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230308	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Democratic%20Labour%20Party%20%28Australia%29	Democratic Labour Party (Australia)	The Democratic Labour Party (DLP), formerly the Democratic Labor Party, is an Australian political party. It broke off from the Australian Labor Party (ALP) as a result of the 1955 ALP split, originally under the name Australian Labor Party (Anti-Communist), and was renamed the Democratic Labor Party in 1957. In 1962, the Queensland Labor Party, a breakaway party of the Queensland branch of the Australian Labor Party, became the Queensland branch of the DLP. The DLP was represented in the Senate from its formation through to 1974. The party held or shared the balance of power on several occasions, winning 11 percent of the vote at its peak in 1970, which resulted in it holding five out of the 60 Senate seats. It has never achieved representation in the House of Representatives but, due to Australia's instant-runoff voting system, it remained influential due to its recommendations for preference allocations. With anti-communism as a strong priority, the DLP almost always directed that its voters preference the Liberal Party and Country Party ahead of the ALP, contributing to the electoral dominance of the Coalition during the 1950s and 1960s. The DLP did win seats in the state parliaments of Victoria, Queensland and New South Wales. In 1978, a majority of Democratic Labor Party members voted to re-affiliate with the Australian Labor Party, but the Victorian branch of the DLP voted against that move and maintained itself as an independent party. While continuing to contest elections, the DLP had no parliamentary representation for a period of 30 years from 1976 to 2006. DLP candidates were elected to the Victorian Legislative Council in 2006 and 2014, and a single senator was elected in 2010, with a platform focused more on social conservatism. In 2013, the party changed its name to reflect the standard Australian English spelling of "labour". History Origins The Australian Labor Party (Anti-Communist) was formed as a result of a split in the Australian Labor Party (ALP) which began in 1954. The split was between the party's national leadership, under the then party leader Dr H. V. Evatt, and the majority of the Victorian branch, which was dominated by a faction composed largely of ideologically-driven anti-Communist Catholics. Many ALP members during the Cold War period, most but not all of them Catholics, became alarmed at what they saw as the growing power of the Communist Party of Australia within the country's trade unions. These members formed units within the unions, called Industrial Groups, to combat this alleged infiltration. The intellectual leader of the Victorian Catholic wing of the ALP (although not actually a party member) was B. A. Santamaria, a lay Catholic anti-Communist activist, who acquired the patronage of Dr Mannix. Santamaria headed The Catholic Social Studies Movement (often known as The Movement), modeled on Catholic Action groups in Europe and, ironically, in organizational terms, on some of the methods employed by its principal target, the Communist Party of Australia. That group later became the National Civic Council (NCC). Evatt denounced the "Movement" and the Industrial Groups in 1954, alleging they were trying to take over the ALP and turn it into a European-style Christian Democratic party. At the 1955 ALP national conference in Hobart, Santamaria's parliamentary supporters in the federal and Victorian parliaments were expelled from the ALP. A total of seven Victorian federal MPs and 18 state MPs were expelled. The federal MPs were: Tom Andrews, Bill Bourke, Bill Bryson, Jack Cremean, Bob Joshua, Stan Keon and Jack Mullens. In New South Wales, the Roman Catholic Archbishop of Sydney, Norman Cardinal Gilroy, the first native-born Australian Roman Catholic prelate, opposed the Movement's tactics, and there was no party split in that state. The expelled ALP members formed the Australian Labor Party (Anti-Communist) under the influence of B. A. Santamaria. 1950s to 1970s 1955 elections On the night of 19 April 1955, Liberal and Country Party leader Henry Bolte moved a motion of no-confidence against John Cain's Labor government in the Victorian Legislative Assembly. After twelve hours of debate on the motion, in the early hours of 20 April, 11 of the expelled Labor members crossed the floor to support Bolte's motion. With his government defeated, Cain sought and received a dissolution of parliament later that day, with the election set down for 28 May 1955. At the election, 11 of the 12 expelled MPs in the Victorian Legislative Assembly, as well as other candidates, and the one MP facing re-election in the Victorian Legislative Council lost their seats. The party drew 12.6% of the vote, mainly from the ALP, which was directed to the non-Labor parties. Labor won 37.6% of the vote and 20 seats to the Liberals' 34 and the Country Party's ten. The Cain Labor Government lost government at the 1955 election. Only one of the expelled Labor members, Frank Scully, was re-elected for the seat of Richmond. Scully had been a Minister in the Cain Government and a member of the Movement, and was expelled from the ministry and the ALP as part of the 1955 split. Five other MPs whose terms had not expired remained in the Legislative Council until the expiry of their terms at the 1958 Victorian election, and all who recontested their seats were defeated. At the 1955 federal election held in December, all the 7 expelled federal MPs were defeated. However, Frank McManus was elected as a senator for Victoria at the 1955 election, and successful ALP candidate George Cole had chosen before the election to become part of this party. Membership The parliamentary membership of the ALP (Anti-Communist) was almost entirely Roman Catholic of Irish descent. The only two non-Catholics were its federal leader, Bob Joshua, who represented Ballarat in the Australian House of Representatives, and Jack Little, who led the party in the Victoria Legislative Council between 1955 and 1958. It has been suggested that the party was substantially a party of Irish-ethnics, a result of the ALP split of 1955 being a 'de-ethnicisation', a forcible removal of the Irish-Catholic element within the ALP. However, many ALP (Anti-Communist) members were not of Irish descent. The party attracted many voters among migrants from Catholic countries in southern Europe, and among anti-Communist Eastern European refugees. A significant minority of its voters were also non-Catholics. Journalist Don Whitington argued in 1964 that the DLP, as a basically sectarian party, was a most dangerous and distasteful force in Australian politics. Whitington observed that the party was backed by influential sections of the Roman Catholic Church, and that although the party professed to exist primarily to combat communism, it had less commendable reasons behind its coming into being. Daniel Mannix, the Roman Catholic Archbishop of Melbourne, was a DLP supporter, as were other influential clerics. Democratic Labor Party In 1957, the party changed its name to the Democratic Labor Party (DLP). In the same year, the Labor Party split in Queensland following the expulsion of Vince Gair, a conservative Catholic, from the party. He and his followers formed the Queensland Labor Party, which, in 1962, became the Queensland branch of the DLP. Between 1955 and 1974 the DLP was able to command a significant vote, particularly in Victoria and Queensland, with their large numbers of Catholics. During the period the party held between one and five seats in the Senate (which is elected by proportional representation). The DLP Senate leaders were George Cole (from Tasmania; 1955–1965), Vince Gair (from Queensland; 1965–1973), and Frank McManus (from Victoria; 1973–1974). Other DLP Senators were Condon Byrne (from Queensland), Jack Kane (from New South Wales), and Jack Little, a Protestant (from Victoria). No DLP Senators or state politicians were ever elected in South Australia or Western Australia. Owing largely to demographic reasons, the ALP did not split in these states, although some lay branch members switched to the new party once it had been established. As the ALP and the conservative parties traditionally held approximately equal numbers of seats in the Senate, the DLP was able to use the balance of power in the Senate to extract concessions from Liberal governments, particularly larger government grants to Catholic schools, greater spending on defence, and non-recognition of the People's Republic of China. During this period the DLP exercised influence by directing its preferences to Liberal candidates in federal and state elections (see Australian electoral system), thus helping to keep the ALP out of office at the federal level and in Victoria. The DLP vote for the House of Representatives gradually declined during the 1960s, but remained strong enough for the Liberals to continue to need DLP preferences to win close elections. After Evatt's retirement in 1960, his successor Arthur Calwell, a Catholic, tried to bring about a reconciliation between the ALP and the DLP. Negotiations were conducted through intermediaries, and in 1965 a deal was almost done. Three out of four of the ALP's parliamentary leaders agreed to a deal. However, Calwell refused to share power within the party with the DLP leadership on a membership number basis, so the deal failed. Santamaria later claimed that had he accepted, Calwell could have become Prime Minister. Indeed, at the 1961 federal election Labor came up just two seats short of toppling the Coalition. One of those seats was Bruce, in the DLP's heartland of Melbourne. DLP preferences allowed Liberal Billy Snedden to win a paper-thin victory. Although the Coalition was only assured of a sixth term in government later in the night with an even narrower win in the Brisbane-area seat of Moreton, any realistic chance of a Labor win ended with the Liberals retaining Bruce. Without Bruce, the best Labor could have done was a hung parliament. At the 1969 federal election, DLP preferences kept Calwell's successor Gough Whitlam from toppling the Coalition, despite winning an 18-seat swing and a majority of the two-party vote. DLP preferences in four Melbourne-area seats allowed the Liberals to narrowly retain them; had those preferences gone the other way, Labor would have garnered the swing it needed to make Whitlam Prime Minister. The DLP's policies were traditional Labor policies such as more spending on health, education and pensions, combined with strident opposition to communism, and a greater emphasis on defence spending. The DLP strongly supported Australia's participation in the Vietnam War. From the early 1960s onward the DLP became increasingly socially conservative, opposing homosexuality, abortion, pornography and drug use. This stand against "permissiveness" appealed to many conservative voters as well as the party's base among Catholics. Some members of the DLP disagreed with this, believing the party should stay focused on anti-communism. The highest DLP vote was 11.11 per cent, which occurred at the 1970 half-senate election. Whitlam and the ALP won government in the 1972 election, defeating the DLP's strategy of keeping the ALP out of power. Decline In 1973, it was reported that the Country Party and the DLP were considering a merger. In response, Gough Whitlam said he "would be delighted to see 'the old harlot churched'". The following year, Whitlam appointed Gair as ambassador to the Republic of Ireland in a successful bid to split the DLP and remove its influence. The party lost all its Senate seats at the 1974 federal election. In 1978, all state branches of the Democratic Labor Party voted to dissolve the party and re-affiliate with the Australian Labor Party. However, three-quarters of the Victorian branch executive disagreed with the vote, and the Victorian branch remained existing as the only existing Democratic Labour Party branch. Return to parliament 2006 State Election At the 2006 Victorian election, the DLP won parliamentary representation for the first time since the 1970s when it won a seat in the Victorian Legislative Council, after fielding candidates in the eight regions of the reformed Council, where proportional representation gave the party the best chance of having members elected. The DLP received 2.7 per cent of the primary vote in the Western Victoria Region, enough to elect Peter Kavanagh on ALP preferences. The party briefly looked set to have a second member elected, party leader John Mulholland, in the Northern Metropolitan Region on 5.1 per cent, but that result was overturned after a recount. Following the election of Kavanagh, attention was given to the DLP platform of opposition to abortion and poker machines. The Labor government required an additional two non-ALP upper house members to pass legislation, which gave the balance of power to the Greens who held three seats. Kavanagh failed to retain his seat at the 2010 Victorian election. In late August 2009, Melbourne newspaper The Age reported that the DLP was facing several internal divisions between Kavanagh's faction, which also sought to include evangelical and fundamentalist Protestants within the party, and 'hardline' conservative Catholics. Right to Life Australia President Marcel White and a close associate, Peter McBroom, were reported to be emphasising Catholic doctrinal and devotional concerns, like Marian apparitions, Catholic prayer, praying the rosary and campaigns against the "evils of contraception". Kavanagh was reported as threatening to leave the organisation if the 'hardline' elements were to triumph within the Victorian DLP. In the end, the minority 'hardline' group was expelled from the party. 2010 Federal Election Shortly after counting began in the aftermath of the 2010 federal election, DLP candidate, federal DLP vice-president, and state DLP president John Madigan looked likely to be elected as the sixth and final Senator for Victoria, which was confirmed a few weeks later. Preference counts indicated that the primary DLP vote of 2.33 per cent (75,145 votes) in Victoria reached the 14.3 per cent quota required by gaining One Nation, Christian Democratic and Building Australia preferences to edge out Steve Fielding of the Family First Party who received a primary vote of 2.64 per cent. The DLP received Family First preferences, and when the Australian Sex Party candidate was excluded, the DLP gained Liberal Democratic Party preferences, overtaking the third Liberal/National candidate and gaining their preferences to win the last seat. Elected for a six-year term from 1 July 2011, Madigan was the first Senator to be elected as a federal member of the Democratic Labor Party of Australia since the 1970 Senate-only election. Madigan was in a balance of power position following the 2013 election where an additional six non-government Senators were required to pass legislation. In his maiden speech to the Senate, Madigan denounced Victoria's "inhumane" abortion laws and committed to help restore Australia's dwindling manufacturing sector. He called for a "good Labor government that will bring something better to the people". He said that the DLP and ALP differed in a number of ways, stating: In December 2011, Madigan launched the Australian Manufacturing and Farming Program, with Senator Nick Xenophon and MP Bob Katter, an initiative to provide a forum for discussion of issues impacting manufacturers and farmers, together with politicians. As a representative of the DLP, Madigan took an unashamed anti-abortion stance. His additional publicly stated positions on behalf of the DLP included opposition to same-sex marriage; opposition to the sale of public infrastructure; opposition to a carbon tax, stating "We're not in favour of a carbon tax because we believe it's a tax on people and a tax on life"; an advocate for shops closing at midday on Saturdays; and at the Inaugural Jack Kane dinner in July 2011, Madigan advocated Chifley protectionist economics. Also, Madigan has publicly expressed his concern for human rights in West Papua. Infighting and financial issues It was reported in June 2010 that the party was on the brink of collapse, with rampant party infighting and less than $10,000 in the bank. On 18 March 2011 the Victorian Supreme Court handed down a reserved judgment confirming Mr John Mulholland's valid removal as secretary. This decision was subsequently reversed by the full bench of the Victorian Supreme Court however the Court also rejected Mulholland's claim that he was still the secretary of the DLP at the time the ruling was handed down. A Senate petition in August 2011 from Mulholland requested that current DLP Senator John Madigan be removed from the Senate, with the petition lodged using a residual standing order of the chamber that has not been deployed successfully by anyone for more than a century. In his petition, Mulholland says Madigan put himself forward in the 2010 election as a DLP candidate "although the DLP federal executive did not authorise or recognise his candidacy or have any part in his nomination". In September 2014 Madigan resigned from the DLP and became an independent Senator, citing long-term internal party tensions and claiming he had been undermined by a member of his staff. DLP federal president Paul Funnell strongly rejected Madigan's claims and demanded that he resign from the Senate so that his seat could be taken by a DLP member. 2014 State Election The DLP was elected to the upper house region of Western Metropolitan, with candidate Dr Rachel Carling-Jenkins winning 2.6% of the vote, despite suffering a 0.5% swing. On 26 June 2017, Carling-Jenkins resigned from the DLP to join Cory Bernardi's Australian Conservatives. Electoral results House of Representatives Senate Parliamentary leaders Members of Parliament Includes both Australian Labor Party (Anti-Communist) and Democratic Labor Party parliamentarians. Australian House of Representatives Tom Andrews (Darebin, Vic), 1955 Bill Bourke (Fawkner, Vic), 1955 Bill Bryson (Wills, Vic), 1955 Jack Cremean (Gellibrand, Vic), 1955 Bob Joshua (Ballarat, Vic), 1955 (Protestant) Stan Keon (Yarra, Vic), 1955 Jack Mullens (Hoddle, Vic), 1955 Australian Senate George Cole (Tas), 1955–65 Frank McManus (Vic), 1955–62, 1965–74 Vince Gair (Qld), 1965–74 Condon Byrne (Qld), 1968–74 (QLP Senator 1957–59) Jack Little (Vic), 1968–74 (Protestant) Jack Kane (NSW), 1970–74 John Madigan (Vic), 2010–14 Victorian Legislative Assembly Bill Barry (Carlton), 1955 Stan Corrigan (Port Melbourne), 1955 Leslie D'Arcy (Grant), 1955 George Fewster (Essendon), 1955 Tom Hayes (Melbourne), 1955 Michael Lucy (Ivanhoe), 1955 Edmund Morrissey (Mernda), 1955 Charles Murphy (Hawthorn), 1955 Joseph O'Carroll (Clifton Hill), 1955 Peter Randles (Brunswick), 1955 Frank Scully (Richmond), 1955–58 George White (Mentone), 1955 Victorian Legislative Council Bert Bailey (Melbourne West), 1955–58 Thomas Brennan (Monash), 1955–58 Les Coleman (Melbourne West), 1955 Paul Jones (Doutta Galla), 1955–58 Jack Little (Melbourne North), 1955–58 (Protestant) Pat Sheehy (Melbourne), 1955–58 Peter Kavanagh (Western Victoria), 2006–10 Rachel Carling-Jenkins (Western Metropolitan), 2014–17 New South Wales Legislative Assembly Kevin Harrold (Gordon), 1973–76 Legislative Assembly of Queensland Les Diplock (Aubigny), 1962–72 (QLP 1957–62) (Protestant) Paul Hilton (Carnarvon), 1962–63 (QLP 1957–62) See also Australian Labor Party References Further reading Lyle Allan (1988), "Irish Ethnicity and the Democratic Labor Party," Politics, Vol. 23 No.2, Pages 28–34 Niall Brennan (1964), Dr Mannix, Adelaide, South Australia, Rigby. Ken Buckley, Barbara Dale and Wayne Reynolds. Doc Evatt, Melbourne, Victoria, Longman Cheshire (1994); Arthur Calwell. Be Just and Fear Not, Hawthorn, Victoria, Lloyd O'Neil (1972); Bob Corcoran (2001), "The Manifold Causes of the Labor Split", in Peter Love and Paul Strangio (eds.), Arguing the Cold War, Carlton North, Victoria, Red Rag Publications. Brian Costar, Peter Love and Paul Strangio (eds.) The Great Labor Schism. A Retrospective, Melbourne, Victoria, Scribe Publications, 2005; Peter Crockett. Evatt. A Life, South Melbourne, Victoria, Oxford University Press (1993); Allan Dalziel. Evatt. The Enigma, Melbourne, Victoria, Lansdowne Press (1967). Gavan Duffy. Demons and Democrats. 1950s Labor at the Crossroads, North Melbourne, Victoria, Freedom Publishing (2002); Gil Duthie. I had 50,000 bosses. Memoirs of a Labor backbencher 1946-1975, Sydney, NSW, Angus and Robertson (1984); John Faulkner and Stuart Macintyre (eds.) True Believers. The Story of the Federal Parliamentary Labor Party, Crows Nest, NSW, Allen and Unwin (2001); Ross Fitzgerald, Adam James Carr and William J. Dealy. The Pope's Battalions. Santamaria, Catholicism and the Labor Split, St Lucia, Queensland, University of Queensland Press (2003); Ross Fitzgerald and Stephen Holt. Alan "The Red Fox" Reid. Pressman Par Excellence, Sydney, NSW, University of New South Wales Press; James Franklin, "Catholic Thought and Catholic Action: Dr Paddy Ryan Msc.," Journal of the Australian Catholic Historical Society (1996) 17:44-55 online. Colm Kiernan. Calwell. A Personal and Political Biography, West Melbourne, Thomas Nelson (1978); Michael Lyons (2008), "Defence, the Family and the Battler: The Democratic Labor Party and its Legacy," Australian Journal of Political Science, September, 43–3, Pages 425–442. Frank McManus (1977), The Tumult and the Shouting, Adelaide, South Australia, Rigby. Patrick Morgan (ed.) B. A. Santamaria. Your Most Obedient Servant. Selected Letters: 1918 - 1996, Carlton, Victoria, Miegunyah Press (2007); Patrick Morgan (ed.) Running the Show. Selected Documents: 1939-1996, Carlton, Victoria, Miegunyah Press (2008); Robert Murray (1970), The Split. Australian Labor in the fifties, Melbourne, Victoria, F.W. Cheshire. Paul Ormonde (1972), The Movement, Melbourne, Victoria, Thomas Nelson. Paul Ormonde (2000), "The Movement - Politics by Remote Control," in Paul Ormonde (ed.) Santamaria. The Politics of Fear, Richmond, Victoria, Spectrum Publications. P.L Reynolds (1974), The Democratic Labor Party, Milton, Queensland, Jacaranda. B. A. Santamaria. Against the Tide, Melbourne, Victoria, Oxford University Press (1981); Kylie Tennant. Evatt. Politics and Justice, Cremorne, NSW, Angus and Robertson (1970); Tom Truman. Catholic Action and Politics, London, England, The Merlin Press (1960). Kate White. John Cain and Victorian Labor 1917-1957, Sydney, NSW, Hale and Iremonger (1982); External links Statement by Frank Scully about the DLP's formation "The split - 50 years on" Australian Biography interview with B.A. Santamaria 1955 establishments in Australia Conservative parties in Australia Labour parties Australian Labor Party breakaway groups Catholic political parties Anti-communism in Australia Political parties established in 1955 Political parties in Australia Political parties in Victoria (Australia) Social conservative parties Distributism	[ 0.35667601227760315, -0.43881672620773315, -0.20547348260879517, -0.05725574493408203, -0.6159807443618774, 0.5471875071525574, 0.05222421512007713, -0.028358913958072662, -0.8185606598854065, -0.507598876953125, -0.02568698860704899, -0.030504031106829643, -0.6424487829208374, 0.4896574318408966, 0.27470776438713074, 0.8629629015922546, 0.39021915197372437, 0.19247068464756012, -0.02940276265144348, -0.10966098308563232, 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230310	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/XDCC	XDCC	XDCC (Xabi DCC or eXtended DCC) is a computer file sharing method which uses the Internet Relay Chat (IRC) network as a host service. History Limitations in the original DCC protocol prevented the transfers of very large files, or groups of files. XDCC was developed to allow batching of files together, and requesting/sending those files to others. XDCC was initially a script written in 1994 for ircII by Xabi. This script extends the ircII DCC command. Now XDCC refers to IRC bots running file sharing programs in general. XDCC bots serve one or more usually large files for download using the DCC protocol. Though XDCC is commonly employed in distributing illegal content, such as warez releases of software, music, and movies, it can also be used in legal ways. Features Unlike peer-to-peer transfers, XDCC servers are often hosted on connections with very high upstream bandwidth, sometimes in excess of 100 Mbit. Often FTP servers are also running on the XDCC servers to facilitate uploading of materials to them. Many XDCC servers run on security compromised computers. Usage Since browser-based IRC scripts are not compatible with the DCC protocol, users need to install a program such as mIRC or HexChat on their computer. In order to receive files, the software has to be properly configured, otherwise downloads will be rejected by the software. To use XDCC, one can send a private message (query) or send a CTCP command to a bot, using an IRC client. The user can ask a bot what files it has by private messaging "xdcc list" to the bot. However, this feature is often disabled as to not attract too much attention. When a user wants to download a packet or file from a bot, the user would type something such as "xdcc send #<pack number>" to the bot. The bot will either start sending the user the packet or the bot will place the user in a queue, and force the user to wait their turn. Some channels have special rules, for example requiring the user to join a second channel within a certain amount of time after starting the download to avoid interruptions. Addons exist, such as XDCCKlipper (for mIRC) which listen to adverts listed in a channel by the bots and save them to a separate window to facilitate easier browsing and allow users to view the status of a bot (speed, queues, slots etc.). Search engines A number of search engines exist, indexing the files on the IRC / XDCC network. Currently active indexers include: Ixirc.com SunXDCC.com Xdcc.eu References External links xdcc script 3.3.0 beta - The original XDCC script Internet Relay Chat File sharing Warez Internet terminology Protocols related to Internet Relay Chat	[ 0.3868059813976288, 0.14837823808193207, 0.08566784858703613, 0.35109126567840576, -0.2037724405527115, -0.65814608335495, -0.3235436677932739, 0.65300452709198, -0.2183339148759842, -0.18966226279735565, -0.667548656463623, 0.23378698527812958, -0.6549357771873474, 0.3506336808204651, 0.1900111585855484, 0.024271130561828613, 0.5683260560035706, 0.27425166964530945, -0.41399332880973816, -0.6684478521347046, -0.1714898645877838, -0.26155737042427063, -0.5400610566139221, -0.3086501359939575, 0.1708465814590454, 0.22468678653240204, -0.14384067058563232, -0.15375028550624847, 0.10008074343204498, -0.28038668632507324, 0.6729274392127991, -0.05637561157345772, 0.5758674144744873, -0.03372390940785408, -0.09464014321565628, -0.4085697531700134, 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230311	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/University%20of%20California%2C%20Riverside	University of California, Riverside	The University of California, Riverside (UCR or UC Riverside) is a public land-grant research university in Riverside, California. It is one of the ten campuses of the University of California system. The main campus sits on in a suburban district of Riverside with a branch campus of in Palm Desert. In 1907, the predecessor to UCR was founded as the UC Citrus Experiment Station, Riverside which pioneered research in biological pest control and the use of growth regulators responsible for extending the citrus growing season in California from four to nine months. Some of the world's most important research collections on citrus diversity and entomology, as well as science fiction and photography, are located at Riverside. UCR's undergraduate College of Letters and Science opened in 1954. The Regents of the University of California declared UCR a general campus of the system in 1959, and graduate students were admitted in 1961. To accommodate an enrollment of 21,000 students by 2015, more than $730 million has been invested in new construction projects since 1999. Preliminary accreditation of the UC Riverside School of Medicine was granted in October 2012 and the first class of 50 students was enrolled in August 2013. It is the first new research-based public medical school in 40 years. UCR is classified among "R1: Doctoral Universities – Very high research activity." The 2022 U.S. News & World Report Best Colleges rankings places UCR tied for 33rd among top public universities and ranks 83rd nationwide, and 1st for social mobility for the 3rd year. Over 27 of UCR's academic programs, including the Graduate School of Education and the Bourns College of Engineering, are highly ranked nationally based on peer assessment, student selectivity, financial resources, and other factors. Washington Monthly ranked UCR 2nd in the United States in terms of social mobility, research and community service, while U.S. News ranks UCR as the fifth most ethnically diverse and, by the number of undergraduates receiving Pell Grants (42 percent), the 15th most economically diverse student body in the nation. Over 70% of all UCR students graduate within six years without regard to economic disparity. UCR's extensive outreach and retention programs have contributed to its reputation as a "university of choice" for minority students. In 2005, UCR became the first public university campus in the nation to offer a gender-neutral housing option. UCR's sports teams are known as the Highlanders and play in the Big West Conference of the National Collegiate Athletic Association (NCAA) Division I. Their nickname was inspired by the high altitude of the campus, which lies on the foothills of Box Springs Mountain. The UCR women's basketball team won back-to-back Big West championships in 2006 and 2007. In 2007, the men's baseball team won its first conference championship and advanced to the regionals for the second time since the university moved to Division I in 2001. History At the turn of the 20th century, Southern California was a major producer of citrus, the region's primary agricultural export. The industry developed from the country's first navel orange trees, planted in Riverside in 1873. Lobbied by the citrus industry, the UC Regents established the UC Citrus Experiment Station (CES) on February 14, 1907, on of land on the east slope of Mount Rubidoux in Riverside. The station conducted experiments in fertilization, irrigation and crop improvement. In 1917, the station was moved to a larger site, near Box Springs Mountain. The 1944 passage of the GI Bill during World War II set in motion a rise in college enrollments that necessitated an expansion of the state university system in California. A local group of citrus growers and civic leaders, including many UC Berkeley alumni, lobbied aggressively for a UC-administered liberal arts college next to the CES. State Senator Nelson S. Dilworth authored Senate Bill 512 (1949) which former Assemblyman Philip L. Boyd and Assemblyman John Babbage (both of Riverside) were instrumental in shepherding through the State Legislature. Governor Earl Warren signed the bill in 1949, allocating $2 million for initial campus construction. Gordon S. Watkins, dean of the UCLA College of Letters and Science, became the first provost of the new college at Riverside. Initially conceived of as a small college devoted to the liberal arts, he ordered the campus built for a maximum of 1,500 students and recruited many young junior faculty to fill teaching positions. He presided at its opening with 65 faculty and 127 students on February 14, 1954, remarking, "Never have so few been taught by so many." UCR's enrollment exceeded 1,000 students by the time Clark Kerr became president of the UC system in 1958. Anticipating a "tidal wave" in enrollment growth required by the baby boom generation, Kerr developed the California Master Plan for Higher Education and the Regents designated Riverside a general university campus in 1959. UCR's first chancellor, Herman Theodore Spieth, oversaw the beginnings of the school's transition to a full university and its expansion to a capacity of 5,000 students. UCR's second chancellor, Ivan Hinderaker led the campus through the era of the free speech movement and kept student protests peaceful in Riverside. According to a 1998 interview with Hinderaker, the city of Riverside received negative press coverage for smog after the mayor asked Governor Ronald Reagan to declare the South Coast Air Basin a disaster area in 1971; subsequent student enrollment declined by up to 25% through 1979. Hinderaker's development of innovative programs in business administration and biomedical sciences created incentive for enough students to enroll at Riverside to keep the campus open. In the 1990s, the UC experienced a new surge of enrollment applications, now known as "Tidal Wave II". The Regents targeted UCR for an annual growth rate of 6.3%, the fastest in the UC system, and anticipated 19,900 students at UCR by 2010. By 1995, African American, American Indian, and Latino student enrollments accounted for 30% of the UCR student body, the highest proportion of any UC campus at the time. The 1997 implementation of Proposition 209—which banned the use of affirmative action by state agencies—reduced the ethnic diversity at the more selective UC campuses but further increased it at UCR. With UCR scheduled for dramatic population growth, efforts have been made to increase its popular and academic recognition. The students voted for a fee increase to move UCR athletics into NCAA Division I standing in 1998. In the 1990s, proposals were made to establish a law school, a medical school, and a school of public policy at UCR, with the UCR School of Medicine and the School of Public Policy becoming reality in 2012. In June 2006, UCR received its largest gift, 15.5 million from two local couples, in trust towards building its medical school. The Regents formally approved UCR's medical school proposal in 2006. Upon its completion in 2013, it was the first new medical school built in California in 40 years. Campus UCR's main campus sits at an elevation of to near Box Springs Mountain, 3 miles (5 km) east of downtown Riverside, and comprises divided into eastern and western areas by the State Route 60 freeway. East Campus, occupying approximately , hosts the core cluster of academic buildings and services. The original buildings that formed the earliest kernel of the campus included the UC Citrus Experiment Station, residential buildings, and barn, all of which are still in use. They were designed by Lester H. Hibbard, in association with H.B. Cody. Built by 1917 at a cost of $165,000, the architecture of the major buildings followed the Mission Revival style suggesting the Spanish colonial heritage of Southern California. Further major construction largely ceased on the site until the groundbreaking for the College of Humanities Arts and Social Sciences (CHASS) in April 1951. A group of five buildings designed by different architects in a decidedly more Modern style were completed by 1954: the Rivera Library, Webber Hall, Geology Building, Physical Education Building and Watkins Hall. After the Regents declared UCR a "general campus" of the UC system in 1958, many new buildings and additions were laid out over the following decade. Following an east–west axis, new student residence halls and athletic facilities were developed along the southeastern quadrant of the main campus, while academic and research facilities were built along the central campus area closer to the freeway. The Bell Tower, one of only five carillons in California, was built in this period. Designed by A. Quincy Jones, the tower is tall and contains 48 bells, each weighing from to , covering four chromatic octaves. After the drop in enrollment and subsequent restructuring of academic programs in the 1970s, little capacity construction was undertaken over the next two decades. However, enrollment growth in the late 1980s justified considerable further campus expansion over the 1990s. Major additions built in the period include: Bourns Hall, completed in 1995; the Humanities & Social Science building, completed in 1996; and the Science Library, completed in 1998. The Pentland and Stonehaven residence halls were completed in 2000, and the Arts building was completed in 2001. Active construction projects include the "Multidisciplinary Research Building," new residence halls located east of A-I and ongoing renovations to Pierce Hall. The first phase of a new Commons was completed in 2007, and phase II is in development. Other ongoing projects include a new CHASS Instructional and Research Center and Students Academic Support Services Building. Since 1999, more than $730 million has been invested in construction projects. Of the of UCR property constituting West Campus, approximately along University Avenue have been developed. These include facilities such as University Extension, the United States Department of Agriculture (USDA) Germplasm Repository, International Village (student housing), Human Resources and Highlander Hall. University Village, a mixed use commercial development, features a movie theater, stores, restaurants, office space, and an apartment complex, along with a parking structure and surface parking. Citrus groves and row crops occupy the remaining stretching northwest to the intersection of Chicago Avenue and Le Conte Drive. Plans for future expansion include converting a portion of these fields into new UCR infrastructure. The University of California, Riverside, has recently united its three downtown arts presentation venues under the umbrella name of the UCR ARTSblock. The ARTSblock is composed of the UCR/California Museum of Photography, The Sweeney Art Gallery, and the Culver Center of the Arts, a media lab and presentation facility. The three institutions reside side by side in the heart of downtown Riverside's historic pedestrian mall. Palm Desert Graduate Center The Richard J. Heckmann International Center for Entrepreneurial Management was founded in Palm Desert in 2001. After the Coachella Valley Agricultural Research Station, it is UCR's second institutional presence in the Coachella Valley. Initially by a $6 million gift from Richard J. Heckmann, a water treatment entrepreneur, the institution was planned as a teaching and research center of the A. Gary Anderson Graduate School of Management at the UCR School of Business. The center encourages local entrepreneurship through the Coachella Valley Angel Network, an angel investment network. A further investment of $10 million from the State of California and a donation of of land from the City of Palm Desert allowed for the opening of an expanded graduate center on April 15, 2005, adjacent to the California State University, San Bernardino Palm Desert Campus. The center is also home to university researchers in conservation biology, technology transfer and Native American studies. Master's level instruction in business management and creative writing is available at the center. Academics As a campus of the University of California system, UCR is governed by a Board of Regents and administered by a president. The current president is Michael V. Drake, and the current chancellor of the university is Kim A. Wilcox. UCR's academic policies are set by its Academic Senate, a legislative body composed of all UCR faculty members. UCR is organized into three academic colleges, two professional schools, and two graduate schools. UCR's liberal arts college, the College of Humanities, Arts and Social Sciences, was founded in 1954, and began accepting graduate students in 1960. The College of Natural and Agricultural Sciences, founded in 1960, incorporated the CES as part of the first research-oriented institution at UCR; it eventually also incorporated the natural science departments formerly associated with the liberal arts college to form its present structure in 1974. UCR's newest academic unit, the Bourns College of Engineering, was founded in 1989. Comprising the professional schools are the Graduate School of Education, founded in 1968, and the UCR School of Business, founded in 1970. These units collectively provide 81 majors and 52 minors, 48 master's degree programs, and 42 Doctor of Philosophy (PhD) programs. UCR is the only UC campus to offer undergraduate degrees in creative writing and public policy and one of three UCs (along with Berkeley and Irvine) to offer an undergraduate degree in business administration. Through its Division of Biomedical Sciences, founded in 1974, UCR offers the Thomas Haider medical degree program in collaboration with UCLA. UCR's doctoral program in the emerging field of dance theory, founded in 1992, was the first program of its kind in the United States, and UCR's minor in lesbian, gay and bisexual studies, established in 1996, was the first undergraduate program of its kind in the UC system. A new BA program in bagpipes was inaugurated in 2007. Rankings Institutional rankings of UC Riverside vary widely, depending on the criteria of the publication. For instance, U.S. News & World Report has named UC Riverside the top university in the nation for social mobility in 2021, 2020, and 2019. In the 2022 edition of U.S. News & World Report'''s "America's Best Colleges", UCR was ranked tied for 83rd among national universities, 33rd among public schools, and 1st for Social Mobility; criteria include professor peer assessment, student selectivity and retention, as well as faculty resources, financial resources, and alumni giving. In the 2020 edition of the Washington Monthly college rankings, UCR ranked 27th among national universities. Washington Monthly assesses the quality of schools based on social mobility (recruiting and graduating low-income students), research (producing cutting-edge scholarship and PhDs), and service (encouraging students to give something back to their country). In the 2021 edition of Webometrics Ranking of World Universities based in Spain, UCR was ranked 67th among national universities and 132nd among world universities. Money magazine ranked UC Riverside 48th in the country out of the nearly 1500 schools it evaluated for its 2020 Best Colleges ranking. According to the Faculty Scholarly Productivity Index published by Academic Analytics in 2006, UCR as an institution ranked 46th among top research universities considering such criteria as faculty publications, citations, research funding and other honors. Since 1997, more than 110 UCR faculty members have been elected fellows of the American Association for the Advancement of Science. Over the course of UCR's history, seven current or former faculty members have been elected to the National Academy of Sciences, and more than 50 have received Guggenheim Fellowships. UCR currently has two Nobel Laureates on its faculty. Historical rankings Research and economic impact UCR operated under a $727 million budget in fiscal year 2014–15. The state government provided $214 million, student fees accounted for $224 million and $100 million came from contracts and grants. Private support and other sources accounted for the remaining $189 million. Overall, monies spent at UCR have an economic impact of nearly $1 billion in California. UCR research expenditure in FY 2018 totaled $167.8 million. Total research expenditures at Riverside are significantly concentrated in agricultural science, accounting for 53% of total research expenditures spent by the university in 2002. Top research centers by expenditure, as measured in 2002, include the Agricultural Experiment Station, the Center for Environmental Research and Technology, the Center for Bibliographical Studies, the Air Pollution Research Center, and the Institute of Geophysics and Planetary Physics. Throughout UCR's history, researchers have developed more than 40 new citrus varieties and invented new techniques to help the $960 million-a-year California citrus industry fight pests and diseases. In 1927, entomologists at the CES introduced two wasps from Australia as natural enemies of a major citrus pest, the citrophilus mealybug, saving growers in Orange County $1 million in annual losses. This event was pivotal in establishing biological control as a practical means of reducing pest populations. In 1963, plant physiologist Charles Coggins proved that application of gibberellic acid allows fruit to remain on citrus trees for extended periods. The ultimate result of his work, which continued through the 1980s, was the extension of the citrus-growing season in California from four to nine months. In 1980, UC Riverside released the Oroblanco grapefruit, its first patented citrus variety. Since then, the citrus breeding program has released other varieties such as the Melogold grapefruit, the Gold Nugget mandarin (or tangerine), and others that have yet to be given trademark names. To assist entrepreneurs in developing new products, UCR is a primary partner in the Riverside Regional Technology Park, which includes the City of Riverside and the County of Riverside. It also administers six reserves of the University of California Natural Reserve System. UCR recently announced a partnership with China Agricultural University to launch a new center in Beijing, which will study ways to respond to the country's growing environmental issues. UCR can also boast the birthplace of two name reactions in organic chemistry, the Castro-Stephens coupling and the Midland Alpine Borane Reduction. Admissions and enrollment Admission to UC Riverside is rated as "more selective" by U.S. News & World Report. For Fall 2018, UCR received 49,079 freshmen applications; 24,820 were admitted (50.6%). The average GPA of the enrolled freshmen was 3.83, while the average SAT scores were 620 for reading & writing and 635 for math. In 2006, 43.4 percent of admitted students were first generation college students, 38.7 percent came from low family income backgrounds, and 24 percent graduated from low-performing high schools as measured by Academic Performance Index (API) scores. In 2007, U.S. News ranked UCR as the third most ethnically diverse and, by the number of undergraduates receiving Pell Grants (42 percent), the 15th most economically diverse student body in the nation. According to statistics released by the Education Trust, a national nonprofit, in 2005 UC Riverside graduated 65.3 percent of its students in six years, a figure consistent with national averages but behind the average set by the top five public research universities by as much as 22 percent. However, UCR's consistency with the national average is well above the median of 39 percent for low-income-serving institutions as calculated in 2006 by the National Center for Education Statistics, making the campus a model for successful approaches to diversity in higher education. Libraries and collections Total library collections at UCR comprise more than 2 million volumes, 14,017 electronic journals, 23,000 serial subscriptions, and 1.7 million microformats. Two large, four-story libraries house most of the physical collections. The Rivera library was constructed in 1954 and named after Tomás Rivera in 1985. It seats a capacity of 956 and houses general humanities and social science collections, as well as special collections, including the world's largest collection of science fiction, horror and fantasy literature, the 110,000-volume Eaton Collection. The Rivera Library also hosts the only U.S. Patent and Trademark Depository based on a UC campus. The Raymond L. Orbach Science Library, built in 1998, seats a capacity of 1,360 and houses 533,000 volumes in the physical, natural, agricultural, biomedical, engineering and computer sciences, with special strengths in the areas of citrus and sub-tropical horticulture, entomology, and arid lands agriculture. On November 3, 2009, the Science library was officially renamed the Raymond L. Orbach Science Library in honor of former Chancellor Raymond L. Orbach. Smaller libraries include the Media and Cultural Library, the Music Library, and a branch digital library in Palm Desert. The UCR Library is one of 116 members of the Association of Research Libraries, and is ranked 93rd in this group. UCR's academic colleges administer significant museum collections in the arts and sciences. The Citrus Variety Collection constitutes 1,800 trees representing two of each of the 640 types of citrus and 28 other related genera in the family Rutaceae, the largest such collection in the world. The Herbarium houses more than 110,000 dried plant specimens from across the Western hemisphere. UCR is also home to of botanical gardens containing more than 3,500 plant species from around the world. The Gardens are located in the eastern foothills of the Box Springs Mountain on the University of California, Riverside campus. Over four miles (6 km) of trails wind through many microclimates and hilly terrain. The Entomology Research Museum contains more than three million insect specimens, with particular strengths in Hymenoptera, Chalcidoidea, Aphelinidae, Thysanoptera and Meloidae. The UCR/California Museum of Photography and Sweeney Art Gallery house UCR's primary art collections. The UCR/CMP includes the world's largest holding of vintage stereographs, one of the three great public collections of photographic apparatus in the US, and the University Print Collection of contemporary and historical images by over 1000 photographers. Located adjacent to the UCR/CMP, the Sweeney Art Gallery holds approximately 650 unique works, with especially strong collections from the modern to contemporary periods, including pieces by Alexander Calder, Roy Lichtenstein, Millard Sheets and Kara Walker. Student life Much of the student life on campus revolves around extensive local outreach and retention programs. Riverside enrolls the highest percentage of African American students of any of the 10 UC campuses and the second highest percentage of Latino students after Merced, prompting the Los Angeles Times and New York Times to run stories stating that UCR is a "campus of choice" for minority students. UCR was the first college in California to open a staffed lesbian, gay, bisexual and transgender (LGBT) resource center in 1993, the first UC campus to offer a LGBT minor studies program in 1996, and the first campus in the nation to offer a gender-neutral housing option in 2005. In recognition of this, The Advocate recognized UCR as one of the nation's best campuses for LGBT students in 2006, although it did not make the top 20. The Princeton Review listed UCR as a "Best Western College." (registration required) While over 83 percent of students are non-white, there is a tendency for the different ethnic groups to self-segregate. Housing UCR's residence halls consist of four structures—Aberdeen-Inverness, Dundee, Lothian, and Pentland Hills—which can house over 3,000 students in double and triple rooms. In addition, UCR features several on-campus apartment complexes such as Stonehaven, Bannockburn Village, University Plaza, Falkirk, Oban, Glen Mor and International Village, which together house 959 students. UCR also offers student family housing at Canyon Crest, a low-density residential community that serves 268 and is slated for demolition to make room for higher-density residence halls. Oban has since been upgraded to accommodate family housing as Canyon Crest is beginning to get demolished. Glen Mor, an apartment housing complex adjacent to Pentland Hills, was opened in 2007, and the university also purchased a nearby apartment complex, which is now known as Falkirk, for student housing in 2007. About half of the student population lives in off-campus apartments, one-fourth commute, and one-fourth live on campus. Thirty percent of students remain on campus for the weekend. Reflecting UCR's diversity, a number of residence halls have been established for specific social, cultural and academic needs. Ethnic and gender-oriented theme halls include Unete a Mundo, for students seeking to support Latino or Chicano students in acclimating to life at UCR; a Pan African Theme Hall for students interested in developing consciousness of African culture in relation to other cultures of the world; and Stonewall Hall, dedicated to students of all gender identities and sexual orientations who wish to live in a gender-neutral community. UCR's three academic colleges in the humanities, sciences and engineering fields are represented by respective theme halls, and halls exist for honor students and transfer students. In Fall 2018, UCR began construction of a new residence hall and dining facility in the parking lot behind Aberdeen-Inverness. It is slated to be called Dundee-Glasgow and will feature UCR's first two-story residential restaurant. Student organizations and activities UCR hosts over 375 registered student organizations, including the Associated Students of the University of California, Riverside (ASUCR), which represents undergraduates on administrative and policy issues. ASUCR is guided by a Senate composed of 16 elected senators, who represent the three undergraduate colleges in proportion to their enrollment, 5 Executive Cabinet Officers (President, Executive Vice President, Vice President of Campus Internal Affairs, Vice President of External Affairs, and Vice President of Finance), and 6 Directors, who are in charge of the various parts of ASUCR, and a Judicial Council of 6, which adjudicates any cases involving personnel misconduct or interpretation of the Constitution. Membership is composed of all UCR students who pay mandatory activity fees. ASUCR assesses these fees and distributes funds to registered student groups on campus, including student lobbying groups, a right that ASUCR won in a federal court case against the Regents in 1999. Of the registered student groups, 40 are fraternities and sororities. Nine men's fraternities belong to the North American Interfraternity Conference; seven women's sororities belong to the National Panhellenic Conference; seven men's fraternities and ten women's sororities represent the National Multicultural Greek Council, and two others fall under the campus Raza Assembly and are unique to UCR. Thirteen percent of the undergraduate student body participates in Greek life, although chapter houses are not permitted. Including the Greek letter organizations, more than 60 student volunteer service organizations at UCR contribute to more than 100,000 hours of collective and individual service done in the community each year. Jewish student life has existed for over a decade through UCR Hillel. Student media organizations include The Highlander student newspaper, currently published every Tuesday during the academic year. First published in 1954, The Highlander remains an independent student media outlet. It was an entirely self-funded organization until 2001, when ASUCR passed a funding referendum for it. Student fees from the referendum go towards overhead and printing costs, however The Highlander is primarily funded through its own advertising revenue. In 2003, The Highlander published a comic depicting a stereotypical Asian American graduate teaching assistant with poor English skills, inciting community backlash and prompting an apology from Editor-in-Chief Kahlil Ford. Other student news publications on campus include the Asian Community Times, Indian Time, Nuestra Cosa, Queeriosity, and the X-Factor Student Newspaper. Campus literary magazines include Mosaic, published at UCR since 1959, and Crate, published by graduate students in UCR's master's level creative writing program since 2005. UCR broadcasts over radio as KUCR at 88.3 FM. The station programs a variety of independent music, news and commentary. On-campus entertainment events are planned by a 14-member Associated Students Program Board (ASPB), comprising six student-run divisions that include concerts, films and lectures, cultural events and special events, as well as a marketing and leadership division. ASPB's major events include the Block Party Concert, Winter Soulstice, Homecoming Bonfire and Spring Splash. Still other on-campus events take place at The Barn, one of the original buildings on campus grounds. Throughout the 60s', 70s' and 80s' popular up and coming bands played at The Barn including No Doubt and Radiohead. During the 90s' however, the university administration sought to avoid a "party school" stigma and did away with the concerts and events and remodeled the facility into a restaurant, The Big West Bar and Grill. As recently as the fall of 2007, concerts returned to The Barn and efforts are underway to rejuvenate it and once again make it into an on-campus venue attracting students as well as the larger university community. The Graduate Student Association of the University of California, Riverside (GSAUCR) is ASUCR's counterpart on the graduate level. It is guided by a Graduate Student Council consisting of representatives from every department on campus. GSAUCR assesses fees required of all graduate students and uses them to fund research awards and colloquiums, conference travel grants, and speaker funds. Athletics UCR's varsity teams compete in the Big West Conference of NCAA Division I. Programs include men's and women's soccer, cross country, basketball, track and field, baseball, softball, tennis, golf and women's volleyball. After students voted to assess themselves $35 a quarter to fund the athletic programs in 1998, men's and women's soccer and golf were added, and the athletic department switched from NCAA Division II in 2000. While at Division II level, UCR produced 5 national championship teams in men's baseball and women's volleyball. , UCR had produced 17 individual national champions, 175 All-Americans and many conference and regional champions. The men's golf team represented UCR in the 2004 and 2005 NCAA West Regionals after winning back-to-back Conference Championships in those respective years while having three athletes ranked in the top 100 in the country. In 2006, 2007, and 2010 the UCR women's basketball team represented the conference in the Division I tournament but lost all three times in the first round. In December 2008, the UCR women's basketball team upset the #16-seeded Vanderbilt Commodores. In 2005 the women's soccer team competed in the first round of the NCAA tournament. In 2007, UCR's baseball team won their first Big West championship and reached the Division I postseason for the second time since 2003, and the cross country team sent its first two athletes to the national championships. Football was played until 1975, and the team won two CCAA championships before the sport was discontinued because of low attendance and in anticipation of the impact of Title IX regulations. The volleyball and basketball teams play home games in the Student Recreation Center Arena (SRC), which seats 3,168. The baseball team competes at the Riverside Sports Complex, just off campus at the corner of Blaine and Rustin streets. UCR graduate Troy Percival personally built UCR's baseball clubhouse to major league quality standards. Softball is played at the Amy S. Harrison Field, named after a UCR graduate who donated $300,000 towards its upgrade in 2004. Adjacent to the softball field are the soccer and track fields. The soccer field was resurfaced with artificial turf in 2007. In 2011, the old track and field facility, which had bleachers that dated back to the 1950s and a track surface that was over 15 years old, was completely torn out and replaced with a brand new facility. Non-varsity student sports clubs that compete with other area universities include the Rugby Football Club, established in 2006, which plays in the Southern California Rugby Football Union. The karate program is provided through the UC Riverside Recreation Center's Leisure Line classes. The classes are provided by top-of-the-line USA Shotokan karate team coaches from the American JKA Karate Association, an association that has been in the city for over 40 years. It is one of the largest collegiate programs in the United States, that take competitors to local, national and international competitions. UCR also has a Boxing club that competes in the USIBA College National Championships and trains at a local gym named the Raincross Boxing Academy A Men's and Women's Club Soccer team also competes in the West Coast Soccer Association. In 1954, UCR's founding class adopted the name "Highlanders", reflecting the campus' high altitude. After the student body passed a referendum to move to Division I competition in 1998, the bear mascot, formerly called "Scotty", was professionally redesigned to look more ferocious. The new mascot featured a half-blue face in homage to William Wallace, the subject of the movie Braveheart. In line with the Scottish motif, UCR assembles a bagpipe band made up of students and staff who play at graduation and other campus events. The blue and gold tartan worn by the pipe band and the mascot is a registered trademark of the University of California. For the women's basketball team's first appearance at the NCAA Tournament in 2006, UCR sent 22 members of the pipe band to play at halftime. National Championship Teams (Division II) Baseball (1977 and 1982). Women's Volleyball (1977 – AIAW, 1982 and 1986). Women's Soccer (1983) First place in the California Collegiate Women's Soccer Conference. Notable people Alumni More than 94,000 alumni have graduated from UCR over the course of its history. A Alumni and Visitors Center was established in 2007. It is used as a central gathering place for alumni and holds several facilities for use including meeting rooms, a formal board room, a central lobby area, a library, several alumni affairs offices, and a café. Some of the most notable alumni include the following: Steve Breen: editorial cartoonist and two time Pulitzer Prize winner (1998 and 2009.) Billy Collins: author, 11th U.S. Poet Laureate. Dr. Richard R. Schrock: physicist, Nobel Prize in Chemistry recipient. Tim D. White: Paleoanthropologist, named one of Time Magazine's "100 Most Influential People of 2010" for his work with Lucy, one of the oldest known Hominin. Charles E. Young: UCR's first student body president, later became Chancellor of UCLA. Brenda Martinez: Ran Track & Field for UCR and later represented the United States in the 2016 Rio de Janeiro Olympics for the 1500 meter track event Anil Raj - former Amnesty International Board Member and UNDP aid worker killed in a terror attack in Kabul in November 2019 India West News, "Indian American UNDP Aid Worker Anil Raj Killed in Afghanistan" November 26, 2019 Judy Shapiro-Ikenberry, long-distance runner Joe Kelly, Major League Baseball pitcher Faculty Richard R. Schrock: chemist, Nobel Prize in Chemistry laureate Barry Barish: physicist, Nobel Prize in Physics laureate Reza Aslan: author, researcher, member of the Council on Foreign Relations Chris Abani: author, member of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences John C. Baez: physicist, researcher focused on loop quantum gravity Mike Davis: historian, MacArthur Fellows Program recipient Steve Erickson: author Edwin Gaustad: historian, President of the American Society of Church History Nalo Hopkinson: author, World Fantasy Award recipient Anne Kernan, an Irish particle physicist Laila Lalami: author, American Book Awards recipient Sonja Lyubomirsky: psychologist, author of the bestseller The How of Happiness: A Scientific Approach to Getting the Life You Want'' Robert Nisbet: sociologist Robert Rosenthal: psychologist, Guggenheim Fellowship recipient Jane Smiley: author, Pulitzer Prize recipient Harry Scott Smith: entomologist Susan Straight: author, Edgar Award recipient Karl Taube: archeologist, researcher focused on pre-Columbian civilization Gail Hanson: physicist, Panofsky Prize recipient Perry Link: author, professor of foreign languages John Martin Fischer: philosopher See also University of California Students Association Katherine Siva Saubel – Cahuilla people leader and scholar, received the Chancellor's Medal from UCR References External links UC Riverside Athletics site Riverside University of California, Riverside Universities and colleges in Riverside County, California Educational institutions established in 1954 Land-grant universities and colleges Creative writing programs Schools accredited by the Western Association of Schools and Colleges Education in Riverside, California 1954 establishments in California	[ 0.20767928659915924, -0.185072660446167, -0.03167750686407089, -0.15160459280014038, 0.1661955863237381, 0.27387282252311707, 0.05169906094670296, 0.9493116736412048, -0.27546557784080505, -0.40010061860084534, 0.12057392299175262, 0.05932627245783806, 0.3779926598072052, 0.050242118537425995, 0.04489150270819664, -0.6469497680664062, 0.38888925313949585, 0.6306448578834534, 0.7955327033996582, -0.1384085863828659, -0.2726447880268097, 0.10746316611766815, 0.0745415985584259, 0.34175950288772583, 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230318	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ball%20bonding	Ball bonding	Ball bonding is a type of wire bonding, and is the most common way to make the electrical interconnections between a bare silicon die and the lead frame of the package it is placed in during semiconductor device fabrication. Gold or copper wire can be used, though gold is more common because its oxide is not as problematic in making a weld. If copper wire is used, nitrogen must be used as a cover gas to prevent the copper oxides from forming during the wire bonding process. Copper is also harder than gold, which makes damage to the surface of the chip more likely. However copper is cheaper than gold and has superior electrical properties, and so remains a compelling choice. Almost all modern ball bonding processes use a combination of heat, pressure, and ultrasonic energy to make a weld at each end of the wire. The wire used can be as small as 15 µm in diameter—such that several welds could fit across the width of a human hair. A person upon first seeing a ball bonder will usually compare its operation to that of a sewing machine. In fact there is a needle-like disposable tool called the capillary, through which the wire is fed. A high-voltage electric charge is applied to the wire. This melts the wire at the tip of the capillary. The tip of the wire forms into a ball because of the surface tension of the molten metal. The ball quickly solidifies, and the capillary is lowered to the surface of the chip, which is typically heated to at least 125°C. The machine then pushes down on the capillary and applies ultrasonic energy with an attached transducer. The combined heat, pressure, and ultrasonic energy create a weld between the copper or gold ball and the surface of the chip—which is usually copper or aluminum. This is the so-called ball bond that gives the process its name. (All-aluminum systems in semiconductor fabrication eliminate the "purple plague"—a brittle gold-aluminum intermetallic compound—sometimes associated with pure gold bonding wire. This property makes aluminum ideal for ultrasonic bonding.) Next the wire is passed out through the capillary and the machine moves over a few millimeters to the location that the chip needs to be wired up to (usually called the leadframe). The machine again descends to the surface, this time without making a ball so that the wire is crushed between the leadframe and the tip of the capillary. This time the surface is usually gold, palladium, or silver—but the weld is made in the same way. The resulting weld is quite different in appearance from the ball bond, and is referred to as the wedge bond, tail bond, or simply as the second bond. In the final step the machine pays out a small length of wire and tears the wire from the surface using a set of clamps. This leaves a small tail of wire hanging from the end of the capillary. The cycle then starts again with the high-voltage electric charge being applied to this tail. The process where wire is cut right after ball is formed is also called stud bumping. Stud bumping is used when stacking chips in system in package (SIP) modules. The current state-of-the-art machines () can repeat this cycle about 20 times per second. A modern ball bonder is fully automatic and is essentially a self-sufficient industrial robot, complete with a vision system, sensors, and complex servo systems. Ball bonding transducer Piezoelectric transducers are used to provide ultrasonic energy in the ball bonding process. These transducers are known as bolt-clamped transducers or Langevin transducers. They consist of metal components and piezoelectric elements, all held together by a bolt. These transducers operate at their resonant frequency of lateral vibration to introduce lateral ultrasonic excitation to the capillary. Along the lateral direction of the transducer, there exists nodal points (large displacement) and antinodal points (no displacement). Piezoelectric elements expand and contract upon alternating voltage excitation (which will be at the resonance frequency), thereby exciting resonance vibration in the structure. Usually, a few elements are stacked in order to increase the electric field for an applied voltage (stress is generated proportional to electric field). In order to maximize the energy transfer from the piezoelectric element to the structure, they are placed at nodes, which are high strain and high stress regions. At the same time, in order to minimize energy loss to the surroundings, the transducer is held at an antinode (no displacement).At the front end of the transducer a tapered horn is used to magnify the vibration. Different tapering profiles can be used to get the desired result, such as a linear taper or parabolic taper. The horn's taper reduces the cross-sectional area, causing a larger ultrasonic energy density, then leading to more displacement near the tip. The capillary is placed near the tip for this reason. Higher order bending modes are excited in the capillary, which are quite unideal. In order to mitigate this effect, the capillary clamping position is adjusted to an antinode of the capillary. Ideally, the capillary would be short, but this is not possible because the bond needs to be made in hard to reach areas. The bolt clamps the whole structure together by screwing into the horn (depending on the configuration). Correct preload needs to be administered in order to optimize performance. Piezo ceramics are weak under tension; therefore, a large preload will ensure the ceramics will operate mostly in compression due to the bias stress. 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230319	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hardy%E2%80%93Weinberg%20principle	Hardy–Weinberg principle	In population genetics, the Hardy–Weinberg principle, also known as the Hardy–Weinberg equilibrium, model, theorem, or law, states that allele and genotype frequencies in a population will remain constant from generation to generation in the absence of other evolutionary influences. These influences include genetic drift, mate choice, assortative mating, natural selection, sexual selection, mutation, gene flow, meiotic drive, genetic hitchhiking, population bottleneck, founder effect and inbreeding. In the simplest case of a single locus with two alleles denoted A and a with frequencies and , respectively, the expected genotype frequencies under random mating are for the AA homozygotes, for the aa homozygotes, and for the heterozygotes. In the absence of selection, mutation, genetic drift, or other forces, allele frequencies p and q are constant between generations, so equilibrium is reached. The principle is named after G. H. Hardy and Wilhelm Weinberg, who first demonstrated it mathematically. Hardy's paper was focused on debunking the view that a dominant allele would automatically tend to increase in frequency (a view possibly based on a misinterpreted question at a lecture). Today, tests for Hardy–Weinberg genotype frequencies are used primarily to test for population stratification and other forms of non-random mating. Derivation Consider a population of monoecious diploids, where each organism produces male and female gametes at equal frequency, and has two alleles at each gene locus. Organisms reproduce by random union of gametes (the "gene pool" population model). A locus in this population has two alleles, A and a, that occur with initial frequencies and , respectively. The allele frequencies at each generation are obtained by pooling together the alleles from each genotype of the same generation according to the expected contribution from the homozygote and heterozygote genotypes, which are 1 and 1/2, respectively: The different ways to form genotypes for the next generation can be shown in a Punnett square, where the proportion of each genotype is equal to the product of the row and column allele frequencies from the current generation. The sum of the entries is , as the genotype frequencies must sum to one. Note again that as , the binomial expansion of gives the same relationships. Summing the elements of the Punnett square or the binomial expansion, we obtain the expected genotype proportions among the offspring after a single generation: These frequencies define the Hardy–Weinberg equilibrium. It should be mentioned that the genotype frequencies after the first generation need not equal the genotype frequencies from the initial generation, e.g. . However, the genotype frequencies for all future times will equal the Hardy–Weinberg frequencies, e.g. for . This follows since the genotype frequencies of the next generation depend only on the allele frequencies of the current generation which, as calculated by equations () and (), are preserved from the initial generation: For the more general case of dioecious diploids [organisms are either male or female] that reproduce by random mating of individuals, it is necessary to calculate the genotype frequencies from the nine possible matings between each parental genotype (AA, Aa, and aa) in either sex, weighted by the expected genotype contributions of each such mating. Equivalently, one considers the six unique diploid-diploid combinations: and constructs a Punnett square for each, so as to calculate its contribution to the next generation's genotypes. These contributions are weighted according to the probability of each diploid-diploid combination, which follows a multinomial distribution with . For example, the probability of the mating combination is and it can only result in the genotype: . Overall, the resulting genotype frequencies are calculated as: As before, one can show that the allele frequencies at time equal those at time , and so, are constant in time. Similarly, the genotype frequencies depend only on the allele frequencies, and so, after time are also constant in time. If in either monoecious or dioecious organisms, either the allele or genotype proportions are initially unequal in either sex, it can be shown that constant proportions are obtained after one generation of random mating. If dioecious organisms are heterogametic and the gene locus is located on the X chromosome, it can be shown that if the allele frequencies are initially unequal in the two sexes [e.g., XX females and XY males, as in humans], in the heterogametic sex 'chases' in the homogametic sex of the previous generation, until an equilibrium is reached at the weighted average of the two initial frequencies. Deviations from Hardy–Weinberg equilibrium The seven assumptions underlying Hardy–Weinberg equilibrium are as follows: organisms are diploid only sexual reproduction occurs generations are nonoverlapping mating is random population size is infinitely large allele frequencies are equal in the sexes there is no migration, gene flow, admixture, mutation or selection Violations of the Hardy–Weinberg assumptions can cause deviations from expectation. How this affects the population depends on the assumptions that are violated. Random mating. The HWP states the population will have the given genotypic frequencies (called Hardy–Weinberg proportions) after a single generation of random mating within the population. When the random mating assumption is violated, the population will not have Hardy–Weinberg proportions. A common cause of non-random mating is inbreeding, which causes an increase in homozygosity for all genes. If a population violates one of the following four assumptions, the population may continue to have Hardy–Weinberg proportions each generation, but the allele frequencies will change over time. Selection, in general, causes allele frequencies to change, often quite rapidly. While directional selection eventually leads to the loss of all alleles except the favored one (unless one allele is dominant, in which case recessive alleles can survive at low frequencies), some forms of selection, such as balancing selection, lead to equilibrium without loss of alleles. Mutation will have a very subtle effect on allele frequencies. Mutation rates are of the order 10−4 to 10−8, and the change in allele frequency will be, at most, the same order. Recurrent mutation will maintain alleles in the population, even if there is strong selection against them. Migration genetically links two or more populations together. In general, allele frequencies will become more homogeneous among the populations. Some models for migration inherently include nonrandom mating (Wahlund effect, for example). For those models, the Hardy–Weinberg proportions will normally not be valid. Small population size can cause a random change in allele frequencies. This is due to a sampling effect, and is called genetic drift. Sampling effects are most important when the allele is present in a small number of copies. In real world genotype data, deviations from Hardy-Weinberg Equilibrium may be a sign of genotyping error. Sex linkage Where the A gene is sex linked, the heterogametic sex (e.g., mammalian males; avian females) have only one copy of the gene (and are termed hemizygous), while the homogametic sex (e.g., human females) have two copies. The genotype frequencies at equilibrium are p and q for the heterogametic sex but p2, 2pq and q2 for the homogametic sex. For example, in humans red–green colorblindness is an X-linked recessive trait. In western European males, the trait affects about 1 in 12, (q = 0.083) whereas it affects about 1 in 200 females (0.005, compared to q2 = 0.007), very close to Hardy–Weinberg proportions. If a population is brought together with males and females with a different allele frequency in each subpopulation (males or females), the allele frequency of the male population in the next generation will follow that of the female population because each son receives its X chromosome from its mother. The population converges on equilibrium very quickly. Generalizations The simple derivation above can be generalized for more than two alleles and polyploidy. Generalization for more than two alleles Consider an extra allele frequency, r. The two-allele case is the binomial expansion of (p + q)2, and thus the three-allele case is the trinomial expansion of (p + q + r)2. More generally, consider the alleles A1, ..., An given by the allele frequencies p1 to pn; giving for all homozygotes: and for all heterozygotes: Generalization for polyploidy The Hardy–Weinberg principle may also be generalized to polyploid systems, that is, for organisms that have more than two copies of each chromosome. Consider again only two alleles. The diploid case is the binomial expansion of: and therefore the polyploid case is the polynomial expansion of: where c is the ploidy, for example with tetraploid (c = 4): Whether the organism is a 'true' tetraploid or an amphidiploid will determine how long it will take for the population to reach Hardy–Weinberg equilibrium. Complete generalization For distinct alleles in -ploids, the genotype frequencies in the Hardy–Weinberg equilibrium are given by individual terms in the multinomial expansion of : Significance tests for deviation Testing deviation from the HWP is generally performed using Pearson's chi-squared test, using the observed genotype frequencies obtained from the data and the expected genotype frequencies obtained using the HWP. For systems where there are large numbers of alleles, this may result in data with many empty possible genotypes and low genotype counts, because there are often not enough individuals present in the sample to adequately represent all genotype classes. If this is the case, then the asymptotic assumption of the chi-squared distribution, will no longer hold, and it may be necessary to use a form of Fisher's exact test, which requires a computer to solve. More recently a number of MCMC methods of testing for deviations from HWP have been proposed (Guo & Thompson, 1992; Wigginton et al. 2005) Example test for deviation This data is from E. B. Ford (1971) on the scarlet tiger moth, for which the phenotypes of a sample of the population were recorded. Genotype-phenotype distinction is assumed to be negligibly small. The null hypothesis is that the population is in Hardy–Weinberg proportions, and the alternative hypothesis is that the population is not in Hardy–Weinberg proportions. From this, allele frequencies can be calculated: and So the Hardy–Weinberg expectation is: Pearson's chi-squared test states: There is 1 degree of freedom (degrees of freedom for test for Hardy–Weinberg proportions are # genotypes − # alleles). The 5% significance level for 1 degree of freedom is 3.84, and since the χ2 value is less than this, the null hypothesis that the population is in Hardy–Weinberg frequencies is not rejected. Fisher's exact test (probability test) Fisher's exact test can be applied to testing for Hardy–Weinberg proportions. Since the test is conditional on the allele frequencies, p and q, the problem can be viewed as testing for the proper number of heterozygotes. In this way, the hypothesis of Hardy–Weinberg proportions is rejected if the number of heterozygotes is too large or too small. The conditional probabilities for the heterozygote, given the allele frequencies are given in Emigh (1980) as where n11, n12, n22 are the observed numbers of the three genotypes, AA, Aa, and aa, respectively, and n1 is the number of A alleles, where . An example Using one of the examples from Emigh (1980), we can consider the case where n = 100, and p = 0.34. The possible observed heterozygotes and their exact significance level is given in Table 4. Using this table, one must look up the significance level of the test based on the observed number of heterozygotes. For example, if one observed 20 heterozygotes, the significance level for the test is 0.007. As is typical for Fisher's exact test for small samples, the gradation of significance levels is quite coarse. However, a table like this has to be created for every experiment, since the tables are dependent on both n and p. Equivalence tests The equivalence tests are developed in order to establish sufficiently good agreement of the observed genotype frequencies and Hardy Weinberg equilibrium. Let denote the family of the genotype distributions under the assumption of Hardy Weinberg equilibrium. The distance between a genotype distribution and Hardy Weinberg equilibrium is defined by , where is some distance. The equivalence test problem is given by and , where is a tolerance parameter. If the hypothesis can be rejected then the population is close to Hardy Weinberg equilibrium with a high probability. The equivalence tests for the biallelic case are developed among others in Wellek (2004). The equivalence tests for the case of multiple alleles are proposed in Ostrovski (2020). Inbreeding coefficient The inbreeding coefficient, F (see also F-statistics), is one minus the observed frequency of heterozygotes over that expected from Hardy–Weinberg equilibrium. where the expected value from Hardy–Weinberg equilibrium is given by For example, for Ford's data above; For two alleles, the chi-squared goodness of fit test for Hardy–Weinberg proportions is equivalent to the test for inbreeding, F = 0. The inbreeding coefficient is unstable as the expected value approaches zero, and thus not useful for rare and very common alleles. For: E = 0, O > 0, F = −∞ and E = 0, O = 0, F is undefined. History Mendelian genetics were rediscovered in 1900. However, it remained somewhat controversial for several years as it was not then known how it could cause continuous characteristics. Udny Yule (1902) argued against Mendelism because he thought that dominant alleles would increase in the population. The American William E. Castle (1903) showed that without selection, the genotype frequencies would remain stable. Karl Pearson (1903) found one equilibrium position with values of p = q = 0.5. Reginald Punnett, unable to counter Yule's point, introduced the problem to G. H. Hardy, a British mathematician, with whom he played cricket. Hardy was a pure mathematician and held applied mathematics in some contempt; his view of biologists' use of mathematics comes across in his 1908 paper where he describes this as "very simple": To the Editor of Science: I am reluctant to intrude in a discussion concerning matters of which I have no expert knowledge, and I should have expected the very simple point which I wish to make to have been familiar to biologists. However, some remarks of Mr. Udny Yule, to which Mr. R. C. Punnett has called my attention, suggest that it may still be worth making... Suppose that Aa is a pair of Mendelian characters, A being dominant, and that in any given generation the number of pure dominants (AA), heterozygotes (Aa), and pure recessives (aa) are as p:2q:r. Finally, suppose that the numbers are fairly large, so that mating may be regarded as random, that the sexes are evenly distributed among the three varieties, and that all are equally fertile. A little mathematics of the multiplication-table type is enough to show that in the next generation the numbers will be as (p + q)2:2(p + q)(q + r):(q + r)2, or as p1:2q1:r1, say. The interesting question is: in what circumstances will this distribution be the same as that in the generation before? It is easy to see that the condition for this is q2 = pr. And since q12 = p1r1, whatever the values of p, q, and r may be, the distribution will in any case continue unchanged after the second generation The principle was thus known as Hardy's law in the English-speaking world until 1943, when Curt Stern pointed out that it had first been formulated independently in 1908 by the German physician Wilhelm Weinberg. William Castle in 1903 also derived the ratios for the special case of equal allele frequencies, and it is sometimes (but rarely) called the Hardy–Weinberg–Castle Law. Derivation of Hardy's equations Hardy's statement begins with a recurrence relation for the frequencies p, 2q, and r. These recurrence relations follow from fundamental concepts in probability, specifically independence, and conditional probability. For example, consider the probability of an offspring from the generation being homozygous dominant. Alleles are inherited independently from each parent. A dominant allele can be inherited from a homozygous dominant parent with probability 1, or from a heterozygous parent with probability 0.5. To represent this reasoning in an equation, let represent inheritance of a dominant allele from a parent. Furthermore, let and represent potential parental genotypes in the preceding generation. The same reasoning, applied to the other genotypes yields the two remaining recurrence relations. Equilibrium occurs when each proportion is constant between subsequent generations. More formally, a population is at equilibrium at generation when , , and By solving these equations necessary and sufficient conditions for equilibrium to occur can be determined. Again, consider the frequency of homozygous dominant animals. Equilibrium implies First consider the case, where , and note that it implies that and . Now consider the remaining case, where ≠ Where the final equality holds because the allele proportions must sum to one. In both cases, . It can be shown that the other two equilibrium conditions imply the same equation. Together, the solutions of the three equilibrium equations imply sufficiency of Hardy's condition for equilibrium. Since the condition always holds for the second generation, all succeeding generations have the same proportions. Numerical example Estimation of genotype distribution An example computation of the genotype distribution given by Hardy's original equations is instructive. The phenotype distribution from Table 3 above will be used to compute Hardy's initial genotype distribution. Note that the p and q values used by Hardy are not the same as those used above. As checks on the distribution, compute and For the next generation, Hardy's equations give Again as checks on the distribution, compute and which are the expected values. The reader may demonstrate that subsequent use of the second-generation values for a third generation will yield identical results. Estimation of carrier frequency The Hardy–Weinberg principle can also be used to estimate the frequency of carriers of an autosomal recessive condition in a population based on the frequency of suffers. Let us assume an estimated babies are born with cystic fibrosis, this is about the frequency of homozygous individuals observed in Northern European populations. We can use the Hardy–Weinberg equations to estimate the carrier frequency, the frequency of heterozygous individuals, . As is small we can take p, , to be 1. We therefore estimate the carrier rate to be , which is about the frequency observed in Northern European populations. This can be simplified to the carrier frequency being about twice the square root of the birth frequency. Graphical representation It is possible to represent the distribution of genotype frequencies for a bi-allelic locus within a population graphically using a de Finetti diagram. This uses a triangular plot (also known as trilinear, triaxial or ternary plot) to represent the distribution of the three genotype frequencies in relation to each other. It differs from many other such plots in that the direction of one of the axes has been reversed. The curved line in the diagram is the Hardy–Weinberg parabola and represents the state where alleles are in Hardy–Weinberg equilibrium. It is possible to represent the effects of natural selection and its effect on allele frequency on such graphs. The de Finetti diagram was developed and used extensively by A. W. F. Edwards in his book Foundations of Mathematical Genetics. See also Regression toward the mean Multinomial distribution (Hardy–Weinberg is a trinomial distribution with probabilities ) Additive disequilibrium and z statistic Notes References Citations Sources Edwards, A.W.F. 1977. Foundations of Mathematical Genetics. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge (2nd ed., 2000). Ford, E.B. (1971). Ecological Genetics, London. External links EvolutionSolution (at bottom of page) Hardy–Weinberg Equilibrium Calculator genetics Population Genetics Simulator HARDY C implementation of Guo & Thompson 1992 Source code (C/C++/Fortran/R) for Wigginton et al. 2005 Online de Finetti Diagram Generator and Hardy–Weinberg equilibrium tests Online Hardy–Weinberg equilibrium tests and drawing of de Finetti diagrams Hardy–Weinberg Equilibrium Calculator Population genetics Classical genetics Statistical genetics Sexual selection	[ 0.13054026663303375, -0.29946169257164, -0.45869752764701843, 0.006025413051247597, 0.07745571434497833, 0.09846901893615723, 0.22060871124267578, -0.2240736186504364, 0.07106814533472061, -0.48550984263420105, 0.03543112054467201, 0.0029146962333470583, -0.4498697817325592, 0.8923035264015198, -0.4007623791694641, 0.29517480731010437, 0.1892692744731903, 0.36515092849731445, -0.08393654972314835, -0.450983464717865, 0.19603554904460907, 0.04195757210254669, 0.01783662848174572, 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230321	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yoshiko%20Kawashima	Yoshiko Kawashima	was a Qing dynasty princess of the Aisin-Gioro clan. She was raised in Japan and served as a spy for the Japanese Kwantung Army and Manchukuo during the Second Sino-Japanese War. She is sometimes known in fiction under the pseudonym "Eastern Mata Hari". After the war, she was captured, tried, and executed as a traitor by the Nationalist government of the Republic of China. She was also a notable descendant of Hooge, eldest son of Hong Taiji. Names She was born in the Aisin Gioro clan, the imperial clan of the Manchu-led Qing dynasty. Her birth name was Aisin Gioro Xianyu and her courtesy name was Dongzhen (literally "eastern jewel"). Her Sinicised name was Jin Bihui. She is best known by her Japanese name, Kawashima Yoshiko (川島芳子), which is read as Chuāndǎo Fāngzǐ in Chinese. In 1925, Yoshiko took the male name Ryōsuke. Family background and early life She was born Aisin Gioro Xianyu in Beijing in 1907 as the 14th daughter of Shanqi (1866–1922), a Manchu prince of the Aisin Gioro clan, the imperial clan of China's Qing dynasty. Her mother was Lady Janggiya (), Shanqi's fourth concubine. Shanqi was a descendant of Hooge, the eldest son of Hong Taiji (the second ruler of the Qing dynasty). Shanqi was also the tenth heir to the Prince Su peerage, one of the 12 "iron-cap" princely peerages of the Qing dynasty. After the Xinhai Revolution overthrew the Qing dynasty in 1912, Xianyu was given up for adoption in 1915 at the age of eight to her father's friend, Naniwa Kawashima, a Japanese espionage agent and mercenary adventurer. Her stepfather changed her name to "Yoshiko Kawashima" and took her back to Tokyo, Japan to be raised and educated in the Kawashima family house. As a teenage girl, Kawashima was sent to school in Tokyo for an education that included judo and fencing. Around the time her adoptive family moved to Matsumoto. Kawashima's biological father, Shanqi, died in 1922. As Kawashima's mother had no official identity as Shanqi's concubine, she followed Manchu tradition and committed suicide to join Shanqi. At the age of seventeen, her adoptive father raped her and later continued to abuse her. On November 22 1925, Yoshiko said that she had "...decided to cease being a woman forever." Earlier that day she had dressed in a kimono with a traditional female hair style and took a photo among blooming cosmos to commemorate "my farewell to life as a woman." That evening, Yoshiko went to a barbershop and had all her hair cut off, adopting a crew cut and from then on dressing in men's clothes. A photo of the transformation appeared five days later in the Asahi Shimbun under the headline: "Kawashima Yoshiko's Beautiful Black Hair Completely Cut Off - Because of Unfounded 'Rumors,' Makes Firm Decision to Become a Man - Touching Secret Tale of Her Shooting Herself," alluding to a prior episode in which she had shot herself in the chest with a pistol given to her by . She explained in another article two days after the first that "I was born with what the doctors call a tendency toward the third sex, and so I cannot pursue an ordinary woman's goals in life... Since I was young I've been dying to do the things that boys do. My impossible dream is to work hard like a man for China, for Asia." Earlier in her life it had been remarked upon that she had "boyish habits" despite her feminine beauty and that she would only use the male style of Japanese grammar, even after that contributed to her not being re-admitted to her school after her biological father's death. Espionage career In November 1927 at age 20, her brother and adoptive father arranged for her marriage to Ganjuurjab in Port Arthur (also known as Ryojun), who was the son of Inner Mongolian Army general Babojab, who once led the Mongolian-Manchurian Independence Movement there in 1911. The marriage ended in divorce after only three years and she left Mongolia, and she first traveled to teeming coastal towns of China and lived a bohemian lifestyle for some years in Tokyo with a series of rich lovers, both men and women. Kawashima moved to the foreign concession in Shanghai. While in Shanghai, she met Japanese military attaché and intelligence officer Ryukichi Tanaka, who utilised her contacts with the Manchu and Mongol nobility to expand his network. She was living with Tanaka in Shanghai at the time of the Shanghai Incident of 1932. After Tanaka was recalled to Japan, Kawashima continued to serve as a spy for the general Kenji Doihara. She undertook undercover missions in Manchuria, often in disguise, and was considered "strikingly attractive, with a dominating personality, almost a film-drama figure, half tom-boy and half heroine, and with a passion for dressing up as a male. She possibly did this in order to impress the men, or she may have done it in order to more easily fit into the tightly-knit guerrilla groups without attracting too much attention". Kawashima was well-acquainted with Puyi, the last emperor of the Qing dynasty, who regarded her as a member of the imperial family and welcomed her into his household during his stay in Tianjin. It was through this close liaison that Kawashima was able to persuade Puyi to become a figurehead ruler for Manchukuo, a puppet state created by the Japanese in Manchuria. However, Kawashima privately criticised Puyi for being too amenable to Japanese influence. After Puyi became Emperor of Manchukuo, Kawashima continued to play various roles and, for a time, was the mistress of Hayao Tada, the chief military advisor to Puyi. She formed an independent counterinsurgency cavalry force in 1932 made up of 3,000-5,000 former bandits to hunt down anti-Japanese guerrilla bands during the Pacification of Manchukuo, and was hailed in the Japanese newspapers as the Joan of Arc of Manchukuo. In 1933, she offered the unit to the Japanese Kwantung Army for Operation Nekka, but it was refused. The unit continued to exist under her command until sometime in the late 1930s. Kawashima became a well-known and popular figure in Manchukuo, making appearances on radio broadcasts and even issuing a record of her songs. Numerous fictional and semi-fictional stories of her exploits were published in newspapers and also as pulp fiction. However, her very popularity created issues with the Kwantung Army because her utility as an intelligence asset was long gone, and her value as a propaganda symbol was compromised by her increasingly critical tone against the Japanese military's exploitative policies in Manchukuo as a base of operations against China in the Second Sino-Japanese War, and she gradually faded from public sight. Capture, trial and execution After the end of the war, on 11 November 1945, a news agency reported that "a long sought-for beauty in male costume was arrested in Beijing by counter-intelligence officers." She was held at Hebei Model Prison. The Supreme Court of Hebei originally addressed Kawashima as "Chuandao Fangzi" (the Chinese pronunciation of her Japanese name). When her trial began a month later, Kawashima identified herself by her Chinese name, "Jin Bihui", which eventually became the name court officials used. However, in accordance with her lawyers' strategy to deflect her charge of treason, she gradually began to emphasise a Japanese or Manchu banner identity. The court rejected the defence's bid to have her tried as a war criminal rather than as a domestic traitor, based on a combination of jus sanguinis and Kawashima's failure to formally renounce her citizenship through China's Department of Civil Affairs. Charged with treason as a hanjian on 20 October 1947, she was executed by a bullet shot into the back of her head on 25 March 1948, and her body was later put on public display. Her body was collected by a Japanese monk to be cremated. Her remains were sent back to her adoptive family and later buried at Shōrinji temple in Matsumoto, Nagano Prefecture, Japan. Gallery In popular culture In the Chinese language, Kawashima's name (both Chuandao Fangzi and Jin Bihui) are synonymous with the idea of a "female spy" or a hanjian. Films In Bernardo Bertolucci's 1987 film The Last Emperor, Kawashima appeared as "Eastern Jewel", played by Maggie Han. A film titled Sen'un Ajia no Joō about Kawashima was released in Japan, in 1957. Anita Mui portrayed Kawashima in a 1990 Hong Kong film, Kawashima Yoshiko. Wong Wan-sze portrayed Kawashima in 1991 Hong Kong film, God of Gamblers III: Back to Shanghai Kawashima was portrayed by Rei Kikukawa in the 2007 Japanese drama Ri Kouran, which tells the story of the life of Yoshiko Yamaguchi. Meisa Kuroki portrayed Kawashima in the 2008 Japanese drama Dansō no Reijin: Kawashima Yoshiko no Shōgai. Books The private papers of Eastern Jewel by Maureen Lindley. Based on the real-life story of Yoshiko Kawashima, Chinese princess turned ruthless Japanese spy, with fictional embellishments. Two books titled The Beauty in Men's Clothing have been published about Yoshiko, the first a partly-fictionalized novel by Muramatsu Shōfū published in 1933, the second by Shōfū's grandson Tomomi in 2002 about the composition of the former. Video games Kawashima appears as a child in the 2004 JRPG game Shadow Hearts: Covenant. Kawashima appears as an army general for Manchukuo, and doubles as a spy agent/operative in the expansion "La Résistance" for both Japan and Manchukuo in the 2016 World War II grand strategy game Hearts of Iron IV, by Paradox Interactive. References Crowdy, Terry, The Enemy Within (Oxford: Osprey, 2006), Chapter 10 Bibliography External links 男裝女諜川島芳子 1907 births 1948 deaths Chinese people executed for collaboration with Japan Executed Chinese women Executed spies Female wartime spies Manchu people Aisin Gioro Female wartime cross-dressers People of Manchukuo LGBT royalty World War II spies for Japan Executed Republic of China people Executed people from Beijing People executed by the Republic of China by firing squad 20th-century executions by China Women in war in China Women in World War II Qing dynasty princesses	[ -0.18594622611999512, -0.5614916682243347, -0.4482114613056183, -0.04996516555547714, -0.7224711179733276, 1.129667043685913, 0.7890516519546509, -0.3551051914691925, -0.3305157423019409, -0.11108497530221939, 0.18167659640312195, -0.14558494091033936, 0.15989433228969574, 0.07445905357599258, -0.5540083646774292, -0.5568363070487976, 0.2355319857597351, 0.6269710659980774, -0.5083329677581787, 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230322	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Belle%20%C3%89poque	Belle Époque	The Belle Époque or La Belle Époque (; French for "Beautiful Epoch") is the term often given to a period of French and European history, usually dated to between 1871–80 and the outbreak of World War I in 1914. Occurring during the era of the Third French Republic, it was a period characterised by optimism, regional peace, economic prosperity, colonial expansion, and technological, scientific, and cultural innovations. In this era of France's cultural and artistic climate (particularly within Paris), the arts markedly flourished, with numerous masterpieces of literature, music, theatre, and visual art gaining extensive recognition. The Belle Époque was so named in retrospect, when it began to be considered a continental European "Golden Age" in contrast to the horrors of the Napoleonic Wars and World War I. The Belle Époque was a period in which, according to historian R. R. Palmer: "European civilisation achieved its greatest power in global politics, and also exerted its maximum influence upon peoples outside Europe." Popular culture and fashions Two devastating world wars and their aftermath made the Belle Époque appear to be a time of joie de vivre (joy of living) in contrast to 20th century hardships. It was also a period of stability that France enjoyed after the tumult of the early years of the Third Republic, featuring defeat in the Franco-Prussian War, the uprising of the Paris Commune, and the fall of General Georges Ernest Boulanger. The defeat of Boulanger, and the celebrations tied to the 1889 World's Fair in Paris, launched an era of optimism and affluence. French imperialism was in its prime. It was a cultural center of global influence, its educational, scientific and medical institutions were at the leading edge of Europe. It was not entirely the reality of life in Paris or in France, however. France had a large economic underclass who never experienced much of the Belle Époque's wonders and entertainments. Poverty remained endemic in Paris's urban slums and rural peasantry for decades after the Belle Époque ended. Conflicts between the government and the Roman Catholic Church were regular during the period. Some of the artistic elite saw the Fin de siècle in a pessimistic light. Those who were able to benefit from the prosperity of the era were drawn towards new forms of light entertainment during the Belle Époque, and the Parisian bourgeoisie, or the successful industrialists called the nouveaux riches, became increasingly influenced by the habits and fads of the city's elite social class, known popularly as Tout-Paris ("all of Paris", or "everyone in Paris"). The Casino de Paris opened in 1890. For Paris's less affluent public, entertainment was provided by cabarets, bistros and music halls. The Moulin Rouge cabaret is a Paris landmark still open for business today. The Folies Bergère was another landmark venue. Burlesque performance styles were more mainstream in Belle Époque Paris than in more staid cities of Europe and America. Liane de Pougy, dancer, socialite and courtesan, was well known in Paris as a headline performer at top cabarets. Belle Époque dancers and singers such as Polaire, Mistinguett, Paulus, Eugénie Fougère, La Goulue and Jane Avril were Paris celebrities, some of who modelled for Toulouse-Lautrec's iconic poster art. The Can-can dance was a popular 19th-century cabaret style that appears in Toulouse-Lautrec's posters from the era. The Eiffel Tower, built to serve as the grand entrance to the 1889 World's Fair held in Paris, became the accustomed symbol of the city, to its inhabitants and to visitors from around the world. Paris hosted another successful World's Fair in 1900, the Exposition Universelle. Paris had been profoundly changed by the Second Empire reforms to the city's architecture and public amenities. Haussmann's renovation of Paris changed its housing, street layouts, and green spaces. The walkable neighbourhoods were well-established by the Belle Époque. Cheap coal and cheap labour contributed to the cult of the orchid and made possible the perfection of fruits grown under glass, as the apparatus of state dinners extended to the upper classes. Exotic feathers and furs were more prominently featured in fashion than ever before, as haute couture was invented in Paris, the center of the Belle Époque, where fashion began to move in a yearly cycle. In Paris, restaurants such as Maxim's Paris achieved a new splendor and cachet as places for the rich to parade. Maxim's Paris was arguably the city's most exclusive restaurant. Bohemian lifestyles gained a different glamour, pursued in the cabarets of Montmartre. Large public buildings such as the Opéra Garnier devoted enormous spaces to interior designs as Art Nouveau show places. After the mid-19th century, railways linked all the major cities of Europe to spa towns like Biarritz, Deauville, Vichy, Arcachon and the French Riviera. Their carriages were rigorously divided into first-class and second-class, but the super-rich now began to commission private railway coaches, as exclusivity as well as display was a hallmark of opulent luxury. Politics The years between the Franco-Prussian War and World War I were characterised by unusual political stability in Western and Central Europe. Although tensions between France and Germany persisted as a result of the French loss of Alsace-Lorraine to Germany in 1871, a series of diplomatic conferences managed to mediate disputes that threatened the general peace: the Congress of Berlin in 1878, the Berlin Congo Conference in 1884, and the Algeciras Conference in 1906. Indeed, for many Europeans during the Belle Époque, transnational, class-based affiliations were as important as national identities, particularly among aristocrats. An upper-class gentleman could travel through much of Western Europe without a passport and even reside abroad with minimal bureaucratic regulation. World War I, mass transportation, the spread of literacy, and various citizenship concerns changed this. The Belle Époque featured a class structure that ensured cheap labour. The Paris Métro underground railway system joined the omnibus and streetcar in transporting the working population, including those servants who did not live in the wealthy centers of cities. One result of this commuting was suburbanisation allowing working-class and upper-class neighbourhoods to be separated by large distances. Meanwhile, the international workers' movement also reorganised itself and reinforced pan-European, class-based identities among the classes whose labour supported the Belle Époque. The most notable transnational socialist organisation was the Second International. Anarchists of different affiliations were active during the period leading up to World War I. Political assassinations and assassination attempts were still rare in France (unlike in Russia) but there were some notable exceptions, including the killing of President Marie François Sadi Carnot in 1894. A bomb was detonated in the Chamber of Deputies of France in 1893, causing injuries but no deaths. Terrorism against civilians also occurred in 1894, perpetrated by Émile Henry, who killed a cafe patron and wounded several others. France enjoyed relative political stability at home during the Belle Époque. The sudden death of President Félix Faure while in office took the country by surprise, but had no destabilising effect on the government. The most serious political issue to face the country during this period was the Dreyfus Affair. Captain Alfred Dreyfus was wrongly convicted of treason, with fabricated evidence from French government officials. Anti-Semitism directed at Dreyfus, and tolerated by the general French public in everyday society, was a central issue in the controversy and the court trials that followed. Public debate surrounding the Dreyfus Affair grew to an uproar after the publication of J'accuse, a letter sent to newspapers by prominent novelist Émile Zola, condemning government corruption and French anti-Semitism. The Dreyfus Affair consumed the interest of the French for several years and it received heavy newspaper coverage. European politics saw very few regime changes, the major exception being Portugal, which experienced a republican revolution in 1910. However, tensions between working-class socialist parties, bourgeois liberal parties, and landed or aristocratic conservative parties did increase in many countries, and it has been claimed that profound political instability belied the calm surface of European politics in the era. In fact, militarism and international tensions grew considerably between 1897 and 1914, and the immediate prewar years were marked by a general armaments competition in Europe. Additionally, this era was one of massive overseas colonialism, known as the New Imperialism. The most famous portion of this imperial expansion was the Scramble for Africa. Conflicts and wars Most of the great powers (and some minor ones such as Belgium, the Netherlands or Denmark) became involved in imperialism, building their own overseas empires especially in Africa and Asia. Although there were numerous revolutions, civil wars and colonial insurrections, the most notable are: the Franco-Prussian War (1870-71), the Russo-Turkish War (1877-1878), the War of the Pacific (1879-1884), two Boer Wars (1880-81 and 1899-1902), the First Sino-Japanese War (1894-95), the First Italo-Ethiopian War (1895-96), the Greco-Turkish War (1897), the Spanish-American War (1898), the Philippine-American War (1899-1902), the Russo-Japanese War (1905) and the Italo-Turkish War (1911-12). The First Balkan War (1912-13) and the Second Balkan War (1913) are considered the prolegomena of the First World War (1914-18), whose level of material and human destruction at the industrial level marks the end of the Belle Époque. There were also notable diplomatic conflicts that could provoke world wars such as the 1890 British Ultimatum, the Fashoda Incident (1898), the First Moroccan Crisis (1905-06) and the Second Moroccan Crisis (1911). Science and technology The Belle Époque was an era of great scientific and technological advancement in Europe and the world in general. Inventions of the Second Industrial Revolution that became generally common in this era include the perfection of lightly sprung, noiseless carriages in a multitude of new fashionable forms, which were superseded towards the end of the era by the automobile, which was for its first decade a luxurious experiment for the well-heeled. French automobile manufacturers such as Peugeot were already pioneers in carriage manufacturing. Edouard Michelin invented removable pneumatic tires for bicycles and automobiles in the 1890s. The scooter and moped are also Belle Époque inventions. A number of French inventors patented products with a lasting impact on modern society. After the telephone joined the telegraph as a vehicle for rapid communication, French inventor Édouard Belin developed the Belinograph, or Wirephoto, to transmit photos by telephone. The electric light began to supersede gas lighting, and neon lights were invented in France. France was a leader of early cinema technology. The cinématographe was invented in France by Léon Bouly and put to use by Auguste and Louis Lumière, brothers who held the first film screenings in the world. The Lumière brothers made many other innovations in cinematography. It was during this era that the motion pictures were developed, though these did not become common until after World War I. Although the aeroplane remained a fascinating experiment, France was a leader in aviation. France established the world's first national air force in 1910. Two French inventors, Louis Breguet and Paul Cornu, made independent experiments with the first flying helicopters in 1907. Henri Becquerel discovered radioactivity in 1896 while working with phosphorescent materials. His work confirmed and explained earlier observations regarding uranium salts by Abel Niépce de Saint-Victor in 1857. It was during this era that biologists and physicians finally came to understand the germ theory of disease, and the field of bacteriology was established. Louis Pasteur was perhaps the most famous scientist in France during this time. Pasteur developed pasteurisation and a rabies vaccine. Mathematician and physicist Henri Poincaré made important contributions to pure and applied mathematics, and also published books for the general public on mathematical and scientific subjects. Marie Skłodowska-Curie worked in France, winning the Nobel Prize for Physics in 1903, and the Nobel Prize for Chemistry in 1911. Physicist Gabriel Lippmann invented integral imaging, still in use today. Art and literature In 1890, Vincent van Gogh died. It was during the 1890s that his paintings achieved the admiration that had eluded them during Van Gogh's life, first among other artists, then gradually among the public. Reactions against the ideals of the Impressionists characterised visual arts in Paris during the Belle Époque. Among the post-Impressionist movements in Paris were the Nabis, the Salon de la Rose + Croix, the Symbolist movement (also in poetry, music, and visual art), Fauvism, and early Modernism. Between 1900 and 1914, Expressionism took hold of many artists in Paris and Vienna. Early works of Cubism and Abstraction were exhibited. Foreign influences were being strongly felt in Paris as well. The official art school in Paris, the École des Beaux-Arts, held an exhibition of Japanese printmaking that changed approaches to graphic design, particular posters and book illustration (Aubrey Beardsley was influenced by a similar exhibit when he visited Paris during the 1890s). Exhibits of African tribal art also captured the imagination of Parisian artists at the turn of the 20th century. Art Nouveau is the most popularly recognised art movement to emerge from the period. This largely decorative style (Jugendstil in central Europe), characterised by its curvilinear forms, and nature-inspired motifs became prominent from the mid-1890s and dominated progressive design throughout much of Europe. Its use in public art in Paris, such as Hector Guimard's Paris Métro stations, has made it synonymous with the city. Prominent artists in Paris during the Belle Époque included post-Impressionists such as Odilon Redon, Gustave Moreau, Maurice Denis, Pierre Bonnard, Édouard Vuillard, Paul Gauguin, Henri Matisse, Émile Bernard, Henri Rousseau, Henri de Toulouse-Lautrec (whose reputation improved substantially after his death), Giuseppe Amisani and a young Pablo Picasso. More modern forms in sculpture also began to dominate as in the works of Paris-native Auguste Rodin. Although Impressionism in painting began well before the Belle Époque, it had initially been met with scepticism if not outright scorn by a public accustomed to the realist and representational art approved by the Academy. In 1890, Monet started his series Haystacks. Impressionism, which had been considered the artistic avant-garde in the 1860s, did not gain widespread acceptance until after World War I. The academic painting style, associated with the Academy of Art in Paris, remained the most respected style among the public in Paris. Artists who appealed to the Belle Époque public include William-Adolphe Bouguereau, the English Pre-Raphaelite's John William Waterhouse, and Lord Leighton and his depictions of idyllic Roman scenes. More progressive tastes patronised the Barbizon school plein-air painters. These painters were associates of the Pre-Raphaelites, who inspired a generation of aesthetic-minded "Souls". Many successful examples of Art Nouveau, with notable regional variations, were built in France, Germany, Belgium, Spain, Austria (the Vienna Secession), Hungary, Bohemia, Serbia and Latvia. It soon spread around the world, including Peru, Brazil, Argentina, Mexico and the United States. European literature underwent a major transformation during the Belle Époque. Literary realism and naturalism achieved new heights. Among the most famous French realist or naturalist authors are Guy de Maupassant and Émile Zola. Realism gradually developed into modernism, which emerged in the 1890s and came to dominate European literature during the Belle Époque's final years and throughout the interwar years. The Modernist classic In Search of Lost Time was begun by Marcel Proust in 1909, to be published after World War I. The works of German Thomas Mann had a huge impact in France as well, such as Death in Venice, published in 1912. Colette shocked France with the publication of the sexually frank Claudine novel series, and other works. Joris-Karl Huysmans, who came to prominence in the mid-1880s, continued experimenting with themes and styles that would be associated with Symbolism and the Decadent movement, mostly in his book à rebours. André Gide, Anatole France, Alain-Fournier, Paul Bourget are among France's most popular fiction writers of the era. Among poets, the Symbolists such as Charles Baudelaire remained at the forefront. Although Baudelaire's poetry collection Les Fleurs du mal had been published in the 1850s, it exerted a strong influence on the next generation of poets and artists. The Decadent movement fascinated Parisians, intrigued by Paul Verlaine and above all Arthur Rimbaud, who became the archetypal enfant terrible of France. Rimbaud's Illuminations was published in 1886, and subsequently his other works were also published, influencing Surrealists and Modernists during the Belle Époque and after. Rimbaud's poems were the first works of free verse seen by the French public. Free verse and typographic experimentation also emerged in Un Coup de Dés Jamais N'Abolira Le Hasard by Stéphane Mallarmé, anticipating Dada and concrete poetry. Guillaume Apollinaire's poetry introduced themes and imagery from modern life to readers. Cosmopolis: A Literary Review had a far-reaching impact on European writers, and ran editions in London, Paris, Saint Petersburg, and Berlin. Paris's popular bourgeois theatre was dominated by the light farces of Georges Feydeau and cabaret performances. Theatre adopted new modern methods, including Expressionism, and many playwrights wrote plays that shocked contemporary audiences either with their frank depictions of everyday life and sexuality or with unusual artistic elements. Cabaret theatre also became popular. Musically, the Belle Époque was characterised by salon music. This was not considered serious music but, rather, short pieces considered accessible to a general audience. In addition to works for piano solo or violin and piano, the Belle Époque was famous for its large repertory of songs (mélodies, romanze, etc.). The Italians were the greatest proponents of this type of song, its greatest champion being Francesco Paolo Tosti. Though Tosti's songs never completely left the repertoire, salon music generally fell into a period of obscurity. Even as encores, singers were afraid to sing them at serious recitals. In that period, waltzes also flourished. Operettas were also at the peak of their popularity, with composers such as Johann Strauss III, Emmerich Kálmán, and Franz Lehár. Many Belle Époque composers working in Paris are still popular today: Igor Stravinsky, Erik Satie, Claude Debussy, Lili Boulanger, Jules Massenet, César Franck, Camille Saint-Saëns, Gabriel Fauré and his pupil, Maurice Ravel. According to Fauré and Ravel, the favoured composer of the Belle Époch was Edvard Grieg, who enjoyed the height of his popularity in both Parisian concert and salon life (despite his stance on the accused in the Dreyfus Affair). Ravel and Delius agreed that French music of this time was simply 'Edvard Grieg plus the third act of Tristan." Modern dance began to emerge as a powerful artistic development in theatre. Dancer Loie Fuller appeared at popular venues such as the Folies Bergère, and took her eclectic performance style abroad as well. Sergei Diaghilev's Ballets Russes brought fame to Vaslav Nijinsky and established modern ballet technique. The Ballets Russes launched several ballet masterpieces, including The Firebird and The Rite of Spring (sometimes causing audience riots at the same time). Belle Époque by country Africa In Egypt, with the reign of Isma'il Pasha. Americas In Argentina, with the period of the Generation of '80. In Brazil, it began with the end of the War of the Triple Alliance, during the reign of Pedro II. In Canada, it coincided with the beginnings of Canadian Confederation. In Chile, it coincided with the Liberal Republic. In the United States, emerging from the panic of 1873, ushering in the period known as Gilded Age and Progressive Era. In Honduras, it coincided with the Liberal Reform. In Mexico, the period was known as the Porfiriato. In Peru, with the period of the Aristocratic Republic. In Uruguay, the period was known as Batllism. Asia In Korea, with the reign of Gojong In Japan, it coincided with the Meiji era. In Thailand, with the reign of Chulalongkorn and the beginning of the reign of Vajiravudh. In Turkey, at the end of the Tanzimat period, between the reigns of Abdülaziz I and Murad V. Europe In Germany, it coincided with the reigns of William I, Frederick III and Wilhelminism of Wilhelm II In Austria-Hungary, with the reign of Franz Joseph I. In Belgium, with the reign of Leopold II and the beginning of the reign of Albert I. In Bulgaria, at the beginning of the reign of Ferdinand I. In Denmark, with the reigns of Christian IX and Frederick VIII. In Spain, with the period of the Restoration In France, with the French Third Republic. In Greece, with the reign of George I. In Italy, with the reigns of Victor Emmanuel II, Umberto I and the beginning of Victor Emmanuel III. In Luxembourg, with the reigns of Adolphe and William IV. In Montenegro, at the beginning of the reign of Nicholas I. In Netherlands, with the reigns of William III and Wilhelmina. In Portugal, with the last period of the Kingdom of Portugal and the First Portuguese Republic. In United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland, with the Victorian period and Edwardian period. In Romania, with the reign of Charles I. In Russia, with the reign of Alexander III and the beginning of the reign of Nicholas II. In Serbia, with the reign of Peter I. In Sweden-Norway, with the reign of Oscar II. In Switzerland, it coincided with the beginnings of the Swiss federal state from 1848. Oceania In Australia and New Zealand, it coincided with the period known as the Australian gold rushes. In Hawaii, with the reigns of Lunalilo, Kalakaua and early reign of Liliuokalani. Gallery See also Paris in the Belle Époque Paris architecture of the Belle Époque Charles Ayrout, Belle Époque architect in Cairo, Egypt Fin de siècle Gay Nineties Gilded Age Succès de scandale The Proud Tower: A Portrait of the World Before the War, 1890–1914, collection of essays by Barbara Tuchman Années folles Roaring Twenties Notes Further reading Berlanstein, Lenard R. "Ready for progress? Opinion surveys on women's roles and opportunities in Belle Epoque France." French Politics, Culture and Society 27#1 (2009), p. 1+. online Bruna, D. Fashioning the body: An intimate history of the silhouette. (Yale University Press, 2015 )/. Holmes, Diana, and Carrie Tarr, eds. A "Belle Epoque"? Women in French Society and Culture 1890-1914 (Berghahn Books, 2006). Dominique Kalifa, La Véritable histoire de la Belle Epoque (Paris: Fayard, 1917). Francaise, A. (14 November 2017). Fashion of the Belle Époque. Retrieved 24 September 2018, from http://learnfrenchchicago.com/2017/05/fashion-belle-epoque/ Mostyn, Trevor. Egypt's Belle Époque: Cairo and the Age of the Hedonists, Tauris Parke Paperbacks, 2006. Roberts, Mary Louise. Disruptive Acts: The New Woman in Fin-de-Siecle France (U of Chicago Press, 2002). Wilcox, C. (2013). Fashion in detail 1700-2000. London: V & A. Wires, Richard. "Paris: La Belle Époque". Conspectus of History 1.4 (1977): 60–72. External links The Belle Époque in Europe – many pictures of Art Nouveau architecture Paris1900.lartnouveau.com – The Belle Époque in Paris through postcards and documents Dijon1900.blogspot.com – The Belle Époque in Dijon through postcards French Actress Postcards 1871 establishments in France 1914 disestablishments in France 19th century 20th century Art Nouveau Gold standard Historical eras History of Europe by period Modern art Periodization	[ -0.15609996020793915, -0.24904562532901764, -0.6135622262954712, 0.05556489899754524, -0.04184133559465408, 0.2575427293777466, 0.2725392282009125, 0.6325810551643372, -0.49472305178642273, -0.7415320873260498, -0.3949204683303833, 0.43433257937431335, 0.4438475966453552, 0.9202793836593628, -0.06253695487976074, 0.2853289544582367, 0.29744189977645874, -0.02633933164179325, -0.17683406174182892, -0.3746741712093353, -0.7393826842308044, -0.06886493414640427, 0.3671489953994751, 0.12373042851686478, 0.6754319071769714, -1.011184573173523, 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230325	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pok%C3%A9mon%20Ruby%20and%20Sapphire	Pokémon Ruby and Sapphire	and are 2002 role-playing video games developed by Game Freak, published by The Pokémon Company and Nintendo for the Game Boy Advance. They are the first installments in the third generation of the Pokémon video game series, also known as the "advanced generation". After years of Nintendo being the sole publisher of the franchise in all regions, The Pokémon Company co-published the games for the first time since the establishment of the joint-owned company in 1998. They were first released in Japan in late 2002 and internationally in 2003. Pokémon Emerald, an enhanced version, was released two years later in each region. Remakes of the two games, titled Pokémon Omega Ruby and Alpha Sapphire, were released for the Nintendo 3DS worldwide in November 2014, exactly twelve years to the date of the original Ruby and Sapphire release date, with the exception of Europe, where it released a week later. The gameplay is mostly unchanged from the previous games; the player controls the main character from an overhead perspective, and the controls are largely the same as those of previous games. As with previous games, the main objectives are to catch all of the Pokémon in the games and defeat the Elite Four; also like their predecessors, the games' main subplot involves the player character defeating a criminal organization that attempts to take over the region. New features, such as double battles, Pokémon abilities, and 135 new Pokémon were added. Owing to the increased capabilities of the Game Boy Advance, four players may be connected to each other at a time instead of the previous limit of two. Additionally, the games can be connected to an e-Reader or other third-generation Pokémon games. Ruby and Sapphire received mostly positive reviews, though critics were divided in their assessment of the games, especially on the gameplay and graphics. Most of the complaints focused on gameplay not changing much in relation to previous generations, and connectivity issues versus past generations of the series. With over 16.22 million copies sold, they were a commercial success and became the best-selling games for the Game Boy Advance; however, with the popularity of Pokémon waning at the time, the games sold less than previous generations with Red and Blue having sold nearly 31 million units worldwide, and Gold and Silver selling over 23 million units. Gameplay The basic mechanics of Ruby and Sapphire are largely the same as their predecessors'. As with all Pokémon games for handheld consoles, gameplay is in third-person, overhead perspective and consists of three basic screens: a field map, in which the player navigates the main character; a battle screen; and the menu, in which the player configures their party, items, or gameplay settings. Players begin the game with one Pokémon, and can capture more using Poké Balls. They can also use their Pokémon to battle other Pokémon. When the player encounters a wild Pokémon or is challenged by a trainer to a battle, the screen switches to a turn-based battle screen where the Pokémon fight. During battle, the player may use a move, use an item, switch their active Pokémon, or flee, although fleeing is not an option in battles against trainers. All Pokémon have hit points (HP); when a Pokémon's HP is reduced to zero, it faints and cannot battle until it is revived. If the player's Pokémon defeats the opposing Pokémon (causes it to faint), it receives experience points. After accumulating enough experience points, it will level up; most Pokémon evolve into a new species of Pokémon when they reach a certain level. Apart from battling, capturing Pokémon is the most essential element of Pokémon gameplay. During battle with a wild Pokémon, the player may use a Poké Ball on them. If successful, the Pokémon will be added to the player's active party, or stored if the player already has the maximum six Pokémon in their party. Factors in the success rate of capture include the HP, status effects such as Paralysis or Sleep, and the strength of the Poké Ball used: the lower the target's HP and the stronger the Poké Ball, the higher the success rate of capture is. Other trainers' Pokémon cannot be captured. New features The most prominent change in the battle mechanics is the introduction of double battles, in which the opposing parties each use two Pokémon at the same time. Consequently, certain Pokémon moves can affect multiple combatants at once. Multi battles were added alongside double battles. They are identical to double battles, but there are two trainers to a side, each controlling one of the two Pokémon sent out. Also new to the games are innate abilities and natures; the former is shared by every Pokémon of a certain species, while the latter may vary among a particular species. Abilities grant their holders certain powers in battle, such as immunity against certain types of moves or strengthening a certain type of move. Natures, like innate abilities, affect the strength of Pokémon in battle; however, they affect the stats of the Pokémon rather than directly affecting the strength of the moves. Another stat introduced in Pokémon Ruby and Sapphire is Condition, an important factor in Pokémon Contests, mini-games in which participants perform moves before a judge. Both Pokémon and their moves have a Condition, which is increased by using Pokéblocks, which are candies made from berries. Secret bases were added as a one-off feature where players could open up a hole in the world and customize the area with various items picked up in-game. Players who linked up with others who set up secret bases were able to battle an NPC version of that trainer within their secret base. Like Pokémon Gold, Silver, and Crystal, Pokémon Ruby and Sapphire keep track of real-life time; this influences events like tides and berry plant growth. However, unlike their predecessors, Ruby and Sapphire do not differentiate between day and night. Also, due to the differences in the technical specifications of Game Boy link cables and Game Boy Advance link cables, Ruby and Sapphire cannot be linked with Pokémon games of previous generations; one cannot battle with or trade to the previous generations. Connectivity to other devices Ruby and Sapphire have limited e-Reader support. Nintendo released Battle-e Cards, a set of e-Reader cards that contained trainer battles in which the player could see previously-hidden Pokémon. A special e-Reader card called the Eon Ticket was also released; obtained through the Mystery Gift function, the Ticket allows the player to reach a place called Southern Island. There, the player faces either Latios or Latias, depending on which version of the game is used. Ruby and Sapphire are also able to connect to the GameCube games Pokémon Colosseum, Pokémon XD: Gale of Darkness and Pokémon Box: Ruby and Sapphire. In the former two, once players reach a certain point in the game, they are able to transfer Pokémon between Colosseum / XD and Ruby / Sapphire. Additionally, those who pre-ordered Colosseum were able to access the Pokémon Jirachi and see a preview of the movie Pokémon: Jirachi Wish Maker. Pokémon Box allows players to store and organize their Pokémon on the GameCube. Also, in the European version of Pokémon Channel, players could receive a Jirachi at a certain point in the game, which they could then transfer over to Ruby or Sapphire. Plot Setting Pokémon Ruby and Sapphire take place in the Hoenn region, located some distance from the Kanto and Johto regions featured in previous games. The design of Hoenn was based on the Japanese island and region of Kyushu; however Hoenn is rotated 90° relative to Kyushu, as Junichi Masuda felt that it would provide a better gameplay balance. Like Kyushu, Hoenn possesses many smaller islands, and part of the region is dominated by sea routes, several of which contain areas where the player can dive underwater. Story Like other Pokémon games, Ruby and Sapphires gameplay is linear; the main events occur in a fixed order. The protagonist of Pokémon Ruby and Sapphire is a child who has recently moved to a small town called Littleroot Town. At the beginning of the games, the player chooses either Treecko, Torchic, or Mudkip to protect Professor Birch, the regional professor, from an attacking Poochyena. After defending Birch, the player is taken to his lab and receives the chosen Pokémon as their starter Pokémon. After that the player encounters May/Brendan, the child of Professor Birch. The player's rival, who appears as the professor's child, is also a Pokémon Trainer and occasionally battles the player. The games' two main goals are defeating the eight Gym Leaders, proving oneself worthy of challenging the Elite Four and Champion to become the new Champion and completing the Pokédex by capturing, evolving, and trading to obtain all 202 Pokémon available between Ruby and Sapphire. It is possible to obtain all 386 Pokémon, but this requires trading with Pokémon FireRed and LeafGreen. In addition to the main quest of defeating the Gym Leaders, there are side quests in which the player can aid NPCs by fulfilling tasks, usually by obtaining items. The most prominent subplot involves Team Aqua and Team Magma, crime syndicates who want to use Pokémon to alter the climate of Hoenn: in Ruby, the villains, Team Magma, want to use the legendary Pokémon Groudon to dry up the oceans of Hoenn and increase the region's landmass; in Sapphire, Team Aqua are the villains and they try to use Groudon's counterpart, Kyogre, to flood the landmasses of Hoenn and increase the region's ocean. Prior to facing the eighth Gym Leader, the player has a showdown with Magma or Aqua where the team's leader uses a mystical orb that awakens the slumbering Pokémon, believing it has the power to enthrall their respective target, only for the Pokémon to become enraged and cause catastrophic, region-wide climate changes—a drought in Ruby, and heavy rainfall in Sapphire—until it is defeated or captured by the protagonist. The player's father also introduces them to Wally, a sickly young boy whom the player helps capture a Pokémon to be his companion as he moves away from the big city. Wally eventually overcomes his illness and becomes a successful Pokémon trainer, ultimately becoming the final challenger the player must face before the Elite Four. Development Pokémon Ruby and Sapphire were developed by Game Freak and Nintendo under the direction of Junichi Masuda. As with its predecessors, Ken Sugimori was the art director, although these were the first games in which he did not single-handedly produce all of the art. When asked where his design team came up with the ideas for all of the new Pokémon, Sugimori stated that they got their ideas from past experiences in their childhood involving nature, animals, and the media and then base them on insects. Even looking at the world in a different perspective sometimes provided inspiration for the creatures. "First we select an insect and after that we add essential elements to the insects to make it more like Pokemon, such as adding some hard shape to it, to be more like steel," Sugimori said, describing the process of creating a Pokémon. As the Game Boy Advance was able to handle enhanced graphics, Ruby and Sapphire were the first games in the series that allowed up to four people to share information at one time, as opposed to the previous limit of two. However, the development team used a more basic graphics engine in order to keep the game simple and not overly confusing. The team wanted the games to appeal to a large audience, so the game was designed to be easy enough for younger generations of children to play, but new features were added to bring the veteran gamers back. Masuda stated that the basic philosophy of all Pokémon games is communication; in the Pokémon series, this is manifested in trading and battling with other people. When asked about the new concept of double battles, the developers noted that they tried to focus more on the original one-on-one battles as the main type of competition and only added the double battles as a "new challenge". They stated that if they receive positive feedback about the double battles, the feature may appear more in future generations. The games were the first in the series that did not contain all of the Pokémon from previous generations. Sugimori stated that the team tried to include all the new Pokémon as well as some from previous generations. When asked about any features that could not be included due to technical restrictions, Masuda noted that he wanted each individual Pokémon to make up to three different cries depending on its mood. Audio The audio of Ruby and Sapphire consists entirely of game music and sound effects; all dialogue is on-screen. The music, composed by Junichi Masuda, Go Ichinose and Morikazu Aoki, is completely instrumental except for two tracks with vocals, "Trick Master" and "Slateport City". The soundtrack of the game was released under the Mediafactory label in Japan on April 26, 2003; the album reached #297 on the Oricon charts and charted for one week. Junichi Masuda wrote only battle tunes, Go Ichinose wrote most of the town, route, fanfare & 'Spotted' tunes, whereas Morikazu Aoki did the remainder. The soundtrack is noted for its heavy use of trumpets, but it also makes heavy use of French horns, strings ensembles, and even pianos. Release Pokémon Ruby and Sapphire were released in Japan on November 21, 2002, in North America on March 19, 2003, in Australia on April 3, 2003, and in Europe on July 25, 2003. Nintendo did not promote Ruby and Sapphire at E3 2002; however, it launched a $7 million promotional campaign that lasted from March to May 2003. In July and August 2002 they were promoted through a tour across Japan at Pokémon Festa 2002. In addition to rewarding pre-orders of the games with merchandise, Nintendo held a contest in which participants submitted videos of themselves singing the Pokémon theme song with their own re-written lyrics; the grand prize for that event was a Lugia PT Cruiser. Later that year, Nintendo launched the EON Ticket Summer Tour, in which 125 Toys "R" Us stores across the United States offered the Eon Ticket e-Card in stores from July 19 to September 1. Nintendo aired two television advertisements, "Faces" and "Names", on prime-time network, cable, and syndication. "Faces" featured Pokémon juxtaposed with human look-alikes; "Names" featured people shouting out the names of Pokémon and emphasized the fact that the games introduced 100 new Pokémon. Additionally, Nintendo collaborated with United Kingdom beverage brand Vimto to promote the games. Pokémon Emerald is an enhanced version of Pokémon Ruby and Sapphire, developed by Game Freak, published by The Pokémon Company and Nintendo for the Game Boy Advance. It was first released in Japan in 2004, and was later released internationally in 2005. Emerald received generally positive reception and by fiscal year 2007 sales had reached 6.32 million units. Reception Critical response The games met with mostly positive reviews. IGN gave them an "Amazing" 9.5 out of 10 rating and awarded them the Editor's Choice Award; in 2007, the games were collectively named the tenth best Game Boy Advance game of all time in an IGN article. GameZone also gave the games a 9.5 out of 10 rating and awarded them an Outstanding Award. GamePro gave the games 5 out of 5 stars and named them Editor's Choices. ComputerAndVideoGames.com gave the games a 9 out of 10, and GameSpot gave the games 8.1 out of 10, naming it the best Game Boy Advance game of March 2003. Eurogamer and 1UP.com were less enthusiastic about the games, however; Eurogamer gave the games 7 out of 10, and 1UP.com gave them a B-. Reviewers were divided in their critiques of the games, especially concerning the gameplay and graphics. IGN praised the "deep design" and noted that the addition of features such as double battles greatly increased the strategic aspect of the games. GamePro also thought that the addition of double battles "add[ed] challenge" and "made the harder battles far more strategic than before—the way the game should be". Likewise, ComputerAndVideoGames.com called the gameplay "incredibly compelling and addictive". GameZone noted that the gameplay was more refined and challenging than that of previous titles. However, GameSpot called the games "a cakewalk from start to finish" and claimed that Ruby and Sapphire "don't offer much of a challenge". Eurogamer also felt that the mechanics "[get] very tired, very fast". 1UP.com also felt that the games were formulaic and that double battles were underused. ComputerAndVideoGames.com was enthusiastic over the graphics, calling them "gorgeous". Other reviewers were less enthusiastic, however. GamePro felt that the graphics were only "a fair bit prettier" than those of the Game Boy Color games; GameZone said that the games "still [use] the simple animations and basic character designs that were created for the original, color-less Game Boy". IGN and 1UP.com noted that the graphics had received only a minor upgrade, and Eurogamer felt that the graphics had been upgraded to a "functional level at best". The audio was generally well-received: GameZone and GameSpot both felt the audio was catchy; GameZone gave the audio an 8 out of 10 score, saying that while the music "was annoying at times, [...] it's also very good. [...] I found myself humming the music when I wasn't playing". Other complaints included the removal of the time system of Gold and Silver and the inability to import Pokémon from the games of previous generations. Sales Pokémon Ruby and Sapphire were highly anticipated. In Japan, they sold 1.25 million units within the first four days of release and were the best-selling games of the 2002 holiday season; sales totaled around 4.4 million within six weeks of release. They also became the first games to sell 2 million copies in Japan since 2001's Final Fantasy X and the first games for a handheld console to do so since 2000's Yu-Gi-Oh! Duel Monsters 4. In North America, Nintendo sold 2.2 million units by April 2003, less than one month after the games' release in that region. In the United States, Ruby and Sapphire were the second- and third-best-selling games of 2003, respectively. The games enjoyed success in Europe as well. Even before release, European retailers imported cartridges from the United States to meet the high demand. Upon release, 500,000 copies were sold in its first weekend and within eight weeks. They were the second-best-selling games of the holiday season in 2002. The games were brought up at E3 2003 by Satoru Iwata as a symbol of how successful the Game Boy Advance was at the time. With 16.22 million units sold worldwide, they are the best-selling games for the Game Boy Advance. However, analysts noted that with "young kids...gravitating toward Yu-Gi-Oh!" at the time, Pokémons popularity was waning. This was reflected in the games' sales compared to those of previous generations: Red and Blue sold nearly 27 million units worldwide, and Gold and Silver sold over 23 million units. Awards Legacy Remakes and are enhanced remakes of Pokémon Ruby and Sapphire. The new titles were developed by Game Freak and published by Nintendo for the Nintendo 3DS. They were released worldwide for the Nintendo 3DS on November 21, 2014, exactly twelve years after the original release date of Ruby and Sapphire, while the European release was the following week. Related games Pokémon Box: Ruby and Sapphire or simply , is a spin-off Pokémon game for the GameCube, bundled with a GameCube – Game Boy Advance link cable and a Memory Card 59. It was released in Japan on May 30, 2003, and in North America on July 11, 2004, but only through the New York Pokémon Center and its online store. It is no longer available in either location. The game was released in some parts of Europe as Pokémon Memory Magic due to translation problems and Europeans could only get the game by using points from Nintendo of Europe's loyalty program or by buying the Pokémon Colosseum Mega Pack. The game is essentially a storage system for the Game Boy Advance Pokémon games that allows players to trade and store Pokémon that they have caught in Ruby, Sapphire, Emerald, FireRed and LeafGreen onto a GameCube memory card. Players can then organize and interact with their Pokémon on the GameCube, such as allowing them to breed. Unique Pokémon can also be acquired. Another feature allows Ruby and Sapphire to be played on the television via the GameCube – Game Boy Advance link cable. Options such as taking screenshots of the game are available in this mode. Another addition is the "Showcase", where players can create and display game pieces of Pokémon. Nintendo referred to the game as "the most exclusive Pokémon software ever offered to North American Pokémon fans," but it was generally considered to be unnecessary, receiving a score of 50% on GameRankings from 1 review. Craig Harris of IGN gave the game a "Meh" rating of 5.0 out of 10, praising the interface, which makes the organization of Pokémon much easier as compared to the Game Boy Advance interface, as well as the emulator which allows Ruby and Sapphire to be played on the GameCube. He also stated that the game was a good deal due to the inclusion of a memory card and link cable. However, Harris cited the "Showcase" as "entirely unnecessary and completely out of place," and said that overall the game lacked much to do. He wrote, "It's targeted specifically for the truly die-hard Pokemon fan, but it requires so many specific elements to actually be useful to anyone." Allgame gave the game three and a half out of five stars. Notes References External links 2002 video games Game Boy Advance games Game Boy Advance-only games Game Freak games Japanese role-playing video games Multiplayer and single-player video games Ruby and Sapphire Role-playing video games Video games developed in Japan Video games set in Japan Video games directed by Junichi Masuda Video games featuring protagonists of selectable gender Video games scored by Go Ichinose Video games scored by Junichi Masuda Video games scored by Morikazu Aoki Video games set on fictional islands Video games with alternative versions	[ 0.029951803386211395, -0.2692786753177643, -0.1211187094449997, 0.3670392334461212, -0.23603008687496185, -0.14093303680419922, 0.13542315363883972, 0.04210696369409561, -0.05041595175862312, 0.45296621322631836, -0.18579848110675812, 0.34646856784820557, 0.05629456415772438, 0.21993392705917358, 0.10678239166736603, 0.11601787060499191, 0.5491999387741089, 0.10627588629722595, -0.11801336705684662, -0.34279754757881165, 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230330	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lungfish	Lungfish	Lungfish are freshwater rhipidistian vertebrates belonging to the order Dipnoi. Lungfish are best known for retaining ancestral characteristics within the Osteichthyes, including the ability to breathe air, and ancestral structures within Sarcopterygii, including the presence of lobed fins with a well-developed internal skeleton. Lungfish represent the closest living relatives of the tetrapods. Today there are only six known species of lungfish, living in Africa, South America, and Australia. The fossil record shows that lungfish were abundant since the Triassic. While vicariance would suggest this represents an ancient distribution limited to the Mesozoic supercontinent Gondwana, the fossil record suggests advanced lungfish had a widespread freshwater distribution and the current distribution of modern lungfish species reflects extinction of many lineages subsequent to the breakup of Pangaea, Gondwana and Laurasia. Lungfish have historically been referred to as salamanderfish, but this term more often refers to Lepidogalaxias salamandroides. Anatomy and morphology All lungfish demonstrate an uninterrupted cartilaginous notochord and an extensively developed palatal dentition. Basal ("primitive") lungfish groups may retain marginal teeth and an ossified braincase, but derived lungfish groups, including all modern species, show a significant reduction in the marginal bones and a cartilaginous braincase. The bones of the skull roof in primitive lungfish are covered in a mineralized tissue called cosmine, but in post-Devonian lungfishes, the skull roof lies beneath the skin and the cosmine covering is lost. All modern lungfish show significant reductions and fusions of the bones of the skull roof, and the specific bones of the skull roof show no homology to the skull roof bones of ray-finned fishes or tetrapods. During the breeding season, the South American lungfish develops a pair of feathery appendages that are actually highly modified pelvic fins. These fins are thought to improve gas exchange around the fish's eggs in its nest. Through convergent evolution, lungfishes have evolved internal nostrils similar to the tetrapods' choana, and a brain with certain similarities to the lissamphibian brain (except for the Queensland lungfish, which branched off in its own direction about 277 million years ago and has a brain resembling that of the Latimeria). The dentition of lungfish is different from that of any other vertebrate group. "Odontodes" on the palate and lower jaws develop in a series of rows to form a fan-shaped occlusion surface. These odontodes then wear to form a uniform crushing surface. In several groups, including the modern lepidosireniformes, these ridges have been modified to form occluding blades. The modern lungfishes have a number of larval features, which suggest paedomorphosis. They also demonstrate the largest genome among the vertebrates. Modern lungfish all have an elongate body with fleshy, paired pectoral and pelvic fins and a single unpaired caudal fin replacing the dorsal, caudal and anal fins of most fishes. Lungs Lungfish have a highly specialized respiratory system. They have a distinct feature in that their lungs are connected to the larynx and pharynx without a trachea. While other species of fish can breathe air using modified, vascularized gas bladders, these bladders are usually simple sacs, devoid of complex internal structure. In contrast, the lungs of lungfish are subdivided into numerous smaller air sacs, maximizing the surface area available for gas exchange. Most extant lungfish species have two lungs, with the exception of the Australian lungfish, which has only one. The lungs of lungfish are homologous to the lungs of tetrapods. As in tetrapods and bichirs, the lungs extend from the ventral surface of the esophagus and gut. Perfusion of water Of extant lungfish, only the Australian lungfish can breathe through its gills without needing air from its lungs. In other species, the gills are too atrophied to allow for adequate gas exchange. When a lungfish is obtaining oxygen from its gills, its circulatory system is configured similarly to the common fish. The spiral valve of the conus arteriosus is open, the bypass arterioles of the third and fourth gill arches (which do not actually have gills) are shut, the second, fifth and sixth gill arch arterioles are open, the ductus arteriosus branching off the sixth arteriole is open, and the pulmonary arteries are closed. As the water passes through the gills, the lungfish uses a buccal pump. Flow through the mouth and gills is unidirectional. Blood flow through the secondary lamellae is countercurrent to the water, maintaining a more constant concentration gradient. Perfusion of air When breathing air, the spiral valve of the conus arteriosus closes (minimizing the mixing of oxygenated and deoxygenated blood), the third and fourth gill arches open, the second and fifth gill arches close (minimizing the possible loss of the oxygen obtained in the lungs through the gills), the sixth arteriole's ductus arteriosus is closed, and the pulmonary arteries open. Importantly, during air breathing, the sixth gill is still used in respiration; deoxygenated blood loses some of its carbon dioxide as it passes through the gill before reaching the lung. This is because carbon dioxide is more soluble in water. Air flow through the mouth is tidal, and through the lungs it is bidirectional and observes "uniform pool" diffusion of oxygen. Ecology and life history Lungfish are omnivorous, feeding on fish, insects, crustaceans, worms, mollusks, amphibians and plant matter. They have an intestinal spiral valve rather than a true stomach. African and South American lungfish are capable of surviving seasonal drying out of their habitats by burrowing into mud and estivating throughout the dry season. Changes in physiology allow it to slow its metabolism to as little as th of the normal metabolic rate, and protein waste is converted from ammonia to less-toxic urea (normally, lungfish excrete nitrogenous waste as ammonia directly into the water). Burrowing is seen in at least one group of fossil lungfish, the Gnathorhizidae. Lungfish can be extremely long-lived. A Queensland lungfish at the Shedd Aquarium in Chicago was part of the permanent live collection from 1933 to 2017, when it was euthanized following a decline in health consistent with old age. A primitive Australian fish living in a San Francisco museum is believed to be the oldest living aquarium fish in the world. Methuselah is a four-foot-long (1.2-meter) Australian lungfish, weighing around 40lb (18.1kg). Evolution As lobe finned fish were adapting to live in partial water or on land, 420 million years ago during the Devonian, they seem to have split off into multiple groups. Two such branches are known to survive to the present day, the coelacanths and the lungfish. It's worth noting that, despite the name "lungfish", fish evolved lungs before lungfish, or even lobe-finned fish. The common ancestor of lobe-finned and ray-finned fish had lungs, but in most surviving branches of ray-finned fish these evolved into swim bladders used for floatation, instead of breathing. Some, like the bichirs, do retain their lungs, and several other traits that appear to have been common to lobe-finned and ray-finned fish. While the coelacanth shares many traits with reptiles, the lungfish shares specific other traits with amphibians that the coelacanth does not have. Both coelacanths and lungfishes share the category sarcopterygian with the tetrapods, which includes land animals like reptiles, amphibians, birds, and mammals, e.g. humans. Evidence suggests that the tetrapods are related more closely to lungfish than to coelacanths. Extant lungfish The Queensland lungfish, Neoceratodus forsteri, is endemic to Australia. Fossil records of this group date back 380 million years, around the time when the higher vertebrate classes were beginning to evolve. Fossils of lungfish belonging to the genus Neoceratodus have been uncovered in northern New South Wales, indicating that the Queensland lungfish has existed in Australia for at least 100 million years, making it a living fossil and one of the oldest living vertebrate genera on the planet. It is the most primitive surviving member of the ancient air-breathing lungfish (Dipnoi) lineages. The five other freshwater lungfish species, four in Africa and one in South America, are very different morphologically to N. forsteri. The Queensland lungfish can live for several days out of the water if it is kept moist, but will not survive total water depletion, unlike its African counterparts. The South American lungfish, Lepidosiren paradoxa, is the single species of lungfish found in swamps and slow-moving waters of the Amazon, Paraguay, and lower Paraná River basins in South America. Notable as an obligate air-breather, it is the sole member of its family native to the Americas. Relatively little is known about the South American lungfish, or scaly salamander-fish. When immature it is spotted with gold on a black background. In the adult this fades to a brown or gray color. Its tooth-bearing premaxillary and maxillary bones are fused like other lungfish. South American lungfishes also share an autostylic jaw suspension (where the palatoquadrate is fused to the cranium) and powerful adductor jaw muscles with the extant lungfish (Dipnoi). Like the African lungfishes, this species has an elongate, almost eel-like body. It may reach a length of . The pectoral fins are thin and threadlike, while the pelvic fins are somewhat larger, and set far back. The fins are connected to the shoulder by a single bone, which is a marked difference from most fish, whose fins usually have at least four bones at their base; and a marked similarity with nearly all land-dwelling vertebrates. The gills are greatly reduced and essentially non-functional in the adults. The marbled lungfish, Protopterus aethiopicus, is found in Africa. The marbled lungfish is smooth, elongated, and cylindrical with deeply embedded scales. The tail is very long and tapers at the end. They are the largest of the African lungfish species as they can reach a length of up to 200 cm. The pectoral and pelvic fins are also very long and thin, almost spaghetti-like. The newly hatched young have branched external gills much like those of newts. After 2 to 3 months the young transform (called metamorphosis) into the adult form, losing the external gills for gill openings. These fish have a yellowish gray or pinkish toned ground color with dark slate-gray splotches, creating a marbling or leopard effect over the body and fins. The color pattern is darker along the top and lighter below. The marbled lungfish has the largest known genome of any vertebrate, with 133 billion base pairs or building blocks in its DNA double helix. The only organisms known to have more base pairs are protist Polychaos dubium and flowering plant Paris japonica at 670 billion and 150 billion, respectively. The gilled lungfish, Protopterus amphibius is a species of lungfish found in East Africa. It generally reaches only long, making it the smallest extant lungfish in the world. This lungfish is uniform blue, or slate grey in colour. It has small or inconspicuous black spots, and a pale grey belly. The west African lungfish Protopterus annectens is a species of lungfish found in West Africa. It has a prominent snout and small eyes. Its body is long and eel-like, some 9-15 times the length of the head. It has two pairs of long, filamentous fins. The pectoral fins have a basal fringe and are about three times the head length, while its pelvic fins are about twice the head length. In general, three external gills are inserted posterior to the gill slits and above the pectoral fins. It has cycloid scales embedded in the skin. There are 40-50 scales between the operculum and the anus and 36-40 around the body before the origin of the dorsal fin. It has 34-37 pairs of ribs. The dorsal side is olive or brown in color and the ventral side is lighter, with great blackish or brownish spots on the body and fins except on its belly. They reach a length of about 100 cm in the wild . The spotted lungfish, Protopterus dolloi, is a species of lungfish found in Africa. Specifically, it is found in the Kouilou-Niari Basin of the Republic of the Congo and Ogowe River basin in Gabon. It is also found in the lower and Middle Congo River Basins. Protopterus dolloi can aestivate on land by surrounding itself in a layer of dried mucus. It can reach a length of up to 130 cm. Taxonomy The relationship of lungfishes to the rest of the bony fish is well understood: Lungfishes are most closely related to Powichthys, and then to the Porolepiformes. Together, these taxa form the Dipnomorpha, the sister group to the Tetrapodomorpha. Together, these form the Rhipidistia, the sister group to the Coelacanths. Recent molecular genetic analyses strongly support a sister relationship of lungfishes and tetrapods (Rhipidistia), with Coelacanths branching slightly earlier. The relationships among lungfishes are significantly more difficult to resolve. While Devonian lungfish had enough bone in the skull to determine relationships, post-Devonian lungfish are represented entirely by skull roofs and teeth, as the rest of the skull is cartilaginous. Additionally, many of the taxa already identified may not be monophyletic. Current phylogenetic studies support the following relationships of major lungfish taxa: Class Osteichthyes, subclass Sarcopterygii, order Dipnoi. In 2017, Anne Kemp, Lionel Calvin, and Guillaume Guinot found a different classification for more derived lungfish. In this new analysis, all extant lungfish belong in the suborder Ceratodontoidei, and despite their similar appearance there is no distinct clade containing only Ceratodus, Neoceratodus, and their closest allies. New analyses of the relationships of the recently discovered Persephonichthys chthonica and modern lungfishes robustly places both taxa within dipterid-grade dipnoans rather than within a clade containing Late Devonian ‘phaneropleurids’ and common Late Paleozoic lungfishes such as Sagenodus. Monophyly of post-Devonian lungfishes is not supported and the Carboniferous-Permian taxon Sagenodus is found to be incidental to the origins of modern lungfishes, suggesting widespread convergence in Late Paleozoic lungfishes. Timeline of Lungfish Genera of the Devonian Period See also Ceratodus Lepidogalaxias salamandroides Polypteridae References Further reading External links Articles which contain graphical timelines Extant Early Devonian first appearances	[ 0.4485930800437927, 0.23279517889022827, -0.59828120470047, -0.23241020739078522, 0.13257205486297607, 0.4355463981628418, 0.11428244411945343, 0.12413184344768524, -0.10827295482158661, -0.46369367837905884, 0.07872026413679123, 0.3651690185070038, -0.2826794981956482, -0.02946092002093792, 0.12195046246051788, 0.20581407845020294, 0.09701867401599884, 0.5254784226417542, 0.4981643557548523, -0.13242202997207642, -0.49311891198158264, -0.6775842308998108, 0.4503774642944336, 0.23648057878017426, 0.1763758808374405, 0.13578619062900543, 0.3030354082584381, 0.422473281621933, 0.8161391615867615, -0.15848688781261444, 0.23905016481876373, 1.041434645652771, 0.4755212068557739, 0.07640562951564789, 0.2717418074607849, -0.26793172955513, 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230331	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oval%20Office	Oval Office	The Oval Office is the formal working space of the President of the United States. Part of the Executive Office of the President of the United States, it is located in the West Wing of the White House, in Washington, D.C. The oval-shaped room features three large south-facing windows behind the president's desk and a fireplace at the north end. It has two built-in bookcases, and four doors: the east door opens to the Rose Garden; the west door leads to a private study and dining room; the northwest door opens onto the main corridor of the West Wing; and the northeast door opens to the office of the president's secretary. Presidents generally decorate the office to suit their personal taste, choosing furniture, drapery, and often commissioning their own oval-shaped carpet. Artwork is selected from the White House's own collection, or borrowed from museums for the length of the president's term in office. Cultural history The Oval Office has become associated in Americans' minds with the presidency itself through memorable images, such as a young John F. Kennedy, Jr. peering through the front panel of his father's desk, President Richard Nixon speaking by telephone with the Apollo 11 astronauts during their moonwalk, and Amy Carter bringing her Siamese cat Misty Malarky Ying Yang to brighten her father President Jimmy Carter's day. Several presidents have addressed the nation from the Oval Office on occasion. Examples include Kennedy presenting news of the Cuban Missile Crisis (1962), Nixon announcing his resignation from office (1974), Ronald Reagan following the Space Shuttle Challenger disaster (1986), and George W. Bush in the wake of the September 11 attacks (2001). In 2018, former White House stenographer Beck Dorey-Stein published a memoir about her years working for Obama called From the Corner of the Oval. Antecedents Washington's bow window George Washington never occupied the White House. He spent most of his presidency in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, which served as the temporary national capital for 10 years, 1790–1800, while Washington, D.C. was under construction. In 1790, Washington built a large, two-story, semi-circular addition to the rear of the President's House in Philadelphia, creating a ceremonial space in which the public would meet the president. Standing before the three windows of this bow window, he formally received guests for his Tuesday afternoon audiences, delegations from Congress and foreign dignitaries, and the general public at open houses on New Year's Day, the Fourth of July, and his birthday. Washington received his guests, standing between the windows in his back drawing-room. The company, entering a front room and passing through an unfolding door, made their salutations to the President, and turning off, stood on one side. President John Adams occupied the Philadelphia mansion beginning in March 1797, and used the bow window in the same manner as his predecessor. Curved foundations of Washington's bow window were uncovered during a 2007 archaeological excavation of the President's House site. They are exhibited under glass at the President's House Commemoration, just north of the Liberty Bell Center. White House Architect James Hoban visited President Washington in Philadelphia in June 1792, and would have seen the bow window. The following month Hoban was named winner of the design competition for the White House. The "elliptic salon" at the center of the White House was the outstanding feature of Hoban's original plan. Oval rooms became common in early-19th-century neoclassical architecture. In November 1800, John Adams became the first president to occupy the White House. He and his successor, President Thomas Jefferson, used Hoban's oval rooms in the same ceremonial manner that Washington had used the bow window, standing before the three windows at the south end to receive guests. During the 19th century, a number of presidents used the White House's second-floor Yellow Oval Room as their private office or library. This cultural association between the president and an oval room was more fully expressed in the Taft Oval Office (1909). West Wing The West Wing was the idea of President Theodore Roosevelt, brought about by his wife's opinion that the second floor of the White House, then shared between bedrooms and offices, should be solely a domestic space. Completed in 1902, the one-story Executive Office Building was intended to be a temporary structure, for use until a permanent building was erected on that site or elsewhere. Siting the building to the west of the White House allowed for the removal of a vast, dilapidated set of pre-Civil War greenhouses that had been constructed by President James Buchanan. Roosevelt moved the offices of the executive branch into the newly constructed wing in 1902. His workspace was a two-room suite of Executive Office and Cabinet Room, that occupied the eastern third of the building. Its furniture, including the president's desk, was designed by architect Charles Follen McKim and executed by A. H. Davenport and Company, of Boston. Now much altered, the 1902 Executive Office survives as the Roosevelt Room, a windowless interior meeting room diagonally opposite the Oval Office. Taft Oval Office: 1909–1933 President William Howard Taft made the West Wing a permanent building, doubling its size by expanding it southward, and building the first Oval Office. Designed by Nathan C. Wyeth and completed in 1909, the office was centered on the building's south facade, much as the oval rooms in the White House are. Taft wanted to be more involved with the day-to-day operation of his presidency, and intended the office to be the hub of his administration. The Taft Oval Office had ample natural light from its three windows and skylight. It featured a white marble mantel, simple Georgian Revival woodwork, and twin glass-doored bookcases. It also was likely the most colorful presidential office in history; its walls were covered with vibrant seagrass green burlap. On December 24, 1929, during the first year of President Herbert Hoover's administration, a fire severely damaged the West Wing. Hoover used this as an opportunity to create additional space, excavating a partial basement for staff offices. He restored the Oval Office, upgrading the quality of trim and installing air-conditioning. He also replaced the furniture, which had undergone no major changes in twenty years. Modern Oval Office: 1934–present Dissatisfied with the size and layout of the West Wing, President Franklin D. Roosevelt engaged New York architect Eric Gugler to redesign it in 1933. To create additional staff space without increasing the apparent size of the building, Gugler excavated a full basement, added a set of subterranean offices under the adjacent lawn, and built an unobtrusive "penthouse" story. The directive to wring the most office space out of the existing building was responsible for its narrow corridors and cramped staff offices. Gugler's most visible addition was the expansion of the building eastward for a new Cabinet Room and Oval Office. The modern Oval Office was built at the West Wing's southeast corner, offering Roosevelt, who was physically disabled and used a wheelchair, more privacy and easier access to the Residence. He and Gugler devised a room architecturally grander than the previous two offices, with more robust Georgian details: doors topped with substantial pediments, bookcases set into niches, a deep bracketed cornice, and a ceiling medallion of the Presidential Seal. Rather than a chandelier or ceiling fixture, the room is illuminated by light bulbs hidden within the cornice that "wash" the ceiling in light. In small ways, hints of Art Moderne can be seen, in the sconces flanking the windows and the representation of the eagle in the ceiling medallion. Roosevelt and Gugler worked closely together, often over breakfast, with Gugler sketching the president's ideas. One notion resulting from these sketches that has become fixed in the layout of the room's furniture is that of two high back chairs in front of the fireplace. The public sees this most often with the president seated on the left and a visiting head of state on the right. This allowed Roosevelt to be seated, with his guests at the same level, de-emphasizing his inability to stand without help. Construction of the modern Oval Office was completed in 1934. Decoration The basic Oval Office furnishings have been a desk in front of the three windows at the south end, a pair of chairs in front of the fireplace at the north end, a pair of sofas, and assorted tables and chairs. The Neoclassical mantel was made for the Taft Oval Office in 1909 and salvaged after the 1929 West Wing fire. A tradition of displaying potted Swedish ivy (Plectranthus verticillatus) atop the mantel goes back to the administration of John F. Kennedy, and the current plants were rooted from the original plant. A Federal longcase clock, made in Boston by John and Thomas Seymour c. 1795–1805 – commonly known as the Oval Office grandfather clock – was purchased by the White House Historical Association in 1972, and has stood next to the Oval Office's northeast door since 1975. President Harry S. Truman replaced the Oval Office's 23-year-old dark green carpet in 1947. He had revised the Seal of the President of the United States after World War II, and his blue-gray carpet incorporated the 1945 revised Seal, represented monochromatically through varying depths of its cut pile. The Truman carpet remained in the office through the Dwight D. Eisenhower and John F. Kennedy administrations. Jacqueline Kennedy's redecoration of the Oval Office began on November 21, 1963, while she and President Kennedy were away on a trip to Texas. The following day, November 22, a red carpet was installed, just as the Kennedys were making their way through Dallas, where the president was assassinated. Johnson had the red carpet removed and the Truman carpet reinstalled, and used the latter for his administration. Since Johnson, most administrations have created their own oval carpet, working with an interior designer and the Curator of the White House. Desks Six desks have been used in the Oval Office by U.S. presidents. The Theodore Roosevelt desk was made in 1902 for Roosevelt's (non-oval) office at the southeast corner of the West Wing. Subsequently, the desk was used by five presidents in the Taft Oval Office, and by Truman and Eisenhower in the Modern Oval Office. Also popular is the Resolute Desk, so named because it was made from the timbers of the British frigate HMS Resolute. The ship had been frozen in Arctic ice and abandoned but was later found and freed by American seamen. It was refurbished and presented as a gift from the United States to Queen Victoria in 1856. When the ship was decommissioned from the Royal Navy in 1879, Queen Victoria ordered twin desks made from its timbers, keeping one and presenting the other as a gift to President Rutherford B. Hayes in 1880. President Franklin D. Roosevelt ordered a kneehole panel with the Presidential Seal added, but work was not completed until after his 1945 death in office. First Lady Jacqueline Kennedy had the desk restored, and she was the first to place it in the Oval Office. Following the 1963 assassination of President Kennedy, the desk toured the country as part of a traveling exhibit for the Kennedy Presidential Library and was then lent to the Smithsonian Institution. President Jimmy Carter brought the desk back to the Oval Office in the 1970s. Since then, presidents Ronald Reagan, Bill Clinton, George W. Bush, Barack Obama, Donald Trump and Joe Biden have also used it as their Oval Office desk. When not in use in the Oval Office, a desk is often placed in the adjacent Oval Office Study, in the White House, or is used by the vice president. Artwork Artworks are selected from the White House collection or may be borrowed from museums or individuals for the length of an administration. Most presidents have hung a portrait of George Washington – usually the Rembrandt Peale "Porthole" portrait or the Charles Willson Peale three-quarter-length portrait – over the mantel at the north end of the room. A portrait of Andrew Jackson by Thomas Sully hung in Lyndon B. Johnson's office and in Ronald Reagan's, George H. W. Bush's and Bill Clinton's. A portrait of Abraham Lincoln by George Henry Story hung in George W. Bush's office, continued in Barack Obama's and currently hangs in Joe Biden's. Three landscapes/cityscapes – City of Washington from Beyond the Navy Yard by George Cooke, Eastport and Passamaquoddy Bay by Victor de Grailly, and The President's House, a copy after William Henry Bartlett – have adorned the walls in multiple administrations. Passing the Outpost (1881) by Alfred Wordsworth Thompson, a Revolutionary War genre scene of a carriage stopped at a British checkpoint, hung in Gerald Ford's office, and in Jimmy Carter's and Ronald Reagan's. The Avenue in the Rain by Childe Hassam and Working on the Statue of Liberty by Norman Rockwell flanked the Resolute desk in Bill Clinton's office and did the same in Barack Obama's. Avenue in the Rain currently hangs beside the Resolute desk in Joe Biden's office. Statuettes, busts, heads, and figurines are frequently displayed in the Oval Office. Abraham Lincoln has been the most common subject, in works by sculptors Augustus Saint-Gaudens, Gutzon Borglum, Adolph Alexander Weinman, Leo Cherne and others. Over time, traditional busts of George Washington, Thomas Jefferson, or Benjamin Franklin have given way to heads of Franklin D. Roosevelt, Harry S. Truman or Dwight Eisenhower. Western bronzes by Frederic Remington have been frequent choices: Lyndon Johnson displayed The Bronco Buster, as did Gerald Ford, Jimmy Carter, Ronald Reagan, Bill Clinton, George W. Bush, Barack Obama and Donald Trump. Presidents Reagan and Bush added its companion piece, The Rattlesnake. Paintings According to The New York Times, an estimated 43 paintings and one photograph have decorated the walls of the Oval Office since 1961. Franklin D. Roosevelt was the first president to occupy the Modern Oval Office, and placed Rembrandt's Peale's George Washington over the mantel. Assorted prints of the Hudson Valley hung on the walls. President Harry S. Truman displayed works related to his home state of Missouri, prints of biplanes and sailing ships, and models of jet-airplanes. A series of paintings held pride of place over the mantel, including Rembrandt's Peale's George Washington, Charles H. Woodbury's Woodrow Wilson, Luis Cadena's George Washington (the gift of Ecuador), and a copy of Tito Salas's Equestrian Portrait of Simon Bolivar (the gift of Venezuela). A large photograph of the White House portrait of Franklin D. Roosevelt, under whom Truman had served as vice president and who died in office in 1945, hung beside the mantel and later beside his desk. He also displayed the painting Fired On by Western artist Frederic Remington. President Dwight D. Eisenhower filled the office walls with landscape paintings, as well as a portrait of Robert E. Lee. President John F. Kennedy surrounded himself with paintings of naval battles from the War of 1812, photographs of sailboats, and ship models. President Lyndon Johnson installed sconces on either side of the mantel, and added the office's first painting by a woman artist, Franklin D. Roosevelt by Elizabeth Shoumatoff. President Richard Nixon tried three different portraits of George Washington over the mantel, and hung a copy of Earthrise – a photograph of the Earth taken from the Moon's orbit during the Apollo 8 mission – besides his desk. President Gerald Ford hung historic paintings, possibly in anticipation of the 1976 Bicentennial. Most of these works remained in place through the administrations of Jimmy Carter and Ronald Reagan. President George H. W. Bush hung landscape paintings on the walls, along with three portraits: Rembrandt Peale's George Washington, Charles Willson Peale's Benjamin Henry Latrobe, and Thomas Sully's Andrew Jackson. President Bill Clinton chose the Childe Hassam and Norman Rockwell paintings mentioned above, along with Waiting for the Hour by William T. Carlton, a genre scene depicting African-Americans gathered in anticipation of the Emancipation Proclamation going into effect on January 1, 1863. President George W. Bush mixed traditional works with paintings by Texas artists and Western sculptures. Following the September 11, 2001 attacks, British Prime Minister Tony Blair lent him a bust of Winston Churchill, who had guided Great Britain through World War II. President Barack Obama honored Abraham Lincoln with the portrait by Story, a bust by Augustus Saint-Gaudens, and a copy of the Emancipation Proclamation. Below the proclamation was a bust of Martin Luther King Jr. by Charles Alston, and in the nearby bookcase was displayed a program from the August 28, 1963, March on Washington, at which King gave his "I Have a Dream" speech. President Donald Trump hung mostly portraits on the office walls: Rembrandt Peale's George Washington, George H. Story's Abraham Lincoln, Asher B. Durand's Andrew Jackson, George P. A. Healy's Thomas Jefferson, John Trumbull's Alexander Hamilton, Joseph-Siffred Duplessis's Benjamin Franklin. He later substituted in other portraits: Rembrandt Peale's Thomas Jefferson and Ralph E. W. Earl's Andrew Jackson. President Joe Biden's Oval Office features a cluster of five portraits at its north end, with Frank O. Salisbury's Franklin D. Roosevelt given pride of place over the mantel. Redecoration A tradition evolved in the latter part of the twentieth century of each new administration redecorating the office to the president's liking. A new administration usually selects an oval carpet, new drapery, the paintings on the walls, and some furniture. Most incoming presidents continue using the rug of their predecessor until their new one is installed. The retired carpet very often is then moved to the presidential library of the president for whom it was made. The redecoration of the Oval Office is usually coordinated by the first lady's office in the East Wing, working with an interior designer and the White House curator. Alterations Since the present Oval Office's construction in 1934 during the administration of President Franklin Delano Roosevelt the room has remained mostly unchanged architecturally. More than any president, Roosevelt left an impression on the room and its use. Doors and window frames have been modified slightly. A screen door on the east wall was removed after the installation of air conditioning. President Lyndon B. Johnson's row of wire service Teletype machines on the southeast wall required cutting plaster and flooring to accommodate wiring. The Georgian style plaster ornament has been cleaned to remove accumulated paint, and a series of electrified wall sconces have come and gone. Though some presidents have chosen to do day-to-day work in a smaller study just west of the Oval Office, most use the actual Oval Office for work and meetings. Traffic from the large numbers of staff, visitors, and pets over time takes its toll. There have been four sets of flooring in the Oval Office. The original floor was made of cork installed over softwood; however, President Eisenhower was an avid golfer and damaged the floor with his golf spikes. Johnson had the floor replaced in the mid-1960s with wood-grain linoleum. In 1982, President Ronald Reagan had the floor replaced with quarter sawn oak and walnut, in a cross parquet pattern similar in design to a 1933 Eric Gugler sketch, which had never been executed. In August 2005, the floor was replaced again under President George W. Bush, in exactly the same pattern as the Reagan floor. Conservation In the late 1980s, a comprehensive assessment of the entire house, including the Oval Office, was made as part of the National Park Service's Historic American Buildings Survey (HABS). Detailed photographs and measured drawings were made documenting the interior and exterior and showing even slight imperfections. A checklist of materials and methods was generated for future conservation and restoration. Dimensions The ratio of the major axis to the minor axis is approximately 21:17 or 1.24. Taft Oval Office, 1909–1933 Modern Oval Office, 1934–present See also Oval Office grandfather clock Presidential call button References Further reading Portions of this article are based on public domain text from the White House. The White House: An Historic Guide. White House Historical Association and the National Geographic Society: 2001. . Abbott James A., and Elaine M. Rice. Designing Camelot: The Kennedy White House Restoration. Van Nostrand Reinhold: 1998. . Clinton, Hillary Rodham. An Invitation to the White House: At Home with History. Simon & Schuster: 2000. . Monkman, Betty C. The White House: The Historic Furnishing & First Families. Abbeville Press: 2000. . Ryan, William and Desmond Guinness. The White House: An Architectural History. McGraw Hill Book Company: 1980. . Seale, William. The President's House. White House Historical Association and the National Geographic Society: 1986. . Seale, William, The White House: The History of an American Idea. White House Historical Association: 1992, 2001. . West, J.B. with Mary Lynn Kotz. Upstairs at the White House: My Life with the First Ladies. Coward, McCann & Geoghegan: 1973. . External links Oval Office historical photo essay Pictures of the Oval Office during different presidencies (1909–2005) Washington Post: "Inside the Real West Wing" Oval Office and Presidential desks White House Museum online tour: the Oval Office The Oval Office on Whitehouse.gov Google Sketchup 3D Model 2010 Oval Office Makeover An Office Fitted for a President – slideshow by The New York Times Rooms in the White House Georgian Revival architecture in Washington, D.C.	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230335	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/USS%20Raleigh%20%28LPD-1%29	USS Raleigh (LPD-1)	USS Raleigh (LPD-1), the lead ship of her class of amphibious transport docks, was the fourth ship of the United States Navy named for the capital of North Carolina, which in turn honors the English explorer Sir Walter Raleigh, the first to attempt the establishment of an English settlement in the United States of America. Her keel was laid down by the New York Naval Shipyard of Brooklyn, New York, on 23 June 1960. She was launched on 17 March 1962 sponsored by Mrs. Terry Sanford, wife of the Governor of North Carolina, and commissioned on 8 September 1962 with Captain A.W. Whitney in command. She was decommissioned in 1991 after deploying for the Gulf War. Service history 1962–1969 After fitting out through mid-December, Raleigh steamed to Norfolk, Virginia for the holiday season. In January 1963, she steamed for shakedown to Guantánamo Bay, Cuba, but returned to the building yard in late February for the correction of design deficiencies in her aviation gasoline system. Returning to Guantánamo in April, she completed shakedown, then assisted Commander, Amphibious Force, Atlantic in hosting the Navy League national convention in San Juan, Puerto Rico. Returning to Norfolk on 1 June, Raleigh completed a week's amphibious training at Little Creek, Virginia, and then deployed to the Caribbean Sea in July with Amphibious Squadron 8. Raleigh proved herself during this deployment by simultaneously landing troops and equipment by means of boats and amphibious vehicles from her well and by helicopters from her flight deck. During this cruise, she made one trip to Haiti as tension there rose. Raleigh returned to Norfolk on 1 October and then underwent post-shakedown availability at New York City from 7 January 1964 through 13 March. During the spring she conducted amphibious training operations off Onslow Beach, North Carolina. Steaming for Europe on 12 October, Raleigh arrived off the coast of Spain and took part in "Operation Steel Pike". She then called at Porto, Portugal, and Vigo, Spain, before returning to Norfolk on 27 November. After a yard period at the U.S. Naval Shipyard, Portsmouth, Virginia, she deployed to the Caribbean on 1 April 1965 with the Amphibious Ready Squadron. From 25 April through 6 June, she operated off the Dominican Republic, evacuating 558 refugees who were later transferred to for transit to San Juan. For her part in the endeavor Raleigh and her crew received the Armed Forces Expeditionary Medal. She returned to Norfolk on 29 June. After upkeep and coastal training operations, Raleigh steamed for northern Europe on 27 August to participate in "Bar Frost 65," a NATO amphibious exercise featuring a landing in Norway's fjords north of the Arctic Circle. Returning to Norfolk on 23 October, she underwent a yard period through 4 April 1966, and then steamed for refresher training at Guantánamo Bay. In April 1966, as part of the National Trials, the U.S. Navy operated a Hawker Siddeley Kestrel off the commando assault ship and were impressed with the aircraft. This then led to the Marines obtaining the Harrier AV-8A jump jet for use from their assault ships. Raleighs deployments to the Caribbean from Norfolk as a unit of the Amphibious Ready Squadron averaged two per year up until 1970. 1970–1979 In July 1970 she began the first of a series of Mediterranean cruises, averaging one a year. During the summer of 1971, the Raleigh embarked Midshipman from the U.S. Naval Academy for a NATO/Training deployment to the North Atlantic. Ports of call were Lisbon, Portugal, Portsmouth, England and Copenhagen, Denmark. Returning to Norfolk, the Raleigh upgraded and refitted for her next deployment to the Mediterranean in February 1972. During that deployment, the Raleigh and her Marines participated in a number of amphibious landing operations with British, Greek and Italian naval units. Returning to CONUS (Continental United States) in August 1972, the Raleigh participated in several "transportation" deployments to various Naval Bases on the East Coast before her entry to the Berkley Shipyards in Norfolk, Virginia, for overhaul. Raleigh departed Berkeley and went through refresher training at Guantanamo Bay in the spring of 1973. However a boiler casualty in No. 2 Engine Room forced her return to Norfolk. During transit from Cuba to Norfolk, the Raleigh was harassed by Cuban and Soviet aircraft for several days. During the late fall of 1973, Captain Eugene Geronime relieved Captain Robert Crispin. In November of that year Raleigh deployed again to the Mediterranean, this time to link up with the Marine Amphibious Group sortied at Souda Bay, Crete. The combined Groups saw the largest Marine Force ever assembled in the Mediterranean up to that time. This was in response to the 1973 Arab-Israeli War in October. Following the cease fire, the Raleigh maintained station in the Eastern Mediterranean to prevent Soviet expansion in that area. Raleigh returned to Little Creek, Virginia, in June 1974 for one of the biggest homecomings the ship ever received. During the summer of 1974, Raleigh prepared for an extensive overhaul in Baltimore, Maryland, and following its first phase, she ran aground in Chesapeake Bay and returned to her homeport in Norfolk. During her second phase in the General Dynamics Shipyard in Quincy, Massachusetts, a fire further disrupted her return to the Fleet. On 18 April 1975 Captain John McIntyre took command and took her through an extended shakedown and two overseas deployments, including the evacuation of Americans from Beirut in May 1976, for which the ship and crew received the Humanitarian Service Medal. During the standup for the evacuation, Raleigh spent 105 consecutive days at sea in the Eastern Mediterranean in early 1976. Later that year, she participated in a Northern Europe amphibious demonstration deployment to Norway, after which Captain McIntyre and crew were feted upon their return to their Norfolk home port following almost two years of extensive operations. After a yard period and extensive sea trials in summer of 1977 at Gitmo Cuba, Raleigh returned to Norfolk. In September 1977 with Captain Riendeau in command, Raleigh participated in "Marg" 2-77 (8 Sept 1977 to 13 March 1978) During this Med cruise she had ports of call in Rota and Malaga Spain, Catania Sicily, Genoa and Naples Italy. In August 1978 she embarked units of 2d Bn, 2d Mar, 2d MarDiv (Rein) at Moorehead City, N.C. and sailed the North Atlantic to Europe. Her first stop was the Shetland Islands for ops with the British Army then to Coenhagan Denmark where 2/2/2 disembarked for travel to then-West Germany by land to exercise with the Bundeswehr. After the conclusion of that exercise, she embarked the Marines at Bremerhaven and sailed for ports of call at Copenhagen and Edinburgh, Bergen Norway, Goteborg Sweden. The Raleigh returned to Moorehead City in early October 1978 where the Marines were disembarked for return to Camp Lejeune. In early 1979 Raleigh steamed to Maryland shipbuilding & drydock in Baltimore Maryland for another yard period. 