is recounted in a first-person narrative, although the author is not identified. Father and son are also accompanied, for the first nine days of the trip, by close friends John and Sylvia Sutherland, with whom they part ways in Montana. The trip is punctuated by numerous philosophical discussions, referred to as Chautauquas by the author, on topics including epistemology, the history of philosophy, and the philosophy of science.
Many of these discussions are tied together by the story of the narrator's own past self, who is referred to in the third person as Phaedrus (after Plato's dialogue). Phaedrus, a teacher of creative and technical writing at a small college, became engrossed in the question of what defines good writing, and what in general defines good, or "Quality", which he understands similar to Tao. Phaedrus's philosophical investigations eventually drove him insane, and he was subjected to electroconvulsive therapy, which permanently changed his personality.
Towards the end of the book, Phaedrus's strong and unorthodox personality, presented as dangerous to the narrator, begins to re-emerge and the narrator is reconciled with his past.
Writing
In a 1974 interview with National Public Radio, Pirsig stated that the book took him four years to write. During two of these years, Pirsig continued working at his job of writing computer manuals. This caused him to fall into an unorthodox schedule, waking up very early and writing Zen from 2 a.m. until 6 a.m., then eating and going to his day job. He would sleep during his lunch break and then go to bed around 6 in the evening. Pirsig joked that his co-workers noticed that he was "a lot less perky" than everyone else.
Themes
Philosophical content
In the book, the narrator describes the "romantic" approach to life of his friend, John Sutherland, who chooses not to learn how to maintain his expensive new motorcycle. John simply hopes for the best with his bike, and when problems do occur he often becomes frustrated and is forced to rely on professional mechanics to repair it. In contrast, the "classical" narrator has an older motorcycle which he is usually able to diagnose and repair himself through the use of rational problem-solving skills.
In an example of the classical approach, the narrator explains that one must pay continual attention: when the narrator and his friends come into Miles City, Montana he notices the engine running roughly, a possible indication that the fuel/air mixture is too rich. The next day he is thinking of this as he is going through his ritual to adjust the jets on his motorcycle's carburetor. During the adjustment, he notes that both spark plugs are black, confirming a rich mixture. He recognizes that the higher elevation is causing the engine to run rich. The narrator rectifies this by installing new jets and adjusting the valves, and the engine runs well again.
With this, the book details two types of personalities: those who are interested mostly in gestalt—romantic viewpoints focused on being in the moment, and not on rational analysis—and those who seek to know details, understand inner workings, and master mechanics—viewpoints with application of rational analysis, vis-a-vis motorcycle maintenance.
The Sutherlands represent an exclusively romantic attitude toward the world. The narrator initially appears to prefer the classic approach. It later becomes apparent that he understands both viewpoints and is aiming for the middle ground. He understands that technology, and the "dehumanized world" it carries with it, appears ugly and repulsive to a romantic person. He knows that such persons are determined to shoehorn all of life's experience into the romantic view. Pirsig is capable of seeing the beauty of technology and feels good about mechanical work, where the goal is "to achieve an inner peace of mind". The book demonstrates that motorcycle maintenance may be dull and tedious drudgery or an enjoyable and pleasurable pastime, depending on attitude.
The narrator examines the modern pursuit of "Pure Truths", claiming it derives from the work of early Greek philosophers who were establishing the concept of truth in opposition to the force of "The Good". He argues that although rational thought may find a truth (or The Truth) it may never be fully and universally applicable to every individual's experience. Therefore, what is needed is an approach to life that is more inclusive and has a wider range of application. He makes a case that originally the Greeks did not distinguish between "Quality" and "Truth"—they were one and the same, arete—and that the divorce was, in fact, artificial (though needed at the time) and is now a source of much frustration and unhappiness in the world, particularly overall dissatisfaction with modern life.
The narrator aims towards a perception of the world that embraces both sides, the rational and the romantic. This means encompassing "irrational" sources of wisdom and understanding as well as science, reason and technology. In particular, this must include bursts of creativity and intuition that seemingly come from nowhere and are not (in his view) rationally explicable. He seeks to demonstrate that rationality and Zen-like "being in the moment" can harmoniously coexist. He suggests such a combination of rationality and romanticism can potentially bring a higher quality of life.
It has been noted that Pirsig's romantic/classical dichotomy resembles Nietzsche's Dionysian/Apollonian dichotomy as described in The Birth of Tragedy. For example, in his book The Person of the Therapist, Edward Smith writes, "In his popular novel ... Pirsig also addressed the Apollonian and Dionysian worldviews, naming them respectively classical understanding and romantic understanding."
The self and relationships
Beverly Gross (1984) writes that Pirsig is seeking a synthesis of "the normal, everyday, functioning self with the person given to extremes, excesses, dizzying heights, obsessions—our crazy self with our sane self, the greatness in us with our ordinariness". The exceptional in the narrator is represented by Phaedrus, who, despite the narrator's attempt to keep him in the past, pushes to the foreground of his mind toward the book's end, threatening the narrator's stability and relationship with his son. However, the narrator's difficulties with his son during the journey also question whether giving up parts of himself in exchange for "sanity" has even helped this relationship. Gross writes, "He relates to mechanical things, not to people. There is beauty in his recognition that personality inheres in motorcycles, riding gloves; there is sadness and sickness in his removal from the personality of people, his own most notably". The Chautauquas, which emphasize the narrator's tendency toward solitary thought and over-analysis, may reflect his avoidance of the problems before him: his relationships and the resurrection of Phaedrus. To the extent that the narrator denies Phaedrus, the Chautauquas are practical, but when he decides that he will admit himself to hospital again, he realizes the undeniable presence of Phaedrus in him, and the Chautauquas are given over to those more abstruse topics.
Gumption traps
A gumption trap is an event or mindset that can cause a person to lose enthusiasm and become discouraged from starting or continuing a project. The word "gumption" denotes a combination of common sense, shrewdness, and a sense of initiative. Although the last of these traits is the primary victim of the "gumption trap," the first two suffer indirectly in that a reduction in initiative results in a reduction in constructive activity and therefore inhibits one's development of the first two traits. The "trap" portion of the term refers to the positive feedback loop that the event or mindset creates: the reduction in the person's enthusiasm and initiative decreases both the person's likelihood of success in that project and the degree of success likely, thus doubly affecting the expected outcome of the person's efforts. The usual result further discourages the person, whether it be a mere lack of success or a bigger outright failure complete with embarrassment and loss of the resources initially invested.
The specific term "gumption trap" was coined by Pirsig, and the associated concept plays an important part in the practical application of his Metaphysics of Quality.
Types
Pirsig refers to two types of gumption traps: setbacks, which arise from external/"exogenous" events, and hang-ups, which are the product of internal/"endogenous" factors such as a poor fit between one's psychological state and the requirements of a project.
Setbacks
The nature of setbacks can vary considerably. For example, a minor setback might result from a minor injury. Larger setbacks include the lack of knowledge that a certain procedural step or other condition is necessary for a project's success: If one attempts to keep working despite the lack of knowledge that this obstacle exists (let alone how to deal with it), one's lack of progress may prompt one to take long breaks from the project, to focus one's attention on other endeavors, or even to lose interest in the project altogether. Pirsig suggests preventing these kinds of gumption traps by being slow and meticulous, taking notes that might help later, and troubleshooting in advance (e.g., by laying out the requirements for one's project in logical and/or conceptual order and looking for procedural problems ranging from unaccounted-for prerequisites to gaps in one's instructions or plans).
Hang-ups
Hang-ups stem from internal factors that can get in the way of starting or completing a project. Examples of such hang-ups include anxiety, boredom, impatience, and the failure (often borne of excessive egotism) to realize that a) one might not have all the information necessary to succeed and/or b) certain aspects of the problem might be more or less important than one believes. Dealing with hang-ups can be as simple as reducing hyperfocus on a specific aspect of a problem by taking a short break from working on the problem or that specific aspect of it.
Pirsig notes several aspects of hang-ups.
Affective (i.e. receptive or dynamic) understanding or "value traps": these can be described generally as an inability or reluctance to re-evaluate notions due to a commitment to previous values. On the whole these types of issues can be addressed by (1) rediscovering facts as they arise; (2) recognizing that the facts are available and apparent; (3) deliberately slowing down to allow unstructured processing of information; and (4) reassessing the weight attached to the current knowledge.
Egotism may encourage one to believe misleading information or disbelieve a potentially inconvenient fact. Appropriate recourses include humility, modesty, attentiveness and skepticism.
Anxiety may preclude the confidence necessary to begin a project or the self-assurance needed to patiently work through a project systematically. Appropriate recourses include research, study and preparation prior to beginning the project; detailing the anticipated steps required to accomplish the task; and understanding the personhood and fallibility of professionals.
Boredom may cause sloppy work and inattention to detail. Appropriate recourses include taking a break to allow interest in the project to rebuild or ritualizing common practices. Pirsig notes that at the first sign of boredom, it is important to stop work immediately.
Impatience, like boredom, may cause sloppy work and inattention to detail. Appropriate recourses include allowing indefinite time for the project and value flexibility to rediscover aspects of the project.
Cognitive understanding or "truth traps": these can be described as misunderstanding the feedback of a given action.
Reliance on yes-no duality may cause misinterpretation of results. Pirsig notes the concept of mu and suggests the answer to a particular question may indicate that the question does not match the situation. An appropriate recourse may be to reconsider the context of the inquiry.
Psychomotor behavior or "muscle traps": these surround the interaction of the environment, machinist and machine.
Inadequate tools may lead to a feeling of frustration. Appropriate recourses include proper equipment acquisition.
Environmental factors may lead to frustration including inadequate lighting, temperature extremes and physically uncomfortable positions.
Muscular insensitivity or lack of proprioception may lead to a disproportionate amount of force being applied to a material that leads to frustration. Misunderstanding of different tolerances of various materials may lead to broken parts or inadequate tension.
Reception
At the time of its publication, Christopher Lehmann-Haupt, in his book review for The New York Times, wrote,
I now regret that I lack the expertise in philosophy to put Mr. Pirsig's ideas to a proper test, for this book may very well be a profoundly important one—a great one even—full of insights into our most perplexing contemporary dilemmas. I just don't know. But whatever its true philosophical worth, it is intellectual entertainment of the highest order.
Since then, Zen and the Art of Motorcycle Maintenance has become the best-selling philosophy book of all time.
See also
Dehumanized
Lila: An Inquiry into Morals
Quality (philosophy)
Pirsig's metaphysics of Quality
References
External links
Audio: 1992 NPR Interview with Pirsig
Guardian interview from 2006: Short version and Long version
1974 books
American autobiographical novels
American philosophical novels
Motorcycle writing
Motorcycling in fiction
Robert M. Pirsig
Technology neologisms
Western United States in fiction
William Morrow and Company books
Works by Robert M. Pirsig | [
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] |
230157 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Academic%20Free%20License | Academic Free License | The Academic Free License (AFL) is a permissive free software license written in 2002 by Lawrence E. Rosen, a former general counsel of the Open Source Initiative (OSI).
The license grants similar rights to the BSD, MIT, UoI/NCSA and Apache licenses licenses allowing the software to be made proprietary but was written to correct perceived problems with those licenses:
The AFL makes clear what software is being licensed by including a statement following the software's copyright notice;
The AFL includes a complete copyright grant to the software;
The AFL contains a complete patent grant to the software;
The AFL makes clear that no trademark rights are granted to the licensor's trademarks;
The AFL warrants that the licensor either owns the copyright or is distributing the software under a license;
The AFL is itself copyrighted, with the right granted to copy and distribute without modification.
The Free Software Foundation consider all AFL versions through 3.0 as incompatible with the GNU GPL. though Eric S. Raymond (a co-founder of the OSI) contends that AFL 3.0 is GPL compatible. In late 2002, an OSI working draft considered it a "best practice" license. In mid-2006, however, the OSI's License Proliferation Committee found it "redundant with more popular licenses", specifically version 2 of the Apache Software License.
See also
License proliferation
Open Software License – similar, but reciprocal license by the same author
Software using the Academic Free License (category)
References
External links
Text of the Academic Free License v3.0
Allocation of the Risk by Lawrence Rosen (PDF) – reasoning behind the Academic Free License
Free and open-source software licenses
Permissive software licenses | [
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230158 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Open%20Software%20License | Open Software License | The Open Software License (OSL) is a software license created by Lawrence Rosen. The Open Source Initiative (OSI) has certified it as an open-source license, but the Debian project judged version 1.1 to be incompatible with the DFSG. The OSL is a copyleft license, with a termination clause triggered by filing a lawsuit alleging patent infringement.
Many people in the free software / open-source community feel that software patents are harmful to software, and are particularly harmful to open-source software. The OSL attempts to counteract that by creating a pool of software which a user can use if that user does not harm it by attacking it with a patent lawsuit.
Key features
Patent action termination clause
The OSL has a termination clause intended to dissuade users from filing patent infringement lawsuits:
10) Termination for Patent Action. This License shall terminate automatically and You may no longer exercise any of the rights granted to You by this License as of the date You commence an action, including a cross-claim or counterclaim, against Licensor or any licensee alleging that the Original Work infringes a patent. This termination provision shall not apply for an action alleging patent infringement by combinations of the Original Work with other software or hardware.
Warranty of provenance
Another goal of the OSL is to warrant provenance.
7) Warranty of Provenance and Disclaimer of Warranty. Licensor warrants that the copyright in and to the Original Work and the patent rights granted herein by Licensor are owned by the Licensor or are sublicensed to You under the terms of this License with the permission of the contributor(s) of those copyrights and patent rights.
Network deployment is distribution
OSL explicitly states that its provisions cover derivative works even when they are distributed only through online applications:
5) External Deployment. The term "External Deployment" means the use, distribution, or communication of the Original Work or Derivative Works in any way such that the Original Work or Derivative Works may be used by anyone other than You, whether those works are distributed or communicated to those persons or made available as an application intended for use over a network. As an express condition for the grants of license hereunder, You must treat any External Deployment by You of the Original Work or a Derivative Work as a distribution under section 1(c).
Linking does not create a derivative work
OSL in section 1(a) authorizes licensees to reproduce covered software "as part of a collective work," as distinct from the Original Work or a Derivative Work. In section 1(c), only Derivate Works or copies of the Original Work are made subject to the license, not collective works. Derivative Work is defined in section 1(b) as being created when the licensee exercise their ability "to translate, adapt, alter, transform, modify, or arrange the Original Work."
Rosen has written:
Comparison with the LGPL/GPL
The OSL is intended to be similar to the LGPL. Note that the definition of Derivative Works in the OSL does not cover linking to OSL software/libraries so software that merely links to OSL software is not subject to the OSL license.
The OSL is not compatible with the GPL. It has been claimed that the OSL is intended to be legally stronger than the GPL (with the main difference "making the software available for use over the Internet requires making the source code available" that is the same goal as the even newer Affero General Public License (AGPL), that is compatible with GPLv3), however, unlike the GPL, the OSL has never been tested in court and is not widely used.
Assent to license
The restriction contained in Section 9 of the OSL reads:
In its analysis of the OSL the Free Software Foundation claims that "this requirement means that distributing OSL software on ordinary FTP sites, sending patches to ordinary mailing lists, or storing the software in an ordinary version control system, can arguably be a violation of the license and would subject violators to possible termination of the license. Thus, the OSL makes it challenging to develop software using the ordinary tools of Free Software development."
Distribution
If the FSF claim is true then the main difference between the GPL and OSL concerns possible restrictions on redistribution. Both licenses impose a kind of reciprocity condition requiring authors of extensions to the software to license those extensions with the respective license of the original work.
Patent action termination clause
The patent action termination clause, described above, is a further significant difference between the OSL and GPL.
Further provisions
Derivative Works must be distributed under the same license. (§1c)
Covered works that are distributed must be accompanied by the source code, or access to it made available. (§3)
No restrictions on charging money for programs covered by the license, but source code must be included or made available for a reasonable fee. (§3)
Covered works that are distributed must include a verbatim copy of the license. (§16)
Distribution implies (but does not explicitly state) a royalty-free license for any patents embodied in the software. (§2)
Later versions
It is optional, though common for the copyright holder to add “or any later version” to the distribution terms in order to allow distribution under future versions of the license. This term is not directly mentioned in the OSL. However, it would seem to violate section 16, which requires a verbatim copy of the license.
Open software that uses the OSL
ClearCanvas (sold), Enterprise-ready DICOM Viewer and RIS/PACS
Magento, an eCommerce web application
PrestaShop, an eCommerce web application
Mulgara, a triplestore written in Java (new code is being contributed using the Apache 2.0 license.)
The Graphical Models Toolkit (GMTK), a dynamic Bayesian network prototyping system
Akeneo PIM (software), a Product Information Management application
Open software that used the OSL
NUnitLite up to 2.0 Alpha, a lightweight version of NUnit, NUnitLite is available under MIT / X / Expat Licence
CodeIgniter v3.0, an open source PHP framework (planned to use OSL, dropped because of GPL incompatibility for MIT License, may have used only for a short time for development release)
See also
Academic Free License – similar, but not reciprocal license by the same author
Open source license
Software using the Open Software License (category)
References
External links
The Open Software License v.3.0
The Universal Permissive License (UPL)
The DFSG and Software Licenses
Philosophy of the GNU Project by the Free Software Foundation.
Free and open-source software licenses
Copyleft software licenses | [
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230159 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Landing | Landing | Landing is the last part of a flight, where a flying animal, aircraft, or spacecraft returns to the ground. When the flying object returns to water, the process is called alighting, although it is commonly called "landing", "touchdown" or "splashdown" as well. A normal aircraft flight would include several parts of flight including taxi, takeoff, climb, cruise, descent and landing.
Aircraft
Aircraft usually land at an airport on a firm runway or helicopter landing pad, generally constructed of asphalt concrete, concrete, gravel or grass. Aircraft equipped with pontoons (floatplane) or with a boat hull-shaped fuselage (a flying boat) are able to land on water. Aircraft also sometimes use skis to land on snow or ice.
To land, the airspeed and the rate of descent are reduced such that the object descends at a low enough rate to allow for a gentle touch down. Landing is accomplished by slowing down and descending to the runway. This speed reduction is accomplished by reducing thrust and/or inducing a greater amount of drag using flaps, landing gear or speed brakes. When a fixed-wing aircraft approaches the ground, the pilot will move the control column back to execute a flare or round-out. This increases the angle of attack. Progressive movement of the control column back will allow the aircraft to settle onto the runway at minimum speed, landing on its main wheels first in the case of a tricycle gear aircraft or on all three wheels simultaneously in the case of a conventional landing gear-equipped aircraft, commonly referred to as a "taildragger".
Light aircraft
In a light aircraft, with little crosswind, the ideal landing is when contact with the ground occurs as the forward speed is reduced to the point where there is no longer sufficient airspeed to remain aloft. The stall warning is often heard just before landing, indicating that this speed and altitude have been reached. The result is very light touch down.
Light aircraft landing situations, and the pilot skills required, can be divided into four types:
Normal landings
Crosswind landings - where a significant wind not aligned with the landing area is a factor
Short field landings - where the length of the landing area is a limiting factor
Soft and unprepared field landings - where the landing area is wet, soft or has ground obstacles such as furrows or ruts to contend with
Large aircraft
In large transport category (airliner) aircraft, pilots land the aircraft by "flying the airplane on to the runway." The airspeed and attitude of the plane are adjusted for landing. The airspeed is kept well above stall speed and at a constant rate of descent. A flare is performed just before landing, and the descent rate is significantly reduced, causing a light touch down. Upon touchdown, spoilers (sometimes called "lift dumpers") are deployed to dramatically reduce the lift and transfer the aircraft's weight to its wheels, where mechanical braking, such as an autobrake system, can take effect. Reverse thrust is used by many jet aircraft to help slow down just after touch-down, redirecting engine exhaust forward instead of back. Some propeller-driven airplanes also have this feature, where the blades of the propeller are re-angled to push air forward instead of back using the 'beta range'.
Environmental factors
Factors such as crosswind where the pilot will use a crab landing or a slip landing will cause pilots to land slightly faster and sometimes with different aircraft attitude to ensure a safe landing.
Other factors affecting a particular landing might include: the plane size, wind, weight, runway length, obstacles, ground effects, weather, runway altitude, air temperature, air pressure, air traffic control, visibility, avionics and the overall situation.
For example, landing a multi-engine turboprop military such as a C-130 Hercules, under fire in a grass field in a war zone, requires different skills and precautions than landing a single engine plane such as a Cessna 150 on a paved runway in uncontrolled airspace, which is different from landing an airliner such as an Airbus A380 at a major airport with air traffic control.
Required Navigation Performance (RNP) is being used more and more. Rather than using radio beacons, the airplane uses GPS-navigation for landing using this technique. This translates into a much more fluid ascent, which results in decreased noise, and decreased fuel consumption.
Parachutes
The term "landing" is also applied to people or objects descending to the ground using a parachute. Some consider these objects to be in a controlled descent instead of actually flying. Most parachutes work by capturing air, inducing enough drag that the falling object hits the ground at a relatively slow speed. There are many examples of parachutes in nature, including the seeds of a dandelion.
On the other hand, modern ram-air parachutes are essentially inflatable wings that operate in a gliding flight mode. Parachutists execute a flare at landing, reducing or eliminating both downward and forward speed at touchdown, in order to avoid injury.
Spacecraft
Sometimes, a safe landing is accomplished by using multiple forms of lift, thrust (propulsive landing) and dampening systems. Both the Surveyor uncrewed lunar probe craft and the Apollo Lunar Module used a rocket deceleration system and landing gear to soft-land on the moon. Several Soviet rockets including the Soyuz spacecraft have used parachutes and airbag landing systems to dampen the landing on earth. In November 2015, Blue Origin's New Shepard became the first rocket to cross the Kármán line and land vertically back on Earth. In December 2015, SpaceX's Falcon 9 became the first launch vehicle on an orbital trajectory to successfully vertically-land and recover its first stage, although the landed first stage was on a sub-orbital trajectory.
See also
Arresting gear
Landing performance
Instrument landing system (ILS)
Instrument flight rules (IFR)
Visual flight rules (VFR)
Notes
touchdown: tango delta, TD
References
External links
Flight phases
Articles containing video clips
Aircraft performance | [
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230160 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Karl%20Ludwig%20Michelet | Karl Ludwig Michelet | Karl Ludwig Michelet (4 December 1801 – 15 December 1893) was a German philosopher. He was born and died at Berlin.
Biography
Michelet studied at the grammar school and at Humboldt University in his native town, took his degree as doctor of philosophy in 1824, and became professor in 1829, a post which he retained till his death.
Work
Educated in the doctrine of Hegel, he remained faithful to his early teaching and spent his life defending and continuing the Hegelian tradition. His first notable work was the System der philosophischen Moral (Berlin, 1828), which develops the principles contained in his inaugural dissertation. It is an examination of the ethical theory of responsibility. In 1836 he published, in Paris, a treatise on the Metaphysics of Aristotle, written in French (Examen critique du livre d'Aristote intitulé Metaphysique) and crowned by the Académie des Sciences Morales et Politiques. He wrote also two other treatises on Aristotle: Nikomachische Ethik (2nd ed., 1848) and Die Ethik des Aristoteles in ihrem Verhältniss zum System der Moral (1827).
Michelet's own views are best expressed in his Vorlesungen über die Persönlichkeit Gottes und die Unsterblichkeit der Seele, oder die ewige Persönlichkeit des Geistes (1841) and Die Epiphanie der ewigen Persönlichkeit des Gottes (1844–52). The philosophical theology developed in these works has been described as a "Neo-Christian Spiritualism."
From 1832 to 1842 Michelet was engaged as one of the editors of Hegel's complete works, and he sought to illustrate Hegel's system in three works: Geschichte der letzten Systeme der Philosophie in Deutschland von Kant bis Hegel (2 vols., Berlin, 1837–1838), Entwickelungsgeschichte der neuesten Deutschen Philosophie mit besonderer Rücksicht auf den gegenwärtigen Kampf Schelling's mit der Hegelschen Schule (1843), and the controversial dissertation Schelling und Hegel (1839). In Anthropologie und Psychologie (1840), Michelet diverges in many respects from Hegelian principles.
Other works include: Eine italienische Reise in Briefen (Berlin, 1856), Die Geschichte der Menschheit in ihrem Entwickelungsgange seit dem Jahre 1775 bis auf die neuesten Zeiten (2 vols., 1859–60), Naturrecht, oder Rechtsphilosophie als die praktische Philosophie (3 vols., 1866), Esquisse de logique (Paris, 1856), Hegel der unwiderlegte Weltphilosoph (1870), Wahrheit aus meinem Leben (1886).
In 1845 Michelet founded the Berlin Philosophical Society, which has continuously represented the Hegelianism of Germany. He was the first editor of Der Gedanke (1860), the official organ of the society.
References
1801 births
1893 deaths
19th-century German philosophers
Französisches Gymnasium Berlin alumni
Writers from Berlin
Humboldt University of Berlin alumni
Humboldt University of Berlin faculty
German male writers
Hegelian philosophers | [
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230161 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neil%20Sheehan | Neil Sheehan | Cornelius Mahoney Sheehan (October 27, 1936 – January 7, 2021) was an American journalist. As a reporter for The New York Times in 1971, Sheehan obtained the classified Pentagon Papers from Daniel Ellsberg. His series of articles revealed a secret United States Department of Defense history of the Vietnam War and led to a U.S Supreme Court case, , which invalidated the United States government's use of a restraining order to halt publication.
He received a Pulitzer Prize and a National Book Award for his 1988 book A Bright Shining Lie, about the life of Lieutenant Colonel John Paul Vann and the United States involvement in the Vietnam War.
Early life
Sheehan was born in Holyoke, Massachusetts on October 27, 1936. His father, Cornelius Joseph Sheehan, worked as a dairy farmer; his mother, Mary (O'Shea), was a housewife. Both immigrated to the United States from Ireland. He was raised on a dairy farm near Holyoke. Sheehan graduated from Mount Hermon School (later Northfield Mount Hermon) and Harvard University with a B.A. in history (cum laude) in 1958. He served in the U.S. Army from 1959 to 1962, when he was assigned to Korea and then transferred to Tokyo; there, he did work moonlighting in the Tokyo bureau of United Press International (UPI).
Career
Following his discharge, Sheehan spent two years covering the war in Vietnam as UPI's Saigon bureau chief. In 1963, during the Buddhist crisis, Sheehan and David Halberstam debunked the claim by the Ngô Đình Diệm regime that the Army of the Republic of Vietnam regular forces had perpetrated the Xá Lợi Pagoda raids, which U.S. authorities initially accepted. They showed instead that the raiders were Special Forces loyal to Diệm's brother, Nhu out to frame the army generals. In 1964, he joined The New York Times and worked the city desk for a while before returning to the Far East, first to Indonesia and then to spend another year in Vietnam. Sheehan was one of numerous U.S. and international journalists who received valuable information from Pham Xuan An, a 20-year veteran correspondent for Time Magazine and Reuters, later revealed to also be a spy for the National Liberation Front for South Vietnam.
In the fall of 1966, he became the Pentagon correspondent. Two years later, he began reporting on the White House. He was a correspondent on political, diplomatic, and military affairs. He obtained the Pentagon Papers for the Times in 1971. The U.S. government tried to halt publication and the case, New York Times Co. v. United States (403 U.S. 713), saw the U.S. Supreme Court reject the government's position and establish a landmark First Amendment decision. The exposé would earn The New York Times the Pulitzer Prize for Public Service.
In 1970, Sheehan reviewed Conversations With Americans by Mark Lane in the New York Times Book Review. He called the work a collection of Vietnam War crime stories with some obvious flaws which the author had not verified. Sheehan called for more thorough and scholarly work to be done on the war crimes being committed in Vietnam.
Sheehan published an article in the New York Times Book Review on March 28, 1971, entitled "Should We have War Crime Trials?". He suggested that the conduct of the Vietnam War could be a crime against humanity and that senior U.S. political and military leaders could be subject to trial. In response, the Pentagon prepared a detailed rebuttal justifying its conduct of the war and exonerating senior commanders, however, the rebuttal was never released due to the belief that it would only exacerbate the issue.
Sheehan published his first book, The Arnheiter Affair, in 1972. Marcus Aurelius Arnheiter, the subject of the book, proceeded to bring an action for libel against Sheehan but was ultimately unsuccessful. Sheehan then secured an unpaid leave from the Times to work on a book about John Paul Vann, a dramatic figure among American leaders in the early stages of the war in Vietnam. Two years later, in November 1974, Sheehan was badly injured in a road accident on a snowy mountain road in western Maryland. Sheehan's wife, the veteran New Yorker staff writer Susan Sheehan, chronicled details of the accident and its emotional, legal, and financial impact in a 1978 article for the magazine. The time and effort spent fighting three libel suits in connection with his first book that endured until 1979, and Sheehan's lengthy recovery from his injuries, delayed work on his Vietnam book. After the Times ended his unpaid leave in 1976, he formally resigned from the newspaper to continue work on the book.
Although he received an advance of $67,500 (of which he was entitled to $45,000 prior to publication) from Random House in 1972, Sheehan – a "dreadfully slow" writer who "[chased after] the last fact" – mainly subsisted on lecture fees and fellowships from the John Simon Guggenheim Memorial Foundation (1973–1974), the Adlai Stevenson Institute of International Studies at the University of Chicago (1973–1975), the Lehrman Institute (1975–1976), the Rockefeller Foundation (1976–1977), and the Woodrow Wilson International Center for Scholars (1979–1980) for the remainder of the 1970s. According to William Prochnau, the latter fellowship marked a significant "turning point" for the book, as Sheehan "talked about Vietnam all day long every day" with Peter Braestrup after abandoning several hundred manuscript pages later characterized as a "false start" by Susan Sheehan. When Sheehan finished "three-fifths of the manuscript" in the summer of 1981, the initial advance was renegotiated and raised to $200,000 with a projected delivery date of 1983, while William Shawn of The New Yorker agreed to excerpt the finished manuscript and advance funds as needed.
Still beset by health problems (including a pinched nerve and osteoarthritis), he eventually completed the book, A Bright Shining Lie: John Paul Vann and America in Vietnam, in 1986. Edited by Robert Loomis and published in 1988, it was nominated for the Pulitzer Prizes in Biography and History and received the Pulitzer Prize for General Nonfiction. It also won the National Book Award for Nonfiction. In 1990, Sheehan received the Golden Plate Award of the American Academy of Achievement.
Later life
Sheehan released the book, After the War Was Over: Hanoi and Saigon, in 1992. It was inspired by his visit to Vietnam three years earlier. He published his last book, A Fiery Peace in a Cold War, in 2009. It detailed the story of Bernard Schriever, who was the father of the U.S. intercontinental ballistic missile system.
Personal life
Sheehan was introduced to his wife, Susan Margulies, by fellow reporter Gay Talese. She wrote for The New Yorker at the time, and subsequently won the Pulitzer Prize for General Nonfiction for Is There No Place on Earth for Me? in 1983. They married in 1965, and had two daughters (Catherine and Maria).
Sheehan died on January 7, 2021, at his home in Washington, D.C. He was 84, and suffered from complications of Parkinson's disease in the time leading up to his death.
Books
The Pentagon Papers as published by the New York Times (1971),
The Arnheiter Affair (1972) – about Marcus Aurelius Arnheiter, a U.S. Navy officer relieved of command in 1966
A Bright Shining Lie: John Paul Vann and America in Vietnam (1988),
After the War Was Over: Hanoi and Saigon (1992),
A Fiery Peace in a Cold War: Bernard Schriever and the Ultimate Weapon (2009),
In popular culture
Sheehan was portrayed by Jonas Chernick in The Pentagon Papers (2003), and Justin Swain in The Post (2017). He appears as himself in Ken Burns' 2017 documentary series, The Vietnam War.
References
External links
1936 births
2021 deaths
Writers from Holyoke, Massachusetts
Military personnel from Massachusetts
American male journalists
Journalists from Massachusetts
American people of the Vietnam War
Harvard University alumni
National Book Award winners
Pulitzer Prize for General Non-Fiction winners
The New York Times writers
United States Army soldiers
Historians of the Vietnam War
American war correspondents
20th-century American writers
21st-century American non-fiction writers
Northfield Mount Hermon School alumni
21st-century American male writers | [
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230164 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rudolf%20Ewald%20Stier | Rudolf Ewald Stier | Rudolf Ewald Stier (17 March 1800 – 16 December 1862), was a German Protestant churchman and mystic.
Stier was born at Fraustadt (Wschowa) in South Prussia and studied at the University of Halle and Humboldt University, Berlin, first law and afterwards theology; he continued his theological studies later at the pastoral seminary of Wittenberg. In 1824 he was made professor at the Missionary Institute in Basel. Afterwards he held pastorates at Frankleben near Merseburg (1829) and at Wichlinghausen (now part of Wuppertal) (1838). In 1850 he was appointed superintendent at Schkeuditz, and in 1859 at Eisleben.
He published a new edition of Martin Luther's Catechism and a translation of the Bible based on that of Luther; but he is noted chiefly for his thoughtful, devotional and mystical commentary on the Words of the Lord (Reden des Herrn, 3 vols., 1843; Eng. trans., 8 vols., 1855–1858). He died at Eisleben.
His other works, besides commentaries on the Psalms, Second Isaiah, Proverbs, Ephesians, Hebrews, Epistles of James and Jude, include: Die Reden der Apostel (2 vols, 1824–1830; Eng. trans., 1869) and Die Reden der Engel in den heiligen Schrift (1862). Cf. J. P. Lacroix, The Life of R. Stier (New York, 1874).
References
External links
1800 births
1862 deaths
19th-century German Protestant theologians
University of Halle alumni
Humboldt University of Berlin alumni
People from Wschowa
German Lutherans
19th-century German male writers
German male non-fiction writers
19th-century Lutherans | [
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230167 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heinrich%20Julius%20Holtzmann | Heinrich Julius Holtzmann | Heinrich Julius Holtzmann (7 May 1832 – 4 August 1910), German Protestant theologian, son of theologian Karl Julius Holtzmann (1804–1877), was born at Karlsruhe, where his father ultimately became prelate and counsellor to the supreme consistory (Evangelischer Oberkirchenrat) of the Evangelical State Church in Baden.
He studied at Berlin, and eventually (1874) was appointed professor ordinarius at the University of Strasbourg (rector in 1878/79). A moderately liberal theologian, he became best known as a New Testament critic and exegete, being the author of "Die Synoptiker" (Commentary on the Synoptics; 1889; 3rd ed., 1901), the "Evangelium, Briefe und Offenbarung des Johannes" (Johannine books; 1890; 2nd ed., 1893), and the "Apostelgeschichte" (Acts of the Apostles; 3rd ed., 1901), in the series "Handkommentar zum Neuen Testament".
On the question of the relationship of the Synoptic Gospels, Holtzmann in his early work, "Die synoptischen Evangelien, ihr Ursprung und geschichtlicher Charakter" (The Synoptic Gospels: Their Origin and Historical Character), presents a view which has been widely accepted, maintaining the priority of Mark, deriving Matthew in its present form from Mark and from Matthew's earlier "collection of sayings", the Logia of Papias, and Luke from Matthew and Mark in the form in which we have them. This view was a modified version of Christian Weisse's hypothesis.
Other noteworthy works are:
Lehrbuch der historisch-kritischen Einleitung in das Neue Testament (1885, 3rd ed., 1892).
Lehrbuch der neutestamentlichen Theologie (2 volumes, 1896–97).
Lexikon für Theologie und Kirchenwesen (1882; 3rd ed., 1895); in collaboration with Richard Otto Zöpffel.
In 1893 he became editor of the "Theologischer Jahresbericht". Holtzmann died in Baden-Baden-Lichtental.
Family
He married the daughter of Georg Weber. His daughter Adelheid (1866–1925) was a politician and women's rights activist. She married Gustav Steinmann.
References
Holtzmann, Heinrich In: Neue Deutsche Biographie (NDB). Band 9, Duncker & Humblot, Berlin 1972, , S. 560 f.
1832 births
1910 deaths
Clergy from Karlsruhe
University of Strasbourg faculty
Humboldt University of Berlin alumni
19th-century German Protestant theologians
New Testament scholars
19th-century German male writers
German male non-fiction writers | [
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230169 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/William%20Mitford | William Mitford | William Mitford (10 February 174410 February 1827) was an English Member of Parliament and historian, best known for his The History of Greece (1784–1810).
Youth
William Mitford was born in Exbury Hampshire on 10 February 1744, into a rural gentry family. The surname is of Anglo-Saxon origin and refers to a place: Mitford (river crossing or ford). The Doomsday Book states that the properties around Mitford Castle belonged to Sir John Mitford in 1066, but by 1086 they belonged to William Bertram, a Norman knight married to Sibella, the only daughter and heir of the previous owner. A hundred years later, the surname appears as Bertram of Mitford Castle as the main branch; but by the 17th century Bertram disappears as a surname to become a name within the family. The Mitfords of Exbury, to which the author belongs, appear as a secondary and minor branch of the family by the 18th century, engaged in trade and independent professions.
First-born son of a wealthy London lawyer who amassed a substantial fortune, Mitford did not inherit his father's profession, nor that of his brother, John Freeman Mitford 1st Baronet of Redesdale, who was Speaker of the House of Commons and Lord Chancellor of Ireland. His mother, Philadelphia Reveley, heiress to a powerful Northumberland landowner and, at the same time, granddaughter of the President of the Bank of England, was to swell the family fortune, but perhaps more importantly, she was a first cousin of Hugh Percy, Duke of Northumberland, patron of the "rotten borough" in which he and his brother were elected to Parliament at the end of Whig supremacy. In 1766 he married Frances (Fanny) Molloy, the daughter of a wealthy Irish merchant.
His father and brother were Barristers of the Inner Temple, the highest dignities of the bar in the United Kingdom, with the power to litigate and advise at The Bar, in cases of higher amounts. It is not equivalent, but it would be something similar to a barrister qualified to litigate in chambers and take cases to the Supreme Court in a republican country. His younger brother's situation is particular: he inherited the position at The Bar on the death of his father, but he was also heir to an entailed estate in Gloucester belonging to Sir Thomas Freeman, and to the fortune of his maternal aunt, and was married to Frances Perceval, daughter of the Earl of Egmont and sister of Prime Minister Spencer Perceval. When his father died, William was the sole heir to the family fortune. Although he belonged to the lower nobility and held no titles, his life nevertheless revolved around the highest echelons of British politics and justice. He and his family lived at Exbury house near Beaulieu, at the edge of the New Forest, where he settle down later and raise a family on his estates
Education
Cheam School, an aristocratic boarding school in Hampshire not far from his home in Exbury, was where William Mitford discovered his love of history. Few records remain of his school involvement, but we know from his biography that he preferred the study of Greek to Latin, and Greek to Roman culture. At the same time, he developed a certain authority in reading classics such as Plutarch and Xenophon, among others.
He was educated under the picturesque writer William Gilpin.
In 1756, his mother's younger brother, Roger Reveley, not much older than him, was suffocated to death in the "Black Hole of Calcutta" and his body was thrown into a canal of the Hooghly River, which would have had a strong impact on him, affecting his health, as he became seriously ill that same year and returned to his father's house in Exbury, leaving only in 1761 to attend, as a gentleman commoner to Queen's College, Oxford. On the death of his father and inheriting a considerable fortune, therefore, being "very much his own master, was easily led to prefer amusement to study." He left Oxford that same year (where the only sign of assiduity he had shown was to attend the lectures of Blackstone) without a degree, in 1763, and proceeded to the Middle Temple. In 1774 he was widowed, which led to a further relapse of his "illness". To recover, he travelled to Nice (France) in 1776, where he came into contact with some of the French intellectuals who specialized in ancient Greece, such as Jean Pierre de Batz, Baron de Sainte-Croix, from whom he received important support for his positions on democracy in Greece. He became a lieutenant colonel in the South Hampshire militia and, although he served during the Napoleonic Wars, it is possible that he never saw combat as he belonged to a rural militia and was almost sixty years old. There, he was a comrade of Edward Gibbon, with whom he became close friends. According to his biography, Gibbon persuaded him to write his work, based on his own experience as an author, and suggested the structure his book should take. During this period they both received, in effect, the military experience that every classical historian was said to need.
Historian and Politician
The first volume of his The History of Greece was published in 1784, barely a year after the end of the American War of Independence, and was very well received, prompting him to continue with nine more volumes, the structure of which he modified according to the political changes of the time. The rest of his works were very varied, ranging from philological studies such as Essay on the Harmony of Language (1774), legal regulations that favoured the large landowners, Essay on the "Corn Laws" (1791), or an attempt at a history of the Arabs Review on the Early History of the Arabs (1816) and, in addition, something closely linked to his social class, the gentry: Principles of design in architecture traced in observations on buildings (1819), which was a study of rural architecture in Great Britain. None of these were of any consequence.
As a representative of Newport, a small burgh in Cornwall, John Mitford's brother and nephew of the 1st Duke of Northumberland, owner of the pocket borough of Newport in Cornwall, which had 62 voters. This ended in 1790 but Mitford was assisted into one of the seats for Bere Alston in 1796 by his second cousin (and the duke's second son) Algernon Percy, 1st Earl of Beverley. In 1812 he was elected to sit for New Romney in Kent, retiring in 1818.
These links between Mitford and the dukes of Northumberland were continued by his grandson Henry's marriage to Beverley's granddaughter Lady Jemima Ashburnham in 1828; the parents of Algernon Freeman-Mitford. In this way William Mitford entered the House of Commons in 1785, remaining in his seat until 1790. Between 1796 and 1806 he returned to the Commons, but this time representing the infamous burgh of Bere Alston, now in Devon, also his uncle's territory. A supporter of William Pitt the Younger, his participation in Parliament cannot be identified, for the parliamentary records and writings always refer to "Mr. Mitford" in the case of both his brother and himself, and the former seems to have been more active than our author. The detectable interventions of William Mitford, on the other hand, are rare and always close to the positions of his brother, who was the one who made a successful political career. Apart from three speeches on rural militia laws, we could not identify any other individual intervention. This situation clearly differentiates him from George Grote, who was a frequent participant in parliamentary debates. However, he achieved greater renown than his successful brother as the author of The History of Greece, which became one of the most influential works of his time.
The style of Mitford is natural and lucid, but without the rich colour of Gibbon. He affected some oddities both of language and of orthography, for which he was censured and which he endeavoured to revise.
Historian of Ancient Greece
After 1776, a difficult year in his life, Mitford set about the task of writing his mammoth five-volume history of Greece, which would later be expanded to ten volumes.
He retired to Exbury for the rest of his life, and made the study of the Greek language his hobby and occupation. After 10 years his wife died, and in October 1776 Mitford went abroad. He was encouraged by French scholars whom he met in Paris, Avignon and Nice to give himself systematically to the study of Greek history.
But it was Edward Gibbon, with whom he was closely associated when they both were officers in the South Hampshire Militia, who suggested to Mitford the form which his work should take. In 1784 the first of the volumes of his History of Greece appeared, and the fifth and last of these quartos was published in 1810, after which the state of Mitford's eyesight and other physical infirmities, including a loss of memory, forbade his continuation of the enterprise, although he painfully revised successive new editions.
The first volume was published in 1784, barely a year after the end of the American Colonies' War of Independence, although there are no direct references to this political event in the work. The volume spans from Homeric times to the invasion of the Persians, but it is perhaps in the second volume that the Persian Wars are given even less prominence in favour of an event to which the author attaches greater importance: the Peloponnesian War (c. 431-404 BC). It is not by chance that our author gives greater importance to this event, for throughout his work he will place too much emphasis on the credibility of Thucydides, even describing his own historiographical procedure as follows: "taking Thucydides as my lodestar and trusting that later writers (historians) only (set about) elucidating what he has left in obscurity".
Published in 1790, the second volume was to be riddled with references to revolutionary France, not only in the scholarly apparatus, but also in the body of the text itself. This situation seems to have taken him by surprise. Although by that year the Revolution was a fait accompli, for the British press and society, it was something that could still change course. The British educated society initially spoke positively of the conversion of the despotic French regime into a constitutional monarchy, similar to the one in power on the island, or at best continuing the course of the American Revolution, with which there were clear overlaps in many of the ideological and scientific backgrounds. From that year onwards there was a decade of political turmoil that altered the attitudes and mores of the British people. The protests, which were initially spontaneous and local in character, gradually lost their economic motivation and took on a new, eminently political character.
By the time volume three was published, the Revolution was already a fait accompli, the King of France had been executed, and although the period of Jacobin terror was over, by the year of its publication, 1797, the mandate of the Directory and its authority were contested. It was apparent that this government could again lose control to the mob at any moment. The Council of Five Hundred, a body that attracted attention, bearing the name already used in antiquity by the Athenian boulé of Cleisthenes, a continuation of Solon's Council of Four Hundred, summoned the huge armies that held the borders of revolutionary France when they had not yet managed to resolve the reaction of "La Vendée". There, the Directory had failed to recruit 300,000 men to face the first coalition on the Rhine frontier. Volume III is undoubtedly the most militantly anti-democratic and contains the most references to the contemporary political situation. Depending on the edition consulted, it generally covers the entire Peloponnesian War. The 1814/18 edition, which would cover Volumes III and IV. The remaining ones, Volume IV (1808), again depending on the edition, deal with the period of Athenian democracy and Spartan dominance, and especially Volume V (1810) are written during the Napoleonic Wars and refer especially to the Alexandrian period. In the 10-volume editions, from V to X, they deal only with the expansion of Alexander's empire, taking the facts from the time of his father Philip II.
Originally consisting of five volumes, it was eventually extended to ten, so it is clear that the initial form of the work was changed as the political situation demanded of the author. To a certain extent, especially in the final volumes, a certain disorder in the arrangement of the chapters can be noted. During the author's lifetime, the work was published as volumes were published with the reprinting of earlier volumes, as well as printings of individual volumes. The first complete publication of which we have evidence was published between 1822 and 1823. In 1829 the first posthumous edition appeared with the inevitable biography and review by his brother Lord Redesdale. Although the work had five volumes in its first editions, Mitford then brought it to eight in 1823, always adding new chapters. In 1836 the definitive edition was published in ten volumes.
Mitford's work was published by Thomas Cadell from 1784 until the beginning of the 20th century with a significant continuity. It is therefore a part of English-language university libraries to this day. The publishing house was the most important in Britain at that time and was located in the Strand, i.e. in the centre of politics at that time. T. Cadell had also published the major works of British historiography, including Edward Gibbon's The History of the Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire.
Mitford starts as a historian with an acceptable knowledge of classical literary sources. Although his education was incomplete, he could read Greek and Latin, and many of his quotations in the body of the work are reproduced verbatim in their original language. He tries in the text to present himself as a reliable and objective enunciator, but he does not succeed. His work is not accepted in academic circles and is openly criticised by the liberal groups of the time, even more strongly after the author's death.
The young George Grote wrote a strong critique of Mitford's History of Greece in a review he wrote for the radical journal The Westminster Review, with the philosophical support of James Mill in April 1826, while Mitford was still alive. The last edition of Mitford's The History of Greece appeared in 1938. Since then, it has not been reprinted.
The literary characteristics of Mitford's work are typical of the period. The style is encyclopaedic and all-encompassing, and seeks to present the reader with the narrative of a seamless whole. The temporal order is precise and linear, although there is clear evidence of alteration of the time sequence, which allows for emphasis on events that help to establish links with the historical situation in which one lives. This is especially so in Volume III, where the author makes direct reference to events that had just taken place in France, which was in the midst of a revolutionary process. The language is flowery and makes use of words foreign to common usage, typical of the aristocracy of the time. As it is his first work, there is a clear intention, given that the author was not known in intellectual circles at the time, to demonstrate his erudition by making excessive use of footnotes and marginal notes, many of them in Greek. But his main use of quotations is undoubtedly to express an opinion, to denigrate a political rival, but above all also to praise members of society who share his political views. We can always notice improvisation in the way he approaches his themes and a certain redundancy in unprovable subjects, especially in the first volumes where the border between mythology and history seems to be blurred. Extremely detailed and descriptive, he was criticised for his eccentric use of spelling, which ended up including him in Thomas De Quincey's "Orthographic Mutineers", one of the most fervent criticisms of his work.
Later life and legacy
Mitford was for many years a member of the Court of Verderers of the New Forest, a county magistrate and a colonel in the Hampshire Militia.
After a long illness, he died at Exbury on 10 February 1827. While his book was progressing, Mitford was a Tory member of the House of Commons, with intervals, from 1785 to 1818, but it does not appear that he ever visited Greece.
Mitford was an impassioned anti-Jacobin from the 1790s, and his partiality for a monarchy led him to be unjust to Athenian democracy. Hence his History of Greece, after having had no peer in European literature for half a century, faded in interest on the appearance of the work of George Grote. Clinton, too, in his Fasti hellenici, charged Mitford with "a general negligence of dates," though admitting that in his philosophical range "he is far superior to any former writer" on Greek history. Byron, who dilated on Mitford's shortcomings, nevertheless declared that he was "perhaps the best of all modern historians altogether." This Mitford certainly was not, but his preeminence in the little school of English historians who succeeded Hume and Gibbon would be easier to maintain.
According to the scanty records, Mitford spent much of his life prostrate and suffering from an illness for which there is little information, possibly stemming from depression. Ill, and suffering from Alzheimer's, according to the symptoms described, he died in 1827 at the age of 87 in the manor house where he had spent most of his life. There is no extensive biography of the historian, and there is little biographical information about him in contemporary books on British society at the time. The brief and limited biography written by his brother for inclusion in the posthumous edition of The History of Greece of 1829 dwells little on his private life and turns into a fervent defence of his work, his intellectual capacity and his authority as a social agent. This defence was clearly intended to ensure that The History of Greece would continue to have the importance it had achieved in the year of its first edition, which was being questioned at the time.
One of the criticisms apparently raised in the political and social circle where it was read was about Mitford's views on the republics of ancient Greece, which prompts his brother to pause for a rigorous clarification: that these views were mainly due to the time in which he lived, making direct references to the independence of the "colonies" in America and to the French Revolution. John Mitford then goes on to make a comparison between ancient Greece and Britain from the time of the Saxons and the Norman invasions up to the time he writes the short biography, where he refers very little to his brother's life or even to his work itself. Much of the contemporary political baggage of The History of Greece is, therefore, raised by the political views expressed by his brother, John Mitford, who seems to use the popularity of the work to make a clear and intentional interpretation of it. William Mitford was for the Tory party, then, an intellectual reserve rather than a political cadre, who by the posthumous edition in which his memoir is written was losing the influence he had had until then.
Family
On 18 May 1766 Mitford married Fanny Molloy (died 27 April 1827) at Faringdon. Fanny's parents were James Molloy, from Dublin, and his wife Anne Pye of Faringdon House. Fanny's brother was Anthony James Pye Molloy, and an uncle was Admiral Sir Thomas Pye, whose career had been helped by his and Anne's uncle, the politician Allen Bathurst, 1st Earl Bathurst.
William and Fanny had three sons. Two of them, John Mitford (1772–1851) and Bertram Mitford (1774–1844) became barristers. Their oldest son, Henry Reveley Mitford (born 1769) became a Captain in the Royal Navy, presumably because of his Pye ancestry. He died in 1804 when his ship, HMS York sank with all 491 crew after striking the Bell Rock, about off the east coast of Angus, Scotland. This disaster prompted Parliament to authorize the construction of the famous Bell Rock Lighthouse.
William Mitford's younger brother John (1748–1830) was a lawyer and politician who became Speaker of the House of Commons and Lord Chancellor of Ireland. Mitford's cousin, the Rev. John Mitford (1781–1859), was editor of the Gentleman's Magazine and of various editions of the English poets. He was distantly related to the novelist Mary Russell Mitford (1787–1865). Mitford was the great-great-great-grandfather of the Mitford sisters, who came to public notice in Britain during the 1920s.
Clementine's Hozier, Winston Churchill's wife, biographer, Joan Hardwick, has surmised (due in part to Sir Henry Hozier's reputed sterility) that all Lady Blanche's "Hozier" children were actually fathered by her sister's husband, Algernon Bertram Freeman-Mitford, 1st Baron Redesdale (1837–1916), great-great-grandson of the Greek historian. Whatever her true paternity, Clementine is recorded as being the daughter of Lady Blanche and Sir Henry.
The Exbury House estate passed to Henry's eldest son, Henry Reveley Mitford.
Works
Inquiry into the Principles of Harmony in Languages, 1774
Considerations on the Corn Laws, 1791
Treatise on the Military Force of this Kingdom
Vols. 2-3 at the Internet Archive
Vol. 5 at the Internet Archive
Notes
References
Sources
External links
1744 births
1827 deaths
William
People educated at Cheam School
Scholars of ancient Greek history
English historians
Members of the Parliament of Great Britain for constituencies in Cornwall
Members of the Parliament of Great Britain for Bere Alston
Members of the Parliament of the United Kingdom for English constituencies
British MPs 1784–1790
UK MPs 1801–1802
UK MPs 1802–1806
UK MPs 1812–1818 | [
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230171 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wolfgang%20Hildesheimer | Wolfgang Hildesheimer | {{Infobox writer
| name = Wolfgang Hildesheimer
| image =
| caption =
| birth_name =
| birth_date =
| birth_place = Hamburg, Germany
| death_date =
| death_place =
| resting_place = Protestant cemetery in Poschiavo, Switzerland
| pseudonym =
| occupation = Writer and painter
| notableworks = Tynset, lyrical prose (1965)Mozart (1977)| spouse =
| children =
| relatives = Azriel Hildesheimer (grandfather)
| signature = Wolfgang Hildesheimer signature.png
}}
Wolfgang Hildesheimer (9 December 1916 – 21 August 1991) was a German author who incorporated the Theatre of the Absurd. He originally trained as an artist, before turning to writing.
Biography
Hildesheimer was born of Jewish parents in Hamburg. His grandfather was Azriel Hildesheimer, the moderniser of Orthodox Judaism in Germany. He was educated at the Humanistisches Gymnasium in Mannheim () from 1926 to 1930. He then attended Odenwaldschule until 1933, when he left Germany. He was then educated at Frensham Heights School in Surrey, England. He studied carpentry in Mandatory Palestine, where his parents had emigrated, and underwent psychoanalysis in Jerusalem. He studied painting and stage building in London.
In 1946 he worked as a translator and clerk at the Nuremberg trials. Afterward, he worked as a writer and was a member of Group 47. In 1980, he gave the inaugural address at the Salzburg Festival, "Was sagt Musik aus?" (What does music say?). In addition to writing, Hildesheimer created collages which he collected in several volumes (the first Endlich allein, 1984), an activity he shared with other late-20th century writers Peter Weiss and Ror Wolf. The municipality of Poschiavo in Switzerland made Hildesheimer an honorary citizen in 1982; he died there in 1991.
Works
1952 , short stories
1953 Das Paradies der falschen Vögel
1954 An den Ufern der Plotinitza, radio play
1955 Der Drachenthron, comedy in three acts
1955 , radio play
1954 Das Märchen von Prinzessin Turandot (The Fairy Tale of Princess Turandot), radio play
1958 Pastorale oder Die Zeit für Kakao, play
1960 Herrn Walsers Raben, radio play
1961 Die Verspätung, play
1962 Vergebliche Aufzeichnungen
1965 Tynset, a novel
1971 Zeiten in Cornwall, travelogue
1973 Masante, a novel
1977 , a biography of Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart
1981 , a fictional biography of Sir Andrew Marbot
1983 Mitteilungen an Max (Über den Stand der Dinge und anderes)
Awards
Hörspielpreis der Kriegsblinden (a radio play prize for Princess Turandot) 1955
Georg Büchner Prize 1966
Order of Merit of the Federal Republic of Germany (Großes Verdienstkreuz) 1983
References
1916 births
1991 deaths
German male dramatists and playwrights
Writers from Hamburg
People from Poschiavo
Jewish emigrants from Nazi Germany to the United Kingdom
German biographers
Male biographers
Georg Büchner Prize winners
Commanders Crosses of the Order of Merit of the Federal Republic of Germany
People educated at Frensham Heights School
20th-century German dramatists and playwrights
20th-century biographers
20th-century German male writers
German male non-fiction writers | [
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230172 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Henry%20Fynes%20Clinton | Henry Fynes Clinton | Henry Fynes Clinton (14 January 1781 – 24 October 1852) was an English classical scholar, chronologist and Member of Parliament.
Life
He was born in Gamston, Nottinghamshire, the eldest son of Rev. Charles Fynes, prebendary of Westminster and perpetual curate of St. Margaret's, Westminster. For some generations his family bore the name of Fynes, but his father resumed the older family name of Clinton in 1821. Henry was educated at Southwell Grammar School, Westminster School and Christ Church, Oxford, where he studied classical literature and history. He entered Lincoln's Inn in 1808 to study law.
From 1806 to 1826 he was Member of Parliament (MP) for Aldborough.
He died at Welwyn, Herts, where he had purchased the residence and estate of the poet Edward Young. He had married twice; firstly Harriott, the daughter of Rev. Charles Wylde of Nottingham
and secondly Katherine, the daughter of Rt. Rev. Henry William Majendie, Bishop of Bangor. They had 2 sons who predeceased their father and 9 daughters.
Works
His reading was methodical (see his Literary Remains). His Fasti, on classical chronology, has required correction on the basis of later research.
His major works are:
Fasti Hellenici, the Civil and Literary Chronology of Greece from the 55th to the 124th Olympiad (1824–1851), including dissertations on points of Greek history and Scriptural chronology; and
Fasti Romani, the Civil and Literary Chronology of Rome and Constantinople from the Death of Augustus to the Death of Heraclius (1845–1850).
In 1851 and 1853 respectively he published epitomes of the above. The Literary Remains of H. F. Clinton (the first part of which contains an autobiography written in 1818) were edited by Clinton James Fynes Clinton in 1854.
References
Attribution
1781 births
1852 deaths
People from Bassetlaw District
People educated at Southwell Minster Collegiate Grammar School
People educated at Westminster School, London
Alumni of Christ Church, Oxford
Members of Lincoln's Inn
Chronologists
Members of the Parliament of the United Kingdom for English constituencies
UK MPs 1806–1807
UK MPs 1807–1812
UK MPs 1812–1818
UK MPs 1818–1820
UK MPs 1820–1826 | [
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230178 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rockwell%20%28typeface%29 | Rockwell (typeface) | Rockwell is a slab serif typeface designed by the Monotype Corporation and released in 1934. The project was supervised by Monotype's engineering manager Frank Hinman Pierpont. This typeface is distinguished by a serif at the apex of the uppercase A, while the lowercase a has two storeys. Because of its monoweighted stroke, Rockwell is used primarily for display or at small sizes rather than as a body text. Rockwell is based on an earlier, more condensed slab serif design cast by the Inland Type Foundry called Litho Antique.
Rockwell is a geometric slab-serif with a monoline construction, with all of its strokes appearing to be roughly the same width and its capital O roughly circular. This gives it a similar impression to common sans-serif designs of the period like Akzidenz Grotesk, Franklin Gothic, or Futura. Rockwell is influenced by a style of geometric slab serif that had become popular around the time, including the earlier Memphis and Beton, and less similarly Stymie and City.
Rockwell has remained popular and been digitised, although a shadowed weight has not been.
Bitstream offers a lookalike/clone of Rockwell, under the name Geometric Slabserif 712.
Vernon Adams designed the Rokkitt typeface, which based on Rockwell.
Usage
The Guinness World Records used Rockwell in some of its early-1990s editions. Informational signage at Expo 86 made extensive use of the Rockwell typeface. Docklands Light Railway used a bold weight of this typeface in the late 1980s and early 1990s. The poetry publisher Tall Lighthouse also uses Rockwell in all of its books, as well as on its website.
References
External links
Fonts in Use
Rockwell Shadow from a specimen book
Monotype typefaces
Geometric slab-serif typefaces
Typefaces and fonts introduced in 1934
Display typefaces | [
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230182 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Motorcycle%20speedway | Motorcycle speedway | Motorcycle speedway, usually referred to simply as speedway, is a motorcycle sport involving four and sometimes up to six riders competing over four anti-clockwise laps of an oval circuit. The motorcycles are specialist machines which use only one gear and have no brakes; racing takes place on a flat oval track usually consisting of dirt, loosely packed shale, or crushed rock (mostly used in Australia and New Zealand). Competitors use this surface to slide their machines sideways, powersliding or broadsiding into the bends. On the straight sections of the track the motorcycles reach speeds of up to .
There are now both domestic and international competitions in a number of countries including the Speedway World Cup whilst the highest overall scoring individual in the Speedway Grand Prix events is pronounced the world champion. Speedway is popular in Central and Northern Europe and to a lesser extent in Australia and North America. A variant of track racing, speedway is administered internationally by the Fédération Internationale de Motocyclisme (FIM). Domestic speedway events are regulated by FIM affiliated national motor sport federations.
History
The early history of speedway race meetings is a subject of much debate and controversy. There is evidence to show that meetings were held on small dirt tracks in Australia and the United States before World War I. On 13 November 1905 motorcycle racing was held at the Newcastle NSW Rugby Ground, a distance of approximately 440 yards.
American rider named Don Johns was known to have used broadsiding before 1914. It was said that he would ride the entire race course wide open, throwing great showers of dirt into the air at each turn. By the early 1920s, Johns' style of cornering was followed in the United States — where it was called "Short Track Racing" — by riders such as Albert "Shrimp" Burns, Maldwyn Jones and Eddie Brinck.
Motorcycle Speedway can be traced back to the early 1920s. One track that staged speedway, amongst others, was at the West Maitland Showground, whose first speedway meeting was staged on 15 December 1923. This track had a motorcycle riding entrepreneur as its Secretary and his personal account has him inviting his friends and their associates to do a few laps one Sunday morning, the noise attracted the attention of the Showground committee and approval to race at the "Electric Light Festival" was won. Motorcycle racing under lights was a huge success and its promoter was New Zealand-born John S. Hoskins. These pioneers introduced the Speedway signatures of No Left Footpeg and the Steel Shoe, ironically fashioned from worn coal shovels, manufactured in this Steel region.
Following the success of Maitland, Speedway meetings were conducted at Newcastle Showground in 1924. These events were very successful and led to the construction of Newcastle Speedway off Darling Street, Hamilton. Johnnie Hoskins became the Secretary of Newcastle Speedway Ltd. The Newcastle Herald reports the Grand Opening on 14 November 1925 attracted an audience of 42,000 at that time it was approximately one-third of Newcastle's entire population.
After Maitland, Newcastle Showground is the second oldest Motorcycle Speedway track in the world. However, its first recorded motorcycle race was much earlier in 1908. The first Australian Motorcycle Speedway Championship was held at Newcastle Showground in 1926. Ironically it was won by American rider Cec Brown. Visiting English and American racers were common, for they were highly paid showmen, often winning a year's salary in just one night. It was very successful, so Newcastle Showground held the championship again in 1927. Very fitting that Newcastle Showground held the first National Speedway Championship anywhere in the world.
In 1926 Johnnie Hoskins took his Speedway show to Sydney's Royal Showground. A very wet Sydney summer nearly sent Hoskins broke, so he took the show on the road to Perth, where one good season made him wealthy again. He and his riders decided to take the show to England, as the word had spread about this exciting sport. 14 April 1928, Johnnie Hoskins, 13 Australian Riders and their motorcycles sailed from Perth on the passenger ship Oronsay to introduce Speedway Solo motorcycle racing to England.
The first meeting in the United Kingdom took place at High Beech on 19 February 1928. There are, however, claims that meetings were held in 1927 at Camberley, Surrey and Droylsden, Lancashire. Despite being described as "the first British Dirt Track meeting" at the time, the meeting at Camberley on 7 May 1927 differed in that the races were held in a clockwise direction. Races at Droylsden were held in an anti-clockwise direction, but it is generally accepted that the sport arrived in the United Kingdom when Australians Billy Galloway and Keith McKay arrived with the intention of introducing speedway to the Northern Hemisphere. Both featured in the 1928 High Beech meeting. The first speedway meeting in the UK to feature bikes with no brakes and broadsiding round corners on loose dirt was the third meeting held at High Beech on 9 April 1928, where Colin Watson, Alf Medcalf and "Digger" Pugh demonstrated the art for the first time in the UK. Proto speedway was staged in Glasgow at the Olympic Stadium (Glasgow Nelson) on 9 April 1928 and the first fully professional meeting was staged at Celtic Park on 28 April 1928. The first meeting in Wales was staged at Cardiff White City on Boxing Day 1928.
In the 1928–1929 season at the Melbourne Exhibition Speedway, Australian Colin Stewart won the prestigious Silver Gauntlet, which required the rider to win the feature race 10 times in one season. He won it 12 times. He also achieved success at an international level, racing for Southampton Saints in 1929 and captained Glasgow in the Northern League in 1930 before moving to Wembley Lions in 1931, for whom he rode in just four matches, averaging 4.00 points per match. He also raced in the 1930 Scottish Championship which was won by Wembley Lions' Harry Whitfield.
The forerunner of the World Championship, the Star Riders' Championship, was inaugurated in Great Britain in 1929, but was split into two sections, as it was felt that the British riders were not yet the equal of the Australians and Americans. Frank Arthur won the Overseas Section and Roger Frogley the British. The following year the two sections were amalgamated and Vic Huxley proved to be the winner. Huxley was also runner-up three times and won the first British Match Race championship in 1931.
Speedway racing typically took place on purpose-built tracks, although in Australia bikes shared larger speedways with Sprintcars, Speedcars (Midgets) and saloons, with tracks traditionally ranging from 1/3-mile showground tracks, such as the now-closed Claremont Speedway in Perth and the Sydney Showground, to smaller, purpose-built long motorcycle tracks, such as Gillman Speedway in Adelaide and Mildura's Olympic Park.
Speed
Each track is between 260 and 425 metres long and it takes approximately one minute to complete four laps. For example, 10 time Australian Champion Leigh Adams set a record time of 59 seconds on a track and produced an average speed of 83 km/h (51.86 mph). The speed on straight sections of the track reaches 110 km/h (70 mph) or more on longer tracks, but the limited speed on curves lowers the average.
At the start of a race it takes between one and two seconds for the motorcycle to reach the "curve speed" (somewhat lower than the average), which is roughly estimated to be the equivalent of 2.5 to 3 seconds to reach (or 0 to 60 mph). The start of the race is an important aspect of the race overall. "Gating" correctly can help a rider gain an initial advantage over other riders but speed advantages can be made as a race progresses. Those riders willing to take a risk and opt for finding the grippy parts of the track rather than the race line, are sometimes rewarded with extra speed allowing them to pass other riders either on the outside or the inside.
Track
Tracks used for professional speedway racing are regulated by the Fédération Internationale de Motocyclisme (FIM) who provide rules concerning construction, size and safety requirements. Speedway racing takes place on a level oval track consisting of two straights joined by two semicircles. Tracks must be between 260 and 425 metres (853 and 1394 ft) in length, this is measured at a distance of from the inner boundary. Tracks may be banked, but the gradient must under no circumstances exceed 5% in the straight, 10% in the bends, and must remain constant and grow from the inner edge to the safety fence. A white start line is marked across the track approximately mid-way along one of the straights. The starting area is also divided into four equal parts (known as gates) by white lines marked at right angles to the start line and extending back at least . Additional rules govern the placement of warning systems such as lights and also the construction of the starting mechanism. The minimum track width is on the straights and the bends must be at least wide. The minimum widths give each rider adequate space to safely navigate the track. The start line and starting gate assembly is halfway along one of the two straight sections of the track. Starting gates are simple spring-loaded mechanisms that raise two or three strands of tape to start the race.
The FIM regulations require licensed tracks to provide a garage or pit area for motorcycles as well as medical and press facilities. Track boundaries are marked by white lines or barriers on the inside and outside the track, any rider who crosses this boundary with both wheels will be disqualified unless they only did so in the interest of safety or were forced to by another competitor.
The track surface consists of four layers of grading. The topmost of which must be of shale, granite, brick granules or other loose material of which no individual piece can be over in size. Competitors use this surface to slide their machines sideways (powersliding or broadsiding) into the bends using the rear wheel to scrub-off speed while still providing the drive to power the bike forward and around the bend. The skill of speedway lies in the overall ability of the rider to control his motorcycle when cornering and thus avoid losing places through deceleration. The use of asphalt, concrete and tarmac for any layer is prohibited. The top layer must be levelled or "graded" at intervals during an event by tractors towing specially adapted rakes to evenly re-distribute the surface. Tracks are watered before and, if needed, during meetings to prevent the surface becoming too dry and to protect the public and the riders from dust.
Safety requirements include the use of suspended wire fences, air fences and wooden fences. Air fences are made up of inflated panels installed on the bends. The fence is designed to dissipate energy by allowing an impacted area to compress and transfer air into the rest of the fence through blow-off valves or restriction ports connected to the other sections. They are mandatory for tracks in the British Elite League, Polish Ekstraliga, Speedway Grand Prix and Speedway World Cup. Neutral zones outside the track provide safe run-off areas for riders and their machinery to minimise the potential risk of injury to spectators. The majority of tracks are dedicated to speedway or other sports such as sidecar speedway and banger racing. For larger events, the FIM occasionally sanctions the use of stadiums that install temporary tracks such as the British Grand Prix held at the Millennium Stadium in Cardiff.
Motorcycles
Speedway uses a unique type of motorcycle, governed by the FIM's "Track Racing Technical Rules". In the past, bikes with upright engines were used (the name taken from the way the engine sits in the frame), but today most professional riders use laydown bikes as it is argued that they are easier to handle. As speedway bikes do not use brakes, the clutch is used as a release mechanism at the start of races. FIM regulations state that the motorcycles must have no brakes, are fueled by pure methanol, use only one gear and weigh a minimum of . By using engine and rear wheel sprockets the gear ratio can be adjusted as required for track conditions. The use of methanol allows for an increased compression ratio to the engine producing more power than other fuels and resulting in higher speeds (approximately when cornering).
Machines used must:
Weigh no less than 77 kg (dry mass)
Use a four-stroke, single-cylinder engine with one carburettor and one spark plug and a maximum displacement capacity of 500cc
Have guards fitted over moving engine parts where reasonable
Use an additional chain guard to prevent a hand or fingers being cut at the nip point where the chain meets the sprocket by a chain
Have a peg (Dutch Peg) fitted to prevent a broken primary chain flailing and injuring a rider or a fellow competitor
Use shatter-resistant plastics where reasonable
Be fitted with a dirt deflector
Be fuelled by methanol with no additives
Be fitted with an approved silencer
Have a handlebar width greater than 650 mm and less than 850 mm.
Machines used cannot:
Be constructed in any part from titanium
Use uncoated ceramic parts
Use telemetry during a race except for timing purposes
Use any electronic components to control the engine
Use brakes of any form
Use air compressors of any kind.
In addition, all motorcycles must have a safety cut-out device fitted; this is defined as a switch that "must cut off the circuit of the electrical supply by the simple action of pulling a lanyard or a non-elastic string (with a maximum length of ) attached to the rider's right wrist." The high compression ratio of the engine can also assist in slowing down a machine; if the throttle is closed, the engine may stop. Riders can stop the bike by deliberately laying down the bike on the track, and this technique is used to avoid riders who fall in front of pursuing opponents. Before cut-outs were introduced, an engine was stopped in an emergency situation by removing the plug lead from the spark plug or shutting off the fuel supply.
Racing
Races (known as heats) consist of four riders racing over four laps from a standing start. Riders wear different coloured helmets, traditionally in team events red and blue denote home team riders, and white and yellow/black quartered colours (latterly plain yellow) denote visiting riders. The starting area is divided into a grid of four equal parts and the riders from each team must take their place in alternate grids or "gates". The colours also denote starting positions in individual events; Red is the inside gate (gate 1), blue starts from gate 2, white starts from gate 3 and yellow/black starts on the outside (gate 4). Riders must be able to get their bikes to the start line under their own power, without any external assistance and not by pushing the machine, then line up in parallel.
A rider who is not at the start line within a reasonable period of time is also liable to be disqualified, although league matches in the UK allow teams to elect to start the disqualified rider fifteen metres back from the tapes or replace the disqualified rider with a team reserve. This period of time is standardised to two minutes from a time determined by the match referee and usually indicated by a bell, a rotating orange lamp or a digital clock readout. All riders must be at the tapes under their own power before the two minutes have elapsed. Additional time between races will be allowed by, and at the discretion of, the referee if a rider has two consecutive rides, to allow the rider time to prepare.
A starting gate consisting of two or more tapes is erected across the start line. The riders must situate themselves not more than from this and not touch it once the green light comes on, they must also remain stationary until the tapes are raised. Failure to do so is known as a tape infringement and can result in a false start being recorded and the rider penalised (disqualified, or in league matches in Great Britain, a 15-metre penalty or replace the disqualified rider with a team reserve). The race is started with the raising of the start tape mechanism operated by the match referee and the riders must proceed around the track in an anti-clockwise direction without both wheels illegally leaving the track boundaries.
Once a race is under way, no rider can receive outside assistance, including push-starts, from others. Historically, pushers were allowed at the start of the race. A white line at the 30-metre mark used to designate the extent to which a push was allowed but due to safety concerns, assistance is now illegal.
Occasionally races consist of six riders but this is rare as most tracks are too narrow to accommodate the extra riders safely.
Scoring
Speedway operates a sliding scale for scoring (known as the 3–2–1–0 method). Three points are scored for first place, two points for second place and one point for third place. A rider does not score when finishing fourth, or failing to finish, or if excluded from a race. These points accumulate over the competition, with riders points either counting towards individual or team placings. In the event of a tie, the race is commonly awarded as a dead heat. If it is a tie for first place, they will both receive two points. A tie for second place earns each rider one point while a joint-last finish earns each rider zero points. Teams can use a tactical substitute rule once in a meeting. If that team is eight (six in World Cup) or more points in arrears, they may bring in the use of a different rider in their team lineup, to race in any heat except for heat 15. This may be different in World cup or event racing. If they are ten or more points behind, a rider with a scheduled ride may go out for double points, in which the riders points will be doubled if he beats a rider of the opposing team. Any rider taking a tactical substitute ride or double points ride is denoted by a black and white helmet colour as rather than one of the four usual coloured helmets. If that rider remains unbeaten by either opposition rider his scored points are doubled and also count towards the rider's calculated match average (CMA).
Calculated match averages
The sport produces Calculated Match Averages (CMAs or averages) for every rider, these are calculated from the following:
CMAs scale from 3.00 to 12.00, any rider scoring above or below this range of values will be awarded the maximum or minimum respectively. These averages are used in leagues such as the Premiership in the UK to identify heat-leaders for the purposes of choosing which riders to enter for each race.
At the start of a season, a rider retains their last recorded CMA (or assessed CMA if they have never previously established one) until they have competed in six home and six away matches. A new CMA is then issued that comes into effect seven days later. These are subsequently updated on the 15th of every month from May onwards, and come into effect on the first of the next month.
These CMA's are used in most professional leagues and are altered or weighted depending on the league the rider gained the CMA in. A rider that has no recorded average will receive an indicative CMA for the start of the season that is assessed on their prior experience in the sport.
Competitions
International
An international individual speedway championship has taken various forms since its beginnings in the 1930s, with the official World Championship first held in 1936. The present FIM Speedway Grand Prix (SGP) championship organised by Speedway Grand Prix (IMG since 2007) has taken place since 1995. The SGP uses a scoring system based on each riders overall final position. The rider who has gained the most points at the end of the tournament is declared the World Champion. Polish rider Bartosz Zmarzlik is the current (2019) World Champion. The annual British Grand Prix is currently held at the Millennium Stadium in Cardiff, Wales.
Scoring in Grand Prix events changed in 2005 with riders scoring 3–2–1–0 in their races and these points being carried forward to decide the winner of each Grand Prix. At the end of the series the highest scorer becomes the world champion.
World Speedway Champions include Ivan Mauger (six-time World Champion), fellow New Zealander Barry Briggs (four times), Ole Olsen (three times), Ove Fundin (five times), Lionel Van Praag (inaugural World Champion in 1936), Hans Nielsen (nicknamed "The Professor", four-time World Champion), Tony Rickardsson (six times), Erik Gundersen and Jason Crump, both three-time World Champions, and the sports first two-time champion Jack Young who won in 1951 & 1952.
Currently, no world team championship is contested for senior riders. The first such championship was the Speedway World Team Cup, which was contested annually from 1960 to 2000. It was replaced by the Speedway World Cup, another annual event, in 2001. Both competitions featured teams from the major speedway countries, usually in a series of meetings over the space of a week in the summer. The final World Cup Champions were Poland in 2017.
The Speedway World Pairs Championship was an annual speedway event held each year in different countries. Competing countries picked their top two riders to represent them (or in some cases, those who were available). The first competition was held in 1970 and the final competition was held in 1993. From 1994 the World Pairs was merged with the World Team Cup. As of 2018, a new pairs championship, the Speedway of Nations, has now replaced the Speedway World Cup on the sport's calendar.
Domestic competitions
Most European countries run their own domestic speedway leagues. The FIM affiliated governing bodies in each country operate league systems, normally comprising several divisions, in which the teams gain points throughout the season depending on results. Teams are placed into tables, placing them in order according to points accrued. Most commonly, each team races every other team in its league at home and away in each season, in a round-robin tournament. Meetings traditionally consist of two teams riding against each other with four riders in each race with two home team riders and two away team riders. Meetings usually feature fifteen heats and each rider is scheduled to ride four or five times. The team with the most points at the end of the meeting is the winner. Most league seasons end with play-offs – a series of meetings between the highest finishing teams to determine a league champion. The champions may be promoted to a higher division and the team finishing at the bottom are in some countries relegated to a lower division.
The majority of countries supplement the league system with one or more cup competitions. These are organised on a knock-out basis, the winner of each match proceeding to the next round and the loser taking no further part in the competition.
The major speedway nations in Europe are the United Kingdom, Sweden, Poland and Denmark. These countries run a number of leagues and have regular fixtures throughout the traditional speedway season that runs from March to October. On a smaller scale, competitions are also held in Argentina, Australia, Czech Republic, Italy, Russia, Slovenia and the United States. Some countries' top divisions feature highly paid star riders. In smaller countries and lower divisions, riders may be part-timers with a second job, or amateurs.
United Kingdom
The United Kingdom has three main domestic leagues, the SGB Premiership, the SGB Championship, and the National League, as well as three 'junior' amateur leagues. It also has a youth championship.
Poland
Speedway is one of the most popular sports in Poland and is governed by the Main Commission for Speedway Sport (Główna Komisja Sportu Żużlowego, GKSŻ) which is a part of the Polish Motor Union Polski Związek Motorowy (PZM). The PZM is a member of the FIM and the Union Européenne de Motocyclisme (UEM).
The Polish Extraleague has the highest average attendances for any sport in Poland. The first speedway meetings in Poland were held in the 1930s and league racing began in 1948.
There are three championships in Poland: individual (IMP), pairs (MPPK) and team (the DMP consisting of three leagues). The Junior under-21 championships also has three competitions: individual (MIMP), pairs (MMPPK) and team (MDMP). There are three leagues: Extraleague, First League and Second League. In the 2007 season, the Extraleague and First League had eight teams competing and the Second League had seven teams. The GKSŻ organizes the Golden Helmet, Silver Helmet (Under-21) and Bronze Helmet (Under-19) competitions. Individual meetings such as the Criterium of Polish Speedway League Aces – Mieczysław Połukard Memorial, Alfred Smoczyk Memorial and Edward Jancarz Memorial are also popular.
The Polish National team are the final champions of the now-defunct Speedway World Cup, having won the competition eight times in all. Poland has produced three Individual World Champions, Jerzy Szczakiel in 1973, Tomasz Gollob in 2010 and Bartosz Zmarzlik in 2019 and 2020. The Polish junior team won the Under-21 World Championship in 2005 and 2006 and since 2003 four Polish juniors have won the Under-21 Individual World Championship. In total, seven Polish riders have been World Champions at Under-21 level.
Sweden
Speedway in Sweden is governed by the Swedish Motorcycle and Snowmobile Federation (SVEMO). The first Swedish speedway league was founded in 1948 and copied the British format of league racing, including adopting the Swedish version of several British teams nicknames.
The Elite League (Elitserien) was established in 1982 and has ten teams. At the end of each season the top four teams ride in the play-offs in semi-finals and a final and the winner of the final are the Elitserien champions. The team finishing bottom of the league are relegated to the National league (Allsvenskan). The Allsvenskan has seven teams and before the introduction of the Elitserien in 1982 was the top flight speedway league in Sweden. As with the Allsvenskan, the top four teams at the end of each season ride in the play-offs in semi-finals and a final. The Allsvenskan Division One is the third tier of Swedish speedway with seven teams. The team finishing the season in first place are champions and can apply for promotion to the Allsvenskan, subject to having suitable facilities and sufficient finances.
Other competitions include the Swedish Individual Championship and the Swedish Junior Individual Championship. The Swedish Individual Championship is contested by 18 riders in a Grand Prix format with 20 heats. The Junior Individual Championship is for riders aged twenty-one years and under.
Denmark
Speedway in Denmark is administrated by Danmarks Motor Union (DMU). The sport was introduced into Denmark in the 1930s but it didn't boom until the 1970s. Notable Danish speedway riders today include – Nicki Pedersen, Bjarne Pedersen and Hans Nørgaard Andersen. Former rider, Ole Olsen won the World Championship three times and his success helped popularise the sport in Denmark. Since retiring Olsen has become an FIM Speedway Grand Prix race director. A popular Danish rider in the 1960s was Arne Pander, and in the 1980s Erik Gundersen, Jan O Pedersen and Hans Nielsen (who was also an active racer through the 1990s).
League competitions
There are three leagues in Denmark.:
Danish League (Dansk Speedway Liga)
Division One
Division Two
Speedway meetings are held between April and September. The Danish League (Dansk Speedway Liga) has six teams with meetings traditionally held on Wednesday evenings. At the end of each season the top four teams compete in the play-offs in semi-finals and a final. The winner of the final are the league champions. There is no promotion or relegation and membership of the Danish League is by application only. At the end of each season the top five teams in the Danish League compete in the Danish Super Cup, an end-of-season competition, held as a single event. It is hosted by the winning team from the previous season.
Both Division One and Division Two are the second and third tier and are mostly for amateur riders. Meetings are held on Saturdays with a mid-summer break. Division One can have a maximum of eight teams, with the remaining teams riding in Division Two. Meetings are staged using a four-team format. In principle, the team finishing bottom of Division One is relegated and replaced by the top team in Division Two as long as their parent club does not already have a team in Division One. However, this does not always happen for financial reasons. There is also no promotion and relegation if the bottom team in Division One and the top team in Division Two are operated by same club.
Other competitions
The Individual Speedway Danish Championship is a competition for riders holding a Danish passport and a valid DMU licence. Riders must submit their entries at least four weeks before the first meeting of the competition. Any riders who competed in the Speedway Grand Prix or World Championship Qualifying rounds during the previous season are seeded directly to the Final. The DMU may also seed other riders directly to the Final at their discretion. Either one or two semi-finals are staged depending on the number of riders entering the competition (excluding the seeded riders who go straight through to the Final). Riders are selected for these rounds according to the previous season's Danish averages. If one semi-final is held, the highest-placed riders (plus two reserves) qualify for the Final. If two semi-finals are held, the highest-placed riders (plus one reserve) from each meeting qualify for the Final. The winner of the Final is awarded a gold medal and declared Danish Individual Champion. The riders finishing second and third are awarded silver and bronze medals respectively. The final classification also determines which riders qualify for the World Individual Speedway Championship.
The Danish Under 21 Individual Speedway Championship is a competition for riders holding a Danish passport, a valid DMU licence, and who are under 21 years of age on 1 January in the year of the competition. Riders wishing to compete must submit their entries at least four weeks before the first meeting of the competition. If there are 72 or more entries, four quarter-finals are staged. If there are between 54 and 71 entries, three quarter-finals are staged. If there are fewer than 54 entries, two semi-finals are held. Riders are selected for these rounds according to the previous season's averages in Danish matches only. When four quarter-finals are staged, the top eight riders (plus one reserve) in each progress to the semi-finals. When three quarter-finals are staged, the top ten riders (plus two reserves) from one round, and the top eleven riders (plus one reserve) from each of the other rounds, progress to the semi-finals. The top eight riders (plus one reserve) from each semi-final meet in the Final. The winner of the Final is awarded a gold medal and declared Danish Junior Individual Champion. Riders finishing second and third are awarded silver and bronze medals respectively. The top five finishers qualify for the World Junior Speedway Championship.
There is a great depth of league speedway for all ages in Denmark. The Youth Leagues are for riders between eight and eighteen years of age and 80cc bikes are used. The Micro Leagues are for riders between three and ten years of age and 50cc bikes are used. And the Old Boys League is for riders over 33 years of age.
National team
Denmark enter a team in the Speedway World Cup. They won the competition in 2006, 2008 and 2012. Previously they won the Speedway World Team Cup in 1978, 1981, 1983, 1984, 1985, 1986, 1987, 1988, 1991, 1995 and 1997. Denmark also won the Speedway World Pairs Championship in 1979, 1985, 1986, 1987, 1988, 1989, 1990 and 1991.
Danish Grand Prix
The Danish Speedway Grand Prix is held in the Parken Stadium in Copenhagen
Australia
Although there was a short lived inter-state competition in Australia during the 1970s, due to the large size of the country riders have traditionally raced mostly at their local tracks, though the top riders often race away from 'home' for championship or other high-profile meetings.
The Australian Individual Speedway Championship is the oldest continuously running national speedway championship in the world having been run since 1926 with the exception of 1942–1945 when racing was suspended during World War II, and 1955–1961 when the championship was not held. The first championship was held at the Newcastle Showgrounds in Newcastle, New South Wales and was won by American rider Cec Brown. For a number of years qualification for the Australian Final came from the various State Championships held around the country. The Australian Final was held in various Australian states, usually on a rotating basis. The top places in the Final would then progress to the next stage of the World Championship qualifying. At times the next stage varied from the short lived Australasian Final which included riders from New Zealand, the Overseas Final which saw Commonwealth riders race with the Americans, or the Commonwealth Final which was restricted to riders from Commonwealth nations. The Australian Solo Final was run in the traditional single meeting format from 1926 to 2002 (though in the early years of the championship there was often more than one title contested as championships were held over anywhere from 3–6 laps, often depending on the size of the track). Since 2003 the Australian Championship has been run over a series of rounds (usually 3–5 rounds).
Australia also runs annual national Championship meetings for Under-16s (since 1982) and Under-21s (since 1987). These meetings are run in the traditional single meeting format and like the senior championship was for a number of years, the Finals are held in various Australian states on a rotating basis.
National team
Australia enter a team in both the Speedway World Cup and the Under-21 World Cup. They won the World Cup in 2001 and 2002. Previously they won the Speedway World Team Cup in 1976 and 1999. The Under-21 team placed second in the 2012 Under-2 World Cup.
For the first time, the Under-21 World Cup Final will be held outside Europe in 2015 with the Final scheduled to be held at the Olympic Park Speedway in Mildura on 31 October.
Australia Grand Prix
The Speedway Grand Prix of Australia was held in the Docklands Stadium in Melbourne from 2015 to 2017. Previously the SGP of Australia was held in 2002 at Stadium Australia.
Other nations
Introduced to Italy by occupying soldiers after World War II, speedway is most popular around the north-east of the country. The regions of Friuli-Venezia Giulia, Trentino-Alto Adige/Südtirol, Lombardy and Veneto host race meetings with the latter also hosting the Speedway Grand Prix of Italy in the town of Lonigo. The most successful speedway rider from Italy was Armando Castagna. Castagna was the only Italian professional speedway rider in the history of the sport, and qualified five times for an Individual World Final. Another former rider, Giuseppe Marzotto makes the GM speedway engines.
Speedway in Germany was overshadowed by its more popular track racing variant Sandbahn (Longtrack). However, the country occasionally hosts the Speedway Grand Prix of Germany and has produced one Speedway World Champion, Egon Müller in 1983. Another German rider is Martin Smolinski, who won the New Zealand Grand Prix in Auckland in March 2014. In 2018 German youngsters Norrick Blödorn and Ben Ernst won the world titles in 85 ccm and 250 ccm, showing the results of drastically improved support for young riders in the past decade.
On a smaller scale, it also occurs in Argentina, Austria, Belgium, Bulgaria, Croatia, Czech Republic, Estonia, Finland, France, Netherlands, Norway, New Zealand, Romania, Russia, USA, Slovakia, Slovenia, Ukraine, Hungary and Latvia.
See also
Auto Race (Japanese sport)
Dirt track racing
Grasstrack
Ice speedway
Outline of motorcycles and motorcycling
Track racing
Cycle speedway
Further reading
References
External links
Speedway World Cup Grand Prix
"Motor-Cycle Speed Demons", September 1934, Popular Science early article on the motorcycle sport with rare photos
Track racing
Sports originating in the United States | [
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230185 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rafael%20Palmeiro | Rafael Palmeiro | Rafael Palmeiro Corrales (born September 24, 1964) is a Cuban-American former Major League Baseball first baseman and left fielder. Palmeiro was an All-American at Mississippi State University before being drafted by the Chicago Cubs in 1985. He played for the Cubs (1986–1988), Texas Rangers (1989–1993, 1999–2003), and the Baltimore Orioles (1994–1998, 2004–2005).
He was named to the MLB All-Star Team four times, and won the Gold Glove three times. He is one of only six players in MLB history to be a member of both the 500 home run club and the 3,000 hit club. Days after recording his 3,000th hit, Palmeiro received a 10-game suspension for testing positive for an anabolic steroid.
Early life
Palmeiro was born in Havana, Cuba but moved to the United States at the age of seven. He graduated from Miami Jackson High School in Miami, Florida. Although he was drafted by the New York Mets in the 8th round of the 1982 draft, he did not sign.
College
Palmeiro was recruited by Ron Polk and enrolled at Mississippi State University, where he played college baseball for the Bulldogs in the Southeastern Conference (SEC). He was the first of two players to have ever won the SEC triple crown, both of whom are Mississippi State products. A teammate of Will Clark, the two were known as "Thunder and Lightning". Clark and Palmeiro were known to dislike each other, dating back to their time at Mississippi State. On June 11, 1985, Palmeiro signed with the Chicago Cubs as the 22nd pick in the 1st round of the 1985 draft. He was drafted as a compensation pick from the San Diego Padres, to whom the Cubs lost Tim Stoddard via free agency.
Minor league career (1985–1987)
In 1985, Palmeiro played with the Peoria Chiefs of the Class A level Midwest League. In his first professional season, Palmeiro batted .297 with 5 home runs and 51 RBI in 73 games. He played exclusively in the outfield.
Palmeiro played for the Pittsfield Cubs of the Class AA level Eastern League in 1986. With Pittsfield, Palmeiro played exclusively in the outfield and hit .306 with 12 home runs and 95 RBI in 140 games, before a September call up to the major leagues.
In 1987, Palmeiro played for the Iowa Cubs of the Class AAA level American Association. In 57 games Palmeiro hit .299 with 11 home runs and 41 RBI before being called up the major leagues. He played the outfield in 47 games and made his debut at 1B, playing 9 games.
Major league career
Chicago Cubs (1986–1988)
Palmeiro debuted on September 8, 1986 in a game between the Chicago Cubs and Philadelphia Phillies at Wrigley Field, as a left fielder. In his first season, he played 22 games, having a .247 batting average while having 12 RBIs and 3 home runs. In the next season, he played in 84 games, garnering 61 hits, 14 home runs and 30 RBIs with a .276 average. During his tenure with the Cubs, he normally played left field, though occasionally he would play other outfield positions or first base. Palmeiro was the runner up to National League batting champion Tony Gwynn in 1988 with a .307 batting average, only six points below Gwynn's. He had 178 hits, 8 home runs and 53 RBIs in 629 plate appearances and 152 games. He was named to the 1988 MLB All-Star Game, the first in his career.
During that year rumors spread about a relationship between Palmeiro and Ryne Sandberg's wife, Cindy. This led to issues in the locker room and after the 1988 season, Palmeiro was traded by the Cubs to the Texas Rangers along with Jamie Moyer and Drew Hall in exchange for Mitch Williams, Paul Kilgus, Steve Wilson, Curtis Wilkerson, Luis Benitez, and Pablo Delgado.
Texas Rangers (1989–1993)
Upon moving to the American League, Palmeiro was primarily used as a first baseman or designated hitter. Palmeiro blossomed as a hitter while with the Rangers, leading the league in hits in 1990 and doubles in 1991. In 1989, he hit for .275 that season, having 64 RBIs, 8 home runs and 154 hits. In 1990, he was third in the American League in batting. He hit for .319 during the season, while having 89 RBIs and 14 home runs and leading the league in hits. He hit 49 doubles in 1991 (a season high along with career high), while having 203 hits, 26 home runs and 88 RBIs for a .322 batting average. He was named to his second career All-Star Game that year. He dipped in every category in 1992, having 163 hits, 22 home runs, 85 RBIs and a .268 batting average.
He bounced back the following year (a contract season), having a career high 124 runs, 176 hits, a career high 37 home runs along with 105 RBIs and a .295 batting average. He was offered a five-year contract worth $26 million after the season. Despite that fact, he left the Rangers for the Orioles after they signed ex- Mississippi State teammate Will Clark.
Instead of getting a better deal, they signed Will Clark instead (for $30 million and five years), causing Palmeiro to call him a "low life", though he later apologized for saying that.
Baltimore Orioles (1994–1998)
Palmeiro signed a 5-year contract, worth more than $30 million. In his first season as an Oriole, Palmeiro hit 23 home runs, a season that was abbreviated due to a work stoppage. He had 76 RBIs (the last time he would have less than 100 RBIs until 2004) along with a .319 batting average. Prior to Palmeiro's 1995 season, he had hit more than 30 home runs only once (37 in 1993).
Starting in 1995, Palmeiro began a streak of 38+ home run years that continued through the 2003 season. He hit 373 home runs during this nine-season span, while also driving in over 100 runs in each of these seasons. However, Palmeiro never led the league in home runs, and he is history's most prolific home run hitter to have never won the home run crown.
That season, he led the team in home runs, batting average, and runs batted in. In the 1996 season, he hit 39 home runs, 181 hits, and 142 runs batted in and helped the Orioles qualify for the American League Wild Card. This was both his first postseason appearance in his career along with the first postseason appearance for the Orioles since 1983. In his first postseason, he had seven total hits, six RBIs and a combined .205 average while playing in all nine games the Orioles played, as they beat the Cleveland Indians in the 1996 American League Division Series to advance to the 1996 American League Championship Series before being beat by the New York Yankees. He finished 6th in MVP balloting, his highest finish up to that point in his career.
Despite having 109 strikeouts (a career high) and a .254 batting average, he had 110 RBIs, 156 hits along with 38 home runs in 1997 as he helped the team win their division for the first time since 1983. He also was awarded the Rawlings Gold Glove Award that season, his first ever. In the 1997 American League Division Series, the Orioles beat the Seattle Mariners in four games. In the postseason, he had 10 combined hits along with 2 RBIs and 1 home run and a .265 average in the 10 games he played in the postseason, as the Orioles once again advanced to the ALCS after beating the Seattle Mariners before losing to the Indians in six games. This would be the last time the Orioles would make the playoffs until 2012 and last time they would win a division title until 2014. The next season, his last with his first stint with the Orioles, he hit 43 home runs, to lead the team for the 4th time. He had 183 hits along with 121 RBIs and a .296 batting average. He was named to the 1998 MLB All-Star Game, his first since 1991. He also won a Gold Glove for the second straight year along with his first Silver Slugger Award, while finishing 18th in MVP balloting. In his time with the Orioles, he received MVP votes each year, though he never finished higher than 6th.
Texas Rangers (1999–2003)
Palmeiro was offered a 5-year, $50 million deal to stay with the Orioles, but instead agreed to a 5-year, $45 million contract to return to the Rangers in 1999, citing a desire to be close to family (he had remained in the Dallas area during his time with the Orioles).
Palmeiro played an average of 157 games per season in his second tenure with the Rangers. He had 47 home runs in his first season back with the Rangers, while hitting for .324 and having 183 hits. He finished 5th in the MVP balloting, his highest finish ever while being named to the 1999 MLB All-Star Game, his fourth and final selection. He was awarded the Gold Glove for the third straight year along with winning the Silver Slugger Award for his second straight and final year. The Gold Glove win was not without controversy, as he appeared in only 28 games as a first baseman while playing 128 games as the designated hitter. He finished 5th in the MVP balloting, having garnered a .324 batting average, 47 home runs, and 148 RBIs, all improvements from the previous season. He hit over 100 RBIs in each of his five seasons, along with 805 hits. He hit 214 home runs with the team in that span, though his batting average dipped each year, hitting .260 in his final year in 2003. His first season resulted in a division title. In the 1999 American League Division Series, his team was swept by the Yankees in three games. He had three hits and a .273 average for the series. This was his last postseason appearance. The team would finish last place in his remaining four seasons. Palmeiro was one of the few bright spots for the Rangers from 2000–2003, when he left the Rangers to re-join the Orioles.
On May 11, 2003, Palmeiro hit his 500th home run off David Elder in a game against the Cleveland Indians.
In 10 years with the team, he played in 1,573 games, garnering 1,692 hits, 321 home runs and 1,039 RBIs while compiling a .290 batting average.
Baltimore Orioles (2004–2005)
Palmeiro re-signed with the Baltimore Orioles in 2004, on a 1-year, $4 million contract. In his press conference, he claimed he was "a little bit older, a little bit wiser". He also said he didn't want to retire until he rejoined the Orioles and if he was inducted to the Hall of Fame, he would do so as an Oriole. His power fell significantly his first season back with the Orioles, having 142 hits, along with 23 home runs, 88 RBIs and a .258 batting average, all drops from the previous season. Despite this, he became one of only six players (the other five being Ken Griffey Jr, Mark McGwire, Jimmie Foxx, Albert Pujols and Manny Ramírez) in history to hit at least 200 home runs for two different clubs, doing so on September 13, 2004 off Justin Miller. Entering 2005, he was just 78 hits shy of 3,000. He hit his 563rd home run that season, passing Reggie Jackson on the all-time list. Just a few weeks later, on July 15, Palmeiro joined Hank Aaron, Willie Mays, Alex Rodriguez, and Eddie Murray as the only players in major league history to get 3,000 hits and 500 home runs. Shortly afterwards, Palmeiro was suspended 10 days for testing positive for steroids. He claimed he received a tainted vitamin b12 shot from Miguel Tejada. Upon returning he only played seven more games, during which he was booed by the home fans. He was sent home due to a nagging injury, but was told to stay home – largely because of his attempt to implicate his teammate. As of April 2016, he has yet to return to Baltimore. In his final season, he had 98 hits, 18 home runs, 60 RBIs and a .266 batting average in 110 total games played. He finished his career with 2,831 games played, the most by any player who never played in the World Series.
Career statistics
In 2,831 games over 20 seasons, Palmiero posted a .288 batting average (3,020-for-10,472) with 1,663 runs, 585 doubles, 38 triples, 569 home runs, 1,835 RBI, 97 stolen bases, 1,353 bases on balls, .371 on-base percentage and .515 slugging percentage. Defensively, he finished his career with a .994 fielding percentage primarily as a first baseman. He also played 213 games in the outfield, 209 as a left fielder. In 22 postseason games, he batted .244 (20-for-82) with 13 runs, 5 doubles, 4 home runs, 8 RBI and 6 walks.
Sugar Land Skeeters (2015)
On September 17, 2015, it was announced that Palmeiro would sign with the Sugar Land Skeeters of the Atlantic League of Professional Baseball to play alongside his son, Patrick Palmeiro, for one game. Palmeiro appeared in only one game for the Skeeters on September 18, 2015. Skeeter fans quickly gave him the nickname "The Saccharin Slugger."
Coming out of retirement (2018)
Palmeiro announced on January 5, 2018 that he wanted to return to Major League Baseball. On May 9, 2018, it was announced that Palmeiro and his son Patrick signed with the Cleburne Railroaders of the American Association of Independent Professional Baseball. On May 22, 2018 he hit his first professional home run since July 2005 when he was with the Orioles. He finished the season with a .301 batting average, 6 home runs, and 22 RBIs despite being limited to only 31 games due to injuries. On March 11, 2019, the Railroaders announced that Palmeiro and his son would return for the 2019 season. However, on May 15, the Railroaders released the pair, stating that Rafael wasn't fully healthy and wouldn't be able to play a full season after undergoing knee surgery earlier in the year.
Post-career honors
Palmeiro was inducted into the Mississippi State University Hall of Fame on October 11, 2008. In 2009, he was inducted into the National College Baseball Hall of Fame. In 2012 Rafael Palmeiro was inducted into the Mississippi Sports Hall of Fame.
Palmeiro became eligible for induction into the Baseball Hall of Fame in 2011. He received 64 votes, or 11% of total ballots cast; the threshold for entry is 75%. According to Barry M. Bloom on Major League Baseball's official website: "Palmeiro should have been a sure-fire first-ballot inductee, as a member of the 500-homer, 3,000-hit club, but was suspended in 2005 after testing positive for steroid use. He received only 11 percent of the vote." On January 8, 2014, Palmeiro received insufficient support to remain on the Hall of Fame ballot in future years, when he appeared on only 4.4% of ballots.
Steroids
Former Rangers teammate José Canseco identified Palmeiro as a fellow steroid user in his 2005 book, Juiced: Wild Times, Rampant 'Roids, Smash Hits & How Baseball Got Big, and claimed he personally injected Palmeiro with steroids. On March 17, 2005, Palmeiro appeared at a Congressional hearing about steroids in baseball and, while under oath, denied ever using steroids and stated, "Let me start by telling you this: I have never used steroids, period. I don't know how to say it any more clearly than that. Never."
On August 1, 2005, Palmeiro was suspended for ten days after testing positive for a steroid. The Washington Post reported that the steroid detected in Palmeiro's system was a "serious" one. According to The New York Times, Palmeiro tested positive for the potent anabolic steroid stanozolol. In a public statement, Palmeiro disclosed that an appeal of the suspension had already been denied. He released a statement saying, "I have never intentionally used steroids. Never. Ever. Period. Ultimately, although I never intentionally put a banned substance into my body, the independent arbitrator ruled that I had to be suspended under the terms of the program." According to Palmeiro, all of his previous tests over the two years including the 2003 sealed test were negative, and a test he took just three weeks after his positive test was also negative. The House Government Reform Committee would not seek perjury charges against Palmeiro, although they were not clearing him.
Palmeiro returned to Camden Yards following his 10-day suspension on August 11, 2005, although he did not play in the lineup until August 14. Coincidentally, this was the date that had been planned as "Rafael Palmeiro Appreciation Day" in celebration of his 500-home run, 3,000-hit milestone. It was canceled after Palmeiro's suspension. The Baltimore Sun reported that Palmeiro never offered an explanation for his positive test to the MLB arbitration panel, which ran contrary to his public statements. ESPN later reported that Palmeiro implicated Miguel Tejada to baseball's arbitration panel, suggesting a supplement provided to him by Tejada was responsible for his positive test. This supplement was supposedly vitamin B12, though it could have been tainted. Tejada and two unnamed teammates provided B12 samples to the panel, which did not contain stanozolol. However, the committee did say they found "substantial inconsistencies between Mr. Tejada's accounts and the accounts of players A and B." Tejada, who said he received shipments of B12 from the Dominican Republic, was later implicated for steroid use in the Mitchell Report.
Palmeiro continues to strongly deny ever having used steroids intentionally, telling The Baltimore Sun in June 2006, "Yes sir, that's what happened. It's not a story; it's the reality of what happened", and "I said what I said before Congress because I meant every word of it." Palmeiro passed a polygraph test in which he was not asked if he ever used steroids, but in which he did state that he unknowingly ingested them via a B12 injection. A 2005 New York Times article expressed one writer's belief that Palmeiro's story could perhaps be the truth.
In December 2007, Palmeiro was included in the Mitchell Report in which it was alleged that he used performance-enhancing drugs during his career. The report did not provide any new evidence and only recapped allegations made by José Canseco, Palmeiro's appearance before Congress, and his subsequent failed drug test. The report also details a conversation Larry Bigbie alleges he had with Palmeiro where he claims "Palmeiro asked him about his source of steroids and human growth hormone (the source was Kirk Radomski) and how the substances made him feel." Bigbie also stated that "Palmeiro denied in those conversations that he had ever used performance-enhancing substances himself."
On December 20, 2007, Palmeiro was also named in Jason Grimsley's unsealed affidavit as a user of amphetamines prior to their being banned by MLB.
Personal life
Palmeiro lives in Colleyville, Texas, with his wife. His son Preston played baseball for North Carolina State University and was drafted by the Baltimore Orioles organization in 2016, and currently plays with the Los Angeles Angels organization.
See also
List of Cubans
List of Cuban Americans
500 home run club
3,000 hit club
List of Major League Baseball home run records
List of Major League Baseball doubles records
List of Major League Baseball career home run leaders
List of Major League Baseball career hits leaders
List of Major League Baseball career doubles leaders
List of Major League Baseball career runs scored leaders
List of Major League Baseball career runs batted in leaders
List of Major League Baseball annual runs scored leaders
List of Major League Baseball annual doubles leaders
List of Major League Baseball players suspended for performance-enhancing drugs
List of Major League Baseball players named in the Mitchell Report
List of doping cases in sport
References
External links
Rafael Palmeiro suspended for steroid usage
1964 births
Living people
Sportspeople from Havana
American League All-Stars
Hispanic and Latino American sportspeople
Baltimore Orioles players
Chicago Cubs players
Cleburne Railroaders players
Cuban emigrants to the United States
Cuban sportspeople in doping cases
Gold Glove Award winners
Iowa Cubs players
Mississippi State Bulldogs baseball players
Major League Baseball designated hitters
Major League Baseball first basemen
Major League Baseball players from Cuba
Cuban expatriate baseball players in the United States
Major League Baseball players suspended for drug offenses
National League All-Stars
Baseball players from Miami
People from Colleyville, Texas
Peoria Chiefs players
Pittsfield Cubs players
Texas Rangers players
National College Baseball Hall of Fame inductees
Silver Slugger Award winners
All-American college baseball players | [
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230188 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yonkers%20Trot | Yonkers Trot | The Yonkers Trot is a harness racing event for three-year-old Standardbred trotters raced at a distance of one mile at Yonkers Raceway in Yonkers, New York. The race was created in 1955 to join the Hambletonian and the Kentucky Futurity to form the new United States Trotting Triple Crown.
Historical race events
Driven by Joe O'Brien, California runner Scott Frost followed up his victory in the Hambletonian Stakes with a win in the 1955 Yonkers Trot inaugural. The colt went on to win the Kentucky Futurity to become the first winner of the Trotting Triple Crown.
In 1967, eight of the thirteen Yonkers Trot runners broke stride helping Harry Pownall, Sr. drive longshot Pomp to victory.
Reminiscent of the day when Ron Turcotte aboard the legendary Thoroughbred Secretariat obliterated the Belmont Park track record by 2 3/5 seconds in winning the 1973 Belmont Stakes, in 1977 Billy Haughton drove Green Speed to a new Yonkers Trot record by the same 2 3/5 seconds margin.
The 2000 Yonkers Trot saw Jacqueline Ingrassia become the first female driver to ever win a leg of a harness racing Triple Crown event when she guided Goalfish to victory.
In 2016, Paula Wellwood became the first female trainer to win not only the Yonkers Trot but the U.S. Trotting Triple Crown with Marion Marauder.
Due to renovations at Yonkers Raceway, the race was hosted by Hawthorne Race Course in Chicago. It was won by Windsong's Legacy who posted the fastest mile in the 34 years that harness racing had been run at the Hawthorne track.
Race locations
1955–2003, & 2006–present: Yonkers Raceway, Yonkers, New York
2004: Hawthorne Race Course (Chicago, Illinois)
2005: Freehold Raceway (Freehold Borough, New Jersey)
Race distances
From inception in 1955 through 1962, the Yonkers Trot was raced over a distance of 1 1/16 miles (1710 metres).
Records
Most wins by a driver
6 – Stanley Dancer (1959, 1965, 1968, 1971, 1972, 1975)
Most wins by a trainer
6 – Stanley Dancer (1959, 1965, 1968, 1971, 1972, 1975)
Stakes record (1 mile)
1:53 1/5 – Windsong's Legacy (2005 at Hawthorne)
1:54 1/5 – Archangel (2012 at Yonkers)
Stakes record (1 1/16 miles)
2:10 3/5 – Duke Rodney (1961 at Yonkers)
Yonkers Trot winners
References
External links
Yonkers Raceway
Harness races in the United States
Harness races for three-year-old trotters
United States Triple Crown of Harness Racing
Recurring sporting events established in 1955
1955 establishments in New York (state) | [
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230189 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/N%C3%A9stor%20Kirchner | Néstor Kirchner | Néstor Carlos Kirchner Jr. (; 25 February 195027 October 2010) was an Argentine lawyer and politician who served as the President of Argentina from 2003 to 2007, Governor of Santa Cruz Province from 1991 to 2003, Secretary General of UNASUR and the first gentleman during the first tenure of his wife, Cristina Fernández de Kirchner. He was President of the Justicialist Party from 2008 to 2010. Ideologically, he identified himself as a Peronist and a progressive, with his political approach called Kirchnerism.
Born in Río Gallegos, Santa Cruz, Kirchner studied law at the National University of La Plata. He met and married Cristina Fernández at this time, returned with her to Río Gallegos at graduation, and opened a law firm. Commentators have criticized him for a lack of legal activism during the Dirty War, an issue he would involve himself in as president. Kirchner ran for mayor of Río Gallegos in 1987 and for governor of Santa Cruz in 1991. He was reelected governor in 1995 and 1999 due to an amendment of the provincial constitution. Kirchner sided with Buenos Aires provincial governor Eduardo Duhalde against President Carlos Menem.
Although Duhalde lost the 1999 presidential election, he was appointed president by the Congress when previous presidents Fernando de la Rúa and Adolfo Rodríguez Saá resigned during the December 2001 riots. Duhalde suggested that Kirchner run for president in 2003 in a bid to prevent Menem's return to the presidency. Menem won a plurality in the first round of the presidential election but, fearing that he would lose in the required runoff election, he resigned; Kirchner became president as a result.
Kirchner took office on 25 May 2003. Roberto Lavagna, credited with the economic recovery during Duhalde's presidency, was retained as minister of economy and continued his economic policies. Argentina negotiated a swap of defaulted debt and repaid the International Monetary Fund. The National Institute of Statistics and Census intervened to underestimate growing inflation. Several Supreme Court judges resigned while fearing impeachment, and new justices were appointed. The amnesty for crimes committed during the Dirty War in enforcing the full-stop and due-obedience laws and the presidential pardons were repealed and declared unconstitutional. This led to new trials for the military who served during the 1970s. Argentina increased its integration with other Latin American countries, discontinuing its automatic alignment with the United States dating to the 1990s. The 2005 midterm elections were a victory for Kirchner, and signaled the end of Duhalde's supremacy in Buenos Aires Province.