1980–1989 In January, 1983, The Raleigh set sail for duty with the ill-fated Multi-National Peace Keeping Force in Beirut, Lebanon. Departing Norfolk, she picked up 2nd Battalion, 6th Marines, at Morehead City, NC, on 27 January, and returned to port on 29 June 1983. The Raleigh loaded with amtraks and marines and steamed for Operation BIG PINE II (Ahuas Tara II), Honduras August 1983 – February 1984. The exercise also include Honduran soldiers that were embarked and taken ashore by CH-46 Sea Knights, Amtraks, and LCM-8's. Their return trip carried 101st Airborne soldiers. In 1984 The Raleigh participated in JLOTs (Joint Logistics Over the Shore) which was a test of the Navy's ability to supply troops on the beach from container ships off shore. In 1985 she went into the ship yards in Charleston S.C. and then to Guantanamo Bay for training exercises. In 1986 she went to the North Atlantic, steaming by Iceland and then to Norway's fiords to practice amphibious assaults and transit exercises. In August 1986, the Raleigh set sail for Operation Northern Wedding Bold Guard and LF6F with MSSG-22 on board commanded by LtCol Larry Jordan, USMC. An Infantry company from the ground combat element of the MAU was also on board. MSSG-22 was part of the 22nd MAU (SOC). The commanding officer was Capt John White, USN. It returned from its deployment in February 1987. In the same year she was part of an operation in the Mediterranean Sea. In 1987 and again in 1988–89, Raleigh cruised the Persian Gulf as part of a mine countermeasures group. Operation Earnest will.. Helicopters from her deck (0H1 160th Night Stalkers) caught Iranian AJR laying mines in an "incident." Raleigh played a major role in the Gulf. First Gulf War, 1990–1991 The USS Raleigh cruise book (USN ships often produce one) for Operations Desert Shield/Desert Storm has it that the ship completed the operation on 17 April 1991. She left Morehead City, North Carolina in August 1990. The ship's CO was Capt Richard J McCarthy, the XO was Lt Cmdr Robert Baker, and the CMC was Ronald G Crittenden. The assigned LCU was LCU-1663. Embarked Marine units included the command staff of 1st Bn, 10th Marines, the command staff of 3rd Bn, 2nd Marines, including 34th Commandant of the Marine Corps James T. Conway and significant combat elements that included combat engineers, LAADs, AAVs, TOWs, tanks of 2nd Tk Bn, and I Btry 10th Marines, among others. Raleigh transited the Suez Canal in late August or early September. The initial watch was to stay in the North Arabian Sea. She was involved in a number of exercises in Oman under the name Sea Soldier. Subsequently, she supported mine countermeasures missions operations off Kuwait City, and used six AH-1W Sea Cobra attack helicopters in CAP missions. Decommissioning and fate Raleigh was decommissioned on 13 December 1991, was struck from the Naval Vessel Register on 25 January 1992, and disposed of as a target on 4 December 1994. References External links history.navy.mil: USS Raleigh USS Raleigh website Raleigh-class amphibious transport docks Cold War amphibious warfare vessels of the United States United States Navy North Carolina-related ships Gulf War ships of the United States Ships built in Brooklyn 1962 ships	[ -0.49119311571121216, -0.28960928320884705, 0.024131368845701218, 0.4713553786277771, -0.025435566902160645, 0.14385682344436646, -0.04642009362578392, -0.024650929495692253, -0.6994196772575378, 0.006937471218407154, -0.16387417912483215, -0.1531316190958023, -0.5555041432380676, 0.07763968408107758, 0.5077387690544128, 0.35310474038124084, 0.23470403254032135, 0.14473621547222137, 0.127632275223732, -0.6389971971511841, 0.2288895845413208, -0.32240477204322815, 0.13944192230701447, 0.31404978036880493, 0.848782479763031, -0.036764077842235565, 0.05982556939125061, -0.13609112799167633, 0.21919342875480652, 0.3830794095993042, 0.2735764980316162, 0.21037118136882782, 0.2456762194633484, 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230336	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/AFSA	AFSA	AFSA may refer to: Australian Financial Security Authority, an Australian Government agency. Astana Financial Services Authority. American Federation of School Administrators. American Financial Services Association. Air Force Sergeants Association. Armed Forces Security Agency, precursor to the US National Security Agency. American Foreign Service Association. Albanian Financial Supervisory Authority.	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230337	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Robert%20Morris%20%28financier%29	Robert Morris (financier)	Robert Morris, Jr. (January 20, 1734 – May 8, 1806) was an English-born merchant and a Founding Father of the United States. He served as a member of the Pennsylvania legislature, the Second Continental Congress, and the United States Senate, and he was a signer of the Declaration of Independence, the Articles of Confederation, and the United States Constitution. From 1781 to 1784, he served as the Superintendent of Finance of the United States, becoming known as the "Financier of the Revolution." Along with Alexander Hamilton and Albert Gallatin, he is widely regarded as one of the founders of the financial system of the United States. Born in Liverpool, Morris migrated to the United States in his teens, quickly becoming a partner in a successful shipping firm based in Philadelphia. In the aftermath of the French and Indian War, Morris joined with other merchants in opposing British tax policies such as the 1765 Stamp Act. By 1775 he was the richest man in America. After the outbreak of the American Revolutionary War, he helped procure arms and ammunition for the revolutionary cause, and in late 1775 he was chosen as a delegate to the Second Continental Congress. As a member of Congress, he served on the Secret Committee of Trade, which handled the procurement of supplies, the Committee of Correspondence, which handled foreign affairs, and the Marine Committee, which oversaw the Continental Navy. Morris was a leading member of Congress until he resigned in 1778. Out of office, Morris refocused on his merchant career and won election to the Pennsylvania Assembly, where he became a leader of the "Republican" faction that sought alterations to the Pennsylvania Constitution. Facing a difficult financial situation in the ongoing Revolutionary War, in 1781 Congress established the position of Superintendent of Finance to oversee financial matters. Morris accepted appointment as Superintendent of Finance and also served as Agent of Marine, from which he controlled the Continental Navy. He helped provide supplies to the Continental Army under General George Washington, enabling, with the help of frequent collaborator Haym Salomon, Washington's decisive victory in the Battle of Yorktown. Morris also reformed government contracting and established the Bank of North America, the first Congressionally chartered national bank to operate in the United States. Morris believed that the national government would be unable to achieve financial stability without the power to levy taxes and tariffs, but he was unable to convince all thirteen states to agree to an amendment to the Articles of Confederation. In May 1783 the young John Brown was commissioned by Morris to visit Luis de Unzaga 'le Conciliateur', who served him as an intermediary in his secret mission to free the trade with the United States thanks to bills of exchange from the bankers Le Couteulx; in fact Brown's secret mission was a success and thus the Continental Army could be paid, avoiding a rebellion in its ranks that would endanger the peace of the nascent United States of America with England. Frustrated by the weakness of the national government, Morris resigned as Superintendent of Finance in 1784. Morris was elected to the American Philosophical Society in 1786. In 1787, Morris was selected as a delegate to the Philadelphia Convention, which wrote and proposed a new constitution for the United States. Morris rarely spoke during the convention, but the constitution produced by the convention reflected many of his ideas. Morris and his allies helped ensure that Pennsylvania ratified the new constitution, and the document was ratified by the requisite number of states by the end of 1788. The Pennsylvania legislature subsequently elected Morris as one of its two inaugural representatives in the United States Senate. Morris declined Washington's offer to serve as the nation's first Treasury Secretary, instead suggesting Alexander Hamilton for the position. In the Senate, Morris supported Hamilton's economic program and aligned with the Federalist Party. During and after his service in the Senate, Morris went deeply into debt speculating on land leading into the Panic of 1796–1797. Unable to pay his creditors, he was confined in the Prune Street debtors' apartment adjacent to Walnut Street Prison from 1798 to 1801. After being released from prison, he lived a quiet, private life in a modest home in Philadelphia until his death in 1806. Early life Youth Morris was born in Liverpool, England, on January 20, 1734. His parents were Robert Morris, Sr., an agent for a shipping firm, and Elizabeth Murphet; biographer Charles Rappleye concludes that Morris was probably born out of wedlock. Until he reached the age of thirteen, Morris was raised by his maternal grandmother in England. In 1747, Morris immigrated to Oxford, Maryland, where his father had prospered in the tobacco trade. Two years later, Morris's father sent him to Philadelphia, then the most populous city in British North America, where Morris lived under the care of his father's friend, Charles Greenway. Merchant career Greenway arranged for Morris to become an apprentice at the shipping and banking firm of Philadelphia merchant Charles Willing. In 1750, Robert Morris, Sr. died from an infected wound, leaving much of his substantial estate to his son. Morris impressed Willing and rose from a teenage trainee to become a key agent in Willing's firm. Morris traveled to Caribbean ports to expand the firm's business, and he gained a knowledge of trading and the various currencies used to exchange goods. He also befriended Thomas Willing, the oldest son of Charles Willing who was two years older than Morris and who, like Morris, had split his life between England and British North America. Charles Willing died in 1754, and in 1757 Thomas made Morris a full partner in the newly renamed firm of Willing Morris & Company. Morris's shipping firm was just one of many such firms operating in Philadelphia, but Willing Morris & Company pursued several innovative strategies. The firm pooled with other shipping firms to insure vessels, aggressively expanded trade with India, and underwrote government projects through bonds and promissory notes. Ships of the firm traded with India, the Levant, the West Indies, Spanish Cuba, Spain, and Italy. The firm's business of import, export, and general agency made it one of the most prosperous in Pennsylvania. In 1784, Morris, with other investors, underwrote the voyage of the ship Empress of China, the first American vessel to visit the Chinese mainland. Slavery Morris's partnership with Willing was forged just after the beginning of the Seven Years' War, which hindered attracting the usual supply of new indentured servants to the colony. Potential immigrants were conscripted in England to fight in Europe, and the contracts for those already in the colonies in America were expiring. At the same time, the British Crown wanted to encourage the slave trade which was profitable for the king's political allies in the African Company of Merchants. While Morris was a junior partner and Willing was pursuing a political career, the company Willing, Morris & Co. co-signed a petition calling for the repeal of Pennsylvania's tariff on imported slaves. (About 200 slaves were imported into Philadelphia in 1762, the height of the trade; most were brought in by the Rhode Islanders D'Wolf, Aaron Lopez, and Jacob Rivera.) Willing, Morris & Co funded its own slave-trading voyage. The ship did not carry enough to be profitable and, during a second trip, was captured by French privateers. The firm handled two slave auctions for other importers, offering a total of 23 slaves. In 1762, the firm advertised an agency sale in Wilmington, Delaware, for over 100 Gold Coast slaves. The ship had docked in Wilmington to avoid the tariff. In 1765, on their last reported agency deal related to slavery (out of a total of eight), the firm advertised 17 slaves who were brought in from Africa on the ship Marquis de Granby. The slaves were not sold in Philadelphia, as the owner took the ship and all the slaves to Jamaica. Personal and family life In early 1769, at age 35, Morris married 20-year-old Mary White, the daughter of a wealthy and prestigious lawyer and landholder. Mary gave birth to the couple's first of seven children in December 1769. Morris and his family lived on Front Street in Philadelphia and maintained a second home, known as "The Hills," on the Schuylkill River to the northwest of the city. He later purchased another rural manor, which he named Morrisville, that was located across the Delaware River from Trenton, New Jersey. The Morrises worshiped at the Anglican Christ Church, which was also attended by Benjamin Franklin, Thomas Willing, and other leading citizens of Philadelphia. The Morris household employed several domestic workers and retained several slaves. In addition to the children he sired with Mary White, Morris fathered a daughter, Polly, who was born out of wedlock around 1763. Morris supported Polly financially and remained in contact with her throughout her adult life. Morris also supported a younger half-brother, Thomas, whom Morris's father had sired out of wedlock shortly before his own death. Thomas eventually became a partner in Morris's shipping firm. Mary's brother, William White, was ordained as an Episcopal priest and served as the Senate chaplain. In 1781, Morris purchased a home on Market Street that was two blocks north of Independence Hall, the seat of the Second Continental Congress. He gained clear title to the estate in 1785 and made it his primary residence. In 1790, President George Washington accepted Morris's offer to make the house his primary residence; Morris and his family subsequently moved to a smaller, neighboring property. By the 1790s, Morris had become close friends with Washington, and he and his wife were regular fixtures at state events thrown by the president. The President's House, as it became known, served as the residence of the president until 1800, when President John Adams moved to the White House in Washington, D.C. American Revolution Rising tensions with Britain In 1765, the Parliament of Great Britain imposed the Stamp Act, a tax on transactions involving paper that proved widely unpopular in British North America. In one of his first major political acts, Morris joined with several other merchants in pressuring British agent John Hughes to refrain from collecting the new tax. Facing colonial resistance, Parliament repealed the tax, but it later implemented other policies designed to generate tax revenue from the colonies. During the decade after the imposition of the Stamp Act, Morris would frequently join with other merchants in protesting many of Parliament's taxation policies. Writing to a friend about his objections to British tax policies, Morris stated that "I am a native of England but from principle am American in this dispute." While his partner, Thomas Willing, served in various governmental positions, Morris declined to serve in any public office other than that of port warden (a position he shared with six other individuals), and he generally let Willing act as the public face of the firm. In early 1774, in response to the Intolerable Acts, many colonists in British North America began calling for a boycott of British goods. In Philadelphia, Willing, Charles Thomson, and John Dickinson took the lead in calling for a congress of all the colonies to coordinate a response to British tax policies. Morris was not elected to the First Continental Congress, which convened in Philadelphia in August 1774, but he frequently met with the congressional delegates and befriended colonial leaders such as George Washington and John Jay. Morris generally sympathized with the position of the delegates who favored the reform of British policies but were unwilling to fully break with Britain. In September 1774, the First Continental Congress voted to create the Continental Association, an agreement to enforce a boycott against British goods beginning in December; it also advised each colony to establish committees to enforce the boycott. Morris was elected to the Philadelphia committee charged with enforcing the boycott. Continental Congress Early war, 1775–August 1776 In April 1775, the American Revolutionary War broke out following the Battles of Lexington and Concord. Shortly thereafter, the Second Continental Congress began meeting in Philadelphia, and Congress appointed Washington to command the Continental Army. The Pennsylvania Provincial Assembly established the twenty-five member Committee of Safety to supervise defenses, and Morris was appointed to the committee. Morris became part of the core group of members that directed the committee, and served as the committee's chairman when Benjamin Franklin was absent. Charged with obtaining gunpowder, Morris arranged a large-scale smuggling operation to avoid British laws designed to prevent arms and ammunition from being imported into the colonies. Due to his success at smuggling gunpowder for Pennsylvania, Morris also became the chief supplier of gunpowder to the Continental Army. Morris became increasingly focused on political affairs rather than business, and in October 1775 he won election to the Pennsylvania Provincial Assembly. Later in the year, the Provincial Assembly elected Morris as a delegate to Congress. In Congress, Morris aligned with the less radical faction of delegates that protested British policies but continued to favor reconciliation with Britain. He was appointed to the Secret Committee of Trade, which supervised the procurement of arms and ammunition. As the revolutionary government lacked an executive branch or a civil service, the committees of Congress handled all government business. Biographer Charles Rappleye writes that the committee "handled its contracts in a clubby, often incestuous manner" that may have unfairly benefited politically connected merchants, including Morris. However, Rappleye also notes that the dangerous and secretive nature of a committee charged with obtaining contraband goods made it difficult for the committee to establish competitive bidding procedures for procurement contracts. In addition to his service on the Secret Committee of Trade, Morris was also appointed to the Marine Committee, which oversaw the Continental Navy, and the Committee of Secret Correspondence, which oversaw efforts to establish relations with foreign powers. From his position on the latter committee, Morris helped arrange for the appointment of Silas Deane as Congress's representative to France; Deane was charged with procuring supplies and securing a formal alliance with France. Throughout 1776, Morris would emerge as a key figure on the Marine Committee; Rappleye describes him as the "de facto commander" of the Continental Navy. Morris favored a naval strategy of attacking Britain's "defenseless places" in an effort to divide Britain's numerically superior fleet. Along with Franklin, Dickinson, and John Adams, Morris helped draft the Model Treaty, which was designed to serve as a template for relations with foreign countries. Unlike Britain's mercantile trade policies, the Model Treaty emphasized the importance of free trade. In March 1776, after the death of Samuel Ward, Morris was named as the chairman of the Secret Committee of Trade. He established a network of agents, based in both the colonies and various foreign ports, charged with procuring supplies for the Continental war effort. In late February 1776, Americans learned that the British Parliament had passed the Prohibitory Act, which declared that all American shipping was subject to seizure by British ships. Unlike many other congressional leaders, Morris continued to hope for reconciliation with Britain, since he believed that all-out war still lacked the strong support of a majority of Americans and would prove financially ruinous. In June 1776, due largely to frustration with the moderate faction of Pennsylvania leaders that included Morris, a convention of delegates from across Pennsylvania began meeting to draft a new constitution and establish a new state government. At the same time, Congress was debating whether to formally declare independence from Britain. By early July 1776, Pennsylvania's delegation was the lone congressional delegation opposed to declaring independence. Morris refused to vote for independence, but he and another Pennsylvania delegate agreed to excuse themselves from the vote on independence, thereby giving the pro-independence movement a majority in the Pennsylvania delegation. With Morris absent, all congressional delegations voted to pass a resolution declaring independence on July 2, and the United States formally declared independence on July 4, 1776. Despite his opposition to independence, and much to Morris's surprise, the Pennsylvania constitutional convention voted to keep Morris in Congress; he was the lone anti-independence delegate from Pennsylvania to retain his position. In August, Morris signed the Declaration of Independence despite having abstained. In explaining his decision, he stated, "I am not one of those politicians that run testy when my own plans are not adopted. I think it is the duty of a good citizen to follow when he cannot lead." He also stated, "while I do not wish to see my countrymen die on the field of battle nor do I wish to see them live in tyranny". Continued war, August 1776–1778 After the Declaration of Independence was issued, Morris continued to supervise and coordinate efforts to secure arms and ammunition and export American goods. His strategy focused on using ships from New England to export tobacco and other goods from the Southern states to Europe and the islands of the Caribbean, then using the capital obtained from those exports to purchase military supplies from Europe. British spies and warships often frustrated his plans, and many American ships were captured in the midst of trading operations. In response, Morris authorized American envoys in Europe to commission privateers to attack British shipping, and he arranged for an agent, William Bingham, to pay for repairs to American privateers on the French island of Martinique. Due to the lucrative nature of privateering, Morris also started outfitting his own privateers. Another agent of Morris's, his half-brother Thomas Morris, proved a disastrous choice for managing American privateers in Europe, as Thomas engaged in binge drinking and mismanaged funds. In October 1776, at the urging of Morris and Benjamin Franklin, Congress authorized the appointment of two envoys charged with seeking a formal treaty of alliance with France; ultimately, Benjamin Franklin and Arthur Lee were appointed as those envoys. Along with Silas Deane, Franklin would help to greatly expand arms shipments from France and Spain, but Lee proved to be completely incompetent in his efforts to gain support from Prussia and the Habsburg Monarchy. In early December 1776, Washington's army was forced to retreat across the Delaware River and into Pennsylvania, and most members of Congress temporarily left Philadelphia. Morris was one of few delegates to remain in the city, and Congress appointed Morris and two other delegates to "execute Continental business" in its absence. Morris frequently corresponded with Washington, and he provided supplies that helped enable the Continental victory at the Battle of Trenton. After the Continental Army was defeated in the September 1777 Battle of Brandywine, Congress fled west from Philadelphia; Morris and his family went to live at the estate they had recently purchased in Manheim, Pennsylvania. Morris obtained a leave of absence in late 1777, but he spent much of his time defending himself against attacks regarding alleged mismanagement and financial improprieties levied by the pro-slavery allies of Henry Laurens, the president of the Continental Congress. Due to his leave of absence, Morris did not play a large role in drafting the Articles of Confederation, which would be the first constitution of the United States, but he signed the document in March 1778. As some states objected to the Articles, it would not enter into force until 1781. Morris returned to Congress in May 1778 to vote for a measure to provide pensions to Continental Army officers. He formed a close working relationship with Gouverneur Morris (no relation), a young New York congressman who shared many of Robert Morris's views. The following month, Morris returned with Congress to Philadelphia, which had been evacuated by the British. Morris did not resume his wide array of duties in Congress, seeking instead to wind down his projects so that he could focus on business. In late 1778, Morris won election to the state assembly as part of a slate of candidates that favored reforming the Pennsylvania constitution; he resigned from Congress to take up his seat. After Morris left Congress, slave trader, Henry Laurens, Thomas Paine, and some other members of Congress continued their false attacks on him for allegedly using his position in Congress for his own financial benefit, but in early 1779 a congressional committee cleared Morris of all charges. Out of Congress, 1779–1781 With their plans to call a new state constitutional convention frustrated by Joseph Reed and others, Morris and James Wilson founded the Republican Society, a political club devoted to implementing a new state constitution. The Republican Society favored a bicameral legislature, a state executive with veto power, an independent judiciary, and an end to loyalty oaths to the state government. Other prominent Pennsylvanians, including Wilson, Benjamin Rush, Thomas Mifflin, and Charles Thomson, supported the Republican Society's goals, but Morris became the de facto leader of the faction that became known as the Republicans. Meanwhile, those who favored maintaining the state constitution became known as the Constitutionalists. Due to rising inflation, in mid-1779 the Constitutionalists established a committee to implement price controls; numerous Philadelphia merchants were arrested for allegedly violating the committee's orders, but Morris avoided imprisonment and emerged as a leading opponent of the committee. The price control committee proved ineffective and disbanded in September, but the following month a mob rioted and seized several Republican leaders. Morris and other Republicans sheltered at James Wilson's house, where they were rescued by Reed and a detachment of the Continental Army. Wilson fled the city after the riot, and popular anger at merchants resulted in Morris's defeat in his campaign for re-election to the state legislature. Out of public office for the first time since the start of the American Revolution, Morris focused on expanding his shipping business. He partnered with several out-of-state businessmen, including Jonathan Hudson of Maryland and Carter Braxton and Benjamin Harrison of Virginia, to form what biographer Charles Rappleye calls "the first national conglomerate." In these trading ventures, Morris often provided financing and oversight but left the details to his partners. With national finances in tatters, Morris led a group of merchants in creating the Bank of Pennsylvania, which provided funding for the purchase of supplies by the Continental Army. The bank did not engage in the full range of modern banking activities, but it did accept deposits and provide a potential model for monetary reforms at the national level. The success of the bank provided a boost to Morris's popularity, and in October 1780, he won election to the state legislature. Superintendent of Finance First months In the midst of the American Revolutionary War, U.S. government finances fell into a poor state as Congress lacked the power to raise revenue and the states largely refused to furnish funding. Without a mechanism for raising revenue, Congress repeatedly issued paper money, leading to rampant inflation. By 1781, the U.S. faced an unremitting financial crisis, which was underscored by the January 1781 Pennsylvania Line Mutiny, in which ten poorly fed, unpaid Continental Army regiments demanded better conditions from Congress. Though the mutiny was put down, it convinced Congress to implement reforms that created the departments of war, marine, finance, and foreign affairs, each of which would be led by a departmental executive. By a unanimous vote, Congress selected Morris as the Superintendent of Finance. Morris accepted appointment as the Superintendent of Finance in May 1781, and he appointed Gouverneur Morris as his deputy. Morris soon emerged as the key economic official in the country and became a leader of the Nationalist faction, an informal group of American leaders who favored a stronger national government. He also had effective control over foreign affairs until Robert R. Livingston was appointed as Secretary of Foreign Affairs later in the year. In September 1781, Morris reluctantly agreed to serve as the Agent of Marine, giving him civilian leadership of the Continental Navy. Congress filled the last of the executive positions in November, when Benjamin Lincoln accepted appointment as Secretary of War. Along with General Washington and Continental Congress secretary Charles Thomson, the three executives served as the leaders of the de facto first national executive branch in U.S. history; Morris assumed an unofficial role as the leading department secretary. All three executives, as well as Washington, aligned with the Nationalist faction, and they all cooperated to enhance the power of the national government. In mid-1782, Congress established standing committees to provide oversight to the executive departments; Morris supported the congressional reorganization, but to his dismay, his longtime foe Arthur Lee became the chairman of the committee overseeing the finance department. Morris pursued an array of reforms designed to boost the economy; many of the reforms were inspired by the laissez-faire economic ideas of Adam Smith. Shortly after taking office, he convinced Congress to establish the Bank of North America, the first bank to operate in the United States. Such a bank had been discussed in the months prior to Morris's appointment, but the bank itself was organized along lines laid out by Robert Morris and Gouverneur Morris. It was established as a private institution governed by its investors, but was subject to inspection by the Superintendent of Finance. The bank would take the national government's deposits, provide loans to Congress, and issue banknotes. Morris hoped that the bank would help finance the war, stabilize the nation's currency, and bring the country together under one unified monetary policy. As the bank would take some time to begin functioning, in 1781 Morris presided over the issuing of a new currency, referred to as "Morris notes," backed by Morris's own funds. Morris also convinced Congress to allow him to purchase all supplies for the Continental Army, and Congress required states to furnish funding rather than supplying goods like flour or meat. By 1781, the Revolutionary War had become a stalemate between Britain and the United States. The British had concentrated their military operations in the Southern theater of the war, while leaving a large force garrisoned at New York City. In August 1781, Morris met with General Washington and the comte de Rochambeau, who were planning a joint Franco-American operation against the British forces. Morris redirected government funds to purchase supplies for Washington's march against British forces in Virginia, and he pleaded with state governments and the French government for further funding, with the final $20,000 needed coming from Morris's longtime collaborator, Haym Salomon. At the October 1781 Battle of Yorktown, Washington forced the surrender of the British army under the command of General Cornwallis. After the Battle of Yorktown, Britain essentially abandoned its campaign on land, but the naval war continued as Britain sought to cut the United States off from its sources of trade. After Yorktown Months after the Battle of Yorktown, Morris issued the "Report on Public Credit," an ambitious economic plan calling for the full payment of the country's war debt through new revenue measures. It included a head tax on slaves in the various states, but above all, he pushed for a federal tariff of five percent on all imported goods, which would require an amendment to the recently approved Articles of Confederation. Such an amendment would greatly strengthen the power of the national government, but the amendment process required the consent of each state, and many states were reluctant to alter the balance of power between the states and the national government. The Articles gave Congress the sole power to conduct foreign policy, but the states retained all power over funding; Congress had no independent power to raise funds, and lacked any mechanism to force states provide the funds that they owed to Congress. Writing to the state governors, Morris argued that it was "high time to reliever ourselves from the infamy we have already sustained, and to rescue and restore the national credit. This can only be done by solid revenue." By late 1782, all of the states but Rhode Island had agreed to back an amendment allowing the tariff, but that was enough to block the amendment. Though he was frustrated in the tariff battle, Morris continued to implement and propose other economic reforms. In January 1782, after receiving its charter from Congress, the Bank of North America commenced operations, and the bank's currency soon achieved wide circulation. Morris sought the establishment of a national mint to provide for a single coinage throughout the United States, and proposed the first decimal currency, but Congress was unwilling to back this project. He appointed several receivers, including Alexander Hamilton, to help circulate banknotes, report on the prices of goods, and perform other functions in places throughout the United States. He also reformed government procurement of supplies, saving money by placing the onus for the storage and transport of supplies on government contractors. Even after implementing several financial reforms, Morris was unable to pay the soldiers of the Continental Army. The chief issue, aside from the unwillingness of the states to amend the Articles of Confederation, was the unwillingness of the states to supply adequate funding; many states refused to furnish any funds at all. The Bank of North America provided some loans, but eventually refused to furnish more funds until previous loans were paid off. Morris's efforts were further complicated by France's reluctance to extend more loans, as well as a drop-off in American trade, caused in part by British naval operations. In December 1782, shortly after the apparent defeat of the proposed amendment to allow the national government to levy a tariff, General Alexander McDougall led a delegation that presented a petition for immediate payment on behalf of the Continental Army. While Morris helped temporarily defuse the crisis by offering the soldiers one month's pay, the petition reflected widespread unhappiness in the Continental Army at the continued lack of pay. Some Nationalists, including Gouverneur Morris, believed that only the discontent of the army could force the adoption of the amendment authorizing Congress to impose a tariff. In March, Colonel Walter Stewart delivered the "Newburgh Address," in which he urged members of the Continental Army to rise up against Congress and demand payment. Washington prevented a mutiny by assuring the soldiers that they would eventually be paid. In the aftermath of the near-mutiny, Morris denied that he had played any role in fomenting insurrection. Nonetheless, some misguided historians believe that Morris was part of the "Newburgh Conspiracy." The facts, however reveal the material was written by Major John Armstrong, who was rewarded with the position of Secretary of the Executive Council in Pennsylvania upon his return from New York. Frustrated by his defeat in the tariff battle and the failure of states to provide adequate funding, Morris thought he was being forced to run up debts that the states were unwilling to pay. Writing that he would not be the "Minister of Injustice", he submitted his resignation in early 1783, but Hamilton and other Nationalists convinced him to stay in office. As of January 1, 1783 the public debt was $42 million of which 18.77 percent was foreign debt and 81.23 percent was owned at home.In a report to the President of Congress Morris wrote: Domestic Debt...$35,327,769 of which Loan Certificates...$11,463,802 [with two years interest loan due $877,828] Army Debt...$635,618.00 The rest being unliquidated debts, etc., interest. At roughly the same time, Morris and others in Philadelphia learned that the United States and Britain had signed a preliminary peace agreement, bringing an unofficial end to the Revolutionary War. Congress approved a furlough of the Continental Army soldiers, subject to recall in case hostilities broke out once again. Morris distributed "Morris notes" to the remaining soldiers, but many soldiers departed for their homes rather than waiting for the notes. After a mutiny over pay broke out in Pennsylvania, Congress voted to leave Philadelphia and establish a provincial capital in Princeton, New Jersey; the mutiny dissipated shortly thereafter. Nationalists were devastated by this turn of events, and Hamilton resigned from Congress in mid-1783 after his proposal for convention to revise the Articles of Confederation was ignored. In November 1784, Morris resigned from his government positions. Rather than finding a successor for Morris, Congress established the three-member Board of Treasury, consisting of Arthur Lee, William Livingston, and Samuel Osgood. In 1778–1779 Morris had attempted to strengthen out the accounts of the old Commercial Committee but had to give it up; he stated in answer to Paine "..the accounts of Willing and Morris with the committee had been partially settled, but were still partially open, because the transactions could not be closed up." The Treasury Board elected in 1794-1795 those old accounts were brought to a settlement—a June 1796 entry in the Treasury debt against Morris for $93,312.63. Morris would explain in 1800 in debtors' prison that in fact the debt was due not just to himself but also his partners John Ross and Thomas Willing. Later political career Constitutional convention After leaving office, Morris once again devoted himself to business, but state and federal politics remained a factor in his life. After the Pennsylvania legislature stripped the Bank of North America of its charter, Morris won election to the state legislature and helped restore the bank's charter. Meanwhile, the United States suffered a sustained recession after the end of the Revolutionary War, caused by the lingering debt burden and new restrictions on trade imposed by the European powers. Some members of Congress, including those on the Board of Treasury, continued to favor amendments to the Articles of Confederation, but the states still refused to authorize major changes to the Articles. In 1786, Morris was one of five Pennsylvania delegates selected to attend the Annapolis Convention, where delegates discussed ways to reform the Articles of Confederation. Though Morris ultimately declined to attend the convention, the delegates convinced Congress to authorize a convention in Philadelphia in May 1787 to amend the Articles. The Pennsylvania state legislature sent a delegation consisting of Morris, James Wilson, Gouverneur Morris, George Clymer, Thomas Mifflin, Jared Ingersoll, and Ben Franklin to the Philadelphia Convention. With the exception of Franklin (who avoided aligning with either political faction in Pennsylvania), all of the Pennsylvania delegates were closely aligned with Morris's Republican faction, a reflection of Republican strength in the state legislature. Many of Morris's Nationalist allies from other states, including Hamilton, James Madison, John Dickinson, and Washington, would also attend the convention. With Franklin ill, Morris opened the proceedings of the Philadelphia Convention on May 25. His motion to nominate Washington as chairman of the convention was backed by a unanimous vote. Morris consistently attended the meeting of the convention, but rarely spoke after the first day, instead allowing lawyers and others more experienced with the law to debate various issues. His primary goals, including a provision ensuring the federal government had the power to lay tariffs and taxes, were shared by the vast majority of delegates at the convention. On September 17, Morris signed the final document produced by the convention which, rather than amending the Articles, was intended to supplant the Articles as the new Constitution of the United States. Morris was one of just six individuals to sign both the Declaration of Independence and the United States Constitution. Rather than seeking to block the new constitution, Congress simply forwarded it to each state to debate ratification. Morris's Republican faction, along with Federalist groups in other states, sought the ratification of the new federal Constitution. The Constitutionalists, who saw the new federal constitution as a threat to state sovereignty, joined with Anti-Federalists in other states in seeking to prevent the ratification of the Constitution. In elections held in October and November 1787, Morris's Federalist allies retained control of the state legislature and won a majority of the elections held to select delegates for the convention held to debate ratification of the Constitution. Due to a dispute with a business partner, Morris did not attend the ratification convention, which voted to ratify the Constitution in December 1787. By the end of 1788, the Constitution had been ratified by enough states to take effect. In September 1788, the Pennsylvania legislature elected Robert Morris and William Maclay, both of whom were aligned with the Federalists, as the state's first representatives in the United States Senate. U.S. Senator In the country's first presidential election, Washington was elected as the President of the United States. Washington offered the position of Secretary of the Treasury to Morris, but Morris declined the offer, instead suggesting Alexander Hamilton for the position. In the Senate, Morris pressed for many of the same policies he had sought as Superintendent of Finance: a federal tariff, a national bank, a federal mint, and the funding of the national debt. Congress agreed to implement the Tariff of 1789, which created a uniform impost on goods carried by foreign ships into American ports, but many other issues lingered into 1790. Among those issues were the site of the national capital and the fate of state debts. Morris sought the return of the nation's capital to Philadelphia and the federal assumption of state debts. Morris defeated Maclay's proposal to establish the capital in Pennsylvania at a site on the Susquehanna River located several miles west of Philadelphia, but James Madison defeated Morris's attempt to establish the capital just outside of Philadelphia. Morris's 1781 "Report On Public Credit" supplied the basis for Hamilton's First Report on the Public Credit, which Hamilton submitted in 1790. Hamilton proposed to fully fund all federal debts and assume all state debts, and to pay for those debts by issuing new federal bonds. Hamilton argued that these measures would restore confidence in public credit and help to revitalize the economy, but opponents attacked his proposals as unfairly beneficial to the speculators who had purchased many of the government's debt certificates. Morris supported Hamilton's economic proposals, but the two differed on the site of the federal capital, as Hamilton wanted to keep it in New York. In June 1790, Secretary of State Thomas Jefferson convinced Morris, Hamilton, and Madison to agree to a compromise in which the federal government assumed state debts, while a new federal capital would be established on the Potomac River; until construction of that capital was completed, Philadelphia would serve as the nation's temporary capital. With the backing of all four leaders, the Compromise of 1790, as it became known, was approved by Congress. That same year, Morris and Maclay helped secure Pennsylvania's control of the Erie Triangle, which provided the state with access to the Great Lakes. In the early 1790s, the country became increasingly polarized between the Democratic-Republican Party, led by Jefferson and Madison, and the Federalist Party, led by Hamilton. Though Morris was less focused on politics after the Compromise of 1790, he supported most of Hamilton's policies and aligned with the Federalist Party. Morris especially supported Hamilton's proposal for the establishment of a national bank. Despite the opposition of Madison and other Southern leaders, Congress approved the establishment of the First Bank of the United States in 1791. While Morris served in Congress, a new political elite emerged in Philadelphia. These new leaders generally respected Morris, but most did not look to him for leadership. With Morris playing little active role, they called a convention that revised the state constitution that included many of the alterations that Morris had long favored, including a bicameral legislature, a state governor with the power to veto bills, and a judiciary with life tenure. Later business career Morris refocused on his trading concerns after leaving office as Superintendent of Finance, seeking especially to expand his role in the tobacco trade. He began suffering from financial problems in the late 1780s after a business partner mistakenly refused to honor bills issued by Morris, causing him to default on a loan. In 1784 Morris was part of a syndicate that backed the sailing of the Empress of China (1783) for the China trade. As part of the effort to repay France for loans that financed the war, Morris contracted to supply 20,000 hogsheads of tobacco annually to France beginning in 1785. Shortly after these contracts were signed, Ambassador Thomas Jefferson took it upon himself to interfere with these arrangements and that brought about the collapse of the tobacco market. In 1787, Morris was sued in Virginia by Carter Braxton for £28,257; the lawsuit continued for eight years before commissioners were appointed, then Morris appealed. Finally Virginia's Court of Appeals led by Edmund Pendleton decided mostly in favor of Braxton before Morris was forced into bankruptcy by his own continued land speculations (although Morris as late as 1800 believed he should have won £20,000). Morris became increasingly fixated on land speculation, reaching his first major real estate deal in 1790 when he acquired much of the Phelps and Gorham Purchase in western New York. He realized a substantial profit the following year when he sold the land to The Pulteney Association, a group of British land speculators led by Sir William Johnstone Pulteney. Morris used the money from this sale to purchase the remainder of the Phelps and Gorham Purchase, then turned around and sold much of that land to the Holland Land Company, a group of Dutch land speculators. These early successes encouraged Morris to pursue greater profits through increasingly large and risky land acquisitions. On March 7, 1791, Morris obtained title to a lot from John Dickinson and wife; on March 9, 1793, the site was surveyed; it wasn't until 1794 he began construction of a mansion on Chestnut Street in Philadelphia designed by architect of Washington, D.C., Pierre Charles L'Enfant; it was to occupy an entire block between Chestnut Street and Walnut Street on the western edge of Philadelphia. The structure was of red brick and marble lining. Besides Land Speculation, Morris founded several canal companies: [Similar to the Potomac Company], two Pennsylvania canal companies were set up to try to link the produce of the western lands with the eastern markets; they were the Schuylkill and Susquehanna Navigation Company chartered September 29, 1791 and the Delaware and Schuylkill Canal Company chartered April 10, 1792, Morris was president of both companies; he was also involved with a steam engine company, and launched a hot air balloon from his garden on Market Street. He had the first iron rolling mill in America. His icehouse was the model for one Washington installed at Mount Vernon. He backed the new Chestnut Street Theater, and had a greenhouse where his staff cultivated lemon trees. In early 1793, Morris purchased shares in a land company led by John Nicholson, the comptroller general of Pennsylvania, beginning a deep business partnership between Nicholson and Morris. Later in 1793, Morris, Nicholson, and James Greenleaf jointly purchased thousands of lots in the recently established District of Columbia. They subsequently purchased millions of acres in Pennsylvania, Kentucky, Virginia, Georgia, and the Carolinas; in each case, they went into debt to make the purchases, with the intent of quickly reselling the land to realize a profit. Morris and his partners struggled to re-sell their lands, and Greenleaf dropped out from the partnership in 1795. Morris realized a profit by selling his lots in the District of Columbia in 1796, but he and Nicholson still owed their creditors approximately $12 million (about $ in ). By Morris's own admission the beginning of his bankruptcy began with the failure of John Warder & Co. of Dublin and Donald and Burton of London in the spring of 1793. Morris was deeply involved in land speculation, especially after the Revolutionary War; (See Phelps and Gorham Purchase of 1791 above); on April 22, 1794, Morris entered into an association called the Asylum Company with John Nicholson, [who had served as Comptroller-General of the state of Pennsylvania from 1782 to 1794] to purchase 1,000,000 acres of Pennsylvania land besides land they already had title to in Luzerne County; Northumberland County and Northampton County. [This was not the first partnership Morris and Nicholson were involved in; in 1792, Nicholson had negotiated the purchase from the federal government of the tract known as the Erie Triangle. Along with an agent of the Holland Land Company, Aaron Burr, Robert Morris, and other individual and institutional investors, he formed the Pennsylvania Population Company. This front organization purchased all 390 parcels of land in the Erie Triangle. Nicholson was impeached in 1794 for his role in the company.] However, Morris severely overextended himself financially. He had borrowed to speculate in real estate in the new national capital, District of Columbia, but signed a contract with a syndicate of Philadelphia investors to take over his obligations there. After that, he took the options to purchase over in the rural south. Unfortunately for Morris, that syndicate reneged on their commitment, leaving him once again liable, but this time with more exposure. In 1795, Morris and two of his partners, Greenleaf and Nicholson, pooled their land and formed a land company called the North American Land Company. The purpose of this company was to raise money by selling stock secured by the real estate [i.e. to finance their land speculation business]. According to one historian of American land speculation, the NALC was "largest land trust ever known in America". The three partners turned over to the company land throughout the United States totaling more than , most of it valued at about 50 cents an acre. In addition to land in the District of Columbia, there were in Georgia, in Kentucky, in North Carolina, in Pennsylvania, in South Carolina, and in Virginia. NALC was authorized to issue 30,000 shares, each worth $100. To encourage investors to purchase shares, the three partners guaranteed that a 6 percent dividend would be paid every year. To ensure that there was enough money to pay this divided, each partner agreed to put 3,000 of their own NALC shares in escrow. Greenleaf, Morris, and Nicholson were entitled to receive a 2.5 percent commission on any land the company sold. Greenleaf was named secretary of the new company. Other land speculations that Morris was involved in was the Illinois-Wabash Company and the Georgia Yazoo Land Company 1796 lack of capital and Panic of 1797 and bankruptcy The Washington DC Lots were not the only land problems for Morris; he began losing everything for nonpayment on interest on loans and taxes: In May 1796, John Barker Church accepted a mortgage on another 100,000 acres of the Morris Reserve in present-day Allegany County and Genesee County, against a debt owed to him by Morris. After Morris failed to pay the mortgage, Church foreclosed, and Church's son Philip Schuyler Church acquired the land in May 1800. Philip began the settlement of Allegany and Genesee counties by founding the village of Angelica, New York. In a letter of September 1797 to his partner Nicholson, Morris begged to be able to find $500.00 to pay two years wages to his servant Mr. Richard; in a subsequent letter October 25, 1797 to Nicholson, Morris moaned that 200,000 acres of North Carolina land which had cost him $27,000.00 had been sold for one year's taxes. In regard to Morris's Philadelphia mansion L'Enfant was paid $9,037.13 between December 1795 and January 1799. Despite the spent amount of £6138 5s 10d it was never completed. The bank of Pennsylvania brought suit against him and a judgement made against him for $20,997.40; an execution against his unfinished Chestnut Street "Morris Folly" mansion was issued in September 1797 to Philadelphia Sherriff Baker; Sherriff Penrose on December 11, 1797, made deed-poll to William Sansom for the building and the lot sold for $25,600 subject to a £7,000 in specie mortgage payable to Messrs Willink of Amsterdam. The last credit for the house was July 2, 1801 and the last charge for it was made July 9, 1801. The unfinished mansion became known as "Morris's folly", and the land eventually became Sansom Street. Marble from this house was purchased by Latrobe; he used it to adorn buildings and monuments from Rhode Island to Charlestown, South Carolina. The two canal companies had also failed as well: for example after its incorporation the Schuylkill and Susquehanna was subscribed for 40,000 shares—but only 1000 shares were sold; the Delaware and Schuylkill company was to have been 2000 shares at $200.00 a share. Operations were suspended because "..Either on account of errors in plans adopted, failure to procure the necessary means, financial convulsions, or a combination of all these difficulties, they were compelled to suspend their operations after an outlay of $440,000, which was an immense sum in those days..". When England and the Dutch declared war on Revolutionary France, an expected loan from Holland never materialized. The subsequent Napoleonic Wars ruined the market for American land and Morris's highly leveraged company collapsed. Lastly, the financial markets of England, the United States, and the Caribbean suffered from deflation related with the Panic of 1797. Morris was left "land rich and cash poor". He owned more land than any other American at any time, but didn't have enough liquid capital to pay his creditors. Among his creditors was his son-in-law James Marshall for £20,000 sterling; likewise his brother-in-law Bishop White was also a creditor to Morris for $3,000. Gouvenor Morris was owned $24,000 "..exclusive of what he paid in Europe on my account, the amount of which I do not know."; Henry Lee III was a creditor for protested bills for $39,446 plus damages and interest; Morris's wife Mary had a sum of credit of $15,860.16 from the sale of two farms left to her by her father;his daughter Esther Morris had a credit of a few hundred pounds left to her by her grandmother received by Morris; as Morris had given her on her marriage nothing but clothes and old wine he assigned to her two quarter chests of tea which he sent to Alexandria, Virginia for sale although he feared this would not amount to principal and interest; his son Robert Morris Jr was a debtor for sums spent in Europe without his father's knowledge; his son Charles while under age had contracted bills without his father's knowledge for $144.94 for a tailor and $24.50 for a shoemaker. The NALC encountered financial difficulty almost immediately. Only of land was turned over to the NALC, which meant it could issue only 22,365 shares. This meant only 7,455 shares were put into escrow (instead of the required 9,000). Rather than paying creditors with cash, the NALC paid them with shares (8,477 shares in 1795 and 1796). On May 15, 1795, the D.C. commissioners demanded their first payment from Greenleaf, Morris, and Nicholson, for the 6,000 lots purchased in 1793. But Greenleaf had misappropriated some of the company's income to pay his own debts. Without the Dutch mortgage income and missing funds, there was no money to make the payment to the commissioners. Furthermore, Greenleaf had co-signed for loans taken out by Morris and Nicholson. When these men defaulted, creditors sought out Greenleaf to make good on the debts—which he could not. Moris and his partners had failed to both pay the instalments on the Washington D.C. building lots and finished building twenty houses (they had contracted ten houses annually for seven years on said lots); On July 10, 1795, Morris and Nicholson bought out Greenleaf's interest in the December 24, 1793, agreement. The commissioners began legal proceedings to regain title to the 6,000 lots owned by NALC and the 1,115.25 lots owned by Greenleaf personally. The worsening financial problems of Greenleaf, Morris, and Nicholson led to increasingly poor personal relations among the three men. Nicholson, particularly bitter, began making public accusations against Greenleaf in print. Morris attempted to mediate between the two men, but his efforts failed. In an attempt to resolve his financial problems, Greenleaf sold his shares in the NALC to Nicholson and Morris on May 28, 1796, for $1.5 million. Unfortunately, Morris and Nicholson funded their purchase by giving Greenleaf personal notes. Furthermore, they endorsed one another's notes. Morris and Nicholson, themselves nearly bankrupt, agreed to pay one-quarter of the purchase price every year for the next four years. Greenleaf's shares were not to be transferred to Morris and Nicholson until the fourth payment was received. On September 30, 1796, James Greenleaf put 7,455 of his NALC shares in a trust (known as the "391 trust" because it was recorded on page 391 of the firm's accounting book). The "391 trust" was created to generate income (from the 6 percent dividend) to pay a loan given to Greenleaf by Edward Fox. A trustee was assigned to hold on to the shares. The same day, Greenleaf put 2,545 shares into another trust (the "381 trust"), as a guarantee against nonpayment of the dividend by Morris and Nicholson. Morris and Nicholson's made the first payment to Greenleaf for the one-third interest in the NALC by turning over title to several hundred lots in Washington, D.C. On March 8, 1797, Greenleaf executed the 381 trust. When the NALC did not issue its 6 percent dividend, Greenleaf transferred one-third of the shares in the "391 trust" to the trustees. The total number of shares transferred to the "381 trust" trustees was now 6,119. On June 24, 1797, Morris, Greenleaf and Nicholson had conveyed their Washington D.C. Lots in trust to Henry Pratt and others in payments of their debts. Poor business practices were now dragging down NALC. For years, Morris and Nicholson had acted as personal guarantors for one another's notes. Now many of these notes were coming due, and neither man could pay them. Creditors began selling the notes publicly, often at heavy discounts. By 1798, Morris and Nicholson's $10 million in personal notes were trading at one-eighth their face value. NALC also discovered that some of titles to the of land it owned were not clear, and thus the land could not be used for security. In other cases, NALC found it had been swindled, and the rich land it thought it owned turned out to be barren and worthless. Morris and Nicholson honestly believed that, if their cash flow problems were fixed, they could make payments on the property they owned and their shares would be returned to them. This proved incorrect. On October 23, 1807, all stock in the company was sold at 7 cents on the dollar to the accountants managing the Aggregate Fund. In 1856, the Trustees of the North American Land Company held $92,071.87. Morris and Nicholson's heirs sued to recover the stock and gain access to the income. The North American Land Company stayed in existence until 1872. An 1880 auditors report called the litigation "phenomenal ... the counsel for Morris and Nickerson pursued the fund for twenty-five years, seeking to obtain it from the trustees of the North American Company and the trusts which had been created from it, and also defending the money from the State in an attempt to sequestrate it. After all counsel fees and expenses, the amount available for division to the Morris interest was $9,692.49." In 1797 Morris conveyed his household furniture to Thomas Fitzsimmons which was sold at public auction. What was left was lent to Mrs. Morris by Fitzsimmons and Morris son-in-law Marshall; all Morris had left in his house was some bedding, clothing, part of a quarter cask of wine; part of a barrel of flour, some coffee, a little sugar and some bottled wine which was the remainder from a cask he had given to his daughter Maria. Morris attempted to avoid creditors by staying outside the city at his country estate "The Hills", located on the Schuylkill River, but his creditors literally pursued him to his gate. Morris was sued by a former partner, James Greenleaf, who had been imprisoned for fraud and was serving time in debtors' prison. Unable to dodge his creditors and their lawyers, Morris was finally arrested. He was imprisoned for debt in Prune Street prison in Philadelphia from February 1798 to August 1801. Morris property Summerseat (Morrisville, Pennsylvania) would be sold in a Sherriff's sale on June 9, 1798, to George Clymer and Thomas Fitzsimmons for $41,000.00. In January 1799 Morris lamented to Nicholson of how a London firm had refused to accept his bill of lading £389 sterling "..because the money in the hands of the party upon whom the bill was drawn had been attached by the owner of a bond given for payment of some lands in Georgia..". 43 of the 100 acres of Morris estate "The Hills" was purchased in March 1799 by Henry Pratt for $14,654.00 for his country house Lemon Hill after the tearing down of Morris's old mansion; in turn the "Lemon Hill" estate became part of the foundation for Fairmount Park Philadelphia; one part of Morris property which had also been purchased in 1799 by William Cannard became part of the Sedgeley mansion-which in turn ironically became part of Fairmont Park. Of his partners Geenleaf was released after being declared bankrupt in 1798; Nicholson died in prison in 1800. Final years Morris was unable to pay his debts, and he remained in debtors' prison for three and a half years. Morris was released from prison in August 1801 after Congress passed its first bankruptcy legislation, the Bankruptcy Act of 1800 in part to get Morris out of prison. At the time of his release, three commissioners found that he had debts of $2,948,711.11; the proceedings were certified October 15, 1801 after 2/3 of his creditors agreed to the discharge of Morris; on December 4, 1801, a certificate of bankruptcy was confirmed. but he remained financially destitute. Gouverneur Morris, who served as Robert Morris's representative to the Holland Land Company, was able to attach a provision to the sale of some land that gave Mary Morris a $1,500 () per year annuity; this annuity allowed Mary to rent a small house in Philadelphia far away from the city's center. Ironically one of the few assets Morris had left to him was his father's old worn out gold watch which he had inherited at the start of his career; Morris managed to leave this timepiece in his Will to his son Robert Jr. Morris died on May 8, 1806, in Philadelphia. No public ceremonies marked his death. He was buried in the churchyard of Christ Church. Legacy Historical reputation Biographer Charles Rappleye writes that Morris "was too rich to be a folk hero, and the ultimate failure of his personal fortune robbed him of any Midas-like mystique." Some historians have largely ignored Morris's role in founding the United States, while others regard him as the leader of a conservative, anti-democratic faction of the Founding Fathers. Robert E. Wright and David J. Cowen describe Morris as a "fallen angel" who "almost single-handedly financed the final years" of the American Revolution before falling into "ignominy" for defaulting on his debts. Historian William Hogeland writes "given his seminal performance to victory in the Revolution, as well as to forming the nation, Robert Morris isn't as well known by Americans as he ought to be." Memorials Morris's portrait appeared on US$1,000 notes from 1862 to 1863 and on the $10 silver certificate from 1878 to 1880. Institutions named in honor of Morris include Robert Morris University and Robert Morris University Illinois. Mount Morris, New York, the location of a large flood control dam on the Genesee River, is named in his honor. A number of ships in the U.S. Navy and the U.S. Coast Guard have been named USS Morris or USRC Morris for him. Morrisville, Pennsylvania, was named in his honor. The Morris-Taney-class cutter was named for Morris and Roger Taney. A statue of Morris stands at Independence National Historical Park, and a monument to Morris, Washington, and Haym Salomon stands at Heald Square in Chicago, Illinois. Summerseat, Morris's former estate in Morrisville, is listed as a National Historic Landmark. Lemon Hill, a Federal-style estate listed on the National Register of Historic Places, is located on a parcel of land formerly owned by Morris. Part of the Liberty Bell Center is on land that was formerly part of the estate known as the President's House. Robert Morris holds the curious distinction as the only Founding Father whose house is a national memorial, but his life is not interpreted at the site. Morris is included in the Washington, D.C. Memorial to the 56 Signers of the Declaration of Independence. See also List of richest Americans in history List of United States senators born outside the United States Notes References Bibliography Ferguson, E. James. Business, Government, and Congressional Investigation in the Revolution, (1959), Via Jstor Ferguson, E. James. The Power of the Purse: A History of American Public Finance, 1776–1790 (1961) Perkins, Edwin J. American public finance and financial services, 1700–1815 (1994). pp. 85–105 on Revolution, pp. 106–36 on postwar. Complete text line free Smith, Ryan K. Robert Morris's Folly: The Architectural and Financial Failures of an American Founder. New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 2014. Ver Steeg, Clarence L. Robert Morris, Revolutionary Financier. Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 1954. Ver Steeg, Clarence L. "Morris, Robert" in American National Biography Online 2000. Primary sources Ferguson, E. James (editor): The Papers of Robert Morris 1781–1784 (9 volumes): University of Pittsburgh Press, 1978; (1995 reprint: ). External links Biography by Rev. Charles A. Goodrich, 1856 The President's House \|- 1734 births 1806 deaths Politicians from Liverpool Businesspeople from Liverpool British emigrants to the Thirteen Colonies American people of English descent American Episcopalians Marshall family Continental Congressmen from Pennsylvania Signers of the United States Declaration of Independence Signers of the Articles of Confederation Signers of the United States Constitution Pro-Administration Party United States senators from Pennsylvania Members of the Pennsylvania Provincial Assembly Members of the Pennsylvania House of Representatives Politicians from Philadelphia American bankers American merchants American slave traders Central bankers Colonial American merchants Financiers of the American Revolution History of banking People imprisoned for debt Burials at Christ Church, Philadelphia Members of the American Philosophical Society	[ -0.2954375445842743, 0.16014042496681213, -0.15174250304698944, -0.45781490206718445, 0.09042277187108994, 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230338	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Robert%20Morris%20%28cryptographer%29	Robert Morris (cryptographer)	Robert H. Morris Sr. (July 25, 1932 – June 26, 2011) was an American cryptographer and computer scientist. Family and education Morris was born in Boston, Massachusetts. His parents were Walter W. Morris, a salesman, and Helen Kelly Morris, a homemaker. He received a bachelor's degree in mathematics from Harvard University in 1957 and a master's degree in applied mathematics from Harvard in 1958. He married Anne Farlow, and they had three children together: Robert Tappan Morris (author of the 1988 Morris worm), Meredith Morris, and Benjamin Morris. Bell Labs From 1960 until 1986, Morris was a researcher at Bell Labs and worked on Multics and later Unix. Together with Douglas McIlroy, he created M6 macro processor in FORTRAN IV, which was later ported to Unix. Using the TMG compiler-compiler, Morris, together with McIlroy, developed the early implementation of PL/I compiler called EPL for Multics project. The pair also contributed a version of runoff text-formatting program for Multics. Morris's contributions to early versions of Unix include the math library, the bc programming language, the program crypt, and the password encryption scheme used for user authentication. The encryption scheme (invented by Roger Needham), was based on using a trapdoor function (now called a key derivation function) to compute hashes of user passwords which were stored in the file /etc/passwd; analogous techniques, relying on different functions, are still in use today. National Security Agency In 1986, Morris began work at the National Security Agency (NSA). He served as chief scientist of the NSA's National Computer Security Center, where he was involved in the production of the Rainbow Series of computer security standards, and retired from the NSA in 1994. He once told a reporter that, while at the NSA, he helped the FBI decode encrypted evidence. There is a description of Morris in Clifford Stoll's book The Cuckoo's Egg. Many readers of Stoll's book remember Morris for giving Stoll a challenging mathematical puzzle (originally due to John H. Conway) in the course of their discussions on computer security: What is the next number in the sequence 1 11 21 1211 111221? (known as the look-and-say sequence). Stoll chose not to include the answer to this puzzle in The Cuckoo's Egg, to the frustration of many readers. Robert Morris died in Lebanon, New Hampshire. Quotes Rule 1 of cryptanalysis: check for plaintext. The three golden rules to ensure computer security are: do not own a computer; do not power it on; and do not use it. Selected publications (with Fred T. Grampp) UNIX Operating System Security, AT&T Bell Laboratories Technical Journal, 63, part 2, #8 (October 1984), pp. 1649–1672. References External links Dennis Ritchie: "Dabbling in the Cryptographic World" tells the story of cryptographic research he performed with Morris and why that research was never published. Modern cryptographers 1932 births 2011 deaths Scientists at Bell Labs Computer security academics Harvard University alumni National Security Agency cryptographers People from Boston Multics people Unix people	[ 0.08690271526575089, 0.53780597448349, -0.490884929895401, 0.005129384342581034, 0.18376067280769348, 0.07721944898366928, 0.4289553463459015, -0.2053651362657547, -0.3613426387310028, 0.020855890586972237, -0.1465340405702591, 0.11821553856134415, -0.19077183306217194, -0.10146643966436386, -0.2610815763473511, 0.15037794411182404, -0.17923283576965332, 0.09210435301065445, 0.017803678289055824, -0.22372956573963165, -0.4068324863910675, -0.21318022906780243, 0.07481023669242859, -0.5728034377098083, -0.08831334114074707, 0.12410963326692581, -0.09225770086050034, -0.34924253821372986, -0.1295979917049408, 0.34180402755737305, 0.12115046381950378, 0.07739078253507614, 0.40338364243507385, -0.23645372688770294, -0.265434205532074, -0.3010302484035492, 0.08763567358255386, 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230339	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Robert%20Tappan%20Morris	Robert Tappan Morris	Robert Tappan Morris (born November 8, 1965) is an American computer scientist and entrepreneur. He is best known for creating the Morris worm in 1988, considered the first computer worm on the Internet. Morris was prosecuted for releasing the worm, and became the first person convicted under the then-new Computer Fraud and Abuse Act (CFAA). He went on to cofound the online store Viaweb, one of the first web applications, and later the venture capital funding firm Y Combinator, both with Paul Graham. He later joined the faculty in the department of Electrical Engineering and Computer Science at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT), where he received tenure in 2006. He was elected to the National Academy of Engineering in 2019. Early life Morris was born in 1965 to parents Robert Morris and Anne Farlow Morris. The senior Robert Morris was a computer scientist at Bell Labs, who helped design Multics and Unix; and later became the chief scientist at the National Computer Security Center, a division of the National Security Agency (NSA). Morris grew up in the Millington section of Long Hill Township, New Jersey, and graduated from Delbarton School in 1983. Morris attended Harvard University, and later went on to graduate school at Cornell University. During his first year there, he designed a computer worm (see below) that disrupted many computers on what was then a fledgling internet. This led to him being indicted a year later. After serving his conviction term, he returned to Harvard to complete his Doctor of Philosophy (Ph.D.) under the supervision of H.T. Kung. He finished in 1999. Morris worm Morris' computer worm was developed in 1988, while he was a graduate student at Cornell University. He released the worm from MIT, rather than from Cornell. The worm exploited several vulnerabilities to gain entry to targeted systems, including: A hole in the debug mode of the Unix sendmail program A buffer overflow or overrun hole in the fingerd network service The transitive trust enabled by people setting up network logins with no password requirements via remote execution (rexec) with Remote Shell (rsh), termed rexec/rsh The worm was programmed to check each computer it found to determine if the infection was already present. However, Morris believed that some system administrators might try to defeat the worm by instructing the computer to report a false positive. To compensate for this possibility, Morris programmed the worm to copy itself anyway, 14% of the time, no matter what the response was to the infection-status interrogation. This level of persistence was a design flaw: it created system loads that brought it to the attention of administrators, and disrupted the target computers. During the ensuing trial, it was estimated that the cost in "potential loss in productivity" caused by the worm and efforts to remove it from different systems ranged from $200 to $53,000. Criminal prosecution In 1989, Morris was indicted for violating United States Code Title 18 (), the Computer Fraud and Abuse Act (CFAA). He was the first person to be indicted under this act. In December 1990, he was sentenced to three years of probation, 400 hours of community service, and a fine of $10,050 plus the costs of his supervision. He appealed, but the motion was rejected the following March. Morris' stated motive during the trial was "to demonstrate the inadequacies of current security measures on computer networks by exploiting the security defects [he] had discovered." He completed his sentence as of 1994. Later life and work Morris' principal research interest is computer network architectures which includes work on distributed hash tables such as Chord and wireless mesh networks such as Roofnet. He is a longtime friend and collaborator of Paul Graham. Along with cofounding two companies, Graham dedicated his book ANSI Common Lisp to Morris, and named the programming language that generates the online stores' web pages RTML (Robert T. Morris Language) in his honor. Graham lists Morris as one of his personal heroes, saying "he's never wrong." Timeline 1983 – Graduated from Delbarton School in Morristown, New Jersey 1987 – Received his Bachelor of Arts (B.A.) from Harvard University. 1988 – Released the Morris worm (when he was a graduate student at Cornell University) 1989 – Indicted under the Computer Fraud and Abuse Act (CFAA) of 1986 on July 26, 1989; the first person to be indicted under the Act 1990 – Convicted in United States v. Morris 1995 – Cofounded Viaweb, a start-up company that made software for building online stores (with Paul Graham) 1998 – Viaweb sold for $49 million to Yahoo, which renamed the software Yahoo! Store 1999 – Received Ph.D. in Applied Sciences from Harvard for thesis titled Scalable TCP Congestion Control 1999 – Appointed as an assistant professor at MIT 2005 – Cofounded Y Combinator, a seed-stage startup venture capital funding firm, that provides seed money, advice, and connections at two 3-month programs per year (with Paul Graham, Trevor Blackwell, and Jessica Livingston) 2006 – Awarded tenure at MIT 2006 – Technical advisor for Cisco Meraki 2008 – Released the programming language Arc, a Lisp dialect (with Paul Graham) 2010 – Awarded the 2010 Special Interest Group in Operating Systems (SIGOPS) Mark Weiser award 2015 – Elected a Fellow of Association for Computing Machinery (ACM, 2014) for "contributions to computer networking, distributed systems, and operating systems." 2019 – Elected to National Academy of Engineering See also List of convicted computer criminals References Further reading A Report on the Internet Worm External links , at MIT 1965 births Living people American computer programmers American computer scientists Computer systems researchers Cornell University alumni Place of birth missing (living people) Delbarton School alumni MIT School of Engineering faculty Computer security academics American computer criminals American technology company founders People from Long Hill Township, New Jersey Lisp (programming language) people American computer businesspeople Y Combinator people Harvard School of Engineering and Applied Sciences alumni People convicted of cybercrime People charged with computer fraud	[ -0.08607716113328934, 0.2989920973777771, -0.2406812310218811, -0.06935194879770279, 0.7335151433944702, 0.4869925379753113, 0.17550860345363617, 0.20605458319187164, -0.027853820472955704, 0.07484031468629837, -0.33991798758506775, 0.23518706858158112, 0.24373681843280792, 0.4352569282054901, -0.4970473647117615, -0.045531559735536575, -0.30366024374961853, -0.29293540120124817, -0.05661756917834282, 0.14481216669082642, 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230342	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Keystone%20species	Keystone species	A keystone species is a species which has a disproportionately large effect on its natural environment relative to its abundance, a concept introduced in 1969 by the zoologist Robert T. Paine. Keystone species play a critical role in maintaining the structure of an ecological community, affecting many other organisms in an ecosystem and helping to determine the types and numbers of various other species in the community. Without keystone species, the ecosystem would be dramatically different or cease to exist altogether. Some keystone species, such as the wolf, are also apex predators. The role that a keystone species plays in its ecosystem is analogous to the role of a keystone in an arch. While the keystone is under the least pressure of any of the stones in an arch, the arch still collapses without it. Similarly, an ecosystem may experience a dramatic shift if a keystone species is removed, even though that species was a small part of the ecosystem by measures of biomass or productivity. It became a popular concept in conservation biology, alongside flagship and umbrella species. Although the concept is valued as a descriptor for particularly strong inter-species interactions, and has allowed easier communication between ecologists and conservation policy-makers, it has been criticized for oversimplifying complex ecological systems. History The concept of the keystone species was introduced in 1969 by the zoologist Robert T. Paine. Paine developed the concept to explain his observations and experiments on the relationships between marine invertebrates of the intertidal zone (between the high and low tide lines), including starfish and mussels. He removed the starfish from an area, and documented the effects on the ecosystem. In his 1966 paper, Food Web Complexity and Species Diversity, Paine had described such a system in Makah Bay in Washington. In his 1969 paper, Paine proposed the keystone species concept, using Pisaster ochraceus, a species of starfish generally known as ochre starfish, and Mytilus californianus, a species of mussel, as a primary example. The ochre starfish is a generalist predator and feeds on chitons, limpets, snails, barnacles, echinoids, and even decapod crustacea. The favourite food for these starfish is the mussel which is a dominant competitor for the space on the rocks. The ochre starfish keeps the population numbers of the mussels in check along with the other preys allowing the other seaweeds, sponges, and anemones to co-exist that ochre starfish do not consume. When Paine removed the ochre starfish the mussels quickly outgrew the other species crowding them out. The concept became popular in conservation, and was deployed in a range of contexts and mobilized to engender support for conservation, especially where human activities had damaged ecosystems, such as by removing keystone predators. Definitions A keystone species was defined by Paine as a species that has a disproportionately large effect on its environment relative to its abundance. It has been defined operationally by Davic in 2003 as "a strongly interacting species whose top-down effect on species diversity and competition is large relative to its biomass dominance within a functional group." A classic keystone species is a predator that prevents a particular herbivorous species from eliminating dominant plant species. If prey numbers are low, keystone predators can be even less abundant and still be effective. Yet without the predators, the herbivorous prey would explode in numbers, wipe out the dominant plants, and dramatically alter the character of the ecosystem. The exact scenario changes in each example, but the central idea remains that through a chain of interactions, a non-abundant species has an outsized impact on ecosystem functions. For example, the herbivorous weevil Euhrychiopsis lecontei is thought to have keystone effects on aquatic plant diversity by foraging on nuisance Eurasian watermilfoil in North American waters. Similarly, the wasp species Agelaia vicina has been labeled a keystone species for its unparalleled nest size, colony size, and high rate of brood production. The diversity of its prey and the quantity necessary to sustain its high rate of growth have a direct impact on other species around it. The keystone concept is defined by its ecological effects, and these in turn make it important for conservation. In this it overlaps with several other species conservation concepts such as flagship species, indicator species, and umbrella species. For example, the jaguar is a charismatic big cat which meets all of these definitions: Predators Sea otters and kelp forests Sea otters protect kelp forests from damage by sea urchins. When the sea otters of the North American west coast were hunted commercially for their fur, their numbers fell to such low levels – fewer than 1000 in the north Pacific ocean – that they were unable to control the sea urchin population. The urchins in turn grazed the holdfasts of kelp so heavily that the kelp forests largely disappeared, along with all the species that depended on them. Reintroducing the sea otters has enabled the kelp ecosystem to be restored. For example, in Southeast Alaska some 400 sea otters were released, and they have bred to form a population approaching 25,000. The wolf, Yellowstone's apex predator Keystone predators may increase the biodiversity of communities by preventing a single species from becoming dominant. They can have a profound influence on the balance of organisms in a particular ecosystem. Introduction or removal of a keystone predator, or changes in its population density, can have drastic cascading effects on the equilibrium of many other populations in the ecosystem. For example, grazers of a grassland may prevent a single dominant species from taking over. The elimination of the gray wolf from the Greater Yellowstone Ecosystem had profound impacts on the trophic pyramid. Without predation, herbivores began to over-graze many woody browse species, affecting the area's plant populations. In addition, wolves often kept animals from grazing in riparian areas, which protected beavers from having their food sources encroached upon. The removal of wolves had a direct effect on beaver populations, as their habitat became grazing territory. Increased browsing on willows and conifers along Blacktail Creek due to a lack of predation caused channel incision because the beavers helped slow the water down, allowing soil to stay in place. Furthermore, predation keeps hydrological features such as creeks and streams in normal working order. When wolves were reintroduced, the beaver population and the whole riparian ecosystem recovered dramatically within a few years. Sea stars and other non-apex predators As described by Paine in 1966, some sea stars (e.g., Pisaster ochraceus) may prey on sea urchins, mussels, and other shellfish that have no other natural predators. If the sea star is removed from the ecosystem, the mussel population explodes uncontrollably, driving out most other species. The recent onset of sea star wasting disease around the United States has indirectly caused mussel populations to dominate in many intertidal habitats. These creatures need not be apex predators. Sea stars are prey for sharks, rays, and sea anemones. Sea otters are prey for orca. The jaguar, whose numbers in Central and South America have been classified as near threatened, acts as a keystone predator by its widely varied diet, helping to balance the mammalian jungle ecosystem with its consumption of 87 different species of prey. The lion is another keystone species. Mutualists Keystone mutualists are organisms that participate in mutually beneficial interaction, the loss of which would have a profound impact upon the ecosystem as a whole. For example, in the Avon Wheatbelt region of Western Australia, there is a period of each year when Banksia prionotes (acorn banksia) is the sole source of nectar for honeyeaters, which play an important role in pollination of numerous plant species. Therefore, the loss of this one species of tree would probably cause the honeyeater population to collapse, with profound implications for the entire ecosystem. Another example is frugivores, such as the cassowary, which spreads the seeds of many different trees. Some seeds will not grow unless they have been through a cassowary. Engineers A term used alongside keystone is ecosystem engineer. In North America, the prairie dog is an ecosystem engineer. Prairie dog burrows provide the nesting areas for mountain plovers and burrowing owls. Prairie dog tunnel systems also help channel rainwater into the water table to prevent runoff and erosion, and can also serve to change the composition of the soil in a region by increasing aeration and reversing soil compaction that can be a result of cattle grazing. Prairie dogs also trim the vegetation around their colonies, perhaps to remove any cover for predators. Grazing species such as plains bison, pronghorn, and mule deer have shown a proclivity for grazing on the same land used by prairie dogs. The beaver is a well known ecosystem engineer and keystone species. It transforms its territory from a stream to a pond or swamp. Beavers affect the environment first altering the edges of riparian areas by cutting down older trees to use for their dams. This allows younger trees to take their place. Beaver dams alter the riparian area they are established in. Depending on topography, soils, and many factors, these dams change the riparian edges of streams and rivers into wetlands, meadows, or riverine forests. These dams have been shown to be beneficial to a myriad of species including amphibians, salmon, and song birds. In the African savanna, the larger herbivores, especially the elephants, shape their environment. The elephants destroy trees, making room for the grass species. Without these animals, much of the savanna would turn into woodland. In the Amazon river basin, peccaries produce and maintain wallows that are utilized by a wide variety of species. Australian studies have found that parrotfish on the Great Barrier Reef are the only reef fish that consistently scrape and clean the coral on the reef. Without these animals, the Great Barrier Reef would be under severe strain. In the Serengeti, the presence of sufficient gnus in these grasslands promote tree growth, which in turn reduces wildfire likelihood. The documentary The Serengeti Rules documents this in detail. Limitations Although the concept of the keystone species has a value in describing particularly strong inter-species interactions, and for allowing easier communication between ecologists and conservation policy-makers, it has been criticized by L. S. Mills and colleagues for oversimplifying complex ecological systems. The term has been applied widely in different ecosystems and to predators, prey, and plants (primary producers), inevitably with differing ecological meanings. For instance, removing a predator may allow other animals to increase to the point where they wipe out other species; removing a prey species may cause predator populations to crash, or may allow predators to drive other prey species to extinction; and removing a plant species may result in the loss of animals that depend on it, like pollinators and seed dispersers. Beavers too have been called keystone, not for eating other species but for modifying the environment in ways that affected other species. The term has thus been given quite different meanings in different cases. In Mills's view, Paine's work showed that a few species could sometimes have extremely strong interactions within a particular ecosystem, but that does not automatically imply that other ecosystems have a similar structure. 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230343	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Craven%20A	Craven A	Craven A is a British brand of cigarette, currently manufactured by Rothmans, Benson & Hedges, a subsidiary of British American Tobacco. The cigarette brand is named after the third Earl of Craven. History After the end of World War I, the cigarette market resumed its normal competitive spirit with the Carreras Tobacco Company once more well to the fore. Bernhard Baron, a director of Carreras, knew that to compete successfully his product had to be better than his competitors' and in 1921 Carreras launched Craven A, a brand that became a household name in over 120 countries with the slogan "Will Not Affect Your Throat". It was the first machine-made cork-tipped cigarette, and it used the name of the Earl of Craven; presumably its name did not refer to the normal meaning of the word 'craven' (cowardly). Following the success of Craven A, several other companies launched cork-tipped cigarettes which enjoyed varying degrees of success. Few (if any) of these remain available as of 2019. At the same time as Craven A was pioneering a new fashion in cigarette smoking, the competition was moving in on the coupon business. Carreras participated in this market with their Black Cat brand. The brand was widely used in World War II not only by British soldiers, but in general. Craven A was one of several brands donated by tobacco manufacturers to soldiers' rations in the hope of developing ongoing brand loyalty. Also during the Second World War, General Charles de Gaulle, in exile in London, had a hard time getting his usual French brown cigarettes brand Gitanes. Not really having a choice, he started smoking Craven A and apparently took a liking to the blond tobacco, which until then had been rare in occupied France. Muhammad Ali Jinnah, the founder of Pakistan, chain-smoked fifty Craven A cigarettes a day, even while terminally ill with tuberculosis. Advertising Craven 'A' started using the slogan "For Your Throat's Sake" around 1939. It had a famous slogan, "Will Not Affect Your Throat". Many advertising posters were made to promote Craven 'A' cigarettes. Counterfeiting In May 2014, Carreras Limited warned that counterfeit Craven A cigarettes which were being sold in Jamaica. The counterfeits were said to be non-compliant with Jamaican Public Health labelling regulations. Markets Craven 'A' were or still are sold in the following countries: Canada, United States, Jamaica, United Kingdom, Germany, France, Austria, Italy, Cyprus, Ivory Coast, South Africa, Palestine, Vietnam, Malaysia, China, Taiwan, Hong Kong and Australia. Sponsorship The company sponsored the 1981 Craven Mild Cup Rugby League tournament in New South Wales, Australia. Craven 'A' sponsored events in Canada such as the "Just for Laughs" Canadian Comedy Tour in March 1999. The company was also a long-time sponsor of Australian racing driver Allan Grice. In popular culture Novels Craven 'A' cigarettes appeared in the James Bond novel Dr. No. Shanghai beggars in J.G Ballard's novel Empire of the Sun are described as 'shaking their Craven A tins like reformed smokers.' Music The name of this brand is taken anecdotally in the song Les Bêtises by Sabine Paturel and in "Le Chien" by Léo Ferré. The name "Craven A" is also included in the song "Tendresse et amitié" by Robert Charlebois and the text is written by Réjean Ducharme. Films According to his biographer, the French actor Jean Gabin was a regular smoker of filterless Craven A, which he alternated with Gitanes. In the movie Pasha, a package of Craven A is visible on the desk of "Commissioner Louis Joss", Gabin, as well as in Le cave se rebiffe. In the 1978 film Death on the Nile, Simon Doyle is asked by Monsieur Poirot if his fiancée – the wealthy heiress Linnet Ridgeway – smokes, to which he responds "Just Craven 'A'". 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230344	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glock%20Ges.m.b.H.	Glock Ges.m.b.H.	