Instead of seeking reelection, Kirchner stepped aside in 2007 in support of his wife, who was elected president. He participated in Operation Emmanuel to release FARC hostages, and was narrowly defeated in the 2009 midterm election for deputy of Buenos Aires Province. Kirchner was appointed Secretary General of UNASUR in 2010. He and his wife were involved (either directly or through their close aides) in the 2013 political scandal known as the Route of the K-Money, even though no judicial investigation ever found any proof of wrongdoing by Néstor or Cristina Kirchner. Kirchner died of cardiac arrest on 27 October 2010, and received a state funeral.
Early life
Kirchner was born Néstor Carlos Kirchner Jr. on 25 February 1950, in Río Gallegos, Santa Cruz, a federal territory at the time. His father, Néstor Carlos Kirchner Sr., of German-Swiss descent, met the Chilean María Juana Ostoić, of Croatian descent, by telegraphy. They had three children: Néstor, Alicia, and María Cristina. Néstor was part of the third generation of Kirchners living in the city. As a result of pertussis, he developed strabismus at an early age; however, he refused medical treatment because he considered his eye part of his self-image. When Kirchner was in high school he briefly considered becoming a teacher, but poor diction hampered him; he was also unsuccessful at basketball.
Kirchner moved to La Plata in 1969 to study law at the National University. During this period, the decline of the Argentine Revolution, the return of former president Juan Perón from exile, the election of Héctor Cámpora as president, his resignation and the election of Perón, and the beginning of the Dirty War had led to severe political turmoil. Kirchner joined the University Federation for the National Revolution (FURN), a political student group whose relationship with the Montoneros guerrillas is a matter of debate. Kirchner was not a leader of the group. He was present at the Ezeiza massacre, in which right-wing Peronist snipers opened fire on a celebration of Juan Perón's return at the Ezeiza International Airport. He was also present at the expulsion of Montoneros from Plaza de Mayo. Although Kirchner met many members of the Montoneros, he was not a member of the group. By the time the Montoneros were outlawed by Perón, he had left FURN.
In 1974, Kirchner met Cristina Fernández, three years his junior, and they quickly fell in love. They were married after a courtship limited to six months by the political turmoil in the country. At the civil ceremony, Kirchner's friends sang the Peronist song "Los Muchachos Peronistas". He graduated a year later, returned to Patagonia with Cristina, and established a law firm with fellow attorney Domingo Ortiz de Zarate. Cristina joined the firm in 1979. By the time of Kirchner's graduation and move to the Patagonia, Juan Perón had died, his vice president and wife, Isabel Perón, had become president. Isabel Perón was unseated by a coup d'état which installed a military government. The Kirchners worked for banks and financial groups which filed foreclosures, since the Central Bank's 1050 ruling had raised mortgage loan interest rates, and also acquired 21 real-estate lots for a low price when they were about to be auctioned. Their law firm defended military personnel accused of committing crimes during said war. Forced disappearances were common during the Dirty War, but unlike other lawyers of the time the Kirchners never signed a habeas corpus. Julio César Strassera, prosecutor in the 1985 Trial of the Juntas case against the military, criticized the Kirchners' lack of legal actions against the military, and considered their later interest in the issue a form of hypocrisy.
The Dirty War eventually ended, and the National Reorganization Process allowed political activity in preparation for a return to democracy. Kirchner led one of the three internal factions of the local Justicialist Party (PJ), but Peronist Arturo Puricelli prevailed in the primary elections. Kirchner founded the Ateneo Juan Domingo Perón organization, which supported deposed president Isabel Perón and promoted political dialogue with the military. Cristina Fernández became an attorney of the PJ in Santa Cruz, with the help of Rafael Flores, a former friend from the FURN. Raúl Alfonsín, who was running for president for the Radical Civic Union (UCR), denounced an agreement between the military and the Peronist unions which sought an amnesty for the military. Kirchner organized a rally on behalf of Rodolfo Ponce, a union leader mentioned by Alfonsín in his denouncement. Alfonsín won the 1983 presidential election, and Puricelli was elected governor of Santa Cruz. Puricelli sought to unify the local Peronist movement by adding members of the other factions into his government, and appointed Kirchner president of the provincial social-welfare fund.
Kirchner quickly expanded the activities and scope of his office, building a parallel state. This soon started a conflict with Puricelli. Instead of being fired, Kirchner resigned and accused the governor of reducing the funds for social-welfare. He ran for mayor of Río Gallegos in 1987, and won by the slim margin of 110 votes. Kirchner's friend, Rudy Ulloa Igor, helped him to victory by registering some groups of Chilean immigrants to vote (immigrants were allowed to vote in mayoral elections), and persuading them to vote for Kirchner. Julio de Vido and Carlos Zannini began working with Kirchner at this time. Kirchner used the state-owned media to promote his activities. The Peronist Ricardo del Val was elected governor that year, and the province was impacted by inflation in 1989. Kirchner became the main opponent of del Val, who was impeached and removed from office in 1990 due to the inflation crisis.
Governor of Santa Cruz
Kirchner ran for governor of Santa Cruz in 1991. Although he received only 30 percent of the vote, below the 36 percent of the UCR, he was elected due to the Ley de Lemas that added the votes for the Peronist faction of Puricelli to his own. When Kirchner took office, Santa Cruz was experiencing an economic crisis, with high unemployment and a budget deficit equal to 1.2 billion pesos, which amounted to an equal number of U.S. dollars because of the Convertibility plan. He expanded the number of provincial Supreme Court justices from three members to five and appointed three judges loyal to him; this gave him control of the provincial judiciary. Kirchner was criticized for preventing the investigation of corruption cases. Santa Cruz received 535 million pesos in oil royalties in 1993, which Kirchner deposited in a foreign bank. He was elected to the Constituent Assembly which drafted the 1994 amendment of the Argentine Constitution proposed by the Peronist president Carlos Menem. Kirchner voted against the amendment that would allow the reelection of the president, which was approved. Locally, he proposed an amendment to the provincial constitution authorizing indefinite reelection of the governor. Menem and Kirchner were reelected to their respective offices in 1995. Kirchner established a faction in the PJ opposing Menem's neoliberal economic policies, but Eduardo Duhalde, governor of the populous Buenos Aires province, ignored him and rallied a stronger opposition to Menem within the PJ.
The number of state workers grew from 12,000 to 70,000 during Kirchner's administration. The creation of private-sector jobs in the province was minimal, and private companies were driven away. A local journalist interviewed by journalist Jorge Lanata said that this placed de facto restrictions on economic freedom and allowed Kirchner to control the population. Most available jobs were in public works.
With Menem constitutionally restricted from running for a third presidential term, Duhalde ran for president in 1999. Kirchner sided with Duhalde in his dispute with Menem, and sought reelection as governor of Santa Cruz. The PJ was defeated on the national level by the radical Fernando de la Rúa, who became president. Kirchner was reelected, despite the growth of the UCR in the province. Following an economic crisis, De la Rúa resigned two years later during the December 2001 riots. The Congress appointed Adolfo Rodríguez Saá, governor of San Luis, as interim president. When Rodríguez Saá also resigned, Duhalde was appointed president. He was the politician with the highest legitimacy to be appointed president, as he had placed second in the 1999 elections and won the 2001 legislative elections in the Buenos Aires province, the district of Argentina with the largest population. He slowly restored the economy, and hastened the presidential election when two piqueteros were killed during a demonstration. However, the provincial elections were held on their original dates.
2003 presidential election
Carlos Menem ran for a new term as president in 2003, and Eduardo Duhalde tried to prevent it. Instead of holding primary elections within the PJ, the 2003 elections used a variant of the Ley de Lemas. All the Peronist candidates were allowed to run in the general election, using their own tickets. Although Kirchner ran for president with Duhalde's support, he was not the president's first choice. Trying to prevent a third term for Menem, Duhalde approached Santa Fe governor Carlos Reutemann and Córdoba governor José Manuel de la Sota; Reutemann declined, and De la Sota did not run because he was insufficiently popular. Duhalde also unsuccessfully approached Mauricio Macri, Adolfo Rodríguez Saá, Felipe Solá, and Roberto Lavagna, all of whom refused to run. Duhalde initially resisted supporting Kirchner, fearing that Kirchner would ignore him if elected. Kirchner run on the Front for Victory ticket, one of the several fronts put up by the PJ. Since Kirchner was identified with the centre-left, Duhalde appointed the centre-right Daniel Scioli as his vice-presidential candidate. Only a handful of Peronist governors supported either candidate; most remained neutral, awaiting the election to forge a relationship with the victor.
The general election was held on 27 April. Menem won the first round with 24.5 percent of the vote, followed by Kirchner with 22.2 percent. The conservative Ricardo López Murphy finished third, substantially behind the two main candidates. Since Menem was well short of the threshold required to win, a runoff election was scheduled for 18 May. By this time, however, Menem's public image had deteriorated, and polls showed Kirchner receiving 60 to 70 percent of the vote. To avoid a humiliating defeat, Menem pulled out of the runoff in a move criticized by the other candidates. The judiciary declined requests for a new election and refused to sanction a runoff election between Kirchner and López Murphy, although López Murphy said he would not have participated in any event. The election was validated by the Congress, and Kirchner became president on 25 May 2003. Kirchner's 22.2 percent is the lowest vote percentage ever recorded for an Argentine president in a free election.
Local elections were held in October. The mayor of Buenos Aires, Aníbal Ibarra, was reelected in a runoff against Mauricio Macri. Neither were Peronists, but Ibarra supported Kirchner and Macri was supported by Duhalde. Duhalde remained an influential figure in the Buenos Aires province; his ally Felipe Solá was elected governor by a landslide, and the PJ received its highest number of deputies since 1983 and won mayoral elections in several cities lost to the UCR in 1999. The three leading candidates in the Buenos Aires province were all Peronists. Victories in the other provinces gave the PJ control of the Congress, and three-quarters of Argentina's governors were Peronists. According to journalist Mariano Grondona, Argentine politics had become a dominant-party system.
Presidency
First days
Kirchner took office as president of Argentina on 25 May 2003. Contrary to tradition, the ceremony was held at the Palace of the Argentine National Congress rather than Casa Rosada. He announced that he would spearhead change on many issues, from politics to culture. The ceremony was attended by the provincial governors, Supreme Court president Julio Nazareno, the heads of the armed forces, and Cuban leader Fidel Castro. Raúl Alfonsín was the only former president in attendance. Kirchner walked to the Casa Rosada along Avenida de Mayo, breaking with protocol to get close to the people, and was accidentally hit in the head with a camera.
As he was elected with a small percentage of the vote, Kirchner sought to increase his political clout and public image. He sought political allies in all political parties, not just the PJ. The Radicales K supported him from within the UCR. This practice of reaching out to multiple parties became known as "Transversalism". Striking an "anti-establishment image", Kirchner set about creating "a sense of political renewal" in Argentina, despite the fact that many of his government associates came from the traditional political class. He retained four members of Duhalde's cabinet. Economy Minister Roberto Lavagna, credited with the economic recovery, was kept to ensure that Kirchner maintained the economic policies laid down during the previous administration. Ginés González García stayed as Minister of Health. Anibal Fernandez was moved to the Ministry of the Interior and José Pampuro to the Defense Ministry. Kirchner brought in four members of his cabinet from his days as governor of Santa Cruz. Alberto Fernández, who organized his political campaign, was appointed chief of the cabinet of ministers. Sergio Acevedo was placed in charge of intelligence. Julio de Vido was appointed Minister of Federal Planning, an office similar to his provincial one. Since the appointment of relatives was not unusual in Argentina, Kirchner's appointment of his sister Alicia as Minister of Social Development was uncontroversial. Chancellor Rafael Bielsa was from another political party, FREPASO.
Relations with the judiciary
The Argentine judiciary had been unpopular since the presidency of Carlos Menem, most of whose judicial appointments were based on loyalty; his judiciary was known as the "automatic majority". Kirchner sought to remove the most controversial judges and organized the impeachment of Supreme Court president Julio Nazareno, who chose to resign. Judge Adolfo Vázquez also resigned before impeachment, citing personal reasons. Judges Eduardo Moline O'Connor and Guillermo López also resigned under similar circumstances. The vacancies were well received by the public, boosting Kirchner's popularity.
He arranged a new system to appoint judges. Instead of simply proposing a new judge candidate to the Congress, the presidency first released names of a number of potential candidates, who were then evaluated by several non-governmental organizations, who assessed if the candidate was suitable as a judge. The ministry of justice compiled all the support and criticism, and the president then decided which candidate would be proposed to the Congress, which made the final decision, as under the previous system. Raúl Zaffaroni, a former FREPASO politician, was the first judicial appointment under the new system. He was followed by Elena Highton de Nolasco, the first woman appointed to the Supreme Court. The appointment of Carmen Argibay (another female judge) was controversial, since Argibay was an atheist and a supporter of legal abortion. The judges held liberal views on criminal justice, countering social demands for harsher, pro-victim policies after the murder of Axel Blumberg. However, the new Supreme Court had little political power, as the national government ignored all rulings that were not favorable.
Economic policy
The pillars of the economic plan were trade and fiscal budget surpluses and a high exchange rate for the United States dollar. The surplus was increased by taxes levied during de la Rúa's presidency and the devaluation which occurred during the Duhalde administration. Kirchner sought to rebuild the Argentine industrial base, public works and public services, renegotiating the operation of public services privatized by Carlos Menem and owned by foreign companies. His policies were accompanied by a nationalist rhetoric sympathetic to the poor. However, despite the financial prosperity, there was no significant decrease in the number of people living in poverty, which was 8 to 10 million people, or almost 25% of the country.
Kirchner and Lavagna negotiated a swap of defaulted national debt in 2005, a write-down to one-third of the original debt. Kirchner refused a structural adjustment program, and instead made a single payment to the IMF with Central Bank reserves. Although the economy grew at an eight-percent annual rate during Kirchner's term, much of its growth was due to favorable international conditions rather than Argentine policies. Argentina was benefited by the increase of the international price of soybean and other foods. However, some argued that this economic growth can also be attributed to Kirchners policies to increase domestic demand. Foreign investment remained low because of the Argentine hostility towards the IMF, the U.S. and the United Kingdom, the re-nationalization of privatized companies (such as the water supply, managed by the French company Suez), diplomatic isolation and state interventionism. The energy sector suffered, and lack of investment reduced energy reserves during the 2000s.
Lavagna proposed to slow economic growth and control inflation. Kirchner rejected this, promoting wage increases to reduce economic inequality and extending unemployment insurance and other types of social welfare. Public services such as public transportation, electricity, gas and water supply were subsidized and kept at low prices. Food industries were subsidized as well. The subsidies eventually expanded to several uncommon areas. This increased the economic activity, but also increased inflation and reduced the private investment in those areas. Unable to control inflation, the government influenced the National Institute of Statistics and Census of Argentina, which under-reported it, as well as poverty (which was calculated with the inflation figures). The superpowers law, sanctioned during the crisis, was prorogated and eventually made permanent in 2006; this law allowed the president to rearrange the budget with supervision from the Congress. Kirchner sought to win over the Argentine Workers' Central Union and leaders of more moderate piquetero factions to reduce the chances of strikes and protests. He nevertheless continued to oppose hard-line elements of the piquetero movement, such as that of Raúl Castells. Kirchner's policy helped to fragment the piqueteros, with some declaring their allegiance to him and others continuing to oppose him. Their usual system of protest (blocking streets) made them highly unpopular. However, Kirchner refused to suppress the piquetero demonstrations to avoid the risk of further violence.
Lavagna refused to run for senator in the 2005 midterm elections, and criticized the overpricing of public works managed by Minister of Federal Planning Julio de Vido. As a result, Kirchner asked Lavagna to resign. Finance secretary Guillermo Nielsen, who managed the debt restructuring, also resigned. Felisa Miceli, head of Banco de la Nación Argentina, replaced Lavagna as Minister of Economy. Miceli resigned in 2007, months before the presidential elections, because of a scandal over a bag with a large amount of money which was found in her office bathroom. She was replaced by Secretary of Industry Miguel Gustavo Peirano.
Foreign policy
Kirchner took a pragmatic approach to Argentine foreign policy, and Argentina–United States relations did not continue the special relations of the 1990s. Chancellor Rafael Bielsa called the relationship between the countries "cooperation without cohabitation" in contrast to that of the Menem era, which was known as "carnal relations". Kirchner opposed the proposed Free Trade Area of the Americas, as it was based on majority rule among all the countries of the Americas, whereas he preferred a proportional representation system that would have given the Mercosur bloc more influence. The 4th Summit of the Americas, hosted in Mar del Plata, ended with violent protests against U.S. President George W. Bush; negotiations stalled, and the FTAA was not implemented. Kirchner told the United Nations that, although he opposed terrorism, he did not support the War on Terror. He refused to receive U.S. Secretary of Defense Donald Rumsfeld, and sent forces to the United Nations Stabilisation Mission in Haiti.
Kirchner sought increased integration with other Latin American countries. He revived and tried to strengthen the Mercosur trade bloc and improved relations with Brazil, but without automatically aligning with that country, the regional power of South America. The president tried to keep a middle ground between Brazil and Venezuela, since he considered the Brazilian Luiz Inácio Lula da Silva too conservative, and the Venezuelan Hugo Chávez too anti-American. Kirchner worked with left-wing presidents Lula, Chilean Ricardo Lagos, Chávez, Fidel Castro from Cuba and Evo Morales from Bolivia. He established a political alliance with Chávez's government, and by 2008, Argentinian exports to Venezuela were quadruple what they were in 2002. A bilateral military commission was established with Venezuela, through which some technological exchange took place.
2005 midterm elections
Kirchner soon distanced himself from Duhalde, removing those close to the former president from the government to reduce his political influence. He also sought supporters across the social and political spectrum to counter Duhalde's influence in the party. Although Duhalde was not initially against Kirchner, Kirchner tried to prevent the presence of alternative leaderships within the PJ. However, they put their differences behind them during the October 2003 legislative elections. Their dispute was fanned by the political weight of Buenos Aires province (the most populous in Argentina, with almost 40 percent of the national vote), and continued through the 2005 midterm elections. Without consensus in the PJ for a candidate for senator in the Buenos Aires province, both leaders had their wives run for office: Hilda González de Duhalde for the PJ and Cristina Fernández de Kirchner for the Front for Victory, which contested the election as a different party. Cristina Kirchner won the election. As in 2003, the elections were defined by Peronist factions; the opposition parties could not put up a united national front. The victory gave Kirchner the confidence to remove Lavagna, Rafael Bielsa, Jose Pampuro, and Alicia Kirchner from his cabinet and replace them with ministers who, though less well-known, had perspectives closer to his own.
Human rights policy
Although the Dirty War ended in the eighties, Kirchner considered it an unresolved issue. In his inaugural speech, he supported human rights organizations which sought the incarceration of the military connected with the National Reorganization Process. He also ordered the top military leadership to retire. Kirchner sent a bill to the Congress to annul the full stop law and the Law of Due Obedience, which had halted trials of the military for crimes related to the Dirty War. The laws had been repealed in 1998, but that repeal had little legal significance, as only an annulment would reopen the cases. Although this initiative was opposed by Duhalde and Scioli, most legislators considered it a symbolic gesture since the laws' constitutionality would be decided by the Supreme Court. Both laws were annulled by the Congress in August 2003, and many cases were reopened as a result. The Supreme Court declared the laws, and Menem's presidential pardons, unconstitutional in 2005. Jorge Julio López, witness in a trial of police officer Miguel Etchecolatz, disappeared in 2006. This caused a national scandal, as it was suspected that he was disappeared to intimidate other witnesses in the upcoming trials, and the government was unable to locate him.
Kirchner also changed the extradition policy, allowing extradition for people prosecuted abroad and not facing charges in Argentina. He also supported the requests by human rights organizations to turn the former detention centers into memorials for the disappeared. Argentina became a signatory of the UN Convention on the Non-Applicability of Statutory Limitations to War Crimes and Crimes Against Humanity in 2003. A creative interpretation of the convention by the courts allowed them to circumvent the statutory limitations to crimes committed decades in the past, and also the ex post facto applicability of laws that were not in force at the time of the crimes.
The Mothers of the Plaza de Mayo held their final demonstration in 2006, believing that Kirchner, unlike previous presidents, was not their enemy. They became political allies of Kirchner, who placed them in prominent locations during his speeches, and the group became a powerful NGO. He further underscored civilian control over the military by appointing Nilda Garré — who had been a political prisoner during the Dirty War — the country's first woman Minister of Defense. As a result of his policies and approach, relations between the civilian authorities and the military remained tense throughout Kirchner's presidency.
Although Kirchner repudiated the military forces who participated in the Dirty War, he overlooked the guerrilla movements of the time. The government ignored the 30th anniversary of the ERP attack on the tank regiment in Azul and the 15th anniversary of the 1989 attack on La Tablada barracks. According to Rosendo Fraga, Kirchner downplayed the presence of terrorist organizations during the Dirty War. Guerrillas who committed suicide or who were executed by their own organizations were re-categorized in 2006 as victims of state terrorism, and their survivors were compensated by the state. However, victims of the guerrillas were not compensated. Journalist Ceferino Reato said that the Kirchners sought to replace the theory of the two demons, which blamed the Dirty War on both the military and the guerrillas, with a "theory of angels and demons", which blamed only the military.
After the presidency
Kirchner did not run for a reelection in the 2007 presidential elections. His wife, Cristina Fernández de Kirchner, ran instead. Media observers suspected that Kirchner stepped down as president to circumvent the term limit, swapping roles with his wife. Cristina Kirchner was elected, and Néstor Kirchner became First Gentleman. He remained highly influential during his wife's term, supervising the economy and leading the PJ. Their marriage has been compared with those of Juan and Eva Perón and Bill and Hillary Clinton.
He participated in Operation Emmanuel in Colombia in December 2007, which sought to release a group of FARC hostages, including Colombian politician Íngrid Betancourt. Kirchner returned to Argentina after negotiations failed. The hostages were freed a year later during Operation Jaque, a covert operation by the Colombian military.
Néstor Kirchner played an active role in the 2008 government conflict with the agricultural sector, when Cristina Kirchner introduced a new sliding-scale taxation system for agricultural exports that raised custom taxes to soybean exports to 44%. At that time, he became president of the Justicialist Party and publicly supported his wife in the conflict; Kirchner accused the agricultural sector of attempting a coup d'état. He spoke in support of a bill to set the taxes by law at a demonstration at the Palace of the Argentine National Congress. Many senators who had supported the government rejected the proposal, and the voting was tied 36–36. Vice-president Julio Cobos, president of the Chamber of Senators, cast the decisive vote in opposition to the measure.
In the June 2009 legislative elections, Kirchner was defeated by Francisco de Narváez of the Union PRO coalition for National Deputy of Buenos Aires Province. The Front for Victory was defeated in the Buenos Aires, Santa Fe and Córdoba, and the Kirchners lost the Congressional majority. Voter disenchantment with the Kirchners was caused by inflation, crime and the previous year's agricultural conflict, which cost them rural support. The Kirchners pushed a media law through during the Congress' lame-duck session. The Kirchners described it as an antitrust law to limit media ownership, but critics considered instead that it was used to reduce the freedom of the press.
Kirchner was nominated by Ecuador for Secretary General of the Union of South American Nations (UNASUR), but was rejected by Uruguay when Uruguay and Argentina were involved in a pulp-mill dispute. The dispute was resolved in 2010; new Uruguayan president José Mujica supported Kirchner, who was unanimously elected UNASUR's first secretary-general at a member-state summit in Buenos Aires on 4 May. Kirchner successfully mediated the 2010 Colombia–Venezuela diplomatic crisis.
Style and ideology
Kirchner was often labelled a left-wing and progressive president, with the cultural critic Alejandro Kaufman stating that Kirchner was "an Argentine social democrat: a centre-left Peronist", who had been elected on a "moderate-progressive" platform. However, that assessment is relative. Although he was left of previous Argentine presidents from Raúl Alfonsín to Eduardo Duhalde and contemporary Brazilian president Luiz Inácio Lula da Silva, he was right of other Latin American presidents such as Hugo Chávez and Fidel Castro. Kirchner's nationalist approach to the Falkland Islands sovereignty dispute was closer to the right, and he did not consider left-wing policies such as the socialization of production or the nationalization of public services which were privatized during the Menem presidency. He did not attempt to modify church–state relations or reduce the armed forces. Kirchner's economic views were influenced by his tenure in the government of Santa Cruz: a province rich in oil, gas, fish and tourism, with an economy focused on the primary sector. Usually avoiding long-term policies, he moved left or right according to circumstances. Many leftist activists in Argentina were cynical about the sincerity of his commitment to progressive ideals and to aiding the country's underclass.
A Peronist, Kirchner handled political power as Peronist leaders have traditionally done. He nevertheless sought to portray himself as being different from previous Peronist leaders. He made frequent use of controversies with other political or social forces and the polarization of public opinion, which became characteristic of his political style. This strategy was used against the financial sector, the military and police, foreign countries, international bodies, newspapers, and Duhalde himself with varying degrees of success. Kirchner sought to generate an image contrasting with those of former presidents Carlos Menem and Fernando de la Rúa. Menem was seen as frivolous and De la Rúa as doubtful, so Kirchner tried to be seen as serious and determined.
He sought to concentrate political power, and the emergency superpowers law giving discretionary powers to the president to change the national budget was periodically renewed. The Front for Victory (conceived as a lema of the PJ) became a political alliance of the PJ, pro-Kirchner factions in other parties, and minor left-wing parties. The progressivist population, lacking leadership since the crisis which discredited the UCR, also supported the new coalition. Most Peronists simply defected to the new party, and the end of the economic crisis and the discretionary control of state finances allowed Kirchner to discipline his allies and co-opt his rivals. As a consequence, the Congress became compliant and the opposition was unable to present a credible alternative to the government. In addition to concentrating power, Kirchner micromanaged most government tasks or assigned them to trusted aides regardless of cabinet hierarchy. He managed relations with the United States and Brazil, leaving relations with Bolivia and Venezuela in the hands of Minister of Federal Planning Julio de Vido. There were no cabinet meetings during Kirchner's presidency, rare in a national government; this may have been influenced by his governance of Santa Cruz, a sparsely-populated province in which the cabinet was of little use and decisions were primarily made by the governor.
Kirchner had a disregard for bilateral relations whenever these interfered with his domestic policies. As such he cut down gas export to Chile in 2004 despite Chilean protests, clashed with Uruguay over the envionmental impact of a planned pulp mill and had trade disputes with Brazil. During his tenure Kirchner left in the lurch numerous World leaders, including President of Vietnam Trần Đức Lương.
Kirchner was a staunch opponent of capital punishment and manifested his posture in the aftermath of the Execution of Saddam Hussein, when, while acknowledging the crimes committed by Hussein, he called for the abolishment of capital punishment, condemning the execution.
Allegations of embezzlement
The Skanska case occurred during Kirchner's presidency, during which several members of de Vido's ministry were accused of bribery in requests for tender for pipeline construction, based on a tape recording of Skanska employees discussing the bribes. The case was closed in 2011, when it was ruled that the tape was not acceptable evidence and there was no overpricing. It was reopened in 2016 (with Cristina Fernández de Kirchner no longer president), and the tape was accepted as evidence.
The Kirchners' net worth, as reported to the AFIP revenue service, increased by 4,500 percent between 1995 and 2010. A substantial increase occurred in 2008, from 26.5 million to 63.5 million Argentine pesos, due to the sale of long-owned land, hotel rentals, and time deposits in Argentine pesos and U.S. dollars. They founded a business-consulting company, El Chapel and established the Hotesur SA and Los Sauces firms to manage their luxury hotels in El Calafate. The Kirchners expanded Comasa, a firm of which they had a 90-percent ownership. Their salaries as politicians were 3.62 percent of their total earnings.
Kirchner was tried for unjust enrichment in 2004, with the case focusing on the increase in his wealth from 1995 to 2003. The case was first heard by judge Juan José Galeano and moved to judge Julián Ercolini, who acquitted him in 2005. A new case involving both Kirchners was heard by judge Norberto Oyarbide, who acquitted them in 2010.
The TV program Periodismo para todos aired an investigation in 2013, detailing a case of embezzlement and an associated money trail involving the Kirchners and businessman Lázaro Báez. Báez received 95 percent of the requests for tender in Santa Cruz province since 2003, more than four billion pesos, and the scandal was known as the Route of the K-Money (). In the 2014 Hotesur scandal, a company owned by Báez rented more than 1,100 rooms per month at Kirchner family hotels even when they were unoccupied. A money-laundering scheme was suspected, funnelling public-works money to the Kirchner family.
In April 2016, Kirchner's secretary and confidant Daniel Muñoz (who died early that year) was identified in the Panama Papers as owner of real-estate investment firm Gold Black Limited. Company director Sergio Todisco was investigated by prosecutors who suspected that the company was used for money laundering. At the end of the year, judge Julián Ercolini indicted Cristina Fernández de Kirchner and several members of their cabinet, charging them with a criminal conspiracy that would have started when Néstor Kirchner first became president.
Death
Kirchner died on 27 October 2010, at the age of 60. The day was a national holiday for the INDEC to run a national census, so he was at home in El Calafate. Kirchner was rushed to a local hospital and was pronounced dead at 9:15 a.m. from cardiac arrest. He had undergone two medical procedures that year: surgery on his right carotid artery in February and an angioplasty in September. His death was a surprise for the Argentine population, to whom he had always represented his heart problems as not very serious.
His body was flown to the Casa Rosada for a state funeral, and three national days of mourning were declared. Kirchner's funeral was attended by thousands, despite heavy rain. According to media reports, 1,000 people per hour entered the Casa Rosada in groups of 100 to 150. Cristina Kirchner, dressed in mourning, stood next to the coffin. People brought candles, flags and flowers, some of which Cristina accepted personally.
Kirchner's death evoked international reactions moments after it was announced, with Brazil and Venezuela also declaring three national days of mourning. Colombian President Juan Manuel Santos and the Organization of American States declared a moment of silence, and U.S. president Barack Obama sent condolences. Attendees at Kirchner's funeral included Venezuela's Hugo Chávez and Brazil's Luiz Inácio Lula da Silva.
Legacy
Although Kirchner was known to have health problems, his death was unexpected, and had a great impact on the politics of Argentina. Kirchner died at an early age, while still being a highly influential figure in politics, despite not being president at the time. Presidents Manuel Quintana, Roque Sáenz Peña and Roberto María Ortiz died in office, but none of them had a political clout comparable to that of Kirchner. President Juan Perón had a similar power and died in office, but his death was not unexpected, as he had already reached the life expectancy of the time. Other figures of the history of Argentina who achieved great political clout, such as José de San Martín, Juan Manuel de Rosas, Julio Argentino Roca, Carlos Pellegrini and Hipólito Yrigoyen, all died when they were already retired from politics, or even abroad.
Initially, the death of Kirchner caused a power vacuum, as Cristina Fernández de Kirchner had ruled so far as a figurehead, while Néstor Kirchner still managed the government. She changed the style of the government making it more authoritarian, and more critical of the United States. She broke with allies of her husband, such as the union leader Hugo Moyano, and increased the political clout of the youth wing La Cámpora instead. She also relied on her public image more than her husband had. The popularity of the Kirchners had been in a decline at the time of Néstor's death, but after being widowed, Fernández de Kirchner's popularity increased greatly. As a result, she won the reelection in the 2011 general elections by a landslide.
The Relato K built a cult of personality around the figure of Kirchner. While in office, Cristina Fernández de Kirchner avoided referring to him by name, and talked instead about "He" or "Him", with emphasis on the pronoun and with a universally capitalized form. As in the English language, in the Spanish language this figure of speech is usually reserved to make reference to God. Kirchner was also compared with San Martín, in an attempt to raise him to a similar status as a national hero. This comparison was included, for instance, in an official video by the ministry of social welfare. A month after his death many districts renamed streets, schools, neighbourhoods, institutions and other places after "Néstor Kirchner". Some noteworthy examples are the Néstor Kirchner Cultural Centre (formerly "Bicentennial Cultural Centre") and the second leg of the 2010–11 Argentine Primera División season. The change proved controversial in some cities, such as Caleta Olivia, where the renamed street was formerly named after the Falklands War veterans. A bill to rename a street after Kirchner was rejected in Apóstoles, Misiones. No renaming bill was even considered in Buenos Aires, as a previous law only allowed streets to be named after people who had died at least a decade before. The presidency of Mauricio Macri proposed a bill in 2016 to forbid any public places or institutions from being named after people unless they had died at least two decades before; if approved, all the state properties named after Kirchner would have to be renamed.
Honours and awards
Foreign honours
Grand Collar of the Order of the Liberator
Honorary degrees
: Fudan University honorary degree, 17 June 2004.
: National University of Entre Ríos posthumous honorary degree, 16 December 2010.
: National University of Lanús posthumous honorary degree, 20 December 2010.
References
Citations
Bibliography
External links
Néstor Kirchner at the Encyclopædia Britannica
Néstor Kirchner at the Casa Rosada website
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Presidents of Argentina
First Ladies and Gentlemen of Argentina
1950 births
2010 deaths
Kirchnerism
Nestor
Argentine lawyers
Governors of Santa Cruz Province, Argentina
Members of the Argentine Chamber of Deputies elected in Buenos Aires Province
Secretaries General of the Union of South American Nations
Justicialist Party politicians
National University of La Plata alumni
Argentine people of Chilean descent
Argentine people of Swiss-German descent
Argentine people of Croatian descent
Argentine Roman Catholics
People from Río Gallegos, Santa Cruz
20th-century Argentine politicians
21st-century Argentine politicians | [
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230192 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Futura%20%28typeface%29 | Futura (typeface) | Futura is a geometric sans-serif typeface designed by Paul Renner and released in 1927. It was designed as a contribution on the New Frankfurt-project. It is based on geometric shapes, especially the circle, similar in spirit to the Bauhaus design style of the period. It was developed as a typeface by the Bauer Type Foundry, in competition with Ludwig & Mayer's seminal Erbar typeface of 1926.
Futura has an appearance of efficiency and forwardness. Although Renner was not associated with the Bauhaus, he shared many of its idioms and believed that a modern typeface should express modern models, rather than be a revival of a previous design. Renner's design rejected the approach of most previous sans-serif designs (now often called grotesques), which were based on the models of signpainting, condensed lettering and nineteenth-century serif typefaces, in favour of simple geometric forms: near-perfect circles, triangles and squares. It is based on strokes of near-even weight, which are low in contrast. The lowercase has tall ascenders, which rise above the cap line, and uses nearly-circular, single-story forms for the "a" and "g", the former previously more common in handwriting than in printed text. The uppercase characters present proportions similar to those of classical Roman capitals. The original metal type showed extensive adaptation of the design to individual sizes, and several divergent digitisations have been released by different companies.
Futura was extensively marketed by Bauer and its American distribution arm by brochure as capturing the spirit of modernity, using the German slogan "die Schrift unserer Zeit" ("the typeface of our time") and in English "the typeface of today and tomorrow". It has remained popular since then.
Release
Paul Renner began sketching his letters that would become Futura in 1924; the typeface was available for use three years later. Matrices for machine composition were made by Intertype.
Futura was developed as a contribution to the New Frankfurt project, a radical affordable housing project in Frankfurt, Germany that many renowned modernist architects at the time were involved in. Described as “the typeface of our time” and “a face representing the new typography of the European avant-garde”, Futura was released to stand out against the sans-serif and more elaborate, handwritten-style typefaces that were popular at the time in order to promote simplicity, modernism and industrialization.
Despite its clean geometric appearance, some of Futura's design choices recalled classic serif typefaces. Unlike many sans-serif designs intended for display purposes, Futura has quite a low x-height, reducing its stridency and increasing its suitability for body text. The original Futura design concept included small capitals and old-style figures. These were dropped from the original metal issue of the type and first offered digitally by Neufville Digital under the Futura ND family; small caps are also available in the URW++ digitisation.
The design of Futura avoids the decorative, eliminating nonessential elements, but makes subtle departures from pure geometric designs that allow the letterforms to seem balanced. This is visible in the apparently almost perfectly round stroke of the o, which is nonetheless slightly ovoid, and in how the circular strokes of letters like b gently thin as they merge with the verticals. Renner's biographer Christopher Burke has noted the important role of the Bauer Foundry's manufacturing team in adapting the design for different sizes of text, a feature not seen in digital releases. However, Renner expressed some disappointment with the slow design and release process, as it allowed Erbar (1926) to precede his design and other typefaces of similar design to appear in the same year as its release.
Renner's original plan was for two versions: a more conventional version suitable for general use, and a more eccentric, geometric lower case based on the circle and triangle. This plan was scrapped, although the characters did appear on an early specimen and more recently on at least one digitisation.
Futura was immediately very successful, due to its combination of classicism and modernity. It spawned a range of derivative geometric sans-serif typefaces from competing foundries, particularly in the United States.
In the UK Futura, while sometimes used, was overshadowed by Gill Sans, which became popular for similar reasons in the UK and came to define 1930s and 1940s printing. While more humanist, it also has geometric leanings which are particularly visible in the capitals.
At a time when Hitler and Nazi Germany ideologies were on the rise, typefaces were a strong indicator of culture and national identity. Roman typefaces were rising in popularity, and they were becoming the standard text for printed documents when previously, German Blackletter was the default style. As a way to hold on to German identity, the Germans pushed for the use of Blackletter typefaces over Roman.
When the Nazi regime rose into power in 1933, they utilized Blackletter typefaces to further promote German national identity. They determined Fraktur to be the true German type. They rejected modern type styles like Futura, which went on to become popular throughout the world, influenced by the Bauhaus and the English Arts and Crafts Movements.
Futura made appearances on Nazi documentation, such as the "Organisationsbuch der NSDAP”, an informational handbook about membership to the Nazi Party and posters promoting “Entartete Kunst” (Degenerate Art), the exhibition that was created by the Nazis to shame modern art. In 1941, the Nazi regime deemed blackletter typefaces to have Jewish heritage due to the Nazi's perception of the typeface looking too similar to Hebrew, and therefore banned Fraktur and any other traditional German handwriting. Roman typography, which included Futura, became the new standard due to its superior legibility over blackletter typography.
Usage
Futura remains an important typeface family and is used on a daily basis for print and digital purposes as both a headline and body font. The font is also used extensively in advertisements and logos, notably by IKEA (until 2010), Supreme, Party City, Volkswagen, Royal Dutch Shell, Crayola, Swissair, FremantleMedia (until 2018), Absolut and HP in their print ads. Particularly until the 1950s it was used extensively by the publishing industry as a general-purpose font.
Beginning in the late 1970s, Futura was also the iconic typeface used by American Conceptual artist Barbara Kruger. She layers white text, set in Futura Bold Oblique, on a red background against black and white found photography from mass media sources. Her text challenges the viewer to reflect on gender, stereotypes and consumerism. Some of her notable works where Futura is featured are “Untitled (Your body is a battleground)", "You Are Not Yourself" and "I shop, Therefore I Am".
A Cyrillic variant of the Futura Medium typography was made by Anatoli Muzanov for the 1980 Summer Olympics held in Moscow.
Futura is also employed by Fox News Channel, the RAI (the Italian public broadcasting agency) for its logo and is used in the Italian railway system for signs.
Futura has been used extensively in film and video. It is used for the title logo of the 1999 film American Beauty. It was also used in various TV shows including Doug, Lost, Warehouse 13, the American version of Sesame Street, which had the capital "I", lowercase "j", and numbers "1" and "4" in simplified forms, etc. Futura is featured ubiquitously throughout the film adaptation of V for Vendetta, for everything from the title logo and ending credits, to signs, newspapers, computer screens and other props. Wes Anderson is fond of the font and used it in some of his films. Futura was also Stanley Kubrick's favorite typeface.
Transport is another important area where Futura has been used extensively due to its ability to be read quickly from a distance; it can be found extensively in the instrument panel graphics within automobiles — Mercedes-Benz being one of the most prolific users of the font. Futura is used extensively in aviation for instruments and control legends — most Boeing airliners use Futura within their cockpit controls, for example. NASA used Futura frequently during the Apollo space program, with charts, technical documents, and spacecraft instrumentation labels all making use of the typeface.
Crockett Johnson used Futura for the lettering of his Barnaby comic strip, which started running in April 1942 in the newspaper PM. Where many cartoonists lettered their dialogues by hand, Johnson collaborated with the PM typesetters who would set his dialogues in italicized Futura medium and return them to him so that they could be integrated to his drawings.
NBC used a modified version of Futura for its original 1986 version of the current logo and its wordmarks.
A bold version of the font was used for NBC Sports on-screen graphics from 1989 to 1991, and by CBS Sports from 1992 to 1996.
In 1997, the Pittsburgh Steelers (an American football team) switched to rounded numbers on the jersey to match the number font (Futura Condensed) on their helmets. In 2012 the newly formed Western Sydney Wanderers Football Club use Futura on their logo and club documentation. The Minnesota Timberwolves adopted Futura during their 2017 rebranding.
Futura is used on the current TV5 logo, the "Rainbow" logo of previous GMA Network in Extra Heavy style, and is also Animax Asia's main typeface. All four of Vampire Weekend's albums use Futura on the covers, with the first two being exclusively Futura. The Boston Celtics' championship banners are also in Futura Condensed. 2008 science fiction-fantasy film City of Ember features Futura Medium in many prints through the story. The condensed version was used by videogame developer Bethesda Softworks for several of their games, including Fallout 3, Fallout: New Vegas, The Elder Scrolls V: Skyrim and Fallout 4 as well as being used extensively throughout the Watchmen graphic novel as well as the movie based on it. The Medium version is a font used predominantly alongside the Stratum 2 font in the 2014 racing video game Driveclub. The Hoops & Yoyo advertisements used Futura. In season 2 of Stargate Universe, episode "Common Descent – Part 1" the ancestors of the crew state that one of the two continents was named "Futura". There are several references to the name being a font in the episode. Futura also served as the typeface for UK television series Utopias title cards, coloured white upon a neon yellow background (neon green in season two).
University of Wisconsin-Milwaukee signage uses Futura.
More recently, Futura has seen widespread use in many films and video games; Destiny and Wolfenstein: The New Order both use Futura on their covers, with Wolfenstein using the font throughout the in-game menus also. The 2013 film Gravity, 2014 films Interstellar and Gone Girl, and the 2016 film Sausage Party also use Futura on their theatrical release posters. Futura (in all caps form and with slashed "Ø" instead of usual "O") is a primary typeface of Twenty One Pilots' 2015 album Blurryface and is used alongside Courier. Futura is used in the 2016 film Captain America: Civil War Location Cards. The first person shooter game Battlefield 1 (released in 2016 by Electronic Arts and DICE) uses Futura as its main font both in-game and for promotional purposes. It is also used on the "Disney Junior" logo.
Later metal type versions
Futura Condensed
Futura Condensed is a condensed version of the original Futura font family. Bold and bold oblique fonts were released in 1930. Medium, medium oblique, extra bold, and extra bold oblique fonts were released in 1936. Light and light oblique fonts were released in 1950.
Futura Demibold
Futura Demibold is a variation of the original Futura.
Futura Display (Futura Schlagzeile)
Released in 1932, Futura Display uses more angular strokes, resulting in rectangular letter forms.
This is also the font used on the covers of the classic Region 2 Doctor Who DVD covers, and was used on the covers of most Star Trek novels published by Pocket Books during the 1980s. A slimmer variant seems to have been used by the Canadian Tire Corporation in their wordmark and logo. Futura Display is also used in the logo for the manga/anime series My Hero Academia.
Futura Black
First released in 1929, Futura Black is an alternative design that uses stencil letter forms. Example uses of the font include the public safety departments of the city of Boston, the "R" logo of the National Association of Realtors, title sequences of television programs such as The Love Boat and Prisoner: Cell Block H, and as the wordmark for the National Football League's Minnesota Vikings from 1982 to 2003. The movie logo for the 2021 James Bond film No Time to Die also uses Futura Black.
Steile Futura
Steile Futura was Paul Renner's attempt to create a typeface that would be closer to the nineteenth century sans serifs than to the geometric model. During the course of development, Renner developed several intermediate versions. Some of the early design could be found in the experimental font called Renner-Grotesk, which appeared as a trial type casting from the Stempel type foundry in 1936. Renner kursiv, a true italic companion to the regular version, was made after Stempel had been taken over by Bauer in 1938.
The work on the type family continued in the 1940s, but Renner's poor health had slowed down the development. Renner started to work again on this project in 1951 under the name of Steile Futura (steil in German means "upright" or "steep").
The font family released by Bauer consist of mager (light), halbfett (medium), fett (bold), kursiv halbfett (medium italic), and kursiv fett (bold italic). The font family was released in 1952–1953. It was sold by Bauer in German, English, Spanish, and French markets as Steile Futura, Bauer Topic, Vox, Zénith respectively.
The font family has rounder letters than Futura Display. For the first time, italic type features are incorporated in the italic fonts. The fonts incorporate handwriting features, especially in italic version. URW and Berthold have released digitisations, URW's under the name of "Topic", its name in original release in some non-German speaking countries. Tasse by Font Bureau is a loose adaptation.
Futura Inline
An "inline" version with a line drawn through each letter.
Digitisations
With the demise of hot metal typesetting, Futura has been redrawn in digital formats. Because of complex licensing agreements, there is no one digital version of Futura but several, each with different features. (Some releases may be re-drawings or upgraded versions of earlier digital releases.) Releases of Futura exist from Linotype, Bitstream, URW++ (several), Elsner+Flake and many others under that name, and by many other companies under others because of rights issues. For example, Fontsite's (including Futura Black and Poster) is renamed as 'Function'.
As with all metal type revivals, converting Futura into a digital format poses interpretative challenges. Metal type fonts could be made differently for each text size, so a variety of metal and phototype versions of Futura exist on which a revival could potentially be based. In addition, revivals will need to add characters not present in the original Futura like the Euro sign and Cyrillic, and therefore do not all have the same character set.
Futura revivals may also decide to make design changes, like replacing Futura's straight 'j' with a more conventional substitute as URW's revival does. Scangraphic's revival notably includes optical sizes, with a tighter-spaced design (SH) created for headlines and a more spread-out version (SB) for body text sizes. As an assessment of the decisions involved, a wide-ranging review by Stephen Coles of digitisations of Futura and its competitor geometrics noted that Bitstream's "abandons some of the strict geometry in favour of a more harmonious whole, but it may not be the Futura you were expecting," and that URW's Futura Nr. 2 was "Possibly optimized for small text: it’s wider, ascenders shorter, counters larger, and apertures more open. Conversely, round glyphs (a, g, e,) are more true to the circle. This attribute doesn’t make this a great text face, but if you want that strict geometry, No. 2 delivers."
Architype Renner (1993)
Released by The Foundry in 1993, reproduces the experimental alternate characters and old style text figures of Paul Renner's 1927–29 typeface Futura. The alternate characters Renner proposed were mostly deleted from the typeface, resulting in a more conventional, and perhaps more successful typeface. The old style text figures disappeared at the end of 1920s, when the typeface was released in America. The Archetype Renner typefaces are a faithful recreation of Renner's original designs and released by The Foundry as single regular weight. Archetype Renner Bold was originally released by The Foundry in 1996 as part of the Archetype 2 series and in 2011 it was expanded as a 4 weight family: Regular, Medium, Demi and Bold.
Futura ND, Futura ND Black, Futura ND Display (1999)
This version is based on the original sources of the Bauersche Giesserei, which had passed its typefaces to its Barcelona branch, Fundición Tipográfica Bauer SL. Released in 1999 by Neufville Digital — a joint venture of Fundición Tipográfica Bauer SL and Visualogik Technology & Design b.v — it includes small capitals and the old-style figures that had not been made in metal types. The redesign was done by Marie-Thérèse Koreman.
Neufville Digital issued Futura, Futura Black, Futura Condensed, and Futura Display (Futura Schlagzeile) under the Futura ND family. A limited release with some weights and features missing is bundled with macOS.
OpenType features included stylistic alternates, lining figures, proportional figures, old style figures, tabular figures, fractions, standard/discretional ligatures, superscript, small caps.
Futura ND Alternate (2015)
Designed by Marie-Thérèse Koreman, it is a version of Futura ND published by Bauer Types, S.L. with alternate character designs, which also includes more angular glyphs found in early versions of Futura.
The family includes 50 fonts in 6 weights and 2 widths, with book and demibold missing in condensed width, with complementary oblique.
Futura Next (2016)
Designed by Marie-Thérèse Koreman, it is a version of Futura ND Alternate with alternate characters designed for small or low resolution displays.
The family includes 20 fonts in 6 weights and 2 widths, with book and demibold missing in condensed width, with complementary oblique. Small caps and old style figures are included in 18 fonts.
ParaType version
The ParaType fonts added Cyrillic characters. They were developed at ParaType (ParaGraph) in 1995 by Vladimir Yefimov. They came in only Light, Book, Medium, and Demi weights.
Futura PT
This version is based on the previous ParaType design by Vladimir Yefimov (see above), expanded to include seven weights, with Book, Medium, Bold, Extra Bold weights for condensed fonts. Additional Cyrillic styles were developed in 2007 by Isabella Chaeva.
Futura Futuris
Futuris is a redesign at ParaType (ParaGraph) in 1991 by Vladimir Yefimov that includes Cyrillic characters. Condensed styles were added in 1993 by Vladimir Yefimov and Alexander Tarbeev. It is available in Light, Medium, Bold, Black (without oblique) weights, while condensed fonts were made in Bold, Extra Bold, all without obliques. Also available are Cameo Extra Bold (black in reverse), Shadow Light, Shadow Extra Bold (black with shadow), Volume Light.
Futura Eugenia
This version is based on the Futura Black, but designed at the Polygraphmash type design bureau in 1987 by Elvira Slysh.
Bukra
Bukra is an Arabic variant designed by Pascal Zoghbi. It consists of Bukra Extra Bold, which was used as an Arabic display typeface for Ibn Battuta Mall in Dubai as a complement for Futura Extra Bold. The design was based on Kufi script, but using shortened descenders. The name Bukra itself is a phonetic representation of one way to express "tomorrow" or "in the future" in some Arabic cultures.
URW++
Unusually, URW has two main digitisations, Futura and Futura No. 2. Futura 1 has the larger range of weights with some unusual versions like stencil and shadowed designs, while Futura No. 2 has, amongst other differences, a conventional 'j' in all the non-condensed weights apart from demi-bold, but no italics except in some bold weights. According to URW, No. 2 is based on Letraset's version. It has also released some styles as Futura 3 and 7.
Futura Classic
This release by Gert Wiescher is notable for presenting the original alternate characters planned by Renner. They have also appeared on a digitisation of Twentieth Century, Monotype's competitor to Futura, a release which allows them to be mixed and matched with the more standard characters and small caps.
FuturaRenner
This free and open source typeface was digitized by Bastien Sozoo in 2011 around his presence at La Cambre art school in Brussels. The metal lead type in the letterpress facility of the school were given by Renner to Henry Van de Velde, the school founder, and the original 1927 forms are, as Sozoo described it, "the first draft of Futura as we know it." While the capital letters are very similar to their modern counterparts (some visible differences include capital J's descent below the base line and a slightly higher crossbar on capital A), FuturaRenner uses text figures as opposed to the usual lining figures, and the letter forms of r (which has a distinctive dot-and-line styling), m and n (both of which are box-based and unrounded) are in particular contrast to modern Futura adaptations. FuturaRenner is available in light and regular weights, both of which are licensed under the SIL Open Font License.
Futura Now
In October 2020, Monotype re-digitized and released as Futura Now, which is based on Paul Renner's original design with additional 102 styles.
Influence on other typefaces
Though Erbar was the first of the new geometric sans-serif faces, the enormous success of Futura fostered the creation of many new geometric sans-serif faces by competing foundries including Kabel, Metro, Spartan by Linotype, Vogue by Intertype, Twentieth Century by Monotype and Airport by Baltotype, Semplicità by Nebiolo, American Type Founders, and Tempo by Ludlow. Some were near identical copies as in Spartan and Twentieth Century but others were uniquely different, including Nobel and Kabel. Futura was rebranded in France by Deberny & Peignot as "Europe".
In Germany the designer Arno Drescher created the family Super Grotesk, which became very popular in East Germany after the war. Stephen Coles has described FontShop International's Super Grotesk digitisation as surprisingly useful, noting that its digitisation is unusually well-hinted allowing good display on Windows computers. It also features a conventional 'j'. Another German competitor, also recently digitised by FontFont, was Friedrich Bauer's Bauer Grotesk, issued by J. D. Trennert & Sohn and then Genzsch & Heyse.
Volkswagen's VAG Rounded typeface borrows the same letterforms as Futura, but has rounded terminals on all strokes.
Typeface designer Adrian Frutiger acknowledges Futura as one of his inspirations for his 1988 typeface Avenir. More recently Futura has been the basis of IKEA Sans and Opel Sans, fonts designed (for IKEA and Opel, respectively) by Robin Nicholas.
The Toronto Transit Commission developed the Toronto Subway font based on Futura for use in Toronto subway station signage since 1954.
Tasse is a revival of Steile Futura.
League Spartan and Beteckna are descendants of Futura that are licensed as Free Software (Under the SIL OFL and GNU GPL+FE licenses, respectively).
Century Gothic borrows liberally from Futura letterforms, with the glyphs adjusted to be metrically compatible with another geometric sans-serif, ITC Avant Garde.
Brandon Grotesque is inspired by Futura but with an unusually low x-height, giving it a more elegant appearance for uses such as headings and display settings. Designed by Hannes von Döhren of HVD Fonts, it is the main corporate font of Comedy Central. In 2014, von Döhren released Brandon Text, a tighter version intended for body text.
Braggadocio is based on Futura Black.
The 2000 typeface Gotham is similarly geometric and based on 1920s signage.
Passata is a modernised version of Futura specifically designed to replace Futura as the corporate branding font of Aarhus University.
Product Sans is similar to Futura with slight differences.
American singer and rapper Frank Ocean mentions the font many times on his album Blonde, even using a variant of the font for the album cover and using the name for the song Futura Free.
Arve Båtevik designed two typefaces which are based on the Futura typeface: LL Supreme and LL Supreme Display.
References
Further reading
Alexandre Dumas de Rauly, Michel Wlassikoff, Futura Une gloire typographique, Paris, Éditions NORMA, 2011, .
Burke, Christopher, Paul Renner: the art of typography. London: Hyphen Press, 1998. .
Garfield, Simon, Just My Type. Gotham Books, London; 2011. .
Haley, Allen, Type: Hot Designers Make Cool Fonts. Rockport Publishers Inc, Gloucester; 1998. .
Jaspert, Berry and Johnson, Encyclopaedia of Typefaces. Cassell Paperback, London; 2001. .
Lawson, Alexander S., Anatomy of a Typeface. Godine: 1990. .
Meggs, Philip. B and McKelvey, Roy, Revival of the Fittest: Digital Versions of Classic Typefaces. RC Publications; 2002. .
Ronson, Jon. "Citizen Kubrick", The Guardian, London, March 27, 2004.
External links
Fonts In Use: Futura
Bauer Types pages: Futura ND, Futura ND Alternate, Futura ND Black, Futura ND Display, Futura Next
Typefaces and fonts introduced in 1927
Geometric sans-serif typefaces
Photocomposition typefaces
Digital typefaces
Government typefaces
Traffic signs
Typefaces with optical sizes
Typefaces designed by Paul Renner
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230193 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Falling%20and%20rising%20factorials | Falling and rising factorials | In mathematics, the falling factorial (sometimes called the descending factorial, falling sequential product, or lower factorial) is defined as the polynomial
The rising factorial (sometimes called the Pochhammer function, Pochhammer polynomial, ascending factorial, rising sequential product, or upper factorial) is defined as
The value of each is taken to be 1 (an empty product) when n = 0. These symbols are collectively called
factorial powers.
The Pochhammer symbol, introduced by Leo August Pochhammer, is the notation , where is a non-negative integer. It may represent either the rising or the falling factorial, with different articles and authors using different conventions. Pochhammer himself actually used with yet another meaning, namely to denote the binomial coefficient .