Glock Ges.m.b.H. (trademarked as GLOCK) is a weapons manufacturer headquartered in Deutsch-Wagram, Austria, named after its founder, Gaston Glock. While the company is best known for its line of polymer-framed pistols, it also produces field knives, entrenching tools, and apparel. Glock handguns are used by armed forces and law enforcement organizations worldwide, including a majority of law enforcement agencies in the United States. In some countries Glock handguns are popular with citizens for personal protection and practical shooting. The company sponsors a competitive shooting team which travels worldwide. As of 2014, Glock produces more than two dozen models of handguns in three sizes and seven cartridges in three calibers. Products Handguns Glock handguns are common sidearms among law enforcement agencies and military organizations around the world, and are also largely popular weapons amongst civilians for home defense, and concealed/open carry. The popularity of Glock pistols can be attributed to a number of factors. They are widely reputed as highly reliable, being able to function under extreme conditions and to fire a wide range of ammunition types (9mm, 10mm, .40 S&W, .45 ACP, .45 GAP, .357 SIG, .380 ACP, and .22 LR; third-party conversion kits for .400 Corbon, .40 Super, and .50 GI are also available). The simplicity of the Glock design as well as its simple operating method contributes to this reliability, as it contains a relatively small number of components (nearly half as many as the typical handgun, each of these being interchangeable requiring no hand-fitting) making maintenance and repair easier and less costly. On December 10, 2019, Glock introduced their first production-Model .22-caliber Pistol, The Glock 44. The polymer frame makes them lighter than typical steel or aluminum-framed handguns, an attractive feature for police officers and regular citizens who carry firearms for extended periods of time. The trigger is the only operating element; all three safeties are deactivated when the trigger is pulled, and automatically activated when it is released. Glock pistols have no other manual safeties (as some other brands have an external safety often in the form of a lever or button); the only external controls aside from the trigger itself are the slide stop lever, the magazine catch, and the slide lock for disassembly. This adds to the simplicity of use and removes a potential source of error while operating the handgun under stress. Most of the steel components in a Glock pistol are treated with a nitriding process called "Tenifer", which increases the surface hardness and makes the pistol resistant to corrosion and wear. Though the Heckler & Koch VP70 was the first polymer-framed pistol and predates the Glock 17 by 12 years, the popularity of Glock pistols inspired other manufacturers to begin production of similar polymer-framed firearms, including the Walther P99, Smith & Wesson Sigma, HS2000 (Springfield Armory XD), Steyr M, Taurus PT 24/7, Caracal, FN Herstal FNP and Ruger SR9 pistols. In addition to their semi-automatic handguns, Glock also produces a select-fire pistol, the Glock 18, which is able to be fired in either semi-automatic or fully automatic mode. This model is generally available only to law enforcement or military organizations and the details of its production are seemingly classified. Conversion kits for other Glocks to be fired in fully automatic mode also exist, but they are third-party, and they are specifically marked as Title 2 devices by the U.S. Bureau of Alcohol, Tobacco, Firearms, and Explosives – restricting their purchase and possession to ATF 3 license Dealers in the US. Knives Glock currently manufactures two models of knives, the Feldmesser 78 (Field Knife 78) and the Feldmesser 81 (Survival Knife 81). The Field Knife 78 is a classic type knife, with a blade and overall length. The Survival Knife 81 has the same overall dimensions with an additional saw on the back of the blade. The Field Knife 78 weighs and the Survival Knife 81 weighs . The grips and sheaths are made of polymer and are available in three colors: olive drab, sand, and black. As of 2016 Glock introduced a new grey color variant of Field Knife 81 and has plans to discontinue Field Knife 78 in other colors than black. Entrenching tool Glock also produces an entrenching tool, the Feldspaten (field spade). The Feldspaten features a hardened metal spade blade that can be locked in three positions for digging, shoveling, and chopping, and a telescopic handle made out of fiberglass-reinforced nylon containing a long hardened metal sawblade. The entrenching tool weighs and fully extended is long. The spade and handle can be collapsed and shortened for easy transport and storage into a 260 mm × 150 mm × 60 mm (10 in × 6 in × in) package. The entrenching tool is supplied with a nylon storage/transport pouch that can be attached to a belt or backpack. Subsidiaries Glock current international subsidiaries are: Glock America N.V. (Uruguay) Glock, Inc. (United States) Glock (H.K.) Ltd. (Hong Kong) Glock Middle East FZE (United Arab Emirates) Glock do Brasil S.A. (Brazil) Embezzlement Glock has been the target of multiple embezzlement schemes involving high-ranking officers of the company or others closely related to the company. In 1999, Charles Ewert attempted to murder Gaston Glock after Glock asked for a meeting regarding an accusation of embezzlement. Ewert was convicted of attempted murder along with an accomplice for his involvement. In April 2012, Paul Jannuzzo, the former CEO of US subsidiary Glock, Inc., was convicted of racketeering regarding his involvement in an embezzlement scheme against the company. Investigation of these cases brought to light questionable financial dealings in the background and complicated ownership structure hidden behind a string of shell companies in favourable tax locations around the world. References 4825.744-4 893546 Further reading Boatman, Robert H. Living With Glocks: The Complete Guide to the New Standard in Combat Handguns. Paladin Press, Boulder. 2002. . Kasler, Peter Alan. Glock : The New Wave in Combat Handguns. Paladin Press, Boulder. 1992. . Sweeney, Patrick. The Gun Digest Book of the Glock: A Comprehensive Review: Design, History, Use. Krause Publications, Iola, Wis. 2003. . Sweeney, Patrick. The Gun Digest Book of the Glock, 2nd Edition. Gun Digest Books, Iola, Wis. 2008. . Taylor, Robin. The Glock in Competition, 2nd Edition. Taylor Press, Bellingham. 2005. . 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230345	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Paul%20B.%20Johnson%20Sr.	Paul B. Johnson Sr.	Paul Burney Johnson Sr. (March 23, 1880December 26, 1943) was an American attorney, judge, and politician, serving as United States Representative from Mississippi, 1919–1923, and as Governor of Mississippi, 1940–1943. Early career From 1907 to 1908 Johnson served as a judge of the city court of Hattiesburg, Mississippi. Two years later he became circuit judge of the 12th judicial district, with his tenure ending in 1919. Congress In 1918 Johnson was elected to the U.S. House of Representatives as a Democrat, serving from 1919 to 1923. During this period, he developed a friendship with Franklin D. Roosevelt, Assistant Secretary of Navy and future President of the United States, and his family. Their children played together. In 1939, Johnson won the race for Governor of Mississippi. He died in office in 1943. His son, Paul B. Johnson Jr., was serving in the Marines in the Pacific during World War II at the time. More than 20 years later, he was elected as governor in 1964. His grandson, Pete Johnson, was elected state Auditor in 1988. Paul B. Johnson State Park, a state park in Mississippi, is named after him. References External links 1880 births 1943 deaths Mississippi state court judges Governors of Mississippi People from Hattiesburg, Mississippi Members of the United States House of Representatives from Mississippi Mississippi Democrats Democratic Party members of the United States House of Representatives Democratic Party state governors of the United States 20th-century American judges People from Scott County, Mississippi 20th-century American politicians	[ -0.48750725388526917, 0.8970130681991577, -0.9113718867301941, -0.15809574723243713, -0.3173202574253082, 0.6367471218109131, 0.5881439447402954, 0.29455164074897766, -0.6023791432380676, -0.5310876369476318, 0.34062904119491577, 0.12456250935792923, -0.5378618240356445, 0.8664501309394836, -0.26312458515167236, 0.6536499857902527, -0.15623965859413147, 0.658734142780304, 0.028601618483662605, -0.160251185297966, 0.16497653722763062, 0.050620727241039276, -0.1394520103931427, 0.1472964882850647, 0.23139941692352295, 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230351	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ayub%20Khan%20%28general%29	Ayub Khan (general)	Field Marshal Muhammad Ayub Khan (; 14 May 1907 – 19 April 1974), was the second president of Pakistan. He was an army general who seized the presidency from Iskander Mirza in a coup in 1958, the first successful coup d'état in the country. Popular demonstrations and labour strikes supported by the protests in East Pakistan ultimately led to his forced resignation in 1969. Trained at the British Royal Military College, Ayub Khan fought in World War II as a colonel in the British Indian Army before deciding to transfer to the Pakistan Army in the aftermath of the partition of India in 1947. His assignments included command of the 14th Division in East-Bengal. He was elevated to become the first native Commander-in-Chief of the Pakistan Army in 1951 by Prime Minister Liaquat Ali Khan, succeeding General Douglas Gracey. From 1953 to 1958, he served in the civilian government as Defence and Home Minister and supported President Iskander Mirza's decision to impose martial law against Prime Minister Feroze Khan's administration in 1958. Two weeks later, he took over the presidency from Mirza after the meltdown of civil-military relations between the military and the civilian president. Upon taking power, he appointed General Musa Khan as Commander-in-Chief in 1958. the policy inclination towards the alliance with the United States was pursued that saw the allowance of American access to facilities inside Pakistan, most notably the airbase outside of Peshawar, from which spy missions over the Soviet Union were launched. Relations with neighboring China were strengthened but deteriorated with Soviet Union in 1962, and with India in 1965. However, when the Soviet Union facilitated the meetings between Pakistan and India that led to the Tashkent Declaration in 1966, relations among the three nations improved. At the home front, the policy of privatisation and industrialization was introduced that made the country's economy Asia's fastest-growing economy. His tenure was distinguished by the completion of hydroelectric stations, dams and reservoirs, by prioritizing the space program and by reducing the nuclear deterrent. In 1965, Ayub Khan entered the presidential race as the Pakistan Muslim League (PML) candidate to counter the popular and famed non-partisan Fatima Jinnah and was controversially reelected for a second term. He was faced with allegations of widespread intentional vote riggings, authorized political murders in Karachi, and the politics over the unpopular peace treaty with India which closed the Indo-Pakistani War of 1965 and which many Pakistanis considered an embarrassing compromise. In 1967, wide disapproval of price hikes of food prompted demonstrations across the country led by Zulfikar Ali Bhutto. Ayub Khan dramatically fell from power in 1969 amid the popular uprising in East Pakistan led by Mujibur Rahman. It forced to resign to avoid further protests while inviting army chief Yahya Khan to impose martial law for the second time, he fought a brief illness and died in 1974. His legacy remains mixed; he is credited with an ostensible economic prosperity and what supporters dub the "decade of development" by bringing an industrial and agricultural revolution to the country, but is criticized for beginning the first of the intelligence agencies' incursions into the national politics, for concentrating wealth in a corrupt few hands, and segregated policies that later led to the breaking-up of nation's unity that resulted in the creation of Bangladesh. Early life Ayub Khan was born on 14 May 1907 in Rehana, a village in the North-West Frontier Province of British India into the Tareen tribe of Pashtuns. His ancestors are noted to have migrated from Afghanistan to Pishin, Balochistan during the Mughal rule of India and then to Rehana, Hazara. He was the first child of the second wife of Mir Dad, a Risaldar-Major (a regimental JCO which was then known as VCO) in the 9th Hodson's Horse which was a cavalry regiment of the British Indian Army. For his basic education, he was enrolled in a school in Sarai Saleh, which was about 4 miles from his village. He used to go to school on a mule's back and was shifted to a school in Haripur, where he started living with his grandmother. He went on to study at Aligarh Muslim University (AMU) and while pursuing his college education, he was accepted into the Royal Military College at Sandhurst by the recommendation of General Andrew Skeen; he did not complete his degree at AMU and departed for Great Britain. Ayub Khan was fluent in Urdu, English and his regional Northern Hindko dialect. Military career Ayub Khan joined the Royal Military College, Sandhurst, as a trainee in July 1926. He was commissioned as a 2nd Lt. on 2 February 1928 in the 1/14th Punjab Regiment (1st Battalion of the 14th Punjab Regiment) of the British Indian Army – before this he was attached to the Royal Fusiliers. Amongst those who passed out with him was the future chief of army staff of the Indian Army, General Joyanto Nath Chaudhuri, who served as the army chief from 1962 to 1966 while Ayub was the president of Pakistan. After the standard probationary period of service in the British Army, he was appointed to the British Indian Army on 10 April 1929, joining the 1/14th Punjab Regiment Sherdils, now known as the 5th Punjab Regiment. He was promoted to lieutenant on 2 May 1930 and to captain on 2 February 1937. During World War II, he was promoted to the temporary rank of lieutenant-colonel in 1942 and was posted in Burma to participate in the first phase of the Burma Campaign in 1942–43. He was promoted to the permanent rank of major on 2 February 1945. Later that year, he was promoted to temporary colonel and assumed the command of his own regiment in which he was commissioned to direct operations in the second phase of the Burma Campaign; however, he was soon temporarily suspended without pay from that command for visible cowardice under fire. In 1946, he was posted back to British India and was stationed in the North-West Frontier Province. In 1947, he was promoted to brigadier and commanded a brigade in mountainous South Waziristan. When the United Kingdom announced the partition of British India into India and Pakistan, he was one of the most senior serving officers in the British Indian Army who opted for Pakistan in 1947. At the time of his joining, he was the 10th ranking officer in terms of seniority with service number PA-010. In the early part of 1948, he was given the command of the 14th Infantry Division in the rank of acting major-general stationed in Dacca, East Pakistan. In 1949, he was decorated with the Hilal-i-Jurat (HJ) by Prime Minister Liaquat Ali Khan for non-combatant service and called back to General Headquarters as the Adjutant General of the army on November of same year. Commander-in-chief of the Pakistan Army General Sir Douglas Gracey relinquished the command of the Pakistan Army on 23 January 1951, under pressure of calls for "nationalisation" of the army. The Pakistan government already called for appointing native commanders-in-chief of army, air force, navy and dismissed deputation appointments from the British military. The General Headquarters sent the nomination papers to Prime Minister's Secretariat for the appointment of commander-in-chief. There were four-senior officers in the race: Major-General Akbar Khan, Major-General Iftikhar Khan, Major-General Ishfakul Majid, and Major-General N.A.M. Raza, among these officers Akbar was the senior-most as he was commissioned in 1920. Initially, Gen. Iftikhar Khan (commissioned in 1929) was selected for appointment as the first native commander-in-chief of the army, but he died in an airplane crash en route to take command after finishing the senior staff officers' course in the United Kingdom. All three remaining generals were bypassed including the recommended senior-most Major-General Akbar Khan and Major-General Ishfakul Majid (commissioned in 1924). Defence Secretary Iskandar Mirza, at that time, played a crucial role in lobbying for the army post selection as presenting with convincing arguments to Prime Minister Ali Khan to promote the junior-most Major-General Ayub Khan (commissioned in 1928) to the post despite the fact that his name was not included in the nomination list. Ayub's papers of promotion were approved and he was appointed the first native commander-in-chief of the Pakistan Army on 17 January 1951 by Prime Minister Ali Khan. Ayub's becoming the commander in chief of the Pakistan Army marked a change in the military tradition to one of preferring native Pakistanis; it ended the transitional role of British military officers. Although the Pakistani government announced the appointment of the navy's native commander in chief in 1951, it was Ayub Khan who helped Vice-Admiral M.S. Choudhri to be appointed as the first native navy commander in chief, also in 1953. The events surrounding Ayub's appointment set the precedent for a native general being promoted out of turn, ostensibly because he was the least ambitious of the generals in the line of promotion and the most loyal to civil government at that time. Ayub, alongside Admiral Choudhri, cancelled and disbanded the British military tradition in the navy and the army when the U.S. military's advisers were dispatched to the Pakistani military in 1955–57. British military traditions were only kept in the air force due to a British commander and major staff consisting of Royal Air Force officers. In 1953, Ayub visited Turkey, his first foreign visit as an army commander in chief, and was said to have been impressed with Turkish military tradition; he met only with the Turkish Defence minister during his visit. Thereafter, he went to the United States and visited the US State Department and Pentagon to lobby for forging military relations. He termed this visit as a "medical visit" but made a strong plea for military aid which was not considered due to India's opposition. Cabinet and Defence Minister On 24 February 1954, Ayub signed the Central Treaty Organization (CENTO) pact for Pakistan and his role in national politics, along with that of Defense Minister Mirza, began to grow In 1954, Prime Minister Muhammad Ali Bogra's relations with the military and Governor-General Ghulam Muhammad deteriorated on issues of the economy. Pressure built up to reconstruct the cabinet which eventually witnessed with General Ayub Khan becoming the defence minister and Iskander Mirza as home minister in October 1954. Ayub Khan disdained civilian politicians, whose factional infighting had for years prevented adoption of a constitution. He wrote that he reluctantly joined the cabinet as defence minister with "two clear objectives: to save the armed forces from the interference of the politicians, and to unify the provinces of West Pakistan into one unit." The controversial One Unit Scheme integrated the four western provinces into one political entity, West Pakistan, as a counterbalance against the numerically superior population of East Bengal, which was renamed East Pakistan. The province of Punjab supported the project, but all the other provinces protested against it and its centralisation of power. Opposition was particularly strong in East Bengal, where it was seen as an attack on the democratic principle of political egalitarianism. In 1955, Prime Minister Bogra was dismissed by Governor-General Malik Ghulam Muhammad and he was succeeded by the new Prime Minister Chaudhry Muhammad Ali as the Defence Minister. After the 1954 provincial elections in East Pakistan, the Awami League formed the government there while West Pakistan was governed by the PML, but the PML government collapsed in 1956. He was called on to join the Cabinet as Defence Minister by Prime Minister H.S. Suhrawardy and maintained closer relations with Iskander Mirza who now had become the first President of the country after the successful promulgation of the Constitution in 1956. In 1957, President Mirza promoted him from acting full general to the substantive rank of full general. Around this time, the MoD led by General Ayub Khan began to see the serious interservice rivalry between the General Headquarters staff and the Naval Headquarters staff. Commander in Chief of Navy Vice-Admiral M. S. Choudri and his NHQ staff had been fighting with the Finance ministry and the MoD over the issues of rearmament and contingency plans. Meanwhile, he continued to serve with Prime Minister Chundrigar and Feroz Noon's government as Defence Minister. In 1958, he chaired the joint military meeting where he became involved in a heated discussion with Admiral M. S. Choudri. He reportedly complained against Admiral Choudri to President Mirza and criticized Admiral Choudri for "neither having the brain, imagination or depth of thought to understand such (defence) problems nor the vision or the ability to make any contribution". The impasse was broken with Admiral Choudhri resigning from the navy in protest as result of having differences with the navy's plans of expansion and modernization. In 1958, Vice-Admiral Afzal Rahman Khan, who was known to be a confidant of General Ayub Khan, was appointed as naval chief by President Mirza. President of Pakistan (1958–1969) Under threat of being dismissed, Prime Minister H.S. Suhrawardy resigned and Prime Minister I.I. Chundiragar took over the post but in a mere two months he too tendered his resignation after losing a vote of no confidence in the National Assembly. The Constituent Assembly then elected Sir Feroz Noon for the post of the prime minister; Noon had much wider support from the western Republican Party, the eastern Awami League, and the Krishak Sramik. This new alliance threatened President Iskander Mirza because Suhrawardy and Feroz began campaigning to become prime minister and president in the upcoming general elections. The conservative Pakistan Muslim League, led by its President A.Q. Khan, was also gaining momentum in West Pakistan and threatened for the Dharna movement. These events were against President Mirza hence he was willing to dissolve even Pakistan's One Unit for his advantage. At midnight on 7 October 1958, President Mirza ordered a mass mobilization of the Pakistan Armed Forces and abrogated the Constitution after sending a letter to Prime Minister Feroz and the Constituent Assembly about the coup d'état. Most of the country's politicians only became aware of the coup the next morning; only U.S. Ambassador James Langley and the British High Commissioner were kept fully informed of political developments in the country. President Mirza appointed General Ayub chief martial law administrator (CMLA), who then declared martial law. Ayub justified his part by declaring that: "History would never have forgiven us if the present chaotic conditions were allowed to go on any further," and his goal was to restore a democracy that the "people can understand and work", not indefinitely rule. When the public was informed, public reactions were mixed. The immediate crackdown on smuggling, corruption, and trafficiking won Ayub plenty of support from the commoners. The middle-class and the upper-middle class were more apprehensive. President Mirza himself was apprehensive, though for a different reason. He had been contemplating replacing Ayub Khan, and it seems that Ayub knew. Immediately after the Supreme Court's Chief Justice Munir justified the coup under the doctrine of necessity, he sent the military into the presidential palace and exiled him to England. This was largely done with the support of: Admiral A. R. Khan, General Azam Khan, Nawab of Kalabagh Amir Khan, General Dr. Wajid Khan, and Air Marshal Asghar Khan. The regime came to power with the intent of instituting widespread reform. An attribute he shared with Mirza, Ayub advocated for greater centralization of power, and his ruling style was more American than British. He "vowed to give people access to speedier justice, curb the crippling birth rate, and take appropriate steps, including land reforms and technological innovation, to develop agriculture so that the country could feed itself". Ayub finally 'restored civil administration', though he maintain Presidency and relied on an intricate web of spy agencies to maintain supremacy over the bureacracy, including calling upon civilian intelligence agencies. In 1960, a referendum, that functioned as Electoral College, was held that asked the general public:"Do you have confidence in Muhammad Ayub Khan?". The voter turnout was recorded at 95.6% and such confirmation was used as impetus to formalise the new system – a presidential system. Ayub Khan was elected president for the next five years and decided to pay his first state visit to United States with his wife and also daughter Begum Naseem Aurangzeb in July 1961. Highlights of his visit included a state dinner at Mount Vernon, a visit to the Islamic Center of Washington, and a ticker tape parade in New York City. Constitutional and legal reforms A Constitutional Commission was set-up under the Supreme Court to implement the work on the Constitution that was led by Chief Justice Muhammad Shahabuddin and Supreme Court justices. The commission reported in 1961 with its recommendations but President Ayub remained unsatisfied; he eventually altered the constitution so that it was entirely different from the one recommended by the Shahabuddin Commission. The Constitution reflected his personal views of politicians and the restriction of using religions in politics. His presidency restored the writ of government through the promulgated constitution and restored political freedom by lifting the martial law enforced since 1958. The new Constitution respected Islam but did not declare Islam as state religion and was viewed as a liberal constitution. It also provided for election of the president by 80,000 (later raised to 120,000) Basic Democrats who could theoretically make their own choice but who were essentially under his control. He justified this as analogous to the American Electoral College and cited Thomas Jefferson as his inspiration. The Ayub administration "guided" the print newspapers though his takeover of key opposition papers and, while Ayub Khan permitted a National Assembly, it had only limited powers. On 2 March 1961, he passed and signed the "Muslim Family Laws" bill through the ordinance under which unmitigated polygamy was abolished, consent of the current wife was made mandatory for a second marriage, brakes were also placed on the practice of instant divorce where men could divorce women by saying:"I divorce you" three times under Islamic tradition. The Arbitration Councils were set up under the law in the urban and rural areas to deal with cases of: (a) grant of sanction to a person to contract a second marriage during the subsistence of a marriage; (b) reconciliation of a dispute between a husband and a wife; (c) grant of a maintenance allowance to the wife and children. Economy and infrastructure Industrialization and rural development through constructing modern national freeways are considered his greatest achievements and his era is remembered for successful industrialization in the impoverished country. Strong emphasis on capitalism and foreign direct investment (FDI) in the industry is often regarded as "Great Decade" in the history of the country (both economical and political history). The "Great Decade" was celebrated, which highlighted the development plans executed during the years of Ayub's rule, the private consortium companies, industries and credited with creating an environment where the private sector was encouraged to establish medium and small-scale industries in Pakistan. This opened up avenues for new job opportunities and thus the economic graph of the country started rising. He oversaw the development and completion of mega projects such as hydroelectric dams, power stations, and barrages in all over the country. During 1960–66, the annual GDP growth was recorded at 6.8%. Several hydroelectric projects were completed, including the Mangla Dam (one of the world's largest dams), several small dams and water reservoirs in West Pakistan, and one dam in East Pakistan, the Kaptai Dam. President Ayub authorized planning of nuclear power plants, overriding the concerns of his own finance minister, Muhammad Shoaib, about their cost. Initially, two nuclear power plants were to be established in the country: one in Karachi and the other in Dhaka. Dr. Abdus Salam. supported by the President, personally approved the project in Karachi while the project in East Pakistan never materialized. Extensive education reforms were supposedly carried out and 'scientific development efforts' also supposedly made during his years. These policies could not be sustained after 1965, when the economy collapsed and led to economic declines which he was unable to control. Ayub introduced new curricula and textbooks for universities and schools. Many public-sector universities and schools were built during his era. He also introduced agricultural reforms preventing anyone from occupying more than 500 acres of irrigated and 1000 acres of unirrigated land. An oil refinery was established in Karachi. These reforms led to 15% GNP growth of the country that was three times greater than that of India. Despite the increase in the GNP growth, the profit and revenue was gained by the famous 22 families of the time that controlled 66% of the industries and land of the country and 80% of the banking and insurance companies of Pakistan. Defence spending During the Ayub era, the navy was able to introduce submarines and slowly modified itself by acquiring warships. However, Ayub drastically reduced funding of the military in the 1950s and de-prioritized nuclear weapons in the 1960s. The military relied on donations from the United States for major weapons procurements. Major funding was made available for military acquisitions and procurement towards conventional weaponry for conventional defence. In the 1960s, the Pakistani military acquired Americanproduced conventional weapons such as Jeep CJs, M48 Patton and M24 Chaffee tanks, M16 rifles, F-86 fighter airplanes, and the submarine PNS Ghazi; all through the US Foreign Military Sales program. In 1961, President Ayub started the nation's fullfledged space program in cooperation with the air force, and created the Suparco civilian space agency that launched sounding rockets throughout the 1960s. Ayub directed Pakistan's nuclear technology efforts towards electrical power generation, disregarding recommendations to use it for military purposes. He reportedly spent ₨. 721 million on civilian nuclear power plants and related education of engineers and scientists. Ayub Khan filled more and more civil administrative positions with army officers, increasing the military's influence over the bureaucracy. He expanded the size of the army by more than half from the early 1960s to 1969, and maintained a high level of military spending as a percentage of GDP during that period, peaking in the immediate aftermath of the Indo-Pakistani War of 1965. Foreign policy U.S. alliance and 1960 U-2 incident The main feature of Ayub Khan's foreign policy was prioritized relations with the United States and Europe. Foreign relations with the Soviet Union were downplayed. He enjoyed support from President Dwight Eisenhower in the 1950s and, working with Prime Minister Ali Khan, forged a military alliance with the United States against regional communism. His obsession towards modernization of the armed forces in shortest time possible saw the relations with United States as the only way to achieve his organization and personal objectives as he argued against civilian supremacy that would affect the American interests in the region as a result of an election. The Central Intelligence Agency leased Peshawar Air Station in the 1950s and spying into the Soviet Union from the air station grew immensely, with Ayub's full knowledge, during his presidency. When these activities were exposed in 1960 after a U-2 flying out of the air station was shot down and its pilot captured by the USSR, President Ayub was in the United Kingdom on a state visit. When the local CIA station chief briefed President Ayub on the incident, Ayub shrugged his shoulders and said that he had expected this would happen at some point. The resulting Soviet ire severely compromised the national security of Pakistan. Ayub Khan had to publicly offer his apologies to the Soviet Union after USSR Secretary General Nikita Khrushchev made a threat to bomb Peshawar. President Ayub directed his Foreign Office to reduce tensions with the Soviet Union by facilitating state visits by Soviet Premier Kosygin and Soviet Foreign Minister Gromyko and agreeing to downplay relations with the United States. In 1963, Ayub signed the historic Sino-Pakistan Frontier Agreement with China despite US opposition. This alliance of a non-communist country with a communist one was a significant event in the history of the Cold War. During 1961–65, Ayub lost much of his support from President John Kennedy and President Lyndon Johnson as they sought closer relations with India. President Johnson placed an embargo on both nations during the war in 1965. Relations with the Soviet Union were eventually normalized when the Soviets facilitated a peace treaty between Pakistan and India in 1965, and reached a trade treaty with Pakistan the following year. In 1966–67, Ayub wrestled with the United States's attempt to dictate Pakistan's foreign policy, while he strengthened relations with the Soviet Union and China. Despite initiatives to normalize relations with the Soviet Union, Ayub Khan remained inclined towards the United States and the western world, receiving President Johnson in Karachi in 1967. In 1961–62, Ayub paid a state visit to the United Kingdom. He attracted much attention from the British public when his involvement in the Christine Keeler affair was revealed. India: 1959 joint defence and 1965 war In 1959, Ayub Khan's interest in building defence forces had already diminished when he made an offer of joint defense with India during the Sino-Indo clashes in October 1959 in Ladakh, in a move seen as a result of American pressure and a lack of understanding of foreign affairs Upon hearing this proposal, India's Prime Minister Nehru reportedly countered, "Defence Minister Ayub: Joint Defence on what?" India remained uninterested in such proposals and Prime Minister Nehru decided to push his country's role in the Non-Aligned Movement. In 1960, President Ayub, together with Prime Minister Nehru, signed the Indus Waters Treaty brokered by the World Bank. In 1962, after India was defeated by China, Ayub Khan disguised a few thousand soldiers as guerillas and sent them to Indian Kashmir to incite the people to rebel. In 1964, the Pakistan Army engaged with Indian Army in several skirmishes, and clandestine operations began. The war with India in 1965 was a turning point in his presidency, and it ended in a settlement reached by Ayub Khan at Tashkent, called the Tashkent Declaration, which was facilitated by the Soviet Union. The settlement was perceived negatively by many Pakistanis and led Foreign Minister Zulfiqar Ali Bhutto to resign his post and take up opposition to Ayub Khan. According to Morrice James, "For them (Pakistanis) Ayub had betrayed the nation and had inexcusably lost face before the Indians." According to Sartaj Aziz, deputy chairman of the Planning Commission, it was Foreign Minister Bhutto who had inadvertently set Pakistan on the road to war with India. During a cabinet meeting, Bhutto had gone on a populist anti-Indian and anti-American binge and succeeded in spellbinding President Ayub into thinking he was becoming a world statesman fawned upon by the enemies of the United States. When Ayub authorized Operation Gibraltar, the fomenting of an Kashmiri insurgency against India, Aziz famously told the President: "Sir, I hope you realize that our foreign policy and our economic requirements are not fully consistent, in fact they are rapidly falling out of line". Aziz opposed Operation Gibraltar, fearing the economical turmoil that would jolt the country's economy, but was in turn opposed by his own senior bureaucrats. In that meeting, Foreign Minister Bhutto convinced the president and the finance minister Muhammad Shoaib that India would not attack Pakistan due to Kashmir being a disputed territory, and per Bhutto's remarks: "Pakistan's incursion into Indian-occupied Kashmir, at [A]khnoor, would not provide [India] with the justification for attacking Pakistan across the international boundary because Kashmir was a disputed territory". This theory proved wrong when India launched a full-scale war against West Pakistan in 1965. His army C-in-C General Musa Khan did not order the Pakistan Army without the confirmation by President Ayub Khan despite Foreign Minister Bhutto's urging However, after the Indian Army advanced towards the Rann of Kutch, General Musa Khan ordered the army to respond against the opposing force. He faced serious altercations and public criticism with air chief AM Asghar Khan for hiding the details of the war. The Air AHQ began fighting the president over the contingency plans, and this inter-services rivalry ended with Asghar Khan's resignation. To reduce interservices tensions and criticism, navy commander Admiral A. R. Khan authorised the shelling of coastal Indian Navy posts at Dwarka, India. About the 1965 war's contingency plans, AM Nur Khan briefly wrote that "Rumours about an impending operation were rife but the army had not shared the plans with other forces." Ayub Khan's main sponsor, the United States, did not welcome the move and the Johnson administration placed an economic embargo that caused Pakistan to lose $500 million in aid and grants that had been received through consortium. Ayub Khan could not politically survive in the aftermath of 1965 war with India and fell from the presidency after surrendering the presidential power to Army Commander General Yahya in 1969. End of presidency Presidential election of 1965 In 1964, President Ayub Khan was confident in his apparent popularity and saw the deep divisions within the political opposition which ultimately led him to announce presidential elections in 1965. He earned the nomination of the Pakistan Muslim League (PML) and was shocked when Fatima Jinnah was nominated by the Combined Opposition Parties. Fatima Jinnah had gained a lot of support from Karachi, Lahore, and various parts of West and East Pakistan opposed to President Ayub Khan. Jinnah targeted the Indus Waters Treaty, Pakistan's over-reliance on the United States, and its troubled relations with the Soviet Union. During the elections, President Ayub earned notoriety when his son, Gohar Ayub Khan, was named in the news media for authorizing political murders in Karachi, particularly of Jinnah supporters. Angry protesters demonstrated in the streets of Sindh, chanting slogans against President Ayub. Fatima Jinnah won the popular vote in a landslide but Ayub Khan won the election through the Electoral College vote. During this time, Ayub Khan used the Pakistani intelligence community for his own advantage. Military Intelligence actively monitored politicians and political gatherings and the Intelligence Bureau taped politicians' telephone conversations. This was the first departure of the intelligence community from national defence and security to direct interference with national politics, an interference which continued in succeeding years. It was reported that the elections were widely rigged by the state authorities and machinery under the control of Ayub Khan and it is believed that had the elections been held via direct ballot, Fatima Jinnah would have won. The Electoral College consisted of only 80,000 Basic Democrats. They were easily manipulated by President Ayub Khan, who won the bitterly-contested elections with 64% of the Electoral College vote. According to journalists of the time, the election did not conform to international standards; many viewed the election results with great suspicion. 1969 nationwide riots and resignation The controversial victory over Fatima Jinnah in the 1965 presidential election and the outcome of the war with India in the same year brought devastating results for Ayub Khan's image and his presidency. Upon returning from Tashkent, Foreign Minister Bhutto went to the television media and criticized President Ayub for selling the nation's honor and sacrifice, which prompted President Ayub to depose Bhutto. In Karachi, public resentment towards Ayub had been rising since the 1965 elections and his policies were widely disapproved. In 1967, Zulfikar Ali Bhutto formed the socialist Pakistan Peoples Party (PPP) and embarked on a nationwide tour where he attacked the Ayub administration's economic, religious, and social policies. Detention of Bhutto further inflamed the opposition and demonstrations were sparked all over the country with the East Pakistani Awami League charging the Ayub administration with segregating policies towards the East. Labour unions called for labour strikes against Ayub Khan's labour legislation and dissatisfaction was widespread in the country's middle class by the end of 1968. When Ayub Khan was confronted with the Six Point movement led by Sheikh Mujibur Rahman and with the criticism by Bhutto's PPP, he responded by imprisoning both leaders but that made matters worst for Ayub's administration. Left-wing parties, allied with the conservative mass, began advocating for the Islamic parliamentary democracy system against his presidential rule. In 1968, he survived an assassination attempt while visiting Dacca and was visibly shaken afterwards, according to close aides; though this was not reported in the press of the day. In 1969, Ayub Khan opened negotiations with the opposition parties in what was termed as a "Round Table Conference" where he held talks with every opposition party except for the Awami League and the Pakistan Peoples Party. However, these discussions yielded no results and strong anti-Ayub demonstrations calling for his resignation were sparked all over the country. During this time, Ayub Khan survived a near-fatal cardiac arrest that put him out of the office, and later survived a paralysis attack that put him in a wheelchair. The police were unable to maintain law and order in the country, especially in East Pakistan where riots and a serious uprising were quelled. At one point, Home and Defence Minister Vice-Admiral Rahman told journalists that the "country was under the Mob rule and that Police were not strong enough to tackle the situation". The PPP also led very strong protests, street demonstrations, and riots against the Ayub Khan's administration when the prices of food consumer products such as sugar, tea, and wheat, hiked up. Disapproval of Ayub Khan was widely expressed by chanted slogans and insults referring to him. On the streets of major cities of West Pakistan, massive wall chalkings that employed derogatory and pejorative terms for Ayub made headlines in the print and broadcast media. Ayub Khan himself was shocked upon hearing that young protesters and college students in West had been referring him to as "Dog". According to a Dawn editorial in 2014, it was the first time in the country's history when derogatory language was used against its politicians. Elements in the military began supporting the opposition political parties; it was this that finally brought about the demise of Ayub Khan's era. On 25 March 1969, President Ayub Khan, after consulting Advocate Raja Muhammad Qalib Ali Khan (the last person to meet the president before resignation) resigned from office and invited commander-in-chief of the army General Yahya Khan to take over the control of the country. Death and legacy Ayub Khan did not comment on East Pakistan's Secessionist War in 1971. He died of a heart attack on 19 April 1974 at his villa near Islamabad. Ayub Khan's presidency allied Pakistan with the American-led military alliance against the Soviet Union which helped Pakistan develop its strong economic background and its long-term political and strategic relations with the United States. Major economic aid and trade from the United States and European Communities ultimately led Pakistan's industrial sector to develop rapidly but the consequences of cartelization included increased inequality in the distribution of wealth. After 1965, he became extremely concerned about the arrogance and bossiness of the US over the direction of Pakistan's foreign policy when the US publicly criticized Pakistan for building ties with China and Soviet Union; he authored a book over this issue known as Friends not Masters. Ayub Khan began his diary in September 1966, and ended his record in October 1972 because of his failing health. The diary covers events such as his resignation from office, assumption of power by Yahya Khan, the separation of East and West Pakistan and the replacement of Yahya by Zulfiqar Ali Bhutto. After his death in 1972, the diary was not released to the public for thirty years due to opinions which would have been detrimental to the reputation of powerful individuals at the time. Ayub Khan wanted his diary to be edited by Altaf Gauhar but after Ayub Khan's death the six-year-long diary was entrusted to Oxford University Press (OUP) to edit and publish. At OUP, Diaries of Field Marshal Mohammad Ayub Khan, 1966-1972 was edited and annotated by Craig Baxter. The federal capital was relocated under the Ayub administration from the port city of Karachi to the new and carefully planned city of Islamabad in the mountains. Facilitated by the World Bank, the Ayub administration became a party to the Indus Waters Treaty with archrival India to resolve disputes regarding the sharing of the waters of the six rivers in the Punjab Doab that flow between the two countries. Khan's administration also built a major network of irrigation canals, high-water dams and thermal and hydroelectric power stations. He subsidized fertilizers and modernized agriculture through irrigation development, spurred industrial growth with liberal tax benefits. In the decade of his rule, the GNP rose by 45% and manufactured goods began to overtake such traditional exports as jute and cotton. However, the economists in the Planning Commission alleged that his policies were tailored to reward the elite families and major landowners in the country. In 1968, his administration celebrated the so-called "Decade of Development" when the mass protests erupted in all over the country due to an increasingly greater divide between the rich and the poor. Criticism, personal wealth, and family After 1965, the corruption in government, nepotism, and suppression of free speech, thought, and press increased unrest and turmoils in the country against the Ayub administration. The 1965 presidential election, where Ayub Khan was opposed by Fatima Jinnah, was allegedly rigged. In 2003, the nephew of the Quaid-i-Azam, Akbar Pirbhai, re-ignited the controversy by suggesting that Fatima Jinnah's death in 1967 was an assassination by the Ayub Khan establishment. Gohar Ayub Khan became the subject of criticism by many writers when he was accused of leading a victory parade after the 1965 election right into the heartland of opposition territory in Karachi in a blatantly provocative move. The civil administration's failure to stop the rally led to fierce clashes between opposing groups with many locals being killed. Gohar Ayub Khan also faced criticisms during that time on questions of family corruption and cronyism through his business links with his father-in-law, retired Lieutenant General Habibullah Khan Khattak. One Western commentator in 1969 estimated Gohar Ayub's personal wealth at the time at $4 million, while his family's wealth was put in the range of $10–20 million. Public criticism of Gohar's personal wealth and that of the President increased. All these criticisms harmed President Ayub Khan's image. Ayub Khan is criticised for the growth in income inequality; 5 million people fell below the poverty line. He is also blamed for not doing enough to tackle the significant economic disparity between East and West Pakistan whilst he was aware of the acute grievances of East Pakistan he did try to address the situation. However, the Ayub Khan regime was so highly centralized that, in the absence of democratic institutions, densely populated and politicized East Pakistan province continued to feel it was being slighted. Sadaf Farooq from the School of Politics and International Relations at the University of Reading argued that workers' wages fell by 60% in the 1960s and that the policy of promoting the entrepreneur elite and industrial cartels to generate economic growth increased regional and social tensions throughout the nation, as well as the emergence of business and industrial cartels After his death, his descendents became active in national politics in the 1990s until the present; however, these family members have been controversial. His son Gohar is an active member of the conservative PML(N) and was the Foreign Minister in the Sharif ministry in the 1990s but was removed due to his controversial and unauthorized statements about India. His daughter Nasim did not enter politics and married Miangul Aurangzeb, the Wali of Swat. His son Shaukat was a successful businessman and had four children, three sons and one daughter. All three sons went into business and politics, with Akbar, Arshad and Yousaf Ayub Khan becoming successful members of the provincial and national assemblies. His grandson, Omar, served in the Aziz ministry as a Finance Minister in the 2000s but joined the PML(N) in 2010; he was declared ineligible for the 2013 general election after allegations of vote rigging were proved. In 2018, he joined PTI. Another grandson, Yousaf, who is a party worker of the PTI, was also declared ineligible for submitting fake documents to the Election Commission. Honours National honours : Recipient of the Nishan-e-Pakistan (NPk) Recipient of the Hilal-e-Pakistan (HPk) Recipient of the Hilal-i-Jur'at (HJ) : Member of the Most Excellent Order of the British Empire (MBE) Foreign honours : Honorary Knight Grand Cross of the Order of St Michael and St George (GCMG) (1961) : Honorary Recipient of the Order of the Crown of the Realm (D.M.N.(K)) (1962) Dates of rank Note: The rank insignias were still British Army's pip and crown till 1956 when the British Dominion of Pakistan ended. See also Cold War Ayub National Park Ayub Medical College Americanism American cultural influence in Pakistan Notes Footnotes References Further reading External links Ayub Khan Bio Official profile at Pakistan Army website Video clip of Ayub Khan in Paris----use QuickTime Player. Video clip of Ayub Khan with General De Gaulle Video clip in Rawalpindi Creation as an Honorary Knight Grand Cross of the Order of St Michael and St George on 26 April 1960 \|- \|- \|- \|- \|- 1907 births 1974 deaths Hindkowan people Pashtun people People from Haripur District Aligarh Muslim University alumni Graduates of the Royal Military College, Sandhurst British Indian Army officers Punjab Regiment officers Indian people of World War II Indian Army personnel of World War II Pakistan Muslim League politicians Pakistani anti-communists 1950s in Pakistan Pakistani generals Commanders-in-Chief, Pakistan Army Defence Ministers of Pakistan Interior Ministers of Pakistan Leaders who took power by coup Presidents of Pakistan Field marshals Pakistan Cricket Board Presidents and Chairmen 1960s in Pakistan People of the Indo-Pakistani War of 1965 1965 controversies Pakistani autobiographers Pakistani financiers Pakistani memoirists Politicians with physical disabilities History of Bangladesh Causes and prelude of the Bangladesh Liberation War Recipients of Hilal-i-Jur'at Honorary Knights Grand Cross of the Order of St Michael and St George 20th-century Pakistani military personnel 20th-century Pakistani writers . 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230352	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Paul%20B.%20Johnson%20Jr.	Paul B. Johnson Jr.	Paul Burney Johnson Jr. (January 23, 1916October 14, 1985) was an American attorney and Democratic politician from Mississippi, serving as governor from 1964 until January 1968. He was a son of former Mississippi Governor Paul B. Johnson Sr. Early life and education Paul B. Johnson Jr. grew up in a political family, as his father was a notable Democratic Party leader, serving as US Congressman from 1919 to 1923. The younger Johnson had an affectionate reverence for Franklin D. Roosevelt based on the days of his Congressman father's friendship with the then-Assistant Secretary of the Navy. (The families' children knew each other). In 1938, Johnson Sr. was elected as Governor of Mississippi, dying in office in 1943. Johnson attended local schools, which were segregated under Jim Crow laws. He graduated from the University of Mississippi, where he met his college sweetheart Dorothy Power. During his first year at Ole Miss, he was a member of the freshman Ole Miss football team and was initiated into Sigma Alpha Epsilon social fraternity. He had the distinction of being the only sophomore ever elected as president of the Ole Miss student body. He also graduated from Ole Miss Law and passed the bar exam. Early career and military service Johnson became a practicing attorney in Jackson and Hattiesburg. After beginning his career, he married Dorothy Power in 1941. They had 4 children. During World War II, Johnson served in the South Pacific with the United States Marine Corps. Upon his release from the service, Johnson wanted to enter politics. He gained an appointment as the Assistant U.S. Attorney for the Southern District of Mississippi from 1948 to 1951. As described by writer Theodore White, Johnson had, for a Southerner, a liberal early record. He supported Harry S. Truman for president in 1948 (Truman received just over ten percent of the vote in Mississippi), Adlai Stevenson in 1952. Johnson ran for governor three times: in 1947, 1951, and 1955, but was unsuccessful. In 1947, prior to his first try for the governor's mansion, he also ran for an open U.S. Senate seat, but lost. In 1959, Johnson ran for lieutenant governor and won, serving under Governor Ross Barnett, who became a segregationist icon. Johnson played a prominent role in trying to prevent James Meredith from enrolling at Ole Miss in 1962, physically blocking (for the benefit of photographers) the federal marshals who were escorting the African-American veteran. Although Johnson felt that state politics were ill-suited for him, he ran for governor again in 1963. He defeated former governor James P. Coleman by tying his opponent to President John F. Kennedy's civil rights legislation proposed that year. During the campaign, he asked voters to "Stand tall with Paul" against those wanting to change Mississippi's "way of life", in reference to his confrontation with federal marshals at Ole Miss. In the general election, Johnson faced Rubel Phillips, originally from Corinth. He was the first strong Republican candidate for Mississippi governor since the end of Reconstruction in 1876, as the party was hobbled after the state passed a disfranchising constitution in 1890, effectively barring most blacks from the political system. In the 1960s, however, in contrast to Reconstruction, the Republican Party was appealing to white conservatives in the South. Phillips, a recent Democratic state Public Service Commissioner, ran under the slogan "K.O. (knock out) the Kennedys", and tried to tie Barnett and Johnson to the national Democrats. Phillips worked to convince voters that he and GOP lieutenant governor candidate Stanford Morse, a state senator from Gulfport, represented the best hope for preserving Mississippi's traditional "way of life", while at the same time making overall progress. Supporting Johnson's campaign were the outgoing Governor Ross Barnett and Democratic state chairman Bidwell Adam, an attorney from Gulfport and the lieutenant governor from 1928 to 1932. The Phillips-Morse ticket fell short. Phillips carried the active backing of Wirt Yerger, the first Mississippi Republican state chairman. He received 38% of the vote, indicating a strong base of later support for serious GOP state candidates. Morse polled 26% against the Democrat Carroll Gartin of Laurel, who died in office three years later. Governor of Mississippi In historian Theodore H. White's initial description of Johnson, he wrote: this was no Northern cartoon of a Mississippi Governor; this was a man of civilization and dignity whose deep, serious voice spoke not cornpone but a cultured English—and spoke at once in fear, perplexity, and wistfulness. In his plight one could see half the tragedy of his state. In his inaugural address in 1964, Johnson chose the "Pursuit of Excellence" as his term's theme and said, "Hate, or prejudice, or ignorance, will not lead Mississippi while I sit in the governor's chair." To many, that comment had a hollow ring five months later, when during the investigation of the murders of Chaney, Goodman, and Schwerner in June 1964, Johnson offered little or no help. He praised Neshoba County Sheriff Lawrence A. Rainey and deputy sheriff Cecil Price. He also dismissed fears that the trio had been murdered, saying "Maybe they went to Cuba," a reference to the country's communist regime; opponents of the civil rights movement often suggested the movement was a communist plot. James W. Silver, a history professor at Ole Miss, published a book condemning Mississippi's segregated society; it became a bestseller and he had to leave the state. He wrote of the governor: Probably satisfying no one, Johnson kept his own counsel, and his mouth closed to demagogic outbursts, while treading the uneasy path between the demands of the Citizens Council (which had helped elect him) and the imperatives of the situation. As one astute observer saw it, the governor was "tempering political expedience with common sense, yet still attempting to ease down the more radical, emotional, ignorant groups without losing those votes." And so "ambivalent Paul" could denounce in picturesque and biting language the impending civil rights law and could declare that "It is an odd thing that so much hell is being raised over three people missing in Mississippi when 10,000 are missing in New York." At the same time, he officially welcomed federal officials, Allen Dulles and J. Edgar Hoover, to Mississippi for the investigation. He fired several members of the Ku Klux Klan from the Highway Patrol. He criticized civil rights workers and refused to meet with major African American leaders, but supported law enforcement and ending violence in Pike County. Historians believe that: the two Johnsons, President and Governor, likely kept each other informed, though neither could have admitted that to his public ... In the meantime, the old "watchdog of segregation", the State Sovereignty Commission, lapsed into desuetude from deliberate withholding of gubernatorial appointments, and the Citizens Council prepared its own death watch. After recognizing the potentially damaging effects of racism on the state's image and business climate, particularly in terms of attracting investment and new businesses, Johnson worked to tone down racist rhetoric. He adopted moderate policies, and asked residents to comply with the newly passed Voting Rights Act in 1965. He declared: "The day for a lot of bull-shooting is over." His leadership was believed to have contributed to the decrease in racial violence in the state and to its solid economic growth. Johnson worked hard to pass a $130 million bond issue to finance a major expansion of the Ingalls Shipyard in Pascagoula. Like many other southern governors, Johnson quietly observed the 1965 Civil War centennial of the defeat of the Confederacy. In addition, his 1966 fight to repeal the prohibition on alcohol, a state law which for 48 years had been largely ignored by moonshiners, was another issue that gained him popular appeal. Johnson left politics following the end of his term. He suffered a stroke in the late 1970s, and continued to struggle with his health in his final years. He suffered a fatal heart attack in 1985 at his home in Hattiesburg, and died surrounded by wife and family. References 1916 births 1985 deaths American white supremacists United States Marine Corps personnel of World War II United States Marines Governors of Mississippi Lieutenant Governors of Mississippi Mississippi Democrats People from Hattiesburg, Mississippi Democratic Party state governors of the United States American United Methodists Southern Methodists United States Attorneys for the Southern District of Mississippi University of Mississippi alumni University of Mississippi School of Law alumni 20th-century American politicians 20th-century Methodists	[ -0.5103924870491028, 0.9116528630256653, -0.7088179588317871, -0.2647610306739807, -0.11191615462303162, 0.44000428915023804, 0.5398436784744263, 0.3393058776855469, -0.5010488033294678, -0.511338472366333, 0.2441171407699585, 0.1467650681734085, -0.6366337537765503, 0.9434553980827332, -0.3114948570728302, 0.6385955810546875, -0.08801276981830597, 0.5753273367881775, 0.098690927028656, -0.20714199542999268, 0.09519403427839279, 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230355	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/4DTV	4DTV	4DTV is a proprietary broadcasting standard and technology for digital cable broadcasting and C-band/Ku-band satellite dishes from Motorola, using General Instrument's DigiCipher II for encryption. It can tune in both analog VideoCipher 2 and digital DCII satellite channels. History 4DTV technology was originally developed in 1997 (the same year that DigiCipher was developed) by General Instrument/NextLevel and Motorola, now a division of ARRIS. The 4DTV format is contemporary to the DVB-based digital television broadcast standard but its completion came before that of DVB and thus it is similar but incompatible with the DVB standard. The DigiCipher 2 encryption system is used in digital channels much like the VideoCipher and VideoCipher II systems were used for analog encrypted transmissions. By the time when analogue VideoCipher II channels are switched to digital, all of the remaining VCII-encrypted channels (excluding in the clear) are transitioned to DigiCipher II on all satellites that carries either in the clear or VideoCipher II/II+/RS-encrypted channels. On December 31, 2010, Motorola abandoned support for 4DTV after 13 years when it was developed. This made all of the receivers to redirect to AMC-18 (also known as W5/X4 on the 4DTV system) instead of its of other satellites that carries analog/VCII channels. On August 24, 2016, at 9:18 AM EST, Headend In The Sky (the provider for 4DTV/DigiCipher II programming) transitioned to DVB-S2 (MPEG-2/256 QAM), meaning that support for 4DTV ended on that date. Technical specifications Usage 4DTV is designed for C-band/Ku-band based satellite dishes (both TVRO/direct-broadcast) in conjunction with the DigiCipher II system (for digital standard definition/high definition signals) and the VideoCipher II system (for analog signals). It is also used on Canada's Shaw Direct (previously known as Star Choice) until 2017 when standard definition broadcasting ended in favour of HDTV exclusively, making the receivers obsolete. Receiver/Decoders 4DTV receivers were designed to receive analog NTSC (except the DSR-905) in the clear or VideoCipherII channels and feeds, as well as digital Digicipher 2 channels as a TVRO satellite system on both C and Ku band-powered satellite dishes. Four models are available, either new or refurbished: DSR-920 (discontinued as of 2003) DSR-921 (discontinued as of 2003) DSR-922 (made available in Fall 2000, discontinued) DSR-905 (designed to work with analog 4DTV receivers and it can only receive DigiCipher II channels) (discontinued) High definition access The HDD-200 is a peripheral for 4DTV, it is used to access high definition channels via the Mult-Media Access Port. This peripheral is no longer in production. Programming providers In the United States, National Programming Service, LLC (NPS) was the primary provider of subscription programming to 4DTV and C band/Ku band users. They ceased operations as of December 26, 2010 after making a controversial attempt of converting all of their customers over to Dish Network which failed. The largest providers are now Satellite Receivers, Ltd. (SRL) and Skyvision who sell programming from the Headend In The Sky (HITS) service by Comcast and will continue to do so in 2011 and beyond. The HITS services use the Comcast Subscription Authorization Center (SAC) for the channels being broadcast on the AMC 18 satellite located at 105 degrees West (W5 or X4 tile on 4DTV). In Canada, Dr. Sat is now the primary provider for HITS subscription services offered on C-Band after Satellite Communications Source ceased operations. Due to the removal of 4DTV/DigiCipher II channels on August 24, 2016, there are no more programming providers for the 4DTV in the United States and Canada. However, Shaw Direct still offers DigiCipher II programming in Canada, but not HITS programming. Advantages The 4DTV makes use of first-generation digital master feeds on several satellites and hundreds of channels. Therefore, a high quality signal is received, compared to other programming options that are typically compressed and re-uplinked. Being a C-band system, the 4DTV has the advantage of signal stability, great satellite footprint and no rainfade. This is a problem with services such as Dish Network and DirecTV satellite providers since they re-uplink on Ku and Ka bands. Disadvantages The master feeds for the many channels available can be scattered amongst multiple satellites. The actuator must slowly rotate the large dish into the desired satellite's signal path, and then a further short delay for signal acquisition and lock. This procedure makes rapid "channel surfing" impossible outside the HITS provided channels. 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230357	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John%20Bell%20Williams	John Bell Williams	John Bell Williams (December 4, 1918 – March 25, 1983) was an American Democratic politician who represented Mississippi in the U.S. House of Representatives from 1947 to 1968 and served as Governor of Mississippi from 1968 to 1972. He was first elected to Congress in 1946, representing southwestern Mississippi. At just 27 years old, he was the youngest man to be elected U.S. Representative from Mississippi. He was re-elected repeatedly to Congress through the 1966 election in what was then a one-party Democratic state but was stripped of his congressional leadership positions after he supported Republican Barry Goldwater in the 1964 presidential election. Williams was elected Governor in 1967, defeating numerous candidates. He had a history of supporting racial segregation but complied with a federal court order to finally desegregate Mississippi's public schools. Early life and education John Bell Williams was born in 1918 in Raymond, the county seat of Hinds County, near the state capital of Jackson. He graduated in 1938 from Hinds Community College, then known as Hinds Junior College. He attended the University of Mississippi at Oxford and graduated in 1940 from Mississippi College School of Law, then known simply as the Jackson Law School. In November 1941, he enlisted with the United States Army Air Corps and served as a pilot during World War II. He retired from active service after losing the lower part of his left arm as a result of a bomber crash in 1944. Political career In November 1946, Williams was elected at the age of 27 (he turned 28 in December) to the U.S. House of Representatives as a Democrat from southwestern Mississippi. He was the youngest U.S. Representative to have been elected from Mississippi. Williams advocated states' rights and racial segregation. He joined his state’s delegation in a walkout of the 1948 Democratic National Convention in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania. He supported Strom Thurmond’s Dixiecrat presidential campaign, whose primary platform was racial segregation. Thurmond easily carried the electoral vote in Mississippi and three other Deep South states. After the Supreme Court issued its Brown v. Board of Education ruling on May 17, 1954, which outlawed racial segregation in public schools, Williams made a speech on the House floor branding the day 'Black Monday', and subsequently signed the 1956 Southern Manifesto. Williams supported the Democratic Stevenson-Sparkman campaign in 1952, but he favored unpledged Democratic electors in 1956 and 1960. In 1964, Williams endorsed Republican Barry Goldwater in the general election against incumbent president Lyndon B. Johnson and helped raise funds for Goldwater in Mississippi. Because of his activities for Goldwater, the Democratic caucus (in the House of Representatives) stripped Williams and a colleague, Albert W. Watson of South Carolina, of their House seniority. Williams remained a Democrat and retained his seat in 1966. Watson soon became a Republican. Governor In 1967, Williams ran for governor. The field of candidates was large, including former Governor Ross Barnett and two future governors, William Winter and Bill Waller. In the primary campaign, Williams claimed that, during the 1962 desegregation of the University of Mississippi, former Governor Ross Barnett made a secret deal with the Kennedys over the admission of James Meredith, while publicly claiming to do everything to maintain college segregation. In the first round of balloting, Williams finished second to the moderate candidate, William Winter. In the runoff, Williams defeated Winter by 61,000 votes. In the general election, Williams handily defeated Democrat-turned-Republican Rubel Phillips, in his second unsuccessful campaign for governor. Phillips’ running mate for lieutenant governor in 1963, Stanford Morse, a member of the Mississippi State Senate from Gulfport from 1956 to 1964, endorsed Williams in the 1967 race. During the campaign, Williams joked that when the returns were tabulated, the Republicans “won’t be able to find a Rubel in the rubble.” During Williams’ term as governor, Mississippi was ordered to desegregate its public school system by a federal court, as it had made little progress since the 1954 U.S. Supreme Court ruling that deemed such public schools unconstitutional. A case had been brought by civil rights activists and some desegregation of schools had happened at local levels. Williams did not defy the court. In December 1978, 24 years after Brown v. Board of Education, Mississippi legislature officially removed from its state constitution the mandate that schools be segregated. Return to private practice After his term, Williams resumed his law practice. Williams endorsed Republicans Gerald Ford in 1976 and Ronald Reagan in 1980 for president, rather than the Democratic nominee both times, Jimmy Carter of Georgia. Death Williams died in Rankin County on March 25, 1983, being found dead in his apartment the following day; the cause was ruled to be a heart attack. He was buried on March 28, 1983 and his funeral was held in the First Baptist Church in Jackson the following day. References External links 1918 births 1983 deaths American amputees American politicians with physical disabilities American segregationists American white supremacists Mississippi Democrats Governors of Mississippi Members of the United States House of Representatives from Mississippi United States Army Air Forces pilots of World War II Hinds Community College alumni University of Mississippi alumni People from Brandon, Mississippi People from Raymond, Mississippi Mississippi College School of Law alumni Democratic Party members of the United States House of Representatives Democratic Party state governors of the United States Old Right (United States) 20th-century American politicians	[ -0.3468555808067322, 0.14061370491981506, -0.9145887494087219, -0.36123883724212646, 0.5429578423500061, 0.9152092337608337, 0.866976261138916, 0.27431750297546387, -0.77962726354599, -0.47187694907188416, 0.16917987167835236, 0.7787898182868958, -0.9572943449020386, 0.5947051644325256, 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230359	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Embedded%20operating%20system	Embedded operating system	An embedded operating system is an operating system for embedded computer systems. Embedded operating systems are computer systems designed for a specific purpose, to increase functionality and reliability for achieving a specific task. Resource efficiency comes at the cost of losing some functionality or granularity that larger computer operating systems provide, including functions which may not be used by the specialized applications they run. Depending on the method used for multitasking, this type of OS is frequently considered to be a real-time operating system, or RTOS. Embedded systems are mostly used as Real-time operating systems. All embedded systems contain a processor and software. There must be a place for embedded software to store the executable code and temporary storage for run-time data manipulations. These take the form of ROM and RAM respectively. All embedded systems must also contain some form of inputs and outputs to function. Within the exception of these few common features, the rest of the embedded hardware is usually unique and varies from application to application. The hardware running an embedded operating system can be very limited in resources, therefore embedded design of these operating systems may have a narrow scope tailored to a specific application to achieve desired operation under these constraints. The embedded operating system that organizes and controls the hardware usually determines the rest of the embedded hardware needed. In order to take better advantage of the processing power of the CPU, software developers may write critical code directly in assembly. This machine efficient language can potentially result in gains in speed and determinism at the cost of portability and maintainability. Often, embedded operating systems are written entirely in more portable languages, like C, however. An important difference between most embedded operating systems and desktop operating systems is that the application, including the operating system, is usually statically linked together into a single executable image. Unlike a desktop operating system, the embedded operating system does not load and execute a lot of applications. This means that the system is only able to run a few application(s). History The Development of Embedded Operating Systems In the late 1970s, the concept of real-time multitasking kernel was proposed. In 1980s, while the applications of embedded system became more and more complex, the embedded operating system with real-time multitasking kernel could not meet the requirement of embedded development. It began to develop into a complete Real-Time multitasking Operating System (RTOS) that included a network, file, development and debugging environment. Nowadays, RTOS has formed an industry in the world. The world's first commercial embedded real-time kernel (VRTX32) was developed by Ready System in 1981. Then in 1993, Ready System and the famous Silicon Valley embedded software company Microtec Research Merger developed two new RTOS kernel VRTX32 and VRTXsa on the basis of VRTXmc. At the same time, VRTX integrated development environment (Spectra) appeared. Microsoft, also released its own embedded 460 operating system in 1996. The embedded operating system is WinCE, which was originally based on Windows 95 in the 1.0 version, they subsequently released other versions, supporting x86, ARM, SH4, MIPS and other processor architectures. WinCE is now defunct, with mainstream support ended in 2018. Modern embedded systems - Smartphones and Internet of Things Nowadays, many embedded devices are used in the system of Internet of Things and hundreds of sensors are used in a car. Compared with the traditional embedded system, the Internet of Things system requires lower power consumption, more safety and reliability, and has the ability of ad hoc network. The communication section needs to meet the conversion between various communication protocols and the application layer must have the ability of cloud computing. The emergence of Smartphones have also resulted Due to this, new embedded operating systems have emerged and become popular, like Embedded Linux (including OpenWrt, Zeroshell, Android, LineageOS, LEDE, LibreCMC etc.,), NetBSD, ThreadX, FreeRTOS etc., Many Linux-based projects, toolkits, frameworks etc., have also emerged for embedded systems. Some notable examples include OpenEmbedded, BusyBox, uClibc, musl libc, buildroot etc., See also Embedded Linux Embeddable Linux Kernel Subset, a Linux operating system that fits on a floppy disk List of embedded operating systems OpenWrt Principle of least privilege (computer security) References Embedded operating system	[ -0.09787208586931229, 0.473737895488739, -0.06678378582000732, 0.07430541515350342, 0.2753887176513672, 0.0037836621049791574, -0.24762290716171265, 0.5439503788948059, 0.3487895131111145, -0.6815861463546753, -0.5708731412887573, 1.0007225275039673, -0.24170024693012238, -0.008548314683139324, -0.03840410336852074, 0.19665448367595673, 0.3097931444644928, 0.041525743901729584, -0.06544460356235504, 0.24670134484767914, -0.4750972092151642, -0.21133330464363098, 0.5602730512619019, -0.03231704980134964, -0.3833918273448944, -0.0036062176804989576, 0.6328155398368835, -0.09493248164653778, -0.11960629373788834, -0.30908533930778503, 0.19777777791023254, 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230360	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Windows%20Embedded%20Compact	Windows Embedded Compact	Windows Embedded Compact, formerly Windows Embedded CE, Windows Powered and Windows CE, is an operating system subfamily developed by Microsoft as part of its Windows Embedded family of products. Its mainstream support ended in 2018, and "extended support" will end in 2023. Unlike Windows Embedded Standard, which is based on Windows NT, Windows Embedded Compact uses a different hybrid kernel. Microsoft licenses it to original equipment manufacturers (OEMs), who can modify and create their own user interfaces and experiences, with Windows Embedded Compact providing the technical foundation to do so. The current version of Windows Embedded Compact supports x86 and ARM processors with board support package (BSP) directly. The MIPS and SHx architectures had support prior to version 7.0. 7.0 still works on MIPSII architecture. Originally, Windows CE was designed for minimalistic and small computers. However CE had its own kernel whereas those such as Windows XP Embedded are based on NT. Windows CE was a modular/componentized operating system that served as the foundation of several classes of devices such as Handheld PC, Pocket PC, Auto PC, Windows Mobile, Windows Phone 7 and more. Features Windows CE is optimized for devices that have minimal memory; a Windows CE kernel may run with one megabyte of memory. Devices are often configured without disk storage, and may be configured as a "closed" system that does not allow for end-user extension (for instance, it can be burned into ROM). Windows CE conforms to the definition of a real-time operating system, with a deterministic interrupt latency. From Version 3 and onward, the system supports 256 priority levels and uses priority inheritance for dealing with priority inversion. The fundamental unit of execution is the thread. This helps to simplify the interface and improve execution time. The first version known during development under the code name "Pegasus" featured a Windows-like GUI and a number of Microsoft's popular apps, all trimmed down for smaller storage, memory, and speed of the palmtops of the day. Since then, Windows CE has evolved into a component-based, embedded, real-time operating system. It is no longer targeted solely at hand-held computers. Many platforms have been based on the core Windows CE operating system, including Microsoft's AutoPC, Pocket PC 2000, Pocket PC 2002, Windows Mobile 2003, Windows Mobile 2003 SE, Windows Mobile 5, Windows Mobile 6, Smartphone 2002, Smartphone 2003, Portable Media Center, Zune, Windows Phone 7 and many industrial devices and embedded systems. Windows CE even powered select games for the Sega Dreamcast and was the operating system of the Gizmondo handheld. A distinctive feature of Windows CE compared to other Microsoft operating systems is that large parts of it are offered in source code form. First, source code was offered to several vendors, so they could adjust it to their hardware. Then products like Platform Builder (an integrated environment for Windows CE OS image creation and integration, or customized operating system designs based on CE) offered several components in source code form to the general public. However, a number of core components that do not need adaptation to specific hardware environments (other than the CPU family) are still distributed in binary only form. Windows CE 2.11 was the first embedded Windows release to support a console and a Windows CE version of . History Windows Embedded Compact was formerly known as Windows CE. According to Microsoft, "CE" is not an explicit acronym for anything, although it implies a number of notions that Windows developers had in mind, such as "compact", "connectable", "compatible", "companion" and "efficient". The name changed once in 2006, with the release of Windows Embedded CE 6.0, and again in 2011, with the release of Windows Embedded Compact 7. Windows CE was originally announced by Microsoft at the COMDEX expo in 1996 and was demonstrated on stage by Bill Gates and John McGill. Microsoft had been testing Pegasus in early 1995 and released a strict reference platform to several hardware partners. The devices had to have the following minimum hardware specifications: SH3, MIPS 3000 or MIPS 4000 CPU Minimum of 4 MB of ROM Minimum of 2 MB of RAM with a backup power source, such as a CR2032 coin cell battery Powered by two AA batteries Weigh less than 1 lbs A physical QWERTY keyboard including Ctrl, Alt and Shift keys An LCD display of 480×240 pixels with four shades of gray and two bits per pixel with touchscreen that could be operated by either stylus or finger An Infrared transceiver Serial port PC Card slot Built in speaker Devices of the time mainly had 480×240 pixel displays with the exception of the Hewlett-Packard 'Palmtop PC' which had a 640×240 display. Each window took over the full display. Navigation was done by tapping or double tapping on an item. A contextual menu was also available by the user pressing the ALT key and tapping on the screen. Windows CE 1.0 did not include a cascading Start menu unlike Windows 95 and Windows NT 4.0 did. Microsoft released the Windows CE 1.0 Power Toys that included a cascading menu icon that appeared in the system tray. Also bundled were several other utilities, most notable were a sound applet for the system tray, enabling the user to quickly mute or unmute their device or adjust the volume and a 'pocket' version of Paint. The release of Windows CE 2.0 was well received. Microsoft learned its lessons from consumer feedback of Windows CE 1.0 and made many improvements to the operating system. The Start menu was a cascading menu, identical to those found on Windows 95 and Windows NT 4.0. Color screens were also supported and manufacturers raced to release the first color H/PC. The first to market however, was Hewlett Packard with the HP 620LX. Windows CE 2.0 also supported a broader range of CPU architectures. Programs could be also installed directly in the OS by double clicking on CAB files. Due to the nature of the ROMs that contained the operating system, users were not able to flash their devices with the newer operating system. Instead manufacturers released upgrade ROMs that users had to physically install in their devices, after removing the previous version. This would usually wipe the data on the device and present the user with the setup wizard upon first boot. In November 1999, it was reported that Microsoft was planning to rename Windows CE to Windows Powered. The name only appeared in brand in Handheld PC 2000 and a build of Windows 2000 Advanced Server (which bears no relation to Windows CE). Various Windows CE 3.0 products announced at CES 2001 were marketed under a "Windows Powered" umbrella name. Development tools Visual Studio Microsoft Visual Studio 2012, 2013, and 2015 support apps and Platform Builder development for Windows Embedded Compact 2013. Microsoft Visual Studio 2008 and earlier support projects for older releases of Windows CE/Windows Mobile, producing executable programs and platform images either as an emulator or attached by cable to an actual mobile device. A mobile device is not necessary to develop a CE program. The .NET Compact Framework supports a subset of the .NET Framework with projects in C#, and Visual Basic .NET, but not Managed C++. "Managed" apps employing the .NET Compact Framework also require devices with significantly larger memories (8 MB or more) while unmanaged apps can still run successfully on smaller devices. In Visual Studio 2010, the Windows Phone Developer Tools are used as an extension, allowing Windows Phone 7 apps to be designed and tested within Visual Studio. Free Pascal and Lazarus Free Pascal introduced the Windows CE port in Version 2.2.0, targeting ARM and x86 architectures. Later, the Windows CE header files were translated for use with Lazarus, a rapid application development (RAD) software package based on Free Pascal. Windows CE apps are designed and coded in the Lazarus integrated development environment (IDE) and compiled with an appropriate cross compiler. Platform Builder This programming tool is used for building the platform (BSP + Kernel), device drivers (shared source or custom made) and also the apps. This is a one stop environment to get the system up and running. One can also use Platform Builder to export an SDK (software development kit) for the target microprocessor (SuperH, x86, MIPS, ARM etc.) to be used with another associated tool set named below. Others The Embedded Visual C++ (eVC) a tool for development of embedded apps for Windows CE. It can be used standalone using the SDK exported from Platform Builder or using the Platform Builder's Platform Manager connectivity setup. CeGcc project provides GNU development tools, such as GNU C, GNU C++ and binutils that targeting Windows CE; 2 SDKs are available to choose from a standard Windows CE platform SDK based on MinGW, and a newlib-based SDK which may be easier for porting programs from POSIX systems. CodeGear Delphi Prism runs in Visual Studio, also supports the .NET Compact Framework and thus can be used to develop mobile apps. It employs the Oxygene compiler created by RemObjects Software, which targets .NET, the .NET Compact Framework, and Mono. Its command-line compiler is available free of charge. Basic4ppc a programming language similar to Visual Basic, targets the .NET Compact Framework and supports Windows CE and Windows Mobile devices. GLBasic a very easy to learn and use BASIC dialect that compiles for many platforms, including Windows CE and Windows Mobile. It can be extended by writing inline C/C++ code. LabVIEW a graphical programming language, supporting many platforms, including Windows CE. MortScript is the semi-standard, extremely lightweight, automation SDK popular with the GPS enthusiasts. Uses the scripts written in its own language, with the syntax being aside to VBScript or JScript. AutoHotkey a port of the open source macro-creation and automation software utility available for Windows CE. It allows the construction of macros and simple GUI apps developed by systems analyst Jonathan Maxian Timkang. Relationship to Windows Mobile, Pocket PC, and SmartPhone Often Windows CE, Windows Mobile, and Pocket PC are used interchangeably, in part due to their common origin. This practice is not entirely accurate. Windows CE is a modular/componentized operating system that serves as the foundation of several classes of devices. Some of these modules provide subsets of other components' features (e.g. varying levels of windowing support; DCOM vs COM), others which are separate (bitmap or TrueType font support), and others which add additional features to another component. One can buy a kit (the Platform Builder) which contains all these components and the tools with which to develop a custom platform. Apps such as Excel Mobile (formerly Pocket Excel) are not part of this kit. The older Handheld PC version of Pocket Word and several other older apps are included as samples, however. Windows Mobile is best described as a subset of platforms based on a Windows CE underpinning. Currently, Pocket PC (now called Windows Mobile Classic), SmartPhone (Windows Mobile Standard), and Pocket PC Phone Edition (Windows Mobile Professional) are the three main platforms under the Windows Mobile umbrella. Each platform uses different components of Windows CE, plus supplemental features and apps suited for their respective devices. Pocket PC and Windows Mobile are Microsoft-defined custom platforms for general PDA use, consisting of a Microsoft-defined set of minimum profiles (Professional Edition, Premium Edition) of software and hardware that is supported. The rules for manufacturing a Pocket PC device are stricter than those for producing a custom Windows CE-based platform. The defining characteristics of the Pocket PC are the touchscreen as the primary human interface device and its extremely portable size. CE v3.0 is the basis for Pocket PC 2002. A successor to CE v3.0 is CE.net. "PocketPC [is] a separate layer of code on top of the core Windows CE OS... Pocket PC is based on Windows CE, but it's a different offering." And licensees of Pocket PC are forbidden to modify the WinCE part. The SmartPhone platform is a feature-rich OS and interface for cellular phone handsets. SmartPhone offers productivity features to business users, such as email, and multimedia abilities for consumers. The SmartPhone interface relies heavily on joystick navigation and PhonePad input. Devices running SmartPhone do not include a touchscreen interface. SmartPhone devices generally resemble other cellular handset form factors, whereas most Phone Edition devices use a PDA form factor with a larger display. Releases See also ActiveSync Handheld PC Handheld PC Explorer List of Windows CE Devices Microsoft Kin Modular Windows Palm-size PC Pocket PC Portable Media Center Tablet PC Windows Phone Zune HD Dreamcast References External links Benchmarking Real-time Determinism in Microsoft Windows CE A Brief History of Windows CE, by HPC:Factor with screenshots of the various versions , Archived copy of website hosted by Handheld PC Windows XP Embedded on MSDN Mike Hall's Windows Embedded Blog Windows CE ARM operating systems 1996 software	[ -0.17846111953258514, 0.07076887786388397, 0.3290172815322876, -0.023383308202028275, 0.17038416862487793, -0.15442776679992676, -0.3126336932182312, 0.10992994904518127, 0.5025451183319092, -0.599098265171051, -0.7647568583488464, 0.5752308964729309, 0.02569366991519928, 0.04139844700694084, 0.12018505483865738, 0.27168717980384827, 0.39766401052474976, 0.5049959421157837, -0.27079105377197266, -0.08949697017669678, -0.4260431230068207, -0.24823711812496185, 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230361	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fin%20whale	Fin whale	The fin whale (Balaenoptera physalus), also known as finback whale or common rorqual and formerly known as herring whale or razorback whale, is a cetacean belonging to the parvorder of baleen whales. It is the second-longest species of cetacean on Earth after the blue whale. The largest reportedly grow to long with a maximum confirmed length of , a maximum recorded weight of nearly , and a maximum estimated weight of around . American naturalist Roy Chapman Andrews called the fin whale "the greyhound of the sea ... for its beautiful, slender body is built like a racing yacht and the animal can surpass the speed of the fastest ocean steamship." The fin whale's body is long and slender, coloured brownish-grey with a paler underside. At least two recognized subspecies exist, in the North Atlantic and the Southern Hemisphere. It is found in all the major oceans, from polar to tropical waters. It is absent only from waters close to the pack ice at the poles and relatively small areas of water away from the open ocean. The highest population density occurs in temperate and cool waters. Its food consists of small schooling fish, squid, and crustaceans including copepods and krill. Like all other large whales, the fin whale was heavily hunted during the 20th century. As a result, it is an endangered species. Over 725,000 fin whales were reportedly taken from the Southern Hemisphere between 1905 and 1976; as of 1997 only 38,000 survived. Recovery of the overall population size of southern subspecies is predicted to be at less than 50% of its pre-whaling state by 2100 due to heavier impacts of whaling and slower recovery rates. The International Whaling Commission (IWC) issued a moratorium on commercial hunting of this whale, although Iceland and Japan have resumed hunting. The species is also hunted by Greenlanders under the IWC's Aboriginal Subsistence Whaling provisions. Global population estimates range from less than 100,000 to roughly 119,000. Taxonomy The fin whale was first described by Friderich Martens in 1675 and by Paul Dudley in 1725. The former description was used as the primary basis of the species Balaena physalus by Carl Linnaeus in 1758. In 1804, Bernard Germain de Lacépède reclassified the species as Balaenoptera rorqual, based on a specimen that had stranded on Île Sainte-Marguerite (Cannes, France) in 1798. In 1830, Louis Companyo described a specimen that had stranded near Saint-Cyprien, southern France, in 1828 as Balaena musculus. Most later authors followed him in using the specific name musculus, until Frederick W. True (1898) showed that it referred to the blue whale. In 1846, British taxonomist John Edward Gray described a specimen from the Falkland Islands as Balaenoptera australis. In 1865, German naturalist Hermann Burmeister described a roughly specimen found near Buenos Aires about 30 years earlier as Balaenoptera patachonicus. In 1903, Romanian scientist Emil Racoviță placed all these designations into Balaenoptera physalus. The word physalus comes from the Greek word physa, meaning "blows", referring to the prominent blow of the species (as described by Martens [1675, p. 132]: "They know the finn-fish by the ... vehement blowing and spouting up of the water...."). Fin whales are rorquals, members of the family Balaenopteridae, which also includes the humpback whale, the blue whale, Bryde's whale, the sei whale, and the minke whales. The family diverged from the other baleen whales in the suborder Mysticeti as long ago as the middle Miocene, although it is not known when the members of these families further evolved into their own species. Recent DNA evidence indicates the fin whale may be more closely related to the humpback whale (Megaptera novaeangliae) and in at least one study the gray whale (Eschrichtius robustus), two whales in different genera, than it is to members of its own genus, such as the minke whales. As of 2006, two subspecies are named, each with distinct physical features and vocalizations. The northern fin whale, B. p. physalus (Linnaeus 1758) inhabits the North Atlantic and the southern fin whale, B. p. quoyi (Fischer 1829) occupies the Southern Hemisphere. Most experts consider the fin whales of the North Pacific to be a third, as yet unnamed subspecies—this was supported by a 2013 study, which found that the Northern Hemisphere B. p. physalus was not composed of a single subspecies. The three groups mix at most rarely. Clarke (2004) proposed a "pygmy" subspecies (B. p. patachonica, Burmeister, 1865) that is purportedly darker in colour and has black baleen. He based this on a single