In this article, the symbol is used to represent the falling factorial, and the symbol is used for the rising factorial. These conventions are used in combinatorics, although Knuth's underline/overline notations are increasingly popular. In the theory of special functions (in particular the hypergeometric function) and in the standard reference work Abramowitz and Stegun, the Pochhammer symbol is used to represent the rising factorial.
When is a positive integer, gives the number of -permutations of an -element set, or equivalently the number of injective functions from a set of size to a set of size . Also, is "the number of ways to arrange n flags on x flagpoles", where all flags must be used and each flagpole can have at most one flag. In this context, other notations like and P(x, n) are also sometimes used.
Examples and combinatorial interpretation
The first few rising factorials are as follows:
The first few falling factorials are as follows:
The coefficients that appear in the expansions are Stirling numbers of the first kind.
When the variable is a positive integer, the number is equal to the number of -permutations from an -set, that is, the number of ways of choosing an ordered list of length consisting of distinct elements drawn from a collection of size . For example, is the number of different podiums—assignments of gold, silver, and bronze medals—possible in an eight-person race. Also, is "the number of ways to arrange n flags on x flagpoles", where all flags must be used and each flagpole can have at most one flag. In this context, other notations like and P(x, n) are also sometimes used.
Properties
The rising and falling factorials are simply related to one another:
The rising and falling factorials are directly related to the ordinary factorial:
The rising and falling factorials can be used to express a binomial coefficient:
Thus many identities on binomial coefficients carry over to the falling and rising factorials.
The rising and falling factorials are well defined in any unital ring, and therefore x can be taken to be, for example, a complex number, including negative integers, or a polynomial with complex coefficients, or any complex-valued function.
The rising factorial can be extended to real values of using the gamma function provided and are real numbers that are not negative integers:
and so can the falling factorial:
If denotes differentiation with respect to , one has
The Pochhammer symbol is also integral to the definition of the hypergeometric function: The hypergeometric function is defined for |z| < 1 by the power series
provided that c does not equal 0, −1, −2, ... . Note, however, that the hypergeometric function literature typically uses the notation for rising factorials.
Relation to umbral calculus
The falling factorial occurs in a formula which represents polynomials using the forward difference operator and which is formally similar to Taylor's theorem:
In this formula and in many other places, the falling factorial in the calculus of finite differences plays the role of in differential calculus. Note for instance the similarity of
to .
A similar result holds for the rising factorial.
The study of analogies of this type is known as umbral calculus. A general theory covering such relations, including the falling and rising factorial functions, is given by the theory of polynomial sequences of binomial type and Sheffer sequences. Rising and falling factorials are Sheffer sequences of binomial type, as shown by the relations:
where the coefficients are the same as the ones in the expansion of a power of a binomial (Chu–Vandermonde identity).
Similarly, the generating function of Pochhammer polynomials then amounts to the umbral exponential,
since
Connection coefficients and identities
The falling and rising factorials are related to one another through the Lah numbers:
The following formulas relate integral powers of a variable through sums using the Stirling numbers of the second kind ( notated by curly brackets {} ):
Since the falling factorials are a basis for the polynomial ring, one can express the product of two of them as a linear combination of falling factorials:
The coefficients are called connection coefficients, and have a combinatorial interpretation as the number of ways to identify (or "glue together") elements each from a set of size and a set of size .
There is also a connection formula for the ratio of two rising factorials given by
Additionally, we can expand generalized exponent laws and negative rising and falling powers through the following identities:
Finally, duplication and multiplication formulas for the falling and rising factorials provide the next relations:
Alternative notations
An alternative notation for the rising factorial
and for the falling factorial
goes back to A. Capelli (1893) and L. Toscano (1939), respectively. Graham, Knuth, and Patashnik propose to pronounce these expressions as " to the rising" and " to the falling", respectively.
Other notations for the falling factorial include , , , or . (See permutation and combination.)
An alternative notation for the rising factorial is the less common . When is used to denote the rising factorial, the notation is typically used for the ordinary falling factorial, to avoid confusion.
Generalizations
The Pochhammer symbol has a generalized version called the generalized Pochhammer symbol, used in multivariate analysis. There is also a q-analogue, the q-Pochhammer symbol.
A generalization of the falling factorial in which a function is evaluated on a descending arithmetic sequence of integers and the values are multiplied is:
where is the decrement and is the number of factors. The corresponding generalization of the rising factorial is
This notation unifies the rising and falling factorials, which are [x]k/1 and [x]k/−1, respectively.
For any fixed arithmetic function and symbolic parameters , related generalized factorial products of the form
may be studied from the point of view of the classes of generalized Stirling numbers of the first kind defined by the following coefficients of the powers of in the expansions of and then by the next corresponding triangular recurrence relation:
These coefficients satisfy a number of analogous properties to those for the Stirling numbers of the first kind as well as recurrence relations and functional equations related to the f-harmonic numbers, .
A symmetric generalization can be defined as
See also
Pochhammer k-symbol
Vandermonde identity
References
External links
Elementary Proofs
Gamma and related functions
Factorial and binomial topics
Finite differences
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] |
230196 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Foreigner | Foreigner | Foreigner, Foreigners or The Foreigner may refer to:
Alien (law), a person in a country who has fewer rights than a citizen or national.
Music
Foreigner (band), an English-American rock band
Foreigner (Foreigner album), their 1977 debut album
Foreigner (Cat Stevens album), 1973
Literature
Foreigner (comics), a Marvel Comics villain
Foreigner (Cherryh novel), a 1994 novel set in C. J. Cherryh's Foreigner universe
Foreigner (Sawyer novel), a 1994 novel in the Quintaglio Ascension Trilogy by Robert J. Sawyer
The Foreigner (novel), a 2008 novel by Francie Lin
Film and theatre
The Foreigner (1921 film), an American silent film also known as God's Crucible
Foreigners (film), a 1972 Swedish film
The Foreigner (2003 film), an action film starring Steven Seagal
The Foreigner (2017 film), an action-thriller film starring Jackie Chan
The Foreigner (play), a 1984 play by Larry Shue
Foreigners, a play by Frederick Lonsdale
Journalism
The Foreigner (newspaper), an online English-language newspaper in Norway
See also
Foreigners' Street, a Chinese amusement park in Chongqing
Stranger | [
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230197 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Keke%20Rosberg | Keke Rosberg | Keijo Erik Rosberg (born 6 December 1948), known as "Keke" (), is a Finnish former racing driver and winner of the Formula One World Championship. He was the first Finnish driver to compete regularly in the series. He is the father of 2016 Formula One World Champion Nico Rosberg.
Early life
Rosberg was born on 6 December 1948 in Solna, Stockholm County in Sweden, where his father studied veterinary science. Rosberg's father Lars Rosberg and mother Lea Lautala were both natives of Hamina, Finland. The family moved back to Finland in the spring of 1950, originally settling in Lapinjärvi and later moving to Hamina, Oulu and Iisalmi.
Formula One career
Minor teams: 1978–1981
Rosberg had a relatively late start to his F1 career, debuting at the age of 29 after stints in Formula Vee, Formula Super Vee, Can-Am, Formula Atlantic, Formula Pacific and Formula Two, then "feeder" series to Formula One. He raced for Fred Opert, his American patron. His first Formula One drive was with the Theodore team during the 1978 season. He immediately caught the attention of the Formula One paddock with a superb drive in the non-Championship BRDC International Trophy at Silverstone in just his second race with the team, emerging victorious after many of the big names had been caught out by a tremendous downpour. Rosberg was not able to qualify for a race afterwards, and was signed by another uncompetitive team, ATS, for three races after the Theodore team scrapped its unreliable car design. He returned to Theodore after they acquired chassis from the Wolf Formula One team, but these were also uncompetitive and Rosberg returned to ATS to end the season.
He next emerged with the Wolf team, midway through the 1979 season. However, the team was having difficulty staying solvent, and Rosberg had problems in finishing races. Rosberg soon had to change teams again when Wolf left Formula One, and signed with Fittipaldi Automotive which had bought the remains of Walter Wolf's squad. He secured his first two point-scoring results in the 1980 season, including a sensational podium at the season-opening race at Buenos Aires, but the uncompetitiveness of the Fittipaldi car meant that Rosberg often failed to finish or qualify. 1981 was worse as he failed to score at all.
The sharp end – Williams: 1982–1985
Despite this, Williams was interested in Rosberg, with the retirement of World Champion Alan Jones leaving a seat open for the 1982 season. Given a competitive car, Rosberg had a highly successful year. He consistently scored points and earned his first victory in the Swiss Grand Prix at Dijon-Prenois late that year (despite being called the "Swiss Grand Prix", the race was held in France due to Switzerland's ban on motor racing in effect since the 1955 Le Mans disaster).
Rosberg's first memorable season came in a year where no driver won more than two races. With Ferrari's season marred by the death of Gilles Villeneuve at Zolder, the career-ending injuries to Didier Pironi at Hockenheim and the turbocharged Brabham-BMW and Renault cars suffering from poor reliability (and not helped by Brabham continually changing between the Ford V8 and the BMW turbo), consistency won Rosberg the Drivers' Championship, despite his Williams FW07C using the normally aspirated Ford DFY V8 engine which was considered outdated and out-matched against the vastly more powerful turbo cars. Rosberg won the championship with a five-point gap to Didier Pironi, with the latter missing the last four races of the championship due to injuries sustained at the German Grand Prix. Rosberg's 1982 Championship proved to be the last World Championship win for the old Cosworth DFV engine which had been introduced to F1 by Lotus in (the DFY was a development of the DFV). To celebrate the victory, Frank Williams gave Rosberg two days off from testing and allowed him to smoke in the team mobile home.
Rosberg's post-championship years would be hamstrung by both uncompetitive chassis from Williams, and the powerful but unreliable Honda turbo engine. For his title defense in , Rosberg was again using the reliable Ford DFY V8. However, by this time, Ferrari, Renault and BMW had got their act together and the reliability of their turbo engines was starting to match their speed and power output. Rosberg still put his Williams FW08 on pole for the opening race of the season in Brazil (where he was disqualified from 2nd place because he was push started in the pits after he was forced to abandon his car in his pit bay due to a fuel vapor fire), and then won both the non-championship Race of Champions at Brands Hatch and in Monaco thanks to a choice of slicks at the start when all others started on wets, but it was increasingly obvious that without a turbo charged engine, results would be scarce. To that end, Frank Williams concluded a deal to run the Honda V6 turbo engine in his cars. Honda had come back into Formula One that year with the Spirit team and results had been slow with unreliability, but they were enthusiastic about joining Williams who had a reputation as a Championship-winning team. Rosberg and teammate Jacques Laffite first got their Honda turbos in the season ending South African Grand Prix at Kyalami and immediately the new Williams FW09 was on the pace. Rosberg finished in 5th place to give him 5th place in the championship. During the year, Rosberg earned the title "King of the atmospherics".
Despite good power from the Honda engines, Williams and Rosberg struggled in mostly due to the FW09B chassis not being rigid enough to handle the power delivery of the V6. The Finn managed to tame both the car and engine long enough to win the Dallas Grand Prix, but his only other podium for the year was a second at the season opener in Brazil (the 3rd time in succession he finished second in Brazil, but the only one from which he was not disqualified). After a frustrating year he finished the championship in eighth place with 20.5 points.
In November 1984 following the F1 season, Rosberg, along with fellow F1 drivers Niki Lauda (the 1984 World Champion), Andrea de Cesaris and François Hesnault, travelled to Australia for the non-championship 1984 Australian Grand Prix at the Calder Park Raceway in Melbourne. Rosberg managed to qualify 4th in his Ralt RT4 Ford despite spending most of the day with fellow aviation enthusiast Lauda (his teammate for the race) attending an air show at the nearby Essendon Airport. After an early race dice with Lauda and a clash with Terry Ryan while lapping the young Australian which put him off the short 1.609 km (1.000 mi) circuit, Rosberg went on to finish 2nd behind the Ralt RT4 Ford of Brazilian driver Roberto Moreno who won his 3rd Australian Grand Prix in 4 years (having also won in 1981 and 1983).
would prove better for both Rosberg and Williams. The Finn had a new teammate in Nigel Mansell and the all carbon fibre Williams FW10 chassis was a big improvement over the FW09B. For the first few races the team used the 1984 engines until Honda introduced an upgraded version which improved power delivery, fuel economy and most importantly, reliability. Rosberg used the new engine to good effect, winning the Detroit Grand Prix and claiming pole in the next two races in France at the Paul Ricard Circuit and the British Grand Prix at Silverstone. Rosberg's pole-winning lap at Silverstone created history when he lapped the 4.719 km (2.932 mi) circuit in 1:05.591 for an average speed of 259.01 km/h (160.94 mph). This would remain the single fastest lap of a circuit in Formula One until broken by Williams driver Juan Pablo Montoya at the 2002 Italian Grand Prix at Monza.
Keke Rosberg's fifth and final Grand Prix victory came at the 1985 Australian Grand Prix on the brand new Adelaide Street Circuit. As it was the final race of the season, it was also Rosberg's final race for Williams. Keke gave the winners trophy to his race engineer, Frank Dernie. The win enhanced Rosberg's reputation as a "street fighter" as four of his five championship Grand Prix wins (Monaco, Dallas, Detroit and Adelaide) had all come on street circuits. Rosberg handled the 35°C heat better than most and won by 43 seconds from the Ligier Renaults of Jacques Laffite and Philippe Streiff.
Just as the Honda engine began producing regular results, Rosberg decided to leave Williams at the end of 1985 and signed for McLaren, winners of the 1984 and 1985 Drivers' and Constructors' championships. The Williams-Honda team would go on to dominate Grand Prix racing in and through .
The final year – McLaren: 1986
At the time, Rosberg's move to McLaren for the 1986 season had seemed a master stroke as they were the championship team of the previous two seasons, having done so (especially in 1984) in dominating fashion. However, the 1986 McLaren was now somewhat underpowered compared to its rivals, and Rosberg, was soundly beaten by teammate, 1985 World Champion Alain Prost (the McLaren MP4/2C had been designed by John Barnard to suit the smoother style of Niki Lauda and Alain Prost, while Rosberg had never shed the ground effects style of late braking and throwing the car into a corner. It was not until it became known Barnard was leaving for Ferrari that the designer allowed Rosberg to fundamentally change his cars set up to suit his style. Ironically this coincided with Rosberg's only pole position of the season in Germany). On top of that, the fatal crash of Rosberg's close friend Elio de Angelis while testing a Brabham at the Paul Ricard circuit in France in May 1986 deeply affected him and he retired at the end of the season. He would later claim that he retired "too soon" .
Keke Rosberg dominated the final race of his Formula One career, the 1986 Australian Grand Prix, though he did not win. While holding a 30-second lead over Nelson Piquet (his replacement at Williams), he had a rear tyre let go on lap 62. Thinking the noise from the back of his McLaren was engine related, he shut the engine off and pulled off the circuit, only to find when he got out and checked that all he needed to do was drive back to the pits to change tyres. However, he later revealed that he would never have won anyway, that he planned to give best to Alain Prost in the Frenchman's bid for back-to-back World Championships (Prost needed to win the race with Nigel Mansell finishing no better than 4th to claim the championship, while Rosberg had dropped out of title contention some races before). As it turned out, Prost won the race and the title, and a lap after Rosberg's retirement Mansell suffered the same fate as his former teammate, though in much more spectacular fashion.
Rosberg, who had made up his mind in mid-1984 that he would only race for two more years (but did not announce it publicly until Germany 1986), had no regrets about leaving Williams and joining McLaren at a time when the Honda engine was starting to come on strong, while the Porsche built TAG engine (and the 3 season old MP4/2) was starting to show its age. In an interview following his retirement announcement, Rosberg said that he was glad he left Williams when he did, stating that had he stayed with them he might have quit Formula One early in the 1986 season after Frank Williams' pre-season accident (in which he suffered a spinal cord injury which left him a tetraplegic) had left someone in a position of authority within the team who he said was one of the reasons he had decided to leave Williams, adding "We simply could not stand each other". While Rosberg did not name the person, it was generally believed to be Williams head designer and Technical Director Patrick Head, who had taken over the day-to-day running of the team while Frank Williams recovered from his accident.
After Formula One
In 1989 Rosberg made his comeback in the Spa 24 Hours in a Ferrari Mondial run by Moneytron (cf. Jean-Pierre Van Rossem and Onyx), the same team that gave Rosberg's protégé JJ Lehto his debut in Formula One. Rosberg was a key element of Peugeot's extremely competitive sportscar squad in the early 1990s. But after two years with the marque and varied successes (two victories and a failed attempt at the 24 Hours of Le Mans), he moved on to the German Touring Car Championship, the DTM, driving for Mercedes-Benz and Opel. Here he set up his own team, Team Rosberg, in 1995 and at the end of that year withdrew from driving to concentrate on running it.
Team Rosberg ran for another year in the DTM, until the series collapsed, and has been present in Formula BMW, German Formula Three, the Formula Three Euroseries and A1 GP since. Team Rosberg returned to the revived DTM in 2000, entering two Mercedes. Success, or even just scoring points, became harder with each passing season and Team Rosberg quit the series after their 2004 campaign, only to return in 2006, this time with Audi.
Manager of new talent
Rosberg later spent a long time managing his countrymen JJ Lehto and future world champion Mika Häkkinen. Until 2008, he also managed his son Nico who entered Formula One in 2006 driving for Williams F1. In 2013 he and Nico became the first father and son to both win at Monaco, 30 years apart from each other. In 2016, he and Nico became the second father son duo to both win Formula One World Championships, after Graham Hill and Damon Hill had won the Championships of 1962 & 1968 and 1996 respectively.
Helmet
In his karting years, Rosberg had a white helmet with a blue stripe, then, in F1, Sid Mosca (who designed helmets for Brazilian drivers including Ayrton Senna, Rubens Barrichello and Emerson Fittipaldi) painted Rosberg's helmet white with a blue circle on the top, and the stripe was divided into a large blue rectangle covering the visor area with some blue rectangles behind (similar to Didier Pironi's helmet design). In 1984, the rectangles were replaced by a yellow trapezium. His son Nico used a design that had similarities to Keke's helmet earlier in his F1 career, with grey replacing blue and with flame motifs, before changing to a new design in 2014.
Racing record
Career summary
Complete European Formula Two Championship results
(key) (Races in bold indicate pole position; races in italics indicate fastest lap)
Complete Formula One World Championship results
(key) (Races in bold indicate pole position; races in italics indicate fastest lap)
† Did not finish, but was classified as he had completed more than 90% of the race distance.
‡ Race was stopped with less than 75% of laps completed, half points awarded.
Formula One non-championship results
(key) (Races in bold indicate pole position)
(Races in italics indicate fastest lap)
Complete World Sportscar Championship results
(key) (Races in bold indicate pole position) (Races in italics indicate fastest lap)
Complete 24 Hours of Le Mans results
Complete Deutsche Tourenwagen Meisterschaft results
(key) (Races in bold indicate pole position) (Races in italics indicate fastest lap)
Complete International Touring Car Championship results
(key) (Races in bold indicate pole position) (Races in italics indicate fastest lap)
In popular culture
In level 7 game 11 of the video game Angry Birds, created by the Finnish company Rovio, there is a caricature of Rosberg in a racing car sitting on the year "1982".
In 1985, renowned Finnish actor Matti Pellonpää and his band released a song called "".
In 2020, he appeared with his son Nico in a Heineken anti-drunk-driving ad.
References
External links
Rosberg, Keijo (1948–). Kansallisbiografia.
Website about Keke Rosberg
1948 births
Living people
People from Solna Municipality
Finnish racing drivers
McLaren Formula One drivers
Williams Formula One drivers
Finnish Formula One drivers
ATS Wheels Formula One drivers
Theodore Formula One drivers
Fittipaldi Formula One drivers
Wolf Formula One drivers
Formula One World Drivers' Champions
Formula One race winners
European Formula Two Championship drivers
International Race of Champions drivers
Deutsche Tourenwagen Masters drivers
Atlantic Championship drivers
24 Hours of Le Mans drivers
Finnish expatriates in Sweden
World Sportscar Championship drivers
Motorsport team owners
SCCA Formula Super Vee drivers
Formula Super Vee Champions | [
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230199 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History%20of%20Schleswig-Holstein | History of Schleswig-Holstein | The history of Schleswig-Holstein consists of the corpus of facts since the pre-history times until the modern establishing of the Schleswig-Holstein state.
Early history
The Jutland Peninsula is a peninsula in Northern Europe with modern-day Schleswig-Holstein at its base. Schleswig is also called Southern Jutland (Sønderjylland). The old Scandinavian sagas, perhaps dating back to the times of the Angles and Jutes give the impression that Jutland has been divided into a northern and a southern part with the border running along the Kongeå River.
Taking into account both archeological findings and Roman sources, however, one could conclude that the Jutes inhabited both the Kongeå region and the more northern part of the peninsula, while the native Angles lived approximately where the towns Haithabu and Schleswig later would emerge (originally centered in the southeast of Schleswig in Angeln), the Saxons (earlier known apparently as the Reudingi) originally centered in Western Holstein (known historically as "Northalbingia") and Slavic Wagrians, part of the Obodrites (Abodrites) in Eastern Holstein. The Danes settled in the early Viking ages in Northern and Central Schleswig and the Northern Frisians after approximately the year 900 in Western Schleswig.
The pattern of populated and unpopulated areas was relatively constant through Bronze Age and Iron Age.
After the Dark Ages migrations
After many Angles emigrated to the British Islands in the 5th century, the land of the Angles came in closer contact with the Danish islands — plausibly by partly immigration/occupation by the Danes. Later also the contacts increased between the Danes and the people on the northern half of the Jutish peninsula.
Judging by today's placenames, then the southern linguistic border of the Danish language seems to have been (starting at the west) up the Treene river, along the Danevirke (also known as Danewerk), then cutting across from the Schlei estuary to Eckernförde, and leaving the Schwansen peninsula, while the West coast of Schleswig had been the area of the Frisian language.
After the Slavic migrations, the eastern area of modern Holstein was inhabited by Slavic Wagrians (Vagri) a subgroup of the Obotrites (Obotritae).
Nordalbingia and Wagria in 8th–9th centuries
Apart from northern Holstein and Schleswig inhabited by Danes there were Nordalbingia and Wagria in respectively, Western and Eastern Holstein.
Nordalbingia (German: Nordalbingien, i.e. land north of the Elbe river) was one of the four administrative regions of the medieval Duchy of Saxony, the others being Angria, Eastphalia, and Westphalia. Nordalbingia consisted of four districts: Dithmarschen, Holstein, Stormarn (north of the Elbe) and Hadeln (south of the Elbe).
The Wagri, Wagiri, or Wagrians were a tribe of Polabian Slavs inhabiting Wagria, or eastern Holstein in northern Germany, from the ninth to twelfth centuries. They were a constituent tribe of the Obodrite confederacy.
Conquest of Nordalbingia by Obodrites and Franks
In the Battle of Bornhöved (798) (German: Schlacht bei Bornhöved) on the field of Sventanafeld (Sventanapolje, Slavonic for "sacred field") near the village of Bornhöved near Neumünster in 798 the Obodrites, led by Drożko, allied with the Franks, defeated the Nordalbingian Saxons.
Following the Nordalbingian defeat in the Battle of Bornhöved by combined forces of the Obodrites and the Franks, where the Saxons lost 4,000 people, 10,000 Saxon families were deported to other areas of the empire. Areas north of Elbe (Wagria) were given to the Obodrites, while Hadeln was directly incorporated. However, the Obodrites soon were invaded by Danes and only the intervention of Charlemagne pushed the Danes out of Eider river.
Danes, Saxons, Franks struggle for control of Holstein
As Charlemagne extended his realm in the late 8th century, he met a united Danish army which successfully defended Danevirke, a fortified defensive barrier across the south of the territory west of the Schlei. A border was established at the Eider River in 811.
This strength was enabled by three factors:
the fishing,
the good soil giving good pasture and harvests
in particular the tax and customs revenues from the market in Haithabu, where all trade between the Baltic Sea and Western Europe passed.
The Danevirke was built immediately south of the road where boats or goods had to be hauled for approximately 5 kilometers between a Baltic Sea bay and the small river Rheider Au (Danish, Rejde Å) connected to the North Sea. There on the narrowest part of southern Jutland was established the important transit market (Haithabu, also known as Hedeby, near modern Haddeby), which was protected by the Danevirke fortification. Hedeby was located on the inlet Schlei opposite to what is now the City of Schleswig.
The wealth of Schleswig, as reflected by impressive archeological finds on the site today, and the taxes from the Haithabu market, was enticing. A separate kingdom of Haithabu was established around year 900 by the Viking chieftain Olaf from Svealand. Olaf's son and successor Gnupa was however killed in battle against the Danish king, and his kingdom vanished.
The southern border was then adjusted back and forth a few times. For instance, the Holy Roman Emperor Otto II occupied the region between the river Eider and the inlet Schlei in the years 974–983, called the March of Schleswig, and stimulating German colonisation. Later Haithabu was burned by Swedes, and first under the reign of King Sweyn Forkbeard (Svend Tveskæg) (986-1014) the situation was stabilised, although raids against Haithabu would be repeated. Haithabu was once again and ultimately destroyed by fire in 1066. As Adam of Bremen reported in 1076, the Eider River was the border between Denmark and the Saxon territories.
From the time Danes came to Schleswig from today’s eastern part of Denmark and Germans colonised Schleswig migrating from Holstein, the country north of the Elbe had been the battleground of Danes and Germans, as well as certain Slavic people. Danish scholars point to the existence of Danish placenames north for Eider and Danevirke as evidence that at least the most of Schleswig was at one time Danish; German scholars claim it, on the other hand, as essentially "Germanic", due to the fact that Schleswig became an autonomous entity and a duchy (in the 13th century) since it has been populated and been dominated from the South. The Duchy of Schleswig, or Southern Jutland (Sønderjylland), had been a Danish fief, though having been more or less independent from the Kingdom of Denmark during the centuries, similarly to Holstein, that had been from the first a fief of the Holy Roman Empire, originating in the small area of Nordalbingia, in today western Holstein, inhabited then mostly by Saxons, but in 13th century expanded to the present Holstein, after winning local Danish overlord. Throughout the Middle Ages, Schleswig was a source of rivalry between Denmark and the nobility of the duchy of Holstein within the Holy Roman Empire. The Danish position can be exemplified with an inscription on a stone in the walls of the town of Rendsburg (Danish: Rendsborg) located on the border between Schleswig and Holstein: Eidora Romani Terminus Imperii ("The River Eider is the Border of the Holy Roman Empire"). A number of Holsatian nobles sought to challenge this.
Danes, Saxons, Angles struggle for control of Schleswig
The area of Schleswig (Southern Jutland) was first inhabited by the mingled West Germanic tribes Cimbri, Angles and Jutes, later also by the North Germanic Danes and West Germanic Frisians. Holstein was inhabited mainly by the West Germanic Saxons, aside Wends (such as Obotrites) and other Slavic peoples in the East. The Saxons were the last of their nation to submit to Charlemagne (804), who put their country under Frankish counts, the limits of the Empire being pushed in 810 as far as the Schlei in Schleswig. In 811 the river Eider was declared as borderline between the Frankish Empire and Denmark. Then began the secular struggle between the Danish kings and the rulers of the Holy Roman Empire, and in 934 the German king Henry I established the March of Schleswig (Limes Danarum) between the Eider and the Schlei as an outpost of the Empire against the Danes.
South of this raged the contest between the Empire and Slavs. The Slavs, conquered and Christianised, rose in revolt in 983, after the death of the emperor Otto II, and for a while reverted to paganism and independence. The Saxon dukes, however, continued to rule central Holstein, and when Lothair of Supplinburg became duke of Saxony (1106), on the extinction of the Billung line, he enfeoffed Lord Adolphus of Schauenburg with the County of Holstein, as a Saxon subfief, becoming Adolphus I, Count of Holstein with the Saxon, later Lower Saxon dukes as liege lords.
12th century
The Earl (jarl) Knud Lavard (known in English as Canute Lavard), son of a Danish king, became Duke of Jutland or Southern Jutland. His son ascended the Danish throne, and the main branch continued as Kings, and a cadet branch descended from Abel of Denmark received Southern Jutland (Slesvig) as their appanage. During the rule of the dynasty Southern Jutland functioned as the Duchy which provided for the expenses of Royal Princes. Rivalry of royal succession and particularly the tendency of autonomy led to long-lasting feuds between the Dukes of Schleswig and the Kings of Denmark 1253–1325.
At that time, the Holy Roman Empire expanded northwards and had set up the Schauenburg family as counts of Holstein, under German suzerainty, first located in Nordalbingia, the Saxon part of the region, in what now is western Holstein. Knud Lavard had also gained awhile parts of Holstein, and thereby came in conflict with Count Adolphus I (Schauenburg) in the part of Holstein within the Empire, as they both were very keen on expanding their influence and pacifying the Wagrian tribe (see: Wends). Count Adolphus II, son of Adolphus I, succeeded and established the County of Holstein (1143) with about the borders it has had since then. Holstein was Christianised, many of the Wagrians were killed and the land was inhabited by settlers from Westphalia, Friesland and Holland. Soon the Holsatian towns, such as Lübeck and Hamburg, became serious trade competitors on the Baltic Sea.
13th century
Adolphus II (1128–1164), succeeded in re-conquering the Slavonic Wagri and founded the city and see of Lübeck to hold them in check. Adolphus III (d. 1225), his successor, received Dithmarschen in fee from the emperor Frederick I, but in 1203 the fortunes of war compelled him to surrender Holstein to Valdemar II of Denmark who mandated Albert of Orlamünde, the cession being confirmed in a Golden bull by the emperor Frederick II in 1214 and the pope in 1217, thus provoking the nobles in Holstein. Valdemar appointed his lieutenant in Holstein.
In 1223, King Valdemar and his eldest son were abducted by count Henry I, Count of Schwerin (also known as Heinrich der Schwarze), and held captive in Castle Dannenberg for several years. Count Henry demanded that Valdemar should surrender the land conquered in Holstein 20 years ago and become a vassal of the Holy Roman Emperor who in fact tried to intervene and arrange the release of Valdemar. Danish envoys refused these terms and Denmark declared war. The war ended in defeat of the troops under the command of Albert of Orlamünde at Mölln in 1225, and Valdemar was forced to surrender his conquests as the price of his own release and take an oath not to seek revenge.
Valdemar was released from captivity in 1226 and appealed to Pope Honorius III to have his oath repealed, a request the Pope granted. In 1226, Valdemar attacked the nobles of Holstein, and initially, had success.
On July 22, 1227 the two armies clashed at Bornhöved in Holstein in the second Battle of Bornhöved. The battle ended in a decisive victory for Adolphus IV of Holstein. During the battle the troops from Dithmarschen abandoned the Danish army and joined Adolphus' army. In the following peace, Valdemar II relinquished his conquests in Holstein for good and Holstein was permanently secured to the house of Schauenburg.
King Valdemar II, who had retained the former imperial March north of the Eider, in 1232 erected Schleswig as a duchy for his second son, Abel. Holstein on the other hand, after the death of Adolphus IV in 1261, was split up into several countships by his sons and again by his grandsons (1290): the lines of Holstein-Kiel (1261–1390), Holstein-Pinneberg and Schaumburg (1290–1640) south of the Elbe, Holstein-Plön (1290–1350), Holstein-Rendsburg (1290–1459), and at times also Holstein-Itzehoe (1261–1290) and Holstein-Segeberg (1273–1315), and again 1397–1403), all named after the comital residential cities.
14th century
The connection between Schleswig and Holstein became closer during the 14th century as the ruling class and accompanying colonists intensely populated the Duchy Schleswig. Local lords of Schleswig had already early paid attention to keep Schleswig independent from the Kingdom of Denmark and to strengthen ties to Holstein within the Holy Roman Empire. This tradition of autonomy showed itself in future politics for centuries to come.
The rivalry, sometimes leading into war between the kings of Denmark and the Abelian dukes of Schleswig was expensive, and Denmark had to finance it through extensive loans. The Dukes of Schleswig were allied with the Counts of Holstein, who happened to become the main creditors of the Danish Crown, too, in the reign of the utterly incompetent king Christopher II of Denmark.
On the death of King Valdemar's descendant Eric VI of Denmark in 1319, Christopher II of Denmark attempted to seize the Duchy of Schleswig, the heir of which Duke Valdemar V (as of 1325) was a minor; but Valdemar's guardian and uncle, Gerhard III, Count of Holstein-Rendsburg (1304–1340), surnamed the Great and a notable warrior, drove back the Danes and, Christopher having been expelled, succeeded in procuring the election of Duke Valdemar to the Danish throne (as Valdemar III as of 1326), while Gerhard himself obtained the Duchy of Schleswig. King Valdemar III was regarded as a usurper by most Danish nobles as he had been forced by the Schleswig-Holstein nobility to sign the Constitutio Valdemaria (June 7, 1326) promising that The Duchy of Schleswig and the Kingdom of Denmark must never be united under the same ruler. Schleswig was consequently granted to Count Gerhard, being the leader of one of the three lines of the Schauenburg dynasty. The constitution can be seen as a first precursor to the Treaty of Ribe and similarly laying down the principle of separation between the Duchy of Schleswig and the Kingdom of Denmark and indeed uniting Schleswig and Holstein for the first time, though in personal union.
In 1330, Christopher II was restored to his throne and Valdemar III of Denmark abdicated his untenable kingship and returned to his former position as Duke of Schleswig which he held as Valdemar V of Schleswig. As compensation, Gerhard was awarded the island of Funen as a fief instead. In 1331 war broke out between Gerhard and King Christopher II, ending in Danish defeat. The peace terms were extremely harsh. King Christopher was only left in effective control of the small island of Langeland and faced the impossible task of raising 100,000 silver marks to redeem his country. Denmark had effectively been dissolved and was left without a king between 1332 and 1340. Gerhard, however, was assassinated in 1340 by a Dane.
In 1340, King Valdemar IV of Denmark began his more than twenty-year-long quest to reclaim his kingdom. While succeeding in regaining control of Zealand, Funen, Jutland, and Scania he, however, failed to obtain control of Schleswig, and its ducal line managed to continue its virtual independence.
This was the time when almost all of Denmark came under the supremacy of the Counts of Holstein, who possessed different parts of Denmark as pawns for their credits. King Valdemar IV (Atterdag) started to regain the kingdom part by part, and married his rival's sister Hedvig of Schleswig, the only daughter of Eric II, Duke of Schleswig. Duke Valdemar V of Slesvig's son, Henry, was in 1364 nominally entfeoffed with the Duchy, although he never reached to regain more than the northernmost parts as he couldn't raise the necessary funds to repay the loans. With him, the Abelian line became extinct. The true holder of the lands was the count of Holstein-Rendsburg, but Henry's feudal heirs were his first cousin Margaret of Denmark, queen of several Scandinavian realms, and Albert of Mecklenburg, son of Margaret's elder sister Ingeborg of Denmark.
In 1372, Valdemar Atterdag turned his attention to Schleswig and conquered Gram in 1372 and Flensburg in 1373. Southern parts of Schleswig had been mortgaged to several German nobles by Duke Henry I, Duke of Schleswig (d. 1375, a son of the former king Valdemar III of Denmark), the last duke of that line. The childless, elderly Henry transferred his rights to his kinsman and brother-in-law King Valdemar IV in 1373. The ethnically German nobles, however, refused to allow the king to repay the mortgage and redeem the area in question.
In 1374, Valdemar bought large tracts of land in the province and was on the verge of starting a campaign to conquer the rest when he died on October 24, 1374 and shortly hereon Duke Henry I died in 1375. It was then when the male lines both in the kingdom and the duchy became extinct, that the counts of Holstein-Rendsburg seized on Schleswig, assuming at the same time the style of lords of Jutland. The nobles quickly took action and managed to regain more control of the Duchy which they emphasised to be independent of the Danish Crown.
In 1386, Queen Margaret I of Denmark, younger daughter of Valdemar IV of Denmark and Helvig of Schleswig, granted Schleswig as a hereditary fief under the Danish crown to Count Gerhard VI of Holstein-Rendsburg, grandson of Gerhard III, provided that he swore allegiance to her son King Oluf, although Schleswig actually still was held autonomously by the Count of Holstein-Rendsburg. Gerhard - after the extinction of the lines of Holstein-Plön (1350) and Holstein-Kiel (1390) – finally obtained also Holstein-Segeberg in 1403, ruling thus all of Holstein except of Holstein-Pinneberg with the small Schauenburg territories in Lower Saxony. With this merging of power begins the history of the union of Schleswig and Holstein.
15th century
Gerhard VI died in 1404, and soon afterwards war broke out between his sons and Eric of Pomerania, Margaret's successor on the throne of Denmark, who claimed South Jutland as an integral part of the Danish monarchy, a claim formally recognised by the emperor Sigismund in 1424, it was not till 1440 that the struggle ended with the investiture of Count Adolphus VIII, Gerhard VI's son, with the hereditary duchy of Schleswig by Christopher III of Denmark.
In 1409, King Eric VII of Denmark (Eric of Pomerania) forced the German nobles to surrender Flensburg to him. War broke out in 1410, and Eric conquered Als and Ærø. In 1411, the nobles retook Flensburg, but in 1412 both sides agreed to a count of Mecklenburg to settle the dispute (Danish history claims his name was Ulrich of Mecklenburg). He awarded the city to Denmark, and Margaret I of Denmark took possession of the city. In Flensburg she was struck by the plague and died shortly after. A new mediation attempt was undertaken in 1416 by the Hanseatic League. Both sides accepted, and Denmark pledged the city of Schleswig as security, and the Holsteiners the stronghold of Tönning. The mediation was unsuccessful. In 1421, the Holsteiners succeeded in regaining Haderslev, Schleswig and Tønder.
In 1422, Duke Henry X of Silesia-Sagan (also known as duke Heinrich Rumpold), envoy of the Holy Roman Emperor, was recognised by both sides as arbitrator. He died, however, on January 18, 1423 before reaching a settlement. His master, Emperor Sigismund now wished to settle the issue, a decision strongly opposed by the nobles of Holstein. In 1424, Emperor Sigismund ruled, based on the fact that the people of Schleswig spoke Danish, followed Danish customs and considered themselves to be Danes, that the territory rightfully belonged to the King of Denmark. Henry IV, Count of Holstein-Rendsburg, protested and refused to follow the verdict.
In 1425 war broke out again. In 1431, a group of pro-German burghers opened the gates of Flensburg and an army of German nobles marched in. In 1432 peace was settled, and Eric recognised the conquests made by the German nobles.
In 1439, the new Danish king Christopher III (also known as Christopher of Bavaria) bought the loyalty of count Adolphus VIII of Holstein-Rendsburg by granting him the entire Duchy of Schleswig as a hereditary fief but under the Danish crown. On the death of Christopher eight years later, Adolphus' influence secured the election of his nephew Count Christian VII of Oldenburg to the vacant Danish throne.
In 1448 Adolphus, as Adolphus I Duke of Slesvig and as Adolphus VIII Count of Holstein-Rendsburg, who himself was one of the closest heirs to Scandinavian monarchies, was influential enough to get his nephew Count Christiern (Christian VII) of Oldenburg elected King of Denmark.
When the Adolphus had died in 1459 without issue the Schauenburg dynasty in Holstein-Rendsburg had thus became extinct. The Schauenburg counts of Holstein-Pinneberg had no claim to succession in Schleswig; their election in Holstein-Rendsburg would have separated Schleswig and Holstein-Rendsburg. The separation of Schleswig and Holstein would have meant economic ruin for many nobles of Holstein. Moreover, the Holsatian nobles, mostly of German ethnicity, failed to agree on which course to take.
Therefore, it was easy for King Christian I of Denmark (son of Hedwig, the sister of the late duke-count Adolphus) to secure his election both as duke of Schleswig and count of Holstein-Rendsburg. In 1460, King Christian called the nobility to Ribe, and on March 2, 1460, the nobles agreed to elect him as successor of Count Adolphus VIII as the new count of Holstein-Rendsburg, in order to prevent the separation of the two provinces. King Christian I, though he had been forced to swear to the Constitutio Valdemariana, succeeded in asserting his claim to Schleswig in right of his mother, Adolphus' sister. On 5 March 1460 Christian granted a coronation charter (or Freiheitsbrief), issued first at Ribe (Treaty of Ribe, , ) and afterwards at Kiel, which also repeated that Schleswig and Holstein-Rendsburg must remain united "dat se bliven ewich tosamende ungedelt" (Middle Low German or Low Saxon, i.e. that they remain for ever together undivided). Christian's ascension in the County of Holstein-Rendsburg was the first succession in Holstein in female line.
The Treaty of Ribe was a proclamation made by King Christian I of Denmark to a number of German nobles enabling himself to become count of Holstein-Rendsburg and regain the Danish duchy of Schleswig. Another clause gave the nobility the right to revolt should the king break the agreement (a usual feature of medieval coronation charters). Regarding Holstein-Rendsburg, the arrangement was pretty straightforward, the King of Denmark became in personal union count of Holstein-Rendsburg but was not allowed to annex the county, which was part of the Holy Roman Empire, to Denmark proper in real union.
Regarding Schleswig the arrangement seems at first rather odd, since Schleswig was a fief under the Danish crown, thus making the Danish king his own vassal. However, the nobles saw this arrangement as a guarantee against too strong Danish domination and as a guarantee against a partition of Holstein between Danish nobles. The most important consequence of this agreement was the exclusion of Schleswig in subsequent Danish laws (although the medieval Danish Code of Jutland (in Danish: Jyske Lov) was maintained as the legal code of the duchy of Schleswig.
Finally, in 1472 the emperor Frederick III confirmed Christian I's overlordship over Dithmarschen (by claim, conquered only in 1559). Frederick III elevated Christian as Count of Dithmarschen, Holstein-Rendsburg, and Stormarn to Duke of Holstein, thus elevating Holstein-Rendsburg, a Lower Saxon subfief to imperial immediacy. In Holstein-Pinneberg, however, the emperor remained only the indirect overlord with the Lower Saxon Duke John V being the immediate liege lord. In the following period of a hundred years, Schleswig and Holstein were many times divided between heirs. Instead of incorporating South Jutland with the Danish kingdom, however, he preferred to take advantage of the feeling of the estates in Schleswig and Holstein in favour of union to secure both provinces.
An important development was the gradual introduction of German administrators in the duchy of Schleswig leading to a gradual Germanification of southern Schleswig. The Germanification did not catch wind, however, before the end of the eighteenth century.
Schleswig-Holstein soon got a better educational system some centuries before Denmark proper and Norway. The German nobility in Schleswig and Holstein was already a numerous range of people, and education added plenty of people to administrative officials pool of the kings. In 16th and 17th centuries particularly, educated Schleswig-Holsteiners were recruited to government positions in Norway (where they supplanted indigenous lower Norwegian nobility from its public positions, being a cause of them developing more like odalbonde class than privileged) and also in Denmark, where very many government officials came from German stock (but the Danish nobility was not suppressed, they other immersed most successful of the newcomers into their ranks). This feature of Schleswig-Holstein being a utilised source of bureaucrats was a reason of Denmark's governmental half-Germanisation in the subsequent centuries before 19th-century romantics.
Early modern age
16th and 17th centuries
Gradual Germanification of southern Schleswig became more intense following the Protestant Reformation, promoted by Duke Christian III in the duchies after his ascension there in 1523 as co-ruling duke with his father King Frederick I. After Christian had succeeded to become also King of Denmark and Norway in 1534 and 1537, respectively, he enforced Lutheranism in all his realm in 1537 (see Reformation in Denmark-Norway and Holstein). The Duchy of Holstein adopted its first Lutheran Church Order in 1542 (written by Bugenhagen). The Counties of Holstein-Pinneberg and Schaumburg remained Catholic until 1559.
With Lutheranism the High German liturgy was introduced in churches in Holstein and the southern half of Schleswig (although the vernacular of more than half of this area was Danish). Whereas at the west coast North Frisian prevailed, about the other half of the South Schleswigers used Low Saxon, which had developed from Middle Low German, as their mother tongue, also prevailing in Holstein. High German started superseding the Danish, Low Saxon and Frisian vernaculars in the area.
After Christian III had consolidated his reign in Denmark and Norway against his adversaries there he concluded with his younger half-brothers, having come of age, to share with them in the rule of the duchies in 1544. Christian III, John II the Elder and Adolf partitioned the Duchies of Holstein (a fief of the Holy Roman Empire) and of Schleswig (a Danish fief) in an unusual way, following negotiations between the brothers and the Estates of the Realm of the duchies, which opposed a factual partition, referring to their indivisibility according to the Treaty of Ribe. The brothers determined their youngest brother Frederick for a career as Lutheran administrator of an ecclesiastical state within the Holy Roman Empire.
So the revenues of the duchies, deriving from the rights of overlordship in the various towns and territories of Schleswig and Holstein, were divided in three equal shares by assigning the revenues of particular areas and landed estates, themselves remaining undivided, to each of the elder brothers, while other general revenues, such as taxes from towns and customs dues, were levied together but then shared among the elder brothers. The estates, whose revenues were assigned to the parties, made Holstein and Schleswig look like patchwork rags, technically inhibiting the emergence of separate new duchies, as intended by the estates of the duchies. The secular rule in the fiscally divided duchies thus became a condominium of the parties. As dukes of Holstein and Schleswig the three rulers bore the formal title of "Duke of Schleswig, Holstein, Dithmarschen and Stormarn". With the independent peasant republic of Dithmarschen only claimed. The House of Schauenburg (Schaumburg) continued its rule in the Counties of Holstein-Pinneberg and Schaumburg.
Adolf, the third son of Frederick I and the second youngest half-brother of King Christian III, founded the dynastic branch called House of Holstein-Gottorp, which is a cadet branch of the then royal Danish House of Oldenburg. The dynastic name Holstein-Gottorp comes as convenient usage from the technically more correct Duke of Schleswig and Holstein at Gottorp, the residential palace. John II the Elder, Duke of Schleswig and Holstein at Haderslev, produced no issue, so no branch emerged from his side. The Danish monarchs and the Dukes of Schleswig and Holstein at Gottorp and Haderslev ruled both duchies together as to general government, however, collected their revenues in their separate estates. In 1559 through the Final Feud they conquered and subjected the peasant republic of Dithmarschen, partitioning it into three shares.
Similar to the above-mentioned agreement Christian III's youngest son John the Younger gained for him and his heirs a share in Holstein's and Schleswig's revenues in 1564, seated in Sønderborg, comprising a third of the royal share, thus a ninth of Holstein and Schleswig in fiscal respect. John the Younger and his heirs, the House of Schleswig-Holstein-Sonderburg (Danish: Slesvig-Holsten-Sønderborg), however, had no share in the condominial rule, they were non-ruling only titular partitioned-off dukes. John the Younger‘s grandsons again partitioned this appanage, Ernest Günther (1609–1689), founding the line of Schleswig-Holstein-Sonderburg-Augustenburg (Danish: Slesvig-Holsten-Augustenborg), and Augustus Philip (1612–1675) that of Schleswig-Holstein-Sonderburg-Beck (known since 1825 as Holstein-Sonderburg-Glücksburg). However, these had no share in the condominial rule and were always mediatised under the King as Duke in Schleswig and Holstein, and no immediate prince under the Emperor as liege lord of Holstein, where they held estates around Plön.
The share of John II the Elder, who died in 1580, was halved between Adolf and Frederick II, thus increasing again the royal share by a fiscal sixth of Holstein and Schleswig. As an effect the complicated fiscal division of both separate duchies, Holstein and Schleswig, with shares of each party scattered in both duchies, provided them with a condominial government binding both together, partially superseding their legally different affiliation as Holy Roman and Danish fiefs. In 1640 the Princes of Schauenburg were extinct in the male line and the County of Holstein-Pinneberg was merged into the royal share of the Duchy of Holstein. Neither the agnatic heirs of Schauenburg nor Holstein-Pinneberg's liege lord the Lower Saxon Duke Augustus could help it.
During the 30-years' War the relations between Duke and King worsened. Finally in 1658, after the Danes had invaded Swedish Bremen-Verden, the Duke cooperated with the Swedes in their counter-attack which almost eradicated the Danish Kingdom. The peace treaties (Treaty of Taastrup and Treaty of Roskilde) stipulated that the Duke of Holstein-Gottorp no longer was a vassal of the Danish Crown in Schleswig. Frederick III, duke from 1616 to 1659, established the principle of primogeniture for his line, and the full sovereignty of his Schleswig dominions was secured to him by his son-in-law Charles X of Sweden by the convention of Copenhagen (May 12, 1658) and to his son Christian Albert (d. 1695) by the Treaty of Oliva, though it was not till after years of warfare that Denmark admitted the claim by the convention of Altona (June 30, 1689).
Christian Albert's son Frederick IV (d. 1702) was again attacked by Denmark, but had a powerful champion in King Charles XII of Sweden, who secured his rights by the Treaty of Travendal in 1700. Frederick IV was killed at the Battle of Kliszów in 1702, and his brother Christian August acted as regent for his son Charles Frederick until 1718. In 1713 the regent broke the stipulated neutrality of the duchy in favour of Sweden and Frederick IV of Denmark seized the excuse to expel the duke by force of arms. Holstein was restored to him by the peace of Frederiksborg in 1720, but in the following year king Frederick IV was recognised as sole sovereign of Schleswig by the estates and by the partitioned-off dukes of the Augustenburg and Glücksburg lines.
18th century
As Sweden in the 1713 Siege of Tönning had lost its influence on Holstein-Gottorp, Denmark could again subjugate the entire Slesvig to the Danish realm; Holstein-Gottorps lost their lands in Schleswig, but continued as independent Dukes in their portion of Holstein. This status was cemented in the Treaty of Frederiksborg in 1720, by which the prior royal and ducal regions of Schleswig were united under the king, while the Duke remained Duke of Holstein-Gottorp under the German Emperor. The frustrated duke sought support for the recovery of Schleswig in Russia and married into the Russian imperial family in 1725. Russian Empress Elizabeth died childless in 1762, and she appointed her nephew, Duke Charles Peter Ulrich of Holstein-Gottorp, to be her successor in Russia. When he ascended the throne as Tsar Peter III of Russia, Holstein-Gottorp came to be ruled in personal union by the Emperor of Russia, creating a conflict of territorial claims between Russia and Denmark.
Peter III threatened war with Denmark for the recovery of his ancestral lands, but before any fighting could begin he was overthrown by his wife, who took control of Russia as Tsarina Catherine II. Empress Catherine reversed Russia's stance, withdrawing her husband's ultimatum and even entering an alliance with Denmark in 1765. In 1767 Catherine resigned Russia's claims in Schleswig-Holstein, in the name of her son (later Paul I of Russia), who confirmed this action on coming of age in 1773 with the Treaty of Tsarskoye Selo. Oldenburg and Delmenhorst, surrendered by the Danish king in compensation, were handed over to Frederick August, bishop of Lübeck, the second son of Christian August, who thus founded the younger line of the house of Gottorp. Schleswig and Holstein were thus once more united under the Danish king (Christian VII), who now received all Holstein, but that formally under the Empire.
19th century
On the abolition of the Holy Roman Empire in 1806, Holstein was practically, though not formally, incorporated in Denmark. Under the administration of the Danish prime minister Count Bernstorff, himself from Schleswig, many reforms were carried out in the duchies, for example, abolition of torture and of serfdom; at the same time Danish laws and coinage were introduced, and Danish was made the official language for communication with Copenhagen. Since, however, the Danish court itself at the time was largely German in language and feeling, this produced no serious expressions of resentment.
The settlement of 1806 was reversed, and while Schleswig remained as before, the duchies of Holstein and Lauenburg, the latter acquired in personal union by a territorial swap following the Congress of Vienna, were included in the new German Confederation. The opening up of the Schleswig-Holstein question thus became sooner or later inevitable. The Germans of Holstein, influenced by the new national enthusiasm evoked by the War of Liberation, resented more than ever the attempts of the government of Copenhagen to treat them as part of the Danish monarchy and, encouraged by the sympathy of the Germans in Schleswig, early tried to reassert in the interests of Germanism the old principle of the unity of the duchies. The political atmosphere, however, had changed at Copenhagen also; and their demands were met by the Danes with a nationalist temper as intractable as their own. Affairs were ripe for a crisis, which the threatened failure of the common male heirs to the kingdom and the duchies precipitated.
The Duchy of Schleswig was originally an integrated part of Denmark, but was in medieval times established as a fief under the Kingdom of Denmark, with the same relation to the Danish Crown as for example Brandenburg or Bavaria had to the Holy Roman Emperor. Holstein had as a fief been part of the Holy Roman Empire, and was eventually established as a single united province. Schleswig and Holstein have at different times belonged in part or completely to either Denmark, the Holy Roman Empire, or been virtually independent of both nations. The exception is that Schleswig had never been part of the Holy Roman Empire or the German Confederation before the Second War of Schleswig in 1864. For many centuries, the King of Denmark was both a Danish Duke of Schleswig and a Duke of Holstein within the Holy Roman Empire. The short version is: Schleswig was either integrated in Denmark or a Danish fief, and Holstein was a Holy Roman Imperial fief. Since 1460 both were ruled by the Kings of Denmark with the Dukes of Holstein and Schleswig (since 1544). In 1721 all of Schleswig was united as a single Duchy under the King of Denmark, and the Great Powers of Europe confirmed in an international treaty that all future Kings of Denmark should automatically become Duke of Schleswig and Schleswig would consequently always follow the same line of succession as the one chosen in the Kingdom of Denmark.
The duchy of Schleswig was legally a Danish fief and not part of the Holy Roman Empire or, after 1815, of the German Confederation (German: Deutscher Bund, Danish: Tysk Forbund), but the duchy of Holstein was a Holy Roman fief and a state of both the Empire and later the German Confederation of 1815–1866. It was one of the oddities of both the Holy Roman Empire and of the German Confederation that foreign heads of state could be and often were also members of the constitutional organs of the Empire and the Confederation if they held a territory that was part of the Empire or the Confederation. The King of Denmark had a seat in the organs of the German Confederation because he was also Duke of Holstein and Duke of Lauenburg.
Schleswig-Holstein Question
The Schleswig-Holstein Question was the name given to the whole complex of diplomatic and other issues arising in the 19th century out of the relations of the two duchies, Schleswig and Holstein, to the Danish crown on one side and the German Confederation on the other.
In 1806–1815 the government of Denmark had claimed Schleswig and Holstein to be parts of the monarchy of Denmark, which was not popular among the German population in Schleswig-Holstein, who had traditionally the majority in Holstein and had gradually increased its dominance in Schleswig as well. However, this development sparked a German national awakening after the Napoleonic wars and led to a strong popular movement in Holstein and Southern Schleswig for unification of both with a new Germany (see German unification), turning out to be Prussian-dominated, as it was.
A controversy in the 19th century raged round the ancient indissoluble union of the two duchies, and the inferences to be drawn from it; the Danish National Liberals claimed Schleswig as an integral part of the Danish kingdom; Germans claimed, besides Holstein, being a member state of the German Confederation, also Schleswig. The history of the relations of Schleswig and Holstein thus became of importance in the practical political question.
The childlessness of King Frederick VII of Denmark worked in favour of the movement for the German unification, as did the ancient Treaty of Ribe, which stipulated that the two duchies must never be separated. A counter-movement developed among the Danish population in northern Schleswig and (from 1838) in Denmark, where the Liberals insisted that Schleswig as a fief had belonged to Denmark for centuries and that the Eider River, the historic border between Schleswig and Holstein, should mark the frontier between Denmark and the German Confederation or a new eventually united Germany. The Danish nationalists thus aspired to incorporate Schleswig into Denmark, in the process separating it from Holstein. The movement for the German unity conversely sought to confirm Schleswig's association with Holstein, in the process detaching Schleswig from Denmark and bringing it into the German Confederation.
The Danish succession
When Christian VIII succeeded his first cousin Frederick VI in 1839 the elder male line of the house of Oldenburg was obviously on the point of extinction, the king's only son and heir having no children. Ever since 1834, when joint succession, consultative estates had been re-established for the duchies, the question of the succession had been debated in this assembly. To German opinion the solution seemed clear enough. The crown of Denmark could be inherited by female heirs (see Louise of Hesse); in the duchy of Holstein the Salic law had never been repealed and, in the event of a failure of male heirs to Christian VIII, the succession would pass to the Dukes of Augustenburg — although this was debatable as the dynasty itself had received Holstein by Christian I of Denmark being the son of the sister of the last Schauenburg, Adolphus VIII.
Danish opinion, on the other hand, clamoured for a royal pronouncement proclaiming the principle of the indivisibility of the monarchy and its transmission intact to a single heir, in accordance with the royal law. To this Christian VIII yielded so far as to issue in 1846 letters patent declaring that the royal law in the matter of the succession was in full force so far as Schleswig was concerned, in accordance with the letters patent of August 22, 1721, the oath of fidelity of September 3, 1721, the guarantees given by France and Great Britain in the same year and the treaties of 1767 and 1773 with Russia. As to Holstein, he stated that certain circumstances prevented him from giving, in regard to some parts of the duchy, so clear a decision as in the case of Schleswig. The principle of the independence of Schleswig and of its union with Holstein were expressly reaffirmed. An appeal against this by the estates of Holstein to the German Federal Assembly received no attention.
On January 28, Christian VIII issued a rescript proclaiming a new constitution which, while preserving the autonomy of the different parts of the country, incorporated them for common purposes in a single organisation. The estates of the duchies replied by demanding the incorporation of Schleswig-Holstein, as a single constitutional state, in the German Confederation.
First Schleswig War
In March 1848 these differences led to an open uprising by the German-minded Estate assemblies in the duchies in support of independence from Denmark and of close association with the German Confederation. The military intervention of Prussia helped the uprising: the Prussian army drove Denmark's troops from Schleswig and Holstein.
Frederick VII, who had succeeded his father at the end of January, declared (March 4) that he had no right to deal in this way with Schleswig, and, yielding to the importunity of the Eider-Danish party, withdrew the rescript of January (April 4) and announced to the people of Schleswig (March 27) the promulgation of a liberal constitution under which the duchy, while preserving its local autonomy, would become an integral part of Denmark.
A Liberal constitution for Holstein was not seriously considered in Copenhagen since it was a well-known fact that the German political elite of Holstein was far more conservative than the one in Copenhagen. This proved to be true, as the politicians of Holstein demanded that the Constitution of Denmark be scrapped, not only in Schleswig but also in Denmark, as well as demanding that Schleswig immediately follow Holstein and become a member of the German Confederation and eventually a part of the new united Germany.
The rebels established a provisional government at Kiel; and the duke of Augustenburg had hurried to Berlin to secure the assistance of Prussia in asserting around 1848 his rights. This was at the very crisis of the revolution in Berlin, and the Prussian government saw in the proposed intervention in Denmark in a popular cause an excellent opportunity for restoring its damaged prestige. Prussian troops were accordingly marched into Holstein.
This war between Denmark on the one hand and the two duchies and Prussia on the other lasted three years (1848–1850) and only ended when the Great Powers pressured Prussia into accepting the London Convention of 1852. Under the terms of this peace agreement, the German Confederation returned the duchies of Schleswig and Holstein to Denmark. In an agreement with Prussia under the London Protocol of 1852, the Danish government in return undertook not to tie Schleswig more closely to Denmark than to the duchy of Holstein.
In 1848 King Frederick VII of Denmark declared that he would grant Denmark a Liberal Constitution and the immediate goal for the Danish national movement was to secure that this Constitution would not only give rights to all Danes, that is, not only to the Kingdom of Denmark, but also to Danes (and Germans) living in Schleswig. Furthermore, they demanded the protection of the Danish language in Schleswig since the dominating language in almost a quarter of Schleswig had changed from Danish to German since the beginning of the nineteenth century.
Nationalist circles in Denmark advocated annexation of Schleswig (but not of Holstein) as Danish national culture had risen much in past decades.
On April 12, 1848 the federal assembly recognised the provisional government of Schleswig and commissioned Prussia to enforce its decrees, General Wrangel was ordered to occupy Schleswig also. The new provisional government accounted for the respect of the two major languages, neglecting Frisian, in Schleswig and appointed two Lutheran general superintendents one each for parishes of Danish and of German language (Johannes Andreas Rehhoff and Nicolaus Johann Ernst Nielsen, respectively).
But the German movement and Prussia had reckoned without the European powers, which were united in opposing any dismemberment of Denmark. Even Austria, like Holstein a member state of the German Confederation, refused to assist in enforcing the German view. Swedish troops landed to assist the Danes; Nicholas I of Russia, speaking with authority as Head of the elder Gottorp line, pointed out to King Frederick William IV the risks of a collision; Great Britain, though the Danes rejected her mediation, threatened to send her fleet to assist in preserving the status quo.
Frederick William now ordered Wrangel to withdraw his troops from the duchies. The general refused to obey, pleading that he was under the command not of the king of Prussia but of the regent of the German Confederation, Archduke John of Austria, and proposed that, at least, any treaty concluded should be presented for ratification to the Frankfurt Parliament. This the Danes refused; and negotiations were broken off. Prussia was now confronted on one side by the German unification movement urging her clamorously to action, on the other by the European powers threatening with one voice dire consequences should she persist.
On August 26, 1848, after painful hesitation, Frederick William chose what seemed the lesser of two evils, and Prussia signed at Malmö a convention which yielded practically all the Danish demands. The Holstein estates appealed to the Frankfurt Parliament, which hotly took up their cause; but it was soon clear that the provisional government in Frankfurt of the to-be-unified Germany had no means of enforcing its views, and in the end the convention was ratified at Frankfurt.
The convention was only in the nature of a truce establishing a temporary modus vivendi, and the main issues, left unsettled, continued to be hotly debated. At a conference held in London in October, Denmark suggested an arrangement on the basis of a separation of Schleswig from Holstein, which was about to become a member of the eventually united Germany, Schleswig to have a separate constitution under the Danish crown. This was supported by Great Britain and Russia.
On January 27, 1849, it was accepted by Prussia and the German Confederation. The negotiations broke down, however, on the refusal of Denmark to yield the principle of the indissoluble union with the Danish crown.
On February 23 the truce was at an end, and on April 3, the war was renewed.
The principles which Prussia was commissioned to enforce as the mandatory of the German Confederation were:
that they were independent states
that their union was indissoluble
that they were hereditary only in the male line
At this point the tsar intervened in favour of peace; and Prussia, conscious of her restored strength and weary of the intractable temper of the provisional Frankfurt government, determined to take matters into her own hands.
On July 10, 1849, another truce was signed. Schleswig, until the peace, was to be administered separately, under a mixed commission. Holstein was to be governed by a vicegerent of the German Confederation – an arrangement equally offensive to German and Danish sentiment. A settlement seemed as far off as ever. The Danes of Schleswig still clamoured for the principle of succession in the female line and union with Denmark, the Germans for that of succession in the male line and union with Holstein.
In 1849 the Constitution of Denmark was adopted. This complicated matters further, as many Danes wished for the new democratic constitution to apply for all Danes, including in the Danes in Schleswig. The constitutions of Holstein and Schleswig were dominated by the Estates system, giving more power to the most affluent members of society, with the result that both Schleswig and Holstein were politically dominated by a predominantly German class of landowners.
Thus, two systems of government co-existed within the same state: democracy in Denmark, and the pre-modern estates system in Schleswig and Holstein. The three units were governed by one cabinet, consisting of liberal ministers of Denmark who urged for economical and social reforms, and conservative ministers of the Holstein nobility who opposed political reform. This caused a deadlock for practical lawmaking. Moreover, Danish opponents of this so-called Unitary State (Helstaten) feared that Holstein's presence in the government and, at the same time, membership in the German Confederation would lead to increased German interference with Schleswig, or even into purely Danish affairs.
In Copenhagen, the Palace and most of the administration supported a strict adherence to the status quo. Same applied to foreign powers such as Great Britain, France and Russia, who would not accept a weakened Denmark in favour of the German states, nor acquisition of Holstein (with its important naval harbour of Kiel and control of the entrance to the Baltic) by Prussia.
In April 1850, in utter weariness Prussia proposed a definitive peace on the basis of the status quo ante bellum and the postponement of all questions as to mutual rights. To Palmerston the basis seemed meaningless, the proposed settlement to settle nothing. The emperor Nicholas, openly disgusted with Frederick William's weak-kneed truckling to the Revolution, again intervened. To him the duke of Augustenburg was a rebel; Russia had guaranteed Schleswig to the Danish crown by the treaties of 1767 and 1773; as for Holstein, if the king of Denmark was unable to deal with the rebels there, he himself would intervene as he had done in Hungary.
The threat was reinforced by the menace of the European situation. Austria and Prussia were on the verge of war. The sole hope of preventing Russia from throwing her sword into the scale of Austria lay in settling the Schleswig-Holstein question as Russia desired. Frederick William's only alternative – an alliance with Louis Napoleon, who already dreamed of acquiring the Rhine frontier for France at the price of his aid in establishing German sea power by the cession of the duchies – was abhorrent to him.
After the First Schleswig War
A peace treaty was signed between Prussia and Denmark on July 2, 1850. Both parties reserved all their antecedent rights. Denmark was satisfied, since the treaty empowered the King to restore his authority in Holstein as Duke with or without the consent of the German Confederation.
Danish troops now marched in to coerce the refractory duchies; but while the fighting went on negotiations among the powers continued, and on August 2, 1850, Great Britain, France, Russia and Norway-Sweden signed a protocol, to which Austria subsequently adhered, approving the principle of restoring the integrity of the Danish monarchy. The provisional Schleswig government was deposed, as were the Lutheran general superintendents, who were even exiled from the Oldenburg-ruled monarchies in 1850. Their position remained vacant with Superintendent Christoph Carl Julius Asschenfeldt officiating per pro.
The Copenhagen government, which in May 1851 made an abortive attempt to come to an understanding with the inhabitants of the duchies by convening an assembly of notables at Flensburg, issued on December 6, 1851, a project for the future organisation of the monarchy on the basis of the equality of its constituent states, with a common ministry; and on January 28, 1852, a royal letter announced the institution of a unitary state which, while maintaining the fundamental constitution of Denmark, would increase the parliamentary powers of the estates of the two duchies. This proclamation was approved by Prussia and Austria, and by the German Federal Assembly insofar as it affected Holstein and Lauenburg. The question of the succession was the next approached. Only the question of the Augustenburg succession made an agreement between the powers impossible, and on March 31, 1852, the duke of Augustenburg resigned his claim in return for a money payment. Further adjustments followed.
Another factor which doomed Danish interests, was that not only was the power of German culture rising, but so were conflicts with German States in the south, namely Prussia and Austria. Schleswig and Holstein would, of course and inevitably, become the subject of a territorial dispute involving military encounters among the three states, Denmark, Prussia and Austria.
Danish government found itself nervous as it became expected that Frederik VII would leave no son, and that upon his death, under Salic law, the possible Crown Princess would have no actual legal right to Schleswig and Holstein (of course that was debatable, as the dynasty itself had received Holstein by Christian I being son of the sister of last Schauenburg count of Holstein, but Salic Law was convenient to German nationalists in this case, furthermore Schleswig was a fief to the kings of Denmark with the Danish Kings Law, Kongeloven). Ethnic-Danish citizens of Schleswig (South Jutland) panicked over the possibility of being separated from their mother country, agitated against the German element, and demanded that Denmark declare Schleswig an integral part of Denmark, which outraged German nationalists.
Holstein was part of the territory of the German Confederation, with which an annexation of whole Schleswig and Holstein to Denmark would have been incompatible. This gave a good pretext to Prussia to engage in war with Denmark in order to seize Schleswig and Holstein for itself, both by pleasing nationalists by 'liberating' Germans from Danish rule, and by implementing the law of the German Confederation.
After the renunciation by the emperor of Russia and others of their eventual rights, Charlotte, Landgravine of Hesse, sister of Christian VIII, and her son Prince Frederick transferred their rights to the latter's sister Louise, who in her turn transferred them to her husband Prince Christian of Glücksburg.
On May 8, 1852, this arrangement received international sanction by the protocol signed in London by the five great powers and Norway and Sweden.
On July 31, 1853, Frederick VII of Denmark gave his assent to a law settling the crown on Prince Christian, prince of Denmark, and his male heirs. The protocol of London, while consecrating the principle of the integrity of Denmark, stipulated that the rights of the German Confederation in Holstein and Lauenburg should remain unaffected. It was, in fact, a compromise, and left the fundamental issues unsettled. The German Federal Assembly had not been represented in London, and the terms of the protocol were regarded in German states as a humiliation. As for the Danes, they were far from being satisfied with the settlement, which they approved only insofar as it gave them a basis for a more vigorous prosecution of their unionist schemes.
On February 15 and June 11, 1854, Frederick VII, after consulting the estates, promulgated special constitutions for Schleswig and Holstein respectively, under which the provincial assemblies received certain very limited powers.
On July 26, 1854, he published a common Danish constitution for the whole monarchy; it was little more unitary than a veiled absolutism. In 1854 the Lutheran church bodies of Schleswig and Holstein, until then led by general superintendents, until 1640 titled general provosts, were converted into Lutheran dioceses called Stift Schleswig (Danish: Slesvig Stift) and Stift Holstein (Danish: Holsten Stift), each presided by a Lutheran bishop. Ulrich Sechmann Boesen became Bishop for Schleswig (as of 1854), and Wilhelm Heinrich Koopmann was appointed Bishop for Holstein (in office 1855–1871).
On October 2, 1855, the common Danish constitution was superseded by a parliamentary constitution of a modified type. The legality of this constitution was disputed by the two German great powers, on the ground that the estates of the duchies had not been consulted as promised in the royal letter of December 6, 1851.
On February 11, 1858, the federal assembly of the German Confederation refused to admit its validity so far as Holstein and Lauenburg were concerned.
In the early 1860s the "Schleswig-Holstein Question" once more became the subject of lively international debate, but with the difference that support for the Danish position was in decline. The Crimean War had crippled the power of Russia, and France was prepared to renounce support for Danish interests in the duchies in exchange for compensations to herself elsewhere.
Queen Victoria and her consort Prince Albert had sympathy for the German position, but it was tempered by British ministers who saw the growth of German sea power in the Baltic Sea as a danger to British naval supremacy, and consequently Great Britain sided with the Danes.
To that was added a grievance about tolls charged on shipping passing through the Danish Straits to pass between the Baltic Sea and the North Sea. To avoid that expense, Prussia planned the Kiel Canal, which could not be built as long as Denmark ruled Holstein.
The secessionist movement continued throughout the 1850s and 1860s, as proponents of German unification increasingly expressed the wish to include two Danish-ruled provinces Holstein and Schleswig in an eventual 'Greater Germany'. Holstein was completely German, while the situation in Schleswig was complex. It was linguistically mixed between German, Danish and North Frisian. The population was predominantly of Danish ethnicity, but many of them had switched to the German language since the 17th century. German culture dominated in clergy and nobility, whereas Danish had a lower social status. For centuries, when the rule of the King was absolute, these conditions had created few tensions. When ideas of democracy spread and national currents emerged from c. 1820, some professed sympathy with German, others with Danish nationality.
The medieval Treaty of Ribe had proclaimed that Schleswig and Holstein were indivisible, albeit in another context. As the events of 1863 threatened to politically divide the two duchies, Prussia was handed a good pretext to engage in war with Denmark to seize Schleswig-Holstein for itself, both by pleasing nationalists in "liberating" Germans from Danish rule, and by implementing the law of the German Confederation.
On July 29, 1853, In response to the renewed Danish claim to Schleswig as integral Danish territory, the German Federal Assembly (instructed by Bismarck) threatened German federal intervention.
On November 6, 1853, Frederick VII issued a proclamation abolishing the Danish constitution so far as it affected Holstein and Lauenburg, while keeping it for Denmark and Schleswig.
Even this concession violated the principle of the indissoluble union of the duchies, but the German Federal Assembly, fully occupied at home, determined to refrain from further action till the Danish parliament should make another effort to pass a law or budget affecting the whole kingdom without consulting the estates of the duchies.
In July 1860 this happened, and in the spring of 1861 the estates were once more at open odds with the Danish government. The German Federal Assembly now prepared for armed intervention; but it was in no condition to carry out its threats, and Denmark decided, on the advice of Great Britain, to ignore it and open negotiations directly with Prussia and Austria as independent powers. These demanded the restoration of the union between the duchies, a question beyond the competence of the Confederation. Denmark replied with a refusal to recognise the right of any foreign power to interfere in her relations with Schleswig; to which Austria, anxious to conciliate the smaller German princes, responded with a vigorous protest against Danish infringements of the compact of 1852.
Lord John Russell now intervened, on behalf of Great Britain, with a proposal for a settlement of the whole question on the basis of the independence of the duchies under the Danish crown, with a decennial budget for common expenses to be agreed on by the four assemblies, and a supreme council of state consisting in relative proportion of Danes and Germans. This was accepted by Russia and by the German great powers, and Denmark found herself isolated in Europe. The international situation, however, favoured a bold attitude, and she met the representations of the powers with a flat defiance. The retention of Schleswig as an integral part of the monarchy was to Denmark a matter of life and death; the German Confederation had made the terms of the protocol of 1852, defining the intimate relations between the duchies, the excuse for unwarrantable interference in the internal affairs of the Denmark.
On March 30, 1863, as a result of this, a royal compact's proclamation was published at Copenhagen repudiating the compacts of 1852, and, by defining the separate position of Holstein in the Danish monarchy, negativing once for all the German claims upon Schleswig.
Three main movements had evolved, each with its goal:
A German movement in the two duchies dreamt of an independent Schleswig-Holstein under a liberal constitution. First a personal union with Denmark was outlined, as proposed by Uwe Jens Lornsen in 1830. Later, as it the succession problem appeared and the national sympathies of Danish royalty became evident, the Schleswig-Holstein movement called for an independent state ruled by the house of Augustenburg, a cadet branch of the Danish royal House of Oldenburg. The movement largely ignored the fact that the northern half of Schleswig was predominantly Danish-minded.
In Denmark, nationalists wished a "Denmark to the Eider River", implying a reincorporation of Schleswig into Denmark and an end to the century-long German dominance in this region's politics. This scenario would mean a total exclusion of Holstein from the Danish monarchy, barring the conservative aristocracy of Holstein from Danish politics, thus easing liberal reforms. The Eider movement underestimated the German element of Southern Schleswig or thought they could be re-convinced of their Danish heritage.
A less vociferous, but more influential stance was the keeping of the Danish unitary state as it was, one kingdom and two duchies. This would avoid any partition, but it would also not solve the ethnical controversy and the constitutional issues. Most Danish civil servants and the major powers of Russia, Britain and France supported this status quo.
A fourth scenario, that Schleswig and Holstein should both be incorporated into Prussia as a mere province, was hardly considered before or during the war of 1864. However, it was to be the outcome after the Austro-Prussian War two years later.
As the heirless king Frederick VII grew older, Denmark's successive National-Liberal cabinets became increasingly focused on maintaining control of Schleswig following the king's future death. Both duchies were ruled by the kings of Denmark and shared a long mutual history, but their association with Denmark was extremely complex. Holstein was a member of the German Confederation. Denmark, and Schleswig (as it was a Danish fief), were outside the German Confederation. German nationalists claimed that the succession laws of the two duchies were different from the similar law in Denmark. Danes, however, claimed that this only applied to Holstein, but that Schleswig was subject to the Danish law of succession. A further complication was a much-cited reference in the 1460 Treaty of Ribe stipulating that Schleswig and Holstein should "be together and forever unseparated". As counter-evidence, and in favour of the Danish view, rulings of a Danish clerical court and a German Emperor, of 1424 and 1421 respectively, were produced.
In 1863 King Frederick VII of Denmark died leaving no heir. According to the line of succession of Denmark and Schleswig, the crowns of both Denmark and Schleswig would now pass to Duke Christian of Glücksburg (the future King Christian IX), the crown of Holstein was considered to be more problematic. This decision was challenged by a rival pro-German branch of the Danish royal family, the House of Augustenburg (Danish: Augustenborg) who demanded, like in 1848, the crowns of both Schleswig and Holstein. This happened at a particularly critical time as work on a new constitution for the joint affairs of Denmark and Schleswig had just been completed with the draft awaiting his signature. In the Duchy of Lauenburg the personal union with Denmark ended and her estates elected a new dynasty in 1865.
The November Constitution
The new so-called November Constitution would not annex Schleswig to Denmark directly, but instead, create a joint parliament (with the medieval title Rigsraadet) to govern the joint affairs of both Denmark and Schleswig. Both entities would maintain their individual parliaments as well. A similar initiative, but also including Holstein, had been attempted in 1855, but proved a failure because of the opposition of the people in Schleswig and their support in German states. Most importantly, Article I clarified the question of succession: "The form of government shall be that of a constitutional monarchy. The royal authority shall be inherited. The law of succession is specified in the law of succession of July 31, 1853, applying for the entire Danish monarchy."
Denmark's new king, Christian IX, was in a position of extraordinary difficulty. The first sovereign act he was called upon to perform was to sign the new constitution. To sign was to violate the terms of the London Protocol which would probably lead to war. To refuse to sign was to place himself in antagonism to the united sentiment of his Danish subjects, which was the basis of his reign. He chose what seemed the lesser of two evils, and on November 18 signed the constitution.
The news was seen as a violation of the London Protocol, which prohibited such a change in the status quo. It was received in German states with manifestations of excitement and anger. Frederick, Duke of Augustenburg, son of the prince who in 1852 had renounced the succession to the duchies, now claimed his rights on the ground that he had no share in the renunciation. In Holstein, agitation in his favor had begun from the first, and this was extended to Schleswig when the terms of the new Danish constitution became known. His claim was enthusiastically supported by the German princes and people, and in spite of the negative attitude of Austria and Prussia, the federal assembly at the initiative of Otto von Bismarck decided to occupy Holstein pending the settlement of the decree of succession.
Second Schleswig War
On December 24, 1863, Saxon and Hanoverian troops marched into the German duchy of Holstein in the name of the German Confederation, and supported by their presence and by the loyalty of the Holsteiners the duke of Augustenburg assumed the government under the style of Duke Frederick VIII.
It was clear to Bismarck that Austria and Prussia, as parties to the London Protocol of 1852, must and uphold the succession as fixed by it, and that any action they might take in consequence of the violation of that compact by Denmark must be so correct as to deprive Europe of all excuse for interference. The publication of the new constitution by Christian IX was in itself sufficient to justify them. As to the ultimate outcome of their effective intervention, that could be left to the future to decide. Austria had no clear views. King William wavered between his Prussian feeling and a sentimental sympathy with the duke of Augustenburg. Bismarck alone knew exactly what he wanted, and how to attain it. "From the beginning", he said later (Reflections, ii. 10), "I kept annexation steadily before my eyes."
After Christian IX of Denmark merged Schleswig (not Holstein) into Denmark in 1863 following his accession to the Danish throne that year, Bismarck's diplomatic abilities finally convinced Austria to participate in the war, with the assent of the other European large powers and under the auspices of the German Confederation.
The protests of Great Britain and Russia against the action of the German federal assembly, together with the proposal of Count Beust, on behalf of Saxony, that Bavaria should bring forward in that assembly a formal motion for the recognition of Duke Frederick's claims, helped Bismarck to persuade Austria that immediate action must be taken.
On December 28 a motion was introduced in the federal assembly by Austria and Prussia, calling on the Confederation to occupy Schleswig as a pledge for the observance by Denmark of the compacts of 1852. This implied the recognition of the rights of Christian IX, and was indignantly rejected; whereupon the federal assembly was informed that the Austrian and Prussian governments would act in the matter as independent European powers.
On January 16, 1864, the agreement between them was signed. An article drafted by Austria, intended to safeguard the settlement of 1852, was replaced at Bismarck's instance by another which stated that the two powers would decide only in concert on the relations of the duchies, and that they would in no case determine the question of the succession save by mutual consent; and Bismarck issued an ultimatum to Denmark demanding that the November Constitution should be abolished within 48 hours. This was rejected by the Danish government.
The Austrian and Prussian forces crossed the Eider into Schleswig on February 1, 1864, and war was inevitable.
An invasion of Denmark itself had not been part of the original programme of the allies; but on February 18 some Prussian hussars, in the excitement of a cavalry skirmish, crossed the frontier and occupied the village of Kolding. Bismarck determined to use this circumstance to revise the whole situation. He urged upon the Austrians the necessity for a strong policy, so as to settle once for all not only the question of the duchies but the wider question of the German Confederation; and Austria reluctantly consented to press the war.
On March 11 a fresh agreement was signed between the powers, under which the compacts of 1852 were declared to be no longer valid, and the position of the duchies within the Danish monarchy as a whole was to be made the subject of a friendly understanding.
Meanwhile, however, Lord John Russell on behalf of Great Britain, supported by Russia, France and Sweden, had intervened with a proposal that the whole question should once more be submitted to a European conference. The German powers agreed on condition that the compacts of 1852 (London Protocol) should not be taken as a basis, and that the duchies should be bound to Denmark by a personal tie only. But the proceedings of the conference, which opened at London on April 25, only revealed the inextricable tangle of the issues involved.
Beust, on behalf of the Confederation, demanded the recognition of the Augustenburg claimant; Austria leaned to a settlement on the lines of that of 1852; Prussia, it was increasingly clear, aimed at the acquisition of the duchies. The first step towards the realization of this latter ambition was to secure the recognition of the absolute independence of the duchies, and this Austria could only oppose at the risk of forfeiting her whole influence among the German states. The two powers, then, agreed to demand the complete political independence of the duchies bound together by common institutions. The next move was uncertain. As to the question of annexation Prussia would leave that open, but made it clear that any settlement must involve the complete military subordination of Schleswig-Holstein to herself. This alarmed Austria, which had no wish to see a further extension of Prussia's already overgrown power, and she began to champion the claims of the duke of Augustenburg. This contingency, however, Bismarck had foreseen and himself offered to support the claims of the duke at the conference if he would undertake to subordinate himself in all naval and military matters to Prussia, surrender Kiel for the purposes of a Prussian war-harbour, give Prussia the control of the projected Kiel Canal, and enter the Prussian Customs Union. On this basis, with Austria's support, the whole matter might have been arranged without—as Beust pointed out (Mem. 1. 272)
Austria, the other leading state of the German Confederation, was reluctant to engage in a "war of liberation" because of its own problems with various nationalities. After Christian IX of Denmark merged Schleswig into Denmark in 1863 following his accession to the Danish throne that year, Bismarck's diplomatic abilities finally convinced Austria to participate in the war, with the assent of the other European large powers and under the auspices of the German Confederation.
On June 25 the London conference broke up without having arrived at any conclusion. On the 24th, in view of the end of the truce, Austria and Prussia had arrived at a new agreement, the object of the war being now declared to be the complete separation of the duchies from Denmark. As the result of the short campaign that followed, the preliminaries of a treaty of peace were signed on August 1, the king of Denmark renouncing all his rights in the duchies in favour of the emperor of Austria and the king of Prussia.
The definitive treaty was signed at Vienna on October 30, 1864. By Article XIX, a period of six years was allowed during which the inhabitants of the duchies might opt for Danish nationality and transfer themselves and their goods to Denmark; and the right of indigency was guaranteed to all, whether in the kingdom or the duchies, who enjoyed it at the time of the exchange of ratifications of the treaty.
This Second War of Schleswig of 1864 was presented by invaders to be an implementation of the law of the German Confederation (Bundesexekution). After the defeat in the Battle of Dybbøl, the Danes were unable to defend the borders of Schleswig, then had to retreat to Denmark proper, and finally were pushed out of the entire Jutland peninsula. Denmark capitulated and Prussia and Austria took over the administration of Schleswig and Holstein respectively under the Gastein Convention of August 14, 1865. Already in 1864 the Prussian occupying authorities had deposed Bishop Sechmann Boesen.
The north border of Schleswig-Holstein as from 1864 to 1920 differs a little from the north border of the modern Danish county of Sønderjylland: in the east Hejls and the Skamlingsbanke hill were not in Schleswig-Holstein but are now in Sønderjylland county; in the west Hviding and Rejsby were in Schleswig-Holstein. They used to be in Ribe County before the 2007 Danish Municipal Reform.
After the Second Schleswig War
It did not take long for disagreements between Prussia and Austria over both the administration and the future of the duchies to surface. Bismarck used these as a pretext to engineer what became the Austro-Prussian War of 1866. Austria's defeat at the Battle of Königgrätz was followed by the dissolution of the German Confederation and Austria's withdrawal from Holstein, which, along with Schleswig, in turn was annexed by Prussia.
Following the Austro-Prussian War of 1866, section five of the Peace of Prague stated that the people of Northern Schleswig should be granted the right to a referendum on whether they would remain under Prussian rule or return to Danish rule. This promise was never fulfilled, neither by Prussia, nor by united Germany (as of 1871).
In any case, because of the mix of Danes and Germans who lived there and the various feudal obligations of the players, the Schleswig-Holstein Question problem was considered intractable by many. Lord Palmerston said of the issue that only three people understood the Schleswig-Holstein question: one was dead, the other had gone insane, and the third was himself, but he had forgotten it.
This was convenient for Palmerston, as the government knew that Britain was almost powerless on the continent and had no chance of countering Prussia's military or manufacturing might. Meanwhile, in 1864, the Danish royal family, impressed by Victoria's trappings of Empire, arranged the marriage of the Princess to the future Edward VII, so helping to reverse the Anglo-German alliance, which led to the 1914 war. Niall Ferguson in Empire quotes Kitchener in 1914: "We haven't an army, and we have taken on the foremost military power in Europe".
The Schleswig-Holstein Question from this time onwards became merged in the larger question of the general relations of Austria and Prussia, and its later developments are a result of the war of 1866. It survived, however, as between Danes and Germans, though narrowed down to the question of the fate of the Danish population of the northern duchy. This question is of great interest to students of international law and as illustrating the practical problems involved in the assertion of the modern principle of nationality.
In the Austro-Prussian War of 1866 Prussia took Holstein from Austria, and seized Austria's German allies, the defeated Kingdom of Hanover, Electorate of Hesse, Duchy of Nassau, and the republic of the city-state of Frankfurt. The annexed states became provinces of Prussia, the Holstein and Schleswig merged in the Province of Schleswig-Holstein. The Lutheran Stifter Schleswig and Holstein were merged in the new Evangelical Lutheran State Church of Schleswig-Holstein in 1867. In 1868 the Holy See established the Prefecture Apostolic of Schleswig-Holstein for Catholic parishioners.
Danes under German rule
The position of the Danes in Schleswig after the cession was determined, so far as treaty rights are concerned, by two instruments: the Treaty of Vienna (October 30, 1864) and the Peace of Prague (August 23, 1866). Under Article XIX of the former treaty the Danish subjects domiciled in the ceded territories had the right, within six years of the exchange of ratifications, of opting for the Danish nationality and transferring themselves, their families and their personal property to Denmark, while keeping their landed property in the duchies. The last paragraph of the Article ran:
By Article V of the Peace of Prague, Schleswig was ceded by Austria to Prussia with the reservation that the populations of the North of Schleswig shall be again united with Denmark in the event of their expressing a desire so to be by a vote freely exercised. Taking advantage of the terms of these treaties, about 50,000 Danes from North Schleswig (out of a total population of some 150,000) opted for Denmark and were expelled across the frontier, pending the plebiscite which was to restore their country to them. The plebiscite never came. Its inclusion in the treaty had been no more than a diplomatic device to save the face of the emperor Napoleon III; Prussia had from the first no intention of surrendering an inch of the territory that had been conquered; the outcome of the Franco-German War made it unnecessary to pretend that the plebiscite might occur; and by the Treaty of Vienna of October 11, 1878, the clause relating to the plebiscite was formally abrogated with the assent of Austria.
Meanwhile, the Danish optants, disappointed of their hopes, had begun to stream back over the frontier into Schleswig. By doing so they lost, under the Danish law, their rights as Danish citizens, without acquiring those of Prussian subjects; and this disability was transmitted to their children. By Article XIX of the Treaty of 1864, indeed, they should have been secured the rights of indigenacy, which, while falling short of complete citizenship, implied, according to Danish law, all the essential guarantees for civil liberty. But in then Prussian law the right of Indigenat is not clearly differentiated from the status of a subject; and the supreme court at Kiel decided in several cases that those who had opted for Danish citizenship had forfeited their rights under the Indigenat paragraph of the Treaty of Vienna.
Thus, in the frontier districts, a large and increasing class of people dwelt in a sort of political limbo, having lost their Danish citizenship through ceasing to be domiciled in Denmark, and unable to acquire Prussian citizenship because they had failed to apply for it within the six years stipulated in the Treaty of 1864. Their exclusion from the rights of Prussian subjects was due, however, to causes other than the letter of the treaty.
The Danes, in spite of every discouragement, never ceased to strive for the preservation and extension of their national traditions and language; the Germans were equally bent on effectually absorbing these recalcitrant Teutons into the general life of the German empire; and to this end the uncertain status of the Danish optants was a useful means. Danish agitators of German nationality could not be touched so long as they were careful to keep within the limits of the law; pro-Danish newspapers owned and staffed by German subjects enjoyed immunity in accordance with the constitution, which guarantees the liberty of the press.
The case of the optants was far different. These unfortunates, who numbered a large proportion of the population, were subject to domiciliary visits, and to arbitrary perquisitions, arrest and expulsion. When the pro-Danish newspapers, after the expulsion of several optant editors, were careful to appoint none but German subjects, the vengeance of the authorities fell upon optant type-setters and printers. The Prussian police, indeed, developed an almost superhuman capacity for detecting optants: and since these pariahs were mingled indistinguishably with the mass of the people, no household and no business was safe from official inquisition.
One instance, out of many, may serve to illustrate the type of offence that served as excuse for this systematic official persecution. On April 27, 1896 the second volume for 1895 of the Sønderjyske Aarboger was confiscated for having used the historic term Sonderjylland (South Jutland) for Schleswig. To add to the misery, the Danish government refused to allow the Danish optants expelled by Prussia to settle in Denmark, though this rule was modified by the Danish Nationality Law of 1898 in favour of the children of optants born after the passing of the law. It was not till the signature of the treaty between Prussia and Denmark on January 11, 1907, that this intolerable Treaty of Conditions was ended.
By this treaty, the German January government undertook to allow all children born of Danish optants before the passing of the new Danish Nationality Law of 1898 to acquire Prussian nationality on the usual conditions and on their own application. This provision was not to affect the ordinary legal rights of expulsion as exercised by either power, but the Danish government undertook not to refuse to the children of Schleswig optants who should not seek to acquire or who could not legally acquire Prussian nationality permission to reside in Denmark. The provisions of the treaty apply not only to the children of Schleswig optants, but to their direct descendants in all decrees.
This adjustment, brought about by the friendly intercourse between the courts of Berlin and Copenhagen, seemed to close the last phase of the Schleswig question. Yet, so far from allaying, it apparently only served to embitter the inter-racial feud. The autochthonous Germans of the Northern Marches regarded the new treaty as a betrayal, and refused to give the kiss of peace to their hereditary enemies. For forty years Germanism, backed by all the weight of the empire and imposed with all the weapons of official persecution, had barely held its own in North Schleswig; despite an enormous emigration, in 1905, 139,000 of the 148,000 inhabitants of North Schleswig spoke Danish, while of the German-speaking immigrants it was found that more than a third spoke Danish in the first generation, although from 1864 onward, German had gradually been substituted for Danish in the churches, the schools, and even in the playground.
After 1888, German was the only language of instruction in schools in Schleswig. But the scattered outposts of Germanism could hardly be expected to acquiesce without a struggle in a situation that threatened them with social and economic extinction. Forty years of dominance, secured by official favour, had filled them with a double measure of aggressive pride of race, and the question of the rival nationalities in Schleswig, like that in Poland, remained a source of trouble and weakness within the frontiers of the German empire.
20th century
After World War I
After Germany had lost World War I, in which Denmark had been neutral, the victors offered Denmark a chance to redraw the border between Denmark and Germany. The sitting government of Carl Theodor Zahle chose to hold the Schleswig Plebiscite to let the inhabitants of Schleswig decide which nation they, and the land they lived on, should belong to. King Christian X of Denmark, supported by various groups, was opposed to the division. Using a clause in the Danish constitution that the king appointed and dismissed the Danish cabinet, and using the justification that he felt the Danish population was at odds with Zahle's politics, the king dismissed Zahle and asked Otto Liebe to form the Cabinet of Liebe to manage the country until a parliamentary election could be held and a new cabinet formed. Since Zahle's cabinet had support from a small majority in the Folketing, his Social Liberal Party and the allied Social Democrats felt that the king had effectively staged a state coup against the Danish democracy. A general strike was organised by Fagbevægelsen to put pressure on the king and his allies. As Otto Liebe was unable to organise an election, M. P. Friis replaced him after a week, and succeeded in holding the election, and as a result the Social Liberal Party lost half their electoral support and their rivals the Liberal Party were able to form the minority cabinet led by Niels Neergaard: the Cabinet of Neergaard II. The whole affair was called the Easter Crisis of 1920.
The Allied powers arranged a referendum in Northern and Central Schleswig. In Northern Schleswig on February 10, 1920, 75% voted for reunification with Denmark and 25% voted for Germany. In Central Schleswig on March 14, 1920 the results were reversed; 80% voted for Germany and just 20% for Denmark, primarily in Flensburg. While in Northern Schleswig some smaller regions (for example Tønder) had a clear majority of voters for Germany, in Central Schleswig all regions voted for Germany. No vote ever took place in the southern third of Schleswig, because the result for Germany was predictable. On June 15, 1920, North Schleswig officially returned to Danish rule. Germany continued to hold the whole of Holstein and South Schleswig, remaining within the Prussian province of Schleswig-Holstein. The Danish-German border was the only one of the borders imposed on Germany following World War I which was never challenged by Hitler.
World War II
In the Second World War, after Nazi Germany occupied the whole of Denmark, there was agitation by local Nazi leaders in Schleswig-Holstein to restore the pre-World War I border and re-annex to Germany the areas granted to Denmark after the plebiscite, as the Germans did in Alsace-Lorraine in the same period. However, Hitler vetoed any such step, out of a general German policy at the time to base the occupation of Denmark on a kind of accommodation with the Danish Government, and avoid outright confrontations with the Danes.
After World War II
After Germany had lost World War II there again was a possibility that Denmark could reacquire some of its lost territory in Schleswig. Though no territorial changes came of it, it had the effect that Prime Minister Knud Kristensen was forced to resign after a vote of no confidence because the Folketing did not support his enthusiasm for incorporating South Schleswig into Denmark.
Today there are still a Danish minority in Southern Schleswig and a German minority in Northern Schleswig.
Because of the expulsion of Germans after World War II the population of the state of Schleswig-Holstein increased by 33% (860,000 people).
See also
Danish exonyms for places in Germany
David Blackbourn, History of Germany, 1780–1918
German exonyms for places in Denmark
List of rulers of Schleswig-Holstein
Timeline of Lübeck
Notes
References
Sources
Further reading
Carr, Carr. Schleswig-Holstein, 1815–1848: A Study in National Conflict (Manchester University Press, 1963).
Price, Arnold. "Schleswig-Holstein" in Encyclopedia of 1848 Revolutions (2005) online
Steefel, Lawrence D. The Schleswig-Holstein Question. 1863-1864 (Harvard U.P. 1923).
External links
Historical Atlas of Schleswig-Holstein
Searchable dictionary of German and Danish and Frisian forms of Schleswig placenames
da:Slesvig-Holsten
de:Schleswig-Holstein#Geschichte
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230200 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Circuit%20%28administrative%20division%29 | Circuit (administrative division) | A circuit ( or ) was a historical political division of China and is a historical and modern administrative unit in Japan. The primary level of administrative division of Korea under the Joseon and in modern North and South Korea employs the same Chinese character as the Chinese and Japanese divisions but, because of its relatively greater importance, is usually translated as province instead.
China
Circuits originated in China during the Han dynasty and were used as a lower-tier administrative division, comparable to the county (, also translated as "districts"). They were used only in the fringes of the Empire, which were either inhabited primarily by non-Han Chinese peoples or too geographically isolated from the rest of the Han centers of power. The system fell into disuse after the collapse of the Western Jin dynasty.
The administrative division was revived in 627 when Tang Emperor Taizong made it the highest level administrative division and subdivided China into ten circuits. These were originally meant to be purely geographic and not administrative. Emperor Xuanzong added a further five, and slowly the circuits strengthened their own power until they became powerful regional forces that tore the country apart during the Five Dynasties and Ten Kingdoms period. During the Song and Jin dynasties, circuits (“dao”) were renamed lu (), both of which mean "road" or "path".
Dao were revived during the Yuan dynasty. Circuits were demoted to the second level after the Yuan dynasty established provinces at the very top and remained there for the next several centuries. The Yuan dynasty also had lu (sometimes translated as "route"), but it was simply the Chinese word used for the Mongolian administrative unit, the cölge. The Yuan lu had little to do with the circuits (lu) in the Song and Jin dynasties and were closer in size to prefectures.
Under the Qing, they were overseen by a or (). The circuit intendant of Shanghai was particularly influential.
During the Republic of China era, circuits still existed as high-level, though not top-level, administrative divisions such as Qiongya Circuit (now Hainan province). In 1928, all circuits were replaced with committees or simply abandoned. In 1932, administrative circuits () were reintroduced and lasted until 1949.
In 1949, after the founding of the People's Republic of China, all the administrative circuits were all converted into zhuanqu () in 1949 and renamed diqu () in the 1970s.
Japan
During the Asuka period (538–710), Japan was organized into five provinces and seven circuits, known as the Gokishichidō (5 ki 7 dō), as part of a legal and governmental system borrowed from the Chinese. Though these units did not survive as administrative structures beyond the Muromachi period (1336–1573), they did remain important geographical entities until the 19th century. The seven circuits spread over the islands of Honshū, Shikoku, and Kyūshū:
Tōkaidō () "East Sea Circuit": 15 provinces (kuni)
Nankaidō () "South Sea Circuit": 6 provinces
Saikaidō () "West Sea Circuit": 8 provinces
Hokurikudō () "North Land Circuit": 7 provinces
San'indō () "Shaded-side Circuit": 8 provinces
San'yōdō () "Sunny-side Circuit": 8 provinces
Tōsandō () "East Mountain Circuit": 13 provinces
In the mid-19th century, the northern island of Ezo was settled, and renamed . It is currently the only prefecture of Japan named with the dō (circuit) suffix.
Korea
Since the late 10th century, the do (“province”) has been the primary administrative division in Korea. See Eight Provinces, Provinces of Korea, Subdivisions of South Korea and Administrative divisions of North Korea for details.
See also
Prefectures of Japan
Provinces of Japan
References
Types of administrative division
Administrative divisions of ancient China
Subdivisions of Japan
.01
Former administrative divisions of China
History of Imperial China | [
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] |
230207 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dannewerk | Dannewerk | Dannewerk () is a municipality in Amt Haddeby in Schleswig-Flensburg District, Germany. It is named after the historic Danish Danevirke fortification.
References
Municipalities in Schleswig-Holstein
Schleswig-Flensburg | [
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230216 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/OJ | OJ | OJ may refer to:
Orange juice
People
In American football
O. J. "The Juice" Simpson (born 1947), American football player, broadcaster, actor, and convicted felon
Ottis Jerome "O.J." Anderson (born 1957), American football player
O. J. Childress (born 1976), American football player
O. J. McDuffie (born 1969), American football player
In other sports
O. J. Mayo (born 1987), American professional basketball player
Olivier Jacque (born 1973), French motorcycle road racer
Olli Jokinen (born 1978), Finnish ice hockey player
Orlando Jordan (born 1974), American professional wrestler
Omar 'OJ' Koroma (born 1989), Gambian footballer
OJ Porteria (born 1994), Filipino footballer
In music
OJ da Juiceman (born 1981), American rapper
Oran "Juice" Jones (born 1959), American soul and R&B singer and actor
Orlando Julius (born 1943), Nigerian musician sometimes referred to as OJ
In other fields
Dennis Mugo, Kenyan actor known as OJ
OJ Borg (born 1979), British television and radio presenter
Olivia Jade (born 1999), social media influencer and USC student
Lindsay Owen-Jones (born 1946), British chairman and CEO of the cosmetics and beauty company L'Oréal
Groups of people
Old Johnians:
:Category:People educated at St John's School, Leatherhead, alumni of St. John's School, Leatherhead, England
:Category:People educated at Hurstpierpoint College, alumni of Hurstpierpoint College, England
The O'Jays, a 1970s soul group from Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, United States
Orange Jackets, a women's service student organization at the University of Texas at Austin
The Order of Jamaica, the fifth of the six orders in the Jamaican honours system, roughly equivalent to a knighthood in the British honours system, with the post-nominal letters 'OJ' and 'OJ (Hon.)'
Fictional characters
O.J. (TUGS), a character from the 1988 children's television series TUGS
Languages
Ojibwe language (ISO 639-2 code: oj)
Old Japanese
Travel
Overland Airways (IATA airline designator: OJ)
Open-jaw ticket, a type of airline ticket
Other uses
OJ (programming tool), a programming tool that analyzes Java code
Official Journal of the European Union
CJOJ-FM, a Canadian radio station formerly called OJ 95.5
Orange Julius, a chain of fruit drink beverage stores, or the fruit drink itself
Japanese model railway gauge for cape gauge in 0 scale
See also
Juice (disambiguation) | [
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230217 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Relative%20abundance | Relative abundance | Relative abundance can refer to
Relative species abundance in ecological communities.
Natural abundance of isotopes of a chemical element in nature. | [
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230230 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Av | Av | Av (; from Akkadian ʾAbū "father") is the eleventh month of the civil year and the fifth month of the ecclesiastical year on the Hebrew calendar. The name comes from Araḫ Abu, "month of Abu", from the Babylonian calendar. The name Ab () also appears in the Arabic language for the month of August in the Levant (see Arabic names of calendar months).The name first appears in Second Temple literature, such as Megillat Taanit. It is one of several months which are not explicitly named in the Hebrew Bible (Tanakh). It is a month of 30 days. Av usually occurs in July–August on the Gregorian calendar.
The Babylonian Talmud, Taanit 29a, states that "when we enter [the month of] Av, our joy is diminished". This is because the darkest events in Jewish history occurred during the first week and a half of this month, particularly the Nine Days which culminate in Tisha B'Av, the 9th of Av. However, there is a minor and largely unknown holiday during the full moon of the month called Tu B'Av which was, in ancient times, one of the happiest days of the year. The month is also sometimes referred to as Menachem Av () (Av of Comfort or Comforter of Father(s)), but most only use this title in the sanctification of the month recited on the Shabbat before Rosh Chodesh and following Tisha B'Av.
Holidays in Av
Av 9 – Tisha B'Av
Av 15 – Tu B'Av
Av in Jewish history
1 Av (circa 1273 BCE) – Death of high priest Aaron
1 Av (513 BCE) – Ezra and his followers arrive in Israel
5 Av (1572 CE) – Hillula of the Arizal
7 Av (586 BCE) – First Temple invaded by King Nebuchadnezzar
7 Av (67 CE) – Civil war breaks out in besieged Jerusalem; one group set fire to the city's food stores, which is said to have quickened starvation.
7 Av (1492 CE) – Jews of Spain expelled by King Ferdinand and Queen Isabella.
7 Av (1853) - Death of Rabbi Moshe Greenwald, Rav of Khust and author of Arugath Habosem
9 Av (586 BCE and 70 CE) – Holy Temples destroyed by the Babylonians and Romans respectively.
9 Av (133 CE) – Fall of Betar to the Romans, ending Bar Kochba's rebellion.
9 Av (1290 CE) – Jews are expelled from England by King Edward I and not permitted to legally return for 350 years.
10 Av (70 CE) – The Holy Temple, set on fire the previous day, finishes burning.
12 Av (1263) – Disputation of Barcelona between Nachmanides and Pablo Christiani.
13 Av (1984) - Death of Rabbi Yosef Greenwald, Rebbe of Pupa and author of Vaychi Yosef
15 Av (148 CE) – Betar dead buried, 15 years after the fall of the fortress.
15 Av – The Day of the Breaking of the Ax – when the Holy Temple existed, the cutting of firewood for the altar was completed on this date every year. The event was celebrated by feasting, rejoicing, and the ceremonial breaking of the axes.
17 Av (1929) – 67 Jews are killed in the Hebron Massacre.
24 Av (circa 100 BCE) – A Hasmonean holiday commemorates the reinstatement of Jewish civil law in place of Hellenist secular law on this day.
See also
Jewish astrology
References
External links
Resources on the Month of Av
Hebrew Month of Av
This Month in Jewish History
A Chodesh Av Perspective
Months of the Hebrew calendar | [
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230231 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The%20Quest%20for%20Fire | The Quest for Fire | The Quest for Fire (, literally The War for Fire) is a 1911 Belgian fantasy novel by "J.-H. Rosny", the pseudonym of two brothers; the author was actually the elder of the two, Joseph Henri Honoré Boex (1856–1940). It was first published in English in an abridged edition in 1967.
It was adapted into the critically acclaimed 1981 film Quest for Fire starring Ron Perlman. The film is not a faithful adaption of the book.
Setting
The Quest for Fire takes place in 100,000 BC in Europe. The fauna of this period is omnipresent, including mammoths, cave lions, aurochs, cave bears, saber-toothed cats, giant elks and saiga antelopes. Several humanoid ethnicities live alongside animals: the Ulams (Neandertal-like hunters-gatherers who worship the fire and are able to ally themselves with beasts), the Wahs (people without shoulders from marshes), the Blue-Haired Men (huge four-handed simians with a bluish fur), the Men-Eaters (bestial cannibals) and the Red Dwarfs (extremely warmongering and xenophobic pygmies).
References
External Links
1911 fantasy novels
Historical novels
Belgian speculative fiction novels
Novels set in prehistory
Prehistoric people in popular culture
Works published under a pseudonym
Pantheon Books books
Historical fantasy novels
Belgian novels adapted into films | [
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230246 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The%20Jewel%20in%20the%20Crown%20%28TV%20series%29 | The Jewel in the Crown (TV series) | The Jewel in the Crown is a 1984 British television serial about the final days of the British Raj in India during and after World War II, based upon the Raj Quartet novels (1965–1975) by British author Paul Scott. Granada Television produced the series for the ITV network.
Plot
The serial opens in the midst of World War II in the fictional Indian city of Mayapore, against the backdrop of the last years of the British Raj and the Indian independence movement. Hari Kumar is a young Indian man who was educated at Chillingborough, a British public school; he identifies as English rather than Indian. The bankruptcy of his father, a formerly successful businessman, forces him to return to India to live with his aunt.
Working as a journalist, Kumar now occupies a lower social status in India, and lives between two worlds, British and Indian. Numerous Anglo-Indians discriminate against him, and he is held in some suspicion by Indian independence activists. During this time, violent anti-British demonstrations are taking place in the city. Hari becomes romantically involved with Daphne Manners, a young British woman who shows an egalitarian attitude to Indians. One night, after Hari and Daphne make love in the public Bibighar Gardens, the couple are attacked by a group of unknown Indian men. Hari is beaten and Daphne is gang raped.
Ronald Merrick, a young lower-middle-class Englishman, is intelligent and hardworking. He is the local Indian Police superintendent. Merrick once professed to be romantically interested in Daphne, though she politely but firmly rebuffed him. He arrests Hari for her rape, holding him in the local jail. Hari is beaten and sexually humiliated. Merrick resents Hari's privileged education and disdains Daphne's preferring the young Indian to him. When Daphne refuses to cooperate with the investigation, the police do not prosecute Hari for rape. However, Kumar and other young, educated Indians, are jailed without trial under the security regulations adopted to suppress the Indian independence movement. Word that Hari was tortured causes outrage in the Indian community. Merrick is transferred from Mayapore to a smaller and less important town in the province.
Daphne learns she is pregnant. She chooses to believe Hari is the father, rather than one of the rapists. She dies in childbirth. The mixed-race daughter, Parvati, is taken in by Daphne's great-aunt, Lady Manners, widow of a former provincial governor. While Lady Manners takes the infant to the resort area of Srinagar, she meets Sarah Layton, a young British woman vacationing with her mother, Mildred, and sister, Susan. Sarah and Susan's father is the colonel of the Indian Army regiment in Pankot, a hill station near Mayapore. He is being held as a prisoner of war in Germany, after his unit was captured early in the war. Susan and their mother prefer to stay away from Lady Manners due to the scandal of her great-niece's illegitimate birth, but Sarah pays a call on Lady Manners and the two women become friendly.
Sarah and her family soon encounter Merrick, who has left the police and procured a commission in the Indian Army. Teddie Bingham, an Indian Army officer and the fiancé of Sarah's sister Susan, is stationed in the nearby princely state of Mirat; Merrick, also assigned there, happens to share quarters with him. Because the unit is soon to leave for the border with Burma, Teddie and Susan have to marry in Mirat. When Teddie's best man for the ceremony becomes ill, he asks Merrick to step in. Merrick, seeing a relationship with the upper-class Teddie and the Laytons as a means to career advancement, is pleased to help. While Merrick and Teddie are driving to the ceremony a stone is thrown at their car, slightly injuring Teddie. Merrick understands that he was the target of the attack, as this is one of a series of incidents suggesting he is being harassed because of his treatment of Kumar and the other suspects in the Manners case in Mayapore.
Shortly after the wedding, Teddie and Merrick leave for the Burma front with their unit. Teddie is soon killed in an ambush by the Japanese-sponsored Indian National Army (INA). Merrick is badly wounded trying to get Teddie to safety and is evacuated to a Calcutta hospital. When Sarah visits him (at Susan's request), she learns that his arm will be amputated and that his burned face is permanently disfigured. Merrick says that Teddie was ambushed because of him. Teddie had left their unit to try to persuade two Indian soldiers of his regiment, who had been captured by the Japanese and joined the INA, to surrender and come in. Merrick believes Teddie wanted to prove to him that the Indian soldiers, even after becoming turncoats, would resume their loyalty to the British if given the chance. Merrick's disfigurement has increased hostility against Indians.
Lady Manners presses for a formal inquiry into Hari Kumar's arrest and detention. Nigel Rowan, an aide to the governor of the province conducts the interview with Hari, who learns during it that Daphne died. After Rowan establishes that Merrick tortured Hari and there is no evidence of any wrongdoing, he arranges Hari's release. No action is taken against Merrick, however.
After convalescing, Merrick is promoted and assigned to intelligence activities concerning the INA and Indian soldiers who collaborated with the enemy. He comes across the Laytons again in Bombay, where Sarah is reunited with her father, Colonel Layton, just released from a German POW camp. Merrick is there to interrogate an Indian soldier who had served under Colonel Layton and assisted the Germans after Layton's unit was captured, and who has been deported to India. Merrick gains assistance from Sergeant Guy Perron, a young Cambridge graduate and Indian history scholar, who was serving with an Intelligence Corps Field Security unit; he speaks fluent Urdu and is asked to observe the interrogation. Merrick learns that Perron also attended Chillingborough and knew Hari Kumar.
After the interrogation, Perron runs into Merrick and Sarah Layton at a party. He accompanies them to the apartment of Layton's aunt, where Sarah and her father are staying temporarily. Sarah and Perron are attracted to each other. Merrick decides to have Perron assigned to assist him in further investigations of Indian soldiers who became collaborators. Perron and Sarah both find Merrick distasteful, but Perron has no choice but to work with him.