physically mature female caught in the Antarctic in 1947–48, the smaller average size (a few feet) of sexually and physically mature fin whales caught by the Japanese around 50°S, and smaller, darker sexually immature fin whales caught in the Antarctic which he believed were a "migratory phase" of his proposed subspecies. His proposal is not widely accepted and no genetic evidence for their existence is available. Hybrids The genetic distance between blue and fin whales has been compared to that between a gorilla and human (3.5 million years on the evolutionary tree.) Nevertheless, hybrid individuals between blue and fin whales with characteristics of both are known to occur with relative frequency in both the North Atlantic and North Pacific. The DNA profile of a sampling of whale meat in the Japanese market found evidence of blue/fin hybrids. Anatomy The fin whale is usually distinguished by its tall spout, long back, prominent dorsal fin, and asymmetrical colouration. The animal's large size aids in identification, and it is usually only confused with the blue whale, the sei whale, or, in warmer waters, Bryde's whale. Size In the Northern Hemisphere, the average size of adult males and females is about , respectively, averaging 38.5 and 50.5 tonnes (42.5 and 55.5 tons), while in the Southern Hemisphere, it is , weighing 52.5 and 63 tonnes (58 and 69.5 tons). In the North Atlantic, the longest reported were a 24.4 m (80 ft) male caught off Shetland in 1905 and a female caught off Scotland sometime between 1908 and 1914, while the longest reliably measured were three 20.7 m (68 ft) males caught off Iceland in 1973–74 and a 22.5 m (74 ft) female also caught off Iceland in 1975. Mediterranean population are generally smaller, reaching just above 20 m (65.5 ft) at maximum, or possibly up to . In the North Pacific, the longest reported were three 22.9 m (75 ft) males, two caught off California between 1919 and 1926 and the other caught off Alaska in 1925, and a 24.7 m (81 ft) female also caught off California, while the longest reliably measured were a 21 m (69 ft) male caught off British Columbia in 1959 and a 22.9 m (75 ft) female caught off central California between 1959 and 1970. In the Southern Hemisphere, the longest reported were a 25 m (82 ft) male and a 27.3 m (89.6 ft) female, while the longest measured by Mackintosh and Wheeler (1929) were a 22.65 m (74.3 ft) male and a 24.53 m (80.5 ft) female. Major F. A. Spencer, while whaling inspector of the factory ship Southern Princess (1936–38), confirmed the length of a female caught in the Antarctic, south of the Indian Ocean; scientist David Edward Gaskin also measured a 25.9 m female as whaling inspector of the British factory ship Southern Venturer in the Southern Ocean in the 1961–62 season. Terence Wise, who worked as a winch operator aboard the British factory ship Balaena, claimed that "the biggest fin [he] ever saw" was a specimen caught near Bouvet Island in January 1958. The largest fin whale ever weighed (piecemeal) was a pregnant female caught by Japanese whalers in the Antarctic in 1948 which weighed , not including 6% for loss of fluids during the flensing process. An individual at the maximum confirmed size of 25.9 m is estimated to weigh around 95 tonnes (104.5 tons), varying from about 76 tonnes (84 tons) to 114 tonnes (125.5 tons) depending on fat condition which varies by about 50% during the year. A newborn fin whale measures about in length and weighs about . Colouration and markings The fin whale is brownish to dark or light gray dorsally and white ventrally. The left side of the head is dark gray, while the right side exhibits a complex pattern of contrasting light and dark markings. On the right lower jaw is a white or light gray "right mandible patch", which sometimes extends out as a light "blaze" laterally and dorsally unto the upper jaw and back to just behind the blowholes. Two narrow dark stripes originate from the eye and ear, the former widening into a large dark area on the shoulder—these are separated by a light area called the "interstripe wash". These markings are more prominent on individuals in the North Atlantic than in the North Pacific, where they can appear indistinct. The left side exhibits similar but much fainter markings. Dark, oval-shaped areas of pigment called "flipper shadows" extend below and posterior to the pectoral fins. This type of asymmetry is seen in Omura's whale and occasionally in minke whales. It was thought to have evolved because the whale swims on its right side when surface lunging and it sometimes circles to the right while at the surface above a prey patch. However, the whales just as often circle to the left. No accepted hypothesis explains the asymmetry. It has paired blowholes on a prominent splashguard and a broad, flat, V-shaped rostrum. A single median ridge stops well short of the rostrum tip. A light V-shaped marking, the chevron, begins behind the blowholes and extends back and then forward again. The whale has a series of 56–100 pleats or grooves along the bottom of the body that run from the tip of the chin to the navel that allow the throat area to expand greatly during feeding. It has a curved, prominent dorsal fin that ranges in height from (usually ) and averages about , lying about three quarters of the way along the back. Its flippers are small and tapered and its tail is wide, pointed at the tip, and notched in the centre. When the whale surfaces, the dorsal fin is visible soon after the spout. The spout is vertical and narrow and can reach heights of or more. Nervous system The oral cavity of the fin whale has a very stretchy or extensible nerve system which aids them in feeding. Life history Mating occurs in temperate, low-latitude seas during the winter, followed by an 11- to 12-month gestation period. A newborn weans from its mother at 6 or 7 months of age when it is in length, and the accompanies the mother to the summer feeding ground. Females reproduce every 2 or 3 years, with as many as six fetuses being reported, but single births are far more common. Females reach sexual maturity between 6 and 12 years of age at lengths of in the Northern Hemisphere and in the Southern Hemisphere. Calves remain with their mothers for about one year. Full physical maturity is attained between 25 and 30 years. Fin whales have a maximum life span of at least 94 years of age, although specimens have been found aged at an estimated 135–140 years. The fin whale is one of the fastest cetaceans and can sustain speeds between and and bursts up to have been recorded, earning the fin whale the nickname "the greyhound of the sea". Fin whales are more gregarious than other rorquals, and often live in groups of 6–10, although feeding groups may reach up to 100 animals. Vocalizations Like other whales, males make long, loud, low-frequency sounds. The vocalizations of blue and fin whales are the lowest-frequency sounds made by any animal. Most sounds are frequency-modulated (FM) down-swept infrasonic pulses from 16 to 40 hertz frequency (the range of sounds that most humans can hear falls between 20 hertz and 20 kilohertz). Each sound lasts one to two seconds, and various sound combinations occur in patterned sequences lasting 7 to 15 minutes each. The whale then repeats the sequences in bouts lasting up to many days. The vocal sequences have source levels of up to 184–186 decibels relative to 1 micropascal at a reference distance of one metre and can be detected hundreds of miles from their source. When fin whale sounds were first recorded by US biologists, they did not realize that these unusually loud, long, pure and regular sounds were being made by whales. They first investigated the possibilities that the sounds were due to equipment malfunction, geophysical phenomena, or even part of a Soviet Union scheme for detecting enemy submarines. Eventually, biologists demonstrated that the sounds were the vocalizations of fin whales. Direct association of these vocalizations with the reproductive season for the species and that only males make the sounds point to these vocalizations as possible reproductive displays. Over the past 100 years, the dramatic increase in ocean noise from shipping and naval activity may have slowed the recovery of the fin whale population, by impeding communications between males and receptive females. Fin whale songs can penetrate over 2,500 m (8,200 ft) below the sea floor and seismologists can use those song waves to assist in underwater surveys. Breathing When feeding, they blow 5–7 times in quick succession, but while traveling or resting will blow once every minute or two. On their terminal (last) dive they arch their back high out of the water, but rarely raise their flukes out of the water. They then dive to depths of up to when feeding or a few hundred feet when resting or traveling. The average feeding dive off California and Baja lasts 6 minutes, with a maximum of 17 minutes; when traveling or resting they usually dive for only a few minutes at a time. Ecology Range and habitat Like many large rorquals, the fin whale is a cosmopolitan species. It is found in all the world's major oceans and in waters ranging from the polar to the tropical. It is absent only from waters close to the ice pack at both the north and south extremities and relatively small areas of water away from the large oceans, such as the Red Sea, although they can reach into the Baltic Sea, a marginal sea of such conditions. The highest population density occurs in temperate and cool waters. It is less densely populated in the warmest, equatorial regions. The North Atlantic fin whale has an extensive distribution, occurring from the Gulf of Mexico and Mediterranean Sea, northward to Baffin Bay and Spitsbergen. In general, fin whales are more common north of approximately 30°N latitude, but considerable confusion arises about their occurrence south of 30°N latitude because of the difficulty in distinguishing fin whales from Bryde's whales. Extensive ship surveys have led researchers to conclude that the summer feeding range of fin whales in the western North Atlantic is mainly between 41°20'N and 51°00'N, from shore seaward to the contour. Summer distribution of fin whales in the North Pacific is the immediate offshore waters from central Baja California to Japan and as far north as the Chukchi Sea bordering the Arctic Ocean. They occur in high densities in the northern Gulf of Alaska and southeastern Bering Sea between May and October, with some movement through the Aleutian passes into and out of the Bering Sea. Several whales tagged between November and January off southern California were killed in the summer off central California, Oregon, British Columbia, and in the Gulf of Alaska. Fin whales have been observed feeding 250 miles south of Hawaii in mid-May, and several winter sightings have been made there. Some researchers have suggested that the whales migrate into Hawaiian waters primarily in the autumn and winter. Although fin whales are certainly migratory, moving seasonally in and out of high-latitude feeding areas, the overall migration pattern is not well understood. Acoustic readings from passive-listening hydrophone arrays indicate a southward migration of the North Atlantic fin whale occurs in the autumn from the Labrador-Newfoundland region, south past Bermuda, and into the West Indies. One or more populations of fin whales are thought to remain year-round in high latitudes, moving offshore, but not southward in late autumn. A study based on resightings of identified fin whales in Massachusetts Bay indicates that calves often learn migratory routes from their mothers and return to their mother's feeding area in subsequent years. In the Pacific, migration patterns are poorly characterized. Although some fin whales are apparently present year-round in the Gulf of California, there is a significant increase in their numbers in the winter and spring. Southern fin whales migrate seasonally from relatively high-latitude Antarctic feeding grounds in the summer to low-latitude breeding and calving areas in the winter. The location of winter breeding areas is still unknown, since these whales tend to migrate in the open ocean. Population and trends North Atlantic North Atlantic fin whales are defined by the International Whaling Commission to exist in one of seven discrete population zones: Nova Scotia-New England, Newfoundland-Labrador, western Greenland, eastern Greenland-Iceland, North Norway, West Norway-Faroe Islands, and Ireland-Spain-United Kingdom-Portugal. Results of mark-and-recapture surveys have indicated that some movement occurs across the boundaries of these zones, suggesting that they are not entirely discrete and that some immigration and emigration does occur. Sigurjónsson estimated in 1995 that total pre-exploitation population size in the entire North Atlantic ranged between 50,000 and 100,000 animals, but his research is criticized for lack of supporting data and an explanation of his reasoning. In 1977, D.E. Sergeant suggested a "primeval" aggregate total of 30,000 to 50,000 throughout the North Atlantic. Of that number, 8,000 to 9,000 would have resided in the Newfoundland and Nova Scotia areas, with whales summering in U.S. waters south of Nova Scotia presumably omitted. J. M. Breiwick estimated that the "exploitable" (above the legal size limit of 50 feet) component of the Nova Scotia population was 1,500 to 1,600 animals in 1964, reduced to only about 325 in 1973. Two aerial surveys in Canadian waters since the early 1970s gave numbers of 79 to 926 whales on the eastern Newfoundland-Labrador shelf in August 1980, and a few hundred in the northern and central Gulf of Saint Lawrence in August 1995 – 1996. Summer estimates in the waters off western Greenland range between 500 and 2,000, and in 1974, Jonsgard considered the fin whales off Western Norway and the Faroe Islands to "have been considerably depleted in postwar years, probably by overexploitation". The population around Iceland appears to have fared much better, and in 1981, appeared to have undergone only a minor decline since the early 1960s. Surveys during the summers of 1987 and 1989 estimated of 10,000 to 11,000 between eastern Greenland and Norway. This shows a substantial recovery when compared to a survey in 1976 showing an estimate of 6,900, which was considered to be a "slight" decline since 1948. A Spanish NASS survey in 1989 of the France-Portugal-Spain sub-area estimated a summer population range at 17,355. A possible resident group was in waters off the Cape Verde Islands in 2000 and 2001. Mediterranean Sea Satellite tracking revealed that those found in Pelagos Sanctuary migrate southward to off Tunisia, Malta, Pantelleria, and Sicily, and also possibly winter off coastal southern Italy, Sardinia, within the Strait of Messina, Aeolian Islands, and off Catalonia, Cabrera Archipelago, Libya, Kerkennah Islands, Tuscan Archipelago, Ischia and adjacent gulfs (e.g. Naples and Pozzuoli), winter feeding ground of Lampedusa, and whales may recolonize out of the Ligurian Sea to other areas such as in Ionian and in Adriatic Sea. Biology of the species along southern and southeastern parts of the basin such as off Libya, Algeria, and northern Egypt, is unclear due to lacks of scientific approaches although whales have been confirmed off the furthermost of the basin such as along in shore waters of Levantine Sea including Israel, Lebanon, and Cyprus. Documented records within Turkish waters have been in very small numbers; one sighting off Antalya in 1994 and five documented strandings as of 2016. and a recent sighting on 9 February 2021 by fishermen off the coast of Adana has been documented with images. It has been shown that populations of Fin whales within the mediterranean have preferred feeding locations that partially overlap with high concentrations of plastic pollution and microplastic debris. High concentrations of microplastics most likely overlap with Fin whales preferred feeding grounds because both microplastic and the whale's food sources are in close proximity to high trophic upwelling areas. North Pacific The total historical North Pacific population was estimated at 42,000 to 45,000 before the start of whaling. Of this, the population in the eastern portion of the North Pacific was estimated to be 25,000 to 27,000. By 1975, the estimate had declined to between 8,000 and 16,000. Surveys conducted in 1991, 1993, 1996, and 2001 produced estimates between 1,600 and 3,200 off California and 280 and 380 off Oregon and Washington. The minimum estimate for the California-Oregon-Washington population, as defined in the U.S. Pacific Marine Mammal Stock Assessments: 2005, is about 2,500. Surveys in coastal waters of British Columbia in summers 2004 and 2005 produced abundance estimates of approximately 500 animals. Surveys near the Pribilof Islands in the Bering Sea indicated a substantial increase in the local abundance of fin whales between 1975–1978 and 1987–1989. In 1984, the entire population was estimated to be less than 38% of its historic carrying capacity. Fin whales might have started returning to the coastal waters off British Columbia (a sighting occurred in Johnstone Strait in 2011) and Kodiak Island. Size of the local population migrating to Hawaiian Archipelago is unknown. Historically, several other wintering grounds were scattered in the North Pacific in the past, such as off the Northern Mariana Islands, Bonin Islands, and Ryukyu Islands. There was a sighting of 3 animals nearby Borneo and Palawan in 1999. For Asian stocks, resident groups may exist in the Yellow Sea and East China Sea, and the Sea of Japan (though these populations are critically endangered and the population off China, Korea, and Japan are either near extinction or in very small numbers). Very small increases in sightings have been confirmed off Shiretoko Peninsula, Abashiri, and Kushiro in Hokkaido, Tsushima, Sado Island, off Maiduru in the Sea of Japan since in late 2000s as whales in Sea of Okhotsk might have started recolonizing into former habitats (for coastal Sakhalin, as well). Whales possibly used to migrated into Seto Inland Sea. Studies of historical catches suggest several resident groups once existed in the North Pacific—the Baja California group and the Yellow Sea–East China Sea (including Ryukyu Islands and western Kyusyu) group. Additionally, respective groups in northern Sea of Japan and the group along Pacific coasts of Japan from Hokkaido to Sanriku might have been resident or less migratory, as well. The only modern record among Ryukyu Islands was of a rotten carcass beached on Ishigaki Island in 2005. Regarding Yellow Sea, a juvenile was accidentally killed along Boryeong in 2014. There had been congregation areas among Sea of Japan to Yellow Sea such as in East Korea Bay, along eastern coasts of Korean Peninsula, and Ulleungdo. Modern sightings around the Commander Islands have been annual but not in great numbers, and whales likely to migrate through the areas rather than summering, and possible mixing of western and eastern populations are expected to occur in this waters. South Pacific Very little information has been revealed about the ecology of current migration from Antarctic waters are unknown, but small increases in sighting rates are confirmed off New Zealand, such as off Kaikoura, and wintering grounds may exist in further north such as in Papua New Guinea, Fiji, and off East Timor. Confirmations in Rarotonga have been increased recently where interactions with humpback whales occur on occasions. Finbacks are also relatively abundant along the coast of Peru and Chile (in Chile, most notably off Los Lagos region such as Gulf of Corcovado in Chiloé National Park, , port of Mejillones, and Caleta Zorra. Year-round confirmations indicate possible residents off pelagic north eastern to central Chile such as around coastal and Pingüino de Humboldt National Reserve, east of Juan Fernández Islands, and northeast of Easter Island and possible wintering ground exist for eastern south Pacific population. They are known to make mixed groups with other rorquals such as blue whales and sei whales. Their recovery is confirmed vicinity to various subantarctic islands such as South Georgia and Falkland, but unknown in other historical habitats including Campbell Island, Kermadec to Chatham Islands, Tristan da Cunha, and Gough Island. Other Among Northern Indian Ocean and Bay of Bengal, such as along Sri Lanka, India, and Malaysia, sightings and older records of fin whales exist. Antarctica Relatively little is known about the historical and current population levels of the southern fin whale. The IWC officially estimates that the Southern Hemisphere pre-whaling population was 400,000 whales and that the population in 1979 (at the cessation of Antarctic large scale whaling) was 85,200. Both the current and historical estimates should be considered as poor estimates because the methodology and data used in the study are known to be flawed. Other estimates cite current size to be between 15,000 (1983) and 38,000 (1997). As of 2006, there is no scientifically accepted estimate of current population or trends in abundance. Predation The only known predator of the fin whale is the killer whale, with at least 20 eyewitness and second-hand accounts of attack or harassment. They usually flee and offer little resistance to attack. Only a few confirmed fatalities have occurred. In October 2005, 16 killer whales attacked and killed a fin whale in the Canal de Ballenas, Gulf of California, after chasing it for about an hour. They fed on its sinking carcass for about 15 minutes before leaving the area. In June 2012, a pod of killer whales was seen in La Paz Bay, in the Gulf of California, chasing a fin whale for over an hour before finally killing it and feeding on its carcass. The whale bore numerous tooth rakes over its back and dorsal fin; several killer whales flanked it on either side, with one individual visible under water biting at its right lower jaw. In July 1908, a whaler reportedly saw two killer whales attack and kill a fin whale off western Greenland. In January 1984, seven were seen from the air circling, holding the flippers, and ramming a fin whale in the Gulf of California, but the observation ended at nightfall. Feeding The fin whale is a filter-feeder, feeding on small schooling fish, squid and crustaceans including copepods and krill. In the North Pacific, they feed on krill in the genera Euphausia, Thysanoessa, and Nyctiphanes, large copepods in the genus Neocalanus, small schooling fish (e.g. the genera Engraulis, Mallotus, Clupea, and Theragra), and squid. Based on stomach content analysis of over 19,500 fin whales caught by the Japanese whaling fleet in the North Pacific from 1952 to 1971, 64.1% contained only krill, 25.5% copepods, 5.0% fish, 3.4% krill and copepods and 1.7% squid. Nemoto (1959) analyzed the stomach contents of about 7500 fin whales caught in the northern North Pacific and Bering Sea from 1952 to 1958, found that they mainly preyed on euphausiids around the Aleutian Islands and in the Gulf of Alaska and schooling fish in the northern Bering Sea and off Kamchatka. In the northern Bering Sea (north of 58°N), their main prey species were capelin (Mallotus villosus), Alaska pollock (Theragra chalcogramma) and Pacific herring (Clupea pallasii); they also consumed saffron cod (Eleginus gracilis). Arctic krill (Thysanoessa raschii) was the only species of euphausiid found in the stomachs of fin whales in the northern Bering Sea. Off Kamchatka, they appeared to primarily feed on herring. They also took large quantities of the copepod Neocalanus cristatus around the Aleutian Islands and in Olyutor Bay off northeast Kamchatka, areas where the species was abundant. Five species of euphausiid (Euphausia pacifica, Thysanoessa spinifera, T. inermis, T. raschii, and T. longipes) were the predominant prey around the Aleutian Islands and in the Gulf of Alaska. Prey varied by region in the Kuril Islands area, with euphausiids (T. longipes, T. inermis, and T. raschii) and copepods (Neocalanus plumchrus and N. cristatus) being the main prey in the northern area and Japanese flying squid (Todarodes pacificus pacificus) and small schooling fish (e.g. Pacific saury, Cololabis saira; and Japanese anchovy, Engraulis japonicus) dominating the diet in the southern area. Of the fin whale stomachs sampled off British Columbia between 1963 and 1967, euphausiids dominated the diet for four of the five years (82.3 to 100% of the diet), while copepods only formed a major portion of the diet in 1965 (35.7%). Miscellaneous fish, squid, and octopus played only a very minor part of the diet in two of the five years (3.6 to 4.8%). Fin whales caught off California between 1959 and 1970 fed on the pelagic euphausiid Euphausia pacifica (86% of sampled individuals), the more neritic euphausiid Thysanoessa spinifera (9%), and the northern anchovy (Engraulis mordax) (7%); only trace amounts (<0.5% each) were found of Pacific saury (C. saira) and juvenile rockfish (Sebastes jordani). In the Gulf of California, they have been observed feeding on swarms of the euphausiid Nyctiphanes simplex. In the North Atlantic, they prey on euphausiids in the genera Meganyctiphanes, Thysanoessa and Nyctiphanes and small schooling fish (e.g. the genera Clupea, Mallotus, and Ammodytes). Of the 1,609 fin whale stomachs examined at the Hvalfjörður whaling station in southwestern Iceland from 1967 to 1989 (caught between June and September), 96% contained only krill, 2.5% krill and fish, 0.8% some fish remains, 0.7% capelin (M. villosus), and 0.1% sandeel (family Ammodytidae); a small proportion of (mainly juvenile) blue whiting (Micromesistius poutassou) were also found. Of the krill sampled between 1979 and 1989, the vast majority (over 99%) was northern krill (Meganyctiphanes norvegica); only one stomach contained Thysanoessa longicaudata. Off West Greenland, 75% of the fin whales caught between July and October had consumed krill (family Euphausiidae), 17% capelin (Mallotus) and 8% sand lance (Ammodytes sp.). Off eastern Newfoundland, they chiefly feed on capelin, but also take small quantities of euphausiids (mostly T. raschii and T. inermis). In the Ligurian-Corsican-Provençal Basin in the Mediterranean Sea they make dives as deep as to feed on the euphausiid Meganyctiphanes norvegica, while off the island of Lampedusa, between Tunisia and Sicily, they have been observed in mid-winter feeding on surface swarms of the small euphausiid Nyctiphanes couchi. In the Southern Hemisphere, they feed almost exclusively on euphausiids (mainly the genera Euphausia and Thysanoessa), as well as taking small amounts of amphipods (e.g. Themisto gaudichaudii) and various species of fish. Of the more than 16,000 fin whales caught by the Japanese whaling fleet in the Southern Hemisphere between 1961 and 1965 that contained food in their stomachs, 99.4% fed on euphausiids, 0.5% on fish, and 0.1% on amphipods. In the Southern Ocean they mainly consume E. superba. The animal feeds by opening its jaws while swimming at some in one study, which causes it to engulf up to of water in one gulp. It then closes its jaws and pushes the water back out of its mouth through its baleen, which allows the water to leave while trapping the prey. An adult has between 262 and 473 baleen plates on each side of the mouth. Each plate is made of keratin that frays out into fine hairs on the ends inside the mouth near the tongue. Each plate can measure up to in length and in width. The whale routinely dives to depths of more than where it executes an average of four "lunges", to accumulate krill. Each gulp provides the whale with approximately of food. One whale can consume up to of food a day, leading scientists to conclude that the whale spends about three hours a day feeding to meet its energy requirements, roughly the same as humans. If prey patches are not sufficiently dense, or are located too deep in the water, the whale has to spend a larger portion of its day searching for food. One hunting technique is to circle schools of fish at high speed, frightening the fish into a tight ball, then turning on its side before engulfing the massed prey. Parasites, epibiotics, and pathology Fin whales suffer from a number of pathological conditions. The parasitic copepod Pennella balaenopterae—usually found on the flank of fin whales—burrows into their blubber to feed on their blood, while the pseudo-stalked barnacle Xenobalanus globicipitis is generally found more often on the dorsal fin, pectoral fins, and flukes. Other barnacles found on fin whales include the acorn barnacle Coronula reginae and the stalked barnacle Conchoderma auritum, which attaches to Coronula or the baleen. The harpacticid copepod Balaenophilus unisetus (heavy infestations of which have been found in fin whales caught off northwestern Spain) and the ciliate Haematophagus also infest the baleen, the former feeding on the baleen itself and the latter on red blood cells. The remora Remora australis and occasionally the amphipod Cyamus balaenopterae can also be found on fin whales, both feeding on the skin. Infestations of the giant nematode Crassicauda boopis can cause inflammation of the renal arteries and potential kidney failure, while the smaller C. crassicauda infects the lower urinary tract. Out of 87 whales taken and necropsied from the North Atlantic, infection from Crassicauda boopis was found to be very prevalent and invasive, indicating high probability that it was responsible for causing death in these whales. C. boopis was found in 94% of the whales examined. The worms were usually enveloped by "exuberant tissue reactions which in some whales obstructed multiple renal veins". The parasite was most likely by environmental contamination, involving shedding of larvae in urine. Major inflammatory lesions in the mesenteric arteries suggested that the worm larvae were ingested and migrated to the kidney. These observations suggest that infection from C. boopis can be "lethal by inducing congestive renal failure". Injury to the vascular system is also a result of moderate infections. Therefore, the implication can be made that the feeding migration of fin whales every year in circumpolar waters can be associated with pathologic risk. An emaciated female fin whale, which stranded along the Belgian coast in 1997, was found to be infected with lesions of Morbillivirus. In January 2011, a emaciated adult male fin whale stranded dead on the Tyrrhenian coastline of Italy was found to be infected with Morbillivirus and the protozoa Toxoplasma gondii, as well as carrying heavy loads of organochlorine pollutants. Human interaction Whaling In the 19th century, the fin whale was occasionally hunted by open-boat whalers, but it was relatively safe, because it could easily outrun ships of the time and often sank when killed, making the pursuit a waste of time for whalers. However, the later introduction of steam-powered boats and harpoons that exploded on impact made it possible to kill and secure them along with blue and sei whales on an industrial scale. As other whale species became overhunted, the whaling industry turned to the still-abundant fin whale as a substitute. It was primarily hunted for its blubber, oil, and baleen. Around 704,000 fin whales were caught in Antarctic whaling operations alone between 1904 and 1975. The introduction of factory ships with stern slipways in 1925 substantially increased the number of whales taken per year. In 1937–38 alone, over 29,000 fin whales were taken. From 1953–54 to 1961–62, the catch averaged over 30,000 per year. By 1962–63, sei whale catches began to increase as fin whales became scarce. By 1975–76, fewer than 1,000 fin whales were being caught each year. In the North Pacific, over 74,000 fin whales were caught between 1910 and 1975. Between 1910 and 1989, over 55,000 were caught in the North Atlantic. Coastal groups in northeast Asian waters, along with many other baleen species, were likely driven into serious perils or functional extinctions by industrial catches by Japan covering wide ranges of China and Korean EEZ within very short period in 20th century. Migrations of the species into Japanese EEZ and in East China Sea were likely to be exterminated relatively earlier, as the last catch records on Amami Ōshima was between the 1910s and 1930s. After the cease of exploiting Asian stocks, Japan kept mass commercial and illegal hunts until 1975. Several thousand individuals were hunted from various stations mainly along coasts of Hokkaido, Sanriku, and the Gotō Islands. The IWC prohibited hunting in the Southern Hemisphere in 1976. The Soviet Union engaged in the illegal killing of protected whale species in the North Pacific and Southern Hemisphere, over-reporting fin whale catches to cover up illegal takes of other species. In the North Pacific, they reported taking over 10,000 fin whales between 1961 and 1979, while the true catch was less than 9,000. In the Southern Hemisphere, they reported taking nearly 53,000 between 1948 and 1973, when the true total was a little over 41,000. The fin whale was given full protection from commercial whaling by the IWC in the North Pacific in 1976, and in the North Atlantic in 1987, with small exceptions for aboriginal catches and catches for research purposes. All populations worldwide remain listed as endangered species by the US National Marine Fisheries Service and the International Conservation Union Red List. The fin whale is on Appendix 1 of CITES. The IWC has set a quota of 19 fin whales per year for Greenland. Meat and other products from whales killed in these hunts are widely marketed within Greenland, but export is illegal. Iceland and Norway are not bound by the IWC's moratorium on commercial whaling because both countries filed objections to it. In October 2006, Iceland's fisheries ministry authorized the hunting of 9 fin whales through August 2007. In 2009 and 2010, Iceland caught 125 and 148 fin whales, respectively. An Icelandic company, Hvalur, caught over a hundred fin whales in 2014, and exported a record quantity of 2071 tonnes in a single shipment in 2014. Since 2006, Hvalur has caught more than 500 fin whales and exported more than 5000 tonnes of whale meat to Japan. In the Southern Hemisphere, Japan permits annual takes of 10 fin whales under its Antarctic Special Permit whaling program for the 2005–2006 and 2006–2007 seasons. The proposal for 2007–2008 and the subsequent 12 seasons allows taking 50 per year. While 10 fin whales were caught in the 2005–06 season and three in the 2006–07 season, none was caught in the 2007–2008 season. A single fin whale was caught in both the 2008–09 and 2009–10 seasons, two were taken in the 2010–11 season, and one was taken in the 2011–12 season. Fin whales have been targets of illegal captures using harpoons for dolphin hunts or intentionally drive whales into nets. Ship interaction Collisions with ships are a major cause of mortality. In some areas, they cause a substantial portion of large whale strandings. Most serious injuries are caused by large, fast-moving ships over or near continental shelves. A 60-foot-long fin whale was found stuck on the bow of a container ship in New York harbour on 12 April 2014. Two dead fin whales, one 65 feet and one 25 feet, were discovered stuck to the Australian destroyer HMAS Sydney in May 2021 when the ship arrived in Naval Base San Diego. Ship collisions frequently occur in Tsushima Strait and result in damaging all of whales, passengers, and vessels, hence the Japanese Coast Guard has started visual recordings of large cetaceans in Tsushima Strait to inform operating vessels in the areas. Museums Several fin whale skeletons are exhibited in North America. The Natural History Museum of Los Angeles County in Los Angeles, California has an exhibit entitled the "Fin Whale Passage", which displays a fin whale skeleton collected by former museum osteologist Eugene Fischer and field collector Howard Hill in 1926 from the Trinidad whaling station (1920–1926) in Humboldt County, northern California. A steel armature supports the skeleton, which is accompanied by sculpted flukes. Science North, a science museum in Greater Sudbury, Ontario, Canada, has a fin whale skeleton collected from Anticosti Island hanging from the fourth floor of its main building. A skeleton hangs in the atrium (renovated in 2019–2020) of the science-mathematics building at Knox College (Illinois) in Galesburg, Illinois. Perhaps the largest fin whale skeleton exhibited is at The Grand Rapids Public Museum in Grand Rapids, Michigan, where a skeleton in the Galleria section hangs from the ceiling. Several fin whale skeletons are also exhibited in Europe. The Natural History Museum of Slovenia in Ljubljana, Slovenia, houses a female fin whale skeleton—the specimen had been found floating in the Gulf of Piran in the spring of 2003. The Hungarian Natural History Museum in Budapest, Hungary, displays a fin whale skeleton hanging near its main entrance which had been caught in the Atlantic Ocean in 1896 and purchased from Vienna in 1900. The Cambridge University Museum of Zoology, in Cambridge, United Kingdom, exhibits a nearly male fin whale skeleton, which had stranded at Pevensey, East Sussex, in November 1865. The Otago Museum, in Dunedin, New Zealand, displays a fin whale skeleton, which had stranded on the beach at Nelson at the entrance of the Waimea River in 1882. A 20m fin whale skeleton is exhibited at Van Thuy Tu Temple in Phan Thiết, Vietnam, where some local fishermen worship whales as near-divine beings who offer protection from storms. Whale watching Fin whales are regularly encountered on whale-watching excursions worldwide. In the Southern California Bight, fin whales are encountered year-round, with the best sightings between November and March. They can even be seen from land (for example, from Point Vicente, Palos Verdes, where they can be seen lunge feeding at the surface only a half mile to a few miles offshore). They are regularly sighted in the summer and fall in the Gulf of St. Lawrence, the Gulf of Maine, the Bay of Fundy, the Bay of Biscay, Strait of Gibraltar, the Mediterranean. In southern Ireland, they are seen inshore from June to February, with peak sightings in November and December. Cruise ships en route to and from the Antarctic Peninsula sometimes encounter fin whales in the Drake Passage. Conservation The fin whale is listed on both Appendix I and Appendix II of the Convention on the Conservation of Migratory Species of Wild Animals (CMS). It is listed on Appendix I as this species has been categorized as in danger of extinction throughout all or a significant proportion of its range and CMS Parties strive towards strictly protecting these animals, conserving or restoring the places where they live, mitigating obstacles to migration and controlling other factors that might endanger them. It is listed on Appendix II as it has an unfavourable conservation status or would benefit significantly from international co-operation organised by tailored agreements. In addition, the fin whale is covered by the Agreement on the Conservation of Cetaceans in the Black Sea, Mediterranean Sea and Contiguous Atlantic Area (ACCOBAMS) and the Memorandum of Understanding for the Conservation of Cetaceans and Their Habitats in the Pacific Islands Region (Pacific Cetaceans MOU). See also Baleen whale Endangered species List of cetaceans References Further reading Peter Saundry. 2011. Fin whale. Encyclopedia of Earth. National Council for Science and the Environment. Washington DC . C. Michael Hogan Ed. Content partner: Encyclopedia of Life National Audubon Society Guide to Marine Mammals of the World, Reeves, Stewart, Clapham and Powell, Whales & Dolphins Guide to the Biology and Behaviour of Cetaceans, Maurizio Wurtz and Nadia Repetto. Encyclopedia of Marine Mammals, editors Perrin, Wursig and Thewissen, External links US National Marine Fisheries Service fin whale web page ARKive – images and videos of the fin whale (Balaenoptera physalus) Finback whale sounds Photograph of a fin whale underwater Photographs of a fin whale breaching World Wide Fund for Nature (WWF) – species profile for the fin whale Voices in the Sea – Sounds of the Fin Whale fin whale EDGE species Cosmopolitan mammals fin whale ESA endangered species fin whale	[ 0.29335153102874756, -0.27953824400901794, 0.05875809118151665, 0.35128819942474365, -0.004503083880990744, 0.6068552136421204, -0.25749897956848145, 0.16830088198184967, -0.4503663182258606, -0.24879693984985352, 0.012089299969375134, 0.4740445613861084, 0.018010202795267105, 0.2197466939687729, -0.37242862582206726, 0.6696269512176514, 0.5921365022659302, 0.05314772203564644, -0.014240814372897148, -0.14198370277881622, -0.8231891393661499, -0.5154208540916443, 0.2919084429740906, 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230364	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pumice	Pumice	Pumice (), called pumicite in its powdered or dust form, is a volcanic rock that consists of highly vesicular rough-textured volcanic glass, which may or may not contain crystals. It is typically light-colored. Scoria is another vesicular volcanic rock that differs from pumice in having larger vesicles, thicker vesicle walls, and being dark colored and denser. Pumice is created when super-heated, highly pressurized rock is violently ejected from a volcano. The unusual foamy configuration of pumice happens because of simultaneous rapid cooling and rapid depressurization. The depressurization creates bubbles by lowering the solubility of gases (including water and CO2) that are dissolved in the lava, causing the gases to rapidly exsolve (like the bubbles of CO2 that appear when a carbonated drink is opened). The simultaneous cooling and depressurization freeze the bubbles in a matrix. Eruptions under water are rapidly cooled and the large volume of pumice created can be a shipping hazard for cargo ships. Properties Pumice is composed of highly microvesicular glass pyroclastic with very thin, translucent bubble walls of extrusive igneous rock. It is commonly but not exclusively of silicic or felsic to intermediate in composition (e.g., rhyolitic, dacitic, andesite, pantellerite, phonolite, trachyte), but basaltic and other compositions are known. Pumice is commonly pale in color, ranging from white, cream, blue or grey, to green-brown or black. It forms when volcanic gases exsolving from viscous magma form bubbles that remain within the viscous magma as it cools to glass. Pumice is a common product of explosive eruptions (plinian and ignimbrite-forming) and commonly forms zones in upper parts of silicic lavas. Pumice has a porosity of 64–85% by volume and it floats on water, possibly for years, until it eventually becomes waterlogged and sinks. Scoria differs from pumice in being denser. With larger vesicles and thicker vesicle walls, scoria sinks rapidly. The difference is the result of the lower viscosity of the magma that forms scoria. When larger amounts of gas are present, the result is a finer-grained variety of pumice known as pumicite. Pumicite consists of particles less than 4mm in size. Pumice is considered a volcanic glass because it has no crystal structure. Pumice varies in density according to the thickness of the solid material between the bubbles; many samples float in water. After the explosion of Krakatoa, rafts of pumice drifted through the Indian Ocean for up to 20 years, with tree trunks floating among them. In fact, pumice rafts disperse and support several marine species. In 1979, 1984 and 2006, underwater volcanic eruptions near Tonga created large pumice rafts that floated hundreds of kilometres to Fiji. There are two main forms of vesicles. Most pumice contains tubular microvesicles that can impart a silky or fibrous fabric. The elongation of the microvesicles occurs due to ductile elongation in the volcanic conduit or, in the case of pumiceous lavas, during flow. The other form of vesicles are subspherical to spherical and result from high vapor pressure during an eruption. Etymology Pumice is an igneous rock with a foamy appearance. The name is derived from the Latin word pumex (meaning "pumice") which is related to the Latin word spuma meaning "foam". In former times, pumice was called "Spuma Maris", meaning "froth of the sea" in Latin because the frothy material was thought to be hardened sea foam. Around 80 B.C., it was called "lapis spongiae" in Latin for its vesicular properties. Many Greek scholars decided there were different sources of pumice, one of which was in the sea coral category. Location Pumice can be found all around the globe deriving from continental volcanic occurrences and submarine volcanic occurrences. Floating stones can also be distributed by ocean currents. As described earlier pumice is produced by the eruption of explosive volcanoes under certain conditions, therefore, natural sources occur in volcanically active regions. Pumice is mined and transported from these regions. In 2011, Italy and Turkey led pumice mining production at 4 and 3 million tonnes respectively; other large producers at or exceeding a million tonnes were Greece, Iran, Chile, and Syria. Total world pumice production in 2011 was estimated at 17 million tonnes. Asia There are large reserves of pumice in Asian countries including Afghanistan, Indonesia, Japan, Syria, Iran, and eastern Russia. Considerable amounts of pumice can be found at the Kamchatka Peninsula on the eastern flank of Russia. This area contains 19 active volcanoes and it lies in close proximity with the Pacific volcanic belt. Asia is also the site of the second-most dangerous volcanic eruption in the 20th century, Mount Pinatubo, which erupted on June 12, 1991 in the Philippines. Ash and pumice lapilli were distributed over a mile around the volcano. These ejections filled trenches that once reached 660 feet deep. So much magma was displaced from the vent that the volcano became a depression on the surface of the Earth. Another well-known volcano that produces pumice is Krakatoa. An eruption in 1883 ejected so much pumice that kilometers of sea were covered in floating pumice and in some areas rose 1.5 meters above sea level. Europe Europe is the largest producer of pumice with deposits in Italy, Turkey, Greece, Hungary, Iceland, and Germany. Italy is the largest producer of pumice because of its numerous eruptive volcanoes. On the Aeolian Islands of Italy, the island of Lipari is entirely made up of volcanic rock, including pumice. Large amounts of igneous rock on Lipari are due to the numerous extended periods of volcanic activity from the Late Pleistocene (Tyrrhenian) to the Holocene. North America Pumice can be found all across North America including on the Caribbean Islands. In the United States, pumice is mined in Nevada, Oregon, Idaho, Arizona, California, New Mexico and Kansas. U.S. production of pumice and pumicite in 2011 was estimated at 380,000 tonnes, valued at $7.7 million with approximately 46% coming from Nevada and Oregon. Idaho is also known as a large producer of pumice because of the quality and brightness of the rock found in local reserves. One of the most famous volcanoes was Mount Mazama that erupted 7,700 years ago in Oregon and deposited 300 feet of pumice and ash around the vent. The large amount of magma that was erupted caused the structure to collapse, forming a caldera now known as Crater Lake. South America Chile is one of the leading producers of pumice in the world. The Puyehue-Cordón Caulle are two coalesced volcanoes in the Andes mountains that ejected ash and pumice across Chile and Argentina. A recent eruption in 2011 wreaked havoc on the region by covering all surfaces and lakes in ash and pumice. Africa Kenya, Ethiopia and Tanzania have some deposits of pumice. New Zealand The Havre Seamount volcano produced the largest-known deep ocean volcanic eruption on Earth. The volcano erupted in July 2012 but remained unnoticed until enormous pieces of pumice were seen to be floating on the Pacific Ocean. Blankets of rock reached a thickness of 5 meters. Most of this floating pumice is deposited on the North-West coast of New Zealand and the Polynesia islands. Mining The mining of pumice is an environmentally friendly process compared with other mining methods because the igneous rock is deposited on the surface of the earth in loose aggregate form. The material is mined by open-pit methods. Soils are removed by machinery in order to obtain more pure quality pumice. Scalping screens are used to filter impure surficial pumice of organic soils and unwanted rocks. Blasting is not necessary because the material is unconsolidated, therefore only simple machinery is used such as bulldozers and power shovels. Different sizes of pumice are needed for specific uses therefore crushers are used to achieve desired grades ranging from lump, coarse, intermediate, fine, and extra fine. Uses Pumice is a very lightweight, porous and abrasive material and it has been used for centuries in the construction and beauty industry as well as in early medicine. It is also used as an abrasive, especially in polishes, pencil erasers, and the production of stone-washed jeans. Pumice was also used in the early book-making industry to prepare parchment paper and leather bindings. There is high demand for pumice, particularly for water filtration, chemical spill containment, cement manufacturing, horticulture and increasingly for the pet industry. The mining of pumice in environmentally sensitive areas has been under more scrutiny after such an operation was stopped in the U.S. state of Oregon, at Rock Mesa in the southern part of the Three Sisters Wilderness. Early medicine Pumice has been used in the medicinal industry for more than 2000 years. Ancient Chinese medicine used ground pumice along with ground mica and fossilized bones added to teas to calm the spirit. This tea was used to treat dizziness, nausea, insomnia, and anxiety disorders. Ingestion of these pulverized rocks was able to soften nodules and was later used with other herbal ingredients to treat gallbladder cancer and urinary difficulties. In western medicine, beginning in the early 18th century, pumice was ground into a sugar consistency and with other ingredients was used to treat ulcers mostly on the skin and cornea. Concoctions such as these were also used to help wounds scar in a healthier manner. In approximately 1680 it was noted by an English naturalist that pumice powder was used to promote sneezing. Personal care Pumice has been used as a material in personal care for thousands of years. It is an abrasive material that can be used in powdered form or as a stone to remove unwanted hair or skin. In ancient Egypt, it was common to remove all hair on the body to control lice and as a form of ritual purification, using creams, razors, and pumice stones. Pumice in powdered form was an ingredient in toothpastes in ancient Rome. Nail care was very important in ancient China; nails were kept groomed with pumice stones, and pumice stones were also used to remove calluses. It was discovered in a Roman poem that pumice was used to remove dead skin as far back as 100 BC, and likely before then. It has been used throughout many eras since then, including the Victorian Era. Today, many of these techniques are still used; pumice is widely used as a skin exfoliant. Even though hair removal techniques have evolved over the centuries, abrasive material like pumice stones is also still used. "Pumice stones" are often used in beauty salons during the pedicure process to remove dry and excess skin from the bottom of the foot as well as calluses. Finely ground pumice has been added to some toothpastes as a polish, similar to Roman use, and easily removes dental plaque build up. Such toothpaste is too abrasive for daily use. Pumice is also added to heavy-duty hand cleaners (such as lava soap) as a mild abrasive. Some brands of chinchilla dust bath are formulated with powdered pumice. Old beauty techniques using pumice are still employed today but newer substitutes are easier to obtain. Cleaning Pumice stone, sometimes attached to a handle, is an effective scrubbing tool for removal of limescale, rust, hard water rings, and other stains on porcelain fixtures in households (e.g., bathrooms). It is a quick method compared to alternatives like chemicals or vinegar and baking soda or borax. Horticulture Good soil requires sufficient water and nutrient loading as well as little compaction to allow easy exchange of gases. The roots of plants require continuous transportation of carbon dioxide and oxygen to and from the surface. Pumice improves the quality of soil because of its porous properties, water and gases can be transported easily through the pores and nutrients can be stored in the microscopic holes. Pumice rock fragments are inorganic therefore no decomposition and little compaction occur. Another benefit of this inorganic rock is that it does not attract or host fungi or insects. Drainage is very important in horticulture, with the presence of pumice tillage is much easier. Pumice usage also creates ideal conditions for growing plants like cacti and succulents as it increases the water retention in sandy soils and reduces the density of clayey soils to allow more transportation of gases and water. The addition of pumice to soil improves and increases vegetative cover as the roots of plants make slopes more stable therefore it helps reduce erosion. It is often used on roadsides and ditches and commonly used in turf and golf courses to maintain grass cover and flatness that can degrade due to large amounts of traffic and compaction. With regard to chemical properties pumice is pH neutral, it is not acidic or alkaline. In 2011, 16% of pumice mined in the United States was used for horticultural purposes. Pumice contributes to soil fertility in areas where it is naturally present in the soil due to volcanic activity. For example, in the Jemez Mountains of New Mexico, the Ancestral Puebloans settled on "pumice patches" of the El Cajete Pumice which likely retained a greater amount of moisture and was ideal for farming. Construction Pumice is widely used to make lightweight concrete and insulative low-density cinder blocks. The air-filled vesicles in this porous rock serves as a good insulator. A fine-grained version of pumice called pozzolan is used as an additive in cement and is mixed with lime to form a light-weight, smooth, plaster-like concrete. This form of concrete was used as far back as Roman times. Roman engineers utilized it to build the huge dome of the Pantheon with increasing amounts of pumice added to concrete for higher elevations of the structure. It was also commonly used as a construction material for many aqueducts. One of the main uses of pumice currently in the United States is manufacturing concrete. This rock has been used in concrete mixtures for thousands of years and continues to be used in producing concrete, especially in regions close to where this volcanic material is deposited. New studies prove a broader application of pumice powder in the concrete industry. Pumice can act as a cementitious material in concrete and researchers have shown that concrete made with up to 50% pumice powder can significantly improve durability yet reduce greenhouse gas emissions and fossil fuel consumption. See also References External links University of Oxford image of pumice. Retrieved 2010-09-27. Analytical identification of single source pumice from Greek shores and ancient sites in the Levant On the occurrence of a pumice-rich layer in Holocene deposits of western Peloponnesus, Ionian Sea, Greece. A geomorphological and geochemical approach. Hess Pumice - White papers and technical info of pumice. 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230366	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pommel%20horse	Pommel horse	The pommel horse is an artistic gymnastics apparatus. Traditionally, it is used by only male gymnasts. Originally made of a metal frame with a wooden body and a leather cover, the modern pommel horse has a metal body covered with foam rubber and leather, with plastic handles (or pommels). Apparatus History The apparatus originates from the Romans, who used wooden horses to teach mounting and dismounting. They later added it to the ancient Olympic Games. The basic modern exercises were developed in the early 19th century by Friedrich Ludwig Jahn, founder of the German turnverein. Dimensions Measurements of the apparatus are published by the Fédération Internationale de Gymnastique (FIG) in the Apparatus Narms brochure. Height from top surface to floor: ± Length at top: ± Length at bottom: ± Width at top: ± Width at bottom: ± Height of the pommels: ± Distance between the pommels: – (adjustable) Routines A typical pommel horse exercise involves both single leg and double leg work. Single leg skills are generally in the form of scissors. Double leg work however, is the main staple of this event. The gymnast swings both legs in a circular motion (clockwise or counterclockwise depending on preference) and performs such skills on all parts of the apparatus. To make the exercise more challenging, gymnasts will often include variations on a typical circling skill by turning (moores and spindles), by straddling their legs (Flairs), placing one or both hands on the pommel or the leather, or moving up and down the horse placing their hands on the pommel and/or the leather (travelling). Routines end when the gymnast performs a dismount, either by swinging his body over the horse or going through a handstand to land on the mat. The pommel horse, its gymnastic elements, and various rules are all regulated by the Code of Points. Pommel horse is considered one of the more difficult men's events. While it is well noted that all events require a certain build of muscle and technique, pommel horse tends to favor technique over muscle. This is because horse routines are done from the shoulders in a leaning motion and that no moves need to be held, unlike other events. Therefore, stress induced in one's arms is reduced, meaning less muscle is needed in this event than events like still rings or parallel bars. International level routines A pommel horse routine should contain at least one element from all element groups: Single leg swings and scissors Circles and flairs, with and/or without spindles and handstands Side and cross support travels Dismounts Scoring and rules As with all events in the Fédération Internationale de Gymnastique guidelines, form is crucial to any successful routine. For pommel horse, form consists of keeping one's feet pointed and legs straight during the entire routine. The gymnast should keep his legs together during all elements, exceptions beings scissors, single legged elements, and flairs where, conversely, the degree and control of separation are considered important. Gymnasts are also deducted for not using all three sections of the horse and pausing or stopping on the apparatus. Deductions also apply for brushing and hitting the apparatus. Olympic pommel horse medalists The most decorated and successful Olympic pommel worker in history is Great Britain's Max Whitlock, with three medals including two gold medals. Two other gymnasts have three pommel horse Olympic medals across three Games; Romania's Marius Urzică with one gold and two silver medals, and Whitlock's compatriot and teammate Louis Smith with two silvers, and a bronze - under historic rules Smith would have shared gold in 2012, but was awarded silver behind Kristian Berki after a tie was broken on execution score. Three other pommel workers have two Olympic gold medals, and each is considered a legend of the sport; the Soviet Union gymnast Boris Shakhlin. the Yugoslav Miroslav Cerar and the Hungarian master, Zoltán Magyar. World pommel horse medalists Pommel horse has been contested at World Championships from their inauguration. The record for most World victories is held by several workers at 3. Three of the four double Olympic champions, Miroslav Cerar, Zoltan Magyar and Max Whitlock have each won the World title three times, to set the record for combined global titles at 5. The most decorated workers at World Championships are Whitlock, Xiao Qin and Kristian Berki, both with three gold and two silver medals. Bold numbers in brackets denotes record number of victories. 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230367	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rings%20%28gymnastics%29	Rings (gymnastics)	The rings, also known as steady rings or still rings (in contrast to flying rings), is an artistic gymnastics apparatus and the event that uses it. It is traditionally used only by male gymnasts, due to its extreme upper body strength requirements. Gymnasts typically wear ring grips while performing on the rings. The apparatus The apparatus consists of two rings that hang freely from a rigid metal frame. Each ring is supported by a strap, which in turn connects to a steel cable that is suspended from the metal frame. The gymnast, who grips one ring with each hand, must control the movement of the rings and his or her body movements at all times. Dimensions The measurements of the standard apparatus are specified by Fédération Internationale de Gymnastique (FIG) in its Apparatus Norms document: Inner diameter: ± Diameter of profile: ± Distance from point of attachment to lower inner side of the rings: ± Distance between two points of attachment: ± Routines An exercise on rings consists of swing, strength and hold elements. Generally, gymnasts are required to fulfill various requirements including a swing to held handstand, a static strength hold, and an aerial dismount. More experienced gymnasts will often perform more than one strength element, sometimes swinging into hold positions or consecutively performing different holds. One of the most widely recognized skills performed on the rings is the Iron Cross, which is executed by extending both arms straight out from the sides of the body while suspended mid air for at least two seconds. Other common strength moves include the inverted cross (i.e., vertically inverted Iron Cross) and the Maltese cross, in which the gymnast holds his or her body parallel to the ground at ring height with arms extended laterally. Swing elements include giant swings from handstand to handstand, in both front and back directions, similar to giants performed on the horizontal bar. Elements on the rings are regulated by the Code of Points. International level routines A rings routine should contain at least one element from all element groups: I. Kip and swing elements & swings through or to handstand II. Strength elements and hold elements III. Swings to strength hold elements IV. Dismounts Scoring and rules Gymnasts will take deductions for form similar to other apparatus. On rings gymnasts will also take deductions for having bent arms while performing nearly all elements, or using the straps/cables to support or balance themselves. Additional deductions are applied to gymnasts unable to maintain a neutral head position during holds, a neutral face (not grimacing), or grunting. There are also deductions for each extraneous swinging of the cables during the routine. Bonus points on the still rings are earned by performing consecutive distinct static hold elements, based upon the letter value of both moves, listed in the code of points. See also List of gymnasts specializing in rings References Artistic gymnastics apparatus	[ 0.4432958960533142, -0.29768452048301697, 0.22853204607963562, -0.0007729860953986645, -0.07890535891056061, -0.266754150390625, 0.3746052384376526, -0.23018500208854675, -0.9369611740112305, 0.42439237236976624, -0.039954159408807755, -0.058336641639471054, -0.3397718369960785, -0.4427255094051361, -0.2808353304862976, -0.0675821527838707, 0.7818199992179871, 0.06296292692422867, 0.8655094504356384, -0.09582992643117905, -0.05347466468811035, 0.24731293320655823, 0.38522645831108093, -0.3115139901638031, 0.20278985798358917, 0.0019705125596374273, -0.30413195490837097, 0.3723096251487732, -0.2540915608406067, -0.08748723566532135, -0.11373327672481537, 0.8275914192199707, 0.5350561738014221, -0.06832621246576309, 0.0319005511701107, -0.06000293791294098, -0.028347892686724663, -0.33828142285346985, -0.14292927086353302, -0.7073346972465515, -0.16223564743995667, 0.004022009205073118, 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230370	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cheyenne%20Mountain%20Complex	Cheyenne Mountain Complex	The Cheyenne Mountain Complex is a Space Force installation and defensive bunker located in unincorporated El Paso County, Colorado, next to the city of Colorado Springs, at the Cheyenne Mountain Space Force Station, which hosts the activities of several tenant units. Also located in Colorado Springs is Peterson Space Force Base, where the North American Aerospace Defense Command (NORAD) and United States Northern Command (USNORTHCOM) headquarters are located. Formerly the center for the United States Space Command and NORAD, the Complex monitored the air space of Canada and the United States for missiles, space systems, and foreign aircraft through its worldwide early-warning system. Since 2008, NORAD and the United States Space Command have been based at Peterson Space Force Base and the complex, re-designated as an air force station, is used for crew training and as a back-up command center if required. The military complex has included, in the past, many units of NORAD, U.S. Space Command, Aerospace Defense Command (ADCOM), Air Force Systems Command, Air Weather Service, and Federal Emergency Management (FEMA). The complex's communication center is also used by the nearby U.S. Civil Defense Warning Center. Facilities Main chambers The complex was built under of granite on 2 hectares (5 acres). Fifteen three-story buildings are protected from movement, e.g. earthquake or explosion, by a system of giant springs that the buildings sit on and flexible pipe connectors to limit the operational effect of movement. A total of more than 1,000 springs are designed to prevent any of the 15 buildings from shifting more than . The complex is the only high-altitude Department of Defense facility certified to be able to sustain an electromagnetic pulse (EMP). There are a large quantity of cots for most of the personnel, including suites for high-ranking officers within the bunker. Amenities include a medical facility, store, cafeteria, and fitness centers inside and outside the mountain. Blast doors The bunker is built to deflect a 30 megaton nuclear explosion as close as . Within a mountain tunnel are sets of 25-ton blast doors and another for the civil engineering department. The doors were built so that they can always be opened when needed. Should a nuclear blast hit the building, they are designed to withstand a blast wave. There is a network of blast valves with unique filters to capture airborne chemical, biological, radiological, and nuclear contaminants. Outdoor Outside of the military complex are the parking lots, a fire station, and outdoor recreational facilities. The recreational amenities include Mountain Man Park, picnic areas, a racquetball facility, softball field, sand volleyball court, basketball court, a putting green, and horseshoe area. A military gate limits NORAD Road usage from the State Highway 115 interchange. Support area The complex has its own power plant, heating and cooling system, and water supply. The 21st Mission Support Group ensures there is a 99.999% degree of reliability of its electricity, water, air conditioning, power, and other support systems. The threats, in descending order of likelihood, that the complex may face are "medical emergencies, natural disasters, civil disorder, a conventional attack, an electromagnetic pulse attack, a cyber or information attack, chemical or biological or radiological attack, an improvised nuclear attack, a limited nuclear attack, [and] a general nuclear attack." The least likely events are the most hazardous. There is more water produced by mountain springs than the base requires, and a reservoir ensures that even in event of fire, there is enough water to meet the facility's needs. A reservoir of of water is used as a heat sink. There is a "massive" reservoir for diesel fuel and a "huge" battery bank with redundant power generators. History Construction and systems installation The North American Air Defense Command (NORAD) was established and activated at the Ent Air Force Base on September 12, 1957. The Command is a binational organization of Canadian (1 Canadian Air Division) and United States air defense command units, in accordance with NORAD Agreements first made on May 12, 1958. In the late 1950s, a plan was developed to construct a command and control center in a hardened facility as a Cold War defensive strategy against long-range Soviet bombers, ballistic missiles, and a nuclear attack. In 1957, the Strategic Air Command began construction in New England inside Bare Mountain for a hardened bunker to contain the command post for the 8th Air Force, which was located at nearby Westover Air Force Base, Chicopee, Massachusetts. This underground facility was nicknamed "The Notch" (or formally as the 8th AF "Post-Attack Command and Control System Facility, Hadley") and was hardened to protect it from the effects of a nearby nuclear blast and designed so that the senior military staff could facilitate further military operations. Four years later, construction at Cheyenne Mountain was started to create a similar protection for the NORAD command post. Cheyenne Mountain was excavated under the supervision of the Army Corps of Engineers for the construction of the NORAD Combat Operations Center beginning on May 18, 1961, by Utah Construction & Mining Company. The Space Defense Center and the Combat Operations Center achieved full operational capability on February 6, 1967. The total cost was $142.4 million. Its systems included a command and control system developed by Burroughs Corporation. The electronics and communications system centralized and automated the instantaneous (one-millionth of a second) evaluation of aerospace surveillance data. The Space Defense Center moved from Ent AFB to the complex in 1965. The NORAD Combat Operations Center was fully operational April 20, 1966 and The Space Defense Command's 1st Aerospace Control Squadron moved to Cheyenne Mountain that month. The following systems or commands became operational between May and October, 1966: The NORAD Attack Warning System, Combat Operations Command, and Delta I computer system, which recorded and monitored every detected space system. By January 4, 1967, the National Civil Defense Warning Center was in the bunker. Operations and improvements Air Defense Command satellite systems System Development Corporation updated Air Defense Command satellite information processing systems for $15,850,542 on January 19, 1973. The improvements were primarily to the Space Computational Center's displays and application software, which was updated to provide real-time positioning of orbiting space systems for the NORAD Combat Operation Center. The first phase, which established a system integrator and modernized the communications to a major data processing system, was completed in October 1972. Ballistic Missile Defense Center The Ballistic Missile Defense Center (BMDC) BW 1.2 release was installed in February 1974 in the Combat Operations Center, under the command of CONAD. The Safeguard command and control system, operated by the commander, communicated warnings, observation data, and attack assessment to the Combat Operations Center. It was also designed to release nuclear weapons. Combat Operations Center By 1978, five operating centers and a command post resided within the NORAD Combat Operations Center. The Space Computational Center catalogued and tracked space objects. The Intelligence Center analyzed intelligence data. Data was consolidated and displayed in the Command Post by the System Center. The Weather Support Unit monitored local and global weather patterns. The NORAD Commander's wartime staff reported to the Battle Staff Support Center. Space Defense Operations Center The Space Defense Operations Center (SPADOC), established on October 1, 1979, consolidated United States Air Force satellite survivability, space surveillance, and US ASAT operations into one wartime space activities hub at the NORAD Cheyenne Mountain Complex. Space surveillance and missile warning functions were performed by the Core Processing Segment (CPS) using Worldwide Military Command and Control System's Honeywell H6080 computers at the SPADOC Computational Center (SCC) and NORAD Computer System (NCS). A third computer was operational backup for SCC or NCS. By 1981, the H6080 failed to meet the requirements for timely computations. SPADATS was deactivated about 1980, although some of its logic continued on in SPADOC systems. Cheyenne Mountain Complex Improvements Program (427M) NORAD had a series of warning and assessment systems that were not fully automated in the Cheyenne Mountain complex into the 1970s. In 1979, the Cheyenne Mountain Complex Improvements Program 427M system became fully operational. It was a consolidated Cheyenne Mountain Upgrade program for command center, space, ballistic missile, and space functions, developed using new software technology and designed for computers with large processing capacity. There were three major segments of the 427M system: the Communication System Segment (CSS), NORAD Computer System (NCS), and Space Computational Center (SCC). The 425L Command and Control System, Display Information Processor, Command Center Processing System, and other hardware were replaced by the NORAD Computer System (NCS). The new system was designed to centralize several databases, improve on-line display capabilities, and consolidate mission warning information processing and transmission. It was intended to have greater reliability and quicker early warning capability. The Command Center Processing System's original UNIVAC 1106, re-purposed for Mission Essential Back-up Capability (MEBU), was upgraded to the more robust UNIVAC 1100/42. The 427M system, intended to modernize systems and improve performance, was initially "wholly ineffective" and resulted in several failures of the Worldwide Military Command and Control System (WWMCCS) system. In 1979 and 1980, there were a few instances when false missile warnings were generated by the Cheyenne Mountain complex systems. For instance, a computer chip "went haywire" and issued false missile warnings, which raised the possibility that a nuclear war could be started accidentally, based upon incorrect data. Staff analyzed the data and found that the warnings were erroneous and the systems were updated to identify false alarms. Gen. James V. Hartinger of the Air Force stated that "his primary responsibility is to provide Washington with what he calls 'timely, unambiguous, reliable warning' that a raid on North America has begun." He explained that there are about 6,700 messages generated on average each hour in 1979 and 1980 and all had been processed without error. An off-site testing facility was established in Colorado Springs by NORAD in late 1979 or early 1980 so that system changes could be tested off-line before they were moved into production. Following another failure in 1980, a bad computer chip was updated and staff and commander processes were improved to better respond to warnings. The Cheyenne Mountain Upgrade (CMU) of November 1988, designed to consolidate five improvement programs, was not installed because it was not compatible with other systems at Cheyenne Mountain and it did not meet the defined specifications according to deficiencies identified during testing. The five improvement programs were the CCPDS Replacement (CCPDS-R), CSS Replacement (CSS-R), Granite Sentry upgrade, SCIS, and SPADOC 4. SPADOC 4 was for upgrading the SCC with primary and backup 3090-200J mainframes), and SPADOC 4 block A achieved initial operating capability (IOC) in April 1989. The CSS-R "first element" achieved IOC on April 12, 1991; and the 427M system was replaced . The CSSR, SCIS, Granite Sentry, CCPDS-R, and their interfaces were tested in 1997. Testing of Granite Sentry nuclear detonation (NUDET) data processing system found it to be inadequate. Joint Surveillance System The Joint Surveillance System (JSS), developed under an agreement with the Canadian government, became fully operational in seven Region Operations Control Centers (ROCCs) on December 23, 1983. The Joint Surveillance System was implemented to replace Semi-Automatic Ground Environment (SAGE). Survivable Communications Integration System In 1986, Congress approved development of the Survivable Communications Integration System (SCIS) to communicate missile warning messages simultaneously over many forms of media, but it was subject to delays and cost overruns. By 1992, the project was estimated to be delayed to 1995 and cost projected to increase from $142 million to $234 million. Other systems By 1992, the U.S. Space Command Space Surveillance Center (SSC) was the data analysis and tracking center for Baker-Nunn camera images and Cheyenne Mountain was connected to the AN/URC-117 Ground Wave Emergency Network (GWEN) communication site in Pueblo, Colorado. By 1995, the AN/FPS-129 HAVE STARE (Globus II) radar in California had been upgraded to "relay data to Cheyenne Mountain", and by October 1995 the 1st Command and Control Squadron (1CACS) in the bunker was providing space collision avoidance data to the Cheyenne Mountain Operations Center's space control center. In June 1993, the Cheyenne Mountain Complex Operations Center had the USSPACE and NORAD Command Center, NORAD Air Defense Operations Center (ADOC), NORAD/USSPACECOM Combined Intelligence Watch Center (CIWC), USSPACECOM Space Defense Operations Center (SPADOC), USSPACECOM Space Surveillance Center (SSC), AFSPACECOM Weather Operations Center, and the AFSPACECOM Systems Center within its facility. Plans to house the USSPACECOM and NORAD command centers in the same location began by July 1994. A $450 million upgrade was made to the missile warning center beginning in February 1995. The effort was part of a $1.7 billion renovation program for Cheyenne Mountain. The Combatant Commander's Integrated Command and Control System (CCIC2S) program began in 2000 with a Lockheed Martin contract "to upgrade all of the mission systems within Cheyenne Mountain, which included the space surveillance systems" for delivery in 2006. The portion of CCIC2S modernizing "attack warning systems within Cheyenne Mountain [was to] cost more than $700 million from fiscal years 2000 to 2006", and the delayed CCIC2S upgrades for space surveillance were superseded by systems for the Joint Space Operations Center's Space C2 program and Integrated Space Situational Awareness program. By 2003, consoles for the Ground-Based Mid-Course Defense (GMD) had been contracted for Cheyenne Mountain, and the planned 18 month Cheyenne Mountain Realignment to move Command Center operations to Peterson AFB was complete by May 13, 2008. On August 3, 2011, a ribbon cutting was held for the January 2010 – June 30, 2011, Missile Warning Center renovation funded by USSTRATCOM. Over the years, the installation came to house elements of the North American Aerospace Defense Command (NORAD), U.S. Strategic Command, U.S. Air Force Space Command and U.S. Northern Command (USNORTHCOM). Under what became known as the Cheyenne Mountain Operations Center (CMOC), several centers supported the NORAD missions of aerospace warning and aerospace control and provided warning of ballistic missile or air attacks against North America. Peterson and Vandenberg Air Force Bases On July 28, 2006, the Cheyenne Mountain Directorate was re-designated as the Cheyenne Mountain Division, with the mission to assist in establishing an integrated NORAD and USNORTHCOM Command Center within the headquarters building at Peterson Air Force Base. The Unified Space Vault and the Space Control Center were moved from Cheyenne Mountain to the Joint Space Operations Center at Vandenberg Air Force Base about October 2007. In 2006, NORAD relocated to a basement in the Peterson No. 2 building at the nearby Peterson AFB. Northern Command and Space Command and Canadian military defense partners relocated at Peterson. The Cheyenne Mountain complex is maintained by a skeleton crew and no longer operates on a 24/7 basis. The complex is on "warm standby", meaning it is only staffed when required. On the fiftieth anniversary of the NORAD agreement—May 12, 2008—the Command Center located within Cheyenne Mountain Complex was officially re-designated as the NORAD and USNORTHCOM Alternate Command Center. The Cheyenne Mountain Division of NORAD and USNORTHCOM was re-designated as the J36 branch within the NORAD and USNORTHCOM's Operations Directorates. NORAD Alternate Command Since 2002, the complex has been classed as Cheyenne Mountain Air Force Station and has been used in crew qualification training, while the former command function has been redesignated as the "NORAD and USNORTHCOM Alternate Command Center" since 2008 after all the original functions of the complex were removed to Peterson Air Force Base. The complex is maintained by the 21st Mission Support Group which provides support and maintenance for the 'NORAD/USNORTHCOM's training, exercise and alternate command center functions, U.S. Strategic Command's Missile Warning Center, Detachment 2 of the 17th Test Squadron, Air Force Technical Applications Center's research laboratory, the Defense Intelligence Agency's Western Continental United States Regional Service Center'. At its peak the Cheyenne complex had 1,800–2,000 personnel; only 210 remain and the site's satellite dishes and antenna masts are now owned and used by commercial communication businesses. Cheyenne Mountain Air Force Station is owned and operated by Air Force Space Command. NORAD and USNORTHCOM now use just under 30% of the floor space within the complex and comprise approximately 5% of the daily population at Cheyenne Mountain. The Cheyenne Mountain Complex serves as NORAD and USNORTHCOM's Alternate Command Center and as a training site for crew qualification. Day-to-day crew operations for NORAD and USNORTHCOM typically take place at Peterson Air Force Base. Migration of NORAD communications to Cheyenne Mountain In early 2015, Admiral William E. Gortney, commander of NORAD and NORTHCOM, announced a $700 million contract with Raytheon to move systems into the complex to shield it from electromagnetic pulse attack, with additional work to be done at Vandenberg and Offutt. According to Gortney, "because of the very nature of the way that Cheyenne Mountain's built, it's EMP-hardened. And so, there's a lot of movement to put capability into Cheyenne Mountain and to be able to communicate in there". Units Electronic Systems Division Detachment 10 at Ent AFB became the Cheyenne Mountain Complex Management Office (CMCMO) in 1963, the year the Chidlaw Combined Operations Center began operations; and on February 15, 1980, ESD Detachment 2 was established at the "Cheyenne Mountain Complex" (Det 2 became the AFSC focal point during the Cheyenne Mountain Upgrade.) Aerospace Defense Command organizations in the bunker became a specified command when the major command ended in 1980; e.g., the J31 unit of HQ NORAD/ADCOM subsequently manned the Space Surveillance Center in the same room as the Missile Warning Center (separated by partitions). The "HQ Cheyenne Mountain Support Group ... was activated at the Cheyenne Mountain Complex" in October 1981 to support the Aerospace Defense Center's operation of the NORAD combat operations center". In 1983 the Foreign Technology Division had an operating location at the bunker and in 1992, an airman of the "1010th Civil Engineering Squadron at Cheyenne Mountain Air Force Base" developed a 3-D AutoCAD model of the bunker "to zoom in on a specific room". By 1995 a "missile operations section" supported the missile warning center, and in 2001 the 1989 1CACS at the Cheyenne Mountain Air Force Station was renamed the 1st Space Control Squadron. On June 24, 1994, when the "Joint Task Force – Cheyenne Mountain Operations organization was brought online to take responsibility for the installation", Brig. Gen. Donald Peterson was the commander of the JTF, which was renamed the "U.S. Space Command Cheyenne Mountain operations center" by March 1995 (the unit had an exercise branch in June 1996). On July 28, 2006, the Cheyenne Mountain Realignment redesignated the Cheyenne Mountain Directorate to the Cheyenne Mountain Division. Circa 2004 the bunker included the 17th Test Squadron's Detachment 2 and AFTAC's research laboratory, in 2008 Detachment 1 of the 392d Training Squadron operated the Cheyenne Mountain Training System (CMTS), and in 2011 the installation's 721st SFS was expanded. In popular culture Movies WarGames (1983) is set partly at the command center, where it was called Crystal Palace. Rim of the World has a General who contacts the main characters over the radio during the alien invasion mention that he has retreated to Cheyenne Mountain. Literature The bunker is destroyed in The Moon Is a Harsh Mistress (1966) It is also referred to as being destroyed during the 'Final War' of nearly a millennium earlier in the Honorverse It is infiltrated in For Special Services (1982) It serves as the seat of government for the United States after the alien invasion in Footfall (1985) It is an early command center for the human resistance in L. Ron Hubbard's novel, Battlefield Earth: A Saga of the Year 3000 (1982). The bunker is the site of a biosphere that houses the main characters during an apocalyptic alien invasion in Nicholas Sansbury Smith's Orbs series. Television Stargate SG-1 Stargate Command is located at Cheyenne Mountain. There is now a broom closet in the real Cheyenne Mountain Complex called "Stargate Command". The bunker is also a setting in the series Jeremiah. Episode 7 of the Mobile Suit Gundam Unicorn OVA features the Cheyenne Mountain Complex being controlled by the Earth Federation. In an episode of South Park season 4, episode 12, "Trapper Keeper" sets off to Cheyenne Mountain to absorb the secret military base's computer. in Season 4 Episode 2 of the 2016 Reboot of Macgyver, the Cheyenne Mountain Station is shown during a Nuclear Attack Simulation. Video games Fallout Tactics: Brotherhood of Steel (2001) uses the complex for cryogenic stasis after a nuclear war. Call of Duty: Modern Warfare 2 uses video footage of the base. ''The bunker is the setting for the Call of Duty: Black Ops Cold War multiplayer map 'ICBM'. See also Kosvinsky Kamen – a potential Soviet/Russian counterpart Mount Yamantau – a potential Soviet/Russian counterpart North American Aerospace Defense Command Raven Rock Mountain Complex Aerospace Defense Command United States Space Command Related Colorado Springs military installations Cheyenne Mountain Air Force Station Peterson Air Force Base Ent Air Force Base Chidlaw Building Notes References External links Installations of the United States Air Force in Colorado Government buildings completed in 1965 History of Colorado Springs, Colorado Military history of Colorado National air defence operations centres North American Aerospace Defense Command Nuclear bunkers in the United States Continuity of government in the United States	[ 0.16981272399425507, 0.6198709011077881, -0.5085842609405518, 0.26052746176719666, 0.47457197308540344, 0.20945285260677338, 0.3633308708667755, -0.07498835772275925, -0.1077749952673912, 0.15459389984607697, -0.6609494090080261, 0.18207107484340668, 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230371	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Grafeneck	Grafeneck	Grafeneck is a small rural village in the German municipality of Gomadingen, south of Stuttgart. World War II history Grafeneck Castle, which had previously been an asylum for crippled people, was turned by the Nazis into an extermination facility. Between January and December 1940, 10,654 people with mental disabilities or psychological disorders were gassed at this facility with carbon monoxide in the first gas chamber and then cremated. This was the beginning of the T-4 Euthanasia Program. Grafeneck was the first Nazi institution to be transformed in a gas chamber and crematorium. 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230373	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Parallel%20bars	Parallel bars	Parallel bars are floor apparatus consisting of two wooden bars slightly over long and positioned at roughly hand height. Parallel bars are used in artistic gymnastics and also for physical therapy and home exercise. Gymnasts may optionally wear grips when performing a routine on the parallel bars, although this is uncommon. Apparatus The apparatus consists of two parallel bars that are held parallel to, and elevated above, the floor by a metal supporting framework. The bars are composed of wood or other material, with an outer coating of wood. The vertical members of the supporting framework are adjustable so the height of the bars above the floor and distance between the bars can be set optimally for each gymnast. Dimensions Bar length: ± Bar rounded profile: ± vertical by ± horizontal Bar width: ± Height of bar from floor: ± Distance between bars: – (adjustable) History The parallel bars (in German Barren) were invented by Friedrich Ludwig Jahn in Berlin. In 1819 the first transportable parallel bars were described. In 1856 in Germany Hermann Otto Kluge used tubes to make the parallel bars and the horizontal bar adjustable. He used them in his gym. In Tolstoy's Anna Karenina, published between 1873–1877, their use for exercise is described. Routines A routine performed on the parallel bars must include various elements that depend on the gymnast's competitive level. A typical performance will involve swinging skills in a support position (on the hands), a hanging position, and an upper arm position (resting on the inner bicep). Also, parallel bar routines often feature a strength or static hold skill such as an L-sit or handstand. Each routine ends with a dismount from either the ends of the bars or the side of the apparatus. International level routines A parallel bar routine should contain at least one element from all element groups: I. Elements in support or through support II. Elements starting in upper arm position III. Long swings in hang, on 1 or 2 bars and Underswings IV. Dismounts Scoring and rules Deductions are taken for lack of form and precision of elements performed. There are specific deductions for adjusting hand position in handstand and not controlling swing elements; swing type elements should momentarily show handstand. See also Parallettes External links References Sports originating in Germany Artistic gymnastics apparatus German inventions 1819 in sports	[ 0.5585537552833557, 0.23073995113372803, 0.21066786348819733, 0.38365206122398376, 0.18765674531459808, 0.24730883538722992, 0.27008211612701416, -0.016805574297904968, -0.7226824164390564, -0.7100035548210144, -0.2955031394958496, -0.284801721572876, -0.23904180526733398, 0.2716135084629059, -0.12859688699245453, 0.32116106152534485, 0.5891078114509583, -0.12615641951560974, -0.00013342891179490834, -0.31829169392585754, 0.16679665446281433, 0.29573509097099304, 0.5797542333602905, -0.4466525912284851, 0.15609729290008545, 0.09806407988071442, 0.11578207463026047, 0.2839829623699188, -0.029072877019643784, 0.19759422540664673, 0.7529253959655762, 0.5232176184654236, 0.3181862235069275, -0.27284473180770874, 0.5284887552261353, -0.305970162153244, 0.1217765286564827, 0.03904469311237335, 0.06887176632881165, -0.7432047128677368, 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230374	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brownlow%20Medal	Brownlow Medal	The Charles Brownlow Trophy, better known as the Brownlow Medal (and informally as "Charlie"), is awarded to the "best and fairest" player in the Australian Football League (AFL) during the home-and-away season, as determined by votes cast by the officiating field umpires after each game. It is the most prestigious award for individual players in the AFL. It is also widely acknowledged as the highest individual honour in the sport of Australian rules football. The medal was first awarded by the Victorian Football League (VFL). It was created and named in honour of Charles Brownlow, a former Geelong Football Club footballer (1880–1891) and club secretary (1885–1923), and VFL president (1918–19), who had died in January 1924 after an extended illness. Format of citation Although the award is generally spoken of the "best and fairest", the award's specific criterion is "fairest and best", reflecting an emphasis on sportsmanship and fair play (which also explains the decision to have the votes cast by the umpires), as the 1924 somewhat illuminated citation expressly states: Mr. Edward Greeves Geelong Football Club [VFL EMBLEM] THE CHARLES BROWNLOW TROPHY Dear Sir, On behalf of the Victorian Football League, we desire to place on permanent record the appreciation of your excellent play during the Season 1924. You were selected as the fairest and best player and we have pleasure in presenting the accompanying Gold Medal in recognition of those sterling qualities. Trusting that you will be long spared to interest yourself in the of the Game. We are, yours sincerely W. Baldwin Spencer (President), M.E. Green (Treasurer), E. L. Wilson (Secretary) The VFL was the last of the four major mainland leagues to strike an award for league best and fairest: the SANFL's Magarey Medal had been awarded since 1898, while the WAFL's Sandover Medal (1921) and the VFA's Woodham Cup (1923) had been struck more recently. Over time, all of these awards have migrated towards similar rules regarding voting and eligibility. But for the change of the monogram from VFL to AFL in 1990, the design, shape and size of the medallion itself has remained virtually unchanged from that of 1924. Criteria for "fairest" and "best" Voting procedure for "best" To determine the best player, the three field umpires (not the goal umpires or boundary umpires) confer after each home-and-away match and award 3 votes, 2 votes and 1 vote to the players they regard as the best, second best and third best in the match respectively. On the awards night, the votes from each match are tallied, and the player or players with the highest number of votes is awarded the medal (subject to eligibility – see below). The current voting system has been used for the vast majority of Brownlow Medal counts. There have been different voting systems for short periods in the past: until 1930, only one vote was cast in each game. This was changed to the current 3–2–1 system after the 1930 season saw three players tied on four votes apiece; in 1929, voting was suspended during rounds when the state team was active to avoid disadvantaging the players selected in the team, but this provision was not retained beyond 1929. in 1976, the VFL introduced a second field umpire, and both umpires individually awarded 3–2–1 votes; this voting system was abandoned in 1978, and the two (and later, three) umpires conferred to give a single set of 3–2–1 votes. Since the rules were changed after the 1980 season, if two or more eligible players score the equal highest number of votes, each wins a Brownlow medal. Up to 1980, if two or more players were tied, a single winner was chosen on a countback: under the initial rules until 1930, the umpiring panel would be called to meet and agree upon a winner among the tied players added to the rules at some stage prior to 1930 (but without removing the previous stipulation – causing confusion in the tied 1930 count), the winner was the player who had the highest percentage of votes polled vs games played; after 1930, the winner was the player who had the most 3-vote games; then, if still tied, the most 2-vote games. Even with these considerations, these countbacks failed to separate Des Fothergill and Herbie Matthews, who tied for the medal in 1940. The league decided to keep the original medal and award replica medals to the two winners. In 1989, the eight players who since the inception of the award had tied on votes but lost on a countback were awarded retrospective medals. Ineligibility The fairest component of the medal is achieved by making ineligible any player who is suspended by the AFL Tribunal during the home-and-away season. An ineligible player cannot win the Brownlow Medal, regardless of the number of votes he has received. A player remains eligible for the Brownlow Medal under the following circumstances: if he is suspended during the finals or pre-season; if he serves a suspension in the current season which was earned for an offence committed late in the previous season; he receives any sort of club-imposed suspension which is not recognised by the AFL Tribunal; if he is found guilty by the AFL Tribunal of an offence which attracts only a financial penalty. The application of the ineligibility criteria has remained fairly consistent throughout the history of the award, with some subtle changes, since it was introduced in 1931. The main exception was from 2005 until 2014, when a player would become ineligible if he committed an infringement that the Tribunal's Match Review Panel judged as being worthy of a one-game suspension, before applying adjustments based on a player's good or bad record, or for accepting an early guilty plea – meaning that players with a good record or early plea could be ineligible despite avoiding suspension, or a player with a bad record could be eligible despite having been suspended. Umpires cast their votes for each game independent of eligibility criteria of the players; i.e. umpires can cast votes for players who have already been suspended during that season if they perceive them to be amongst the best on the ground. Prior to 1991, votes could not be awarded to a player in a match in which he was reported, but this rule was eliminated in 1991 so that a player would not be disadvantaged if he would have gained votes in a match in which he was reported but later cleared by the tribunal. On three occasions, an ineligible player has tallied the highest number of Brownlow votes: In 1996, Corey McKernan received the same number of votes as the joint-winners James Hird and Michael Voss. McKernan was suspended for one match during the season for kneeing. McKernan was named the AFL Players Association MVP in the same year, which is not subject to the same eligibility criteria. In 1997, Chris Grant polled one more vote than winner Robert Harvey. Grant was suspended for one match during the season for striking. In 2012, Jobe Watson was originally declared the winner by polling four more votes than runners up Trent Cotchin and Sam Mitchell, however in November 2016, he was retrospectively deemed ineligible for the award, due to his part in the Essendon Football Club supplements saga, and the title was given to Cotchin and Mitchell. Criticism The voting system has come under scrutiny because the Medal is almost always won by midfield players, with relatively few key-position players ever winning. Some of the game's greatest players in these positions never even came close to winning the Brownlow despite having high reputations amongst their peers and coaches. This is primarily because players who are most valuable to their teams in key or defensive positions tend not to attract enough attention to feature amongst the top three players on the ground. It is also perceived that umpires may not be best suited to judging the quality of gameplay. Several prominent coaches, including Kevin Sheedy and Leigh Matthews, have publicly criticised the voting process. The eligibility system has also come under criticism. The argument has been made that many offences worthy only of a one-match suspension are caused by negligent play, rather than intentionally "unfair" play, and hence that suspension is not a reasonable measure of fairness. The break from tradition under the newer demerit points-based tribunal system (i.e., a player being ineligible despite not having served a suspension) has also been criticised as confusing. Prominent players, including dual-winner Chris Judd, have indicated a desire to have the eligibility criterion removed from the award (effectively eliminating the fairest component altogether); but this view is not universally held, and 1958 winner Neil Roberts stated in 1988 that he would hand back his medal if the fairness criterion were removed. Award ceremony Over the years, the award ceremony has become increasingly elaborate, with footballers and their dates gradually becoming more fashion-conscious. This aspect of the night has become widely reported by gossip columns. The ceremony is currently held at Crown Casino and Entertainment Complex in Melbourne on the Monday five days prior to the AFL Grand Final. Only twice since the award's inception in 1924 has the count been held outside of Melbourne, when it was held in Sydney in 1999, and in 2020 when the event was held virtually due to the COVID-19 pandemic preventing the event from being held in Melbourne. In years past, prospective Grand Final players have attended the ceremony in person, but in recent years non-Victorian Grand Final teams have declined to attend the ceremony due to the inconvenience of travel in such an important week; a live video link to Brownlow functions in their home city is done instead. The event itself consists of the votes for each match being read out in succession by the CEO of the AFL, currently Gillon McLachlan, interspersed with a retrospective look at highlights from each round of the season and commentary from the broadcast network's usual football commentary team. The integrity of the award is upheld by the tight security and secrecy surrounding the votes. Once the umpires make their decision, the votes are locked away and transported by armoured security vehicles. No one except the three umpires knows exactly who has been voted for, and as different umpires vote on different games, no one can be sure of who will win. Unlike most award ceremonies, the votes are not tallied or even opened until they are actually announced on the night, so the drama is maintained until late on the actual night, when the result sometimes comes down to the final round of votes. From 1959 until 1974 radio stations including 3UZ, 3KZ and 3AW broadcast the vote counts. 