After her husband Teddie's death and a difficult birth of their son, Susan Layton Bingham suffers a mental breakdown. She is treated in a hospital in Pankot. When Merrick returns to the Pankot area for his work, he courts Susan and ultimately marries her. Perron later learns that Merrick illegally gained access to Susan's medical records, apparently to learn about her mental state in order to persuade her to marry him. Susan's sister, Sarah, opposes the marriage, but is unable to prevent it.
With the surrender of Japan in August 1945, the war in the East is ended, and the days of British rule in India are clearly numbered. Perron arranges a quick exit from the Army to return to Cambridge and his academic career. Due to his imminent departure, he and Sarah suspend their relationship. Sarah's parents also plan to return to England. Merrick intends to stay on, having been offered a contract by the government of Mirat to reorganize their police force.
In 1947, with the transition to Indian independence under way, Perron returns to India as an historical observer. The conflict between Hindus and Muslims related to independence is tense. While visiting Mirat at the invitation of its Chief Minister, Count Bronowsky, whom he previously met in Bombay, Perron learns that Merrick is dead, officially from a riding accident. Bronowsky tells Perron that Merrick actually died during a sexual rendezvous with a young Indian man who was probably working for independent activists. It is believed the man allowed an assassin access to Merrick. The authorities cover up the details of Merrick's death, fearing reprisals from Indians during the political uncertainty with the British departure. The two discuss their view that, in leaving India, the British are opening up "Pandora's Box", releasing the ancient competition for power between the Hindus and Muslims, who had earlier conquered and ruled the country. Some confrontations had been restrained by the power of the British as rulers.
Sarah, Susan, and their aunt attend Merrick's funeral in Mirat. Perron accompanies them, along with Merrick's ashes, on the train back to Pankot. Joining them is Ahmed Kasim, the educated son of a prominent Muslim politician who has been working for Bronowsky in Mirat for the past few years. En route to Pankot, the train is stopped by Hindus, who attack Muslim passengers in retaliation for recent attacks on Hindus in Mirat. The attackers demand that Kasim be turned over to them. Kasim voluntarily leaves the train car and surrenders himself to the attackers, who murder him. Perron, Sarah, and the other English passengers are unharmed, but are horrified by the slaughter of Kasim and other Muslim passengers.
Before leaving India again, Perron visits Hari Kumar, now living in a poor neighbourhood and supporting himself by tutoring Indian students in English. He leaves his calling card, as Kumar is out. Perron reflects on how Kumar was caught in an impossible position, between England and India.
Cast
Peggy Ashcroft as Barbara Batchelor
Janet Henfrey as Edwina Crane
Derrick Branche as Ahmed Kasim
Charles Dance as Sgt Guy Perron
Geraldine James as Sarah Layton
Rachel Kempson as Lady Manners
Art Malik as Hari Kumar
Wendy Morgan as Susan Layton
Judy Parfitt as Mildred Layton
Tim Pigott-Smith as Supt./Capt/Maj/Lt Col Ronald Merrick
Eric Porter as Count Dmitri Bronowsky
Susan Wooldridge as Daphne Manners
Ralph Arliss as Capt. Samuels
Geoffrey Beevers as Capt Kevin Coley
James Bree as Maj/Lt Col Arthur Grace
Jeremy Child as Robin White
Warren Clarke as Cpl "Sophie" Dixon
Rowena Cooper as Connie White
Anna Cropper as Nicky Paynton
Fabia Drake as Mabel Layton
Nicholas Farrell as Edward "Teddie" Bingham
Matyelok Gibbs as Sister Ludmila Smith
Carol Gillies as Clarissa Peplow
Rennee Goddard as Dr Anna Klaus
Jonathan Haley and Nicholas Haley as Edward Bingham Jr
Saeed Jaffrey as Ahmed Ali Gaffur Kasim Bahadur, the Nawab of Mirat
Karan Kapoor as Colin Lindsey
Rashid Karapiet as Judge Menen
Kamini Kaushal as Shalini Sengupta
Rosemary Leach as Fenella "Fenny" Grace
David Leland as Capt Leonard Purvis
Nicholas Le Prevost as Capt Nigel Rowan
Marne Maitland as Pandit Baba
Jamila Massey as Maharanee Aimee
Zia Mohyeddin as Mohammad Ali Kasim
Salmaan Peerzada as Sayed Kasim
Om Puri as Mr de Souza
Stephen Riddle as Capt Dicky Beauvais
Norman Rutherford as Edgar Maybrick
Dev Sagoo as S.V. Vidyasagar
Zohra Sehgal as Lady Lili Chatterjee
Frederick Treves as Lt Col John Layton
Stuart Wilson as Capt James Clark
Leslie Grantham as Signals Sergeant
Episodes
The following titles are as given on the DVD release. The first episode is double-length (105 minutes). All others are 53 minutes.
Soundtrack
The Jewel in the Crown is a soundtrack album by Anthony Randall and Orchestra performing the compositions of George Fenton that appeared in the miniseries, released in 1985. It was originally released on LP by Chrysalis Records and subsequently reissued on CD by EMI.
Track listing
All compositions by George Fenton
”Jewel in the Crown – Main Theme” – 2:32
”The Lakes” – 1:57
”The Triangle” – 3:48
”Crossing the River” – 2:22
”Imprisoned” – 2:03
”Death by Fire” – 2:35
Chillingborough School Song” – 1:47
”Butterflies Caught in a Web” – 4:25
”Daphne & Hari” – 3:44
”Mirat, Princely State” – 3:25
”Kedara and Waltz Kedara” – 6:12
”Barbie Leaves Rose Cottage/Champagne Charlie” – 2:30
”Guy Perron’s March” – 2:09
”Pankot - The Hills” – 3:02
”Jewel in the Crown – End Titles” – 1:50
Personnel
George Fenton – arranger
Anthony Randall – conductor
Gavyn Wright – leader
Clem Alford – sitar
Clive Bell – flute
Nicholas Maigrel – sarangui
Keshav Sathe – tabla
Leslie Pearson – piano on “Butterflies Caught in a Web”
Michale Jeans – Cor anglais on “Daphne & Hari”
Production
Sir Denis Forman, then chairman of Granada Productions, wrote in 1983 that the impetus for doing an adaptation of the Raj Quartet was the success of Paul Scott's novel Staying On. The decision was made to attempt an adaptation of the quartet but to first test the company's ability to successfully complete a production in India by doing an adaptation of Staying On. With the success of that television film, plans proceeded for the quartet.
The series was shot on 16mm film, much of it on location in India. The scenes of the Nawab of Mirat's palace were filmed at Lake Palace in Udaipur. Besides all the Mirat scenes, Udaipur was also the location for Mayapore and some Pankot scenes. Shimla was the primary location for Pankot and many scenes were filmed in Mysore and Kashmir.
All filming not from India was filmed at Manchester's Granada Studios. The programme was often screened from grainy prints, but was fully remastered for its 2005 DVD release and ITV3 screening, resulting in much better picture quality.
Adaptation
The series is based on the Raj Quartet novels by Paul Scott:
The Jewel in the Crown (1966)
The Day of the Scorpion (1968)
The Towers of Silence (1971)
A Division of the Spoils (1975)
While the novels are written from different characters' viewpoints and move back and forth in time, the adaptation places events in roughly chronological order.
Cast
The series made stars of Art Malik and Charles Dance. Other leading actors included Peggy Ashcroft (who won the BAFTA Best TV Actress award for her performance), Tim Pigott-Smith, Geraldine James, Judy Parfitt, Rachel Kempson, Eric Porter, Susan Wooldridge, Zohra Sehgal, Saeed Jaffrey, and Karan Kapoor (son of Shashi Kapoor and Jennifer Kendal). The complexities of the plot ensured that no one character was at the centre of the action throughout. All four "Best TV Actress" nominations at that year's BAFTAs went to stars of the series, with Ashcroft winning over Wooldridge, James and Parfitt. Pigott-Smith won Best TV Actor.
In a list of the 100 Greatest British Television Programmes compiled by the British Film Institute in 2000 and voted by industry professionals, The Jewel in the Crown placed 22nd.
Broader context
According to the Museum of Broadcast Communications there was "a cycle of film and television productions which emerged during the first half of the 1980s, which seemed to indicate Britain's growing preoccupation with India, Empire and a particular aspect of British cultural history". In addition to The Jewel in the Crown, this cycle also included Gandhi (1982), Heat and Dust (1983), The Far Pavilions (1984) and A Passage to India (1984).
Mini-series co-star Charles Dance has commented how it has a devout following to this day. "I think that aired here in 1983, and there are people still to this day who assemble in each other’s houses and have Jewel In The Crown weekends and watch all 14 hours, mostly in America," he told Attention Deficit Delirium. "I have people stopping me in the street now saying that they watched Jewel In The Crown again a couple of months ago, and I think, 'Bloody hell, did you really?' So I’m known to that generation for a completely different type of work. The current film and television viewing audience is much younger, and the kind of things that I’m known for are these rather off-the-wall, slightly villainous characters in fantastical film and television things, but that’s okay. It’s better to be looked over than to be overlooked in my business."
Reception
In contemporary reviews, John J. O'Connor of The New York Times wrote, "the careful accumulation of marvelous detail is never less than fascinating. And once again in a British production, the performances are rarely less than extraordinary... What emerges in the end is a comprehension of India far more convincing than the posturings of a Rudyard Kipling and far deeper than the tightly focused biography of a Gandhi. The Jewel in the Crown is not only engrossing television. It is important television, a model of what the medium can do." Jeff Jarvis of People magazine called it "first-rate; the settings are stunning. It does a masterly job of making you care about its characters and what happens to them. That is what a mini-series is supposed to do, and Jewel does a spectacular job of it. It is this year’s best fictional mini." The Washington Post called the series "Ravishing, reverberant and profoundly sad" and regarding the setting; "The inscrutability of India to outsiders is not romanticized, just contemplated, celebrated, just as its intoxicating physical beauty is."
In reviewing the box-set video in 2010, Alexandra Coghlan of The Guardian wrote that the series "sits alongside Brideshead Revisited as the high-water mark of 1980s British TV."
References
External links
Museum of Broadcast Communications
British Film Institute Screen Online
1984 British television series debuts
1984 British television series endings
1980s British drama television series
1980s British television miniseries
ITV television dramas
Television series by ITV Studios
Television series set in the 1940s
Television shows based on British novels
Peabody Award-winning television programs
Primetime Emmy Award for Outstanding Miniseries winners
Best Miniseries or Television Movie Golden Globe winners
International Emmy Award for Drama winners
Television shows produced by Granada Television
English-language television shows
Indian National Army in fiction
Television shows set in the British Raj | [
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230250 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The%20Ascent%20of%20Man | The Ascent of Man | The Ascent of Man is a 13-part British documentary television series produced by the BBC and Time-Life Films first broadcast in 1973. It was written and presented by British mathematician and historian of science Jacob Bronowski, who also authored a book adaptation. Intended as a series of "personal view" documentaries in the manner of Kenneth Clark's 1969 series Civilisation, the series received acclaim for Bronowski's highly informed but eloquently simple analysis, his long, elegant monologues, and its extensive location shoots. The programme began broadcasting on BBC2 at 9pm on Saturday, 5 May 1973 and was released in the US 7 January 1975.
Overview
The title alludes to The Descent of Man (1871), Charles Darwin's second book on evolution. Over the series' 13 episodes, Jacob Bronowski travels around the world in order to trace the development of human society through its understanding of science. It was commissioned specifically to complement Kenneth Clark's Civilisation (1969), in which Clark argued that art reflected and was informed by the major driving forces in cultural evolution. Bronowski wrote in his 1951 book The Commonsense of Science: "It has been one of the most destructive modern prejudices that art and science are different and somehow incompatible interests". Both series were commissioned by David Attenborough, then controller of BBC Two, whose colleague Aubrey Singer had been astonished by Attenborough prioritising an arts series given his science background.
Bronowski's book adaptation of the series, The Ascent of Man (1973), is an almost word-for-word transcript from the television episodes, diverging from the original narration only where the lack of images might make its meaning unclear. A few details of the film version were omitted from the book, notably from episode 11, "Knowledge or Certainty".
Production
The 13-part series was shot on 16 mm film. Executive producer was Adrian Malone; film directors were Dick Gilling, Mick Jackson, David Kennard and David Paterson. Quotations were read by actors Roy Dotrice and Joss Ackland. Series music was by Dudley Simpson with Brian Hodgson and the BBC Radiophonic Workshop. Additional music includes work by Pink Floyd and the Moody Blues, among others. Apart from Bronowski, the only other named people appearing are the sculptor Henry Moore and Polish Auschwitz survivor Stefan Borgrajewicz.
Distribution
The complete series was digitally remastered and released on DVD in 2007 by Ambrose Video Publishing, Inc.
Episodes
Lower than the Angels – Evolution of humans from proto-ape to the modern form 400,000 years ago.
The Harvest of the Seasons – Early human migration, agriculture and the first settlements, and war.
The Grain in the Stone – Tools, and the development of architecture and sculpture.
The Hidden Structure – Fire, metals and alchemy.
Music of the Spheres – The language of numbers and mathematics.
The Starry Messenger – Galileo's universe—and the implications of his trial on the shift to "northern" science.
The Majestic Clockwork – Explores Newton and Einstein's laws.
The Drive for Power – The Industrial Revolution and the effect on everyday life.
The Ladder of Creation – Darwin and Wallace's ideas on the origin of species.
World within World – The story of the periodic table—and of the atom.
Knowledge or Certainty – Physics and the clash of the pursuit of absolute vs. imperfect knowledge, and the misgivings of the scientists realising the terrible outcome of the conflict. Auschwitz. Hiroshima and Nagasaki.
Generation upon Generation – The joys of life, sex and genetics—and the dark side of cloning.
The Long Childhood – Bronowski's treatise on the commitment of humanity.
Legacy
Adrian Malone and David Kennard later emigrated to Hollywood, where they produced Carl Sagan's Cosmos (1980).
Mick Jackson went on to direct the TV series Connections and, later, feature films including The Bodyguard.
The Ascent of Man was placed 65th on a list of the 100 Greatest World Television Programmes voted for by industry professionals and drawn up by the British Film Institute in 2000.
Charlie Brooker praises Bronowski and The Ascent of Man in his BBC Four programme Charlie Brooker's Screenwipe.
See also
The Shock of the New
References
External links
Encyclopedia of Television
British Film Institute Screen Online
The ascent of man book at the Internet Archive
Book review of Ascent of Man
The Ascent of Man by Jacob Bronowski - review (15 April 2011)
BBC television documentaries about history
Human evolution
British documentary television series
1973 British television series debuts
1973 British television series endings
1970s British documentary television series
English-language television shows
1970s British television miniseries
BBC television miniseries | [
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230254 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John%20Romero | John Romero | Alfonso John Romero (born October 28, 1967) is an American director, designer, programmer, and developer in the video game industry. He is best known as a co-founder of id Software and designer for many of their games, including Wolfenstein 3D, Dangerous Dave, Hexen, Doom, Doom II and Quake. His game designs and development tools, along with new programming techniques created and implemented by id Software's lead programmer John D. Carmack, led to a mass popularization of the first-person shooter, or FPS, in the 1990s. He is credited with coining the FPS multiplayer term "deathmatch".
Biography
Romero was born on October 28, 1967, six weeks premature in Colorado Springs, Colorado. When asked about his background, Romero claimed that "one grandparent was Yaqui, another Mexican, and another Cherokee". His mother Ginny met Alfonso Antonio Romero when they were teenagers in Tucson, Arizona. Alfonso, a first-generation Mexican American, was a maintenance man at an air force base, spending his days fixing air conditioners and heating systems. After Alfonso and Ginny got married, they headed in a 1948 Chrysler with three hundred dollars to Colorado, hoping their interracial relationship would thrive in more tolerant surroundings.
Among Romero's early influences, the arcade game Space Invaders (1978), with its "shoot the alien" gameplay, introduced him to video games. Namco's maze chase arcade game Pac-Man (1980) had the biggest influence on his career, as it was the first game that got him "thinking about game design." Nasir Gebelli (Sirius Software, Squaresoft) was his favorite programmer and a major inspiration, with his fast 3D programming work for Apple II games, such as the shooters Horizon V (1981) and Zenith (1982), influencing his later work at id Software. Other influences include programmer Bill Budge, Shigeru Miyamoto's Super Mario games, and the fighting games Street Fighter II, Fatal Fury, Art of Fighting and Virtua Fighter.
Early career
John Romero started programming games on an Apple II he got in 1980. His first developed game was a Crazy Climber clone, but it was not published. His first published game, Scout Search, appeared in the June 1984 issue of inCider magazine, a popular Apple II magazine during the 1980s. Romero's first company, Capitol Ideas Software, was listed as the developer for at least 12 of his earliest published games. Romero captured the December cover of the Apple II magazine Nibble for three years in a row starting in 1987. He entered a programming contest in A+ magazine during its first year of publishing with his game Cavern Crusader. The first game Romero created that was eventually published was Jumpster in UpTime. Jumpster was created in 1983 and published in 1987, making Jumpster his earliest created, then published, game.
Romero's first industry job was at Origin Systems in 1987 after programming games for eight years. He worked on the Apple II to Commodore 64 port of 2400 A.D., which was eventually scrapped due to slow sales of the Apple II version. Romero then moved onto Space Rogue, a game by Paul Neurath. During this time, Romero was asked if he would be interested in joining Paul's soon-to-start company Blue Sky Productions, eventually renamed Looking Glass Technologies. Instead, Romero left Origin Systems to co-found a game company named Inside Out Software, where he ported Might & Magic II from the Apple II to the Commodore 64. He had almost finished the Commodore 64 to Apple II port of Tower Toppler, but Epyx unexpectedly cancelled all its ports industrywide due to their tremendous investment in the first round of games for the upcoming Atari Lynx. During this short time, Romero did the artwork for the Apple IIGS version of Dark Castle, a port from the Macintosh. During this time, John and his friend Lane Roathe co-founded a company named Ideas from the Deep and wrote versions of a game called Zappa Roidz for the Apple II, PC and Apple IIGS. Their last collaboration was an Apple II disk operating system (InfoDOS) for Infocom's games Zork Zero, Arthur, Shogun and Journey.
1990s: id Software and Ion Storm
Romero moved to Shreveport, Louisiana in March 1989 and joined Softdisk as a programmer in its Special Projects division. After several months of helping the PC monthly disk magazine Big Blue Disk, he officially moved into the department until he started a PC games division in July 1990 named 'Gamer's Edge' (originally titled PCRcade). Romero hired John D. Carmack into the department from his freelancing in Kansas City, moved Adrian Carmack into the division from Softdisk's art department, and persuaded Tom Hall to come in at night and help with game design. Romero and the others then left Softdisk in February 1991 to form id Software.
Romero worked at id Software from its inception in 1991 until 1996. He was involved in the creation of several milestone games, including Commander Keen, Wolfenstein 3D, Doom, Doom II: Hell on Earth and Quake. He served as executive producer (and game designer) on Heretic and Hexen. He designed most of the first episode of Doom, a fourth of the levels in Quake, and half the levels in the Commander Keen and Wolfenstein 3D: Spear of Destiny. He wrote many of the tools used at id Software to create their games, including DoomEd (level editor), QuakeEd (level editor), DM (for deathmatch launching), DWANGO client (to connect the game to DWANGO's servers), TED5 (level editor for the Commander Keen series, Wolfenstein 3D: Spear of Destiny), IGRAB (for grabbing assets and putting them in WAD files), the installers for all the games up to and including Quake, the SETUP program used to configure the games, and several others. In his keynote speech at WeAreDevelopers Conference 2017, Romero named this period Turbo Mode, in which he emphasizes having created 28 games, in 5.5 years with a team consisting of fewer than 10 developers.
In level 30 of Doom II, "Icon of Sin", the boss is supposed to be a giant demon head with a fragment missing from its forehead. When first viewing the demon, a distorted and demonic message is played, which is actually John Romero saying "To win the game, you must kill me, John Romero!", reversed and distorted to sound like a demonic chant. One can use the "noclip" cheat to enter the boss and see Romero's severed head which is skewered on a post. The player defeats the boss (without the noclip cheat) by shooting rockets into its exposed brain after activating a lift and riding it. Romero's head functions as its hit detection point; when he "dies", the boss is killed and the game is finished. In the 2013 IGN Doom playthrough to celebrate Doom 20th anniversary, Romero shared the backstory behind the inclusion of his head as the final boss and the reversed sound effect – they were both a result of in-joke pranking between development team members.
During the production of Quake, Romero clashed with John Carmack over the future direction of id. Romero wanted the game to follow his demanding vision without compromise, but Carmack insisted that the project had to make steady progress toward completion and accused Romero of not working as much as the other developers. Although Romero relented on his vision and joined a months-long death march effort to finish the game, this did not resolve the tensions within the company, and Romero was forced to resign. In a 1997 interview Romero reflected, "Leaving after finishing Quake was the right choice - leaving after finishing a hit game. I keep on good terms with the id guys and it was pretty easy because we've been friends for years."
Romero later co-founded Ion Storm in Dallas, Texas with id co-worker Tom Hall, where he designed and produced Daikatana. This ambitious first-person shooter was announced in 1997 with a release date for the Christmas shopping season of that year. However, this release date slipped repeatedly in the coming months, and the game began to accrue negative press. In Spring 2010, Gamesauce featured Romero on its cover and contained an in-depth interview with Romero written by Brenda Brathwaite. In the interview, Romero publicly apologized for the infamous Daikatana advertisement. In particular, a 1997 advertisement boasting "John Romero's About To Make You His Bitch....Suck it down" caused controversy in the press and public. The massive pre-hype for the game and the subsequent delays (it was not released until April 2000) were compounded by the poor reviews the game received when it was finally complete. Upon release, Daikatana was critically panned and appeared on numerous "top 10 worst games" listings. During this time, Romero was rumored to have been killed and a photograph of his corpse with a bullet wound was also spread through the Internet; Romero himself later stated that the picture was taken for the magazine Texas Monthly, and that "maybe he shouldn't have taken it". Romero departed with Tom Hall immediately after the release of Hall's Anachronox game and the subsequent closing of the Dallas Ion office.
2000s
In July 2001, Romero and Hall founded Monkeystone Games in order to develop and publish games for mobile devices. Monkeystone released 15 games (approximately) during its short lifespan of three and a half years. Some highlights of their developments included Hyperspace Delivery Boy! (Pocket PC, Windows, Linux), Congo Cube (Pocket PC, PC, BREW, Java ME), and a version of Red Faction for the Nokia N-Gage. He and his girlfriend, Stevie Case, broke up in 2003, and she left the company in May while Red Faction development continued until October. John then left Monkeystone Games' day-to-day operations to Lucas Davis while Romero and Hall left for Midway in San Diego.
In mid-October 2003, Romero joined Midway Games as project lead on Gauntlet: Seven Sorrows. While he continued to maintain his working relationship with Monkeystone, Lucas Davis took over running the office. The Monkeystone team moved to Austin, Texas to work on Midway's Area 51 title until its release. Monkeystone Games closed down in January 2005. Romero moved from project lead to creative director of internal studio during this time. At the end of June 2005, Romero left Midway Games mere months before the completion of Gauntlet: Seven Sorrows.
On August 31, 2005, Romero confirmed that he was working on a yet-to-be-announced MMOG at his newly opened development studio, Slipgate Ironworks. It was reported that the name was temporary. "For the record," Romero wrote, "I'm co-founder of a new game company in the Bay Area and am much better off in many ways than I was at Midway". He said that he would not reveal anything about the company or the game until 2007. On March 17, 2009 it was announced that Slipgate Ironworks was part of Gazillion Entertainment. Along with venture capitalist Rob Hutter and investor Bhavin Shah, Romero was a co-founder of Gazillion. On July 22, 2006, John Romero and former co-worker Tom Hall guest hosted episode 53 of the podcast The Widget. Romero departed Gazillion Entertainment in November 2010 to form a social game company called Loot Drop alongside Brenda Brathwaite. His longtime co-worker, Tom Hall joined the company on January 1, 2011.
John Romero was the Chairman of the Board for the Cyberathlete Professional League (CPL) for ten years. On December 20, 2006, John Romero announced a new FPS project for the CPL titled Severity for both consoles and PC. It was announced that Tom Mustaine (ex-Studio Director at Ritual Entertainment) would act as Director of Game Development at CPL's new studio. It was stated that Severity would be a multiplayer first person shooter, and that the game would be built on technology licensed from id Software. On October 2009, Angel Munoz, founder of the CPL stated that Severity was no longer being produced because they were not able "to convince game publishers of its value".
2010 to present
In March 2010, John Romero collaborated with the gaming magazine Retro Gamer, taking on the role of a guest editor, taking charge of the magazine's editorial and contributing to a number of articles on different subjects throughout the magazine. The issue contains an interview by Romero with industry luminaries offering their thoughts on Romero. In August 2014, in a Super Joystiq Podcast at Gamescom 2014 Romero announced that he was about to make a new shooter, stating that he was working with a concept artist and he had some cool imagery for the main character. In April 2016, Romero announced a partnership with Adrian Carmack to create a new FPS entitled Blackroom, describing their vision as a visceral, varied and violent shooter that harkens back to classic FPS play with a mixture of exploration, speed, and intense, weaponized combat. They were seeking $700,000 via Kickstarter to see the project to completion and anticipated a launch in late 2018. The Kickstarter campaign was cancelled four days after its launch.
On 2017, Romero won the Bizkaia Award at the Fun & Serious Game Festival, which takes place in the Spanish city of Bilbao.
John Romero and his wife Brenda Romero established Romero Games on 11 August 2015. They published Gunman Taco Truck in 2017, SIGIL in 2019, and Empire of Sin in 2020.
Personal life
In January 2004, Romero married Raluca Alexandra Pleșca, originally from Bucharest, Romania. They divorced in 2011. Romero and game developer Brenda Brathwaite became engaged on March 24, 2012 and married on October 27, 2012. Together, they worked on Ravenwood Fair, with Romero as Lead Designer and Brathwaite as Creative Director and Game Designer. They also founded social game development company Loot Drop in November 2010, and worked on Cloudforest Expedition and Ghost Recon Commander together. Romero has three children from two previous marriages: Michael, born in 1988, Steven born in 1989, and Lillia Antoinette, born in 1998.
Romero's long hair has been a source of both admiration and derision for his fans. John guest-answered Planet Quakes "Dear Mynx" column, in which a female fan asked for hair care tips. Romero cut his hair short in 2002 and donated it to Locks of Love. Discussion boards such as Doomworld and BeyondUnreal had threads discussing his new look at the time, although he began to grow it back to its original length in 2003. On January 11th 2022, Romero gave a statement via Twitter on the subject of his hair, to coincide with the 110th anniversary of William Arthur Jones' "Indian haircut order" of 1902. In the statement, Romero said: "I wear my hair long as a proud Yaqui and Cherokee man, and will continue to do so until the day I die."
During the development of Daikatana, Romero gave an interview listing his five favorite video games at the time, including Ultima V: Warriors of Destiny, Super Mario Bros. 3, Age of Empires, Duke Nukem 3D and Chrono Trigger, which he specified as his favorite game of all time.
Romero is an atheist.
Romero also claimed that everyone involved at working on the original Doom was an atheist.
Recognition
Games
References
Further reading
External links
Romero Games
Planet Romero
John Romero at Twitter
1967 births
American expatriates in Ireland
American video game designers
American atheists
American people of Mexican descent
American people of Cherokee descent
American people of Yaqui descent
Artists from Colorado Springs, Colorado
Doom (franchise)
Living people
People from Dallas
Origin Systems people
Quake (series)
American video game directors
American video game programmers
Wolfenstein
Id Software people | [
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230256 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alternative%20TV | Alternative TV | Alternative TV (sometimes known as ATV) are an English band formed in London in 1977. Author Steve Taylor writes: "Alternative TV pioneered reggae rhythms in punk and then moved on to redefine the musical rules".
History
Alternative TV were formed by Mark Perry, the founding editor of Sniffin' Glue, a punk fanzine, with Alex Fergusson. The name is a play on the name of Associated Television, a British broadcaster also known as ATV. Early rehearsals took place at Throbbing Gristle's Industrial Records studio with Genesis P-Orridge on drums (recordings from this period appeared, long afterwards, on the Industrial Sessions CD). The band's first live appearance was in Nottingham supporting The Adverts.
The band's debut on record was "Love Lies Limp", a free flexi disc issued with the final edition of Perry's Sniffin' Glue fanzine. For their first two singles Perry and Fergusson were accompanied by drummer John Towe (ex-Generation X) and Tyrone Thomas on bass; Towe later left to join The Rage and was replaced by Chris Bennett. This line-up was the most straightforwardly 'punk' version of ATV, although they combined short, fast songs with extended pieces such as "Alternatives to NATO", in which Perry read an anarchist political text and envisaged the possibility of a Soviet invasion of Britain. Shortly afterwards they released the "How Much Longer"/"You Bastard" 7" in December 1977. The A-side was a pointed critique of punk style: "How much longer will people wear/Nazi armbands and dye their hair?"
At the end of 1977, Perry sacked his chief collaborator and co-writer Fergusson. The latter went on to form the short-lived Cash Pussies and, a few years later, Psychic TV along with Genesis P-Orridge. Tyrone Thomas switched to guitar, later replaced by Kim Turner, while Dennis Burns joined on bass. A dub-influenced single, "Life After Life", was released, followed by the band's debut album, The Image Has Cracked, both featuring Jools Holland guesting on piano.
By the end of 1978, only Perry and Burns remained from the previous line-up, although ATV used additional musicians live and in the studio. The band's second album, Vibing Up the Senile Man (Part One), saw the band take a more explicitly experimental direction, which alienated both the music press and audiences. A recording of one gig which ended in a violent stage invasion can be heard on the cassette-only release Scars on Sunday. A live LP was released, documenting their tour with commune-dwelling progressive band Here & Now, marking the band's further movement away from the punk/new wave scene. A final single "The Force Is Blind" featured Anno from Here and Now on additional vocals.
Alternative TV soon evolved into the avant-garde project The Good Missionaries (taking the name from a track on the Vibing album), releasing one live album, Fire From Heaven, in 1979. Perry also joined the experimental duo The Door and the Window, releasing some EPs and a studio album, Detailed Twang. The following year, Perry released a solo album, Snappy Turns, before he, Burns and Fergusson briefly reformed Alternative TV along with former members of Fergusson's Cash Pussies in 1981. The reconstituted ATV released one album, Strange Kicks, a venture into light pop songs unlike any of their previous work, produced by Richard Mazda. The album was indifferently received, while a contemporary review by AllMusic panned the album, writing that the record, along with ATV's later work, "[falls] a little flat amidst the confusion and veer[s] closer to the new wave sound than most punks would dare to venture."
From 1981 to 1982 Perry had a new project, The Reflections, a band with Nag from The Door and the Window, Karl Blake (of Lemon Kittens) and Grant Showbiz, among others. They released one album, Slugs and Toads, and a single, "4 Countries", before disintegrating.
Perry reformed ATV in 1985. This line up started with Karl Blake, Steve Cannell and Allison Philips. Martin 'Protag' Neish and then Clive Giblin featured later on guitar and ATV released further records over the following decade with varying line-ups, Perry being the only constant member. Another line-up followed with James Kyllo, Steve Cannell and Dave Morgan, which led to the release of "Sol" and "Dragon Love".
ATV's last studio album for over a decade, Revolution, was released in 2001, followed in 2003 by the official bootleg album Viva La Rock'n' Roll – consisting of live performances recorded in the UK, France, Germany and the US. In 2004, Perry recorded the Ramones song "Now I Wanna Sniff Some Glue" for a single and an Argentinian Ramones tribute album.
Their first studio album in fourteen years, Opposing Forces, was released through Lost Moment/Public Domain on 10 July 2015.
Legacy
Unrecorded-at-the-time ATV lyric "Urban Kids" was released as a single by Chelsea in 1977. The Chameleons regularly closed their gigs with a cover of "Splitting in 2". Savage Republic covered "Viva La Rock n' Roll" on their 1988 LP Jamahiriya Democratique et Populaire de Sauvage. Thee Headcoats recorded "Action Time Vision" for a single in 1993. Wild Billy Childish and the Musicians of the British Empire covered "Date With Doug" on their 2007 debut album.
Discography
Studio albums
The Image Has Cracked (1978)
Vibing Up the Senile Man (Part One) (1979)
Strange Kicks (1981)
Peep Show (1987)
Dragon Love (1990)
My Life as a Child Star (1994)
Punk Life (1998)
Apollo (1999)
Revolution (2001)
Opposing Forces (2015)
Split albums
Scars on Sunday (1980) (with The Good Missionaries)
An Ye as Well (1980) (with The Good Missionaries)
Extended plays
Love/Sex EP (1986)
The Sol EP (1990)
Dark Places (2018)
Live albums
What You See Is What You Are (1978) (with Here and Now)
Live at the Rat Club '77 (1979)
Live 1978 (1993)
The Radio Sessions (1995)
The Industrial Sessions 1977 (1996)
25 Years of ATV - Live at CBGB (2002) - reissued as Love Lies Limp (2002)
Viva la Rock 'n' Roll (2004)
Black and White: Live (2009)
Compilation albums
Action Time Vision (1980)
Splitting in 2 – Selected Viewing (1989)
The Image Has Cracked – The Alternative TV Collection (1994)
Vibing Up the Senile Man – The Second Alternative TV Collection (1996)
Action Time Vision - the Very Best of Mark Perry and ATV (1977-1999) (1999)
Action Time Vision - The ATV Anthology (2003)
In Control (2006)
Viva La Rock 'n' Roll (2015), Cherry Red - 4-CD box set containing the complete recordings originally on Deptford Fun City; contains the albums The Image Has Cracked, Vibing Up the Senile Man, Fire from Heaven and Snappy Tunes with bonus tracks, singles, EP tracks and the ATV part of the split album What You See Is What You Are
Singles
"Love Lies Limp" (1977)
"How Much Longer" (1977)
"Life After Life" (1977)
"Action Time Vision" (1978)
"Life"/"Love Lies Limp" (1978)
"The Force Is Blind" (1979)
"The Ancient Rebels" (1981)
"Communicate" (1981)
"Welcome to the End of Fun" (1986)
"My Baby's Laughing (Empty Summer Dream)" (1987)
"Best Wishes" (1994)
"Purpose in My Life" (1993)
"Unlikely Star" (1999)
"Now I Wanna Sniff Some Glue" (2004)
"This Little Girl"/"Art School Project" (2016)
"Negative, Primitive" (2017)
"Walls"/"Hollow Stream" (2019)
References
External links
Official ATV site
ATV biography at Punk77
ATV biography at Punky Gibbon
English punk rock groups
English post-punk music groups
English new wave musical groups
Musical groups established in 1977
Musical groups disestablished in 1979
Musical groups reestablished in 1981
Musical groups disestablished in 1981
Musical groups reestablished in 1985
Musical groups from the London Borough of Lewisham | [
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230257 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shaftesbury%20Avenue | Shaftesbury Avenue | Shaftesbury Avenue is a major road in the West End of London, named after The 7th Earl of Shaftesbury. It runs north-easterly from Piccadilly Circus to New Oxford Street, crossing Charing Cross Road at Cambridge Circus. From Piccadilly Circus to Cambridge Circus, it is in the City of Westminster, and from Cambridge Circus to New Oxford Street, it is in the London Borough of Camden.
Shaftesbury Avenue was built between 1877 and 1886 by the architect George Vulliamy and the engineer Sir Joseph Bazalgette, to provide a north–south traffic artery through the crowded districts of St. Giles and Soho. It was also part of a slum clearance measure, to push impoverished workers out of the city centre. Although the street's construction was stalled by legislation requiring rehousing some of these displaced residents, overcrowding persisted. Charles Booth's Poverty Map shows the neighbourhood makeup shortly after Shaftesbury Avenue opened.
The avenue is generally considered the heart of London's West End theatre district, with the Lyric, Apollo, Gielgud and Sondheim theatres clustered together on the west side of the road between Piccadilly Circus and Charing Cross Road. At the intersection of Shaftesbury Avenue and Charing Cross Road there is also the large Palace Theatre. Finally, the north-eastern end of the road has another large theatre, the Shaftesbury Theatre.
Also on Shaftesbury Avenue is the former Saville Theatre, which became a cinema in 1970. It was first known as ABC1 and ABC2 but, since 2001, it has been the Odeon Covent Garden. Another cinema, the Soho Curzon, is located about halfway along the street.
Between 1899 and 1902, no. 67 Shaftesbury Avenue was the location of the Bartitsu School of Arms and Physical Culture, which is the first commercial Asian martial arts training school in the Western world.
Shaftesbury Avenue marks the boundary of three discrete West End areas. The subsection of the road from Piccadily Circus to Cambridge Circus marks the southern border of Soho. Of that subsection a slightly shorter stretch thereof, from Great Windmill Street to Cambridge Circus, denotes the southern edge of the Soho gay village. Overlapping the gay village boundary, the still-shorter part of the street from Wardour Street to Greek Street marks the interface between gay Soho and London's Chinatown.
The number of Chinese businesses on the street has been on the increase. On the ground level in Aug 2007, there were two traditional Chinese medicine practices, five Chinese restaurants, three Chinese supermarkets, three Chinese travel agents, two Chinese mobile phone outlets, a Chinese cake shop, two Chinese hair salons, a Chinese fishmonger, a Chinese newsagent, a Chinese bureau de change, and three Chinese banks.
In the evening, street artists gather on the pavement outside the HQ of ICE - International Currency Exchange and Raphaels Bank (previously the home of NatWest) at the Piccadilly Circus end of Shaftesbury Avenue, and produce portraits for the tourists.
See also
List of London theatres
Chinatown, London
List of eponymous roads in London
Little Compton Street
Notes
External links
Shaftesbury Avenue London W1 — TourUK information
Shaftesbury Avenue shown on a Poverty Map — Charles Booth's London
Survey of London — detailed architectural history
Lyric Theatre
Apollo Theatre
Gielgud Theatre
Sondheim Theatre
Palace Theatre
Shaftesbury Theatre
West End theatre
Roads designated in 1886
Streets in the London Borough of Camden
Streets in the City of Westminster
Entertainment districts in the United Kingdom | [
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230262 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cambridge%20Circus%2C%20London | Cambridge Circus, London | Cambridge Circus is the partly pedestrianised intersection where Shaftesbury Avenue crosses Charing Cross Road on the eastern edge of Soho, central London. Side-streets Earlham, West, Romilly and Moor streets also converge at this point. It is halfway between Tottenham Court Road station, Oxford Street (at St Giles Circus) and the centre of Leicester Square, which is southwest of Charing Cross Road via Cranborne Street.
The Circus is fronted by listed Georgian and Victorian buildings. Of these, the Palace Theatre has the widest façade; three bars and three fast food outlets, unusually, occupy the ground floors of the others.
Side-street approaches
Earlham Street specialises in fashion; Moor Street in cafés, leading to the Prince Edward Theatre. West Street has St Martin's Theatre and leading restaurant: The Ivy (popular with celebrities and successful artists) and until 2019 L'Atelier de Joël Robuchon (London).
Buildings
The Palace Theatre is on the west side of the junction, while The Ivy restaurant and a number of private clubs are accessible from the south of Cambridge Circus. The listed Georgian and Victorian buildings which make up the junction have featured in a number of espionage and spy films and books.
In fiction
In his espionage novels, author John le Carré placed the headquarters of the fictionalised British intelligence service based on MI6 in buildings on Shaftesbury Avenue and Cambridge Circus; it is from this that Le Carré's nickname for the agency, "The Circus", derives. The BBC's Gordon Corera notes that the entrance described by Le Carré most closely resembles that of 90 Charing Cross Road, just north of Cambridge Circus. The actual MI6 has never occupied premises in or near Cambridge Circus.
The Circus hosted Marks & Co, booksellers, who operated from 84 Charing Cross Road, which featured in Helene Hanff's 1970 book 84, Charing Cross Road, which has subsequently been adapted into a stage play, a television play, and a 1987 movie starting Anne Bancroft, Anthony Hopkins, and Judi Dench. Hanff's book, as well as her other work The Duchess of Bloomsbury (1973), detail her several-decades-long correspondence by mail with Frank Doel, a bookseller at Marks & Co.
In the 2008 film Slumdog Millionaire, the protagonist, Jamal, is asked to locate Cambridge Circus in the Indian version of the game show Who Wants to Be a Millionaire?. He answers the 5 million rupee question correctly, based on his experience working in an outsourced call centre.
Film locations
Cambridge Circus has featured in:
The League of Gentlemen (1960)
Tinker Tailor Soldier Spy (1979)
84 Charing Cross Road (1987)
Match Point (2005)
See also
Little Compton Street
References
External links
Streets in the London Borough of Camden
Streets in the City of Westminster
Road junctions in London | [
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230263 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hiromitsu%20Agatsuma | Hiromitsu Agatsuma | Hiromitsu Agatsuma (上妻 宏光 Agatsuma Hiromitsu, born July 27, 1973) is a Japanese shamisen artist who plays the Tsugaru-jamisen, a larger shamisen with thicker strings than those used for most other styles. He was born in Hitachi, Ibaraki Prefecture.
Early life
Agatsuma began studying the Tsugaru-jamisen at the age of six, and earned his first accolade - top prize at the 1988 All-Japan Tsugaru-jamisen Competition - at 14. This was followed in 1995 and 1996, by top honours at the Tsugaru-jamisen National Competition, said to be the country's most prestigious.
Despite the high acclaim he received in the hogaku, or traditional Japanese music world, for his accomplishments, Agatsuma did not rest on his laurels. He not only continued to explore the traditional aspects of his instrument, but also avidly experimented in fusing its sounds with diverse musical genres.
Career
In September 2001, he made his major label debut on Toshiba EMI with the eponymous Agatsuma. This album, comprising five traditional pieces and five original ones, was named Traditional Japanese Music Album of the Year at the 16th Japan Gold Disc Awards.
In BEAMS, his second album (released in July 2002), he recorded ten original works, taking the Tsugaru-jamisen in new directions. The same album was subsequently released in America by Domo Records in January 2003, upon which Agatsuma made his US debut. His five-concert tour of the east coast - New York, Boston, Windsor, and Baltimore - was a huge success.
In March 2003, Agatsuma released a traditional shamisen album, Classics (Agatsuma 3), which includes tracks recorded live in a New York church.
Currently he is broadening his field with over 100 annual concerts, sessions and media appearances both in Japan and overseas, while continuing to pursue "the traditions of and innovation in the Tsugaru-jamisen."
Media appearances include joint performances with artists from around the world; he was a guest at the Japan performances of Marcus Miller (Bass) and has performed with Larry Coryell (Guitar), Nana Vasconcelos (Percussion), Sarena Jones (Vocals) and others.
Discography
2001 — Agatsuma
2002 — Beams (Agatsuma 2)
2002 — New Asia
2002 — KoKoRo-Dozen Hearts
2003 — Classics (Agatsuma III)
2003 — New Asia II
2004 — Beyond
2005 — Eien no Uta - Eternal Songs
2006 — En
2007 — Soufuu
2008 — Agatsuma Plays Standards
2010 — The Best of
2010 — Jukki
2012 — Kusabi
2014 — Gen
2015 — Kusabi
2015 — New 2016 — Sui 2018 — NuTRAD''
References
External links
Homepage (Japanese)
Homepage (English)
1973 births
Japanese male musicians
Japanese musicians
Living people
Musicians from Ibaraki Prefecture
People from Hitachi, Ibaraki
Shamisen players
Domo Records artists | [
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230264 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Norman%20McLaren | Norman McLaren | William Norman McLaren, (11 April 1914 – 27 January 1987) was a Scottish Canadian animator, director and producer known for his work for the National Film Board of Canada (NFB). He was a pioneer in a number of areas of animation and filmmaking, including hand-drawn animation, drawn-on-film animation, visual music, abstract film, pixilation and graphical sound.
His awards included an Academy Award for Best Documentary Short Subject in 1952 for Neighbours, a Silver Bear for best short documentary at the 1956 Berlin International Film Festival for Rythmetic and a 1969 BAFTA Award for Best Animated Film for Pas de deux.
Early life
Norman McLaren was born in Stirling, Scotland, on 11 April 1914. He had two older siblings, one brother, Jack and a sister, Sheena. At the age of 21, he travelled to Russia for a vacation which confirmed his communist beliefs; his father had paid for the trip in hopes of curing McLaren of the communist belief he valued.
When McLaren was 22, he left Stirling and studied set design at the Glasgow School of Art. McLaren joined the Kinecraft Society at the Glasgow School of Art while he was studying there, it was within the society that he began to experiment with different styles and techniques of filmmaking. It was also at the Glasgow School of Art that McLaren met Helen Biggar, they produced films together outside the School and sought to have their productions released nationally.
His early experiments with film and animation included actually scratching and painting the film stock itself, as he did not have ready access to a camera. His earliest extant film, Seven Till Five (1933), a "day in the life of an art school" was influenced by Eisenstein and displays a strongly formalist attitude.
McLaren's next film, Camera Makes Whoopee (1935), was a more elaborate take on the themes explored in Seven Till Five, inspired by his acquisition of a Ciné-Kodak camera, which enabled him to execute a number of 'trick' shots. McLaren used pixilation effects, superimpositions and animation not only to display the staging of an art school ball, but also to tap into the aesthetic sensations supposedly produced by this event.
His two early films won prizes at the Scottish Amateur Film Festival, where fellow Scot and future NFB founder John Grierson was a judge.
Professional career
GPO Film Unit
Grierson, who was at that time head of the UK General Post Office film unit, saw another of his movies at an amateur film festival and took interest. He hired McLaren for the GPO after his studies, following a stint as cameraman on Defence of Madrid, Ivor Montagu's documentary on the Spanish Civil War. McLaren worked at the GPO from 1936 to 1939, making four films including: Book Bargain (1937), Mony a Pickle and Love on the Wing (1938), and News for the Navy (1938).
Solomon Guggenheim Foundation
McLaren then moved to New York City in 1939, just as World War II was about to begin in Europe. With a grant from the Solomon Guggenheim Foundation, he worked in New York until 1941, making four drawn-on-film animated works: Boogie-Doodle (1940), along with Dots, Loops and Stars and Stripes.
NFB
At the invitation of Grierson, he moved to Canada in 1941 to work for the National Film Board, to open an animation studio and to train Canadian animators. Upon McLaren's arrival in Canada, Grierson asked him to direct a promotional film reminding Canadians to mail their Christmas cards early, Mail Early (1941). He then worked on animated shorts as well as maps for Allied propaganda documentary films, followed by his War Bonds campaign films: V for Victory (1941), 5 for 4 (1942), Hen Hop (1942) and Dollar Dance (1943).
As of 1942, McLaren could no longer keep up with the demands for animation at the fast-growing NFB, and he was asked by Grierson to recruit art students and create a small animation team—a task made more difficult because many young students had gone off to fight in the war. McLaren found recruits for his fledgling animation unit at the École des beaux-arts de Montréal and the Ontario College of Art, including René Jodoin, George Dunning, Jim McKay, Grant Munro and his future collaborator, Evelyn Lambart. McLaren trained these emerging animators, who would all work on cartoons, animated cards and propaganda documentaries before going on to make their own films. Studio A, the NFB's first animation studio, formally came into existence as of January 1943, with McLaren as its head.
During his work for the NFB, McLaren created his most famous film, Neighbours (1952), which has won various awards around the world, including the Canadian Film Award and the Academy Award. Besides the brilliant combination of visuals and sound, the film has a very strong social message against violence and war. In his early period in Canada, McLaren spent considerable time developing the animation department of the board.
UNESCO
In addition to film, McLaren worked with UNESCO in the 1950s and 1960s on programs to teach film and animation techniques in China and India. His five part "Animated Motion" shorts, produced in the late 1970s, are an excellent example of instruction on the basics of film animation.
While travelling back from Mexico, McLaren travelled to Cuba and by chance met Fidel Castro.
Legacy
McLaren is remembered for his experiments with image and sound as he developed a number of groundbreaking techniques for combining and synchronizing animation with music.
The National Film Board honoured McLaren by naming its Montreal head office building the Norman McLaren Building. The Montreal borough of Saint-Laurent, which is home to the NFB, has also honoured McLaren by naming a borough district after him.
In 1981, the new Film House opened in Edinburgh, it was to be the home of the Edinburgh International Film Festival, inside there are two seats dedicated to McLaren and Grierson.
In 2006, he was the subject of a short animated documentary McLaren's Negatives. Also in 2006, the Film Board marked the 65th anniversary of NFB animation with an international retrospective of McLaren's restored classics and a new DVD box set of his complete works.
In June 2013, the NFB released an iTunes app entitled "McLaren's Workshop," allowing users to create their own films using animation techniques utilized by McLaren and providing access to over fifty of his films.
From 1 to 10 June 2018, Robert Lepage, principal dancer Guillaume Côté and the National Ballet of Canada staged a ballet entitled Frame by Frame, based on McLaren's life and work.
Birth centenary events
The 100th anniversary of the birth of McLaren was marked by a project entitled "McLaren Wall-to-Wall" in Montreal's Quartier des Spectacles entertainment district, with short films inspired by McLaren works Neighbours, Begone Dull Care, Synchromy and Spheres projected onto local landmarks.
McLaren's centenary was also celebrated in Scotland with the McLaren 2014 Programme of screenings, exhibitions, events and animation workshops. The Programme was conceived of and directed by animator Iain Gardner who also serves as the Animation Programmer for the Edinburgh International Film Festival. The programme was a key focus within the 68th Edinburgh International Film Festival in June, and ran through to the end of the XX Commonwealth Games in Glasgow in August. The McLaren 2014 Programme was managed by the Centre for the Moving Image, working in partnership with the National Film Board of Canada, and over 20 partners in Scotland and the UK.
In April 2014 his only surviving nephew Douglas Biggar (younger son of Sheena) unveiled a blue heritage plaque on his childhood home marking the centenary of his birth.
Lifetime achievement awards
In 1968, he was made an Officer of the Order of Canada and promoted to Companion in 1973. In 1977, he received an honorary doctorate from Concordia University. In 1982, he was the first anglophone to receive the Prix Albert-Tessier, given to persons for an outstanding career in Québec cinema.
In 1986, he received a Lifetime Achievement Award at the World Festival of Animated Film – Animafest Zagreb.
In 2009, McLaren's works were added to UNESCO's Memory of the World Programme, listing the most significant documentary heritage collections in the world, joining such works as the Gutenberg Bible and The Wizard of Oz.
Awards and nominations for McLaren's films
Academy Awards (USA)
1953 Academy Award for Best Documentary Short Subject for Neighbours – Won
1953 Academy Award for Best Short Subject, One-reel for Neighbours – Nominated
1958 Academy Award for Best Short Subject, Live Action Subjects for A Chairy Tale – Nominated
1964 Academy Award for Best Animated Short Film for Christmas Cracker – Nominated
1968 Academy Award for Best Short Subject, Live Action Subjects for Duo, the U.S. release title for Pas de deux – Nominated
Annie Awards (USA)
(1975) Annie Award: Winsor McCay Award—Won
BAFTA Awards (UK)
(1969) BAFTA Film Award for Best Animated Film for Pas de deux (1968) – Won
Berlin International Film Festival
(1951) Silver Medal (Culture Films and Documentaries) award for Begone Dull Care – Won
(1956) Silver Bear (Short Film) Award for Rythmetic – Won
Canadian Film Awards (Canada)
(1949) Special Award for Dots – Won
(1950) Special Award for Begone Dull Care – Won
(1952) Special Award for Around is Around – Won
(1952) Special Award for Now is the Time – Won
(1952) Special Award for After the Storm – Won
(1953) Special Award for A Phantasy – Won
(1953) Special Award for Neighbours – Won
(1958) Arts and Experimental for A Chairy Tale (shared with Claude Jutra) – Won
(1962) Arts and Experimental for Lines Horizontal – Won
(1965) Arts and Experimental for Canon (shared with Grant Munro) – Won
(1968) Special Award for Pas de deux – Won
Cannes Film Festival
(1955) Short Film Palme d'Or for Blinkity Blank – Won
Columbus International Film and Video Festival (USA)
(1984) Narcissus – Honorable Mention
Dance on Camera Festival (USA)
(1984) Gold Star Award for Narcissus – Won
Festival international de cinéma de court métrage (France)
(1985) Narcissus – Special Mention
Festival international du film romantique
(1985) Madame de Stael Prize (First Prize) for Narcissus – Won
Genie Awards (Canada)
(1984) Special Achievement Genie – Won
Golden Sheaf Awards / Short Film and Video Festival (Canada)
(1984) Golden Sheaf Award – Best Experimental Film for Narcissus – Won
International Film Festival (India)
(1984) Golden Peacock for the Best Short Film of the Festival for Narcissus – Won
Itinerant – American Film and Video Festival (USA)
(1984) Visual Essays for Narcissus – Honorable Mention
Personal life
McLaren's longtime partner was fellow NFB director Guy Glover, whom he met at the ballet in London in 1937. The two men remained in a committed relationship until McLaren's death.
See also
René Jodoin
Motion graphics
Steven Woloshen
References
Bibliography
Dominique Chateau, "Norman McLaren : pensée-cinéma et cinéplastique", Nouvelles Vues, issue 17, winter-spring 2016 : https://web.archive.org/web/20160809181327/http://www.nouvellesvues.ulaval.ca/no-17-hiver-2016-cinema-et-philosophie-par-s-santini-et-p-a-fradet/articles/norman-mclaren-pensee-cinema-et-cineplastique-par-dominique-chateau/
Raphaël Bassan, "Norman McLaren : le silence de Prométhée", in Les Cahiers de Paris expérimental, no 17 (in French) (2004)*
Olivier Cotte (2007) Secrets of Oscar-winning animation: Behind the scenes of 13 classic short animations. (Making of Neighbours) Focal Press.
Alfio Bastiancich, "Norman McLaren: Précurseur des Nouvelles Images", Dreamland èditeur, Paris (1997) (in French)
Rogers, Holly and Jeremy Barham: The Music and Sound of Experimental Film, New York: Oxford University Press, 2017.
External links
Films of Norman McLaren at the National Film Board of Canada website
Norman McLaren: Hands-on Animation and Creative Process: Norman McLaren at the National Film Board of Canada website
Canadian Film Encyclopedia
Order of Canada Citation
Norman McLaren on screenonline
Norman McLaren Archive at the University of Stirling Archive
1914 births
1987 deaths
People educated at Stirling High School
Alumni of the Glasgow School of Art
Anglophone Quebec people
BAFTA winners (people)
British cinema pioneers
Canadian animators
Canadian experimental filmmakers
Canadian cinema pioneers
Companions of the Order of Canada
Directors of Best Documentary Short Subject Academy Award winners
Drawn-on-film animators
Canadian Screen Award winners
Graphical sound
International Animated Film Association
Knights of the National Order of Quebec
LGBT artists from Canada
LGBT film directors
Film directors from Montreal
People from Stirling
Scottish communists
Scottish emigrants to Canada
Scottish film directors
Stop motion animators
Visual music artists
LGBT artists from the United Kingdom
LGBT people from Scotland
National Film Board of Canada people
Civil servants in the General Post Office
LGBT animators
Canadian people of British descent
Prix Albert-Tessier winners
Gay artists
20th-century LGBT people | [
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230266 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Palace%20Theatre%2C%20London | Palace Theatre, London | The Palace Theatre is a West End theatre in the City of Westminster in London. Its red-brick facade dominates the west side of Cambridge Circus behind a small plaza near the intersection of Shaftesbury Avenue and Charing Cross Road. The Palace Theatre seats 1,400.
Richard D'Oyly Carte, producer of the Gilbert and Sullivan operas, commissioned the theatre in the late 1880s. It was designed by Thomas Edward Collcutt and intended to be a home of English grand opera. The theatre opened as the Royal English Opera House in January 1891 with a lavish production of Arthur Sullivan's opera Ivanhoe. Although this ran for 160 performances, followed briefly by André Messager's La Basoche, Carte had no other works ready to fill the theatre. He leased it to Sarah Bernhardt for a season and sold the opera house within a year at a loss. It was then converted into a grand music hall and renamed the Palace Theatre of Varieties, managed successfully first by Sir Augustus Harris and then by Charles Morton. In 1897, the theatre began to screen films as part of its programme of entertainment. In 1904, Alfred Butt became manager and continued to combine variety entertainment, including dancing girls, with films. Herman Finck was musical director at the theatre from 1900 until 1920.
In 1925, the musical comedy No, No, Nanette opened at the Palace Theatre, followed by other musicals, for which the theatre became known. The Marx Brothers appeared at the theatre in 1931, performing selections from their Broadway shows. The Sound of Music ran for 2,385 performances at the theatre, opening in 1961. Jesus Christ Superstar ran from 1972 to 1980, and Les Misérables played at the theatre for nineteen years, beginning in 1985. In 1983, Andrew Lloyd Webber purchased and by 1991 had refurbished the theatre. Monty Python's Spamalot played there from 2006 until January 2009, and Priscilla Queen of the Desert opened in March 2009 and closed in December 2011. Between February 2012 and June 2013, the Palace hosted a production of Singin' in the Rain.
From June 2016 the play Harry Potter and the Cursed Child ran at the theatre until performances were suspended in March 2020 owing to the COVID-19 pandemic. The play returned to the stage on 14 October 2021, after a 19-month break.
History
Early years
Commissioned by impresario Richard D'Oyly Carte in the late 1880s, the theatre was designed by Thomas Edward Collcutt. Carte intended it to be the home of English grand opera, much as his Savoy Theatre had been built as a home for English light opera, beginning with the Gilbert and Sullivan series. The foundation stone, laid by his wife Helen in 1888, can still be seen on the façade of the theatre, almost at ground level to the right of the entrance. The theatre's design was considered to be novel. The upper levels are supported by heavy steel cantilevers built into the back walls, removing the need for supporting pillars that impede the view of the stage. The tiers, corridors, staircases, landings are all constructed of concrete to reduce the risk and damage that might be done by fire.
The theatre opened as the Royal English Opera House in January 1891 with Arthur Sullivan's Ivanhoe. No expense was spared to make the production a success, including a double cast and "every imaginable effect of scenic splendour". It ran for 160 performances, but when Ivanhoe finally closed in July, Carte had no new work to replace it, and the opera house had to close. One opera is not enough to sustain an opera house venture. It was, as the critic Herman Klein observed, "the strangest comingling of success and failure ever chronicled in the history of British lyric enterprise!" Sir Henry Wood, who had been répétiteur for the production, recalled in his autobiography that "[if] Carte had had a repertory of six operas instead of only one, I believe he would have established English opera in London for all time. Towards the end of the run of Ivanhoe I was already preparing the Flying Dutchman with Eugène Oudin in the name part. He would have been superb. However, plans were altered and the Dutchman was shelved."
The theatre re-opened in November 1891, with André Messager's La Basoche (with David Bispham in his first London stage performance) at first alternating in repertory with Ivanhoe, and then La Basoche alone, closing in January 1892. Carte had no other works ready, and so he leased the theatre to Sarah Bernhardt for a season, and after months of negotiation he sold the opera house at a loss to the new Palace Theatre Company, headed by Sir Augustus Harris. The architect Walter Emden converted the opera house into a grand and ornate music hall, which was renamed the Palace Theatre of Varieties. Harris's opening programme included a lavish and highly praised ballet, with music by Gaston Serpette; he engaged some of the best variety turns then available, before handing over the day-to-day running of the theatre to Charles Morton, known as the "Father of the Music Halls", whose biographers record:
Denied permission by the London County Council to construct a promenade, which was a popular feature of adult entertainment at the Empire and Alhambra theatres, the Palace countered with its tableaux vivants, which featured apparently nude women (though patrons were reassured that they were actually wearing flesh toned body stockings). In March 1897, the theatre began to screen films from the American Biograph Company as part of its programme of entertainment. These films pioneered the 70 mm format which helped give an exceptionally large and clear image filling the proscenium arch. The performances included early newsreels from around the world, many of them made by film pioneer William Kennedy Laurie Dickson, including film of the Boer War (1900). The Palace continued to show films as part of its variety and musical programmes.
20th century
In 1904, Morton was succeeded as manager by his deputy, Alfred Butt. Butt introduced many innovations, including dancers such as Maud Allan, who created something of a sensation with her Vision of Salome, and Anna Pavlova, and the elegant pianist-singer Margaret Cooper. Oliver G Pike premièred his first film, In Birdland, at the theatre in August 1907. This was the first British wildlife film to be screened to a paying audience. On 26 February 1909, the general public first saw Kinemacolor in a programme of 21 short films shown at the theatre.
The name of the theatre was finally changed to The Palace Theatre in 1911. Herman Finck was musical director from 1900 until 1920, and made many recordings with the theatre's orchestra. The theatre was famous not only for its orchestra, but also for the beautiful Palace Girls, for whom Finck composed many dances. In 1911, the Palace Girls performed a song and dance number, which was originally called Tonight but became very popular as a romantic instrumental piece In The Shadows. In 1912, the theatre hosted the first Royal Variety Performance in Britain, commanded by King George V, and produced by Butt. During the First World War, the theatre presented revues, and Maurice Chevalier became known to British audiences. After the war, the theatre was used mostly for films for a few years.
On 11 March 1925, the musical comedy No, No, Nanette opened at the Palace Theatre starring Binnie Hale and George Grossmith Jr. The run of 665 performances made it the third longest-running West End musical of the 1920s. Princess Charming ran for 362 performances beginning in 1926. The Palace Theatre was also the venue for Rodgers and Hart's The Girl Friend (1927) and Fred Astaire's final stage musical Gay Divorce (1933). The Marx Brothers appeared at the theatre in 1931, performing selections from their Broadway shows. The theatre was twice threatened with demolition in the early 1930s; offers of £400,000 and £450,000 were made for the site: one offer was from an American chain which proposed to build a department store on the site, but the directors, led by C. B. Cochran refused to sell.
In 1939–1940, Cicely Courtneidge and Jack Hulbert appeared at the Palace in Under Your Hat, a spy story co-written by Hulbert, with music and lyrics by Vivian Ellis, which ran for 512 performances. Later musical theatre works that played with success at the theatre included Song of Norway (1946, 525 performances), King's Rhapsody (1949, 841 performances), Where's Charley? (1958, 380 performances), and Flower Drum Song (1960) among others. The Entertainer, starring Laurence Olivier, transferred to the theatre from the Royal Court Theatre in 1957. In the 1960s, The Sound of Music ran for 2,386 performances, from 1961, and Cabaret followed in 1968 (336 performances). The Danny La Rue revue Danny at the Palace (1970) ran for 811 performances.
Two exceptional runs took place at the Palace during the last decades of the 20th century: Jesus Christ Superstar (3,358 performances from 1972 to 1980) and Les Misérables, which played at the theatre for nineteen years after moving from the Barbican Centre on 4 December 1985. The production moved to the Queen's Theatre in April 2004 to continue its record-setting run. In between, Song and Dance played from 1982 to 1984. In 1983, Andrew Lloyd Webber purchased the theatre for £1.3 million and began a series of renovations to the auditorium. He restored the theatre's facade, later commenting: "I removed the huge neon sign that defaced the glorious terracotta exterior, much to the chagrin of West End producers who told me I had removed the greatest theatre advertising sight in London."
21st century
After Les Misérables left the theatre in 2004, Lloyd Webber refurbished and restored the auditorium and front of the house, removing the paint that covered the onyx and Italian marble. Lloyd Webber premiered his musical The Woman in White at the Palace later in 2004, which ran for 19 months. Monty Python's Spamalot opened in 2006 and ran until 2009. It was replaced by Priscilla Queen of the Desert, which played through 2011, and Singin' in the Rain played from 2012 to 2013, followed by The Commitments from 2013 to 2015.
Harry Potter and the Cursed Child, a two-part play written by Jack Thorne based on an original story by Thorne, J. K. Rowling and John Tiffany, began previews at the theatre on 7 June 2016, Both parts opened officially on 30 July. The production was suspended in March 2020 due to the COVID-19 pandemic. 14 October 2021 marked the reopening night for the play, after a 19-month break.
The theatre was Grade II* listed by English Heritage in June 1960. It is one of the 40 theatres featured in the 2012 DVD documentary series Great West End Theatres, presented by Donald Sinden. In April 2012, Lloyd Webber's Really Useful Group sold the building to Nimax Theatres (Nica Burns and Max Weitzenhoffer). Nimax purchased the Apollo, Duchess, Garrick and Lyric Theatres from Really Useful in 2005.
In popular culture
In the 1977 Doctor Who serial The Talons of Weng-Chiang, the villain Li H'sen Chang masquerades as magician and ventriloquist performing at the Palace Theatre when the Doctor brings Leela there to discover the customs of her Victorian ancestors. In the 2004 novel Full Dark House, by Christopher Fowler, a series of gruesome murders take place in the Palace during the London Blitz amid a production of Orpheus in the Underworld.
Nearby tube stations
Leicester Square
Tottenham Court Road
Notes, references and sources
Notes
References
Sources
External links
Official website
Theatre Reviews from musicOMH.com
Palace Theatre History Feature
West End theatres
Theatres in the City of Westminster
Grade II* listed buildings in the City of Westminster
Grade II* listed theatres
Theatres completed in 1891
Former music hall venues in the United Kingdom
1891 establishments in England
Thomas Edward Collcutt buildings | [
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230267 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dzo | Dzo | A dzo (Tibetan མཛོ་ mdzo) (also spelled zo, zho and dzho) is a hybrid between the yak and domestic cattle. The word dzo technically refers to a male hybrid, while a female is known as a or . In Mongolian, it is called a (хайнаг). There is also the English language portmanteau term of yattle, a combination of the words yak and cattle, as well as yakow, a combination of the words yak and cow.
Dzomo are fertile (or, fecund) while dzo are sterile. As they are a product of the hybrid genetic phenomenon of heterosis (hybrid vigor), they are larger and stronger than yak or cattle from the region. In Mongolia and Tibet, khainags are thought to be more productive than cattle or yaks in terms of both milk and meat production.
Dzomo can be back crossed. As a result, many supposedly pure yak or pure cattle probably carry each other's genetic material. In Mongolia, the result of a crossed with either a domestic bull or yak bull is called (ортоом, three-quarter-bred) and an crossed with a domestic bull or yak bull results in a (усан гүзээ, one-eighth-bred).
Dzo inherit two different types of proteins, one from each parent, and their mitochondrial structure and function changes. This significantly changes the dzo's ability to survive in higher altitudes than both parents can. Hybrid species are more often than not weaker or not able to survive. However, this particular species is more successful in ways, such as strength and size, that cattle and Yaks cannot achieve.
See also
Bovid hybrid
Yakalo, a yak/buffalo (American bison) hybrid
References
External links
Bovid hybrids | [
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230270 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lenape | Lenape | The Lenape (, , or Lenape , ) also called the Leni Lenape, Lenni Lenape and Delaware people, are an indigenous people of the Northeastern Woodlands, who live in the United States and Canada. Their historical territory included present-day northeastern Delaware, New Jersey and eastern Pennsylvania along the Delaware River watershed, New York City, western Long Island, and the Lower Hudson Valley. Today, Lenape people belong to the Delaware Nation and Delaware Tribe of Indians in Oklahoma; the Stockbridge-Munsee Community in Wisconsin; and the Munsee-Delaware Nation, Moravian of the Thames First Nation, and Delaware of Six Nations in Ontario.
The Lenape have a matrilineal clan system and historically were matrilocal.
During the last decades of the 18th century, most Lenape were removed from their homeland by expanding European colonies. The divisions and troubles of the American Revolutionary War and United States' independence pushed them farther west. In the 1860s, the United States government sent most Lenape remaining in the eastern United States to the Indian Territory (present-day Oklahoma and surrounding territory) under the Indian removal policy. In the 21st century, most Lenape now reside in Oklahoma, with some other communities in Wisconsin and Ontario.
Name
The name Lenni Lenape, also Leni Lenape and Lenni Lenapi, comes from their autonym, , which may mean "genuine, pure, real, original", and , meaning "real person" or "original person" (cf. Anishinaabe, in which , cognate with , means "man" or "male" ). Alternately, may be translated as "man".
The Lenape, when first encountered by Europeans, were a loose association of related peoples who spoke similar languages and shared familial bonds in an area known as Lenapehoking, the Lenape traditional territory, which spanned what is now eastern Pennsylvania, New Jersey, Lower New York, and eastern Delaware.
The tribe's common name Delaware is not of Native American origin. English colonists named the Delaware River for the first governor of the Province of Virginia, Thomas West, 3rd Baron De La Warr, whose title was ultimately derived from French. (For etymology of the surname, see Earl De La Warr§Etymology.) The English then began to call the Lenape the "Delaware Indians" because of where they lived. Swedes also settled in the area, and early Swedish sources listed the Lenape as the Renappi.
Territory
Traditional Lenape lands, the Lenapehoking, was a large territory that encompassed the Delaware Valley of eastern Pennsylvania and New Jersey from the north bank of the Lehigh River along the west bank of the Delaware then south into Delaware and the Delaware Bay. Their lands also extended west from western Long Island and New York Bay, across the Lower Hudson Valley in New York into the lower Catskills and a sliver of the upper edge of the North Branch Susquehanna River. On the west side, the Lenape lived in numerous small towns along the rivers and streams that fed the waterways, and likely shared the hunting territory of the Schuylkill River watershed with the rival Iroquoian Susquehannock.
Languages
The Unami and Munsee languages belong to the Eastern Algonquian language group and are largely mutually intelligible. Although the Unami and Munsee speakers people are related, they consider themselves as distinct, as they used different words and lived on opposite sides of the Kitatinny Mountains of modern New Jersey. The German and English-speaking Moravian missionary John Heckewelder wrote: "The is quite different even though came out of one parent language." Today, most who continue to speak the language are tribal elders, although some young Lenape youth and adults learn their language.
William Penn, who first met the Lenape in 1682, stated that the Unami used the following words: "mother" was , "brother" was , "friend" was . Penn instructed his fellow Englishmen: "If one asks them for anything they have not, they will answer, , which to translate is, 'not I have,' instead of 'I have not'."
The Lenape language used to be exclusively a spoken language. However, in 2002, the Lenape Nation received grant money to fund The Lenape Talking Dictionary, preserving and digitizing the Southern Unami dialect. This language is currently recognized by both the Oklahoma Lenape and the Delaware Valley Lenape.
The nation, led by Professor Shelly DePaul of Swarthmore College, is researching and revamping the Lenape language for future generations to more easily learn. Depaul collaborated with elders and transcribed decades worth of documents to teach a Lenape class at Swathmore College starting in 2009. Research shows that voluntary, locally based language practice and learning is key to restoring and maintaining a fading language. There is some disagreement within the Lenape Nation on whether the language should be taught as adapted to the times or taught as historically accurate. DePaul's approach is focused on a "living language" philosophy.
Society
Clans and kinship systems
At the time of first European contact, a Lenape person would have identified primarily with his or her immediate family and clan, friends, and/or village unit; then with surrounding and familiar village units. Next with more distant neighbors who spoke the same dialect; and ultimately, with all those in the surrounding area who spoke mutually comprehensible languages, including the Nanticoke people, who lived to their south and west in present western Delaware and eastern Maryland, and the Munsee, who lived to their north. Among many Algonquian peoples along the East Coast, the Lenape were considered the "grandfathers" from whom other Algonquian-speaking peoples originated.
The Lenape have three clans at the end of the 17th century, each of which historically had twelve sub-clans:
Wolf, Tùkwsit
Big Feet, Mä an'greet
Yellow Tree, Wisawhìtkuk
Pulling Corn, Pä-sakun'a'-mon
Care Enterer, We-yar-nih'kä-to
Across the River, Toosh-war-ka'ma
Vermillion, O-lum'-a-ne
Dog standing by fireside, Pun-ar'-you
Long Body, Kwin-eek'cha
Digging, Moon-har-tar'ne
Pulling up Stream, Non-har'-min
Brush Log, Long-ush-har-kar'-to
Bringing Along, Maw-soo-toh
Turtle, Pùkuwànku
Ruler, O-ka-ho'-ki
High Bank Shore, Ta-ko-ong'-o-to
Drawing Down Hill, See-har-ong'-o-to
Elector, Ole-har-kar-me'kar-to
Brave, Ma-har-o-luk'-ti
Green Leaves, Toosh-ki-pa-kwis-i
Smallest Turtle, Tung-ul-ung'-si
Little Turtle, We-lung-ung-sil
Snapping Turtle, Lee-kwin-a-i'''
Deer, Kwis-aese-kees'to Turkey, Pële Big Bird, Mor-har-ä-lä Bird's Cry, Le-le-wa'-you Eye Pain, Moo-kwung-wa-ho'ki Scratch the Path, Moo-har-mo-wi-kar'-nu Opossum Ground, O-ping-ho'-ki Old Shin, Muh-ho-we-kä'-ken Drift Log, Tong-o-nä-o-to Living in Water, Nool-a-mar-lar'-mo Root Digger, Muh-krent-har'-ne Red Face, Mur-karm-huk-se Pine Region, Koo-wä-ho'ke Ground Scratcher, Oo-ckuk'-hamLenape kinship system has matrilineal clans, that is, children belong to their mother's clan, from which they gain social status and identity. The mother's eldest brother was more significant as a mentor to the male children than was their father, who was generally of another clan. Hereditary leadership passed through the maternal line, and women elders could remove leaders of whom they disapproved. Agricultural land was managed by women and allotted according to the subsistence needs of their extended families. Families were matrilocal; newlywed couples would live with the bride's family, where her mother and sisters could also assist her with her growing family.
By 1682, when William Penn arrived to his American commonwealth, the Lenape had been so reduced by disease, famine, and war that the sub-clan mothers had reluctantly resolved to consolidate their families into the main clan family. This is why William Penn and all those after him believed that the Lenape clans had always only had three divisions (Turtle, Turkey, and Wolf) when, in fact, they had over thirty on the eve of European contact.
Members of each clan were found throughout Lenape territory and clan lineage was traced through the mother. While clan mothers controlled the land, the houses, and the families, the clan fathers provided the meat, cleared the fields, built the houses, and protected the clan. Upon reaching adulthood, a Lenape male would marry outside of his clan. The practice effectively prevented inbreeding, even among individuals whose kinship was obscure or unknown. This means that a male from the Turkey Clan was expected to marry a female from either the Turtle or Wolf clans. His children, however, would not belong to the Turkey Clan, but to the mother's clan. As such, a person's mother's brothers (the person's matrilineal uncles) played a large role in his or her life as they shared the same clan lineage. Within a marriage itself, men and women had relatively separate and equal rights, each controlling their own property and debts, showing further signs of a woman's power in the hierarchical structure.
As in the case of the Iroquois and Susquehannocks, the animosity of differences and competitions spanned many generations, and in general tribes with each of the different language groups became traditional enemies in the areas they'd meet. On the other hand, The New American Book of Indians points out that competition, trade, and wary relations were far more common than outright warfare—but both larger societies had traditions of 'proving' (blooding) new (or young) warriors by 'counting coup' on raids into another tribes territories. Ethnicity seems to have mattered little to the Lenape and many other "tribes". Archaeological excavations have found Lenape burials that included identifiably ethnic Iroquois remains interred along with those of Lenape. The two groups were sometimes bitter enemies since before recorded history, but intermarriage occurred — and both groups have an oral history suggesting they jointly came east together and displaced the mound builders culture. In addition, both tribes practiced adopting young captives from warfare into their tribes and assimilating them as full tribal members. Iroquoians adopting Lenape (or other peoples) were known to be part of their religious beliefs, the adopted one taking the place in the clan of one killed in warfare.
Early European observers may have misinterpreted matrilineal Lenape cultural practices. For example, a man's maternal uncle (his mother's brother), and not his father, was usually considered to be his closest male relative, since his uncle belonged to his mother's clan and his father belonged to a different one. The maternal uncle played a more prominent role in the lives of his sister's children than did the father—for example likely being the one responsible for educating a young man in weapons craft, martial arts, hunting, and other life skills. Early European chroniclers did not understand this concept.
Hunting, fishing and farming
Lenape practiced companion planting, in which women cultivated many varieties of the "Three Sisters": maize, beans, and squash. Men also practiced hunting and the harvesting of seafood. By the time of the arrival of Europeans, the Lenape were cultivating fields of vegetation through the slash and burn technique.Day, Gordon M. "The Indian as an Ecological Factor in the Northeastern Forests." Ecology, Vol. 34, #2 (April): 329–346. New England and New York Areas 1580–1800. Notes that the Lenni Lenape (Delaware) tribe in New Jersey and the Massachuset tribe in Massachusetts used fire in ecosystems.1953Russell, Emily W.B. "Indian Set Fires in the Forests of the Northeastern United States." Ecology, Vol. 64, #1 (Feb): 78 88. 1983a Author found no strong evidence that Indians purposely burned large areas, but they did burn small areas near their habitation sites. Noted that the Lenna Lenape Tribe used fire.Smithsonian Institution—Handbook of North American Indians series: Handbook of North American Indians, Volume 15—Northeast. Bruce G. Trigger (volume editor). Washington, DC: Smithsonian Institution. 1978 References to Indian burning for the Eastern Algonquians, Virginia Algonquians, Northern Iroquois, Huron, Mahican, and Delaware Tribes and peoples. This extended the productive life of planted fields. According to Dutch settler Isaac de Rasieres, who observed the Lenape in 1628, the Lenape's primary crop was maize, which they planted in March. They quickly adopted European metal tools for this task.
The men limited their agricultural labor to clearing the field and breaking the soil. They primarily hunted and fished during the rest of the year: from September to January and from June to July, they mainly hunted deer, but from the months of January to the spring planting in May, they hunted anything from bears and beavers to raccoons and foxes. Dutch settler David de Vries, who stayed in the area from 1634 to 1644, described a Lenape hunt in the valley of the Achinigeu-hach (or "Ackingsah-sack", the Hackensack River), in which one hundred or more men stood in a line many paces from each other, beating thigh bones on their palms to drive animals to the river, where they could be killed easily. Other methods of hunting included lassoing and drowning deer, as well as forming a circle around prey and setting the brush on fire. They also harvested vast quantities of fish and shellfish from the bays of the area, and, in southern New Jersey, harvested clams year-round. One technique used while fishing was to add ground chestnuts to stream water to make fish dizzy and easier to catch.
The success of these methods allowed the tribe to maintain a larger population than other, nomadic hunter-gatherer peoples in North America at the time, could support. Scholars have estimated that at the time of European settlement, around much of the current New York City area alone, there may have been about 15,000 Lenape in approximately 80 settlement sites. In 1524, Lenape in canoes met Giovanni da Verrazzano, the first European explorer to enter New York Harbor.
European settlers and traders from the 17th-century colonies of New Netherland and New Sweden traded with the Lenape for agricultural products, mainly maize, in exchange for iron tools. The Lenape also arranged contacts between the Minquas or Susquehannocks and the Dutch West India Company and Swedish South Company to promote the fur trade. The Lenape were major producers of labor intensive wampum, or shell beads, which they traditionally used for ritual purposes and as ornaments. After the Dutch arrival, they began to exchange wampum for beaver furs provided by Iroquoian-speaking Susquehannock and other Minquas. They exchanged these furs for Dutch and, from the late 1630s, also Swedish imports. Relations between some Lenape and Minqua polities briefly turned sour in the late 1620s and early 1630s, but were relatively peaceful most of the time.
Clothing and adornment
The early European settlers, especially the Dutch and Swedes, were surprised at the Lenape's skill in fashioning clothing from natural materials. In hot weather men and women wore only loin cloth and skirt respectively, while they used beaver pelts or bear skins to serve as winter mantles. Additionally, both sexes might wear buckskin leggings and moccasins in cold weather. Women would wear their hair long, usually below the hip, while men kept only a small "round crest, of about 2 inches in diameter". Deer hair, dyed a deep scarlet, as well as plumes of feathers, were favorite components of headdresses and breast ornaments for males. The Lenape also adorned themselves with various ornaments made of stone, shell, animal teeth, and claws. The women often wore headbands of dyed deer hair or wampum. They painted their skin skirts or decorated them with porcupine quills. These skirts were so elaborately appointed that, when seen from a distance, they reminded Dutch settlers of fine European lace. The winter cloaks of the women were striking, fashioned from the iridescent body feathers of wild turkeys.
Leisure
One of the more common activities of leisure for the Lenni Lenape would be the game of Pahsaheman: a football-like hybrid, split on gender lines. Over a hundred players were grouped into gendered teams (male and female), and would attempt to get a ball through the other team's goal post. However, men could not carry and pass the ball, only using their feet, while the women could carry, pass, or kick. If the ball was picked up by a woman, she could not be tackled by the men, although men could attempt to dislodge the ball. Women were free to tackle the men. These gender-split rules highlight how a woman's role in Lenape society was harmonious to a man's role, rather than acquiescent.
Another activity common was that of dance, and yet again, gender differences appear: men would dance and leap loudly, often with bear claw accessories, while women, wearing little thimbles or bells, would dance more modestly, stepping "one foot after the other slightly forwards then backwards, yet so as to advance gradually."
Units of measure
There were a number of linear measures which were used. Small units of measure were the distance from the thumb and first finger, and the distance from first finger to pit of elbow. While travel distance was measured in the distance one could comfortably travel from sun-up to sun-down.
Ethnobotany
The Lenape have a long history with the native fauna in the Northeastern area of the United States. Lenape herbalists, who have been primarily women, use their extensive knowledge of plant life to help heal their community's ailments, sometimes through ceremony. The Lenape found uses in trees like Black Walnut which were used to cure ringworm and with Persimmons which were used to cure ear problems.
The Lenape carry the nuts of Aesculus glabra in the pocket for rheumatism, and an infusion of ground nuts mixed with sweet oil or mutton tallow for earaches. They also grind the nuts and use them to poison fish in streams. They also apply a poultice of pulverized nuts with sweet oil for earache.
History
European contact
The first recorded European contact with people presumed to have been the Lenape was in 1524. The explorer Giovanni da Verrazzano was greeted by local Lenape who came by canoe, after his ship entered what is now called Lower New York Bay.
In the 17th century, Lenape primarily interacted with Dutch traders through the fur trade. The Lenape trapped and traded beaver pelts for European-made goods.
Early colonial era
At the time of sustained European contact in the 1600s and 1700s, the Lenape were a powerful Native American nation who inhabited a region on the mid-Atlantic coast spanning the latitudes of southern Massachusetts to the southern extent of Delaware in what anthropologists call the Northeastern Woodlands. Although never politically unified, the confederation of the Delaware roughly encompassed the area around and between the Delaware and lower Hudson rivers, and included the western part of Long Island in present-day New York. Some of their place names, such as Manhattan ("the island of many hills"), Raritan, and Tappan were adopted by Dutch and English colonists to identify the Lenape people that lived there.
17th century
The Lenape had a culture in which the clan and family controlled property. Europeans often tried to contract for land with the tribal chiefs, confusing their culture with that of neighboring tribes such as the Iroquois. On top of this kinship terms commonly used by European settlers had very different meanings to the Lenape: "fathers" did not have the same direct parental control as in Europe, "brothers" could be a symbol of equality but could also be interpreted as one's parallel cousins, "cousins" were interpreted as only cross-cousins, etc. All of these added complexities in kinship terms made agreements with Europeans all the more difficult. The Lenape would petition for grievances on the basis that not all their families had been recognized in the transaction (not that they wanted to "share" the land). After the Dutch arrival in the 1620s, the Lenape were successful in restricting Dutch settlement until the 1660s to Pavonia in present-day Jersey City along the Hudson. The Dutch finally established a garrison at Bergen, which allowed settlement west of the Hudson within the province of New Netherland. This land was purchased from the Lenape after the fact.
New Amsterdam was founded in 1624 by the Dutch in what would later become New York City. Dutch settlers also founded a colony at present-day Lewes, Delaware on June 3, 1631 and named it Zwaanendael (Swan Valley). The colony had a short life, as in 1632 a local band of Lenape killed the 32 Dutch settlers after a misunderstanding escalated over Lenape defacement of the insignia of the Dutch West India Company. In 1634, the Iroquoian-speaking Susquehannock went to war with the Lenape over access to trade with the Dutch at New Amsterdam. They defeated the Lenape, and some scholars believe that the Lenape may have become tributaries to the Susquehannock. After the warfare, the Lenape referred to the Susquehannock as "uncles". The Iroquois added the Lenape to the Covenant Chain in 1676; the Lenape were tributary to the Five Nations (later Six) until 1753, shortly before the outbreak of the French and Indian War (a part of the Seven Years' War in Europe).
Based on the historical record of the mid-17th century, it has been estimated that most Lenape polities consisted of several hundred people but it is conceivable that some had been considerably larger prior to close contact, given the wars between the Susquehannocks and the Iroquois, both of whom were armed by the Dutch fur traders, while the Lenape were at odds with the Dutch and so lost that particular arms race.
During the Beaver Wars in the first half of the 17th century, European colonists were careful to keep firearms from the coastally located Delaware, while rival Iroquoian peoples such as the Susquehannocks and Confederation of the Iroquois became comparatively well armed. Subsequently, the Lenape became subjugated and made tributary to first the Susquehannocks, then the Iroquois, even needing their rivals' (superiors') agreement to initiate treaties such as land sales. Like most tribes, Lenape communities were weakened by newly introduced diseases originating in Europe, mainly smallpox but also cholera, influenza and dysentery, and recurrent violent conflict with Europeans. Iroquoian peoples occasionally fought the Lenape. As the 18th century progressed, many surviving Lenape moved west—into the (relatively empty) upper Ohio River basin.
Smallpox devastated Native American communities even located far from European settlements by the 1640s. The Lenape and Susquehannocks fought a war in the middle of the 17th century that left the Delaware a tributary state even as the Susquehannocks had defeated the Province of Maryland between 1642-50s.
The Lenape's quick adoption of trade goods, and their desire to trap furs to meet high European demand, resulted in their disastrous over-harvesting of the beaver population in the lower Hudson Valley. With the fur sources exhausted, the Dutch shifted their operations to present-day upstate New York. The Lenape who produced wampum in the vicinity of Manhattan Island temporarily forestalled the negative effects of the decline in trade. Lenape population fell sharply during this period, due to high fatalities from epidemics of infectious diseases carried by Europeans, such as measles and smallpox, to which they had no natural immunity.
In 1682, William Penn and Quaker colonists created the English colony of Pennsylvania beginning at the lower Delaware River. A peace treaty was negotiated between the newly arriving English and Lenape at what is now known as Penn Treaty Park. In the decades immediately following, some 20,000 new colonists arrived in the region, putting pressure on Lenape settlements and hunting grounds. Penn expected his authority and that of the colonial government to take precedence. His new colony effectively displaced many Lenape and forced others to adapt to new cultural demands. Penn gained a reputation for benevolence and tolerance, but his efforts resulted in more effective colonization of the ancestral Lenape homeland than previous ones.
18th century
William Penn died in 1718. His heirs, John and Thomas Penn, and their agents were running the colony, and had abandoned many of the elder Penn's practices. Trying to raise money, they contemplated ways to sell Lenape land to colonial settlers. The resulting scheme culminated in the so-called Walking Purchase. In the mid-1730s, colonial administrators produced a draft of a land deed dating to the 1680s. William Penn had approached several leaders of Lenape polities in the lower Delaware to discuss land sales further north. Since the land in question did not belong to their polities, the talks came to nothing. But colonial administrators had prepared the draft that resurfaced in the 1730s. The Penns and their supporters tried to present this draft as a legitimate deed. Lenape leaders in the lower Delaware refused to accept it.
According to historian Steven Harper, what followed was a "convoluted sequence of deception, fraud, and extortion orchestrated by the Pennsylvania government that is commonly known as the Walking Purchase." In the end, all Lenape who still lived on the Delaware were driven off the remnants of their homeland under threats of violence. Some Lenape polities eventually retaliated by attacking Pennsylvania settlements. When they fought British colonial expansion to a standstill at the height of the Seven Years' War, the British government investigated the causes of Lenape resentment. The British asked William Johnson, Superintendent of Indian Affairs, to lead the investigation. Johnson had become wealthy as a trader and acquired thousands of acres of land in the Mohawk River Valley from the Iroquois Mohawk of New York.
Beginning in the 18th century, the Moravian Church established missions among the Lenape. The Moravians required the Christian converts to share their pacifism, as well as to live in a structured and European-style mission village. Moravian pacifism and unwillingness to take loyalty oaths caused conflicts with British authorities, who were seeking aid against the French and their Native American allies during the French and Indian War (Seven Years' War). The Moravians' insistence on Christian Lenapes' abandoning traditional warfare practices alienated mission populations from other Lenape and Native American groups, who revered warriors. The Moravians accompanied Lenape relocations to Ohio and Canada, continuing their missionary work. The Moravian Lenape who settled permanently in Ontario after the American Revolutionary War were sometimes referred to as "Christian Munsee", as they mostly spoke the Munsee branch of the Delaware language.
During the French and Indian War, the Lenape initially sided with the French, as they hoped to prevent further British colonial encroachment in their territory. But, such leaders as Teedyuscung in the east and Tamaqua in the vicinity of modern Pittsburgh shifted to building alliances with the English. After the end of the war, however, Anglo-American settlers continued to kill Lenape, often to such an extent that the historian Amy Schutt writes the dead since the wars outnumbered those killed during the war.
The Treaty of Easton, signed in 1758 between the Lenape and the Anglo-American colonists, required the Lenape to move westward, out of present-day New York and New Jersey and into Pennsylvania, then Ohio and beyond. Sporadically they continued to raid European-American settlers from far outside the area.
In 1763, Bill Hickman, Lenape, warned English colonists in the Juniata River region of an impending attack. Many Lenape joined in Pontiac's War, and were numerous among those Native Americans who besieged Pittsburgh.
In April 1763, Teedyuscung was killed when his home was burned. His son Captain Bull responded by attacking settlers from New England who had migrated to the Wyoming Valley of Pennsylvania. The settlers had been sponsored by the Susquehanna Company.
The Lenape were the first Indian tribe to enter into a treaty with the new United States government, with the Treaty of Fort Pitt signed in 1778 during the American Revolutionary War. By then living mostly in the Ohio Country, the Lenape supplied the Continental Army with warriors and scouts in exchange for food supplies and security.
American Revolutionary War
After the signing of the Treaty of Easton in 1758, the Lenape were forced to move west out of their original lands into what is today known as Ohio.
During the French and Indian War, Killbuck had assisted the English against their French enemy. In 1761, Killbuck led an English supply train from Fort Pitt to Fort Sandusky. During the early 1770s, missionaries, including David Zeisberger and John Heckewelder, arrived in the Ohio Country near the Delaware villages. The Moravian Church sent these men to convert the Indigenous peoples to Christianity. The missionaries established several missions, including Gnadenhutten, Lichtenau, and Schoenbrunn. The missionaries pressured Indigenous people to abandon their traditional customs, beliefs, and ways of life, and to replace them with European and Christian ways. Many Lenape did adopt Christianity, but others refused to do so. The Lenape became a divided people during the 1770s, including in Killbuck's family. Killbuck resented his grandfather for allowing the Moravians to remain in the Ohio territory. The Moravians believed in pacifism, and Killbuck believed that every convert to the Moravians deprived the Lenape of a warrior to stop further white settlement of their land.
When The American Revolutionary War began, Killbuck found his people caught between the English in the West and the Americans in the East. At the war's beginning, Killbuck and many Lenape claimed to be neutral. In 1778, Killbuck permitted American soldiers to traverse Lenape territory so that the soldiers could attack Fort Detroit. In return, Killbuck requested that the Americans build a fort near the Natives' major village of Coshocton to provide the Lenape with protection from English attacks. The Americans agreed and built Fort Laurens, which they garrisoned.
At the time of the American Revolutionary War, the Lenape in Ohio were deeply divided over which side, if any, to take in the war. During this time, the Lenape bands were living in numerous villages around their main village of Coshocton, between the western frontier strongholds of the British and the Patriots. The American colonists had Fort Pitt (present-day Pittsburgh) and the British, along with Indian allies, controlled the area of Fort Detroit (in present-day Michigan).
Other Indian communities, particularly the Wyandot, the Mingo, the Shawnee, and the Wolf Clan of the Lenape, favored the British. They believed that by their proclamation of 1763, restricting Anglo-American settlement to east of the Appalachian Mountains, that the British would help them preserve a Native American territory. The British planned to attack Fort Laurens in early 1779 and demanded that the neutral Lenape formally side with the British. Killbuck warned the Americans of the planned attack. His actions helped save the fort, but the Americans abandoned it in August 1779. The Lenape had lost their protectors and, in theory, faced attacks from the British, their native allies, and the American settlers who flooded into the area in the late 1770s and early 1780s after the war.
Some Lenape decided to take up arms against the American colonials and moved to the west, closer to Detroit, where they settled on the Scioto and Sandusky rivers. Those Lenape sympathetic to the United States remained at Coshocton, and Lenape leaders signed the Treaty of Fort Pitt (1778) with the American colonists. Through this treaty, the Lenape hoped to establish the Ohio territory as a state inhabited exclusively by Native Americans, as a subset of the new United States. A third group of Lenape, many of them converted Christian Munsees, lived in several mission villages run by Moravians. Like the other bands, they also spoke the Munsee branch of Lenape, an Algonquian language.
White Eyes, the Lenape chief who had negotiated the treaty, died in 1778. Many Lenape at Coshocton eventually joined the war against the Americans. In response, Colonel Daniel Brodhead led an expedition out of Fort Pitt and on 19 April 1781, destroyed Coshocton. Surviving residents fled to the north. Colonel Brodhead convinced the militia to leave the Lenape at the Moravian mission villages unmolested, since they were unarmed non-combatants.
19th century
In the early 19th century the amateur anthropologist Silas Wood published a book claiming that there were several American Indian tribes that were distinct to Long Island, New York. He collectively called them the Metoac. Modern scientific scholarship has shown that in fact two linguistic groups representing two distinct Algonquian cultural identities lived on the island, not "13 individual tribes" as asserted by Wood. The bands to the west were Lenape. Those to the east were more related culturally to the Algonquian tribes of New England across Long Island Sound, such as the Pequot.Bragdon, Kathleen. The Columbia Guide to American Indians of the Northeast,Columbia University Press (2002). . Wood (and earlier settlers) often misinterpreted the Indian use of place names for identity as indicating their names for "tribes".
Over a period of 176 years, European settlers pushed the Lenape out of the East Coast, through to Ohio and eventually further west. Most members of the Munsee-language branch of the Lenape left the United States after the British were defeated in the American Revolutionary War. Their descendants live on three Indian reserves in Western Ontario, Canada. They are descendants of those Lenape of Ohio Country who sided with the British during the Revolutionary War. The largest reserve is at Moraviantown, Ontario, where the Turtle Phratry settled in 1792 following the war.
Two groups migrated to Oneida County, New York, by 1802, the Brotherton Indians of New Jersey and the Stockbridge-Munsee. After 1819, they removed to Wisconsin, under pressure from state and local governments.
Indiana to Missouri
By the Treaty of St. Mary's, signed October 3, 1818 in St. Mary's, Ohio, the Lenape ceded their lands in Indiana for lands west of the Mississippi and an annuity of $4,000. Over the next few years, the Lenape settled on the James River in Missouri near its confluence with Wilsons Creek, occupying eventually about of the approximately allotted to them. Anderson, Indiana, is named after Chief William Anderson, whose father was Swedish. The Delaware Village in Indiana was called Anderson's Town, while the Delaware Village in Missouri on the James River was often called Anderson's Village. The tribes' cabins and cornfields were spread out along the James River and Wilsons Creek.
Role in western history
Many Delaware participated in the exploration of the western United States, working as trappers with the mountain men, and as guides and hunters for wagon trains. They served as army guides and scouts in events such as the Second Seminole War, Frémont's expeditions, and the conquest of California during the Mexican–American War.Sides, Hampton, Blood and Thunder: An Epic of the American West, Doubleday (2006), pp. 77–80, 94, 101, hardcover, 462 pages, Occasionally, they played surprising roles as Indian allies.
Sagundai accompanied one of Frémont's expeditions as one of his Delaware guides. From California, Fremont needed to communicate with Senator Benton. Sagundai volunteered to carry the message through some 2,200 kilometres of hostile territory. He took many scalps in this adventure, including that of a Comanche with a particularly fine horse, who had outrun both Sagundai and the other Comanche. Sagundai was thrown when his horse stepped into a prairie-dog hole, but avoided the Comanche's lance, shot the warrior dead, and caught his horse and escaped the other Comanche. When Sagundai returned to his own people in present-day Kansas, they celebrated his exploits with the last war and scalp dances of their history, which were held at Edwardsville, Kansas.
Kansas reservation
By the terms of the "Treaty of the James Fork" that was signed on September 24, 1829, and ratified by the U.S. Senate in 1830, the Delaware were forced to move further west. They were granted lands in Indian Territory in exchange for lands on the James Fork of the White River in Missouri. These lands, in what is now Kansas, were west of the Missouri and north of the Kansas River. The main reserve consisted of about with an additional "outlet" strip wide extending to the west.
In 1854, Congress passed the Kansas–Nebraska Act, which created the Territory of Kansas and opened the area for white settlement. It also authorized negotiation with Indian tribes regarding removal. The Delaware were reluctant to negotiate for yet another relocation, but they feared serious trouble with white settlers, and conflict developed.
As the Delaware were not considered United States citizens, they had no access to the courts and no way to enforce their property rights. The United States Army was to enforce their rights to reservation land after the Indian Agent had both posted a public notice warning trespassers and served written notice on them, a process generally considered onerous. Major B.F. Robinson, the Indian Agent appointed in 1855, did his best, but could not control the hundreds of white trespassers who stole stock, cut timber, and built houses and squatted on Delaware lands. By 1860, the Delaware had reached consensus to leave Kansas, which was in accord with the government's Indian removal policy.
Oklahoma
The main body of Lenape arrived in Indian Territory in the 1860s. The two federally recognized tribes of Lenape in Oklahoma are the Delaware Nation, headquartered in Anadarko, Oklahoma, and the Delaware Tribe of Indians, headquartered in Bartlesville, Oklahoma.
The Delaware Tribe of Indians were required to purchase land from the reservation of the Cherokee Nation; they made two payments totaling $438,000. A court dispute followed over whether the sale included rights for the Delaware as citizens within the Cherokee Nation. While the dispute was unsettled, the Curtis Act of 1898 dissolved tribal governments and ordered the allotment of communal tribal lands to individual households of members of tribes. After the lands were allotted in 160-acre (650,000 m2) lots to tribal members in 1907, the government sold "surplus" land to non-Indians.
Texas
Spanish Texas
The Delaware migrated into Texas in the late 18th and early 19th centuries. Elements of the Delaware migrated from Missouri into Texas around 1820, settling around the Red River and Sabine River. The Delaware were peaceful and shared their territory in Spanish Texas with the Caddo and other immigrating bands, as well as with the Spanish and ever-increasing American population. This peaceful trend continued after Mexico won their independence from Spain in 1821.
Mexican Texas
In 1828, Mexican General Manuel de Mier y Terán made an inspection of eastern Mexican Texas and estimated that the region housed between 150 and 200 Delaware families. The Delaware requested Mier y Terán to issue them land grants and send teachers, so they might learn to read and write the Spanish language. The general, impressed with how well they had adapted to the Mexican culture, sent their request to Mexico City, but the authorities never granted the Delaware any legal titles.
The situation changed when the Texas Revolution began in 1835. Texas officials were eager to gain the support of the Texas tribes to their side and offered to recognize their land claims by sending three commissioners to negotiate a treaty. A treaty was agreed upon in February 1836 that mapped the boundaries of Indian lands, but this agreement was never officially ratified by the Texas government.
Texas Republic
The Delaware remained friendly after Texas won its independence. Republic of Texas President Sam Houston favored a policy of peaceful relations with all tribes. He sought the services of the friendly Delaware and, in 1837, enlisted several Delaware to protect the frontier from hostile western tribes. Delaware scouts joined with Texas Rangers as they patrolled the western frontier. Houston also tried to get the Delaware land claims recognized, but his efforts were met only by opposition.
The next Texan President, Mirabeau B. Lamar, completely opposed all Indians. He considered them illegal intruders who threatened the settlers' safety and lands and issued an order for their removal from Texas. The Delaware were sent north of the Red River into Indian Territory, although a few scattered Delawares remained in Texas.
In 1841, Houston was reelected to a second term as president and his peaceful Indian policy was then reinstated. A treaty with the remaining Delaware and a few other tribes was negotiated in 1843 at Fort Bird and the Delaware were enlisted to help him make peace with the Comanche. Delaware scouts and their families were allowed to settle along the Brazos and Bosque rivers in order to influence the Comanche to come to the Texas government for a peace conference. The plan was successful and the Delaware helped bring the Comanches to a treaty council in 1844.
State of Texas
In 1845, the Republic of Texas agreed to annexation by the US to become an American state. The Delaware continued their peaceful policy with the Americans and served as interpreters, scouts, and diplomats for the US Army and the Indian Bureau. In 1847, John Meusebach was assisted by Jim Shaw (a Delaware), in settling the German communities in the Texas Hill Country. For the remainder of his life, Shaw worked as a military scout in West Texas. In 1848, John Conner (Delaware) guided the Chihuahua-El Paso Expedition and was granted a league of land by a special act of the Texas legislature in 1853. The expeditions of the map maker Randolph B. Marcy through West Texas in 1849, 1852, and 1854 were guided by Black Beaver (Delaware).
In 1854, despite the history of peaceful relations, the last of the Texas Delaware were moved by the American government to the Brazos Indian Reservation near Graham, Texas. In 1859 the US forced the remaining Delaware to remove from Texas to a location on the Washita River in the vicinity of present Anadarko, Oklahoma.
20th century
In 1979, the United States Bureau of Indian Affairs revoked the tribal status of the Delaware living among Cherokee in Oklahoma. They began to count the Delaware as Cherokee. The Delaware had this decision overturned in 1996, when they were recognized by the federal government as a separate tribal nation.
21st century
The Cherokee Nation filed suit to overturn the independent federal recognition of the Delaware. The tribe lost federal recognition in a 2004 court ruling in favor of the Cherokee Nation, but regained it on July 28, 2009. After recognition, the tribe reorganized under the Oklahoma Indian Welfare Act. Members approved a constitution and by laws in a May 26, 2009, vote. Jerry Douglas was elected as tribal chief.
In September 2000, the Delaware Nation of Oklahoma received of land in Thornbury Township, Delaware County, Pennsylvania.
In 2004, the Delaware Nation filed suit against Pennsylvania in the United States District Court for the Eastern District of Pennsylvania, seeking to reclaim included in the 1737 Walking Purchase to build a casino. In the suit titled The Delaware Nation v. Commonwealth of Pennsylvania, the plaintiffs, acting as the successor in interest and political continuation of the Lenni Lenape and of Lenape Chief Moses Tunda Tatamy, claimed aboriginal and fee title to the 315 acres of land located in Forks Township in Northampton County, near the town of Tatamy, Pennsylvania. After the Walking Purchase, Chief Tatamy was granted legal permission for him and his family to remain on this parcel of land, known as "Tatamy's Place". In addition to suing the state, the tribe also sued the township, the county and elected officials, including Gov. Ed Rendell.
Although the Walking Purchase forced the Lenape people to Oklahoma, not every Lenape lives in Oklahoma. Many Lenape continue to live in the Northeast. This community of people are the Munsee Lenape, and are currently in the process of applying for state recognition.
The court held that the justness of the extinguishment of aboriginal title is nonjusticiable, including in the case of fraud. Because the extinguishment occurred prior to the passage of the first Indian Nonintercourse Act in 1790, that Act did not avail the Delaware. As a result, the court granted the Commonwealth's motion to dismiss. In its conclusion the court stated: "... we find that the Delaware Nation's aboriginal rights to Tatamy's Place were extinguished in 1737 and that, later, fee title to the land was granted to Chief Tatamy—not to the tribe as a collectivity."
Every four years, the Lenape Nation of Pennsylvania conducts the Rising Nation River Journey, during which the Nation paddles down the Delaware River from Hancock, New York, to Cape May, New Jersey. Along the Journey, the Lenape Nation of Pennsylvania invites the public to sign the Treaty of Renewed Friendship, whose signees agree to recognize the Lenape as the indigenous inhabitants of the Lenapehoking and act as good stewards of the environment.
The Lenape Nation of Pennsylvania Cultural Center in Easton, Pennsylvania, currently exhibits the University of Pennsylvania-hosted exhibit "The Past and Present of the Lenape in Pennsylvania" along with other exhibit items, educational materials, and Nation-made crafts.
The Lenape Nation of Pennsylvania is not recognized by the federal or state authorities, but is currently applying for recognition at the state level.
Contemporary tribes and organizations
Federally recognized tribes
Three Lenape tribes are federally recognized in the United States. They are as follows:
Delaware Nation, Anadarko, Oklahoma
Delaware Tribe of Indians, Bartlesville, Oklahoma
Stockbridge-Munsee Community, Bowler, Wisconsin.
Canadian First Nations
The Lenape who fled United States in the late 18th century settled in what is now Ontario. Canada recognizes three Lenape First Nations with four Indian reserves. They are all located in Southwestern Ontario.
Munsee-Delaware Nation, Canadian reserve near St. Thomas, Ontario.
Moravian of the Thames First Nation, Canadian reserve near Chatham-Kent.
Delaware of Six Nations (at Six Nations of the Grand River), two Canadian reserves near Brantford, Ontario.
State-recognized and unrecognized groups
Three groups who claim descent from Lenape people are state-recognized tribes.
Lenape Indian Tribe of Delaware, Delaware
Nanticoke-Lenni Lenape Tribal Nation, New Jersey
Ramapough Lenape Nation, New Jersey
More than a dozen organizations in Delaware, Maryland, New Jersey, Pennsylvania, Virginia, and elsewhere claim descent from Lenape people and are unrecognized tribes. Unrecognized Lenape organizations in Idaho and Kansas have petitioned the United States federal government for recognition.
Notable historical Lenape people
This includes only Lenape documented in history. Contemporary notable Lenape people are listed in the articles for the appropriate tribe.
Richard C. Adams (1864–1921), Lenape author of collections of traditional narratives, legal advocate for Lenape in Washington, D.C.
Black Beaver (1806–1880), trapper, trader and scout; first inductee into the American Indian Hall of Fame
Buckongahelas (c. 1720–1805), Wolf clan war leader
Nora Thompson Dean (1907–1984), Lenape linguist
Indian Hannah, aka Hannah Freeman (1730–1802); said to be the last of the Lenni-Lenape Indians in Chester County, Pennsylvania
Charles Journeycake (1817–1894), chief of the Wolf clan from 1855 and principal chief from 1861; visited Washington, D.C., 24 times on his tribe's behalf
Sachem Killbuck (Gelelemend), Turtle clan leader
Captain Jacobs (died 1756), war chief
Neolin (18th century), Delaware prophet
Chief Newcomer (Netawatwees, c. 1686–1776), founder the village of Gekelmukpechunk (Newcomerstown), Ohio in the 1760s
Oratam (16th century), sachem of the Hackensack
Captain Pipe (Hopocan), (c. 1725–c. 1818), 18th century chief and member of the Wolf Clan
Pisquetomen (died 1762), chief who assisted Christian Frederick Post in negotiating the Treaty of Easton in 1758
Sassoonan or Allumapees (c. 1675–1747), 18th century chief and member of the Turtle clan
Shingas (fl. 1740–1763)), Turkey clan war leader
Tamanend (c. 1625–c. 1701), leader reported to have negotiated treaty with William Penn, and for whom Tammany Hall was named
Tamaqua (died c. 1770), chief who led peace negotiations following Pontiac's War
Teedyuscung ((1700–1763), leader of the eastern Delawares
Turtleheart, chief and warrior who represented the Delaware Nation at the Treaty of Fort Stanwix in 1768
White Eyes (c. 1730–1778), Turtle clan peace chief who negotiated the Treaty of Fort Pitt
See also
Burial Ridge
Esopus tribe
Hell Town, Ohio (Lenape settlement in Ohio)
Lenape settlements
Mohican
Munsee
Native American tribes in Maryland
Okehocking Tribe
Ramapough Mountain Indians
Shamokin
Unalachtigo Lenape
Walking Purchase
Wappinger
Commentary
Notes
References
Aberg, Alf. The People of New Sweden: Our Colony on the Delaware River, 1638–1655. (Natur & Kultur, 1988). .
Acrelius, Israel. (Translated from Swedish with an introduction and notes by W.M. Reynolds). A History of New Sweden; or, the Settlements on the River Delaware. Ulan Press, 2011. .
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Brinton, Daniel G., C.F. Denke, and Albert Anthony. A Lenâpé – English Dictionary. Biblio Bazaar, 2009. .
Burrows, Edward G. and Mike. Wallace. Gotham: A History of New York City to 1989. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1999. .
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Dalton, Anne. The Lenape of Pennsylvania, New Jersey, New York, Delaware, Wisconsin, Oklahoma, and Ontario (The Library of Native Americans). Powerkids Publishing, 2005. .
De Valinger, Leon, Jr. and C.A. Weslager. Indian Land Sales In Delaware: And A Discussion Of The Family Hunting Territory Question In Delaware. Literary Licensing LLC, 2013. .
Donehoo, George P. A History of the Indian Villages and Place Names in Pennsylvania. Wennawoods Publishing, 1997. .
Dreibelbis, Dana E., "The Use of Microstructural Growth Patterns of Mercenaria Mercenaria to Determine the Prehistoric Seasons of Harvest at Tuckerton Midden, Tuckerton, New Jersey", pp. 33, thesis, Princeton University, 1978.
Frantz, Donald G. and Norma Jean Russell. Blackfoot Dictionary of Stems, Roots, and Affixes. University of Toronto Press, 1995. .
Fur, Gunglong. A Nation of Women: Gender and Colonial Encounters Among the Delaware Indians (Early American Studies). University of Pennsylvania Press, 2012. .
Grumet, Robert S. The Lenapes (Indians of North America). Chelsea House Publishing, 1989. .
Harrington, Mark. A Preliminary Sketch of Lenape Culture. New Era Printing Company, 1913. .
Harrington, Mark. Religion and Ceremonies of the Lenape. Forgotten Books, 2012. .
Harrington, Mark R. Vestiges of Material Culture Among the Canadian Delawares. New Era Printing Company, 1908. .
Harrington, Mark R. The Indians of New Jersey: Dickon Among the Lenapes. Rutgers University Press, 1963. .
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Heckewelder, John G.E. Names Which the Lenni Lenape or Delaware Indians Gave to Rivers, Streams, and Localities (Classic Reprint). Forgotten Books, 2012. .
Hoffecker, Carol E., Richard Waldron, Lorraine E. Williams, and Barbara E. Benson (editors). New Sweden in America. University of Delaware Press, 1995.
Jennings, Francis. Empire of Fortune. W. W. Norton and Company, 1990. .
Jennings, Francis. The Ambiguous Iroquois Empire. W. W. Norton and Company, 1990. .
Jennings, Francis. The History and Culture of Iroquois Diplomacy: An Interdisciplinary Guide to the Treaties of the Six Nations and Their League. Syracuse University Press, 1995. .