1116 SEN now covers the count. Direct television telecasts began in 1970, when the venue was the Dallas Brooks Hall, and have occurred every year since. Some bookmakers offer betting on the winner of the Brownlow Medal. A number of well-publicised "plunges" on supposed winners has led to increasingly elaborate security measures to ensure the Brownlow votes are kept secret until the vote count. Since 1987, the theme used in the moments after the winning player has been announced is the theme from The Untouchables. Each major state league, and most suburban and country leagues, have similar awards with generally the same voting and eligibility requirements. The major awards are: Magarey Medal (South Australia) Sandover Medal (Western Australia) JJ Liston Trophy (Victoria – Association) Alastair Lynch Medal (Tasmania) Grogan Medal (Queensland) Phelan Medal (Sydney) Nichols Medal (Northern Territory) Mulrooney Medal (ACT) Winners Records Most medals by player 3 – Haydn Bunton Sr. (Fitzroy), Dick Reynolds (Essendon), Bob Skilton (South Melbourne), Ian Stewart (St Kilda/Richmond) Most medals by club 14 – Sydney/South Melbourne (1940, 1949, 1955, 1959, 1963, 1968, 1970, 1977, 1981, 1986, 1988, 1995, 2003, 2006) Most votes in a season 3–2–1 voting system: 36 – Dustin Martin (Richmond, 2017), Ollie Wines (Port Adelaide, 2021) All voting systems: 59 – Graham Teasdale (South Melbourne, 1977) Most career votes 261 – Gary Ablett Jr. (Geelong/Gold Coast) Highest career average of votes per game 1.04 – Haydn Bunton Sr. (Fitzroy) Youngest winner Dick Reynolds (Essendon, 1934) – 19 years, 91 days Oldest winner Barry Round (South Melbourne, 1981) – 31 years, 238 days Winners with multiple clubs Ian Stewart (St Kilda, 1965 & 1966; Richmond, 1971) Peter Moore (Collingwood, 1979; Melbourne, 1984) Greg Williams (Sydney Swans, 1986; Carlton, 1994) Chris Judd (West Coast, 2004; Carlton, 2010) Gary Ablett Jr. (Geelong, 2009; Gold Coast, 2013) Most votes by a club in a season (3–2–1 voting system) 116 – (2000) Fewest votes by a club in a season (3–2–1 voting system) 16 – (2013) See also List of Brownlow Medal winners AFL Women's best and fairest Best and fairest Dally M Medal Norm Smith Medal References External links Allan Grant, "Saints in World Wars. Legends of the game – Peter Chitty" (St Kilda Football Club Web-site, 9 January 2006) — An account of the 1943 Changi Brownlow Medal won by Peter Chitty (includes a photograph of the medallion) Complete Brownlow Medal results Awards established in 1924 Australian Football League awards Australian rules football awards 1924 establishments in Australia Sportsmanship trophies and awards	[ -0.38080894947052, 0.07688862085342407, -0.13463890552520752, -0.12316390872001648, -0.6059921979904175, 0.4736311435699463, 0.6112388968467712, 0.5594737529754639, -1.1469190120697021, -0.17879706621170044, -0.47146862745285034, 0.47738513350486755, -0.4209589958190918, 0.5126151442527771, 0.328359454870224, 1.0781863927841187, 0.23072533309459686, 0.5125091075897217, -0.019134709611535072, -0.4537371098995209, 0.21546173095703125, 0.14160975813865662, 0.7020463943481445, -0.35097208619117737, 0.640573263168335, -0.3060622215270996, 0.07431122660636902, 0.831238865852356, -0.19633819162845612, 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230377	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fighter%20Ace%20%28video%20game%20series%29	Fighter Ace (video game series)	Fighter Ace was a massively multiplayer online combat flight simulation game series in which one flies World War II fighter planes in combat against other players and virtual pilots. Each of the games ran on a subscription-based model with players paying monthly to compete against each other. Microsoft, as well as later publishers, hosted tournaments in which players could compete against each other. References 1997 video games Massively multiplayer online games World War II flight simulation video games Video games developed in Russia Inactive massively multiplayer online games Windows games Windows-only games	[ -0.26106056571006775, -0.04351375997066498, 0.15169575810432434, 0.38507893681526184, -0.30161863565444946, -0.13491936028003693, -0.044210225343704224, -0.29866164922714233, 0.1204475536942482, -0.03929121419787407, -0.3970404863357544, 0.28601163625717163, -0.28254225850105286, 0.1417047381401062, 0.014874310232698917, -0.1027623787522316, 0.11883264034986496, 0.18970832228660583, -0.16417331993579865, -0.7865743637084961, -0.6383103132247925, -0.01009588036686182, 0.31680935621261597, -0.12038496136665344, -0.42220377922058105, 0.28954949975013733, 0.4593626856803894, 0.5544024705886841, 0.04165421426296234, 0.11227774620056152, 0.08739851415157318, 0.3366506099700928, 0.32537466287612915, -0.5533826351165771, -0.44835832715034485, -0.21360230445861816, 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230382	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/3rd%20Annual%20Grammy%20Awards	3rd Annual Grammy Awards	The 3rd Annual Grammy Awards were held on April 13, 1961, at Los Angeles and New York. They recognized musical accomplishments by the performers for the year 1960. Ray Charles won four awards and Bob Newhart and Henry Mancini each won three awards. Award winners Record of the Year Percy Faith for "Theme from A Summer Place" Album of the Year Bob Newhart for The Button-Down Mind of Bob Newhart Song of the Year Ernest Gold for "Theme of Exodus" Best New Artist Bob Newhart Children's Best Album Created for Children Ross Bagdasarian Sr. for Let's All Sing With the Chipmunks performed by Ross Bagdasarian Sr. as "David Seville and the Chipmunks" Classical Best Classical Performance - Orchestra Fritz Reiner (conductor) & the Chicago Symphony Orchestra for Bartók: Music for Strings, Percussion and Celesta Best Classical Performance - Vocal Soloist Leontyne Price for A Program of Song - Leontyne Price Recital Best Classical Opera Production Erich Leinsdorf (conductor), Birgit Nilsson, Giorgio Tozzi, Jussi Björling, Renata Tebaldi & the Rome Opera Orchestra for Puccini: Turandot Best Classical Performance - Choral (including oratorio) Thomas Beecham (conductor) & the Royal Philharmonic Orchestra & Chorus for Handel: Messiah Best Classical Performance - Concerto or Instrumental Soloist Erich Leinsdorf (conductor), Sviatoslav Richter & the Chicago Symphony Orchestra for Brahms: Piano Concerto No. 2 in B Flat Best Classical Performance - Instrumental Soloist or Duo (other than with orchestral accompaniment) Laurindo Almeida for The Spanish Guitars of Laurindo Almeida Best Classical Performance - Vocal or Instrumental - Chamber Music Laurindo Almeida for Conversations With the Guitar Best Contemporary Classical Composition Aaron Copland (composer & conductor) & the Boston Symphony Orchestra for Orchestral Suite from The Tender Land Suite Comedy Best Comedy Performance - Spoken Word Bob Newhart for The Button-Down Mind Strikes Back! Best Comedy Performance - Musical Jo Stafford & Paul Weston for Jonathan and Darlene Edwards in Paris performed by Jo Stafford & Paul Weston and as "Jonathan & Darlene Edwards" Composing and arranging Best Sound Track Album or Recording of Music Score from Motion Picture or Television Ernest Gold (composer) for Exodus Best Arrangement Henry Mancini (arranger & artist) for Mr. Lucky Country Best Country & Western Performance Marty Robbins for "El Paso" Folk Best Performance - Folk Harry Belafonte for "Swing Dat Hammer" Jazz Best Jazz Performance Solo or Small Group André Previn for West Side Story Best Jazz Performance Large Group Henry Mancini for Blues and the Beat Best Jazz Composition of More Than Five Minutes Duration Gil Evans & Miles Davis for Sketches of Spain Musical show Best Show Album (Original Cast) Oscar Hammerstein II, Richard Rodgers (composers), Mary Martin & the original cast for The Sound of Music Best Sound Track Album or Recording of Original Cast From a Motion Picture or Television Cole Porter (composer), Frank Sinatra & the original cast for Can Can Packaging and notes Best Album Cover Marvin Schwartz (art director) for Latin a la Lee performed by Peggy Lee Pop Best Vocal Performance Single Record or Track, Female Ella Fitzgerald for "Mack the Knife" Best Vocal Performance Album, Female Ella Fitzgerald for Mack the Knife - Ella in Berlin Best Vocal Performance Single Record or Track, Male Ray Charles for "Georgia on My Mind" Best Vocal Performance Album, Male Ray Charles for The Genius of Ray Charles Best Performance by a Vocal Group (2 to 6) Eydie Gormé & Steve Lawrence for "We Got Us" Best Performance by a Chorus (7 or More Persons) Norman Luboff for Songs of the Cowboy performed by the Norman Luboff Choir Best Performance by a Band for Dancing Count Basie for Dance Along with Basie Best Performance by an Orchestra Henry Mancini for Mr. Lucky Best Performance by a Pop Single Artist Ray Charles for "Georgia on My Mind" Production and engineering Best Engineering Contribution - Popular Recording Luis P. Valentin (engineer) for Ella Fitzgerald Sings the George and Ira Gershwin Songbook performed by Ella Fitzgerald Best Engineering Contribution - Classical Recording Hugh Davies (engineer) & Laurindo Almeida for The Spanish Guitars of Laurindo Almeida Best Engineering Contribution - Novelty Recording John Kraus (engineer) for "The Old Payola Roll Blues" performed by Stan Freberg R&B Best Rhythm & Blues Performance Ray Charles for "Let the Good Times Roll" Spoken Best Performance - Documentary or Spoken Word (other than comedy) Robert Bialek (producer) for FDR Speaks References General 003 1961 in Los Angeles 1961 in New York City 1961 music awards Events in Los Angeles Events in New York City 1961 in American music April 1961 events in the United States	[ -0.8281950354576111, 0.045382849872112274, 0.4369017481803894, 0.12229423969984055, -0.2662124037742615, -0.19630196690559387, 0.36081409454345703, -0.5006937980651855, -0.42293572425842285, 0.1932283341884613, 0.14884422719478607, 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230387	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Viking%20Line	Viking Line	Viking Line Abp is a Finnish shipping company that operates a fleet of ferries and cruiseferries between Finland, the Åland Islands, Sweden and Estonia. Viking Line shares are quoted on the Helsinki Stock Exchange. Viking Line is operated from Åland. Company history Early years: 1959–1966 Viking Line's history can be traced back to 1959, when a group of sea- and businessmen from the Åland Islands province in Finland formed Rederi Ab Vikinglinjen, purchased a steam-powered car-ferry SS Dinard from the UK, renamed her and began service on the route Korpo (Finland)–Mariehamn (Åland)–Gräddö (Sweden). In the same year the Gotland-based Rederi AB Slite began a service between Simpnäs (Sweden) and Mariehamn. In 1962, a disagreement caused a group of people to leave Rederi Ab Vikinglinjen and form a new company, Rederi Ab Ålandsfärjan, who began a service linking Gräddö and Mariehamn the following year. Soon the three companies, all competing for passengers between Åland Islands and Sweden, realised that they in the long run all stood to lose from mutual competition. In 1965 Vikinglinjen and Slite began collaborating, and in the end of July 1966 Viking Line was established as a marketing company for all three companies. At this time Rederi Ab Vikinglinjen changed their name to Rederi Ab Solstad, in order to avoid confusion with the marketing company. The red hull livery was adopted from Slite's Ålandspilen service (to which it had been taken from the colour of the chairman's wife's lipstick!). In 1967 Rederi Ab Ålandsfärjan changed its name to SF Line and in 1977 Rederi Ab Solstad was merged into its mother company Rederi Ab Sally. 1967–1985 Because Viking Line was only a marketing company, each owner company retained their individual fleets and could choose on which routes to set their ships (naturally there was also co-ordination on schedules and such). Each company's ships were easy to distinguish by name: all Sally ships had a "Viking" prefix on their names, Slite took their names from Roman and Greek mythologies, while SF Line's names ended with -ella in honor of managing director Gunnar Eklund's wife Ellen Eklund. During the 1970s Viking expanded greatly and overtook Silja Line as the largest shipping consortium on the Northern Baltic Sea. Between 1970 and 1973 Slite and Sally took delivery of five nearly identical ships built at Meyer Werft Germany, namely MS Apollo and MS Diana for Slite, and MS Viking 1, MS Viking 3 and MS Viking 4 for Sally. MS Viking 5, delivered in 1974, was an enlargened version of the same design. These so-called Papenburg sisters can be considered to be one of the most successful ships designs of all times (the shipyard built three additional sisters of the original design for Transbordadores for ship services in Mexico: Coromuel, Puerto Vallarta and Azteca). In 1973 Viking Line started service on the Turku–Mariehamn–Stockholm route, directly competing with Silja Line for the first time. The next year Sally began Viking Line traffic between Helsinki and Stockholm. For the next decade this route stayed in their hands, whereas on other routes the three companies operated together. By the latter half of the 1970s, Sally was clearly the dominant partner in the consortium. In 1980 they took delivery of three new ferries (MS Viking Saga, MS Viking Sally and MS Viking Song), largest to have sailed under Viking's colours. This further established their dominance over the other partners, although SF Line did take delivery of the new MS Turella and MS Rosella in 1979–80 and Slite MS Diana II in 1979. In the early 1980s Sally started expanding their operations to other waters, which became the company's failing as those operations were largely unprofitable and ultimately made Sally unable to invest on new tonnage for Viking Line service. 1985–1993 In 1985 a new leaf was turned in Viking Line's history when SF Line's brand-new MS Mariella, at the time the largest ferry in the world, replaced MS Viking Song on Helsinki–Stockholm service, breaking Sally's monopoly on the route. The next year Slite took delivery of Mariella's sister MS Olympia and thus forced Sally out of Helsinki–Stockholm traffic completely. While SF Line and Slite were planning additional newbuilds, Sally were in an extremely poor position financially and in 1987 Effoa and Johnson Line, the owners of Silja Line, purchased Sally. As a result, SF Line and Slite forced Sally to leave the Viking Line consortium. Between 1988 and 1990 SF Line took delivery of three new ships (MS Amorella, MS Isabella and MS Cinderella) while Slite took delivery of two (MS Athena and MS Kalypso).Unfortunately Wärtsilä Marine, the shipyard building one of SF Line's newbuilds and both of Slite's, went bankrupt in 1989. SF Line avoided financial repercussions, their Cinderella had been continuously paid for as her construction progressed. Hence it was SF Line who owned the almost completed ship when the shipyard went bankrupt. Slite however had signed a more traditional type of contract, the Kalypso was to be paid for on delivery. Since the shipyard owned the unfinished ship, this led to an increased cost for the Kalypso—about 200 million SEK more than had been originally envisaged. In the end, despite the financial problems, by 1990 Viking Line had the largest and newest cruiseferry fleet in the world. In 1989 Slite started planning MS Europa, which was to be the jewel in the company's crown, the largest and most luxurious cruiseferry in the world. Unfortunately for them Sweden entered a financial crisis during the construction of the ship, which led to devaluation of the Swedish krona. This in turn meant that the cost for the Europa increased by 400 million SEK. When time came to take delivery of the new ship, Slite did not have the funds to pay for it and their main funders (Swedish Nordbanken, who were also the main funders of Silja Line) refused to loan them the money needed. Eventually the ship ended up in Silja Line's fleet and Slite was forced to declare bankruptcy in 1993. 1993–2010 Following the bankruptcy of Rederi AB Slite, SF Line was left as the sole operator under the Viking Line brand. The remaining two Slite ships, Athena and Kalypso were auctioned in August 1993. SF Line made a bid for the Kalypso, but both ships ended up sold to the newly established Malaysian cruise ship operator Star Cruises. In 1995 SF Line changed their name into Viking Line. Between 1994 and 1996 the company operated a fast ferry service from Helsinki to Tallinn during the summers on chartered catamaran ships. In 1997 they purchased MS Silja Scandinavia from Sea-Link Shipping AB and renamed her for Helsinki–Stockholm service. It has been reported that around the same time plans were made to construct a pair of new ships for the Helsinki–Stockholm service so that Viking could better compete with Silja on that route, but the plans were shelved. In 2006 Sea Containers Ltd—that had become the main owner of Silja Line in 1999—placed Silja Line and their cargo-carrying subsidiary SeaWind Line for sale, except for and that were transferred under Sea Container's direct ownership and eventually sold. Viking Line placed a bid for their main competitor, but were outbid by the Estonian Tallink. The first new ship built for Viking Line since Slite's MS Kalypso in 1990, , had been ordered from Aker Finnyards in 2005, in response to growing competition from Tallink on the Helsinki–Tallinn route. The Viking XPRS eventually entered service for Viking in April 2008. A second new ship was ordered in January 2007, when Viking Line announced that they had placed an order for a ferry at the Spanish shipyard Astilleros de Sevilla. The project name for the ship, that would have replaced the on the Mariehamn–Kapellskär route, was Viking ADCC. Her delivery was originally expected for March 2009, but after delivery of the ship had been delayed multiple times, on 8 February 2010 Viking Line decided to cancel the contract altogether. 2010–present Nils-Erik Eklund retired as Viking Line's CEO in July 2010. He was replaced by Mikael Backman, who has previously worked with Royal Caribbean. In interviews Backman has stated he hopes to introduce features from Caribbean cruise ships to Viking Line vessels, as well as begin selling Viking's routes to North American customers as a new cruise experience. In a seminar held in January 2010, Backman stated that Viking Line were negotiating with nine different shipyards about the possibility of constructing a pair of ships to replace Amorella and Isabella on the Turku–Stockholm service. The possibility of using liquefied natural gas engines and other emission-reducing technologies were reportedly researched, while according to Mikael Backman the ships would include various features akin to those found onboard cruise ships such as Royal Caribbean International's . Projected delivery dates for the vessels were May 2012 and February 2013. In October 2010 Viking Line signed a letter of intent with STX Turku for a 57,000 GT cruiseferry for the Turku–Stockholm route. Two months later, the formal order for the new ship was placed. The new ship, christened Viking Grace, was laid down on 6 March 2012 and launched on 10 August. The ship entered service in January 2013. Viking Line had an option for a sister ship but announced in May 2012 that they have decided not to build it. Viking Line revealed in November 2016, that a letter of intent had been signed with Chinese shipyard Xiamen Shipbuilding for the construction of a 63,000 GT cruiseferry that would on completion replace the Amorella in the Viking Line fleet. The new ship would be LNG powered and would sport Flettner rotors to reduce fuel consumption. Fleet Current fleet Former ships Ships that are still in use are marked in green. Additionally a large number of ferries were chartered during the 1970s, 1980s and 1990s for seasonal traffic. Ordered but never delivered {\| class="wikitable" ! Planned/project name \|\| Projected delivery \|\| Ordered by \|\| Tonnage \|\| Notes \|\| Fate \|- \| MS Europa \|\|align="Center" \| 1993 \|\|align="Center" \| Rederi AB Slite \|\| \|\| Building project was almost complete when Rederi AB Slite went bankrupt. She was then completed for Silja Line as MS Silja Europa in 1993. \|\| In Tallink service. \|- \| MS Viking ADCC \|\|align="Center" \| 2009 \|\|align="Center" \| Viking Line \|\| \|\| Building project cancelled by Viking Line due to Seville shipyard's inability to complete the ship on time. \|\| Hull was transferred to another shipyard in Vigo, where it was finished and delivered to Trasmediterránea as MS Villa de Teror in July 2019,10 years after original delivery date. \|- \| MS Hansa Express \|\|align="Center" \| 1962 \|\|align="Center" \| Rederi Ab Vikinglinjen \|\| \|\| Completed for Finnlines as MS Hansa Express, 1962. \|\| Scrapped 2003. \|- \|} Terminals Viking Line has seven terminals, of which four are in Finland (two in mainland Finland and two in Åland), two in Sweden and one in Estonia. Finland Helsinki: Katajanokka Terminal. Served by Helsinki tram lines 4 and 5. Turku: Linnansatama. Served by the Port of Turku railway station and bus line 1. Mariehamn: Västhamnen. Served by the Mariehamn city bus. Lumparland: Långnäs. Sweden Stockholm: Stadsgården. Served by a terminal bus line and the city ship Emelie''. Gräddö: Kapellskär. Served by a bus line from Stockholm. Estonia Tallinn: Reisisadam. Served by Tallinn bus line 1 and tram lines 1 and 2. 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230390	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Blackmail	Blackmail	Blackmail is an act of coercion using the threat of revealing or publicizing either substantially true or false information about a person or people unless certain demands are met. It is often damaging information, and it may be revealed to family members or associates rather than to the general public. These acts can also involve using threats of physical, mental or emotional harm, or of criminal prosecution, against the victim or someone close to the victim. It is normally carried out for personal gain, most commonly of position, money, or property. It is also used, sometimes by state agencies, to exert influence; this was a common Soviet practice, so much so that the term "kompromat", transliterated from Russian, is often used for compromising material used to exert control. Blackmail may also be considered a form of extortion. Although the two are generally synonymous, extortion is the taking of personal property by threat of future harm. Blackmail is the use of threat to prevent another from engaging in a lawful occupation and writing libelous letters or letters that provoke a breach of the peace, as well as use of intimidation for purposes of collecting an unpaid debt. In many jurisdictions, blackmail is a statutory offense, often criminal, carrying punitive sanctions for convicted perpetrators. Blackmail is the name of a statutory offense in the United States, England and Wales, and Australia, and has been used as a convenient way of referring to certain other offenses, but was not a term used in English law until 1968. Blackmail was originally a term from the Scottish Borders meaning payments rendered in exchange for protection from thieves and marauders. The "mail" part of blackmail derives from Middle English meaning "rent or tribute". This tribute (male or reditus) was paid in goods or labour ("nigri"); hence reditus nigri, or "blackmail". Alternatively, it may be derived from two Scottish Gaelic words - to protect; and - tribute or payment. Etymology The word blackmail is variously derived from the word for tribute (in modern terms, protection racket) paid by English and Scottish border dwellers to Border Reivers in return for immunity from raids and other harassment. The "mail" part of blackmail derives from Middle English male, "rent, tribute". This tribute was paid in goods or labour (reditus nigri, or "blackmail"); the opposite is blanche firmes or reditus albi, or "white rent" (denoting payment by silver). An alternative version is that rents in the Scottish Borders were often paid in produce of the land, called "greenmail" ('green rent'), suggesting "blackmail" as a counterpart paid perforce to the reivers. Alternatively, Mackay derives it from two Scottish Gaelic words blathaich pronounced (the th silent) bla-ich (to protect) and mal (tribute, payment), cf. buttock mail. He notes that the practice was common in the Scottish Highlands as well as the Borders. In the Irish language, the term cíos dubh, meaning "black-rent", has also been employed. Laws by country Australia Victoria The offence of blackmail is created by section 87 of the Crimes Act 1958. Sections 87(1) and (2) are derived from and identical to sections 21(1) and (2) of the Theft Act 1968 printed above. Section 87(3) provides that a person guilty of blackmail is guilty of an indictable offence and liable to level 4 imprisonment (15 years maximum). South Australia The offence of blackmail is created by Part 6B Section 172 of the Criminal Law Consolidation Act 1935. Section 172 provides that a person who menaces another intending to get the other to submit to a demand is guilty of blackmail, and may be subject to imprisonment (a maximum of 15 years for a basic offence or a maximum of 20 years for an aggravated offence). Republic of Ireland The offence created by section 17(1) of the Criminal Justice (Public Order) Act, 1994 is described by the marginal note to that section as "blackmail, extortion and demanding money with menaces". The offence is derived from the offence under section 21 of the Theft Act 1968. United Kingdom England and Wales In England and Wales this offence is created by section 21(1) of the Theft Act 1968. Sections 21(1) and (2) of that Act provide: Construction The Theft Act 1968 section 21 contains the present-day definition of blackmail in English law. It requires four elements: There must be a "demand". The demand must also have been accompanied or reinforced (at the time or later) by a "menace". Broadly, a menace is any threat, or implied consequence or action, which would coerce or pressure an unwilling person to accede (give in) to the demand. The making of a "demand with menace(s)" must have been "unwarranted". Broadly, a demand with menace is always unwarranted unless both the making of the demand was reasonably justified, and its reinforcement with the "menace" was proper, in the belief of the perpetrator. There must have been an intention by the perpetrator to make a gain for himself/herself or someone else, or to cause a loss to someone. Therefore, the requirement for this offence may be paraphrased as: A person makes a demand of someone else, which is accompanied or reinforced in some way by some consequence if they don't comply, which would coerce an unwilling victim to do what is demanded,and The intent is to make a gain (for themselves or anyone else) or cause a loss (to anyone), and either(a) The perpetrator did not truly believe that the demand was based on reasonable groundsor(b) The perpetrator did not truly believe that the menace was a proper way to reinforce the demand.(or both) The law considers a "demand with menaces" to always be "unwarranted" (unjustified), unless the perpetrator actually believed that his/her demand had reasonable grounds, and also actually believed that the menace was a proper way to reinforce that demand. These tests relate to the actual belief of the perpetrator, not the belief of an ordinary or reasonable person. Therefore, tests related to what a "reasonable" person might think, and tests of dishonesty, are not often relevant - the matter hinges upon the actual and honest beliefs and knowledge of the perpetrator him/herself. The wording of the Act means that there is a presumption in law that demands and/or menaces are likely to be deemed unwarranted, unless the perpetrator shows evidence that they were believed not to be. However, once a perpetrator has defended him/herself by giving evidence related to the demand and menace both being believed warranted, the prosecution must overturn one or both of these claims to prove their case. The usual rule is that a criminal act, or a belief not truly held, can never be "warranted", although according to some authors, a "grey area" may (rarely) exist where a very minor illegality may be honestly believed to be warranted. Additionally, a statement that would not usually coerce or pressure someone may still be a "menace", if the perpetrator knew, believed, or expected that their specific victim would feel coerced or pressured by it. The law does not require a demand or menace to be received by the victim, merely that they are made, therefore it is irrelevant whether the victim was affected or not, or even unaware of them (perhaps because they had not yet been received, read or listened to). Because the criteria include an intention to "cause" some kind of gain or loss, a demand for sex (for example) would not be considered blackmail, so threats with these and other demands are dealt with under a variety of other criminal laws. However even in these cases, a gain or loss of some kind can often be found, and then this law can then be applied. In some cases, the perpetrator him/herself may claim to have acted under duress. The courts have ruled that a person who places themselves in a situation where they may be coerced to make a demand with menaces against a third party is likely, foreseeable, or probable, may not be able to rely on coercion as a defence because they voluntarily placed themselves in such a situation. This issue has arisen, for example, in gang-related violence. Menaces The word "menaces" was adopted from sections 29(1)(i) and 30 of the Larceny Act 1916. Section 29(1)(i) made it a felony for a person to utter, knowing the contents thereof, any letter or writing demanding of any person with menaces, and without any reasonable or probable cause, any property or valuable thing. Section 30 made it an offence for a person to, with menaces or by force, demand of any person anything capable of being stolen with intent to steal the same. Thorne v Motor Trade Association (1937) is a leading case on the meaning of the word "menaces", decided under section 29(1)(i) of the Larceny Act 1916. The issue to be decided was whether the statement by a powerful trade association that a person found guilty of breaking their rules on price fixing would be "blacklisted", but could avoid this fate by paying a fine, was a "menace". It was held that the trade body had both the right to put persons on their blacklist and also the right to offer a fine as an alternative to being put on a blacklist, therefore neither of the demand or the menace were ruled to be "unwarranted". (The Court noted that a plainly unreasonable fine could potentially be viewed as unwarranted.) In this case, Lord Wright said: And Lord Atkin said: R v Clear was decided under section 30 of the Larceny Act 1916. Sellers LJ said: In regard to the importance of the perpetrator's understanding of impact, in R. v Billy Joe (William) Temple (2008), the Court of Appeal reduced the perpetrator's original sentence because it did not take into account, among other things, the appellant's lack of appreciation of the extreme nature of the impact of the menace to which he had been a party. In R v Lawrence and Pomroy, the defendant argued that the direction given to the jury should have contained a definition of the word "menaces" in accordance with R v Clear. Cairn L.J. said: In R v Lambert (2009), it was held that: The word "menaces" has been held to include the following: a threat to publish attacks on a company calculated to lower the value of its shares a threat to reveal that the victim has not honoured a debt a threat to place the victim on a trade association's "stop-list" - although in that specific case, the menace was found not to be "unwarranted" because it was believed - and the court agreed - that it was justified and reasonable. The court commented that if the fine had been completely unreasonable, the menace might have become unwarranted as a result. a threat to refrain from giving evidence in an action words such as "I'm not threatening you. I'm giving you a promise. Let's just leave it at that", or "I've not sent nobody to see you yet" a person who phoned a relative posing as a victim of false imprisonment, to say he was at risk of harm and needed money to pay off his captors and be freed. In this unusual case, although posing as the victim and not threatening harm to the relative, the statement was capable of being a menace because of its coercive nature and the pressure it would apply on the victim, it was unwarranted, and there clearly was a demand. The ruling stated that "It is how the demand and menace affects the victim that matter". Professor Griew said that the word "menaces" could conceivably include: a threat of physical violence to the victim or another a threat of prosecution a threat to reveal actual criminal offending or sexual misbehaviour or to publish false allegations of the same David Ormerod said that it extends to a threat to damage property. It should be remembered that the offence requires either an unwarranted menace, or an unwarranted demand, or both; not all menaces nor all demands are "unwarranted", and the belief of the perpetrator is the determining factor. If both the demand and the menace are each believed to be proper and reasonable to make, in law, then - depending upon the details of the case - the kinds of actions listed above may no longer be criminal offences. However, as stated above, a criminal demand or menace can never believed to be "warranted", and actual knowledge of the victim and their state of mind or expected response may change a warranted matter into an unwarranted one. Mode of trial and sentence Blackmail is an indictable-only offence. A person convicted of blackmail is liable to imprisonment for any term not exceeding fourteen years. In R v Hadjou (1989), Lord Lane CJ said that blackmail is one of the ugliest and most vicious crimes because it often involves what he described as "attempted murder of the soul". He said that, perhaps because courts always impose severe sentences, one seldom finds a person convicted a second time of blackmail. He said that deterrence is perhaps the most important part of a sentence in a case of blackmail. Related offences Because blackmail can cover any unwarranted demand with a menace, many other offences may also be carried out as part of committing blackmail, or by the same events. For example: An offence of robbery under section 8(1) of the Theft Act 1968 may be committed, if a person puts or seeks to put another person in fear of being subjected to force if their demand is not met. An offence under section 4 of the Public Order Act 1986 might be committed if a person intended to cause another person to believe that immediate unlawful violence will be used against him (or someone else) or if the person threatened is likely to believe that such violence will be used. An offence under section 2 of the Criminal Damage Act 1971 may be committed if there is a threat to destroy or damage property. An offence under section 5 of the Criminal Law Act 1967 may be committed if a person receives consideration (broadly meaning: any gain or benefit) in exchange for agreeing not to report any "relevant" (previously: "arrestable") offence. Several kinds of offence under Section 40 of the Administration of Justice Act 1970 may be committed by debt collectors and other creditors, if they make false and coercive statements in order to coerce debtors to pay them money. Civil liability A blackmailer who threatens to publish a defamatory statement of and concerning an individual may be liable to be sued after the regulations of the Defamation Act 2013. Offenders of defamation may be taken to court if serious harm is done to the victim. The requirement for serious harm defines: (1) A statement is not defamatory unless its publication has caused or is likely to cause serious harm to the reputation of the claimant. (2) For the purposes of this section, harm to the reputation of a body that trades for profit is not "serious harm" unless it has caused or is likely to cause the body serious financial loss. The trial for the offence must be with a jury in the case of charges with cases of: (a) fraud (b) malicious prosecution (c) false imprisonment History and legal development The terms in this law derive from the Larceny Act 1916 sections 29 - 31, which itself draws on the Libel Act 1843 and the Larceny Act 1861. For example, s.30 refers to a person who demands "with menaces or by force". An offence also existed in common law: for example in R. v Woodward (1707) it was stated that "Every extortion is an actual trespass, and an action of trespass will lie against a man for frighting another out of his money. If a man will make use of a process of law to terrify another out of his money, it is such a trespass as an indictment will lie." The 1805 case R v. Sodherton stated that a threat needed to be such that a "firm and prudent man" would be overcome by it, and concluded that "The law distinguishes between threats of actual violence against the person, or such other threats as a man of common firmness cannot stand against, and other sorts of threats. Money obtained in the former cases under the influence of such threats may amount to robbery, but not so in cases of threats of other kinds". The origin of the modern offence lay in the 1723 Black Act, which addressed a group of notorious poachers and extortioners. In 1823 an Act was passed that criminalised "demanding money or other valuable thing" (1823) where no reasonableness or menace was required, and in 1927 this was updated in a further Act to cover "any letter or writing demanding of any person, with menaces, and without reasonable or probable cause", thus mentioning menaces for the first time in the context of blackmail. The 1827 offence was in turn replaced in 1837 by an offence concerning any person who "with menaces or by force, demand(s) any property of any person with intent to steal". In the Larceny Act 1916 the element of "taking" included taking by intimidation based on an earlier case R v. McGrath. Before the enactment of section 21 of the Theft Act 1968, the word blackmail was not a legal term of art. The word was used by lawyers as a convenient way of referring to the offences under section 29 to 31 of the Larceny Act 1916, and those offences were commonly known as blackmail. But the word blackmail did not appear anywhere in that Act. In early legal history, the term appears to have referred to the extorted property itself, and included by reference both the perpetrator and the victim - the legal position was that the victim was as equally culpable as the extortioner, insofar as he/she had given in to extortion and thereby made it profitable to extort. Hogan described these offences as "an ill-assorted collection of legislative bric a brac which the draftsmen of the 1916 Act put together with scissors and paste." They were replaced in 1968 by section 21 of the Theft Act. Northern Ireland The offence of blackmail is created by section 20 of the Theft Act (Northern Ireland) 1969 of the Northern Ireland Parliament. It is derived from and identical to section 21 of the Theft Act 1968 of England and Wales. Scotland There is no statutory offence of blackmail in Scotland. The common law offence of extortion is similar. Extortion is the offence of using the threat of harm to demand money, property or some advantage from another person. It does not matter whether the demand itself is legitimate (such as for money owed) as the offence can still be committed when illegitimate threats of harm are used. United States The offense of blackmail is created by which provides: "Whoever, under a threat of informing, or as a consideration for not informing, against any violation of any law of the United States, demands or receives any money or other valuable thing, shall be fined under this title or imprisoned not more than one year, or both." Europe Austria For the offense of blackmailing in Austria the punishment is imprisonment for a time from six months up to five years according to §144 of the Austrian Criminal Code. Germany In the German Criminal Code, the offense of blackmail (Erpressung) is set to be punishable by a fine or imprisonment for up to five years. Specific laws exist for continuous blackmail threats or offenses against constitutional organs or against personal freedom in case of abduction. France The French Penal Code considers the offense of blackmail (chantage) with a fine of up to 75 000 euros and imprisonment for 5 years in Article 312–10. Blackmailing in French law falls under the section of extortion. Objections to criminalization Some people consider that blackmail ought not to be considered a crime. They point out that it is legal (in the United States at this moment in time) to gossip about someone else's secret, to threaten to publicly reveal such information, and to ask a person for money, but it is illegal to combine the threat with the request for money. They say this raises the question, "Why do two rights make a wrong?" This observation has been rebutted by pointing out that while drinking alcohol and driving are both legal separately, their combinations are not. Sextortion (Webcam Blackmail) Sextortion has been linked and is popular among people who are considered to have power or a position of power (in any form) in any field such as politics, education, and the workplace. Sextortion, by definition, is a form of blackmail where power is abused and used to extort sexual favors or images from someone in exchange for something that the victim wants/needs like a job or grade. An example of this is Webcam Blackmail. "Criminals might befriend victims online by using a fake identity and then persuade them to perform sexual acts in front of their webcam, often by using an attractive woman to entice the victim to participate. These women may have been coerced into these actions using financial incentives or threats." As reported by the NCA (National Crime Agency), both men and women can be victims of this crime. This crime can be carried out by either crime groups or individuals. Cybercrime Dubai Police in the UAE stated that there have been 2,606 crimes that involve blackmail in the past three years. The reason it is so easy to commit these crimes online is the anonymity the internet gives. It is far easier and encouraging to commit crimes whenever personal identity is hidden. People have the opportunity to give in to temptation since they are anonymous and possibly commit criminal acts such as blackmailing. The ability to be anonymous encourages antisocial tendencies and the ability to spread fake news. See also Abusive power and control Blind item Emotional blackmail Espionage FBI Files on Elvis Presley Graymail Greenmail Loan shark Nuclear blackmail Pizzo (extortion) Webcam blackmail Whitemail In film Blackmail, (1920 film) Blackmail, (1929 film) Psychoville, British psychological horror-thriller black comedy mystery television series. Notes References Baker, Dennis J., Glanville Williams Textbook of Criminal Law. Sweet & Maxwell: London. (2005) . Criminal Law Revision Committee. 8th Report. Theft and Related Offences. Cmnd. 2977 Griew, Edward. Theft Acts 1968 & 1978, Sweet & Maxwell: London. Ormerod, David. Smith and Hogan Criminal Law, LexisNexis: London. (2005) Smith, J. C. Law of Theft, LexisNexis: London. 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230401	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Floyd%E2%80%93Warshall%20algorithm	Floyd–Warshall algorithm	In computer science, the Floyd–Warshall algorithm (also known as Floyd's algorithm, the Roy–Warshall algorithm, the Roy–Floyd algorithm, or the WFI algorithm) is an algorithm for finding shortest paths in a directed weighted graph with positive or negative edge weights (but with no negative cycles). A single execution of the algorithm will find the lengths (summed weights) of shortest paths between all pairs of vertices. Although it does not return details of the paths themselves, it is possible to reconstruct the paths with simple modifications to the algorithm. Versions of the algorithm can also be used for finding the transitive closure of a relation , or (in connection with the Schulze voting system) widest paths between all pairs of vertices in a weighted graph. History and naming The Floyd–Warshall algorithm is an example of dynamic programming, and was published in its currently recognized form by Robert Floyd in 1962. However, it is essentially the same as algorithms previously published by Bernard Roy in 1959 and also by Stephen Warshall in 1962 for finding the transitive closure of a graph, and is closely related to Kleene's algorithm (published in 1956) for converting a deterministic finite automaton into a regular expression. The modern formulation of the algorithm as three nested for-loops was first described by Peter Ingerman, also in 1962. Algorithm The Floyd–Warshall algorithm compares all possible paths through the graph between each pair of vertices. It is able to do this with comparisons in a graph, even though there may be up to edges in the graph, and every combination of edges is tested. It does so by incrementally improving an estimate on the shortest path between two vertices, until the estimate is optimal. Consider a graph with vertices numbered 1 through . Further consider a function that returns the shortest possible path from to using vertices only from the set as intermediate points along the way. Now, given this function, our goal is to find the shortest path from each to each using any vertex in . For each of these pairs of vertices, the could be either (1) a path that does not go through (only uses vertices in the set .) or (2) a path that does go through (from to and then from to , both only using intermediate vertices in ) We know that the best path from to that only uses vertices through is defined by , and it is clear that if there was a better path from to to , then the length of this path would be the concatenation of the shortest path from to (only using intermediate vertices in ) and the shortest path from to (only using intermediate vertices in ). If is the weight of the edge between vertices and , we can define in terms of the following recursive formula: the base case is and the recursive case is . This formula is the heart of the Floyd–Warshall algorithm. The algorithm works by first computing for all pairs for , then , and so on. This process continues until , and we have found the shortest path for all pairs using any intermediate vertices. Pseudocode for this basic version follows: let dist be a \|V\| × \|V\| array of minimum distances initialized to ∞ (infinity) for each edge (u, v) do dist[u][v] ← w(u, v) // The weight of the edge (u, v) for each vertex v do dist[v][v] ← 0 for k from 1 to \|V\| for i from 1 to \|V\| for j from 1 to \|V\| if dist[i][j] > dist[i][k] + dist[k][j] dist[i][j] ← dist[i][k] + dist[k][j] end if Example The algorithm above is executed on the graph on the left below: Prior to the first recursion of the outer loop, labeled above, the only known paths correspond to the single edges in the graph. At , paths that go through the vertex 1 are found: in particular, the path [2,1,3] is found, replacing the path [2,3] which has fewer edges but is longer (in terms of weight). At , paths going through the vertices {1,2} are found. The red and blue boxes show how the path [4,2,1,3] is assembled from the two known paths [4,2] and [2,1,3] encountered in previous iterations, with 2 in the intersection. The path [4,2,3] is not considered, because [2,1,3] is the shortest path encountered so far from 2 to 3. At , paths going through the vertices {1,2,3} are found. Finally, at , all shortest paths are found. The distance matrix at each iteration of , with the updated distances in bold, will be: Behavior with negative cycles A negative cycle is a cycle whose edges sum to a negative value. There is no shortest path between any pair of vertices , which form part of a negative cycle, because path-lengths from to can be arbitrarily small (negative). For numerically meaningful output, the Floyd–Warshall algorithm assumes that there are no negative cycles. Nevertheless, if there are negative cycles, the Floyd–Warshall algorithm can be used to detect them. The intuition is as follows: The Floyd–Warshall algorithm iteratively revises path lengths between all pairs of vertices , including where ; Initially, the length of the path is zero; A path can only improve upon this if it has length less than zero, i.e. denotes a negative cycle; Thus, after the algorithm, will be negative if there exists a negative-length path from back to . Hence, to detect negative cycles using the Floyd–Warshall algorithm, one can inspect the diagonal of the path matrix, and the presence of a negative number indicates that the graph contains at least one negative cycle. During the execution of the algorithm, if there is a negative cycle, exponentially large numbers can appear, as large as , where is the largest absolute value of a negative edge in the graph. To avoid overflow/underflow problems one should check for negative numbers on the diagonal of the path matrix within the inner for loop of the algorithm. Obviously, in an undirected graph a negative edge creates a negative cycle (i.e., a closed walk) involving its incident vertices. Considering all edges of the above example graph as undirected, e.g. the vertex sequence 4 – 2 – 4 is a cycle with weight sum −2. Path reconstruction The Floyd–Warshall algorithm typically only provides the lengths of the paths between all pairs of vertices. With simple modifications, it is possible to create a method to reconstruct the actual path between any two endpoint vertices. While one may be inclined to store the actual path from each vertex to each other vertex, this is not necessary, and in fact, is very costly in terms of memory. Instead, the shortest-path tree can be calculated for each node in time using memory to store each tree which allows us to efficiently reconstruct a path from any two connected vertices. Pseudocode let dist be a array of minimum distances initialized to (infinity) let next be a array of vertex indices initialized to null procedure FloydWarshallWithPathReconstruction() is for each edge (u, v) do dist[u][v] ← w(u, v) // The weight of the edge (u, v) next[u][v] ← v for each vertex v do dist[v][v] ← 0 next[v][v] ← v for k from 1 to \|V\| do // standard Floyd-Warshall implementation for i from 1 to \|V\| for j from 1 to \|V\| if dist[i][j] > dist[i][k] + dist[k][j] then dist[i][j] ← dist[i][k] + dist[k][j] next[i][j] ← next[i][k] procedure Path(u, v) if next[u][v] = null then return [] path = [u] while u ≠ v u ← next[u][v] path.append(u) return path Analysis Let be , the number of vertices. To find all of (for all and ) from those of requires operations. Since we begin with and compute the sequence of matrices , , , , the total number of operations used is . Therefore, the complexity of the algorithm is . Applications and generalizations The Floyd–Warshall algorithm can be used to solve the following problems, among others: Shortest paths in directed graphs (Floyd's algorithm). Transitive closure of directed graphs (Warshall's algorithm). In Warshall's original formulation of the algorithm, the graph is unweighted and represented by a Boolean adjacency matrix. Then the addition operation is replaced by logical conjunction (AND) and the minimum operation by logical disjunction (OR). Finding a regular expression denoting the regular language accepted by a finite automaton (Kleene's algorithm, a closely related generalization of the Floyd–Warshall algorithm) Inversion of real matrices (Gauss–Jordan algorithm) Optimal routing. In this application one is interested in finding the path with the maximum flow between two vertices. This means that, rather than taking minima as in the pseudocode above, one instead takes maxima. The edge weights represent fixed constraints on flow. Path weights represent bottlenecks; so the addition operation above is replaced by the minimum operation. Fast computation of Pathfinder networks. Widest paths/Maximum bandwidth paths Computing canonical form of difference bound matrices (DBMs) Computing the similarity between graphs Transitive closure in AND/OR/threshold graphs. Implementations Implementations are available for many programming languages. For C++, in the boost::graph library For C#, at QuickGraph For C#, at QuickGraphPCL (A fork of QuickGraph with better compatibility with projects using Portable Class Libraries.) For Java, in the Apache Commons Graph library For JavaScript, in the Cytoscape library For MATLAB, in the Matlab_bgl package For Perl, in the Graph module For Python, in the SciPy library (module scipy.sparse.csgraph) or NetworkX library For R, in packages e1071 and Rfast Comparison with other shortest path algorithms The Floyd–Warshall algorithm is a good choice for computing paths between all pairs of vertices in dense graphs, in which most or all pairs of vertices are connected by edges. For sparse graphs with non-negative edge weights, lower asymptotic complexity can be obtained by running Dijkstra's algorithm from each possible starting vertex, since the worst-case running time of repeated Dijkstra ( using Fibonacci heaps) is smaller than the running time of the Floyd–Warshall algorithm when is significantly smaller than . For sparse graphs with negative edges but no negative cycles, Johnson's algorithm can be used, with the same asymptotic running time as the repeated Dijkstra approach. There are also known algorithms using fast matrix multiplication to speed up all-pairs shortest path computation in dense graphs, but these typically make extra assumptions on the edge weights (such as requiring them to be small integers). In addition, because of the high constant factors in their running time, they would only provide a speedup over the Floyd–Warshall algorithm for very large graphs. References External links Interactive animation of the Floyd–Warshall algorithm Interactive animation of the Floyd–Warshall algorithm (Technical University of Munich) Graph algorithms Routing algorithms Polynomial-time problems Articles with example pseudocode Dynamic programming Graph distance	[ -0.45324283838272095, 0.1295602172613144, 0.29661405086517334, -0.01751074008643627, -0.29981839656829834, 0.006513252854347229, 0.2570200264453888, -0.6206545829772949, -0.4850701093673706, -0.3166322112083435, -0.04103526100516319, -0.003655992681160569, -0.7699052095413208, 0.27023211121559143, 0.0552484504878521, 0.3888557553291321, 0.3327980637550354, 0.04105832427740097, -0.25542789697647095, -0.6924842000007629, 0.4452066123485565, 0.43759748339653015, 0.11073987931013107, -0.34099018573760986, 0.15007945895195007, 0.09673789888620377, 0.01752442680299282, -0.013360116630792618, 0.0018368681194260716, 0.4147151708602905, -0.03269925341010094, 0.7445828914642334, 0.675844669342041, 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230404	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Trade%20name	Trade name	A trade name, trading name, or business name is a pseudonym used by companies that do not operate under their registered company name. The term for this type of alternative name is a "fictitious" business name. Registering the fictitious name with a relevant government body is often required. In a number of countries, the phrase "trading as" (abbreviated to t/a) is used to designate a trade name. In the United States, the phrase "doing business as" (abbreviated to DBA, dba, d.b.a. or d/b/a) is used, among others, such as assumed business name or fictitious business name. In Canada, "operating as" (abbreviated to o/a) and "trading as" are used, although "doing business as" is also sometimes used. A company typically uses a trade name to conduct business using a simpler name rather than using their formal and often lengthier name. Trade names are also used when a preferred name cannot be registered, often because it may already be registered or is too similar to a name that is already registered. Legal aspects Using one (or more) fictitious business name(s) does not create one (or more) separate legal entities. The distinction between a registered legal name and a fictitious business name, or trade name, is important because fictitious business names do not always identify the entity that is legally responsible. Legal agreements (such as contracts) are normally made using the registered legal name of the business. If a corporation fails to consistently adhere to such important legal formalities like using its registered legal name in contracts, it may be subject to piercing of the corporate veil. In English, trade names are generally treated as proper nouns. By country Argentina In Argentina, a trade name is known as a nombre de fantasía ('fantasy' or 'fiction' name), and the legal name of business is called a razón social (social name). Brazil In Brazil, a trade name is known as a nome fantasia ('fantasy' or 'fiction' name), and the legal name of business is called razão social (social name). Canada In some Canadian jurisdictions, such as Ontario, when a businessperson writes a trade name on a contract, invoice, or cheque, he or she must also add the legal name of the business. Numbered companies will very often operate as something other than their legal name, which is unrecognizable to the public. Chile In Chile, a trade name is known as a nombre de fantasía ('fantasy' or 'fiction' name), and the legal name of business is called a razón social (social name). Ireland In Ireland businesses are legally required to register business names where these differ from the surname(s) of the sole trader or partners, or the legal name of a company. The Companies Registration Office publishes a searchable register of such business names. Japan In Japan, the word is used. Nigeria In Colonial Nigeria, certain tribes had members that used a variety of trading names to conduct business with the Europeans. Two famous examples were King Perekule VII of Bonny, who was known as Captain Pepple in trade matters, and King Jubo Jubogha of Opobo, who bore the pseudonym Captain Jaja. Both Pepple and Jaja would bequeath their trade names to their royal descendants as official surnames upon their deaths. Singapore In Singapore, there is no filing requirement for a "trading as" name, however, there are requirements for disclosure of the underlying business or company's registered name and unique entity number. United Kingdom In the United Kingdom, there is no filing requirement for a "trading as" name, however, there are requirements for disclosure of the owner's true name and some restrictions on the use of certain names. United States A minority of U.S. states, including Washington, still use the term trade name to refer to "doing business as" (DBA) names; In most U.S. states now, DBAs are officially referred to using other terms; almost half of states, like New York and Oregon, use the term Assumed Business Name or Assumed Name; nearly as many, like Pennsylvania, use the term Fictitious Name. For consumer protection purposes, many U.S. jurisdictions require businesses operating with fictitious names to file a DBA statement, though names including the first and last name of the owner may be accepted. This also reduces the possibility of two local businesses operating under the same name, although some jurisdictions do not provide exclusivity for a name, or may allow more than one party to register the same name. Note, though, that this is not a substitute for filing a trademark application. A DBA filing carries no legal weight in establishing trademark rights. In the U.S., trademark rights are acquired by use in commerce, but there can be substantial benefits to filing a trademark application. Sole proprietors are the most common users of DBAs. Sole proprietors are individual business owners who run their businesses themselves. Since most people in these circumstances use a business name other than their own name, it is often necessary for them to get DBAs. Generally, a DBA must be registered with a local or state government, or both, depending on the jurisdiction. For example, California, Texas and Virginia require a DBA to be registered with each county (or independent city in the case of Virginia) where the owner does business. Maryland and Colorado have DBAs registered with a state agency. Virginia also requires corporations and LLCs to file a copy of their registration with the county or city to be registered with the State Corporation Commission. DBA statements are often used in conjunction with a franchise. The franchisee will have a legal name under which it may sue and be sued, but will conduct business under the franchiser's brand name (which the public would recognize). A typical real-world example can be found in a well-known pricing mistake case, Donovan v. RRL Corp., 26 Cal. 4th 261 (2001), where the named defendant, RRL Corporation, was a Lexus car dealership doing business as "Lexus of Westminster", but remaining a separate legal entity from Lexus, a division of Toyota Motor Sales, U.S.A., Inc. In California, filing a DBA statement also requires that a notice of the fictitious name be published in local newspapers for some set period of time to inform the public of the owner's intent to operate under an assumed name. The intention of the law is to protect the public from fraud, by compelling the business owner to first file or register his fictitious business name with the county clerk, and then making a further public record of it by publishing it in a newspaper. Several other states, such as Illinois, require print notices as well. Uruguay In Uruguay, a trade name is known as a nombre fantasía, and the legal name of business is called a razón social. 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230405	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hamburger%20University	Hamburger University	Hamburger University is a training facility at the McDonald's Corporation global headquarters in Chicago, Illinois. It instructs high-potential restaurant managers, mid-managers and owner-operators in restaurant management. More than 5,000 students attend Hamburger University each year and over 275,000 people have graduated with a degree in Hamburgerology. History Hamburger University training started in 1961 with a class of 14 people in the basement of one of its restaurants. In 2018, both the McDonald's headquarters and Hamburger University moved to West Loop, Chicago, in a new complex built on the site of the former headquarters of Oprah Winfrey's Harpo Studios. The previous location was purchased in June 2019 by John Paul DeJoria, co-founder of John Paul Mitchell Systems. Locations Hamburger University currently has eight campuses worldwide in addition to the main campus in Chicago, Illinois: Tokyo, London, Sydney, Munich, São Paulo, Shanghai, and Moscow. In popular culture Hamburger University was satirized in the 1986 comedy Hamburger... The Motion Picture. It was also spoofed by McDonald's itself in a commercial with Ronald McDonald in which several animatronic hamburgers were shown graduating. References 1961 establishments in Illinois Buildings and structures in Chicago Business education Education in Chicago Educational institutions established in 1961 McDonald's McDonald's buildings and structures Training organizations	[ 0.6188319325447083, 0.23057566583156586, 0.12375519424676895, -0.18339455127716064, -0.08017374575138092, 0.31743693351745605, 0.31373006105422974, 0.38491401076316833, -0.14663565158843994, -0.5209592580795288, -0.35402870178222656, -0.3164066970348358, 0.32806840538978577, 0.05089231953024864, -0.16678404808044434, -0.35632434487342834, 0.4077838063240051, 0.4004572033882141, -0.49469974637031555, -0.6180161237716675, -0.27651193737983704, -0.4806061387062073, 0.5663402080535889, 0.31720447540283203, -0.34023746848106384, 0.11967078596353531, 0.5899027585983276, 0.09138793498277664, 0.13822589814662933, 0.3846498727798462, 0.22714193165302277, 0.22214679419994354, -0.1586509644985199, -0.4255772829055786, 0.200612872838974, 0.30773788690567017, 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230411	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/N%C3%A9stor%20Torres	Néstor Torres	Néstor Torres is a jazz flautist born in Mayaguez, Puerto Rico, in 1957. He took flute lessons at age 12 and began formal studies at the Escuela Libre de Música, eventually attending Puerto Rico’s Inter-American University. At 18, he moved to New York with his family. Torres went on to study both jazz and classical music at the Mannes College of Music in New York and the New England Conservatory of Music in Boston, among other places. Torres is also a practitioner of Nichiren Buddhism and a longtime member of the Buddhist association Soka Gakkai International. In 2007, Torres played at the World Music Concert during One World Week 2007 at the University of Warwick. In 2010, Torres joined the faculty of Florida International University as a visiting guest artist and founding director of its School of Music's first charanga ensemble. On March 21, 2009, he played in Herbst Theatre in San Francisco in performance "Tango Meets Jazz" with Pablo Ziegler. On September 9, 2009, he played at the Greek Theatre (Los Angeles) with the Dave Matthews Band. He guested on the song "Lying In The Hands Of God." He performed at the 2010 Central American and Caribbean Games opening ceremony. Albums No Me Provoques - Released: 1981 Afro - Charanga Vol. 2 - Released: 1983 Morning Ride - Released: 1989 Dance of the Phoenix - Released: 1990 Burning Whispers - Released: 1994 Talk to Me - Released: 1996 Treasures of the Heart - Released: 1999 This Side of Paradise - Released: 2001 Mis Canciones Primeras - Released: 2001 Mi Alma Latina - Released: 2002 The Sutra of The Lotus of The Wonderful Law - Released: 2004 Sin Palabras - Released: 2004 Dances, Prayers & Meditations For Peace - Released: 2006 The Very Best Of Nestor Torres (2007) Nestor Torres - Nouveau Latino (2008) References External links Official Website Distribution Label 1957 births Living people Puerto Rican jazz musicians Latin Grammy Award winners People from Mayagüez, Puerto Rico Puerto Rican Buddhists Members of Sōka Gakkai Smooth jazz flautists American Buddhists Nichiren Buddhists	[ -0.24191975593566895, 0.42447879910469055, -0.2994995415210724, 0.3357938826084137, 0.07607223838567734, 0.21820849180221558, 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230417	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sittard	Sittard	Sittard (; ) is a city in the Netherlands, situated in the southernmost province of Limburg. The town is part of the municipality of Sittard-Geleen and has almost 37.500 inhabitants in 2016. In its east, Sittard borders the German municipality of Selfkant (in the state of North Rhine-Westphalia). The city centre is located at 45 m above sea level. History Archaeological discoveries have dated the first settlement in the Sittard area around 5000 B.C. Present day Sittard is assumed to have been founded around 850 A.D. and to have been built around a motte. Sittard was first mentioned in 1157. It was granted city rights by the Duke of Limburg in 1243. In 1400 it was sold to the Duchy of Jülich, and remained in its possession until 1794. The city was destroyed and rebuilt repeatedly, due to fires and various conflicts during the 15th-17th century. It was a stronghold until it was largely destroyed in 1677, during the Franco-Dutch War. Under French occupation (1794-1814), Sittard was part of the Roer department. Since 1814, it has been part of the Netherlands, except for the years 1830–1839, when it joined the Belgian Revolution. During the Second World War, it was occupied by the Germans, who incorporated several small municipalities, like Broeksittard, into Sittard. The city was liberated September 18–19, 1944 by the 2nd Armored Division. The historic town was mostly spared destruction, despite lying in the frontline for over four months, in which over 4000 shells and rockets struck the city. After World War II, Sittard expanded rapidly and many new neighbourhoods were built. The coal mines in the region were the driving force of a booming economy, until closed in the 1960s and 70s. It now has large industrial zones and office premises. Main sights Sittard has a small historic city centre with numerous architectural monuments, including several old churches (St Peter's, St Michael's, Basilica of Our Lady of the Sacred Heart), monasteries and a few half-timbered houses. The central market square has many restaurants and bars. The city has retained part of its city wall. On the south-eastern side of the city centre, the St Rosa chapel crowns the Kollenberg hill. Museum "Het Domein" is situated in a converted nineteenth century school building in the city centre. It focuses on contemporary art, urban history and archaeology. There is also a Commonwealth War Cemetery, where 239 soldiers of the Commonwealth Nations lie buried. Among them Dennis Donnini, the youngest to have received the Victoria Cross in World War II. Economy Sittard houses the SABIC European head office and a large DSM office; both companies having large chemical production facilities in nearby Geleen. The head office of the plant hire company Boels Rental is also located in Sittard. Education There are several schools for higher vocational education and training (hbo) in the city, including faculties of the Hogeschool Zuyd and Fontys Hogescholen. Large schools for secondary education in Sittard are 'Trevianum Scholengroep' (havo and vwo) and 'Da Capo College' (vmbo). Sports Sittard is the home of the professional football club Fortuna Sittard and of the handball club Sittardia. The biggest Kennedy march of the Netherlands starts and ends in Sittard. Notable people Eddy Beugels, cyclist Rens Blom, athletics Mike van Diem, film director Toon Hermans, comedian Wim Hof, Iceman Francine Houben, architect, director of Mecanoo Jan Nolten, cyclist Jan Notermans, soccer Huub Stevens, soccer Arnold Vanderlyde, boxer Joost Zweegers, singer and pianist of Novastar Laurence Stassen, VNL politician Dialect The Sittard dialect is a particular variant of Limburgish. Sister cities Valjevo, . Hasselt, See also Vansittart, surname derived from the city. 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230418	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Object%20copying	Object copying	In object-oriented programming, object copying is creating a copy of an existing object, a unit of data in object-oriented programming. The resulting object is called an object copy or simply copy of the original object. Copying is basic but has subtleties and can have significant overhead. There are several ways to copy an object, most commonly by a copy constructor or cloning. Copying is done mostly so the copy can be modified or moved, or the current value preserved. If either of these is unneeded, a reference to the original data is sufficient and more efficient, as no copying occurs. Objects in general store composite data. While in simple cases copying can be done by allocating a new, uninitialized object and copying all fields (attributes) from the original object, in more complex cases this does not result in desired behavior. Methods of copying The design goal of most objects is to give the resemblance of being made out of one monolithic block even though most are not. As objects are made up of several different parts, copying becomes nontrivial. Several strategies exist to treat this problem. Consider an object A, which contains fields xi (more concretely, consider if A is a string and xi is an array of its characters). There are different strategies for making a copy of A, referred to as shallow copy and deep copy. Many languages allow generic copying by one or either strategy, defining either one copy operation or separate shallow copy and deep copy operations. Note that even shallower is to use a reference to the existing object A, in which case there is no new object, only a new reference. The terminology of shallow copy and deep copy dates to Smalltalk-80. The same distinction holds for comparing objects for equality: most basically there is a difference between identity (same object) and equality (same value), corresponding to shallow equality and (1 level) deep equality of two object references, but then further whether equality means comparing only the fields of the object in question or dereferencing some or all fields and comparing their values in turn (e.g., are two linked lists equal if they have the same nodes, or if they have same values?). Shallow copy One method of copying an object is the shallow copy. In that case a new object B is created, and the fields values of A are copied over to B. This is also known as a field-by-field copy, field-for-field copy, or field copy. If the field value is a reference to an object (e.g., a memory address) it copies the reference, hence referring to the same object as A does, and if the field value is a primitive type it copies the value of the primitive type. In languages without primitive types (where everything is an object), all fields of the copy B are references to the same objects as the fields of original A. The referenced objects are thus shared, so if one of these objects is modified (from A or B), the change is visible in the other. Shallow copies are simple and typically cheap, as they can usually be implemented by simply copying the bits exactly. Deep copy An alternative is a deep copy, meaning that fields are dereferenced: rather than references to objects being copied, new copy objects are created for any referenced objects, and references to these placed in B. The result is different from the result a shallow copy gives in that the objects referenced by the copy B are distinct from those referenced by A, and independent. Deep copies are more expensive, due to needing to create additional objects, and can be substantially more complicated, due to references possibly forming a complicated graph. Deep copy is a process in which the copying process occurs recursively. It means first constructing a new collection object and then recursively populating it with copies of the child objects found in the original. In case of deep copy, a copy of object is copied in other object. It means that any changes made to a copy of object do not reflect in the original object. In python, this is implemented using “deep copy()” function. Combination In more complex cases, some fields in a copy should have shared values with the original object (as in a shallow copy), corresponding to an "association" relationship; and some fields should have copies (as in a deep copy), corresponding to an "aggregation" relationship. In these cases a custom implementation of copying is generally required; this issue and solution dates to Smalltalk-80. Alternatively, fields can be marked as requiring a shallow copy or deep copy, and copy operations automatically generated (likewise for comparison operations). This is not implemented in most object-oriented languages, however, though there is partial support in Eiffel. Implementation Nearly all object-oriented programming languages provide some way to copy objects. As most languages do not provide most objects for programs, a programmer must define how an object should be copied, just as they must define if two objects are identical or even comparable in the first place. Many languages provide some default behavior. How copying is solved varies from language to language, and what concept of an object it has. Lazy copy A lazy copy is an implementation of a deep copy. When initially copying an object, a (fast) shallow copy is used. A counter is also used to track how many objects share the data. When the program wants to modify an object, it can determine if the data is shared (by examining the counter) and can do a deep copy if needed. Lazy copy looks to the outside just as a deep copy, but takes advantage of the speed of a shallow copy whenever possible. The downside are rather high but constant base costs because of the counter. Also, in certain situations, circular references can cause problems. Lazy copy is related to copy-on-write. In Java The following presents examples for one of the most widely used object-oriented languages, Java, which should cover nearly every way that an object-oriented language can treat this problem. Unlike in C++, objects in Java are always accessed indirectly through references. Objects are never created implicitly but instead are always passed or assigned by a reference variable. (Methods in Java are always pass by value, however, it is the value of the reference variable that is being passed.) The Java Virtual Machine manages garbage collection so that objects are cleaned up after they are no longer reachable. There is no automatic way to copy any given object in Java. Copying is usually performed by a clone() method of a class. This method usually, in turn, calls the clone() method of its parent class to obtain a copy, and then does any custom copying procedures. Eventually this gets to the clone() method of Object (the uppermost class), which creates a new instance of the same class as the object and copies all the fields to the new instance (a "shallow copy"). If this method is used, the class must implement the marker interface, or else it will throw a CloneNotSupportedException. After obtaining a copy from the parent class, a class' own clone() method may then provide custom cloning capability, like deep copying (i.e. duplicate some of the structures referred to by the object) or giving the new instance a new unique ID. The return type of clone() is Object, but implementers of a clone method could write the type of the object being cloned instead due to Java's support for covariant return types. One advantage of using clone() is that since it is an overridable method, we can call clone() on any object, and it will use the clone() method of its class, without the calling code needing to know what that class is (which would be needed with a copy constructor). A disadvantage is that one often cannot access the clone() method on an abstract type. Most interfaces and abstract classes in Java do not specify a public clone() method. Thus, often the only way to use the clone() method is if the class of an object is known, which is contrary to the abstraction principle of using the most generic type possible. For example, if one has a List reference in Java, one cannot invoke clone() on that reference because List specifies no public clone() method. Implementations of List like ArrayList and LinkedList all generally have clone() methods, but it is inconvenient and bad abstraction to carry around the class type of an object. Another way to copy objects in Java is to serialize them through the interface. This is typically used for persistence and wire protocol purposes, but it does create copies of objects and, unlike clone, a deep copy that gracefully handles cycled graphs of objects is readily available with minimal effort from a programmer. Both of these methods suffer from a notable problem: the constructor is not used for objects copied with clone or serialization. This can lead to bugs with improperly initialized data, prevents the use of final member fields, and makes maintenance challenging. Some utilities attempt to overcome these issues by using reflection to deep copy objects, such as the deep-cloning library. In Eiffel Runtime objects in Eiffel are accessible either indirectly through references or as expanded objects which fields are embedded within the objects that use them. That is, fields of an object are stored either externally or internally. The Eiffel class ANY contains features for shallow and deep copying and cloning of objects. All Eiffel classes inherit from ANY, so these features are available within all classes, and are applicable both to reference and expanded objects. The copy feature effects a shallow, field-by-field copy from one object to another. In this case no new object is created. If y were copied to x, then the same objects referenced by y before the application of copy, will also be referenced by x after the copy feature completes. To effect the creation of a new object which is a shallow duplicate of y, the feature twin is used. In this case, one new object is created with its fields identical to those of the source. The feature twin relies on the feature copy, which can be redefined in descendants of ANY, if needed. The result of twin is of the anchored type like Current. Deep copying and creating deep twins can be done using the features deep_copy and deep_twin, again inherited from class ANY. These features have the potential to create many new objects, because they duplicate all the objects in an entire object structure. Because new duplicate objects are created instead of simply copying references to existing objects, deep operations will become a source of performance issues more readily than shallow operations. In other languages In C#, rather than using the interface ICloneable, a generic extension method can be used to create a deep copy using reflection. This has two advantages: First, it provides the flexibility to copy every object without having to specify each property and variable to be copied manually. Second, because the type is generic, the compiler ensures that the destination object and the source object have the same type. In Objective-C, the methods copy and mutableCopy are inherited by all objects and intended for performing copies; the latter is for creating a mutable type of the original object. These methods in turn call the copyWithZone and mutableCopyWithZone methods, respectively, to perform the copying. An object must implement the corresponding copyWithZone method to be copyable. In OCaml, the library function Oo.copy performs shallow copying of an object. In Python, the library's copy module provides shallow copy and deep copy of objects through the copy() and deepcopy() functions, respectively. Programmers may define special methods __copy__() and __deepcopy__() in an object to provide custom copying implementation. In Ruby, all objects inherit two methods for performing shallow copies, clone and dup. The two methods differ in that clone copies an object's tainted state, frozen state, and any singleton methods it may have, whereas dup copies only its tainted state. Deep copies may be achieved by dumping and loading an object's byte stream or YAML serialization. Alternatively, you can use the deep_dive gem to do a controlled deep copy of your object graphs. In Perl, nested structures are stored by the use of references, thus a developer can either loop over the entire structure and re-reference the data or use the dclone() function from the module Storable. In VBA, an assignment of variables of type Object is a shallow copy, an assignment for all other types (numeric types, String, user defined types, arrays) is a deep copy. So the keyword Set for an assignment signals a shallow copy and the (optional) keyword Let signals a deep copy. There is no built-in method for deep copies of Objects in VBA. See also Copy constructor Operator overloading Reference counting Copy-on-write Clone (Java method) Notes References Object (computer science)	[ 0.3011671006679535, 0.08857069164514542, -0.3510296642780304, 0.5088415741920471, -0.04763671010732651, -0.12124104797840118, -0.24557620286941528, 0.4494220018386841, -0.1742895245552063, -0.3965369462966919, -0.14883914589881897, 0.5747157335281372, -0.4271466135978699, 0.4687751233577728, -0.7498565912246704, -0.20116828382015228, -0.033621542155742645, 0.19288960099220276, -0.2283944934606552, -0.3723268210887909, -0.42837172746658325, 0.06299196183681488, -0.43135178089141846, -0.5894065499305725, -0.2673287093639374, -0.061249714344739914, 0.31798890233039856, -0.27983972430229187, -0.5357224345207214, -0.0961918756365776, -0.009450246579945087, 0.1716686338186264, 0.1982882171869278, -0.2696823477745056, -0.5386355519294739, -0.08360421657562256, 0.09949745237827301, -0.04695921763777733, 0.1412101536989212, -0.7039919495582581, 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230419	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The%20Garden%20of%20Cyrus	The Garden of Cyrus	The Garden of Cyrus, or The Quincuncial Lozenge, or Network Plantations of the Ancients, naturally, artificially, mystically considered, is a discourse by Sir Thomas Browne. First published in 1658, along with its diptych companion Urn-Burial, in modern times it has been recognised as Browne's major literary contribution to Hermetic wisdom. Written during a time when restrictions on publishing became more relaxed during Oliver Cromwell's Protectorate, The Garden of Cyrus (1658) is Browne's contribution to a "boom period" decade of interest in esoterica in England. Browne's discourse is a Neoplatonic and Neopythagorean vision of the interconnection of art and nature via the inter-related symbols of the number five and the quincunx pattern, along with the figure X and the lattice design. Its fundamental quest was of primary concern to Hermetic philosophy: proof of the wisdom of God, and demonstrable evidence of intelligent design. The Discourse includes early recorded usage of the words "prototype" and "archetype" in English. References External links Complete text of The Garden of Cyrus Essay on Browne and Hermeticism 1658 books Philosophy books Hermeticism Esotericism Works by Thomas Browne	[ 0.00829226616770029, 0.1330757588148117, -0.7768286466598511, -0.246620774269104, 0.38087189197540283, 0.6159912347793579, 0.08289004862308502, 0.12076336145401001, -0.06454947590827942, -0.3205132484436035, -0.45777764916419983, -0.32404887676239014, -0.16049274802207947, 0.48274895548820496, 0.058474257588386536, 0.43947985768318176, 0.5400020480155945, -0.14341044425964355, -0.010050180368125439, -0.3918181359767914, 0.1445830762386322, 0.40421968698501587, 0.13886906206607819, -0.31543001532554626, 0.5318162441253662, -0.32525354623794556, 0.007759669795632362, -0.4571280777454376, -0.381487101316452, 0.013005311600863934, -0.2960016429424286, 0.10824792832136154, 0.053825076669454575, -0.4644603729248047, -0.19612360000610352, -0.44448408484458923, -0.49959900975227356, -0.4482056200504303, -0.1815842241048813, 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230422	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heusden%2C%20Belgium	Heusden, Belgium	Heusden was a municipality located in the Belgian province of East Flanders. In 1977 it merged with the municipality of Destelbergen, of which it is now part. It was mentioned for the first time in the 11th century, by abbot Othejbold. Years after the invasion by the Norsemen, the municipality fell into the hands of the Lords of Heusden. Because of the marriage of Beatrix of Heusden with Zeger III (viscount of Ghent) in 1212, the seat of the viscountship of Ghent moved to Heusden. Until the end of the Ancien Régime Heusden stayed property of the viscounts of Ghent. In 1247 the Cistercian Abbey of Nieuwenbosch settled in Heusden. This cloister flourished until it was destroyed by the Iconoclasts in 1578. After this the sisters moved to Ghent. Because Heusden was a part of the belt of defence around Ghent, it was looted many times during the Middle Ages. This rich history has resulted in a number of castles dotting the area. Toponymy According to one theory, the name Heusden derives from the personal name Kusidiniom. Heusden was therefore named after "the area of Kusidinios". The name Kusidinios could itself derive from the verb 'to hear'. Thus, Kusidinios was someone with good hearing. Over the centuries, the name Kusidiniom would have been corrupted and reduced, until it finally became Heusden, as we know it today. History The oldest mention of the village is when, in the 11th century, the Abbot Othejbold noted in a document that the place belonged to the Saint Bavo's Abbey before the Norman invasion. A little later it fall under the control of the lords of Heusden. After the marriage in 1212 of Beatrix van Heusden to Zeger III, the viscount of Ghent, the viscountcy of Ghent was transferred to Heusden. Until the end of the Ancien Régime, Heusden remained under the viscounts of Ghent. The area was inhabited in the prehistoric Mesolithic period (ca. 10,000 to ca. 5000 BC), which was shown by research in both Destelbergen and Heusden. Heusden is known for the Cistercian abbey of Nieuwenbosch, which was founded in 1247. The monastery was well known. However, in 1578 it was destroyed by the iconoclasts and the monastery ceased to exist. The nuns of the monastery then moved to nearby Ghent. The only visible remaining structure on the Heusden site is the former abbey farm, now known as the Bosseveerhoeve (or hoeve Ten Bossche or hoeve Caenepeel). An annual event in Heusden is the fairground race "Grand Prix Maurice Raes" popularly known as Heusden Koers or the "world championship of fairground races". It is attended by about 20,000 cycling-enthusiasts. Sights Holy Cross Church from 1844 Former leasehold farm Bosseveerhoeve of hoeve Ten Bossche of the disappeared Nieuwenbosch Abbey (1247-1579) on the Scheldt The nature reserve, with ancient Scheldt meanders, grasslands, old peat pits and farms, an important waterfowl area, marsh flora, etc. The numerous castles (e.g. Heusden Castle, Ocket Castle, Castle Stas de Richelle) The Harry Malter Family Park (), leisure park and zoo Gallery References Destelbergen Populated places in East Flanders de:Destelbergen#Heusden	[ -0.45812931656837463, 0.2295149713754654, 0.112312451004982, -0.560760498046875, -0.39239370822906494, 0.5015180110931396, 0.36551588773727417, -0.038656819611787796, -0.9079712629318237, 0.21559491753578186, 0.39254865050315857, -0.4806189239025116, 0.03556157276034355, 0.5938913822174072, -0.09987889975309372, 0.05179384723305702, 0.36838188767433167, 0.1335180252790451, 0.3845963180065155, -0.9427573680877686, 0.2399282306432724, -0.5464092493057251, 0.07716122269630432, 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230423	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Acrylic	Acrylic	Acrylic may refer to: Chemicals and materials Acrylic acid, the simplest acrylic compound Acrylate polymer, a group of polymers (plastics) noted for transparency and elasticity Acrylic resin, a group of related thermoplastic or thermosetting plastic substances Acrylic fiber, a synthetic fiber of polyacrylonitrile Acrylic paint, fast-drying paint containing pigment suspension in acrylic polymer emulsion Poly(methyl methacrylate), also known as acrylic glass or Plexiglass, a transparent thermoplastic Other uses "Acrylic" (song), by English band The Courteeners See also	[ 0.5600948333740234, 0.09142795205116272, 0.05049785599112511, 0.4294799268245697, 0.04598081111907959, 0.44083651900291443, -0.35448312759399414, 0.39298489689826965, -0.27843406796455383, -0.4705444872379303, -0.6903125047683716, 0.9179697632789612, -0.23984691500663757, 0.5203500986099243, 0.08827745914459229, 0.5311728119850159, 0.865181565284729, 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230424	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Post	Post	Post or POST commonly refers to: Mail, the postal system, especially in Commonwealth of Nations countries An