Johnson, Amandus. The Swedish Settlements on the Delaware: Their History and Relation to the Indians, Dutch and English, 1638–1664 : With an Account of the South, the New Sweden Company, and the American Companies, and the Efforts of Sweden to Regain the Colony. University of Pennsylvania, 1911. .
Kalter, Susan (editor). Benjamin Franklin, Pennsylvania, and the First Nations: The Treaties of 1736–62. University of Illinois Press, 2006. .
Kraft, Herbert. The Lenape-Delaware Indian Heritage, 10,000 BC to AD 2000. Lenape Books, 2001. .
Kurlansky, Mark. The Big Oyster: History on the Half Shell. Random House Trade Paperbacks, 2007. .
Lindestrom, Peter. (Transcribed and edited by Amandus Johnson of the Swedish Colonial Society, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania). Geographia Americae: With an Account of the Delaware Indians, Based on Surveys and Notes made in 1654–1656 by Peter Lindestrom. Arno Press, 1979. .
Marsh, Dawn G. A Lenape Among the Quakers: The Life of Hannah Freeman. University of Nebraska Press, 2014. .
Middleton, Sam (Chief Mountain, "Neen Ees To-ko). Blackfoot Confederacy, Ancient and Modern. Kainai Chieftainship, 1951.
Mitchell, S. H. Internet Archive The Indian Chief, Journeycake. Philadelphia: American Baptist Publication Society, 1895.
Myers, Albert Cook. William Penn's Own Account of the Lenni Lenape or Delaware Indians. Middle Atlantic Press, 1981. .
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Newcomb, William W. The Culture and Acculturation of the Delaware Indians. University of Michigan, 1956. .
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Repsher, Donald R. "Indian Place Names in Bucks County". As cited in https://web.archive.org/web/20131203011343/http://www.lenapenation.org/main.html. Retrieved March 15, 2012.
Rice, Phillip W. English-Lenape Dictionary. N.P., N.D. See https://web.archive.org/web/20131203011343/http://www.lenapenation.org/main.html.
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Soderlund, Jean R. Lenape Country: Delaware Valley Society before William Penn. Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 2014.
Spady, James. "Colonialism and the Discursive Antecedents of Penn's Treaty with the Indians". Daniel K. Richter and William A. Pencak, eds. Friends and Enemies in Penn's Woods: Indians, Colonists, and the Racial Construction of Pennsylvania. Pennsylvania State University Press, 2004: 18–40.
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Vansina, Jan. Oral Tradition as History. Oxford, 1985. .
Wallace, Paul, A.W. Indians in Pennsylvania (Revised Edition). Pennsylvania Historical and Museum Commission, 2000. .
Wallace, Paul, A.W. Indian Paths of Pennsylvania. Pennsylvania Historical and Museum Commission, 1998. .
Weslager, Clinton, Alfred (C.A). A Brief Account of the Indians of Delaware. Literary Licensing, LLC, 2012. .
Weslager, C.A. A Man and His Ship: Peter Minuit and the Kalmar Nyckel. Middle Atlantic Press, 1990. .
Weslager, C.A. Delaware's Buried Past: A Story of Archeological Adventure. Rutgers University Press, 1968. .
Weslager, C.A. Delaware's Forgotten Folk: The Story of the Moors and Nanticokes. University of Pennsylvania Press, 2006. .
Weslager, C.A. Delaware's Forgotten River: The Story of the Christina. Hambleton Company, 1947. .
Weslager, C.A., and A. R. Dunlap. Dutch Explorers, Traders And Settlers In The Delaware Valley, 1609–1664. Literary Licensing, LLC, 2011. .
Weslager, C.A. Magic Medicines of the Indians. Signet, 1974. .
Weslager, C.A. New Sweden on the Delaware (Middle Atlantic Press, 1988). .
Weslager, C.A. Red Men on the Brandywine (New and Enlarged Edition). Hambleton Company, 1953. .
Weslager, C.A. The Delaware Indians: A History. New Brunswick, NJ: Rutgers University Press, 1972. .
Weslager, C.A. The Delaware Indian Westward Migration: With the Texts of Two Manuscripts, 1821–22, Responding to General Lewis Cass's Inquiries about Lenape Culture and Language. Middle Atlantic Press, 1978. .
Weslager, C.A. The English on the Delaware: 1610–1682. Rutgers University Press, 1967. .
Weslager, C.A. The Nanticoke Indians: A Refugee Tribal Group of Pennsylvania. Pennsylvania Historical and Museum Commission, 1948). .
Weslager, C.A. The Swedes and Dutch at New Castle. Middle Atlantic Press, 1990. .
Zeisberger, David. A Lenâpé-English Dictionary: From An Anonymous [Manuscript] In The Archives Of The Moravian Church At Bethlehem, [Pennsylvania]. Nabu Press, 2012. .
Zeisberger, David. David Zeisberger's History of Northern American Indians (Classic Reprint). Forgotten Books, 2012. .
Zeisberger, David. Grammar of the Language of the Lenni Lenape or Delaware Indians. Forgotten Books, 2012. .
Zeisberger, David. The Diary of David Zeisberger: A Moravian Missionary Among the Ohio Indians, Volume 1. Ulan Press, 2012. .
Zeisberger, David. The Diary of David Zeisberger: A Moravian Missionary Among the Ohio Indians, Volume 2. Ulan Press, 2012. .
Zeisberger, David. Zeisberger's Indian Dictionary: English, German, Iroquois—The Onondaga and Algonquin—The Delaware. Harvard University Press, 1887. . "The Delaware" that Zeisberger translated was Munsee, and not Unami.
Further reading
Adams, Richard Calmit, The Delaware Indians, a brief history, Hope Farm Press (Saugerties, NY 1995) [originally published by Government Printing Office, (Washington, DC 1909)]
Bierhorst, John. The White Deer and Other Stories Told by the Lenape. New York: W. Morrow, 1995.
Brown, James W. and Rita T. Kohn, eds. Long Journey Home . Indiana University Press (2007).
Kraft, Herbert: The Lenape: Archaeology, History, and Ethnography. New Jersey Historical Society, 1987. .
Kraft, Herbert. The Lenape or Delaware Indians: The Original People of New Jersey, Southeastern New York State, Eastern Pennsylvania, northern Delaware and parts of western Connecticut. Lenape Books, 1996. .
O'Meara, John, Delaware-English / English-Delaware dictionary, Toronto: University of Toronto Press (1996) .
Otto, Paul, The Dutch-Munsee Encounter in America: The Struggle for Sovereignty in the Hudson Valley (New York: Berghahn Books, 2006).
Pritchard, Evan T., Native New Yorkers: The Legacy of the Algonquin People of New York. Council Oak Books: San Francisco, 2002, 2007. .
Richter, Conrad, The Light In The Forest.'' New York: 1953.
External links
Delaware Nation, official website
Delaware Tribe of Indians, official website
Stockbridge-Munsee Community, official website
Lenape Center
Museum of Indian Culture
Lenape/English dictionary
Lenape (Southern Unami) Talking Dictionary
Indigenous peoples of the Northeastern Woodlands
Eastern Algonquian peoples
Native American history of Delaware
Native American history of Pennsylvania
Native American history of New Jersey
Native American tribes in Delaware
Native American tribes in New Jersey
Native American tribes in New York (state)
Native American tribes in Pennsylvania
People of New Netherland
First Nations in Ontario
Native American tribes in Indiana
Native American tribes in Ohio
Native American tribes in Wisconsin
Native American tribes in Oklahoma
Algonquian ethnonyms
Native American tribes in Texas
Native Americans in the American Revolution | [
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230271 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yak | Yak | The domestic yak (Bos grunniens), also known as the Tartary ox, grunting ox or hairy cattle is a species of long-haired domesticated cattle found throughout the Himalayan region of the Indian subcontinent, the Tibetan Plateau, Northern Myanmar, Yunnan, Sichuan and as far north as Mongolia and Siberia. It is descended from the wild yak (Bos mutus).
Etymology
The English word "yak" originates from the . In Tibetan and Balti it refers only to the male of the species, the female being called or in Tibetan and in Balti. In English, as in most other languages that have borrowed the word, "yak" is usually used for both sexes, with "bull" or "cow" referring to each sex separately.
Taxonomy
Belonging to the genus Bos, Yaks are related to cattle (Bos primigenius). Mitochondrial DNA analyses to determine the evolutionary history of yaks have been inconclusive.
The yak may have diverged from cattle at any point between one and five million years ago, and there is some suggestion that it may be more closely related to bison than to the other members of its designated genus. Apparent close fossil relatives of the yak, such as Bos baikalensis, have been found in eastern Russia, suggesting a possible route by which yak-like ancestors of the modern American bison could have entered the Americas.
The species was originally designated as Bos grunniens ("grunting ox") by Linnaeus in 1766, but this name is now generally considered to refer only to the domesticated form of the animal, with Bos mutus ("mute ox") being the preferred name for the wild species. Although some authors still consider the wild yak to be a subspecies, Bos grunniens mutus, the ICZN made an official ruling in 2003 permitting the use of the name Bos mutus for wild yaks, and this is now the more common usage.
Except where the wild yak is considered as a subspecies of Bos grunniens, there are no recognised subspecies of yak.
Physical characteristics
Yaks are heavily built animals with bulky frames, sturdy legs, rounded, cloven hooves, and extremely dense, long fur that hangs down lower than the belly. While wild yaks are generally dark, blackish to brown in colouration, domestic yaks can be quite variable in colour, often having patches of rusty brown and cream. They have small ears and wide foreheads, with smooth horns that are generally dark in colour. In males (bulls), the horns sweep out from the sides of the head, and then curve forward. They typically range from in length. The horns of females (cows) are smaller, only in length, and have a more upright shape. Both sexes have a short neck with a pronounced hump over the shoulders, although this is larger and more visible in males. Males weigh , females weigh . Wild yaks can be substantially heavier, bulls reaching weights of up to . Depending on the breed, domestic yak males are high at the withers, while females are high at the withers.
Both sexes have long shaggy hair with a dense woolly undercoat over the chest, flanks, and thighs to insulate them from the cold. Especially in bulls, this may form a long "skirt" that can reach the ground. The tail is long and horselike rather than tufted like the tails of cattle or bison. Domesticated yaks have a wide range of coat colours, with some individuals being white, grey, brown, roan or piebald. The udder in females and the scrotum in males are small and hairy, as protection against the cold. Females have four teats.
Yaks are not known to produce the characteristic lowing (mooing) sound of cattle, but both wild and domestic yaks grunt and squeak, which inspired the scientific name of the domestic yak variant, Bos grunniens (grunting bull). Nikolay Przhevalsky named the wild variant Bos mutus (silent bull) believing that it did not make a sound at all, but it does.
Physiology
Yak physiology is well adapted to high altitudes, having larger lungs and heart than cattle found at lower altitudes, as well as greater capacity for transporting oxygen through their blood, due to the persistence of foetal haemoglobin throughout life. Conversely, yaks have trouble thriving at lower altitudes, and are prone to suffering from heat exhaustion above about . Further adaptations to the cold include a thick layer of subcutaneous fat, and an almost complete lack of functional sweat glands.
Compared with domestic cattle, the rumen of yaks is unusually large, relative to the omasum. This likely allows them to consume greater quantities of low-quality food at a time, and to ferment it longer so as to extract more nutrients. Yak consume the equivalent of 1% of their body weight daily while cattle require 3% to maintain condition.
Reproduction and life history
Yaks mate in the summer, typically between July and September, depending on the local environment. For the remainder of the year, many bulls wander in small bachelor groups away from the large herds, but, as the rut approaches, they become aggressive and regularly fight among each other to establish dominance. In addition to non-violent threat displays, bellowing, and scraping the ground with their horns, bull yaks also compete more directly, repeatedly charging at each other with heads lowered or sparring with their horns. Like bison, but unlike cattle, males wallow in dry soil during the rut, often while scent-marking with urine or dung. Females enter oestrus up to four times a year, and females are receptive only for a few hours in each cycle.
Gestation lasts between 257 and 270 days, so that the young are born between May and June, and results in the birth of a single calf. The cow finds a secluded spot to give birth, but the calf is able to walk within about ten minutes of birth, and the pair soon rejoin the herd. Females of both the wild and domestic forms typically give birth only once every other year, although more frequent births are possible if the food supply is good.
Calves are weaned at one year and become independent shortly thereafter. Wild calves are initially brown in color, and only later develop the darker adult hair. Females generally give birth for the first time at three or four years of age, and reach their peak reproductive fitness at around six years. Yaks may live for more than twenty years in domestication or captivity, although it is likely that this may be somewhat shorter in the wild.
Husbandry
Domesticated yaks have been kept for thousands of years, primarily for their milk, fibre and meat, and as beasts of burden. Their dried droppings are an important fuel, used all over Tibet, and are often the only fuel available on the high treeless Tibetan Plateau. Yaks transport goods across mountain passes for local farmers and traders and are an attraction for climbing and trekking expeditions: "Only one thing makes it hard to use yaks for long journeys in barren regions. They will not eat grain, which could be carried on the journey. They will starve unless they can be brought to a place where there is grass." They also are used to draw ploughs. Yak's milk is often processed to a cheese called chhurpi in Tibetan and Nepali languages, and byaslag in Mongolia. Butter made from yaks' milk is an ingredient of the butter tea that Tibetans consume in large quantities, and is also used in lamps and made into butter sculptures used in religious festivities.
Outside the Himalayas
Small numbers of herds can be found in the United States and Canada, as well as New Zealand and some parts of Europe. Yaks have generated interest outside the Himalayas as a commercial crop and by cattle breeders. The main interest of North American yak breeders is lean meat production by "hybridizing" with other cattle, followed by yak fiber wool production.
Research
The Indian government established a dedicated centre for research into yak husbandry, the ICAR-National Research Centre on Yak, in 1989. It is located at Dirang, Arunachal Pradesh, and maintains a yak farm in the Nyukmadung area at an altitude of above MSL.
Yak breeding and hybridization
In Nepal, Tibet and Mongolia, domestic cattle are crossbred with yaks. This gives rise to the infertile male dzo མཛོ། as well as fertile females known as མཛོ་མོ། or , which may be crossed again with cattle. The "Dwarf Lulu" breed, "the only Bos primigenius taurus type of cattle in Nepal" has been tested for DNA markers and found to be a mixture of both taurine and zebu types of cattle (B. p. taurus and B. p. indicus) with yak. According to the International Veterinary Information Service, the low productivity of second generation cattle-yak crosses makes them suitable only as meat animals.
Crosses between yaks and domestic cattle (Bos primigenius taurus) have been recorded in Chinese literature for at least 2,000 years. Successful crosses have also been recorded between yak and American bison, gaur, and banteng, generally with similar results to those produced with domestic cattle.
Linguistic evidence for yak domestication
Jacques et al. (2021) show that most elaborate yak-related terminologies are found within Tibetic and Gyalrongic languages. Both branches also have native terms for yak-cattle hybrids, suggesting that Tibetic and Gyalrongic speakers may have independently cross-bred yaks and cattle, predating the proto-Gyalrongic split (3221 [2169-4319] BP) from Tibeto-Gyalrongic.
Customs
Blood drinking festival
In Nepal, there is an annual festival held to drink fresh blood of yak in a belief that it cures varieties of disease such as gastritis, jaundice and body sprain. The fresh blood is extracted from the neck of a yak without killing it. The cut is healed after the ceremony is over. The ritual is believed to be originated in Tibet and Mustang.
Yak sports
In parts of Tibet and Karakorum, yak racing is a form of entertainment at traditional festivals and is considered an important part of their culture. More recently, sports involving domesticated yaks, such as yak skiing or yak polo, are being marketed as tourist attractions in South Asian countries, including in Gilgit-Baltistan, Pakistan.
Gallery
See also
Yakalo
References
External links
International Yak Association (IYAK)
European Yak Association (EYAK)
Article on Yak breeds in FAO archives
Yaks: The Official Animal of Tibet
Yak Genome Database
Livestock
Domesticated animals
Pack animals
Mammals of Central Asia
Mammals of East Asia
Mammals of Siberia
Mammals of South Asia
Mammals of Tibet
Fauna of the Himalayas
domestic yak
Taxa named by Carl Linnaeus | [
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230272 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zo | Zo | Zo or ZO may refer to:
Arts and entertainment
Kamen Rider ZO, a 1993 Japanese tokusatsu movie
Zo (album), an album by jazz pianist Matthew Shipp
Ethnography
Zo people, a group of indigenous tribe in Burma and northeast India
Zou people, one of those tribes
Zo language, the language spoken by the Zo people
Zogam or Zoland, the land of Zo people, also Chin State, Mizoram State, Manipur State, and Nagaland
People
Alonzo Mourning (born 1970), American retired National Basketball Association player
Lorenzo Charles (1963-2011), American basketball player
Achille Zo (1826–1901), French painter
Mat Zo (born 1990), UK trance artist
Zo d'Axa, (1864–1930), French journalist, writer, and adventurer
Lonzo Ball, (born 1997), National Basketball Association player for the Los Angeles Lakers
Other uses
Zo (bot), artificial intelligence chatbot developed by Microsoft
ZO sex-determination system, in biology
Renault Zo, a car introduced in 1998
Zone occupée, the partition of France occupied by German troops during the initial years of World War II
See also
Zo'é language, a language originating in Brazil
Dzo, a male hybrid of a yak and a domesticated cow
Zoo (disambiguation)
Zou (disambiguation)
Language and nationality disambiguation pages | [
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230281 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fan%20Noli | Fan Noli | Theofan Stilian Noli, known as Fan Noli (6 January 1882 – 13 March 1965), was an Albanian writer, scholar, diplomat, politician, historian, orator, Archbishop, Metropolitan and founder of the Orthodox Church of Albania and the Albanian Orthodox Archdiocese in America who served as Prime Minister and regent of Albania in 1924 during the June Revolution.
Fan Noli is venerated in Albania as a champion of literature, history, theology, diplomacy, journalism, music, national unity and ecumenism. He played an important role in the consolidation of Albanian as the national language of Albania with numerous translations of world literature masterpieces. He also wrote extensively in English: as a scholar and author of a series of publications on Skanderbeg, Shakespeare, Beethoven, religious texts and translations. He produced a translation of the New Testament in English, The New Testament of our Lord and Savior Jesus Christ from the approved Greek text of the Church of Constantinople and the Church of Greece, published in 1961.
Noli earned degrees at Harvard (1912), the New England Conservatory of Music (1938), and finally his Ph.D. from Boston University (1945). He was ordained a priest in 1908, establishing thereby the Albanian Church and elevating the Albanian language to ecclesiastic use. He briefly resided in Albania after the 1912 declaration of independence. After World War I, Noli led the diplomatic efforts for the reunification of Albania and received the support of US President Woodrow Wilson. Later he pursued a diplomatic-political career in Albania, successfully leading the Albanian bid for membership in the League of Nations.
A respected figure who remained critical of corruption and injustice in the Albanian government, Fan Noli was asked to lead the 1924 June Revolution. He then served as prime minister until his revolutionary government was overthrown by Ahmet Zogu. He was exiled to Italy and permanently settled in the United States in the 1930s, acquiring US citizenship and agreeing to end his political involvement. He spent the rest of his life as an academician, religious leader, and writer.
Background
Fan Noli was born Theofanis Stylianos Mavromatis 1882 in İbriktepe, a small village situated in the Thracian Ottoman Vilayet of Adrianople originally settled by Albanians from Qyteza, in the County of Korçë and known to the townspeople as such at the time. He was an Albanian of the Eastern Orthodox faith. Noli was a descendant of these Orthodox Christian Albanian settlers who fled what is today southern Albania and resettled in Thrace in areas that had been depopulated due to regional conflicts. During his youth, Noli received his education from Greek elementary and secondary schools. As a young man, Noli wandered throughout the Mediterranean Basin, living in Athens in Greece, Alexandria in Egypt and Odessa in Russia, and supported himself as an actor and translator. As well as his native Albanian, he spoke many languages such as Greek, English, French, Turkish, and Arabic. Having been a teacher in Athens, Noli went abroad to Egypt in 1903 and worked as a teacher in Greek schools of Alexandria using the name Theofanis Mavromatis and did not espouse Albanian national sentiments. Later in his work as a teacher and in Egyptian theater Noli embraced Albanian national sentiments. Through his contacts with the Albanian expatriate movement, he became an ardent supporter of his country's nationalist movement and moved to the United States in 1906. He first worked in Buffalo, New York, in a lumber mill and then moved to Boston, Massachusetts, and worked as an operator on a machine which stamped labels on cans. The Young Turks (CUP) had a hostile view of Albanian leaders such as Fan Noli who were doing political activities with the assistance of outside powers.
Hudson Incident
The earliest Orthodox Christian Albanian immigrants to Boston were communicants of the Greek Orthodox Church, the leadership of which was vehemently opposed to the Albanian nationalist cause. When Kristaq Dishnica, a young factory worker who had died of influenza, was refused burial on the grounds that, as an Orthodox Christian who identified as an Albanian, he was therefore automatically excommunicated from the Greek Orthodox Church, Fan Noli and a group of Albanian émigrés in New England set about laying the groundwork for an independent, autocephalous Albanian Orthodox Church. The event, which came to be known as the Hudson Incident, was a seminal moment in the establishment of an independent Albanian Orthodox Christian religious consciousness. Noli, the new church's first clergyman, was ordained as a priest in 1908 by Archbishop Platon (Rozhdestvensky) of the Russian Church in the United States. By achieving Patriarchal recognition for the autocephaly of the Orthodox Church of Albania and the full translation of the Orthodox liturgy from the original Greek text into Tosk Albanian, Noli aimed to peacefully neutralize and dismantle the ideological platform of Greek irredentism promoted by reactionaries within the Orthodox Church in Albania and to defend the right of Orthodox Christian Albanians to coexist with their Greek neighbors in a secular Republic immune to the sectarian Megali Idea. Noli was a staunch supporter of Albanian patriotic unity and a separation of religion from the state and moreover, considered it important for religious office to be held by clergy fluent in Albanian and possessing Albanian citizenship.
Political and Religious activities
In 1908, Noli began studying at Harvard, completing his Bachelor of Arts degree in 1912. During April 1912 Vatra (Hearth) an Albanian American diaspora organisation was founded with Noli and Faik Konica serving as its leaders and advocating for Albanian sociopolitical self determination with the Ottoman Empire. He returned to Europe to promote Albanian independence, setting foot in Albania for the first time in 1913. Noli returned to the United States during World War I, serving as head of the Vatra organization, which effectively made him leader of the Albanian diaspora. His diplomatic efforts in the United States and Geneva won the support of President Woodrow Wilson for an independent Albania and, in 1920, earned the new national membership in the fledgling League of Nations. Though Albania had already declared its independence in 1912, membership in the League of Nations provided the country with the international recognition it had failed to obtain until then.
In 1921, Noli entered the Albanian Parliament as a representative of the liberal pro-British "People's Party" (), the chief liberal movement in the country. The other parties were the conservative pro-Italian "Progressive Party" () founded by Mehdi Frashëri and led by Ahmet Zogu, and "Popular Party" () of Xhafer Ypi. The conservatives of Zogu would dominate the political scene. A Congress of Berat in 1922 was convened to formally lay the foundations of an Albanian Orthodox Church which consecrated Fan Noli as Bishop of Korçë and primate of all Albania while the establishment of the church was seen as important for maintaining Albanian national unity.
Noli served briefly as Foreign Minister in the government of Xhafer Ypi. This was a period of intense turmoil in the country between the liberals and the conservatives. After a botched assassination attempt against Zogu, the conservatives revenged themselves by assassinating another popular liberal politician, Avni Rustemi. Noli's speech at Rustemi's funeral was so powerful that liberal supporters rose up against Zogu and forced him to flee to Yugoslavia (March 1924). Zogu was succeeded briefly by his father-in-law, Shefqet Vërlaci, and by the liberal politician Iliaz Vrioni; Noli was named prime minister and regent on 17 July 1924.
Downfall and exile
Despite his efforts to reform the country, Noli's "Twenty Point Program" was unpopular, and his government was overthrown by groups loyal to Zogu on Christmas Eve of that year. Two weeks later, Zogu returned to Albania, and Noli fled to Italy under sentence of death.
Conscious of his fragile position, Zogu took drastic measures to consolidate his reassert in power. By the end of winter, two of the main leaders of the opposition, Bajram Curri and Luigj Gurakuqi, were assassinated, while others were imprisoned.
Noli founded the "National
Committee" () also known as KONARE in Vienna. The committee published the periodical called "National Freedom" (). Some of the early Albanian communists as Halim Xhelo or Riza Cerova would start their publishing activities here. The committee aimed in overthrowing Zogu and his cast and restoring democracy. Despite the efforts, the committee's access and influence in Albania would be limited. With the intervention of Kosta Boshnjaku, an old communist and KONARE member, the organization would receive unconditioned monetary support from the Comintern. Also Noli and Boshnjaku would make possible for exile members of the Committee for the National Defence of Kosovo (outlawed by Zogu) to get the same financial support.
In 1928, KONARE changed its name to "Committee of National Liberation" (). Meanwhile, in Albania, after three years of republican regime, the "National Council" declared Albania a Constitutional Monarchy, and Ahmet Zogu became king.
Noli moved back to the United States in 1932 and formed a republican opposition to Zogu, who had since proclaimed himself "King Zog I". Over the next years, he continued his education, studying and later teaching Byzantine music, and continued developing and promoting the autocephalous Albanian Orthodox Church he had helped to found. While in exile, he briefly allied with King Zog, who fled Albania before the invading Italians in 1939, but was unable to set a firm anti-Axis, anti-Communist front.
After the war, Noli established some ties with the communist government of Enver Hoxha, which seized power in 1944. He unsuccessfully urged the U.S. government to recognize the regime, but Hoxha's increasing persecution of all religions prevented Noli's church from maintaining ties with the Orthodox hierarchy in Albania. Despite the Hoxha regime's anticlerical bent, Noli's ardent Albanian nationalism brought the bishop to the attention of the U.S. Federal Bureau of Investigation. The FBI's Boston office kept the bishop under investigation for more than a decade with no final outcome to the probe.
In 1945, Fan S. Noli received a doctor's degree (Ph.D.) in history from Boston University, writing a dissertation on Skanderbeg. In the meantime, he also conducted research at Boston University Music Department, publishing a biography on Ludwig van Beethoven. He also composed a one-movement symphony called Scanderbeg in 1947. Toward the end of his life, Noli retired to Fort Lauderdale, Florida, where he died in 1965.
Fan Noli is interred in Forest Hills Cemetery, situated in the southern part of Boston's Jamaica Plain neighborhood.
The Albanian Orthodox Archdiocese in America founded by Noli went on to join the Orthodox Church in America, today led by Metropolitan Tikhon Mollard as the Albanian Archdiocese. Until recently overseen by Archbishop Nikon of Boston and the Very Reverend Arthur E. Liolin, the Albanian Archdiocese of the Orthodox Church in America is currently headed by Interim Chancellor Igumen Nikodhim Preston. It consists of eleven urban and suburban parishes situated primarily in the urban centers of the Northeastern United States and the Midwestern United States. The Autocephalous Orthodox Church of Albania which Noli served in Albania, Kisha Orthodhokse Autoqefale e Shqipërisë, is presided over by Archbishop Anastasios of Albania, headquartered in the Albanian capital city of Tirana and a member of the World Council of Churches. In addition, the Greek Orthodox Archdiocese of America administers two Albanian Orthodox parishes in Boston and Chicago. All Albanian Orthodox parishes are today in full communion with one another and with the broader worldwide body of the Orthodox Church and fully recognized by the Ecumenical Patriarchate of Constantinople.
Writing in his diary two days after Noli's death, Albanian leader Enver Hoxha gave his analysis of Noli's work:
Fan S. Noli is depicted on the obverse of the Albanian 100 lekë banknote issued in 1996. It remained in use until 2008 when it was replaced by a coin.
Poems
The following poems were written by Fan Noli:
Hymni i Flamurit
Thomsoni dhe Kuçedra
Jepni për Nënën
Moisiu në mal
Marshi i Krishtit
Krishti me kamçikun
Shën Pjetrin në Mangall
Marshi i Barabbajt
Marshi i Kryqësmit
Kirenari
Kryqësmi
Kënga e Salep-Sulltanit
Syrgjyn-vdekur
Shpell' e Dragobisë
Rent, or Marathonomak!
Anës lumejve
Plak, topall dhe ashik
Sofokliu
Tallja përpara Kryqit
Sulltani dhe kabineti
Saga e Sermajesë
Lidhje e paçkëputur
Çepelitja
Vdekja e Sulltanit
See also
History of Albania
Religion in Albania
Solomon Goldstein
References
Citations
Sources
Further reading
George Castriota Scanderbeg, by Fan Noli
Beethoven and the French Revolution by Noli, Fan Stylian
External links
1882 births
1965 deaths
20th-century Eastern Orthodox bishops
Albanians of the Ottoman Empire
Eastern Orthodox Christians from Albania
Primates of the Albanian Orthodox Church
Prime Ministers of Albania
Albanian revolutionaries
English–Albanian translators
Albanian historians
Harvard University alumni
Albanian expatriates in Ukraine
Albanian emigrants to the United States
People from İbriktepe
Albanian diplomats
20th-century translators
20th-century Albanian politicians
Translators of the Bible into English
Albanian expatriates in Egypt
20th-century historians
Spanish–Albanian translators
Albanian expatriates in Austria
Albanian male poets
19th-century male writers
20th-century male writers | [
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230283 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wire%20bonding | Wire bonding | Wire bonding is the method of making interconnections between an integrated circuit (IC) or other semiconductor device and its packaging during semiconductor device fabrication. Although less common, wire bonding can be used to connect an IC to other electronics or to connect from one printed circuit board (PCB) to another. Wire bonding is generally considered the most cost-effective and flexible interconnect technology and is used to assemble the vast majority of semiconductor packages. Wire bonding can be used at frequencies above 100 GHz.
Materials
Bondwires usually consist of one of the following materials:
Aluminum
Copper
Silver
Gold
Wire diameters start from under 10 μm and can be up to several hundred micrometres for high-powered applications.
The wire bonding industry is transitioning from gold to copper. This change has been instigated by the rising cost of gold and the comparatively stable, and much lower, cost of copper. While possessing higher thermal and electrical conductivity than gold, copper had previously been seen as less reliable due to its hardness and susceptibility to corrosion. By 2015, it is expected that more than a third of all wire bonding machines in use will be set up for copper.
Copper wire has become one of the preferred materials for wire bonding interconnects in many semiconductor and microelectronic applications. Copper is used for fine wire ball bonding in sizes from up to . Copper wire has the ability of being used at smaller diameters providing the same performance as gold without the high material cost.
Copper wire up to can be successfully wedge bonded. Large diameter copper wire can and does replace aluminum wire where high current carrying capacity is needed or where there are problems with complex geometry. Annealing and process steps used by manufacturers enhance the ability to use large diameter copper wire to wedge bond to silicon without damage occurring to the die.
Copper wire does pose some challenges in that it is harder than both gold and aluminum, so bonding parameters must be kept under tight control. The formation of oxides is inherent with this material, so storage and shelf life are issues that must be considered. Special packaging is required in order to protect copper wire and achieve a longer shelf life. Palladium coated copper wire is a common alternative which has shown significant resistance to corrosion, albeit at a higher hardness than pure copper and a greater price, though still less than gold. During the fabrication of wire bonds, copper wire, as well as its plated varieties, must be worked in the presence of forming gas [95% nitrogen and 5% hydrogen] or a similar anoxic gas in order to prevent corrosion. A method for coping with copper's relative hardness is the use of high purity [5N+] varieties.
Pure gold wire doped with controlled amounts of beryllium and other elements is normally used for ball bonding. This process brings together the two materials that are to be bonded using heat, pressure and ultrasonic energy referred to as thermosonic bonding. The most common approach in thermosonic bonding is to ball-bond to the chip, then stitch-bond to the substrate. Very tight controls during processing enhance looping characteristics and eliminate sagging.
Junction size, bond strength and conductivity requirements typically determine the most suitable wire size for a specific wire bonding application. Typical manufacturers make gold wire in diameters from and larger. Production tolerance on gold wire diameter is +/-3%.
Alloyed aluminum wires are generally preferred to pure aluminum wire except in high-current devices because of greater drawing ease to fine sizes and higher pull-test strengths in finished devices. Pure aluminum and 0.5% magnesium-aluminum are most commonly used in sizes larger than .
All-aluminum systems in semiconductor fabrication eliminate the "purple plague" (brittle gold-aluminum intermetallic compound) sometimes associated with pure gold bonding wire. Aluminum is particularly suitable for thermosonic bonding.
In order to assure that high quality bonds can be obtained at high production speeds, special controls are used in the manufacture of 1% silicon-aluminum wire. One of the most important characteristics of high grade bonding wire of this type is homogeneity of the alloy system. Homogeneity is given special attention during the manufacturing process. Microscopic checks of the alloy structure of finished lots of 1% silicon-aluminum wire are performed routinely. Processing also is carried out under conditions which yield the ultimate in surface cleanliness and smooth finish and permits entirely snag-free de-reeling.
Attachment techniques
The main classes of wire bonding:
Ball bonding
Wedge bonding
Compliant bonding
Ball bonding usually is restricted to gold and copper wire and usually requires heat. For wedge bonding, only gold wire requires heat. Wedge bonding can use large diameter wires or wire ribbons for power electronics application. Ball bonding is limited to small diameter wires, suitable for interconnect application.
In either type of wire bonding, the wire is attached at both ends using a combination of downward pressure, ultrasonic energy, and in some cases heat, to make a weld. Heat is used to make the metal softer. The correct combination of temperature and ultrasonic energy is used in order to maximize the reliability and strength of a wire bond. If heat and ultrasonic energy is used, the process is called thermosonic bonding.
In wedge bonding, the wire must be drawn in a straight line according to the first bond. This slows down the process due to time needed for tool alignment. Ball bonding, however, creates its first bond in a ball shape with the wire sticking out at the top, having no directional preference. Thus, the wire can be drawn in any direction, making it a faster process.
Compliant bonding transmits heat and pressure through a compliant or indentable aluminum tape and therefore is applicable in bonding gold wires and the beam leads that have been electroformed to the silicon integrated circuit (known as the beam leaded integrated circuit).
Manufacturing and reliability challenges
There are multiple challenges when it comes to wire bond manufacturing and reliability. These challenges tend of be a function of several parameters such as the material systems, bonding parameters, and use environment. Different wire bond-bond pad metal systems such as Aluminum-Aluminum (Al-Al), Gold-Aluminum (Au-Al), and Copper-Aluminum (Cu-Al) require different manufacturing parameters and behave differently under the same use environments.
Wire bond manufacturing
Much work has been done to characterize various metal systems, review critical manufacturing parameters, and identify typical reliability issues that occur in wire bonding. When it comes to material selection, the application and use environment will dictate the metal system. Often the electrical properties, mechanical properties, and cost are taken into account when making a decision. For example, a high current device for a space application might require a large diameter aluminum wire bond in a hermetically sealed ceramic package. If cost is a large constraint, then avoiding gold wire bonds may be a necessity. Some recent work has been done to look at copper wire bonds in automotive applications. This is only a small sampling, as there is a vast body of work reviewing and testing what material systems work best in different applications.
From a manufacturing perspective, the bonding parameters play a critical role in bond formation and bond quality. Parameters such bond force, ultrasonic energy, temperature, and loop geometry, to name a few, can have a significant effect on bond quality. There are various wire bonding techniques (thermosonic bonding, ultrasonic bonding, thermocompression bonding) and types of wire bonds (ball bonding, wedge bonding) that affect susceptibility to manufacturing defects and reliability issues. Certain materials and wire diameters are more practical for fine pitch or complex layouts. The bond pad also plays an important role as the metallization and barrier layer(s) stackup will impact the bond formation.
Typical failure modes that result from poor bond quality and manufacturing defects include: fracture at the ball bond neck, heel cracking (wedge bonds), pad liftoff, pad peel, overcompression, and improper intermetallic formation. A combination of wire bond pull/shear testing, nondestructive testing, and destructive physical analysis (DPA) can be used to screen manufacturing and quality issues.
Wire bond reliability
While wirebond manufacturing tends to focus on bond quality, it often does not account for wearout mechanisms related to wire bond reliability. In this case, an understanding of the application and use environment can help prevent reliability issues. Common examples of environments that lead to wire bond failures include elevated temperature, humidity, and temperature cycling.
Under elevated temperatures, excessive intermetallics (IMC) growth can create brittle points of fracture. Much work that has been done to characterize the intermetallic formation and aging for various metal systems. This not a problem in metal systems where the wire bond and bond pad are the same material such as Al-Al. This does become a concern in dissimilar metal systems. One of the most well known examples is the brittle intermetallics formed in gold-aluminum IMCs such as purple plague. Additionally, diffusion related issues, such as Kirkendall voiding and Horsting voiding, can also lead to wire bond failures.
Under elevated temperature and humidity environments, corrosion can be a concern. This is most common in Au-Al metal systems and is driven by galvanic corrosion. The presence of halides such as chlorine can accelerate this behavior. This Au-Al corrosion is often characterized with Peck's law for temperature and humidity. This is not as common in other metal systems.
Under temperature cycling, thermomechanical stress is generated in the wire bond as a result of coefficient of thermal expansion (CTE) mismatch between the epoxy molding compound (EMC), the leadframe, the die, the die adhesive, and the wire bond. This leads to low cycle fatigue due to shear or tensile stresses in the wire bond. Various fatigue models have been used to predict the fatigue life of wire bonds under such conditions.
Proper understanding of the use environment and metal systems are often the most important factors for increasing wire bond reliability.
Testing
While there are some wire bond pull and shear testing techniques, these tend to be applicable for manufacturing quality rather than reliability. They are often monotonic overstress techniques, where peak force and fracture location are the critical outputs. In this case the damage is plasticity dominated, and does not reflect some wearout mechanisms that might be seen under environmental conditions.
Wire pull testing applies an upward force under the wire, effectively pulling it away from the substrate or die. The purpose of the test is as MIL-STD-883 2011.9 describes it: "To measure bond strengths, evaluate bond strength distributions, or determine compliance with specified bond strength requirements". A wire can be pulled to destruction, but there are also non-destructive variants whereby one tests whether the wire can withstand a certain force. Non-destructive test methods are typically used for 100% testing of safety critical, high quality and high cost products, avoiding damage to the acceptable wired bonds tested.
The term wire pull usually refers to the act of pulling a wire with a hook mounted on a pull sensor on a bond tester. However, to promote certain failure modes, wires can be cut and then pulled by tweezers, also mounted on a pull sensor on a bond tester. Usually wires up to 75 μm diameter (3 mil) are classified as thin wire. Beyond that size, we speak about thick wire testing.
See also
Purple plague (intermetallic)
Kirkendall effect
Ball Bonding
Wedge bonding
Thermosonic Bonding
Pull off test
References
Resources
Amkor Copper (Cu) Wirebonding
J-Devices Copper (Cu) Wirebonding
Amkor Silver (Ag) Wirebonding
Semiconductor device fabrication
Packaging (microfabrication)
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230289 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/WinMX | WinMX | WinMX (Windows Music Exchange) is a freeware peer-to-peer file sharing program authored in 2000 by Kevin Hearn (president of Frontcode Technologies) in Windsor, Ontario (Canada). According to one study, it was the number one source for online music in 2005 with an estimated 2.1 million users. Frontcode Technologies itself abandoned development of WinMX in September 2005, but developers brought the service back online within a few days by releasing patches. WinMX continues to be used by a community of enthusiasts.
Kevin Hearn released Tixati in 2009 and Fopnu in 2017. Fopnu is a client and a network with some similarities to WinMX. In 2021, he released DarkMX, a serverless file sharing client with built-in privacy preserving features and a built-in TOR client, as well as the ability to host a .onion file-sharing that is reachable via the TOR Browser.
History
Beginnings
WinMX began its life as an OpenNAP client capable of connecting to several servers simultaneously.
Frontcode Technologies later created a proprietary protocol, termed WinMX Peer Network Protocol (WPNP), which was used starting with WinMX 2 in May 2001. Frontcode Technologies had operated several peer cache servers to aid WPNP network operation.
Downloads can be very fast for popular songs since the user can run a "multi-point download" that simultaneously downloads the same file in small pieces from several users. The WinMX program houses a few built-in features such as bandwidth monitoring, short messaging, and hosting chatrooms and functions as an OpenNap client. Users could negotiate an exchange of their files with the help of the short messaging system or chat. After the transfers start, each has the option of selecting bandwidth for the other to make sure both transfers end more or less at the same time.
Closure of Frontcode Technologies
On September 13, 2005, Frontcode Technologies received a cease and desist letter from the Recording Industry Association of America demanding that they either implement filters to make it impossible for users to download copyrighted material from WinMX, or shut down. On September 21, 2005, the WinMX homepage and Frontcode Technologies''' peer cache servers (central servers essential for the WinMX Peer Network) went offline.
Resurrection
By September 23, 2005, users were able to download two unofficial patches for WinMX from two unrelated websites. These patches worked by modifying the DNS lookup WinMX uses to find peer caches. When WinMX tries to find the Frontcode Technologies' peer caches, it is instead directed to look up one of the new peer caches set up by the WinMX communities.
In 2008 a new patch was released to coincide with the third anniversary of the two previous patches' release date. Known as the "WinMX Community Patch", it was created through the joint effort of an independent, third-party programmer and the cooperative input and testing from the two communities. Supported and available for download by both groups, it is intended to replace the previous patches being used, allowing all users to once again connect to a single set of peer caches, unifying all users for the first time since the official closure of WinMX in 2005.
Network attacks
Commencing in May 2011, the WinMX network had been under protocol level attack from a disgruntled community developer (program hacker) who disagreed with those operating the network support infrastructure (user support forums & peer cache operators).
As a result of those attacks the WPNP network searches would return random query results (alongside relevant results) that were unrelated to the specific term searched for, and also users were unable to receive a full chat room list.
A web based WinMX Chat Room List was set up for users to retrieve a full room list, and also offered the ability to manually add chat rooms to the web list. In addition to offering a live list of chat rooms, it also offered a one click solution for joining chat rooms in WinMX via the web page itself with the WinMX Link Handler.
As mentioned above, the protocol level attacks have ceased and the network has been operating normally albeit with a reduction in network users; it's currently too early to assess the percentage of "lost" users but it most certainly exceeds several thousand and may act as a warning for other P2P networks that have protocol weaknesses that can be exploited.
Tixati and Fopnu
In 2009, Kevin Hearn released Tixati, an ad-free freeware P2P file sharing program based on the BitTorrent protocol, enhanced with a channels function where users can chat, share lists of web and media links, stream audio and video media, with all communications being encrypted.
In 2017, Kevin Hearn released Fopnu, a client and network with some similarities to WinMX. Fopnu is a decentralized network with the latest advances in P2P technology, pure UDP and with all communications being encrypted. The ad-free freeware client includes chat rooms, contacts list (with private messages), search windows, browsing of a contact's library and creation of contacts groups (to control access to your library). Sharing massive amounts of files is much easier (than creating a lot of Torrent files) and has very little overhead.
Function
There is an upper limit to the size of files that can be shared : 2 GB. This design decision was to maintain Windows 98 support. The program runs also on Windows XP, Vista, 7, 8 and 10, as long as the relevant Microsoft C++ run time libraries are present. It runs on Linux under Wine.
To get started, users connect to the WinMX Peer Network'' (WPN) either as a primary or secondary user. A majority of the functions on the WPN are available to both users, but primary users need to spend more bandwidth, tend to have better connections, and have the ability to host chat rooms. Secondary users use very little idle bandwidth, but their prolonged connection to the network is not always stable.
Sharing files in WinMX
WinMX users can share nearly every type of file using the network. The most common file types such as audio, video, images, and archive files are available by default, and all others could be configured in the program's settings. WinMX has a file-size restriction limiting shared files to 2GB in size. A user can also only share 5,000 visible files for a Primary connection (unknown if other files would be shared but not listed), and 3,000 files (maximum sent to the primary) for a Secondary connection. These limitations do not apply on OpenNap servers.
Searching for files
Users can search for almost any file in WinMX. When a user sends out a search, the search is spread throughout the network. If a file is found, the hash of the file along with IP address and Primary node details of the user with the file is sent to the user who made the search. Searches can also be made with hashes instead of words and numbers.
Chatting
WinMX allows a person to host chatrooms with its built-in Chat function. There are some rooms reserved for chat, some for trading files, and some which allow both. At its height WinMX typically had around 1,500 to 2,000 chatrooms at any given time in a multitude of languages. WinMX also allows its users to message each other using its Private Message function regardless of whether or not they were in the same chat room or are downloading from/uploading to each other. However, settings allow any user to block messages from users if they choose. It is also possible to host chatrooms in languages other than English, such as Japanese, German, French and Italian.
OpenNap
WinMX started out as a Peer-to-Peer program that connected to OpenNap servers. It can still connect to many OpenNap servers. These servers enable users to connect to a wider userbase and also receive many more search results. Two advantages of running OpenNap is the ability to have a permanent list of friends called a hotlist and the ability to display an unlimited number of files for sharing.
Translations
WinMX is natively English, but language files can be installed to translate menus into the following languages: Chinese, Dutch, Finnish, French, German, Greek, Hungarian, Italian, Japanese, Norwegian, Polish, Portuguese, Russian, Sardinian, Spanish and Swedish. A fair number of the chat rooms are in German, Dutch or Italian.
In 2002, the Recording Industry Association of Japan releases a report finding 84% of Japanese who had used file sharing software reported using WinMX, mainly to share J-pop mp3's. WinMX continued to be the main file sharing client in Japan until it was overtaken by Winny and LimeWire in 2007. Even as late as 2013, Palo Alto Networks was finding that WinMX was the 6th most popular network in Japan.
Third-party programs
In addition to the program and patches, developers and WinMX users created third party programs to either enhance the chat room function or to control uploading by other peers.
Chat
Most of the software was made by third-party developers for use in the WinMX chat rooms. They include bots, servers to host rooms, and plugins. Bots were used in the chat rooms to either make it more lively, introduce games, or to moderate users, maintain lists of the files a user in a chat room has, and more. Other plugins performed automatic functions including displaying music files currently playing on the user's computer and aid in posting colored ASCII pictures in rooms.
Third party chat servers were used primarily to host chat rooms on the network. This is because of the improved administration systems in third party servers as well as the ability to host a chat room without having to use the winmx client. Some Third party chat clients also contained useful shortcuts or menus to make administrating a channel easier. For normal users, chat clients or the WinMX client itself could be used to view rooms independently of the server. Web listings of the chat room were also available.
Upload managers
Upload managers (MxMonitor and Leechhammer) can be used to control the upload rate of peers and can block certain kinds of peers from downloading, including those who do not share any files.
Replacement clients
An initial project called WinPY attempted to make a replacement open source WinMX client. The WinPY project was the most successful replacement client project as a preview alpha version with limited basic functionality was released; however, it quickly stalled due to lack of interest. There have also been several attempts to start new projects to create replacement clients however most have stalled before releasing anything fully completed.
One project announced on a major WinMX community site was initially scheduled to be released in November 2012, however there were many published delays due to lack of skilled programming support. The project was finally released to public testers as a beta version on September 22, 2013, and under a new name (OurMx) and further releases will continue to be made prior to a formal client release.
Historical information regarding the OurMX client progress can be viewed by following the link below.
See also
Tixati
File sharing in Japan
Winny, a Japanese filesharing program somewhat similar to Freenet
Share (P2P), a Japanese successor to Winny
Perfect Dark (P2P), a Japanese successor to Share.
References
External links
WinMX World
WinMX Community Patch
DarkMX
File sharing software
File sharing networks
Windows-only freeware | [
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230296 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kare%20Kano | Kare Kano | is a Japanese manga series written and illustrated by Masami Tsuda. It was serialized in LaLa from 1996 to 2005 and collected in 21 tankōbon volumes by Hakusensha. It depicts the romance between "perfect" student Yukino Miyazawa and her academic rival Soichiro Arima, and the relationships of several of their friends.
The series is licensed and was published in English in North America by Tokyopop. The chapters from the first seven volumes were adapted into a 26-episode anime television series by Gainax and J.C.Staff. Directed by Hideaki Anno, the episodes were broadcast in Japan on TV Tokyo from October 1998 to March 1999. It is licensed for distribution outside of Japan by Enoki Films under the title Tales at North Hills High, and sub-licensed for distribution in North America by Nozomi Entertainment who released it as His and Her Circumstances.
Plot
Yukino Miyazawa is a Japanese high school first-year student who is the envy of classmates for her good grades and immaculate appearance. However, her "perfect" exterior is a façade, an egocentric charade she maintains to win praise. In the privacy of her own home, she is spoiled, stubborn, a slob, and studies relentlessly and obsessively to maintain her grades. On entering high school, she is knocked from her position at the top of the class by Soichiro Arima, a handsome young man whose very existence Yukino considers a threat to the praise on which she thrives, and she vows to destroy him. When Soichiro confesses that he has a crush on her, Yukino rejects him then boasts about it at home. Her observant little sister Kano points out that her rivalry with him comes from admiration, causing her to rethink her own feelings.
Before she can figure out if she hates or likes Soichiro, he visits her home and discovers her being herself. He uses the information to blackmail her into doing his student council work. At first Yukino accepts it, coming to realize that he is also not the perfect student he pretends to be. Tired of being used, Yukino revolts and Soichiro apologizes, and admits he still loves her and just wanted to spend time with her. Yukino realizes she loves him as well, and together they resolve to abandon their fake ways and be true to themselves, though she initially has trouble breaking her lifelong habit of pretend-perfection and her competitive ways.
As the series progresses, Yukino is able to open her true self to others and earns her first real friends beyond Soichiro. It is eventually revealed that Soichiro was striving to be perfect in order to avoid turning "bad" like the parents who abandoned him. Falling in love with Yukino, he is able to become more true to himself, but he also finds himself becoming increasingly jealous of Yukino's change bringing new friends and new activities into her life, and of her having parts of her life that don't involve him. When Yukino unknowingly hurts him, he becomes even more jealous and afraid, and begins to wear another façade of the "perfect boyfriend" in an effort to protect her from his "ugly" self.
The return of both of his parents into his life sends Soichiro into a dark area, but helps him finally break free to truly be himself as Yukino and their friends help him learn to lean on and trust others. The end of the series shows Yukino and Soichiro in their 30s, with their three children, and gives updates on the various friends they made along the way.
Production
Kare Kano was Masami Tsuda's first lengthy manga series. Still new to professional manga writing in general, shortly after starting the series she had to put it on hold while she finished working out the framework of the story and where she ultimately wanted it to go.
In adapting the first seven volumes into an anime television series, director Hideaki Anno kept the same general scenes and dialogue but modified the overall feel and focus of the series, making it into a "personal case study of relationships." He emphasizes the dialog over the animation using a variety of techniques, including iconic scenes, production sketches, real-life location shots, repeated imagery, and even using animation versions of manga panels or simply printing the lines of the dialog being spoken over static screens.
Anno is credited as director for the first 16 episodes and co-director with Hiroki Sato for later episodes but with his name written in katakana as possibly as a form of protest. Michael S. Johnson of Nausicaa.net reports having heard from Gainax staff member that Anno objected to the restrictions placed on television anime by TV Tokyo after the Pokémon seizure incident. In an interview Hiroyuki Yamaga claimed that Gainax found it difficult to work with a series that is based on an original work stating ...
Media
Manga
Written by Masami Tsuda, Kare Kano was first serialized in LaLa between February 1996 and June 2005. The 101 individual chapters, referred to as "Acts", were compiled into 21 tankōbon volumes by Hakusensha. The first volume was released on June 5, 1996, with the final volume released on August 5, 2005.
Kare Kano was initially licensed for an English language release by Mixx Entertainment in 2000, but it subsequently lost those rights before publication began. In July 2001, the company's Tokyopop division announced that it had reacquired the license and that it would be serializing the title in their Smile magazine starting in 2002. However, Smile was discontinued in 2002 before the Tokyopop released the first collected volume of the series on January 21, 2003; the final volume was released on January 10, 2007. It was one of the first manga series that Tokyopop released in the original Japanese orientation, in which the book is read from right to left, and with the original sound effects left in place. In February 2008, Tokyopop reissued the first three volumes in a single omnibus volume.
The series is licensed for regional language releases by Editions Tonkam in France by Grupo Editorial Vid in Mexico, by Glènat España in Spain, by Dynamic Italia in Italy, by Carlsen Comics in Germany, by Panini Comics in Brazil, and by Planet Manga in Portugal. The chapters were also serialized in the French magazine and the German magazine Daisuki.
Anime
Kare Kano was adapted as an anime television series produced by Gainax and J.C.Staff. The series was directed by Hideaki Anno. The 26 episodes were broadcast on TV Tokyo from October 1998 to March 1999. The opening theme was "Tenshi no Yubikiri" by Fukuda Mai, and the ending themes were "Yume no Naka e" by Atsuko Enomoto & Chihiro Suzuki for episodes 1–24 and 26 and "Kaze Hiita Yoru" by Yuki Watanabe & Maria Yamamoto for episode 25.
Soundtracks
Four CD soundtracks have been released in Japan for the anime series by the StarChild label of Japan's King Records. The first, contained 24 tracks, including musical scores by Shirō Sagisu and songs written by Fumiya Fujii and Yōsui Inoue. It was released in Japan on December 23, 1998; Geneon released the CD in the US on January 20, 2004. , containing an additional 25 tracks, followed in Japan on February 26, 1999 and in the US on November 1, 2005. The third volume, , also contained 25 tracks. It was released in Japan on May 28, 1999. The three CDs were released as a box set in Japan, along with a fourth disc containing an additional 22 tracks, on February 23, 2005.
Reception
Overall reviews for the series have been positive. The tenth volume of the series was listed as the top selling graphic novel in Japan on October 31, 2000. In The Anime Encyclopedia: A Guide to Japanese Animation Since 1917, Jonathan Clements and Helen McCarthy praised the anime adaptation for its innovative techniques and the use of "surreal 'cartoon' effects." THEM anime reviews gave the anime adaptation a good review calling it "probably the most disarmingly honest shoujo romance ever made." Alexander Harris from Anime News Network called the anime adaptation very character driven, saying "If you love diving into the minds of a character and searching for those juicy naughty bits, and all the while being entertained and educated, then this is for you."
Notes
References
Further reading
External links
Official Gainax Kareshi Kanojo no Jijō anime site
1996 manga
1998 anime television series debuts
Anime composed by Shirō Sagisu
Gainax
Hakusensha franchises
Hakusensha manga
J.C.Staff
Romantic comedy anime and manga
School life in anime and manga
Shōjo manga
Tokyopop titles
TV Tokyo original programming | [
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230298 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cottidae | Cottidae | The Cottidae are a family of fish in the superfamily Cottoidea, the sculpins. It is the largest sculpin family, with about 275 species in 70 genera. They are referred to simply as cottids to avoid confusion with sculpins of other families.
Cottids are distributed worldwide, especially in boreal and colder temperate climates. The center of diversity is the northern Pacific Ocean. Species occupy many types of aquatic habitats, including marine and fresh waters, and deep and shallow zones. A large number occur in near-shore marine habitat types, such as kelp forests and shallow reefs. They can be found in estuaries and in bodies of fresh water.
Most cottids are small fish, under in length. The species Scorpaenichthys marmoratus can be up to in length. They vary in coloration and patterning between species and between individuals of some species, and sometimes between sexes. Their eyes are large and placed high on the head. Adults lack swim bladders.
Genera
The genera of the family include:
Timeline
See also
List of fish families
References
Ray-finned fish families
Extant Oligocene first appearances
Taxa named by Charles Lucien Bonaparte | [
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