Post, the Irish national postal service Canada Post, Canadian postal service Deutsche Post, German postal service Hotel post, a service formerly offered by remote Swiss hotels for the carriage of mail to the nearest official post office United States Postal Service or USPS Parcel post, a postal service for mail that is heavier than ordinary letters Post, a job or occupation Post, POST, or posting may also refer to: Architecture and structures Lamppost, a raised source of light on the edge of a road Post (structural), timber framing Post and lintel, a building system Steel fence post Trading post Utility pole or utility post Military Military base, an assigned station or a guard post Outpost (military), a military outpost Guardpost, or guardhouse Geography Post, Iran, a village in West Azerbaijan Province of Iran Post, Oregon, a community at the geographic center of the U.S. state of Oregon Post, Texas, the county seat of Garza County, Texas, United States People Post (surname) Post Malone, a hip hop artist C.W. Post, founder of Post Cereals George Edward Post, American surgeon, botanist (abbrev. Post), and academic Dentistry Post and core, a type of dental restoration Arts, entertainment, and media Music Albums Post (Björk album), her second solo studio album, released in 1995 Post (Paul Kelly album), his first solo studio album, released in 1985 Post-, a 2018 album by Jeff Rosenstock Other uses in music Post, an alternative name for a hanger (barbershop music) Post Records, a record label Post, a prominent musical change during the intro of a recording, as used in the production of radio programming Periodicals Australasian Post, a defunct Australian weekly magazine Post Magazine, a British magazine first published in 1840 The Post (disambiguation), a list of newspapers The Saturday Evening Post, an American magazine Communications Post, an entry in a blog or an Internet forum; see posting style Part-of-speech tagging or POST, the process of marking up a word in a text (corpus) as corresponding to a particular part of speech Postscript, a sentence, paragraph, or longer text addended to a main document, such as a letter Computing and technology POST (HTTP), an HTTP request method .post, the internet top-level domain Power-on self-test or POST, start-up routines on electronic devices, typically on computers Education and training LIU Post, one of the two campuses of Long Island University in the U.S. state of New York, formerly known as C.W. Post. Peace Officer Standards and Training or POST, state-level training program for American law-enforcement officers Post University, a university in the U.S. state of Connecticut Organizations and companies Parliamentary Office of Science and Technology or POST, in the United Kingdom Peninsula Open Space Trust, a land trust in California Post Holdings, a consumer packaged goods holding company Post Cereals, a packaged food subsidiary of Post Holdings Sports Post (basketball), area near the basket in basketball Post (route), route run by a receiver in American football Posting system, transfer system for professional baseball players moving from a Japanese team to a Major League Baseball team Post, a horse trot Time The prefix "post" means after, aftermath, or afterward, e.g., Jus post bellum, "morality after war" Postbellum, a period after a war Post mortem, an autopsy or recap Post-World War II, the period following World War II See also Hitching post (disambiguation) La Poste 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230426	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/BL%20Lacertae%20object	BL Lacertae object	A BL Lacertae object or BL Lac object is a type of active galactic nucleus (AGN) or a galaxy with such an AGN, named after its prototype, BL Lacertae. In contrast to other types of active galactic nuclei, BL Lacs are characterized by rapid and large-amplitude flux variability and significant optical polarization. Because of these properties, the prototype of the class (BL Lac) was originally thought to be a variable star. When compared to the more luminous active nuclei (quasars) with strong emission lines, BL Lac objects have spectra dominated by a relatively featureless non-thermal emission continuum over the entire electromagnetic range. This lack of spectral lines historically hindered identification of the nature and distance of such objects. In the unified scheme of radio-loud active galactic nuclei, the observed nuclear phenomenology of BL Lacs is interpreted as being due to the effects of the relativistic jet closely aligned to the line of sight of the observer. BL Lacs are thought to be intrinsically identical to low-power radio galaxies. These active nuclei appear to be hosted in massive elliptical galaxies. From the point of AGN classification, BL Lacs are a blazar subtype. All known BL Lacs are associated with core dominated radio sources, many of them exhibiting apparent superluminal motion. The blazar category encompasses all quasars oriented with the relativistic jet directed at the observer giving a unique radio emission spectrum. This includes BL Lacs as well as optically violent variable (OVV) quasars, however in general practice, "Blazar" and "BL Lac Object" are often used interchangeably. OVV quasars are generally more luminous and have stronger emission lines than BL Lac objects. Some examples of BL Lac objects are BL Lacertae itself, OJ 287, AP Librae, PKS 2155-304, PKS 0521-365, Markarian 421, 3C 371, W Comae Berenices, ON 325 and Markarian 501. Host galaxies Soon after the discovery of this unusual class of objects it was noted that the sources were surrounded by a faint nebulosity. In the late 1970s the use of modern detectors (such as CCD) allowed observers to probe with better accuracy the nature of the nebulosity. First images of the BL Lac object PKS 0548-322 by Michael John Disney in 1974 in various filters found it to be composed by a giant elliptical galaxy with a bright nucleus. Extensive surveys taken with the Hubble Space Telescope of 132 BL Lac objects comprising seven complete radio, X-ray, and optically selected samples in 2000 studied the morphologies of possible BL Lac host galaxies. The data concluded that in two-thirds of the BLL images taken, host galaxies are detected, including in nearly all with redshift z < 0.5. BL Lac objects are luminous enough that only one quarter (6/22) of the images taken with z > 0.5 were resolved because of relatively short exposure times. A de Vaucouleurs profile looks to be a significantly preferred brightness profile for 58 of the 72 resolved host galaxies at over ~99% confidence. The results of this survey conclude that there is an 8% limit to the number of disk systems in BL Lac objects and is therefore consistent with the assumption that all BL Lac host galaxies could be elliptical. These ellipticals are very luminous with a median absolute K-corrected magnitude of mag (rms dispersion). This is comparable to the brightest cluster galaxies. History John L. Schmitt first noticed the peculiar nature of BL Lac in 1968 when he matched it with a radio object, VRO 42.22.01. Within a year others observed that the radio flux varied, and that light was polarized. Peter Albert Strittmatter proposed the class of object in 1972 and added four objects. By 1976 there were 30 known objects. In 2017, a very high energy neutrino was detected by the IceCube project apparently coming from BL Lac object TXS 0506+056. References External links ZBLLAC – A spectroscopic library of BL Lac objects Active galaxy types	[ 0.19726060330867767, 0.17396940290927887, 0.30278655886650085, -0.31916728615760803, -0.24601173400878906, 0.04566321149468422, -0.13945280015468597, 0.37717679142951965, -0.6387330889701843, -0.2199978083372116, -0.4639153778553009, -0.33531343936920166, -0.8594073057174683, 0.6085830330848694, 0.30510932207107544, 0.7662144303321838, 0.6567831635475159, 0.5083599090576172, -0.305808961391449, -0.5167118906974792, 0.3453826606273651, 0.07888926565647125, 0.2664095163345337, -0.21453168988227844, -0.030657116323709488, 0.08050152659416199, 0.08873342722654343, 0.40007904171943665, 0.25607579946517944, -0.01954629272222519, -0.22319501638412476, 0.7794566750526428, 0.034655310213565826, 0.12397914379835129, 0.1142473965883255, 0.13487964868545532, -0.0514366552233696, -0.10184236615896225, -0.5305227637290955, -0.8514402508735657, 0.13118809461593628, 0.1338820457458496, 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230428	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Angular%20resolution	Angular resolution	Angular resolution describes the ability of any image-forming device such as an optical or radio telescope, a microscope, a camera, or an eye, to distinguish small details of an object, thereby making it a major determinant of image resolution. It is used in optics applied to light waves, in antenna theory applied to radio waves, and in acoustics applied to sound waves. The colloquial use of the term "resolution" often causes confusion; when a camera is said to have high resolution because of its good image quality, it actually has a low angular resolution (because the angular distance, or difference in angle, at which it can still resolve individual objects is low). The closely related term spatial resolution refers to the precision of a measurement with respect to space, which is directly connected to angular resolution in imaging instruments. The Rayleigh criterion shows that the minimum angular spread that can be resolved by an image forming system is limited by diffraction to the ratio of the wavelength of the waves to the aperture width. For this reason, high resolution imaging systems such as astronomical telescopes, long distance telephoto camera lenses and radio telescopes have large apertures. Definition of terms Resolving power is the ability of an imaging device to separate (i.e., to see as distinct) points of an object that are located at a small angular distance or it is the power of an optical instrument to separate far away objects, that are close together, into individual images. The term resolution or minimum resolvable distance is the minimum distance between distinguishable objects in an image, although the term is loosely used by many users of microscopes and telescopes to describe resolving power. As explained below, diffraction-limited resolution is defined by the Rayleigh criterion as the angular separation of two point sources when the maximum of each source lies in the first minimum of the diffraction pattern (Airy disk) of the other. In scientific analysis, in general, the term "resolution" is used to describe the precision with which any instrument measures and records (in an image or spectrum) any variable in the specimen or sample under study. The Rayleigh criterion The imaging system's resolution can be limited either by aberration or by diffraction causing blurring of the image. These two phenomena have different origins and are unrelated. Aberrations can be explained by geometrical optics and can in principle be solved by increasing the optical quality of the system. On the other hand, diffraction comes from the wave nature of light and is determined by the finite aperture of the optical elements. The lens' circular aperture is analogous to a two-dimensional version of the single-slit experiment. Light passing through the lens interferes with itself creating a ring-shape diffraction pattern, known as the Airy pattern, if the wavefront of the transmitted light is taken to be spherical or plane over the exit aperture. The interplay between diffraction and aberration can be characterised by the point spread function (PSF). The narrower the aperture of a lens the more likely the PSF is dominated by diffraction. In that case, the angular resolution of an optical system can be estimated (from the diameter of the aperture and the wavelength of the light) by the Rayleigh criterion defined by Lord Rayleigh: two point sources are regarded as just resolved when the principal diffraction maximum (center) of the Airy disk of one image coincides with the first minimum of the Airy disk of the other, as shown in the accompanying photos. (In photos that show the Rayleigh criterion limit, the central maximum of one point source might look as though it lies outside the first minimum of the other, but examination with a ruler verifies that the two do intersect.) If the distance is greater, the two points are well resolved and if it is smaller, they are regarded as not resolved. Rayleigh defended this criterion on sources of equal strength. Considering diffraction through a circular aperture, this translates into: where θ is the angular resolution (radians), λ is the wavelength of light, and D is the diameter of the lens' aperture. The factor 1.22 is derived from a calculation of the position of the first dark circular ring surrounding the central Airy disc of the diffraction pattern. This number is more precisely 1.21966989... (), the first zero of the order-one Bessel function of the first kind divided by π. The formal Rayleigh criterion is close to the empirical resolution limit found earlier by the English astronomer W. R. Dawes, who tested human observers on close binary stars of equal brightness. The result, θ = 4.56/D, with D in inches and θ in arcseconds, is slightly narrower than calculated with the Rayleigh criterion. A calculation using Airy discs as point spread function shows that at Dawes' limit there is a 5% dip between the two maxima, whereas at Rayleigh's criterion there is a 26.3% dip. Modern image processing techniques including deconvolution of the point spread function allow resolution of binaries with even less angular separation. Using a small-angle approximation, the angular resolution may be converted into a spatial resolution, Δℓ, by multiplication of the angle (in radians) with the distance to the object. For a microscope, that distance is close to the focal length f of the objective. For this case, the Rayleigh criterion reads: . This is the radius, in the imaging plane, of the smallest spot to which a collimated beam of light can be focused, which also corresponds to the size of smallest object that the lens can resolve. The size is proportional to wavelength, λ, and thus, for example, blue light can be focused to a smaller spot than red light. If the lens is focusing a beam of light with a finite extent (e.g., a laser beam), the value of D corresponds to the diameter of the light beam, not the lens. Since the spatial resolution is inversely proportional to D, this leads to the slightly surprising result that a wide beam of light may be focused to a smaller spot than a narrow one. This result is related to the Fourier properties of a lens. A similar result holds for a small sensor imaging a subject at infinity: The angular resolution can be converted to a spatial resolution on the sensor by using f as the distance to the image sensor; this relates the spatial resolution of the image to the f-number, #: . Since this is the radius of the Airy disk, the resolution is better estimated by the diameter, Specific cases Single telescope Point-like sources separated by an angle smaller than the angular resolution cannot be resolved. A single optical telescope may have an angular resolution less than one arcsecond, but astronomical seeing and other atmospheric effects make attaining this very hard. The angular resolution R of a telescope can usually be approximated by where λ is the wavelength of the observed radiation, and D is the diameter of the telescope's objective. The resulting R is in radians. For example, in the case of yellow light with a wavelength of 580 nm, for a resolution of 0.1 arc second, we need D=1.2 m. Sources larger than the angular resolution are called extended sources or diffuse sources, and smaller sources are called point sources. This formula, for light with a wavelength of about 562 nm, is also called the Dawes' limit. Telescope array The highest angular resolutions can be achieved by arrays of telescopes called astronomical interferometers: These instruments can achieve angular resolutions of 0.001 arcsecond at optical wavelengths, and much higher resolutions at x-ray wavelengths. In order to perform aperture synthesis imaging, a large number of telescopes are required laid out in a 2-dimensional arrangement with a dimensional precision better than a fraction (0.25x) of the required image resolution. The angular resolution R of an interferometer array can usually be approximated by where λ is the wavelength of the observed radiation, and B is the length of the maximum physical separation of the telescopes in the array, called the baseline. The resulting R is in radians. Sources larger than the angular resolution are called extended sources or diffuse sources, and smaller sources are called point sources. For example, in order to form an image in yellow light with a wavelength of 580 nm, for a resolution of 1 milli-arcsecond, we need telescopes laid out in an array that is 120 m × 120 m with a dimensional precision better than 145 nm. Microscope The resolution R (here measured as a distance, not to be confused with the angular resolution of a previous subsection) depends on the angular aperture : where . Here NA is the numerical aperture, is half the included angle of the lens, which depends on the diameter of the lens and its focal length, is the refractive index of the medium between the lens and the specimen, and is the wavelength of light illuminating or emanating from (in the case of fluorescence microscopy) the sample. It follows that the NAs of both the objective and the condenser should be as high as possible for maximum resolution. In the case that both NAs are the same, the equation may be reduced to: The practical limit for is about 70°. In a dry objective or condenser, this gives a maximum NA of 0.95. In a high-resolution oil immersion lens, the maximum NA is typically 1.45, when using immersion oil with a refractive index of 1.52. Due to these limitations, the resolution limit of a light microscope using visible light is about 200 nm. Given that the shortest wavelength of visible light is violet (), which is near 200 nm. Oil immersion objectives can have practical difficulties due to their shallow depth of field and extremely short working distance, which calls for the use of very thin (0.17 mm) cover slips, or, in an inverted microscope, thin glass-bottomed Petri dishes. However, resolution below this theoretical limit can be achieved using super-resolution microscopy. These include optical near-fields (Near-field scanning optical microscope) or a diffraction technique called 4Pi STED microscopy. Objects as small as 30 nm have been resolved with both techniques. In addition to this Photoactivated localization microscopy can resolve structures of that size, but is also able to give information in z-direction (3D). See also Angular diameter Beam width Dawes limit Diffraction-limited system Ground sample distance Image resolution Optical resolution Sparrow's resolution limit Visual acuity Notes References External links "Concepts and Formulas in Microscopy: Resolution" by Michael W. Davidson, Nikon MicroscopyU (website). 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230436	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/News%20of%20the%20World	News of the World	The News of the World was a weekly national red top tabloid newspaper published every Sunday in the United Kingdom from 1843 to 2011. It was at one time the world's highest-selling English-language newspaper, and at closure still had one of the highest English-language circulations. It was originally established as a broadsheet by John Browne Bell, who identified crime, sensation and vice as the themes that would sell most copies. The Bells sold to Henry Lascelles Carr in 1891; in 1969 it was bought from the Carrs by Rupert Murdoch's media firm News Limited. Reorganised into News International, a subsidiary of News Corporation, the newspaper was transformed into a tabloid in 1984 and became the Sunday sister paper of The Sun. The News of the World concentrated in particular on celebrity scoops, gossip and populist news. Its somewhat prurient focus on sex scandals gained it the nickname Screws of the World. In its last decade it had a reputation for exposing celebrities' drug use, sexual peccadilloes, or criminal acts, by using insiders and journalists in disguise to provide video or photographic evidence, and covert phone hacking in ongoing police investigations. Sales averaged 2,812,005 copies per week in October 2010. From 2006, allegations of phone hacking began to engulf the newspaper. These culminated in the revelation on 4 July 2011 that, nearly a decade earlier, a private investigator hired by the newspaper had intercepted the voicemail of missing British teenager Milly Dowler, who was later found murdered. Amid a public backlash and the withdrawal of advertising, News International announced the closure of the newspaper on 7 July 2011. The scandal deepened when the paper was alleged to have hacked into the phones of families of British service personnel killed in action. Senior figures on the newspaper have been held for questioning by police investigating the phone hacking and corruption allegations, alongside former Daily Mirror editor Piers Morgan. Arrested on 8 July 2011 were former editor Andy Coulson and former News of the World royal editor Clive Goodman, the latter jailed for phone hacking in 2007. The former executive editor Neil Wallis was arrested on 15 July 2011 and former editor Rebekah Brooks, the tenth person held in custody, on 17 July 2011. During a visit to London on 17 February 2012, Murdoch announced he was soon to launch a Sunday edition of The Sun, which acted as a replacement to the News of the World. On 19 February 2012 it was announced that the first edition of The Sun on Sunday would be printed on 26 February 2012. It would employ some former News of the World journalists. History 1843 to 1968 The newspaper was first published as The News of the World on 1 October 1843, by John Browne Bell in London. Priced at three pence (equal to £ in ), even before the repeal of the Stamp Act (1855) or paper duty (1861), it was the cheapest newspaper of its time and was aimed directly at the newly literate working classes. It quickly established itself as a purveyor of titillation, shock, and criminal news. Much of the source material came from coverage of vice prosecutions, including lurid transcripts of police descriptions of alleged brothels, streetwalkers, and "immoral" women. In 1924 the newspaper sponsored the 1924 Women's Olympiad held at Stamford Bridge in London. Before long, the News of the World established itself as the most widely read Sunday paper, with initial sales of around 12,000 copies a week. Sales then suffered because the price was not cut following the abolition of newspaper taxes and the paper was soon no longer among the leading Sunday titles, selling around 30,000 by 1880, a greater number but a smaller proportion, as newspaper sales had grown hugely. The title was sold by the Bell family in 1891 to Henry Lascelles Carr who owned the Welsh Western Mail. As editor, he installed his nephew Emsley Carr, who held the post for 50 years. The real engine of the paper's now quick commercial success, however, was George Riddell, who reorganised its national distribution using local agents. Matthew Engel, in his book Tickle the Public: One Hundred Years of the Popular Press (Gollancz, 1996), says that the News of the World of the 1890s was "a very fine paper indeed". The paper was not without its detractors, though. As one writer later related: By 1912, the circulation was two million and around three million by the early 1920s. Sales reached four million by 1939. This success encouraged other similar newspapers, of which the Sunday People, the Daily Mail, the Daily Express and the Daily Mirror are still being published. In 1928, the paper began printing in Manchester on the presses of the News Chronicle in Derby Street, moving in 1960 into Thomson House, Withy Grove (formerly known as Kemsley House) when the News Chronicle closed. The move to Thomson House led to the immediate closure of the Empire News, a paper printed there and mainly circulating in the North of England and Wales with a circulation of about 2.5 million. Officially the Empire News and News of the World merged but Thomson House was already printing the Sunday Pictorial (to become the Sunday Mirror) and Sunday Times and did not have any further capacity with the News of the World arriving. The paper's motto was "All human life is there". The paper's name was linked with sports events as early as 1903 when the golfing tournament The News of the World Match Play Championship began (now under British PGA auspices). The News of the World Darts Championship existed from 1927 on a regional basis and became a national tournament from 1947 to 1990. There was also a News of the World Championship in snooker from 1950 to 1959 which eclipsed the official professionals' competition for a number of years. In athletics, the Emsley Carr Mile race was started in 1953 in memory of the former editor, and is still run annually. The paper's Football Annual was a long-standing publication (sponsoring it until 2008), and a Household Guide and Almanac was also published at one time. By 1950, the News of the World had become the biggest-selling newspaper in the world with a weekly sale of 8,441,000 and individual editions sold over 9 million copies. As with other Sunday newspapers, the News of the World was published on Saturday whenever Christmas Day fell on Sunday. Murdoch ownership The newspaper passed into the hands of Rupert Murdoch's News Ltd. in 1969, following an acrimonious year-long struggle with Robert Maxwell's Pergamon Press. Maxwell's Czech origin, combined with his political opinions, provoked a hostile response to his bid from the Carrs and from the editor of the News of the World, Stafford Somerfield, who declared in an October 1968 front page leading article attacking Maxwell that the paper was "as British as roast beef and Yorkshire pudding". News Ltd. arranged to swap shares in some of its minor ventures with the Carrs and by December it controlled 40% of the NOTW stock. Maxwell had been supported by the Jackson family (25% shareholders), but Murdoch had gained the support of the Carr family (30%) and then-chairman William Carr. In January 1969, Maxwell's bid was rejected at a shareholders' meeting where half of those present were company staff, temporarily given voting shares. It was Murdoch's first Fleet Street acquisition. Maxwell accused Murdoch of employing "the laws of the jungle" to acquire the paper and said he had "made a fair and bona fide offer... which has been frustrated and defeated after three months of [cynical] manoeuvring." Murdoch denied this, arguing the shareholders of the News of the World Group had "judged [his] record in Australia." Illness removed Sir William Carr from the chairmanship in June 1969, and Murdoch succeeded him. Murdoch came under severe criticism in a television interview with David Frost after the newspaper published extracts, in late summer 1969, from the memoirs of Christine Keeler. Keeler had been a central figure in the Profumo scandal which had emerged to public scrutiny in 1963. Murdoch regretted agreeing to the interview with Frost. In February 1970, Stafford Somerfield was sacked as editor after coming into conflict with Murdoch, whose takeover he had opposed. During the four decades of Murdoch's ownership, the newspaper had to frequently defend itself against libel charges as well as complaints to the Press Council (later the Press Complaints Commission) on accusations of certain news-gathering techniques, such as entrapment, and contentious campaigns. Some of the better-known of these were the "Bob and Sue" case with reporter Neville Thurlbeck, and various cases involving journalist Mazher Mahmood. The newspaper, which had generally supported the Conservative Party throughout its history (endorsing Edward Heath in the 1970 and both 1974 elections), maintained its political posture during the early years of the Murdoch era, whereas its weekday sister The Sun did not have a definitive allegiance, (supporting Harold Wilson's Labour Party in 1970, Heath in February 1974 and Jeremy Thorpe's Liberal Party in October 1974) until the late 1970s when it became a Tory bastion. Both newspapers would later endorse Tony Blair's New Labour during the late 1990s and early 2000s before switching back to the Conservatives during David Cameron's leadership. Starting in 1981, a magazine supplement (Sunday) was included with the paper and, in 1984, the newspaper changed from broadsheet to tabloid format. The paper was printed in Hertfordshire, Liverpool, Dinnington near Sheffield, Portsmouth, Glasgow and Dublin, with a separate edition produced in Belfast. It was also printed at a number of sites abroad including Madrid, Brussels, Cyprus and Orlando in Florida, USA. In 1985, the News of the World moved out of Thomson House when the building was bought by the tycoon Robert Maxwell (and renamed Maxwell House) and, after a short spell on the Daily Express presses in Great Ancoats Street, moved to a new plant at Knowsley on Merseyside. In 2011 the then editor, Colin Myler, described it as "the greatest newspaper in the world" as it had won four awards at the British Press Awards. The award for News Reporter of the Year, went to Mazher Mahmood, the "fake sheikh" who hides his identity, for his exposé of corruption in the cricketing world. The paper also won top show-business reporter and magazine of the year. It was rumoured that NotW could even win the top award, Newspaper of the Year. End of publication It was announced on 7 July 2011 that, after 168 years in print, the newspaper would print its final edition on 10 July 2011 following revelations of the ongoing phone hacking scandal, with the loss of 200 jobs. The paper announced that all profits from the final edition – 74 pence out of the £1 cover price – would go to "good causes", and advertising space would be given to charities; the remaining 26 pence for each copy went to retailers selling the paper and to wholesalers. Shutting the newspaper cost News Group Newspapers around £240m. Downing Street said it had no role in the decision. James Murdoch claimed that the company was fully co-operating with ongoing police investigations. The edition of 10 July 2011 of the News of the World carried its final headline, "Thank You & Goodbye", superimposed on top of a collage of past front pages. The back cover featured an out-of-context quote from George Orwell in 1946, and a recent quote from a NotW reader. The final edition also included a 48-page pullout documenting the history of the paper. On 9 July 2011, after production of the final edition wrapped, editor Colin Myler led the staff out of the building, where he held a press conference thanking the staff and its readers, concluding, "In the best tradition, we are going to the pub." The paper's final, and unattributed, editorial, stated that "Phones were hacked, and for that this newspaper is truly sorry... there is no justification for this appalling wrongdoing." The final edition sold 3.8 million copies, about a million more than usual. There was soon speculation that News International would launch a Sunday edition of The Sun to replace the News of the World, and it did, on 26 February 2012. The domain names sunonsunday.co.uk, thesunonsunday.co.uk and thesunonsunday.com were registered on 5 July 2011 by News International Newspapers Limited. Editors 1843: John Browne Bell 1855: John William Bell 1877: Walter John Bell and Adolphus William Bell 1891: Emsley Carr 1941: David Percy Davies 1946: Robert Skelton 1947: Arthur Waters 1953: Reg Cudlipp 1960: Stafford Somerfield 1970: Cyril Lear 1974: Peter Stephens 1975: Bernard Shrimsley 1980: Kenneth Donlan 1981: Barry Askew 1981: Derek Jameson 1984: Nicholas Lloyd 1985: David Montgomery 1987: Wendy Henry 1988: Patsy Chapman 1993: Stuart Higgins 1994: Piers Morgan 1995: Phil Hall 2000: Rebekah Wade 2003: Andy Coulson 2007: Colin Myler Notable contributors Norman Rae – Chief Reporter in 1950s – "legendary Fleet Street crime reporter... Norman Rae" Bob Bird – final Scottish News of the World editor Victoria Newton – final deputy editor Neville Thurlbeck – mainly responsible for the Beckham/Loos story Dan Wootton – showbusiness Controversies Imprisonment of Mick Jagger and Keith Richards (1967) In early 1967, the newspaper ran a three-part feature entitled "Pop Stars and Drugs: Facts That Will Shock You". The series described alleged LSD parties hosted by the Moody Blues and attended by top stars including the Who's Pete Townshend and Cream's Ginger Baker, and alleged admissions of drug use by leading pop musicians. The first article targeted Donovan (who was raided and charged soon after); the second installment (published on 5 February) targeted the Rolling Stones. A reporter who contributed to the story spent an evening at the exclusive London club Blaise's, where a member of the Rolling Stones allegedly took several Benzedrine tablets, displayed a piece of hashish and invited his companions back to his flat for a "smoke". The article claimed that the member was singer Mick Jagger, although the reporter had in fact been eavesdropping on guitarist Brian Jones. On 10 May 1967, Jagger, Keith Richards, and their friend art dealer Robert Fraser were arrested at Richards' Redlands estate in West Wittering and charged with possession of cannabis and amphetamines, while bandmate Jones' London house was also raided by police and he was arrested and charged with cannabis possession along with his friend Stanislas "Stash" Klossowski, son of French artist Balthus. Jagger and Richards were tried at the end of June. On 29 June, Jagger was sentenced to three months' imprisonment for possession of four amphetamine tablets; Richards was found guilty of allowing cannabis to be smoked on his property and sentenced to one year in prison. Both Jagger and Richards were imprisoned at that point, but were released on bail the next day pending appeal. The News of the World was rapidly identified by the hippy counterculture as the prime culprit for the imprisonments, which were seen as an attempt by the Establishment to send a collective message to a hedonistic young generation. International Times and activist and musician Mick Farren organised protests outside the Fleet Street offices of the newspaper. Protesters informed the paper's staff that their objective was "freeing the fucking Stones and closing down the fucking News of the World". Farren later credited his colleague Sue Miles with identifying the paper as a target for protest because, as she put it, "they were the bastards who started this" (with their feature on drugs in music). Farren reported that a second night of protests was broken up by officers from City of London Police, who beat him up and made a number of arrests. Criticism of the sentences also came from the News of the World'''s future sister publication The Times, which ran an editorial entitled "Who breaks a butterfly on a wheel?" in which conservative editor William Rees-Mogg surprised his readers by his unusually critical discourse on the sentencing, pointing out that Jagger had been treated far more harshly for a minor first offense than "any purely anonymous young man". On 31 July, the appeals court overturned Richards' conviction, and Jagger's sentence was reduced to a conditional discharge. Brian Jones' trial took place in November 1967; in December, after appealing the original prison sentence, Jones was fined £1,000, put on three years' probation and ordered to seek professional help. Commenting on the closure in 2011 of the newspaper against which he had led protests 44 years earlier, Farren was in triumphant mood: "Chequebook" journalism The paper became notorious for chequebook journalism, as it was often discovered attempting to buy stories, typically concerning private affairs and relationships, of people closely involved with figures of public interest such as politicians, celebrities and high-profile criminals. With this intention, the paper on occasion paid key witnesses in criminal trials such as the 1966 Moors murders case,Topping, Peter (1989), Topping: The Autobiography of the Police Chief in the Moors Murder Case: p. 143. and the 1999 trial of Gary Glitter on charges of assaulting an underage teenage fan. Anti-paedophile campaign (2000) The paper began a controversial campaign to name and shame alleged paedophiles in July 2000, following the abduction and murder of Sarah Payne in West Sussex. During the trial of her killer Roy Whiting, it emerged that he had a previous conviction for abduction and sexual assault against a child. The paper's decision led to some instances of action being taken against those suspected of being child sex offenders, which included several cases of mistaken identity, including one instance where a paediatrician had her house vandalised, and another where a man was confronted because he had a neck brace similar to one a paedophile was wearing when pictured. The campaign was labelled "grossly irresponsible" journalism by the then-chief constable of Gloucestershire, Tony Butler. The paper also campaigned for the introduction of Sarah's Law to allow public access to the sex offender registry. Phone hacking scandal From the nineties until the newspaper’s demise in 2011, reporters at the paper used private investigators to illegally gain access to hundreds of mobile phone voicemail accounts held by a variety of people of interest to the newspaper. In 2007 the paper's royal correspondent, Clive Goodman, pleaded guilty to illegal interception of personal communication and was jailed for four months; the paper's editor, Andy Coulson, had resigned two weeks earlier. In 2009/2010, further revelations emerged on the extent of the phone hacking, and how it was common knowledge within the News of the World and its News International parent. According to a former reporter at the paper, "Everyone knew. The office cat knew", about the illegal activities used to scoop stories. On 17 January 2011, The Guardian reported that Glenn Mulcaire, a private investigator paid by the paper, testified that he had been asked by the newspaper's leadership to hack voicemail accounts on its behalf. In April 2011, attorneys for the victims alleged that as many as 7,000 people had their phones hacked by the News of the World; it was further revealed that the paper's owner, Rupert Murdoch, had attempted to pressure Prime Minister Gordon Brown and Labour Party MPs to "back away" from investigating the scandal. Three journalists on the newspaper were initially arrested: Ian Edmondson and Neville Thurlbeck on 5 April and James Weatherup on 14 April. The newspaper "unreservedly" apologised for its phone hacking activities during April 2011. On 4 July 2011, it was disclosed that potential evidence had been deleted in spring 2002 from the hacked voicemail account of Milly Dowler, then missing, but later found to have been murdered. 2006 reward for information on murders On 13 December 2006, the newspaper announced that it was offering a record-breaking reward of £250,000 for information leading to the arrest and conviction of the person or persons responsible for the murders of five prostitutes around Ipswich, Suffolk. The reward went unclaimed; Steve Wright was arrested on suspicion of murder six days later following the use of unrelated information to link him to the murders. He was found guilty of all five murders at his trial 14 months later and sentenced to life imprisonment. The Victoria Beckham 'kidnap plot' In 2002, Mazher Mahmood, an undercover reporter working for the News of the World, also known as the Fake Sheikh, allegedly exposed a plot to kidnap Victoria Beckham. Five men were arrested but the trial later collapsed when it emerged News of the World had paid its main witness Florim Gashi £10,000 to work with Mazher Mahmood. Florim Gashi later admitted working with Mahmood to set up the kidnap plot. This led to an investigation by Scotland Yard on News of the World called Operation Canopus. "Fake sheikh" cricket scandal In August 2010, News of the World reporter and undercover journalist Mazher Mahmood posed as a "Fake Sheikh" to expose a cricket bookie named Mazhar Majeed who claimed Pakistani cricketers had committed spot-fixing during Pakistan's 2010 tour of England. In November 2011, Salman Butt and Mohammad Asif were found guilty by a London court on criminal charges relating to spot-fixing. Mohammad Amir and Mahjeed had entered guilty pleas on the same charges. Links to police corruption In a September 2010 interview broadcast on 7 July 2011 on the BBC Radio 4 news programme The World at One, former News of the World features editor Paul McMullan made an admission relating to police corruption. He told of having used material obtained by a colleague's bribery of a police officer as the basis of a series of articles published over several years on Jennifer Elliott, the daughter of the actor Denholm Elliott. He stated, "The going rate for that kind of thing might have been two to five hundred pounds and that would have been authorised, and he [i.e., the police officer] would have been paid... and he would have been on the lookout for another story..." The articles described Elliott's destitute situation and stated that she had worked as a prostitute. Jennifer Elliott took her own life in 2003. In McMullan's opinion, the News of the World – specifically, his own articles – contributed significantly to her suicide. In 2011, the paper knowingly used private investigators to gain stories from corrupt police officers. Libel actions In 1988, the parents of actor David Scarboro, who played Mark Fowler on the BBC soap opera EastEnders, commenced libel proceedings with solicitor Michael Shelton due to the hounding of Scarboro whilst he suffered from mental illness. During this time the News of the World and its sister paper The Sun published stories calling Scarboro a "zombie" as well as "Dracula" and purported that he took cocaine. According to the parents this escalated Scarboro's depression resulting in his suicide on 27 April 1988. Due to the suicide the libel action was forced to cease. In 2005, British television personality Ahmed Aghil won an apology from the News of the World in a libel case. In 2005, England footballer David Beckham and his wife Victoria brought a legal action against the paper seeking libel damages over an article that carried the headline "Posh and Becks on the Rocks"; suggesting that their marriage was under pressure. The legal action was withdrawn in 2006 and "resolved on a confidential basis", according to the couple's spokeswoman Jo Milloy. In April 2006, England footballer Wayne Rooney received £100,000 in damages from the publishers of the News of the World and its sister paper The Sun over articles falsely reporting he had slapped his fiancée Coleen McLoughlin. In June 2006, England footballer Ashley Cole received an estimated minimum £100,000 in damages from the publishers of the News of the World and its sister paper The Sun. The News of the World had published a false story about two footballers having a gay orgy with a DJ; while not naming any of them, it used a pixelated photograph of Cole to illustrate the story. In July 2006, Scottish politician Tommy Sheridan initiated a libel case against the News of the World in Edinburgh. Sheridan denied allegations, made by the newspaper in November 2004 and January 2005, that he had an affair, engaged in group sex and attended a swinger's club in Manchester. Sheridan won the case and was awarded £200,000 in damages. The newspaper appealed against the jury's decision, and refused to pay out the money; Sheridan and his wife Gail were charged with perjury; the court case commenced on 4 October 2010. Charges against Gail Sheridan were dropped and she was acquitted on 17 December 2010. Sheridan was subsequently convicted on 23 December 2010. The case was the longest perjury trial in Scottish history. In 2008 in the invasion of privacy case Mosley v News Group Newspapers Limited the President of the FIA Max Mosley challenged the News of the World which had alleged on 30 March 2008 that he had been involved in a sadomasochistic sex act involving several female prostitutes, when they published a video of the incident recorded by one of the women, and published details of the incident. The case resulted in Mosley being awarded £60,000 in damages. In 2009 Barry George, a man who had been falsely convicted of murdering television presenter Jill Dando, won a libel claim filed against the publisher of the News of the World after the paper fabricated quotes to suggest he had stalked other women. In January 2010, Norwich City Football Club started legal proceedings against the News of the World after they published an article, "Canaries on Brink" on 24 January 2010 claiming that the club had begun the processes of going into administration. In February 2010, actor Brad Pitt and his partner, actress Angelina Jolie made plans to sue the News of the World after it published allegations about their relationship. In June 2011, the UK Press Complaint Commission (PCC) gave Yasir Hameed, a Pakistani cricketer, a victory by ordering the News of the World to remove a video and story about him from its website. Also in 2011, Polish footballer Artur Boruc won an out-of-court settlement against the News of the World after the newspaper made false allegations that he was unfaithful to his girlfriend. Boruc was paid £70,000 and a full apology was issued. Awards British Press Awards: "Newspaper of the Year" (2005) "Scoop of the Year" (2000, 'Archer quits'; 2005, 'Beckham's secret affair'; 2011, 'Cricket corruption') "Front Page of the Year" (2004, 'Huntley in his cell') "Reporter of the Year" (Gary Jones, 1995, Mazher Mahmood, 1999, 2011) See also Sun On Sunday Phone hacking scandal reference lists Metropolitan police role in phone hacking scandal Rebekah Brooks (Current CEO of News UK) Operation Weeting Junk food news References External links inactive. News of the World: Back in the Day slideshow by Life magazine How the 'Screws' screwed its rivals Tim Luckhurst, The Independent'', 19 February 2006 Social Media Campaign on Phone Hacking Scandal . 7 July 2011. 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230439	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Birla	Birla	Birla may refer to: Birla family Members of the Birla family: Aditya Vikram Birla Ananya Birla Basant Kumar Birla Ghanshyam Das Birla Krishna Kumar Birla CK Birla Kumar Mangalam Birla See also Burla (disambiguation) Birla family	[ -0.25432902574539185, 0.28365886211395264, 0.0150504931807518, -0.3979218900203705, -0.49972662329673767, 0.5635377764701843, 0.4485774040222168, -0.33645835518836975, -0.7053649425506592, 0.3908347487449646, -0.16516168415546417, -0.3648671507835388, -0.7032132744789124, 0.7405120134353638, 0.1892303079366684, 0.8327242136001587, 0.07507608085870743, 0.2777520716190338, -0.28279805183410645, -0.43698760867118835, 0.5151312351226807, 0.2673422694206238, 0.4916088283061981, -0.24328649044036865, 0.6397854089736938, 0.3590715527534485, 0.7813781499862671, 0.2825510501861572, -0.458519846200943, -0.25755733251571655, 0.012314090505242348, 0.26793205738067627, 0.5746416449546814, 0.5230796933174133, 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230440	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Droit%20du%20seigneur	Droit du seigneur	('lord's right'), also known as ('right of the first night'), was a supposed legal right in medieval Europe, allowing feudal lords to have sexual relations with subordinate women, in particular, on the wedding nights of the women. A majority of historians have concluded that the idea is a myth, and that all references to it are from later periods. Over the centuries, it became commonly portrayed in European literature as a practice that had occurred in earlier times or other places. In practice, it may have been the feudal lords using their power and influence over serfs to sexually exploit the women free of consequences, as opposed to a legitimate legal right. Terminology The French expression droit du seigneur translates as "right of the lord", but modern native French prefer the terms droit de jambage (, from jambe, 'leg') or droit de cuissage (, from cuisse, 'thigh'). The term is often used synonymously with jus primae noctis, Latin for "right of the first night". Before Middle Ages In the Epic of Gilgamesh, Gilgamesh is described as having practiced a similar custom: "He is king, he does whatever he wants... takes the girl from her mother and uses her, the warrior's daughter, the young man's bride." His first meeting with his friend Enkidu is an attempt at one of these acts where Enkidu manages to stop him in a great contest of strength between the two champions. Herodotus mentions a similar custom among the Adyrmachidae in ancient Libya: "They are also the only tribe with whom the custom obtains of bringing all women about to become brides before the king, that he may choose such as are agreeable to him." When the plebeians of the Etruscan city of Volsinii rebelled against the aristocrats in 280 BC, "They took their wives for themselves and placed the daughters of the nobles under the jus primae noctis, while all their former masters on whom they could lay hands were tortured to death." Middle Ages Europe The medieval marriage fine or merchet has sometimes been interpreted as a payment for the droit du seigneur to be waived. Alternatively, it has been interpreted as compensation to the lord for the young women leaving his lands. Encyclopedia Britannica states that the evidence indicates it was a monetary tax related to vassal marriages, since a considerable number of seigneurial rights revolved around marriage. A similar payment to church authorities has also been interpreted as relating to the droit du seigneur. However, according to British scholar W. D. Howarth, the Roman Catholic Church at some times prohibited consummation of a marriage on the first night. The payment was for an indulgence from the church to waive this prohibition. The biography of Gerald of Aurillac written by Odo of Cluny (879-942) gives an account of the young nobleman demanding to rape one of his serfs, only to have the act averted by a miracle, sending Gerald on the road to sainthood. American historian Vern Bullough suggested that this illustrates that such behaviour was commonplace in the period, and that the "legend [of droit du seigneur] reflected the reality". In the 14th century French epic poem Baudouin de Sebourc, a tyrannical lord claims the jus primae noctis unless he receives part of the bride's dowry. The supposed right was abolished by Ferdinand II of Aragon in Article 9 of the Sentencia Arbitral de Guadalupe in 1486. China Khitan Before the Jurchens overthrew their Khitan rulers, married Jurchen women and Jurchen girls were raped by Liao dynasty Khitan envoys as a custom which caused resentment by the Jurchens against the Khitan. Liao Khitan envoys among the Jurchens were treated to guest prostitutes by their Jurchen hosts. Unmarried Jurchen girls and their families hosted the Liao envoys who had sex with the girls. Song envoys among the Jin were similarly entertained by singing girls in Guide, Henan. Although the Liao Khitan had superior power over the Jurchens when ruling them, there is no evidence that guest prostitution of unmarried Jurchen girls to Khitan men was hated or resented by the Jurchens. It was only when the Liao Khitan forced aristocratic Jurchen families to give up their beautiful wives as guest prostitutes to Liao Khitan messengers that this stirred resentment and anger by the Jurchens. A historian has speculated that this could mean that in Jurchen upper classes, only a husband had the right to his married wife while among lower class Jurchens, unmarried girls virginity and sleeping with Liao Khitan men did not matter and did not impede their ability to marry later. The Jurchens' sexual habits and mores seemed lax to Han Chinese, such as marrying with an in law which was one of China's "Ten Heinous Crimes". Jurchens very commonly practiced guest prostitution giving female companions, food and shelter to guests. Unmarried daughters of Jurchen families of lower and middle classes in native Jurchen villages were provided to Liao Kitan messengers for sexual intercourse as recorded by Hong Hao (Hung Hao). Marco Polo also reported that in Hami (Camul) guest prostitution was practiced with hosts giving their female relatives, sisters, daughters and wives to guests in their house. Tanguts practiced this guest prostitution. Xia In the Western Xia state, before they could marry men of their own ethnicity when they reached 30 years old, Uighur women in Shaanxi in the 12th century had children after having relations with multiple Han Chinese men. Later references Europe England The English lexicographer Thomas Blount recorded the "right" as a medieval custom of some English manors in Fragmenta Antiquitatis in 1679. The Curiosities of Literature (1823) by the British writer Isaac D'Israeli stated the practice had been widespread across Europe. France The right was mentioned in 1556 in the Recueil d'arrêts notables des cours souveraines de France of the French lawyer and author Jean Papon. The French writer Antoine du Verdier also commented on it in 1577. The French philosopher Montesquieu referred to the practice in The Spirit of the Laws (1748), saying that it had been enforced in France over three nights. Voltaire mentioned the practice in his Dictionnaire philosophique, published in 1764. He wrote the five-act comedy Le droit du seigneur or L'écueil du sage in 1762, although it was not performed until 1779, after his death. This play was the first time the term droit du seigneur was used. In 18th-century France, a number of writers made other claims about the supposed power of the overlords during the Ancien Régime, such as the droit de ravage (right of ravage; providing to the lord the right to devastate fields of his own domain), and the droit de prélassement (right of lounging; it was said that a lord had the right to disembowel his serfs to warm his feet in). Holy Roman Empire In Mozart's The Marriage of Figaro, which premiered in 1786 with a libretto by Lorenzo Da Ponte, the comic plot revolves around the successful efforts of the young bride and groom, Figaro and Susanna, to block the efforts of the unfaithful Count Almaviva to seduce Susanna. To achieve his aim, the frustrated Count threatens to reinstitute droit du seigneur. It was based on a the play of the same title by Pierre Beaumarchais. Netherlands The Acta Sanctorum ("Acts of the Saints"), published from 1643 onwards, mentions the jus primae noctis in the hagiographies of St Margaret and St Forannan. Scotland In 1527, the Scottish historian Hector Boece wrote that the "right" had existed in Scotland until abolished by Malcolm III (r. 1058–93) under the influence of his wife, Margaret (later St Margaret of Scotland). The payment of merchet was instituted in its place. Boece attributed the law to a legendary king, Ewen or Evenus III. The modern French scholar Alain Boureau says that Boece probably invented King Ewen, but he views this as mythology, not as a polemic against medieval barbarism. In Shakespeare's play, Henry VI, Part 2 ( 1591), the rebel Jack Cade proclaims: "there shall not a maid be married, but she shall pay to me her maidenhead ere they have it". According to the French scholar Alain Boureau, Cade was demanding the payment of merchet, not the right of first night, but others disagree. Other Scottish scholars of his era quoted Boece with approval, including John Lesley (1578), George Buchanan (1582), and Habbakuk Bisset (1626). The historical existence of the custom in Scotland was also accepted in Scottish legal works such as James Balfour's Practicks ( 1579), John Skene's De Verborum (1597), and Thomas Craig's Jus Feudale (1603). The English scholar Henry Spelman stated in his Glossary (1664) that the custom had existed in Scotland, but not in England. The English jurist William Blackstone cited Boece's statement in his Commentaries on the Laws of England (1765–1769), while similarly noting that the custom had never existed in England. In 1776, the Scottish jurist David Dalrymple disputed the existence of the custom, arguing Boece's account was purely legendary, but his position was often seen as based on Scottish patriotism. However, according to the Scottish legal scholar David Maxwell Walker, instances have been recorded of the jus being claimed up to the 18th century. Walker concluded that it is possible that the jus existed as a custom in Scotland, dependent on the attitude of the king, and survived longer in remote regions. After their travels in Scotland in 1773, Samuel Johnson and James Boswell documented the custom of the payment of merchet, linking it with the "right of first night". They paralleled it with that custom of Borough English, suggesting that the English custom favored the youngest son because the paternity of the eldest son was doubtful. Sir Walter Scott mentioned the custom in his historical Scottish novel, The Fair Maid of Perth (1828). Spain The Spanish novel Los trabajos de Persiles y Sigismunda (1617) by Miguel de Cervantes contains an episode where a bride and groom escape a barbaric marriage custom in Ireland. According to the British scholar W.D. Howarth, Cervantes was inspired by Peruvian marriage ceremonies and what is described is different from the classic version of the droit du seigneur as it involves multiple virgins. However, Cervantes' story was a source for the English play The Custom of the Country, written by John Fletcher and Philip Massinger and published in 1647. The play has the classic version of the "right of first night" with money payment as an alternative. According to Howarth, this suggests that droit du seigneur was a familiar notion to people at that time, which he traces back to Boece. Africa In modern times, Zaire's president Mobutu Sese Seko appropriated the droit de cuissage when traveling around the country, where local chiefs offered him virgins. America The term has also been used to describe the sexual exploitation of slaves in the United States. (See Children of the plantation.) Asia As late as the nineteenth century, some Kurdish chieftains in Anatolia raped Armenian brides on their wedding night (part of what was then known as the khafir or hafir system). Oceania In the Hawaiian Islands, the privilege for chiefs was often observed, according to "Sexual Behavior in Pre Contact Hawai‘i" by Milton Diamond. A young girl's parents viewed the coupling with favor. This is because the girl might conceive the chief’s child and be allowed to keep it Debate in the 19th and 20th centuries Scholars in the 19th and 20th centuries gave the historical basis of the "right of first night" a good deal of attention. Historians David M. Walker and Hector McKechnie wrote that the right might have existed in medieval Europe, but other historians have concluded that it is a myth, and that all references to it are from later periods. Over time, the Encyclopædia Britannica and the Larousse encyclopedias dramatically changed their opinion on the topic, moving from acceptance to rejection of the historical veracity of the idea. French writer Louis Veuillot, wrote a book in 1854 disputing its existence. After an exhaustive historical study, German jurist Karl Schmidt concluded in 1881 that it was a scholarly misconception. After Schmidt, many of those who believed in the existence of the custom based their opinions on anthropological studies of tribal societies, though according to W. D. Howarth, this was a misguided argument because of the disparity between the tribal societies and medieval European society. In The Origin of the Family, Private Property and the State in 1884, socialist Friedrich Engels argued it was real and had an anthropological origin. In 1930, Scottish legal scholar Hector McKechnie concluded, based on historical evidence, that the practice had existed in Scotland in early times. Italian scholar Paolo Mantegazza, in his 1935 book The Sexual Relations of Mankind, said that while not a law, it was most likely a binding custom. See also Virgin cleansing myth, a belief that having sex with a virgin girl can cure certain diseases (notably AIDS) or otherwise conveys power to the man Children of the plantation Non-paternity event Royal bastard Cuckoldry Childwite Notes References Bibliography Translation of: Le droit de cuissage: La fabrication d'un mythe (XIIIe–XXe siècle), Albin Michel External links The Straight Dope: Did medieval lords have "right of the first night" with the local brides? Snopes: First Knight - A discussion of the droit du seigneur, or the 'right of the lord.' Jus primae noctis. 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230447	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Penitentiary%20%28disambiguation%29	Penitentiary (disambiguation)	Prison or penitentiary, is a correctional facility. Penitentiary may also refer to: Apostolic Penitentiary, a tribunal of mercy, responsible for issues relating to the forgiveness of sins in the Roman Catholic Church canon penitentiary, a clergyman attached to a major church to serve as a general confessor Penitentiary (1938 film) Penitentiary (1979 film) Penitentiary Point, a cliff in Utah	[ 0.21992270648479462, 0.0892581194639206, -0.4498607814311981, 0.4040662348270416, 0.2824056148529053, -0.07966047525405884, 0.8140785098075867, 0.1312912106513977, -0.8585211634635925, -0.21887411177158356, -0.5635027885437012, -0.24391350150108337, -0.5811498165130615, 0.6691347360610962, 0.10908780246973038, 0.3536645770072937, 0.5308476686477661, -0.08628250658512115, 0.08540315926074982, -0.1729438304901123, -0.16043119132518768, -0.04154984652996063, 0.0732835978269577, -0.3906927704811096, 0.13673993945121765, -0.21947595477104187, -0.2023637741804123, 0.04156520590186119, -0.6866466403007507, 0.11238615214824677, -0.06454254686832428, 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230448	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dartington%20Hall	Dartington Hall	Dartington Hall in Dartington, near Totnes, Devon, England, is an historic house and country estate of dating from medieval times. The group of late 14th century buildings are Grade I listed; described in Pevsner's Buildings of England as "one of the most spectacular surviving domestic buildings of late Medieval England", along with Haddon Hall and Wingfield Manor. The medieval buildings are grouped around a huge courtyard; the largest built for a private residence before the 16th Century, and the Great Hall itself is the finest of its date in England. The west range of the courtyard is regarded as nationally one of the most notable examples of a range of medieval lodgings. The medieval buildings were restored from 1926 to 1938. The site is the headquarters of the Dartington Trust, which currently runs a number of charitable educational programmes, including Schumacher College, Dartington Arts School, Research in Practice and the Dartington International Summer School. In addition to its own arts and learning programmes, the Trust uses Dartington Hall to host other groups and as a venue for retreats. Dartington Hall estate The estate was held by the Martin family between the early 12th and mid 14th centuries but on the death of William Martin in 1326, the feudal barony of Dartington escheated to the crown and in 1384 was granted by King Richard II to his half brother John Holland, 1st Duke of Exeter (c.1352-1400), created in 1388 Earl of Huntingdon and in 1397 Duke of Exeter. Historic buildings The 1st Duke built the mediaeval hall between 1388 and his death in 1400 and the sculpted arms of Richard II survive on ribbed vault of the Porch. The 1st Duke was beheaded by King Henry IV who had deposed Richard II, however Dartington continued as the seat of his son John Holland, 2nd Duke of Exeter (1395-1447) and grandson Henry Holland, 3rd Duke of Exeter (1430-1475) successively. On the death of the 3rd Duke in 1475 without issue, supposedly drowned at sea on the orders of King Edward IV, Dartington again escheated to the crown. In 1559 it was acquired by Sir Arthur Champernowne, Vice-Admiral of the West under Elizabeth I, whose descendants in a direct male line lived in the Hall for 366 years until 1925. The hall was mostly derelict by the time it was bought in 1925 by the British-American millionaire couple Leonard Elmhirst (orig. from Yorkshire) and his wife Dorothy (née Whitney) from New York. They commissioned architect William Weir to renovate the medieval buildings and notably restore the Great Hall's hammerbeam roof. Modern buildings The influence of Rabindranath Tagore on Leonard Elmhirst, and the interests and money of his wife Dorothy, led them to undertake an experiment in rural reconstruction at Dartington Hall, which was purchased in 1925. It is said that Tagore had become familiar with Dartington during his travels in England and influenced Elmhirst in his selection of the estate. In 1928, Leonard Elmirst began collaborating with Alice Blinn, who worked for Delineator Home Institute to create a home economics training centre and modernise domestic activities of the village. Blinn recommended initiatives including education, apprenticeship programmes, a laboratory, a modern kitchen, cafeteria, laundry, and lavatories, based on what was available in a modern American home. Unable to persuade Blinn to move to England, Elmhirst abandoned the plan. Blinn's recommended kitchen equipment was installed but arranged in a typical English fashion because the headmaster's wife did not like the design. In 1935, the Dartington Hall Trust, a registered charity, was set up in order to run the estate. High Cross House was built in 1932 as a home for the headmaster of Dartington Hall school. It was designed by Swiss-American architect William Lescaze and is now regarded as an important modernist building. It is Grade II* listed. Aller Park, the original Dartington Hall School, was built 1929-31 and designed by Ides Van Der Gracht of the New York firm of Delano and Aldrish. Intended as a junior school, it was built in a lavish Americanised Tudor style. Soon afterwards came Foxhole, the senior school built 1931-32, and boarding houses Blacklers (1933), Chimmels (1934) and Orchards (1935) in a straightforward modern idiom. A modern extension was added added to Orchards, and a drama hall built nearby - both of 1964. East of the medieval Hall an arts centre and dance school with a large hall was built 1930-32, with several additions in 1938 and 1966. To the North of the Hall, Higher Close Students Centre was built in 1963 adjacent to the present main car park. Huxhams Cross and Broom Park were built 1932 as estate workers houses. At Shinners Bridge is the central Office of the estate (1935) and the Sawmill (1931-32). The Cider Press Centre was built 1976 for the growing tourist trade. The estate today In addition to historic buildings the estate has a number of legacy 20th century buildings from the Elmhirst's social enterprises, including the defunct Dartington Hall School, which closed in 1987. These are being used by various charitable and commercial organisations, including Schumacher College, the Arts at Dartington, the Dartington International Summer School of music, Research in Practice, Dartington School for Social Entrepreneurs. There also shops at Dartington (formerly the Cider Press Centre). The Hall and medieval courtyard functions in part as a conference centre and wedding venue and provides bed and breakfast accommodation for people attending courses and for casual visitors. The Barn Cinema and the White Hart Bar and Restaurant are used by estate dwellers, residents from the surrounding countryside, and visitors alike. In North Devon, the Beaford Centre was set up as an arts centre by the Dartington Trust in the 1960s to bring employment and culture to a rurally depressed area, and continues to thrive. With similar social objectives, the Trust established the Dartington Crystal factory at Great Torrington in June 1967 under the name of Dartington Glass. Dartington International Summer School Dartington International Summer School is run by a department of the Dartington Trust. It is both a festival and a music school. Participants, both amateur musicians and advanced students, spend the daytime studying a variety of different musical courses, and the evenings attending (or performing in) concerts. In addition to instrumental and vocal masterclasses, there are courses at various levels on subjects such as composition, opera, chamber music, conducting and improvisation. Courses include choirs, orchestras, individual masterclasses, and non classical music such as Jazz, Salsa and Gamelan. Composition teachers have included Luciano Berio, Luigi Nono, Bruno Maderna, Harrison Birtwistle, Peter Maxwell Davies, Brian Ferneyhough, Witold Lutosławski and Elliott Carter. Dartington Gardens The gardens were created by Dorothy Elmhirst with the involvement of major landscape designers Beatrix Farrand and Percy Cane and feature a tiltyard (thought actually to be the remains of an Elizabethan water garden) and major sculptures, including examples by Henry Moore, Willi Soukop and Peter Randall-Page. There is an ancient yew tree (Taxus baccata) reputed to be nearly 2000 years old and legend has it that Knights Templar are buried in the graveyard there, although there is no evidence to substantiate this. Former activities Dartington Hall School Dartington Hall School, founded in 1926, offered a progressive coeducational boarding life. When it started there was a minimum of formal classroom activity and the children learned by involvement in estate activities. It was to have "no corporal punishment, indeed no punishment at all; no prefects; no uniforms; no Officers' Training Corps; no segregation of the sexes; no compulsory games, compulsory religion or compulsory anything else, no more Latin, no more Greek; no competition; no jingoism." With time more academic rigour was imposed, but it remained progressive and had mixed success educating the children, sometimes the more wayward ones, of the fee-paying parents. A noted alumnus was Lord Young, a founder of Which? and the Open University. Lucian Freud attended the school for two years and his brother Clement Freud was also a pupil there. Other noted alumni include Eva Ibbotson, songwriter Kit Hain, Ivan Moffat, Jasper Fforde, Sheila Ernst, Lionel Grigson, Miriam Gross, Martin Bernal, Matthew Huxley, Max Fordham, Oliver Postgate, Richard Leacock and the sculptor Sokari Douglas Camp. Son of the founders, Michael Straight, also attended the school. Straight later attended Cambridge and became a speechwriter to Franklin D Roosevelt, and publisher of the New Republic after the war, which the Whitney family owned. In his memoir ‘After Long Silence’ Straight stated he had been recruited as a Communist agent by Cambridge spy Anthony Blunt, but had become disillusioned with the Party after the war. W. B. Curry was headmaster of the school from 1931 to 1957, and wrote two books about it, The School, published by The Bodley Head in 1934, and Education for Sanity, published by Heinemann in 1947. The author Dennis Wheatley novelised the activities of some people based at the school in his 1947 book The Haunting of Toby Jugg. This was a supernatural thriller which sensationalised some real-life events before the war, setting them at a fictional school called "Weylands". Years later, it was revealed that these events had attracted the attention of MI5 in a declassified report called "The Case Against Dartington Hall". At its peak, the school had some 300 pupils. However, with the advent of state-based progressive education, the death of its founders, and the appointment of a new headmaster in whose time the school attracted considerable negative publicity - not least owing to his calling the police to the school to combat alcohol and drug abuse taking place, the death by drowning of a student, and his wife's modelling for pornographic photographs - the school suffered a dramatic drop in recruitment. The school was forced to close in 1987. After the school's closure, a number of staff and students set up Sands School which still carries some of the principles that Dartington once had. It has been suggested that the school 'Knotshead' in the novel A Private Place by Amanda Craig was based upon Dartington Hall school, as the events in the book are similar to those that occurred within the final years of Dartington Hall. Literary editor Miriam Gross wrote an account of her time at the school in her memoir, and also published in the May 2011 edition of Standpoint magazine. Tagore Inspired by a long association with Rabindranath Tagore's Shantiniketan, where Tagore was trying to introduce progressive education and rural reconstruction into a tribal community, the Elmhirsts set out in the 1920s on a similar goal for the depressed agricultural economy in rural England. In May 2010, Sotheby's sold a group of 12 paintings by Rabindranath Tagore, which had been given by Tagore to Leonard Elmhirst. In Autumn 2011, The Trust proposed the sale of additional artworks by Ben Nicholson, Christopher Wood, Alfred Wallis and others, again at Sotheby's. The sale generated some criticism from local people, who voiced concerns about deaccessioning of the Trust's art assets. The Trust argued that the founders went to considerable lengths to make clear that art works and other assets could and should be used and sold at the discretion of the Trustees to support the activities of the Trust. Dartington College of Arts Dartington College of Arts was a specialist arts institution based at the hall from 1961 to 2010, with an international reputation for excellence, focusing mainly on the performance arts. In 2008, it became part of University College Falmouth and subsequently relocated to Falmouth, Cornwall. In 2021, the Trust re-opened the Dartington Arts School with five new Masters programmes, including Arts and Place and the Poetics of Imagination. Gallery See also D. G. Champernowne, mathematician and economist, buried in the church yard Dart, a poem by Alice Oswald (Dartington Hall's gardener) References Further reading Anonymous, Dartington, Webb & Bower, 1982. Wheatley, Dennis. The Haunting of Toby Jugg (1947). Critical novel, based on life at the school. MacManus, Steve (2017). Elmsworld. My Life At Dartington Hall School 1963-1971, eBook Publication, . External links Dartington Trust Higher Education at Dartington Trust Battle to save celebrated cradle of cutting edge art (The Guardian) Dartington International Summer School Dartington Hall School alumni website Country houses in Devon Gardens in Devon Education in Devon Festivals in Devon Grade I listed buildings in Devon Grade II* listed parks and gardens in Devon Tourist attractions in Devon Charities based in Devon Arts in Devon Sustainability advocates British intentional communities	[ 0.2522083818912506, -0.21278774738311768, -0.10923189669847488, -0.6202667355537415, 0.6572791934013367, 0.5674180388450623, 0.34691348671913147, -0.13678306341171265, -0.5683515667915344, 0.05522637814283371, -0.1853763610124588, -0.053077153861522675, -0.24431557953357697, 0.2724321186542511, -0.9735328555107117, -0.19772453606128693, 0.38492658734321594, 0.06778112053871155, 0.3972316384315491, -0.4896220266819, -0.14293214678764343, -0.040219686925411224, -0.30520835518836975, 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230454	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/3rd%20Golden%20Raspberry%20Awards	3rd Golden Raspberry Awards	The 3rd Golden Raspberry Awards were held on April 11, 1983, at an Oscar night potluck party to recognize the worst the film industry had to offer in 1982. Winners and nominees Films with multiple nominations These films garnered multiple nominations: See also 1982 in film 55th Academy Awards 36th British Academy Film Awards 40th Golden Globe Awards External links Official summary of awards Nomination and award listing at the Internet Movie Database Golden Raspberry Awards 03 1982 in American cinema April 1983 events in the United States Golden Raspberry	[ -1.0831466913223267, 0.36376938223838806, 0.2951405644416809, -0.046580590307712555, -0.7104606032371521, -0.14374911785125732, 0.5463750958442688, -0.6523226499557495, -0.5404943823814392, 0.41003769636154175, 0.10919035971164703, 1.1438337564468384, -0.3523589074611664, -0.11839334666728973, -0.30564215779304504, 0.5771881341934204, 0.4894338846206665, 0.16617658734321594, 0.5698283314704895, -0.8910992741584778, -0.1759631186723709, 0.06666715443134308, 0.6083847284317017, 0.07924676686525345, -0.020170092582702637, 0.24556691944599152, 0.45751145482063293, 0.48784202337265015, 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230455	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Platforma%20Canal%2B	Platforma Canal+	Platforma Canal+ (formerly Cyfra+ (Canal+ Cyfrowy), nc+) is a Polish satellite platform, owned and operated by French media company Canal+ Group. From 3 September 2019 nc+ is now Platforma Canal+. History On 1 November 2011 it was announced, that from now ITI group and Canal+ group are now cooperating. Cyfra+ By 2010, Cyfra+ had 1.6 million subscribers. nc+ On 21 March 2013 Cyfra+ merged with the competing platform n to form nc+. Platforma Canal+ On 3 September 2019, nc+ rebranded as Platforma Canal+. External links References Direct broadcast satellite services Television networks in Poland Telecommunications companies of Poland Platforma Polish companies established in 1998 Telecommunications companies established in 1998	[ 0.5481417179107666, -0.5040813088417053, 0.4545469284057617, 0.2500065863132477, -0.4970080256462097, 0.05426973104476929, 0.1951843500137329, 0.24651023745536804, -0.3689117431640625, -0.12428122758865356, -0.6337143182754517, 0.18515433371067047, -0.14298683404922485, 0.03365125134587288, 0.056656114757061005, -0.03663298487663269, 0.14199963212013245, 0.10595125705003738, -0.06630007922649384, -0.4647023379802704, -0.2148110270500183, -0.15158158540725708, 0.32326117157936096, -0.8044270873069763, -0.10455314069986343, -0.16148798167705536, 0.3025001585483551, 0.6839146018028259, -0.010510120540857315, -0.20999866724014282, 0.368539422750473, 0.2355400174856186, -0.3512038290500641, 0.11655630171298981, -0.1253018081188202, 0.10807638615369797, 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230456	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mallard	Mallard	The mallard () or wild duck (Anas platyrhynchos) is a dabbling duck that breeds throughout the temperate and subtropical Americas, Eurasia, and North Africa, and has been introduced to New Zealand, Australia, Peru, Brazil, Uruguay, Argentina, Chile, Colombia, the Falkland Islands, and South Africa. This duck belongs to the subfamily Anatinae of the waterfowl family Anatidae. Males have purple patches on their wings , while the females (hens or ducks) have mainly brown-speckled plumage. Both sexes have an area of white-bordered black or iridescent blue feathers called a speculum on their wings; males especially tend to have blue speculum feathers. The mallard is long, of which the body makes up around two-thirds the length. The wingspan is and the bill is long. It is often slightly heavier than most other dabbling ducks, weighing . Mallards live in wetlands, eat water plants and small animals, and are social animals preferring to congregate in groups or flocks of varying sizes. This species is the main ancestor of most breeds of domestic ducks. The female lays eight to 13 creamy white to greenish-buff spotless eggs, on alternate days. Incubation takes 27 to 28 days and fledging takes 50 to 60 days. The ducklings are precocial and fully capable of swimming as soon as they hatch. The mallard is considered to be a species of least concern by the International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN). Unlike many waterfowl, mallards are considered an invasive species in some regions. It is a very adaptable species, being able to live and even thrive in urban areas which may have supported more localised, sensitive species of waterfowl before development. The non-migratory mallard interbreeds with indigenous wild ducks of closely related species through genetic pollution by producing fertile offspring. Complete hybridisation of various species of wild duck gene pools could result in the extinction of many indigenous waterfowl. The wild mallard is the ancestor of most domestic ducks, and its naturally evolved wild gene pool gets genetically polluted by the domestic and feral mallard populations. Males have green heads. Taxonomy and evolutionary history The mallard was one of the many bird species originally described in the 1758 10thedition of Systema Naturae by Carl Linnaeus. He gave it two binomial names: Anas platyrhynchos and Anas boschas. The latter was generally preferred until 1906 when Einar Lönnberg established that A.platyrhynchos had priority, as it appeared on an earlier page in the text. The scientific name comes from Latin Anas, "duck" and Ancient Greek πλατυρυγχος, platyrhynchus, "broad-billed" (from πλατύς, platys, "broad" and ρυγχός, rhunkhos, "bill"). The genome of Anas platyrhynchos was sequenced in 2013. The name mallard originally referred to any wild drake, and it is sometimes still used this way. It was derived from the Old French or for "wild drake" although its true derivation is unclear. It may be related to, or at least influenced by, an Old High German masculine proper name , clues lying in the alternative English forms "maudelard" and "mawdelard". Masle (male) has also been proposed as an influence. Mallards frequently interbreed with their closest relatives in the genus Anas, such as the American black duck, and also with species more distantly related, such as the northern pintail, leading to various hybrids that may be fully fertile. This is quite unusual among such different species, and is apparently because the mallard evolved very rapidly and recently, during the Late Pleistocene. The distinct lineages of this radiation are usually kept separate due to non-overlapping ranges and behavioural cues, but have not yet reached the point where they are fully genetically incompatible. Mallards and their domestic conspecifics are also fully interfertile. Genetic analysis has shown that certain mallards appear to be closer to their Indo-Pacific relatives, while others are related to their American relatives. Mitochondrial DNA data for the D-loop sequence suggest that mallards may have evolved in the general area of Siberia. Mallard bones rather abruptly appear in food remains of ancient humans and other deposits of fossil bones in Europe, without a good candidate for a local predecessor species. The large Ice Age palaeosubspecies that made up at least the European and West Asian populations during the Pleistocene has been named Anas platyrhynchos palaeoboschas. Mallards are differentiated in their mitochondrial DNA between North American and Eurasian populations, but the nuclear genome displays a notable lack of genetic structure. Haplotypes typical of American mallard relatives and eastern spot-billed ducks can be found in mallards around the Bering Sea. The Aleutian Islands hold a population of mallards that appear to be evolving towards becoming a subspecies, as gene flow with other populations is very limited. Also, the paucity of morphological differences between the Old World mallards and the New World mallard demonstrates the extent to which the genome is shared among them such that birds like the Chinese spot-billed duck are highly similar to the Old World mallard, and birds such as the Hawaiian duck are highly similar to the New World mallard. The size of the mallard varies clinally; for example, birds from Greenland, though larger, have smaller bills, paler plumage, and stockier bodies than birds further south and are sometimes classified as a separate subspecies, the Greenland mallard (A.p.conboschas). Description The mallard is a medium-sized waterfowl species that is often slightly heavier than most other dabbling ducks. It is longof which the body makes up around two-thirdshas a wingspan of , and weighs . Among standard measurements, the wing chord is , the bill is , and the tarsus is . The breeding male mallard is unmistakable, with a glossy bottle-green head and a white collar that demarcates the head from the purple-tinged brown breast, grey-brown wings, and a pale grey belly. The rear of the male is black, with white-bordered dark tail feathers. The bill of the male is a yellowish-orange tipped with black, with that of the female generally darker and ranging from black to mottled orange and brown. The female mallard is predominantly mottled, with each individual feather showing sharp contrast from buff to very dark brown, a coloration shared by most female dabbling ducks, and has buff cheeks, eyebrow, throat, and neck, with a darker crown and eye-stripe. Both male and female mallards have distinct iridescent purple-blue speculum feathers edged with white, which are prominent in flight or at rest but temporarily shed during the annual summer moult. Upon hatching, the plumage of the duckling is yellow on the underside and face (with streaks by the eyes) and black on the back (with some yellow spots) all the way to the top and back of the head. Its legs and bill are also black. As it nears a month in age, the duckling's plumage starts becoming drab, looking more like the female, though more streaked, and its legs lose their dark grey colouring. Two months after hatching, the fledgling period has ended, and the duckling is now a juvenile. The duckling is able to fly 50–60 days after hatching. Its bill soon loses its dark grey colouring, and its sex can finally be distinguished visually by three factors: 1)the bill is yellow in males, but black and orange in females; 2)the breast feathers are reddish-brown in males, but brown in females; and 3)in males, the centre tail feather (drake feather) is curled, but in females, the centre tail feather is straight. During the final period of maturity leading up to adulthood (6–10 months of age), the plumage of female juveniles remains the same while the plumage of male juveniles gradually changes to its characteristic colours. This change in plumage also applies to adult mallard males when they transition in and out of their non-breeding eclipse plumage at the beginning and the end of the summer moulting period. The adulthood age for mallards is fourteen months, and the average life expectancy is three years, but they can live to twenty. Several species of duck have brown-plumaged females that can be confused with the female mallard. The female gadwall (Mareca strepera) has an orange-lined bill, white belly, black and white speculum that is seen as a white square on the wings in flight, and is a smaller bird. More similar to the female mallard in North America are the American black duck (A.rubripes), which is notably darker-hued in both sexes than the mallard, and the mottled duck (A.fulvigula), which is somewhat darker than the female mallard, and with slightly different bare-part colouration and no white edge on the speculum. In captivity, domestic ducks come in wild-type plumages, white, and other colours. Most of these colour variants are also known in domestic mallards not bred as livestock, but kept as pets, aviary birds, etc., where they are rare but increasing in availability. A noisy species, the female has the deep quack stereotypically associated with ducks. Male mallards make a sound phonetically similar to that of the female, a typical quack, but it is deeper and quieter compared to that of the female. When incubating a nest, or when offspring are present, females vocalise differently, making a call that sounds like a truncated version of the usual quack. This maternal vocalisation is highly attractive to their young. The repetition and frequency modulation of these quacks form the auditory basis for species identification in offspring, a process known as acoustic conspecific identification. In addition, females hiss if the nest or offspring are threatened or interfered with. When taking off, the wings of a mallard produce a characteristic faint whistling noise. The mallard is a rare example of both Allen's Rule and Bergmann's Rule in birds. Bergmann's Rule, which states that polar forms tend to be larger than related ones from warmer climates, has numerous examples in birds, as in case of the Greenland mallard which is larger than the mallards further south. Allen's Rule says that appendages like ears tend to be smaller in polar forms to minimise heat loss, and larger in tropical and desert equivalents to facilitate heat diffusion, and that the polar taxa are stockier overall. Examples of this rule in birds are rare as they lack external ears, but the bill of ducks is supplied with a few blood vessels to prevent heat loss, and, as in the Greenland mallard, the bill is smaller than that of birds farther south, illustrating the rule. Due to the variability of the mallard's genetic code, which gives it its vast interbreeding capability, mutations in the genes that decide plumage colour are very common and have resulted in a wide variety of hybrids, such as Brewer's duck (mallard × gadwall, Mareca strepera). Distribution and habitat The mallard is widely distributed across the Northern and Southern Hemispheres; in North America its range extends from southern and central Alaska to Mexico, the Hawaiian Islands, across the Palearctic, from Iceland and southern Greenland and parts of Morocco (North Africa) in the west, Scandinavia and Britain to the north, and to Siberia, Japan, and South Korea. Also in the east, it ranges to south-eastern and south-western Australia and New Zealand in the Southern hemisphere. It is strongly migratory in the northern parts of its breeding range, and winters farther south. For example, in North America, it winters south to the southern United States and northern Mexico, but also regularly strays into Central America and the Caribbean between September and May. A drake later named "Trevor" attracted media attention in 2018 when it turned up on the island of Niue, an atypical location for mallards. The mallard inhabits a wide range of habitats and climates, from the Arctic tundra to subtropical regions. It is found in both fresh- and salt-water wetlands, including parks, small ponds, rivers, lakes and estuaries, as well as shallow inlets and open sea within sight of the coastline. Water depths of less than are preferred, with birds avoiding areas more than a few metres deep. They are attracted to bodies of water with aquatic vegetation. Behaviour Feeding The mallard is omnivorous and very flexible in its choice of food. Its diet may vary based on several factors, including the stage of the breeding cycle, short-term variations in available food, nutrient availability, and interspecific and intraspecific competition. The majority of the mallard's diet seems to be made up of gastropods, insects (including beetles, flies, lepidopterans, dragonflies, and caddisflies), crustaceans, worms, many varieties of seeds and plant matter, and roots and tubers. During the breeding season, male birds were recorded to have eaten 37.6% animal matter and 62.4% plant matter, most notably the grass Echinochloa crus-galli, and nonlaying females ate 37.0% animal matter and 63.0% plant matter, while laying females ate 71.9% animal matter and only 28.1% plant matter. Plants generally make up the larger part of a bird's diet, especially during autumn migration and in the winter. The mallard usually feeds by dabbling for plant food or grazing; there are reports of it eating frogs. However, in 2017 a flock of mallards in Romania were observed hunting small migratory birds, including grey wagtails and black redstarts, the first documented occasion they had been seen attacking and consuming large vertebrates. It usually nests on a river bank, but not always near water. It is highly gregarious outside of the breeding season and forms large flocks, which are known as "sordes." Breeding Mallards usually form pairs (in October and November in the Northern Hemisphere) until the female lays eggs at the start of the nesting season, which is around the beginning of spring. At this time she is left by the male who joins up with other males to await the moulting period, which begins in June (in the Northern Hemisphere). During the brief time before this, however, the males are still sexually potent and some of them either remain on standby to sire replacement clutches (for female mallards that have lost or abandoned their previous clutch) or forcibly mate with females that appear to be isolated or unattached regardless of their species and whether or not they have a brood of ducklings. Nesting sites are typically on the ground, hidden in vegetation where the female's speckled plumage serves as effective camouflage, but female mallards have also been known to nest in hollows in trees, boathouses, roof gardens and on balconies, sometimes resulting in hatched offspring having difficulty following their parent to water. Egg clutches number 8–13 creamy white to greenish-buff eggs free of speckles. They measure about in length and in width. The eggs are laid on alternate days, and incubation begins when the clutch is almost complete. Incubation takes 27–28days and fledging takes 50–60days. The ducklings are precocial and fully capable of swimming as soon as they hatch. However, filial imprinting compels them to instinctively stay near the mother, not only for warmth and protection but also to learn about and remember their habitat as well as how and where to forage for food. Though adoptions are known to occur, female mallards typically do not tolerate stray ducklings near their broods, and will violently attack and drive away any unfamiliar young, sometimes going as far as to kill them. When ducklings mature into flight-capable juveniles, they learn about and remember their traditional migratory routes (unless they are born and raised in captivity). In New Zealand, where mallards are naturalised, the nesting season has been found to be longer, eggs and clutches are larger and nest survival is generally greater compared with mallards in their native range. In cases where a nest or brood fails, some mallards may mate for a second time in an attempt to raise a second clutch, typically around early-to-mid summer. In addition, mallards may occasionally breed during the autumn in cases of unseasonably warm weather; one such instance of a ‘late’ clutch occurred in November 2011, in which a female successfully hatched and raised a clutch of eleven ducklings at the London Wetland Centre. During the breeding season, both male and female mallards can become aggressive, driving off competitors to themselves or their mate by charging at them. Males tend to fight more than females, and attack each other by repeatedly pecking at their rival's chest, ripping out feathers and even skin on rare occasions. Female mallards are also known to carry out 'inciting displays', which encourages other ducks in the flock to begin fighting. It is possible that this behaviour allows the female to evaluate the strength of potential partners. The drakes that end up being left out after the others have paired off with mating partners sometimes target an isolated female duck, even one of a different species, and proceed to chase and peck at her until she weakens, at which point the males take turns copulating with the female. Lebret (1961) calls this behaviour "Attempted Rape Flight", and Stanley Cramp and K.E.L. Simmons (1977) speak of "rape-intent flights". Male mallards also occasionally chase other male ducks of a different species, and even each other, in the same way. In one documented case of "homosexual necrophilia", a male mallard copulated with another male he was chasing after the chased male died upon flying into a glass window. This paper was awarded an Ig Nobel Prize in 2003. Mallards are opportunistically targeted by brood parasites, occasionally having eggs laid in their nests by redheads, ruddy ducks, lesser scaup, gadwalls, northern shovelers, northern pintails, cinnamon teal, common goldeneyes, and other mallards. These eggs are generally accepted when they resemble the eggs of the host mallard, but the hen may attempt to eject them or even abandon the nest if parasitism occurs during egg laying. Predators and threats In addition to human hunting, mallards of all ages (but especially young ones) and in all locations must contend with a wide diversity of predators including raptors and owls, mustelids, corvids, snakes, raccoons, opossums, skunks, turtles, large fish, felids, and canids, the last two including domestic ones. The most prolific natural predators of adult mallards are red foxes (which most often pick off brooding females) and the faster or larger birds of prey, e.g. peregrine falcons, Aquila or Haliaeetus eagles. In North America, adult mallards face no fewer than 15 species of birds of prey, from northern harriers (Circus hudsonius) and short-eared owls (Asio flammeus) (both smaller than a mallard) to huge bald, (Haliaeetus leucocephalus) and golden eagles (Aquila chrysaetos), and about a dozen species of mammalian predator, not counting several more avian and mammalian predators who threaten eggs and nestlings. Mallards are also preyed upon by other waterside apex predators, such as grey herons (Ardea cinerea), great blue herons (Ardea herodias) and black-crowned night herons (Nycticorax nycticorax), the European herring gull (Larus argentatus), the wels catfish (Silurus glanis), and the northern pike (Esox lucius). Crows (Corvus) are also known to kill ducklings and adults on occasion. Also, mallards may be attacked by larger anseriformes such as swans (Cygnus) and geese during the breeding season, and are frequently driven off by these birds over territorial disputes. Mute swans (Cygnus olor) have been known to attack or even kill mallards if they feel that the ducks pose a threat to their offspring. Common loons (Gavia inmer) are similarly territorial and aggressive towards other birds in such disputes, and will frequently drive mallards away from their territory. However, in 2019, a pair of common loons in Wisconsin were observed raising a mallard duckling for several weeks, having seemingly adopted the bird after it had been abandoned by its parents. The predation-avoidance behaviour of sleeping with one eye open, allowing one brain hemisphere to remain aware while the other half sleeps, was first demonstrated in mallards, although it is believed to be widespread among birds in general. Status and conservation Since 1998, the mallard has been rated as a species of least concern on the IUCN Red List of Endangered Species. This is because it has a large range–more than 20,000,000 km2 (7,700,000 mi2) and because its population is increasing, rather than declining by 30% over ten years or three generations and thus is not warranted a vulnerable rating. Also, the population size of the mallard is very large. Unlike many waterfowl, mallards have benefited from human alterations to the worldso much so that they are now considered an invasive species in some regions. They are a common sight in urban parks, lakes, ponds, and other human-made water features in the regions they inhabit, and are often tolerated or encouraged in human habitat due to their placid nature towards humans and their beautiful and iridescent colours. While most are not domesticated, mallards are so successful at coexisting in human regions that the main conservation risk they pose comes from the loss of genetic diversity among a region's traditional ducks once humans and mallards colonise an area. Mallards are very adaptable, being able to live and even thrive in urban areas which may have supported more localised, sensitive species of waterfowl before development. The release of feral mallards in areas where they are not native sometimes creates problems through interbreeding with indigenous waterfowl. These non-migratory mallards interbreed with indigenous wild ducks from local populations of closely related species through genetic pollution by producing fertile offspring. Complete hybridisation of various species of wild duck gene pools could result in the extinction of many indigenous waterfowl. The mallard itself is the ancestor of most domestic ducks, and its naturally evolved wild gene pool gets genetically polluted in turn by the domestic and feral populations. Over time, a continuum of hybrids ranging between almost typical examples of either species develop; the speciation process is beginning to reverse itself. This has created conservation concerns for relatives of the mallard, such as the Hawaiian duck, the New Zealand grey duck (A.s. superciliosa) subspecies of the Pacific black duck, the American black duck, the mottled duck, Meller's duck, the yellow-billed duck, and the Mexican duck, in the latter case even leading to a dispute as to whether these birds should be considered a species (and thus entitled to more conservation research and funding) or included in the mallard species. Ecological changes and hunting have also led to a decline of local species; for example, the New Zealand grey duck population declined drastically due to overhunting in the mid-20th century. Hybrid offspring of Hawaiian ducks seem to be less well adapted to native habitat, and using them in re-introduction projects apparently reduces success. In summary, the problems of mallards "hybridising away" relatives is more a consequence of local ducks declining than of mallards spreading; allopatric speciation and isolating behaviour have produced today's diversity of mallard-like ducks despite the fact that, in most, if not all, of these populations, hybridisation must have occurred to some extent. Invasiveness Mallards are causing severe "genetic pollution" to South Africa's biodiversity by breeding with endemic ducks even though the Agreement on the Conservation of African-Eurasian Migratory Waterbirds – an agreement to protect the local waterfowl populations – applies to the mallard as well as other ducks. The hybrids of mallards and the yellow-billed duck are fertile, capable of producing hybrid offspring. If this continues, only hybrids occur and in the long term result in the extinction of various indigenous waterfowl. The mallard can crossbreed with 63 other species, posing a severe threat to indigenous waterfowl's genetic integrity. Mallards and their hybrids compete with indigenous birds for resources, including nest sites, roosting sites, and food. Availability of mallards, mallard ducklings, and fertilised mallard eggs for public sale and private ownership, either as poultry or as pets, is currently legal in the United States, except for the state of Florida, which has currently banned domestic ownership of mallards. This is to prevent hybridisation with the native mottled duck. The mallard is considered an invasive species in New Zealand, where it competes with the local New Zealand grey duck, which was overhunted in the past. There, and elsewhere, mallards are spreading with increasing urbanisation and hybridising with local relatives. The eastern or Chinese spot-billed duck is currently introgressing into the mallard populations of the Primorsky Krai, possibly due to habitat changes from global warming. The Mariana mallard was a resident allopatric population – in most respects a good species – apparently initially derived from mallard-Pacific black duck hybrids; unfortunately, it became extinct in the late 20th century. The Laysan duck is an insular relative of the mallard, with a very small and fluctuating population. Mallards sometimes arrive on its island home during migration, and can be expected to occasionally have remained and hybridised with Laysan ducks as long as these species have existed. However, these hybrids are less well adapted to the peculiar ecological conditions of Laysan Island than the local ducks, and thus have lower fitness. Laysan ducks were found throughout the Hawaiian archipelago before 400AD, after which they suffered a rapid decline during the Polynesian colonisation. Now, their range includes only Laysan Island. It is one of the successfully translocated birds, after having become nearly extinct in the early 20th century. Relationship with humans Domestication Mallards have often been ubiquitous in their regions among the ponds, rivers, and streams of human parks, farms, and other human-made waterwayseven to the point of visiting water features in human courtyards. Mallards have had a long relationship with humans. Almost all domestic duck breeds derive from the mallard, with the exception of a few Muscovy breeds, and are listed under the trinomial name A. p. domesticus. Mallards are generally monogamous while domestic ducks are mostly polygamous. Domestic ducks have no territorial behaviour and are less aggressive than mallards. Domestic ducks are mostly kept for meat; their eggs are also eaten, and have a strong flavour. They were first domesticated in Southeast Asia at least 4,000 years ago, during the Neolithic Age, and were also farmed by the Romans in Europe, and the Malays in Asia. As the domestic duck and the mallard are the same species as each other, it is common for mallards to mate with domestic ducks and produce hybrid offspring that are fully fertile. Because of this, mallards have been found to be contaminated with the genes of the domestic duck. While the keeping of domestic breeds is more popular, pure-bred mallards are sometimes kept for eggs and meat, although they may require wing clipping to restrict flying, or training to navigate and fly home. Hunting Mallards are one of the most common varieties of ducks hunted as a sport due to the large population size. The ideal location for hunting mallards is considered to be where the water level is somewhat shallow where the birds can be found foraging for food. Hunting mallards might cause the population to decline in some places, at some times, and with some populations. In certain countries, the mallard may be legally shot but is protected under national acts and policies. For example, in the United Kingdom, the mallard is protected under the Wildlife and Countryside Act 1981, which restricts certain hunting methods or taking or killing mallards. As food Since ancient times, the mallard has been eaten as food. The wild mallard was eaten in Neolithic Greece. Usually, only the breast and thigh meat is eaten. It does not need to be hung before preparation, and is often braised or roasted, sometimes flavoured with bitter orange or with port. References External links Anas Birds described in 1758 Ducks Migratory birds (Eastern Hemisphere) Migratory birds (Western Hemisphere) Holarctic birds Game birds Articles containing video clips Native birds of the Eastern United States Taxa named by Carl Linnaeus Extant Pleistocene first appearances	[ -0.07120510935783386, -0.038723092526197433, -0.34311550855636597, 0.09639409184455872, 0.40025410056114197, 0.7412570714950562, -0.0652291402220726, 0.7167137265205383, -0.8064340353012085, -0.23130419850349426, -0.4241449534893036, 0.06941552460193634, -0.1506192684173584, 0.07723018527030945, -0.186273992061615, 0.4212796092033386, 0.20429398119449615, -0.1244155541062355, 0.39922618865966797, -0.05503612011671066, -0.653911292552948, -0.9032219052314758, 0.04289262741804123, -0.4705154299736023, 0.5324528217315674, -0.08347608894109726, 0.6911600828170776, 0.5556715726852417, 0.011330310255289078, 0.3450392186641693, 0.3484591841697693, 0.3713779151439667, 0.36089658737182617, 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230461	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Qadiani	Qadiani	Qadiani or Qadiyani (, ; ) is a religious slur used to refer to Ahmadi Muslims, primarily in Pakistan. The term originates from Qadian, a small town in northern India, the birthplace of Mirza Ghulam Ahmad, the founder of the Ahmadiyya movement. While it is pejorative to the Ahmadiyya Muslim Community, it is used in official Pakistani documents. Pakistan officially persecutes Ahmadiyya and uses the term Qadiani to label members of the religion. Pakistan's Second Amendment to the Constitution officially declares Ahmadiyya to be non-Muslims. Ordinance XX officially labels Ahmadi Muslims as Qadiani and prohibits from any religious or social practices of the Muslim faith. The fourth caliph of the community, Mirza Tahir Ahmad, was forced to flee Pakistan under threat of arrest in 1984, prompting a diaspora of followers to the UK, Germany, and Canada. Ahmadiyya members are targets of death threats by majority Muslims, both inside Pakistan and in diaspora refuges. The term is sometimes used in an academic context to distinguish the main Ahmadiyya Muslim Jamaat, referred to as Qadiani, from the separatist Lahore Ahmadiyya Movement for the Propagation of Islam, referred to as Lahori. See also Mirzai Ahmadiyya in Pakistan Persecution of Ahmadis Human rights in Pakistan References Persecution of Ahmadis Islam-related slurs Ahmadiyya in Pakistan	[ 0.48616576194763184, 0.07872136682271957, -0.8609161376953125, -0.5746976733207703, -0.4502565860748291, 0.21185126900672913, 0.7297597527503967, -0.0427982322871685, -0.12593775987625122, -0.0010100248036906123, -0.6819626688957214, -0.1741989403963089, -0.6212673187255859, 0.4173068702220917, -0.020172003656625748, 0.8376159071922302, 0.17908138036727905, 0.07309014350175858, -0.09122117608785629, 0.03606601059436798, -0.31714382767677307, -0.39776140451431274, -0.16209115087985992, -0.4309573471546173, 0.33995699882507324, 0.2041013240814209, 0.4999530017375946, 0.00664550019428134, -0.3215157389640808, -0.3899092674255371, 0.5802335143089294, 0.59758061170578, 0.2948457598686218, -0.14614997804164886, 0.3056616187095642, 0.28050124645233154, 0.1377425193786621, -0.2014484405517578, 0.0525062270462513, -0.837891161441803, 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230467	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ernie%20Els	Ernie Els	Theodore Ernest Els (; born 17 October 1969) is a South African professional golfer. A former World No. 1, he is known as "The Big Easy" due to his imposing physical stature (he stands ) along with his fluid golf swing. Among his more than 70 career victories are four major championships: the U.S. Open in 1994 at Oakmont and in 1997 at Congressional, and The Open Championship in 2002 at Muirfield and in 2012 at Royal Lytham & St Annes. He is one of six golfers to twice win both the U.S. Open and The Open Championship. Other highlights in Els's career include topping the 2003 and 2004 European Tour Order of Merit (money list), and winning the World Match Play Championship a record seven times. He was the leading career money winner on the European Tour until overtaken by Lee Westwood in 2011, and was the first member of the tour to earn over €25,000,000 from European Tour events. He has held the number one spot in the Official World Golf Ranking and until 2013 held the record for weeks ranked in the top ten with 788. Els rose to fifteenth in the world rankings after winning the 2012 Open Championship. He was elected to the World Golf Hall of Fame in 2010, on his first time on the ballot, and was inducted in May 2011. When not playing, Els has a golf course design business, a charitable foundation that supports golf among underprivileged youth in South Africa, and a winemaking business. He has written a popular golf instructional column in Golf Digest magazine for several years. Background and family Growing up in Lambton, Germiston, South Africa, he played rugby, cricket, tennis and, starting at age 8, golf. He was a skilled junior tennis player and won the Eastern Transvaal Junior Championships at age 13. Els first learned the game of golf from his father Neels, a trucking executive, at the Germiston Golf course, He was soon playing better than his father (and his older brother, Dirk), and by the age of 14 he was a scratch handicap. It was around this time that he decided to focus exclusively on golf. Els first achieved prominence in 1984, when he won the Junior World Golf Championship in the Boys 13–14 category. Phil Mickelson was second to Els that year. Els won the South African Amateur a few months after his 17th birthday, becoming the youngest-ever winner of that event, breaking the record which had been held by Gary Player. Els married his wife Liezl in 1998 in Cape Town and they have two children, Samantha and Ben. In 2008 after Els started to display an "Autism Speaks" logo on his golf bag it was announced that their then five-year-old son was autistic. Their main residence is at the Wentworth Estate near Wentworth Golf Club in the south of England. However, they also split time between South Africa and their family home in Jupiter, Florida, in order to get better treatment for Ben's autism. Professional career 1989–1996: Early years and first major win In 1989, Els won the South African Amateur Stroke Play Championship and turned professional the same year. Els won his first professional tournament in 1991 on the Southern Africa Tour (today the Sunshine Tour). He won the Sunshine Tour Order of Merit in the 1991/92 and 1994/95 seasons. In 1993, Els won his first tournament outside of South Africa at the Dunlop Phoenix in Japan. In 1994 Els won his first major championship at the U.S. Open. Els was tied with Colin Montgomerie and Loren Roberts after 72 holes and they went to an 18-hole playoff the next day. In spite of starting the playoff bogey-triple bogey, Els was able to match Roberts' score of 74. Els birdied the second hole of sudden death to win his first U.S. Open title. Els brought his game all around the world in his young career winning the Dubai Desert Classic on the European Tour, and the Toyota World Match Play Championship defeating once again Colin Montgomerie 4 & 2. The following year, Els defended his World Match Play Championship, defeating Steve Elkington 3 & 1. Els won the GTE Byron Nelson Classic in the United States then headed back home to South Africa and won twice more. In 1996, Els won his third straight World Match Play Championship at Wentworth, defeating Vijay Singh in the final 3 & 2. No player in history had ever managed to win three successive titles in the one-on-one tournament. Els finished the year with a win at his home tournament at the South African Open. 1997–2002: Career years and multi-major championships 1997 was a career year for Els first winning his second U.S. Open (once again over Colin Montgomerie) this time at Congressional Country Club, making him the first foreign player since Alex Smith (1906, 1910) to win the U.S. Open twice. He defended his Buick Classic title and added the Johnnie Walker Classic to his list of victories. Els nearly won the World Match Play Championship for a fourth consecutive year, but lost to Vijay Singh in the final. 1998 and 1999 continued to be successful years for Els with 4 wins on both the PGA and European tours. 2000 started with Els being given a special honour by the Board of Directors of the European Tour awarding him with honorary life membership of the European Tour because of his two U.S. Opens and three World Match Play titles. 2000 was the year of runners-up for Els; with three runner-up finishes in the Majors (Masters, U.S. Open and The Open Championship) and seven second-place finishes in tournaments worldwide. In 2001 Els failed to win a US PGA tour event for the first time since 1994 although he ended the year with nine second-place finishes. 2002 was arguably Els's best year, which started with a win at the Heineken Classic at the Royal Melbourne Golf Club. Then went to America and outplayed World Number one Tiger Woods to lift the Genuity Championship title. The premier moment of the season was surely his Open Championship triumph in very tough conditions at Muirfield. Els overcame a four-man playoff to take home the famous Claret Jug trophy for the first time, also quieting his critics about his mental toughness. The South African also won his fourth World Match Play title, along with his third Nedbank Challenge in the last four years, dominating a world-class field and winning by 8 shots. 2003–2005: The Big Five 2003 gave Els his first European Tour Order of Merit. Although playing fewer events than his competitors Els won four times and had three runners-up. He also performed well in the United States with back to back victories at the Mercedes Championship – where he set the all-time PGA Tour 72-hole record for most strokes under par at 31 under – and Sony Open and achieved top-20 spots in all four majors, including a fifth-place finish at the U.S Open and sixth-place finishes at both the Masters and PGA Championship. To top off the season Els won the World Match Play title for a record-tying fifth time. In 2003 he was voted 37th on the SABC3's Great South Africans. 2004 was another successful year as Els won 6 times on both tours, including big wins at Memorial, WGC-American Express Championship and his sixth World Match Play Championship, a new record. His success did not stop there. Els showed remarkable consistency in the Majors but lost to Phil Mickelson in the Masters when Mickelson birdied the 18th for the title, finished ninth in the U.S. Open after playing in the final group with friend and fellow countryman Retief Goosen and surprisingly lost in a playoff in the Open to the then-unknown Todd Hamilton. Els had a putt for birdie on the final hole of regulation for the Open at Royal Troon, but he missed the putt and lost in the playoff. Els ended the major season with a fourth-place finish in the PGA Championship, where a three-putt on the 72nd hole would cost him a place in the playoff. In total, Els had 16 top-10 finishes, a second European Order of Merit title in succession and a second-place finish on the United States money list. 2004 was the start of the "Big Five Era", which is used in describing the era in golf where Tiger Woods, Vijay Singh, Ernie Els, Retief Goosen and Phil Mickelson dominated the game of golf. The five switched up and down the top five positions in the World Golf Ranking; most notably Vijay Singh's derailment of Tiger Woods as the best golfer in the world. The five stayed, for the most part, in the top five spots from 2004 until the start of 2007. Nine majors were won between them, many fighting against each other head to head. In July 2005, Els injured his left knee while sailing with his family in the Mediterranean. Despite missing several months of the 2005 season due to the injury, Els won the second event on his return, the Dunhill Championship. With his victory at the 2005 Qatar Masters, an event co-sanctioned by the Asian Tour, Els became the second golfer after Lee Westwood to win on all six of the big tours on the International Federation of PGA Tours. 2006–2011: Gradual recovery and comeback At the start of the 2007 season, Ernie Els laid out a three-year battle plan to challenge Tiger Woods as world number one. "I see 2007 as the start of a three-year plan where I totally re-dedicate myself to the game," Els told his official website. When he missed the cut by two strokes at the 2007 Masters Tournament, Els ended tour-leading consecutive cut streaks on both the PGA Tour and the European Tour. On the PGA Tour, his streak began at the 2004 The Players Championship (46 events) and on the European Tour it began at the 2000 Johnnie Walker Classic (82 events) Els has often been compared to Greg Norman in the sense that both men's careers could be looked back on and think what could have been. Although the two of them are multiple major championship winners, both share disappointment in majors. Their disappointments have ranged from nerves, bad luck, and being outplayed. 1996 was the year where Norman collapsed in the Masters, whereas the year before Els did in the PGA Championship. Nearly four years later, Els finished runner-up in the 2000 Masters Tournament, and again in 2004, losing to Phil Mickelson. Els has finished runner-up in six majors, finishing runner-up to Tiger Woods more than any other golfer, and has often been described as having the right game to finally be the golfer to beat Woods in a major. On 2 March 2008, Els won the Honda Classic contested at PGA National's Championship Course in Palm Beach Gardens, Florida. Els shot a final round 67 in tough windy conditions, which was enough to give him the win by one stroke over Luke Donald. The win marked the end of a three and a half-year-long stretch without a win on the PGA Tour for Els. The win was also his 16th victory on the PGA Tour. On 8 April 2008, Els officially announced that he was switching swing coaches from David Leadbetter (whom Els had worked with since 1990) to noted swing coach Butch Harmon. During Els's 2008 Masters press conference Els, said the change is in an effort to tighten his swing, shorten his swing, and get a fresh perspective. Els finally did break his winless streak by capturing the WGC-CA Championship at Doral in 2010, winning by four strokes over fellow countryman Charl Schwartzel. It was Els's second WGC tournament title. The victory also saw Els overtake Colin Montgomerie to become the career money leader on the European Tour. Els then won the Arnold Palmer Invitational at Bay Hill two weeks later. It was his 18th PGA Tour victory, and his second in as many starts. The win at Bay Hill also vaulted Els to the top of the FedEx Cup standings. He held the top spot for 22 consecutive weeks. In June, Els almost captured his third U.S. Open title at Pebble Beach. Els briefly held a share of the lead after birding the sixth hole, but was derailed by a stretch of bogey, double bogey, bogey on 9,10, and 11. Els finished the tournament in solo 3rd. Els capped his year by winning the PGA Grand Slam of Golf in October, with a one stroke victory over David Toms, and also capturing the South African Open title by beating Retief Goosen by one shot. After his successful 2010 season, Els struggled to find his form in 2011. He ultimately dropped out of the top 50 in the Official World Golf Ranking for the first time since 1993. 2012–present: fourth major championship and career volatility Els started the 2012 season in his home country at the Volvo Golf Champions where he finished in a tie for second place after he and Retief Goosen lost out in a playoff to Branden Grace. Els was next in contention at the Transitions Championship, where he needed a win to qualify for the 2012 Masters. Els led the tournament for most of the final round and had the lead outright until the 16th hole. However, he finished the tournament bogey-bogey missing a short three-footer on the last hole to make a playoff. The tournament was eventually won by Luke Donald. In April, Els failed to qualify for the Masters for the first time since 1993. He was ranked 58th in the world prior to the tournament (the top 50 are given automatic invitations). Ultimately, Els's unsuccessful bids to qualify for the Masters was viewed as the likely end of his competitiveness on the PGA Tour. Els surprised the golfing world by winning the 2012 Open Championship in July by birding the 72nd hole. Adam Scott led by four shots after a birdie at the 14th hole, but bogeyed the final four holes to miss a playoff with Els by one stroke. Els's win rejuvenated his career and earned him 5-year exemptions to the other 3 majors. Els became the eighth player to win major tournaments in three different decades, joining his countryman Gary Player, Jack Nicklaus, Lee Trevino, Billy Casper, Raymond Floyd, John Henry Taylor, and Harry Vardon (Tiger Woods has since become the ninth). Els's win also marked the third major champion out of the previous four major championships to be won with a type of long putter. His win reignited the controversy over the legality of long or anchored putters in golf. In June 2013, Els won for the first time since the 2012 Open Championship at the BMW International Open in Munich, Germany. He claimed a wire-to-wire victory with a one-stroke win over Thomas Bjørn for his 28th European Tour title. Els moved up to 14th from 20th in the world rankings after the win. Els struggled to find his form throughout the 2014 season. He finished 4th at the WGC-Accenture Match Play Championship in February, 5th at The Barclays and 7th at the PGA Championship, but struggled with missed cuts, including a missed cut at the Masters in April. Els's struggles continued into 2015 when he made only 10 cuts on the PGA Tour. He finished a 173rd in the FedEx Cup and failed to qualify for the playoffs. In preparation for the anchored putter ban in 2016, Els switched back to the short putter in late 2015. Els's struggles with short putts, or the "yips," became the draw of much media attention in early 2016. At the 2016 Masters Tournament, Els's putting was again the source of negative publicity when he six-putted from 3 feet on his opening hole. Els recorded a 9 on the hole and ended up shooting 80–73 and missing the cut. After the Masters, Els thanked his fans on his website for their support and was admittedly embarrassed by his putting performance. 2020: PGA Tour Champions debut In January 2020, Els joined the PGA Tour Champions shortly after his 50th birthday. In January 2020, Els shot 72-65-65 to tie for the lead of his first PGA Tour Champions event, the Mitsubishi Electric Championship at Hualalai. Miguel Ángel Jiménez and Fred Couples also qualified for the playoff. Jiménez won the event with a birdie on the second playoff hole. In March 2020, Els won the Hoag Classic in Newport Beach, California. Els finished with a 4-under-par 67 to finish 54 holes in 16-under-par 197, two strokes ahead of Fred Couples, Robert Karlsson, and Glen Day. This was just Els's third start on the PGA Tour Champions. In October 2020, Els won the SAS Championship in Cary, North Carolina. Els shot a 6-under-par 66 in the final round to win by one stroke over Colin Montgomerie. Other ventures Els-designed golf courses Anahita Golf Course – Beau Champ, Mauritius Mission Hills Golf Club (The Savannah Course) – Shenzhen, China Whiskey Creek – Ijamsville, Maryland, USA Oubaai – Garden Route, South Africa The Els Club – Dubai, UAE The Els Club Teluk Datai - Langkawi, Malaysia The Els Club Desaru Coast - Desaru, Malaysia The Els Club Copperleaf Golf and Country Estate – Gauteng, South Africa Els is also responsible for the refinement and modernisation of the West Course, Wentworth-Virginia Water, England, which took place in 2006. Courses under construction include: Hoakalei Country Club at Hoakalei Resort – Ewa Beach, Hawaii Albany – New Providence, The Bahamas Ecopark - Hanoi, Vietnam Durrat Al Bahrain Golf Course – Durrat Al Bahrain, Bahrain Internationalization of golf Unlike most of his contemporaries, Els is known for his willingness to participate in tournaments all around the world, having played regularly in European Tour-sanctioned events in Asia, Australasia and his native country of South Africa. He says that his globe-trotting schedule is in recognition of the global nature of golf. This has caused some friction with the PGA Tour, an organisation that would prefer Els to play more tournaments in the United States. In late 2004, Tim Finchem, the director of the PGA Tour, wrote quite a firm letter to Els asking him to do so but Els publicized and rejected this request. The PGA Tour's attitude caused considerable offense in the golfing world outside of North America. Foundation The Ernie Els and Fancourt Foundation was established in 1999. It has the objective of identifying youths from under-privileged backgrounds who show talent and potential in the game of golf. It provides educational assistance amongst other moral and financial help in order for these youths to reach their full potential. The first Friendship Cup was played in 2006 which is a match play competition, played in a Ryder Cup type format. In the cup, Els's foundation plays against the foundation of Tiger Woods. Els's foundation won 12.5 points to 3.5 points. Els has also participated several times in the Gary Player Invitational series of charity golf events, to assist Player in raising significant funds for underprivileged children around the world. Autism-related activities Since his son's autism diagnosis, Els and his wife have been active in charities devoted to that condition. This involvement has increased as Ben has reached school age. In 2009, Els launched an annual charity golf event, the Els for Autism Pro-Am, held at the PGA National Resort & Spa in Palm Beach Gardens near his South Florida residence during the PGA Tour's March swing into the area. The first event, which featured many PGA Tour and Champions Tour golfers, raised $725,000 for The Renaissance Learning Center, a nonprofit charter school in the area for autistic children. The couple has also established the Els Center of Excellence, which began as a drive to build a new campus for the aforementioned school in Jupiter, Florida, but has since expanded into a $30 million plan to combine the school with a research facility. ASM Scholarships Ernie Els Co-Founder an athletic scholarship agency called (ASM Scholarships), in October 2018. The company is a college recruiting service that works with athletes worldwide from various sports and helps them secure athletic scholarships to American universities within the NCAA, NAIA and NJCAA. The company is owned by the ASM Sports Group, which has built a pathway for athletes from high school to college then professional sports or a career in a sporting job. In 2020 the company helped over 1000 athletes secure sport scholarships on average of $35,000 per year for student athletes, a total of $35,000,000. The company HQ is based in West Palm Beach Florida. Ernie Els Press release on the company https://ernieels.com/golf/sponsors/asm-sports-group/ Quotes On his technique: —Els on his son's autism: Amateur wins 1984 World Junior Golf Championships (Boys 13–14 division) 1986 South African Boys Championship, South African Amateur 1989 South African Amateur Stroke Play Championship Professional wins (74) PGA Tour wins (19) PGA Tour playoff record (4–4) European Tour wins (28) 1Co-sanctioned by the Sunshine Tour 2Co-sanctioned by the PGA Tour of Australasia 3Co-sanctioned by the Asian Tour European Tour playoff record (2–5) Japan Golf Tour wins (1) Asian Tour wins (3) 1Co-sanctioned by the European Tour 2Co-sanctioned by the PGA Tour of Australasia Asian Tour playoff record (0–1) Sunshine Tour wins (18) 1Co-sanctioned by the European Tour Sunshine Tour playoff record (1–1) Other wins (18) Other playoff record (3–2) PGA Tour Champions wins (2) PGA Tour Champions playoff record (0–1) Major championships Wins (4) 1Defeated Montgomerie in 18-hole playoff and Roberts in sudden-death: Els (74-4-4), Roberts (74-4-5), Montgomerie (78) 2Defeated Appleby and Elkington in 4-hole playoff and Levet in sudden-death: Els (4-3-5-4-par), Appleby (4-3-5-5), Elkington (5-3-4-5), Levet (4-2-5-5-bogey) Results timeline Results not in chronological order in 2020. CUT = missed the half-way cut "T" = tied NT = No tournament due to COVID-19 pandemic Summary Most consecutive cuts made – 27 (2000 Masters – 2006 PGA) Longest streak of top-10s – 5 (2003 PGA – 2004 PGA) Results in The Players Championship CUT = missed the halfway cut "T" indicates a tie for a place World Golf Championships Wins (2) Results timeline 1Cancelled due to 9/11 QF, R16, R32, R64 = Round in which player lost in match play "T" = tied WD = withdrew NT = No tournament Note that the HSBC Champions did not become a WGC event until 2009. Results in senior major championships "T" indicates a tie for a place NT = No tournament due to COVID-19 pandemic PGA and European Tour career summary * As of 27 September 2020. These figures are from the respective tour's official sites. Note that there is double counting of money earned (and wins) in the majors and World Golf Championships since they became official events on both tours. Team appearances Professional Alfred Dunhill Cup (representing South Africa): 1992, 1993, 1994, 1995, 1996, 1997 (winners), 1998 (winners), 1999, 2000 World Cup (representing South Africa): 1992, 1993, 1996 (Individual and team winners), 1997, 2001 (winners) Presidents Cup (International team): 1996, 1998 (winners), 2000, 2003 (tie), 2007, 2009, 2011, 2013, 2019 (non-playing captain) Alfred Dunhill Challenge (representing Southern Africa): 1995 (winners) See also Big Easy Tour List of men's major championships winning golfers List of World Number One male golfers List of golfers with most PGA Tour wins List of golfers with most European Tour wins List of African golfers List of celebrities who own wineries and vineyards Monday Night Golf References External links South African male golfers Sunshine Tour golfers European Tour golfers PGA Tour golfers PGA Tour Champions golfers Winners of men's major golf championships World Golf Hall of Fame inductees Golf writers and broadcasters South African health activists Autism activists South African expatriate sportspeople in England White South African people Golfers from Johannesburg People from George, Western Cape People from Virginia Water Sportspeople from Germiston 1969 births Living people	[ -0.22510933876037598, 0.0007355597335845232, -0.07968369871377945, -0.07761912047863007, 0.06515771895647049, 0.6249546408653259, 0.1238744854927063, -0.15616022050380707, -0.14701494574546814, -0.2056315690279007, 0.1424604207277298, 0.35959336161613464, -0.36357301473617554, -0.6725097894668579, 0.14197389781475067, 0.48438557982444763, -0.29998791217803955, 0.13597479462623596, -0.5852562189102173, -0.10319500416517258, -0.2918457090854645, -0.17287908494472504, -0.10536248236894608, 0.38249751925468445, -0.061818089336156845, 0.6868797540664673, -0.31067129969596863, -0.39226922392845154, -0.29371020197868347, -0.2794446647167206, 1.0799366235733032, 0.7769637703895569, 0.7045618295669556, -0.37010663747787476, 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230468	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lodging	Lodging	Lodging refers to the use of a short-term dwelling, usually by renting the living space or sometimes through some other arrangement. People who travel and stay away from home for more than a day need lodging for sleep, rest, food, safety, shelter from cold temperatures or rain, storage of luggage and access to common household functions. Lodging is a form of the sharing economy. Lodging is done in a hotel, motel, hostel, inn or hostal, a private home (commercial, i.e. a bed and breakfast, a guest house, a vacation rental, or non-commercially, as in certain homestays or in the home of friends), in a tent, caravan/campervan (often on a campsite). Lodgings may be self-catering, whereby no food is provided, but cooking facilities are available. Lodging is offered by an owner of real property or a leasehold estate, including the hotel industry, hospitality industry, real estate investment trusts, and owner-occupancy houses. Lodging can be facilitated by an intermediary such as a travel website. Regulation of commercial lodging Commercial lodging is affected by regulations in many jurisdictions. Requirements can include acquiring business licenses, payment of transient occupancy tax and complying with building, city and zoning standards. The hotel industry has lobbied governments to increase regulations on commercial lodging in owner-occupancy houses. Examples of lodging regulation affecting individual owners include: In New York, hosts cannot rent their property for less than 30 consecutive days unless they are currently living in the property. In Berlin, lawmakers have banned owners from short term real property rental without first requesting permission from authorities. Hosts can be required to pay a fine of up to €100,000 if they rent more than 50% of their property space. Landlords can still rent individual rooms with the condition that they live in most of the property. In 2018, to combat the local housing crisis, the government of Tasmania offered AU$10,000-13,000 to landlords to rent out their spaces for longer terms at lower costs instead of listing them as short term lodging. London passed an amendment to its housing legislation in March 2015 allowing short-term lodging rentals of up to three months a year. In May 2018, Madrid announced proposals to reduce the number of lodging rentals in owner-occupied houses to help tackle "over-tourism" in the city. The plan aims to preserve residential home rentals in the central areas of the city, preventing them from becoming accommodations exclusively for tourists. In July 2018, Palma de Mallorca, Spain banned home-sharing sites, such as Airbnb. Arizona prevents municipalities from interfering in private property rights, and therefore has minimal restrictions on lodging. Proposed 2017 legislation sought to ban municipalities from introducing zoning laws lacing restrictions on private property owners. In January 2017, West New York, New Jersey, a suburb of New York City, passed the same ban. Portland, Oregon created a new zoning code in 2016 to regulate short-term lodging rentals and it includes several limitations, such as capping the number of bedrooms in a single unit that may be listed. Additionally, Portland pledged in 2015 to dedicate a portion of collected occupancy taxes to affordable housing uses. In 2017, San Francisco passed a law requiring renters of lodging to register with the city before they can rent units. Units cannot be rented for more than 90 days a year. Santa Monica implemented regulations in 2016 that include prohibition of rent-controlled units from being listed as short-term rentals. In December 2017, the City of Toronto government, under John Tory banned homeowners from leasing basement suites with separate entries and other unlicensed residential dwellings for short-term rentals, stating intention to protect the long-term rental market. Government-issued licensing and fees would also be required of hosts to continue with short-term rentals. The new restrictions were criticized by some owners who had relied on lodging rental as a source of income. Application of the new rules has been suspended following complaints by four renters to the Ontario Municipal Board. The complaints will be heard by the Local Planning Appeal Tribunal, which will hear the case on August 26, 2019. In November 2017, the Vancouver City Council adopted regulations and restrictions against owner-occupied rentals to protect the long-term rental market, which it stated was just above zero availability. The regulations allow owners to rent only their principal residence and require them to obtain a paid license, with acquisition and maintenance fees, with a number to be displayed when listing any space for rent. A voluntary transaction fee of 3% was also to be implemented per reservation. The opposing Non-Partisan Association criticized the new regulations, as did some owners, claiming they deprived them of personal property income. Councillor George Affleck argued that the city was creating more bureaucracy and taxation, and not solving the problem, arguing that it made Vancouver even more costly place to live, also giving the opinion that more long-term rental housing should be built. 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230470	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Opcode	Opcode	In computing, an opcode (abbreviated from operation code, also known as instruction machine code, instruction code, instruction syllable, instruction parcel or opstring) is the portion of a machine language instruction that specifies the operation to be performed. Beside the opcode itself, most instructions also specify the data they will process, in the form of operands. In addition to opcodes used in the instruction set architectures of various CPUs, which are hardware devices, they can also be used in abstract computing machines as part of their byte code specifications. Overview Specifications and format of the opcodes are laid out in the instruction set architecture (ISA) of the processor in question, which may be a general CPU or a more specialized processing unit. Opcodes for a given instruction set can be described through the use of an opcode table detailing all possible opcodes. Apart from the opcode itself, an instruction normally also has one or more specifiers for operands (i.e. data) on which the operation should act, although some operations may have implicit operands, or none at all. There are instruction sets with nearly uniform fields for opcode and operand specifiers, as well as others (the x86 architecture for instance) with a more complicated, variable-length structure. Instruction sets can be extended through the use of opcode prefixes which add a subset of new instructions made up of existing opcodes following reserved byte sequences. Operands Depending on architecture, the operands may be register values, values in the stack, other memory values, I/O ports (which may also be memory mapped), etc., specified and accessed using more or less complex addressing modes. The types of operations include arithmetic, data copying, logical operations, and program control, as well as special instructions (such as CPUID and others). Assembly language, or just assembly, is a low-level programming language, which uses mnemonic instructions and operands to represent machine code. This enhances the readability while still giving precise control over the machine instructions. Most programming is currently done using high-level programming languages, which are typically easier to read and write. These languages need to be compiled (translated into assembly language) by a system-specific compiler, or run through other compiled programs. Software instruction sets Opcodes can also be found in so-called byte codes and other representations intended for a software interpreter rather than a hardware device. These software-based instruction sets often employ slightly higher-level data types and operations than most hardware counterparts, but are nevertheless constructed along similar lines. Examples include the byte code found in Java class files which are then interpreted by the Java Virtual Machine (JVM), the byte code used in GNU Emacs for compiled Lisp code, .NET Common Intermediate Language (CIL), and many others. See also Gadget (machine instruction sequence) Illegal opcode Opcode database Syllable (computing) References Further reading Machine code	[ 0.05169641599059105, 0.03959854692220688, -0.5182377099990845, 0.3560808002948761, 0.4527418315410614, 0.3915257155895233, -0.08462309837341309, 0.06177860498428345, 0.09633076936006546, -0.34567809104919434, -0.622542142868042, 0.35578352212905884, -0.22115512192249298, -0.30864423513412476, -0.29107046127319336, 0.06746184825897217, 0.38446423411369324, 0.08974625170230865, 0.108067087829113, -0.45538806915283203, -0.5623672008514404, 0.16367150843143463, -0.40746626257896423, -0.5214165449142456, 0.6029143929481506, -0.24220579862594604, -0.29484066367149353, -0.738716721534729, -0.859561562538147, -0.015200139954686165, 0.025277892127633095, 0.09762129932641983, 0.5638545155525208, 0.13231641054153442, 0.15767043828964233, -0.06059125065803528, -0.5334901809692383, -0.08928421139717102, -0.3699893057346344, -0.45388033986091614, 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230476	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Premature%20ventricular%20contraction	Premature ventricular contraction	This is the article for the heart condition generally referred to as PVC. For PVC pipe, see Polyvinyl chloride''. A premature ventricular contraction (PVC) is a relatively common event where the heartbeat is initiated by Purkinje fibers in the ventricles rather than by the sinoatrial node. PVCs may cause no symptoms or may be perceived as a "skipped beat" or felt as palpitations in the chest. PVCs do not usually pose a danger. The electrical events of the heart detected by the electrocardiogram (ECG) allow a PVC to be easily distinguished from a normal heart beat. However, very frequent PVCs can be symptomatic of an underlying heart condition (such as arrhythmogenic right ventricular cardiomyopathy). Furthermore, very frequent (over 20% of all heartbeats) PVCs are considered a risk factor for arrhythmia-induced cardiomyopathy, in which the heart muscle becomes less effective and symptoms of heart failure may develop. Ultrasound of the heart is therefore recommended in people with PVCs. If PVCs are frequent or troublesome, medication (beta blockers or certain calcium channel blockers) may be used. Very frequent PVCs in people with dilated cardiomyopathy may be treated with radiofrequency ablation. Signs and symptoms Although there are many possible symptoms associated with PVCs, PVCs may also have no symptoms at all. PVCs may be perceived as a skipped heart beat, a strong beat, palpitations, or lightheadedness. They may also cause chest pain, a faint feeling, fatigue, or hyperventilation after exercise. Symptoms may be more pronounced at times of stress. Women may be more aware of PVCs at the time of the menstrual period. Premature ventricular contractions may be associated with underlying heart disease, and certain characteristics are therefore elicited routinely: the presence of signs of heart disease or a known history of heart disease (e.g. previous myocardial infarction), as well as heart disease or sudden cardiac death in close relatives. PVCs and palpitation associated with syncope (transient loss of consciousness) or provoked by exertion are also concerning. Physical examination is focused on identifying evidence of underlying heart disease. Causes Premature ventricular contractions occur in healthy persons of any age, but are more prevalent in the elderly and in men. In a very significant proportion of people they occur spontaneously with no known cause. Some possible underlying causes of PVCs include: Adrenaline excess High blood calcium Cardiomyopathy, hypertrophic or dilated Certain medicines such as digoxin, which increases heart contraction or tricyclic antidepressants Chemical (electrolyte) problems in the blood (for example hypokalemia, which can occur in those taking diuretics ("water pills") and hypomagnesaemia). Contact with the carina (trachea/bronchi) when performing medical suctioning stimulates vagus nerve Drugs such as: Alcohol Caffeine Cocaine Nicotine Theobromine Myocardial infarction Hypercapnia (CO2 poisoning) Hypertension (high blood pressure) Hypoxia Lack of sleep/exhaustion Mitral valve prolapse Myocardial contusion Myocarditis Sarcoidosis Smoking Stress Pathophysiology Normally, impulses pass through both ventricles almost at the same time and the depolarization waves of the two ventricles partially cancel each other out in the ECG. However, when a PVC occurs the impulse nearly always travels through only one bundle fiber, so there is no neutralization effect; this results in the high voltage QRS wave in the electrocardiograph. There are three main physiological explanations for premature ventricular contractions: enhanced ectopic nodal automaticity, re-entry signalling, and toxic/reperfusion triggered. Ectopic enhanced nodal automaticity suggests foci of sub-pulmonic valvular pacemaker cells that have a subthreshold potential for firing. The basic rhythm of the heart raises these cells to threshold, which precipitates an ectopic beat. This process is the underlying mechanism for arrhythmias due to excess catecholamines and some electrolyte deficiencies, particularly low blood potassium, known as hypokalemia. Reentry occurs when an area of 1-way block in the Purkinje fibers and a second area of slow conduction are present. This condition is frequently seen in patients with underlying heart disease that creates areas of differential conduction and recovery due to myocardial scarring or ischemia. During ventricular activation, one bundle tract's area of slow conduction activates the other tract's bundle fibers post block after the rest of the ventricle has recovered. This resulting in an extra beat. Reentry can produce single ectopic beats, or it can trigger paroxysmal tachycardia. Triggered beats are considered to be due to after-depolarizations triggered by the preceding action potential. These are often seen in patients with ventricular arrhythmias due to digoxin toxicity and reperfusion therapy after myocardial infarction (MI). This ectopy of the ventricles when associated with a structurally normal heart most commonly occurs from the right ventricular outflow tract under the pulmonic valve. The mechanism behind this is thought to be enhanced automaticity versus triggered activity. Molecular basis There are a number of different molecular explanations for PVCs. calcium excess: One explanation is most basically due to an increased amount of cyclic AMP(cAMP) in the muscle cells of the heart's ventricles leading to increased flow of calcium ions into the cell. This may happen for the following reasons: Activation of the sympathetic nervous system, due to anxiety and/or physiological stress, for example hypovolemia caused by dehydration or bleeding. This activation can cause a release of catecholamines such as epinephrine (adrenaline) which can bind to beta-1 adrenergic receptor (β1 receptors) on cardiac myocytes, activating a type of guanosine nucleotide-binding protein called Gs protein. This type of protein stimulates the production of cAMP, ultimately increasing the flow of calcium ions from the extracellular space and from the sarcoplasmic reticulum into the cytosol. This has the effect of (1) increasing the strength of contraction (inotropy) and (2) depolarizing the myocyte more rapidly (chronotropy). The ventricular myocytes are therefore more irritable than usual, and may depolarize spontaneously before the SA node depolarizes. Other sympathomimetic molecules such as amphetamines and cocaine will also cause this effect. Phosphodiesterase inhibitors such as caffeine directly affect the G-coupled signal transduction cascade by inhibiting the enzyme that catalyzes the breakdown of cAMP, again leading to the increased concentration of calcium ions in the cytosol. potassium deficiency: Potassium ion concentrations are a major determinant in the magnitude of the electrochemical potential of cells, and hypokalemia makes it more likely that cells will depolarize spontaneously. Hypercalcemia has a similar effect, although clinically it is of less concern. magnesium deficiency: Magnesium ions affect the flow of calcium ions, and they affect the function of the Na+/K+ ATPase, and are necessary for maintaining potassium levels. Low blood magnesium therefore also makes spontaneous depolarization more likely. myocardium damage: Existing damage to the myocardium can also provoke PVCs. The myocardial scarring that occurs in myocardial infarction and also in the surgical repair of congenital heart disease can disrupt the conduction system of the heart and may also irritate surrounding viable ventricular myocytes, make them more likely to depolarize spontaneously. Inflammation of the myocardium (as occurs in myocarditis) and systemic inflammation cause surges of cytokines, which can affect the electrical properties of myocytes and may be ultimately responsible for causing irritability of myocytes. Diagnosis PVCs may be found incidentally on cardiac tests such as a 12-lead electrocardiogram (ECG/EKG) performed for another reason. In those with symptoms suggestive of premature ventricular complexes, the ECG/EKG is the first investigation that may identify PVCs as well as other cardiac rhythm issues that may cause similar symptoms. If symptoms are infrequent, other forms of continuous heart beat recording may be used, such as a 24- or 48-hour Holter monitor. The advantage of these monitors is that they allow a quantification of the amount of abnormal beats ("burden") and ensure that there are no heart arrhythmias present that might require attention, such as ventricular tachycardia. If symptoms are associated with exercise, a supervised cardiac stress test may be required to reproduce the abnormality. Specifically, if this shows exercise-induced ventricular tachycardia this would require specific treatment. If PVCs are suppressed by exercise, this is an encouraging finding. On electrocardiography (ECG or Holter) premature ventricular contractions have a specific appearance of the QRS complexes and T waves, which are different from normal readings. By definition, a PVC occurs earlier than the regular normally conducted beat. Subsequently, the time between the PVC and the next normal beat is longer as the result of a compensatory pause. PVCs can be distinguished from premature atrial contractions because the compensatory pause is longer following premature ventricular contractions, in addition to a difference in QRS appearance. In some people, PVCs occur in a predictable pattern (either for long periods or persistently). Depending whether there are one, two, or three normal beats between each PVC, the rhythm is called bigeminy, trigeminy, or quadrigeminy. If 3 or more PVCs occur in a row it may be called ventricular tachycardia. The precise shape of the QRS can give an indication as to where precisely in the heart muscle the abnormal electrical activity arises. If someone has PVCs that all have the same appearance, they are considered "monofocal", if PVC’s have different appearance, they are considerevole “multifocal” . Treatment Isolated PVCs with benign characteristics and no underlying heart disease require no treatment, especially if there are limited symptoms. The most effective treatment is the elimination of triggers (particularly stopping the use of substances such as caffeine and certain drugs, like tobacco). Medications Antiarrhythmics: these agents alter the electrophysiologic mechanisms responsible for PVCs. In CAST study of survivors of myocardial infarction encainide and flecainide, it was shown that, though those drugs could suppress PVC, they also increased the risk of death. However, while moricizine increased the death rate when used with diuretics, it reduced the frequency of deaths when it was used alone. Beta blockers Calcium channel blockers Electrolytes replacement Magnesium supplements (e.g. magnesium citrate, orotate, Maalox, etc.) Potassium supplements (e.g. chloride potassium with citrate ion) Radiofrequency catheter ablation treatment. It is advised for people with ventricular dysfunction and frequent arrhythmias or very frequent PVC (>20% in 24 h) and normal ventricular function. This procedure is a way to destroy the area of the heart tissue that is causing the irregular contractions characteristic of PVCs using radio frequency energy. Implantable cardioverter-defibrillator Lifestyle modification Frequently stressed individuals should consider therapy, or joining a support group. Prognosis In general, PVCs are harmless, but frequent PVCs may increase the risk of developing cardiomyopathy, which can greatly and permanently impair heart function. On a more serious and severe scale, frequent PVCs can accompany underlying heart disease. Asymptomatic patients who do not have heart disease have long-term prognoses very similar to the general population, but asymptomatic patients with ejection fractions greater than 40% have a 3.5% incidence of sustained ventricular tachycardia or cardiac arrest. Emerging data also suggest that very frequent ventricular ectopy may be associated with cardiomyopathy through a mechanism thought to be similar to that of chronic right ventricular pacing associated cardiomyopathy. And for patients with underlying chronic structural heart disease and complex ectopy, mortality is significantly increased. In meta-analysis of 11 studies, people with frequent PVC (≥ once during a standard electrocardiographic recording or ≥30 times over a 1-hour recording) had risk of cardiac death twice as great as that of participants without frequent PVC. Although most researchers attempted to exclude high-risk subjects, such as those with histories of cardiovascular disease, they did not test participants for underlying structural heart disease. In a study of 239 people with frequent PVCs (>1000 beats/day) and without structural heart disease (i.e. in the presence of normal heart function) there were no serious cardiac events through 5.6 years on average, but there was correlation between PVC prevalence and decrease of ejection fraction and increase of left ventricular diastolic dimension. In this study absence of heart of disease was established by echocardiography, cardiac magnetic resonance imaging in 63 persons and Holter monitoring. Another study has suggested that in the absence of structural heart disease even frequent (> 60/h or 1/min) and complex PVCs are associated with a benign prognosis. It was study of 70 people followed by 6.5 years on average. Healthy status was verified by extensive noninvasive cardiologic examination, although cardiac catheterization of a subgroup disclosed serious coronary artery disease in 19%. Overall survival was better than expected. On the other hand, the Framingham Heart Study reported that PVCs in apparently healthy people were associated with a twofold increase in the risk of all-cause mortality, myocardial infarction and cardiac death. In men with coronary heart disease and in women with or without coronary heart disease, complex or frequent arrhythmias were not associated with an increased risk. The at-risk people might have subclinical coronary disease. These Framingham results have been criticised for the lack of rigorous measures to exclude the potential confounder of underlying heart disease. In the ARIC study of 14,783 people followed for 15 to 17 years those with detected PVC during 2 minute ECG, and without hypertension or diabetes on the beginning, had risk of stroke increased by 109%. Hypertension or diabetes, both risk factors for stroke, did not change significantly risk of stroke for people with PVC. It is possible that PVCs identified those at risk of stroke with blood pressure and impaired glucose tolerance on a continuum of risk below conventional diagnostic thresholds for hypertension and diabetes. Those in ARIC study with any PVC had risk of heart failure increased by 63% and were > twice as likely to die from coronary heart disease (CHD). Risk was also higher for people with or without baseline CHD. In the Niigata study of 63,386 people with a 10-year follow-up period, subjects with PVC during a 10-second recording had triple the risk of atrial fibrillation of those without PVC, independently of these risk factors: age;male sex; high simple body mass index (a possible signifier of obesity); hypertension (systolic and diastolic blood pressure within certain abnormal limits); and diabetes. Reducing frequent PVC (>20%) by antiarrhythmic drugs or by catheter ablation significantly improves heart performance. Recent studies have shown that those subjects with extremely frequent PVCs (several thousand a day) can develop dilated cardiomyopathy. In these cases, if the PVCs are reduced or removed (for example, via ablation therapy) the cardiomyopathy usually regresses. Epidemiology Single PVCs are common in healthy persons. 53% of healthy volunteers below the age of 45 years have been found to have PVCs on 24-hour Holter ECG recording. Rates vary by age with under 1% for those under the age of 1 and 79% in those older than 75 years. These differences may be due to rates of high blood pressure and heart disease, which are more common in older persons. In 122,043 United States Air Force flyers and cadet applicants during approximately 48 seconds of ECG 0.78% (952 males) had PVC within all age groups, but with increased incidence with increasing age. Ventricular ectopy is more prevalent in men than in women of the same age data from large, population-based studies indicate that the prevalence is less for young white women without heart disease and it’s greater for older African American individuals with hypertension. 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230477	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Class%20of%20%2774	Class of '74	Class of '74 (and subsequently Class of '75) was a secondary school-based, daily soap opera produced by the Reg Grundy Organisation and screened on the Seven Network in Australia in black-and-white starting March 1974. The main characters were a mix of teachers and other school personnel, and students. The series was aimed at a teenage audience. Each episode was 30 minutes; five episodes each week were broadcast, stripped across week nights in an early evening timeslot. The series was renamed Class of '75 for its second and final year. Although originally produced in black and white it switched to colour broadcasting during its second year of production. Main cast Principal cast members included: Teachers, staff and adults Leonard Teale - Charles Ogilvy John Hamblin - Donald Blair Gordon Glenwright - Hubbard Jeanie Drynan - Mary Dunstan Vince Martin - Gary Evans/Jack Christiansen Jan Kingsbury - Maureen Blair Chuck Danskin - Glen Turner Allan Lander - Father Paul Kennedy Carol Vincent-Smythe - Barbara Young Phillip Ross - David Willard Judy Ferris - Ruth Howard Edward Howell - James Findlay Students John Diedrich - Barry Collins Anne Louise Lambert - Peggy Richardson Megan Williams - Ann Watson Joanne Samuel - Sue Taylor Carla Hoogeveen - Julie Armstrong Kevin Wilson (actor) - John Ward Chris Cummings - Greg Simpson Barbara Llewellyn - Nora Hayes Adrian Bernotti - Tony Bianco Terry Peck (actor) Sharon Higgins (actress) - Jackie Howard Greg Bepper - Dean Howard and in 1975: Miscellaneous Abigail - Angelique Dupree Briony Behets - Jorja Jones Peter Bensley - Dennis Braithwaite Anne Charleston - Faith Adam Peter Flett - Rick Harris Angela Punch-McGregor - Jane Potter Marty Rhone - Tom Carter Peta Toppano - Gina Ferrari Bronwyn Winter - Loretta Day Cast members Teale, Hamblin and Glenwright continued the program's entire run. See also List of Australian television series References External links Aussie Soap Archive: Class of '74 — Overview and review Class of 74 at the National Film and Sound Archive 1974 Australian television series debuts 1975 Australian television series endings Australian television soap operas Teen drama television series Australian high school television series Seven Network original programming Television series produced by The Reg Grundy Organisation Television shows set in New South Wales Black-and-white Australian television shows English-language television shows	[ -0.014624381437897682, -0.1591772437095642, 0.06827947497367859, -0.07467085123062134, -0.16270585358142853, 0.10534002631902695, 0.7530044317245483, 0.28623056411743164, -0.09772083908319473, 0.13957764208316803, -0.36348196864128113, 0.7550037503242493, 0.23213109374046326, 0.6053491830825806, -0.10975117236375809, 0.1268840879201889, 0.5425799489021301, 0.3645070493221283, -0.12292219698429108, -0.3545679748058319, 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230479	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bellbird%20%28TV%20series%29	Bellbird (TV series)	Bellbird is an Australian soap opera serial set in a small fictional Victorian rural township of the show's title. The series was produced by the Australian Broadcasting Corporation at its Ripponlea TV studios in Elsternwick, Melbourne, Victoria. The opening title sequence was filmed at Daylesford, Victoria. Having run for 10 years, from 1967 until 1977, it was the longest-running soap opera/serial ever produced by the ABC. It ended the same year as commercial broadcast series Number 96 and The Box, which had run 6.5 and 4 years respectively. Production and broadcasting The series was screened from 28 August 1967 to 23 December 1977. Although Bellbird was not Australia's first television serial (the first was Network Seven's Autumn Affair), it was the first successful soap opera and even spawned a feature film and tie-in novel. The show's ratings were modest but it had a devoted following, especially in rural Australia. During most of its 10-year production run, 15-minute episodes of Bellbird screened from Monday to Thursday nights during the lead in to the 7:00 pm evening news bulletin. In 1976, the series was screened as a single one-hour episode each week, before switching to three half-hour instalments per week during its final season. While the series plots concentrated mainly on small-scale interpersonal, domestic and local relationships, issues and conflicts, there were occasional moments of high drama. One of the most celebrated was the death of the character of the local stock and station agent, Charlie Cousens, played by founding cast member Robin Ramsay. When Ramsay decided to leave the series in 1968, his character was written out in dramatic fashion, with Cousens plunging to his death from the top of a wheat silo. The death scene has figured prominently in retrospectives of great moments in Australian television, and its celebrity meant that it became one of the few segments from the early years of the series that has survived. Other notable 'deaths' across the course of the series included those of local farm girl Hagar Grossark (Barbara Ramsay), who drowned during a local flood, and the tragic 1974 'death' of major character Rhoda Lang (played by founding cast member Lynette Curran) who was killed when her car was struck by a train at a level crossing. Synopsis The show's storylines followed the lives of the residents of the small fictional country town that gave the show its title. Cast Bellbird featured a regular cast of 46 actors over its 10 year run (see links, for actor information). Principal cast members included: Later shows featuring members of the cast Prisoner The cast of Bellbird became household names to the viewing audiences and a number went on to appear in the Network Ten cult series Prisoner. In 1979, two years after Bellbird ended its run, Elspeth Ballantyne, Patsy King and Sheila Florance worked together once again in the iconic series playing guard Meg Jackson Morris (prison governor), Erica Davidson and inmate Lizzie Birdsworth respectively. Brian James, Anne Lucas, George Mallaby, Lesley Baker, Maggie Millar and Tonmmy Dysart were others. Whilst in later years, Prisoner would star former Bellbird alumni Gerda Nicolson and Maurie Fields as Governor Anne Reynolds and prison officer Len Murphy respectively. Neighbours Actor Alan Hopgood would go on to appear in Neighbours as Jack Lassiter. Ian Smith and Anne Charleston, who had also appeared in small roles in Prisoner as Ted Douglass and Lorraine Brooks, went on to appear as long-term and husband and wife characters Harold and Madge Bishop. Whilst Number 96 star Tom Oliver would play long-standing character Lou Carpenter. International screenings Episodes of Bellbird were screened in the UK in 1972. After the initial 52 episodes had been screened, Actors Equity in Australia insisted the ABC increase the price of the episodes so as to pay the actors more. As a result of the price increase, the UK broadcaster purchased no further episodes. Master tapes In 2004 it was reported that the ABC taped over the master tapes of the series, something which series cast member Alan Hopgood had complained about in a TV Times article in 1976: "They are just wiped off and another episode run over them ... This failure to preserve the program is criminal, to my way of thinking." Episodes An extensive selection of surviving episodes, apparently found during the closure of the ABC's Gore Hill studios, is stored in the National Archives of Australia. One complete black-and-white episode is available to be viewed at the Australian Mediatheque at the Australian Centre for the Moving Image in Melbourne, while several colour episodes are known to exist in the hands of private collectors. Film and novel The series was the first soap opera in Australia to spin-off into a feature film version and tie-in novel, entitled Country Town (1971). It focused on Bellbird's problems during a severe drought. Many future soaps followed suit, spawning their own film versions, including Number 96 and The Sullivans. Ratings In 1971, Bellbird was the fifteenth most popular show in the country. See also List of Australian television series List of Australian Broadcasting Corporation programs References External links Aussie Soap Archive: Bellbird – Overview and review Bellbird at the National Film and Sound Archive 1967 Australian television series debuts 1977 Australian television series endings Australian television soap operas Australian Broadcasting Corporation original programming Television shows set in Victoria (Australia) Black-and-white Australian television shows English-language television shows	[ 0.19509126245975494, -0.03728650137782097, 0.03251221776008606, -0.18697214126586914, 0.21446937322616577, 0.6382813453674316, 0.8963631391525269, 0.10428639501333237, -0.42166489362716675, 0.47594499588012695, -0.38678035140037537, -0.05280573293566704, -0.0682365670800209, 0.8845498561859131, -0.1930641233921051, 0.3557741045951843, 0.5468245148658752, 0.9060124158859253, 0.5413156747817993, -1.33905029296875, -0.28664568066596985, -0.11407612264156342, 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230480	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sepp%20Kerschbaumer	Sepp Kerschbaumer	Sepp Kerschbaumer (9 November 1913 – 7 December 1964) was a leading member of the South Tyrolean Liberation Committee (Befreiungsausschuss Südtirol (BAS)), which campaigned for the break-away of South Tyrol from Italy. In 1961, the BAS staged the so-called Feuernacht (Night of Fire), the destruction of several dozen electricity pylons, which escalated the South Tyrol conflict. The Italian state viewed the BAS as a terrorist and separatist organization, while large parts of the South Tyroleans regarded them as freedom fighters. Early life Sepp Kerschbaumer was the son of the merchant Josef Kerschbaumer and his wife Luise of Aldein, and born in the village of Frangart, which today is a frazione of Eppan. Kerschbaumer's father was killed on the Dolomite Front in World War I when he was four, followed by the death of his mother when he was nine. After his education in Bolzano and Neustift Monastery, he completed the commercial preparatory school in Brixen in 1927. In 1933 he was conscripted into military service. In late 1934 Kerschbaumer was banished for two years because of participation in a forbidden political meeting. After Benito Mussolini pardoned him in late 1935, he returned to South Tyrol. At this point, he was put in charge of his parents' grocery business by his guardian. Politics Fascist Italy had begun a process of Italianization of South Tyrol, a predominantly German-speaking area gained by Italy after World War I. Under the South Tyrol Option Agreement (1939), Kerschbaumer chose to migrate to Nazi Germany. But he later realized that no assistance could be expected from Germany. After World War II he joined the South Tyrolean People's Party and dedicated himself to local politics. He became local chairman of the party and local council head of Frangart. At the start of the 1950s, he became frustrated at what he felt was the too conciliatory attitude of the SVP. At a large demonstration on 17 November 1957, Kerschbaumer distributed an anonymous leaflet demanding "a free South Tyrol". From then on he began to found and build the South Tyrolean Liberation Committee (BAS), which was at first limited to distributing leaflets and symbolic actions, such as the display of the then forbidden flag of South Tyrol. On 12 June 1961, the BAS organized the destruction by explosives of 37 electricity pylons supplying power to the industrial zone of Bolzano, later known as the Night of Fire (Feuernacht). Incarceration and death In the aftermath of the Feuernacht, Sepp Kerschbaumer was arrested and allegedly tortured by police. The rumored mistreatment of Kerschbaumer may have contributed to further escalation of events. Being the leading member of BAS, Sepp Kerschbaumer was sentenced to fifteen years and eleven months on July 16, 1964 for organizing the bombing. On 7 December 1964 he died in prison in Verona of a heart attack. More than 15,000 inhabitants attended the funeral on 9 December 1964, about 5% of the whole population then. Personal life Kerschbaumer was a deeply devout Catholic and visited the Holy daily fair in Bolzano; in prison, he often prayed the Rosary. On April 29, 1936, he married Maria Sancheti from Bolzano. The couple had six children: James (April 27, 1937 - 1969) Marialuisa (March 5, 1939) Mali (March 26, 1940) Helga (June 25, 1942) Franz (1 December 1949) Christl (January 6, 1957) References Josef Fontana, Hans Mayr: Sepp Kerschbaumer: a biography.. Bolzano 2001, Rolf Steininger: Südtirol 1918-1999 Studies-Verlag, Innsbruck/Vienna 1999, , p. 82 External links 1913 births 1964 deaths People from Eppan an der Weinstraße Italian people of Austrian descent Germanophone Italian people South Tyrolean nationalists Prisoners who died in Italian detention	[ -0.4069458246231079, 0.3638521134853363, -0.16822558641433716, -0.38375499844551086, -0.6710461974143982, 0.6600104570388794, 0.8054115772247314, -0.1353318691253662, -0.17437347769737244, -0.25541365146636963, -0.48246240615844727, -0.31276366114616394, 0.24572157859802246, 0.595548689365387, -0.18841014802455902, 0.06829749792814255, -0.06103574112057686, 0.12918002903461456, -0.7333263754844666, -0.2819683849811554, 0.03020641952753067, -0.18114037811756134, 0.4493309557437897, 0.3253851532936096, -0.34091049432754517, -0.23487570881843567, 0.5075368881225586, 0.24567273259162903, 0.4168723225593567, 0.015222360379993916, -0.05430980771780014, 0.5912961959838867, 0.2306717038154602, 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230481	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Predator%20%28film%29	Predator (film)	Predator is a 1987 American science fiction action horror film directed by John McTiernan and written by brothers Jim and John Thomas. It is the first installment in the Predator franchise. It stars Arnold Schwarzenegger as the leader of an elite paramilitary rescue team on a mission to save hostages in guerrilla-held territory in a Central American rainforest, who encounter the deadly Predator (Kevin Peter Hall), a technologically advanced alien who stalks and hunts them down. Predator was written in 1984 under the working title of Hunter. Filming ran from March to June 1986 with creature effects devised by Stan Winston; the budget was around $15 million. 20th Century Fox released the film on June 12, 1987, in the United States, where it grossed $98.3 million. Initial reviews were mixed, but the film has since been considered a classic of the action genre. The success of Predator spawned a media franchise of films, novels, comic books, video games, and toys. It spawned three direct sequels: Predator 2 (1990), Predators (2010) and The Predator (2018), and an upcoming prequel titled Prey (2022). A crossover with the Alien franchise produced the Alien vs. Predator films, which include Alien vs. Predator (2004) and Aliens vs. Predator: Requiem (2007). Plot An alien spacecraft deploys a shuttle to Earth. Meanwhile, Vietnam War veteran Major Alan "Dutch" Schaefer and his military rescue team – Mac Eliot, Jorge "Poncho" Ramírez, Blain Cooper, Billy Sole, and Rick Hawkins – are tasked with rescuing a foreign cabinet minister and his aide from insurgents. CIA officer Al Dillon, a Vietnam War buddy of Dutch's, is assigned to accompany the team over Dutch's objections. En route, the team discovers the wreckage of a helicopter and three skinned corpses. Dutch identifies them as Green Berets that he used to know and becomes suspicious of Dillon's intentions. After the team reaches a guerilla camp and kills several of them and Soviet intelligence officers, Dutch confronts Dillon, who reveals their true mission was to stop a planned Soviet-backed invasion and that the CIA sent the Green Berets weeks earlier for the same mission. Capturing surviving guerilla Anna and learning that more rebels are coming, the team returns to the extraction point. They are followed by a hidden presence using a cloaking device, but a spooked Billy glimpses it while Anna escapes. Hawkins catches her, but the creature attacks and kills him while sparing Anna. Dutch organizes a search party, but Blain is killed by the creature's plasma cannon. Enraged, Mac incites everyone to fire their weapons into the jungle, unknowingly wounding the creature. As the creature mends itself, the commandos regroup and realize they are being hunted. Dillon believes more guerrillas are responsible, but Billy is adamant that their pursuer is not human. They make camp for the night and set traps, but a wild boar sets them off. In the confusion, Mac kills it while the creature steals Blain's body. Dutch later realizes that their enemy uses the trees to travel and frees Anna, who reveals she has witnessed the creature's actions as a child. The next day, after everyone builds a net trap, the creature sets it off, but it escapes and injures Poncho. Mac and Dillon try to pursue it, but it outmaneuvers and kills them both. As the survivors flee, Billy stays behind to fight the creature and give the others time to escape, but it kills him before catching up to the survivors and killing Poncho. Dutch realizes it does not attack unarmed individuals and sends Anna to the extraction point alone, unarmed. Dutch attempts to distract the creature while fleeing, but eventually ends up in a muddy riverbank where it catches up to him. The creature fails to see him and leaves to collect trophies from the others. Dutch realizes that the river mud makes him invisible to the creature and crafts makeshift traps and weapons and lures the creature out at night with a warcry and torch. He lightly injures the creature and disables its cloaking device, but the creature fires wildly into the forest to flush Dutch out, subsequently causing him to fall into the river, losing his camouflage. The creature corners Dutch, but removes its armor and mask to fight him hand-to-hand, having deemed him a worthy opponent. Despite being overpowered, Dutch attempts to goad the creature into a booby trap. It goes around, but Dutch triggers the trap regardless and crushes the creature with the trap's counterweight. He almost kills it, but stops to ask it, "What the hell are you?" The creature repeats the question to him and activates its self-destruct device, emulating Billy's laughter. Realizing what it has done, Dutch runs to cover and survives from the explosion to be eventually rescued. Cast Arnold Schwarzenegger as Major Alan "Dutch" Schaefer Carl Weathers as Al Dillon, Dutch's Vietnam War buddy, now a CIA operative Elpidia Carrillo as Anna Gonsalves, an insurgent Bill Duke as Sergeant Mac Eliot, Blain's friend and a machine gunner Richard Chaves as Jorge "Poncho" Ramírez, an explosives expert Jesse Ventura as Blain Cooper, heavy-gunner, uses a minigun dubbed "Ol' Painless" Sonny Landham as Billy Sole, a tracker and scout Shane Black as Rick Hawkins, radio operator R.G. Armstrong as Major General Homer Philips Kevin Peter Hall as The Predator / Helicopter Pilot Peter Cullen supplies the Predator's voice, credited as providing vocals (noted as "Vocalizations By") in the staff roll. His name shows up much later than the rest of the cast. Sven-Ole Thorsen as Soviet Military Adviser (in an uncredited role) Production Development Following the release of Rocky IV, a joke circulated in Hollywood that since Rocky Balboa had run out of earthly opponents, he would have to fight an alien if a fifth film were to be made. Screenwriters Jim and John Thomas took the inspiration from the joke and wrote a screenplay based on it. The Thomas script for Predator was originally titled Hunter. The original concept, centered on a plot of "what it is to be hunted," concerned a band of alien hunters of various species seeking various targets; that concept was eventually streamlined to one extraterrestrial hunting the most dangerous species, humans, and the "most dangerous man," a combat soldier. Additionally, the setting was chosen as Central America for having constant special forces operations during that period. As the Thomas brothers were first time screenwriters with little credibility in Hollywood, they struggled to attract attention for their proposed film, and eventually resorted to slipping the script under the door of 20th Century Fox producer Michael Levy (who would go on to serve as executive producer on the film's sequel, Predator 2). Levy then brought the screenplay to producer Joel Silver who, based on his experience with Commando, decided to turn the science fiction pulp storyline into a big-budget film. Silver enlisted his former boss Lawrence Gordon as co-producer and John McTiernan was hired as director for his first studio film. At one point, New Zealand director Geoff Murphy was also considered to direct. Casting Silver and Gordon first approached Arnold Schwarzenegger with the lead role. Schwarzenegger said, "The first thing I look for in a script is a good idea, a majority of scripts are rip-offs of other movies. People think they can become successful overnight. They sat down one weekend and wrote a script because they read that Stallone did that with Rocky. Predator was one of the scripts I read, and it bothered me in one way. It was just me and the alien. So we re-did the whole thing so that it was a team of commandos and then I liked the idea. I thought it would make a much more effective movie and be much more believable. I liked the idea of starting out with an action-adventure, but then coming in with some horror and science fiction." He had previously starred in Commando, on which Silver had served as producer. To play the elite band of soldiers, both Silver and Gordon, with co-producer John Davis, searched for other larger-than-life men of action. Carl Weathers, who had been memorable as boxer Apollo Creed in the Rocky films, was their first choice to play Dillon while professional wrestler and former Navy UDT Jesse Ventura was hired for his formidable physique as Blain, co-starring with Schwarzenegger the same year in The Running Man. Also cast were Sonny Landham, Richard Chaves, and Bill Duke, who co-starred alongside Schwarzenegger in Commando. Jean-Claude Van Damme was originally cast as the Predator with the intent that the physical action star would use his martial arts skills to make the Predator an agile, ninja-like hunter. But when the 5'9" Van Damme was compared to Schwarzenegger, Weathers, and Ventura — actors over 6 feet tall and known for their bodybuilding regimens — it became apparent a more physically imposing man was needed to make the creature appear threatening. Additionally, it was reported that Van Damme constantly complained about the monster suit being too hot and causing him to pass out. He allegedly had also repeatedly voiced reservations about only appearing on camera in the suit. Additionally, the original design for the Predator was felt to be too cumbersome and difficult to manage in the jungle and, even with a more imposing actor, did not provoke enough fear. Van Damme was removed from the film and replaced by the 7'2" Kevin Peter Hall, who had just finished work as a sasquatch in Harry and the Hendersons. Filming Commitments by Schwarzenegger delayed the start of filming by several months. The delay gave Silver enough time to secure a minor rewrite from screenwriter David Peoples. Principal photography eventually began in the jungles of Palenque, Chiapas, Mexico, during the last week of March 1986, but of the film was shot in Mismaloya, Mexico. Much of the material dealing with the unit's deployment in the jungle was completed in a few short weeks and both Silver and Gordon were pleased by the dailies provided by McTiernan. On Friday, April 25, production halted so that Schwarzenegger could get to his wedding on time, flying to Hyannis Port in a Learjet chartered by Silver. Schwarzenegger was married on April 26, 1986, to Maria Shriver, and honeymooned for only three days while the second unit completed additional filming. The production resumed filming on May 12 and ended in late June 1986. Both McTiernan and Schwarzenegger lost 25 pounds during the film. Schwarzenegger's weight loss was a professional choice while McTiernan lost the weight because he avoided the food in Mexico due to health concerns. Unlike McTiernan, most of the cast and crew suffered from Montezuma's Revenge since the Mexican hotel in which they were living had problems with its water purification. In an interview, Carl Weathers said the actors would secretly wake up as early as 3:00 a.m. to work out before the day's shooting. Weathers also stated that he would act as if his physique was naturally given to him and would work out only after the other actors were nowhere to be seen. According to Schwarzenegger, filming was physically demanding. The actor—and former bodybuilder—shipped gym equipment to Mexico and trained intensively every day before shooting began, usually with his co-stars. Screenwriter Jim Thomas was impressed with the training regimen and said: "I think that phrase 'manly men' was coined [during the production of Predator]". Among other tasks, Schwarzenegger had to swim in very cold water and spent three weeks covered in mud for the climactic battle with the alien. In addition, cast and crew endured very cold temperatures in the Mexican jungle that required heat lamps to be on all of the time. Cast and crew filmed on rough terrain that, according to the actor, was never flat, "always on a hill. We stood all day long on a hill, one leg down, one leg up. It was terrible." Schwarzenegger also faced the challenge of working with Kevin Peter Hall, who could not see in the Predator suit. The actor recalled that "when he's supposed to slap me around and stay far from my face, all of a sudden, whap! There is this hand with claws on it!" Hall stated in an interview that his experience on the film "wasn't a movie, it was a survival story for all of us." For example, in the scene where the Predator chases Dutch, the water was foul, stagnant and full of leeches. Hall could not see out of the mask and had to rehearse his scenes with it off and memorize where everything was. The outfit was difficult to wear because it was heavy and affected his balance. Visual effects The original Predator creature was created by Richard Edlund of Boss Film Studios and was a disproportionate, ungainly creature with large yellow eyes and a dog-like head, and nowhere near as agile as necessary for what the filmmakers had intended. After a call was put out for a new alien creature costume, creature effects artist Rick Baker put in a bid, but ultimately McTiernan consulted Stan Winston. Winston had previously worked with Schwarzenegger as a visual effects artist on the 1984 film The Terminator. While on a plane ride to Fox studios alongside Aliens director James Cameron, Winston sketched monster ideas. Cameron suggested he had always wanted to see a creature with mandibles, which became part of the Predator's iconic look. R/Greenberg Associates created the film's optical effects, including the alien's ability to become invisible, its thermal vision point of view, its glowing blood, and the electrical spark effects. The invisibility effect was achieved by having someone wearing a bright red suit (because it was the farthest opposite of the green of the jungle and the blue of the sky) the size of the Predator. The red was removed with chroma key techniques, leaving an empty area. The take was then repeated without the actors using a 30% wider lens on the camera. When the two takes were combined optically, the jungle from the second take filled in the empty area. Because the second take was filmed with a wider lens, a vague outline of the alien could be seen with the background scenery bending around its shape. For thermal vision, infrared film could not be used because it did not register in the range of body temperature wavelengths. The filmmakers used an Inframetrics thermal video scanner because it gave good heat images of objects and people. The glowing blood was achieved by green liquid from glow sticks mixed with personal lubricant for texture. The electrical sparks were rotoscoped animation using white paper pins registered on portable light tables to black-and-white prints of the film frames. The drawings were composited by the optical crew for the finished effects. Additional visual effects, mainly for the opening title sequence of the Predator arriving on Earth, were supplied by Dream Quest Images (later Oscar-winners for their work on The Abyss and Total Recall). The film was nominated for an Academy Award for Best Visual Effects. Music Soundtrack The score was composed by Alan Silvestri, who was coming off the huge success of Back to the Future in 1985. Predator was his first major action movie and the score is full of his familiar genre characteristics: heavy horn blasts, staccato string rhythms, and undulating timpani rolls that highlight the action and suspense. Little Richard's song "Long Tall Sally" is featured in the helicopter en route to the jungle. Mac also recites a few lines from the song as he's chasing the Predator after it escapes from their booby trap. Silvestri returned for the sequel, making him the only composer to have scored more than one film in either the Alien or Predator series. In 2003, Varèse Sarabande released the soundtrack album as part of its limited release CD Club collection; the album also includes the Elliot Goldenthal arrangement of the 20th Century Fox fanfare used on Alien 3. In 2007, Brian Tyler adapted and composed some of Silvestri's themes used in the score of the film Aliens vs. Predator: Requiem. In 2010, the same year Predators featured an adaptation of Silvestri's score by John Debney, Intrada Records released the album in a 3000-copy limited edition with remastered sound, many cues combined and renamed, and most notably (as with Intrada's release of Basil Poledouris's score for RoboCop) presenting the original end credits music as recorded (the film versions are mixed differently). This release is notable for having sold out within a day. In 2018, Henry Jackman adapted and composed Silvestri's themes in the score of the film, The Predator. Release Released on June 12, 1987, Predator was No. 1 at the US box office in its opening weekend with a gross of $12 million, which was second to only Beverly Hills Cop II for the calendar year 1987. The film grossed $98,267,558, of which $59,735,548 was from the US & Canadian box office. $38,532,010 was made in other countries. Home media Predator was released on DVD on December 26, 2000. The film was later released on Blu-ray on April 15, 2008. Predator was released on Blu-ray 3D on December 17, 2013. Predator was released on Ultra HD Blu-ray on August 7, 2018. Reception Critical response Review aggregator Metacritic assigns a weighted average score of 45 out of 100 based on 15 largely contemporary reviews, indicating a "mixed or average" response. Considering a broader range of retrospective opinions, Rotten Tomatoes reports that 82% of 49 surveyed critics gave the film a positive review, with an average rating of 7.1/10. The site's critical consensus reads: "Predator: Part sci-fi, part horror, part action -- all muscle." Elvis Mitchell of The New York Times described the film as "grisly and dull, with few surprises." Dean Lamanna wrote in Cinefantastique that "the militarized monster movie tires under its own derivative weight." Michael Wilmington of the Los Angeles Times proclaimed it "arguably one of the emptiest, feeblest, most derivative scripts ever made as a major studio movie." Variety wrote that the film was a "slightly above-average actioner that tries to compensate for tissue-thin-plot with ever-more-grisly death sequences and impressive special effects." Adam Barker of The Monthly Film Bulletin found that "unfortunately, special effects have also been substituted for suspense" and that "the early appearance of the Predator makes the final gladiatorial conflict predictable, and the monster's multiple transformations also exhaust interest in its final appearance." Though finding the creature's motivations poorly explained, critic Roger Ebert was more complimentary of the film. He wrote: "Predator moves at a breakneck pace, it has strong and simple characterizations, it has good location photography and terrific special effects, and it supplies what it claims to supply: an effective action movie." The Hollywood Reporters Duane Byrge felt the Predator's weaponized attacks relied too heavily on special effects, but allowed that the film is a "well-made, old-style assault movie" and a "full-assault" visual experience. Audiences polled by CinemaScore gave the film an average grade of "B+" on an A+ to F scale. In a retrospective review, Film4 called the movie a "fast paced, high testosterone, edge-of-the-seat experience", and the titular character a "masterful creation". Chris Hewitt of Empire wrote: "Predator has gradually become a sci-fi and action classic. It's not difficult to see why. John McTiernan's direction is claustrophobic, fluid and assured, staging the action with aplomb but concentrating just as much on tension and atmosphere... A thumping piece of powerhouse cinema." Peter Suderman of Reason magazine noted that "over the last 30-odd years, it has come to be regarded a classic of '80s action cinema". Legacy Predator has appeared on a number of "best of" lists. In 2007, C. Robert Cargill of RealNetworks resource, Film.com (now merged into MTV Movies), ranked Predator as the seventh best film of 1987, calling it "one of the great science fiction horror films, often imitated, but never properly duplicated, not even by its own sequel." Entertainment Weekly named it the 22nd greatest action movie of all time in 2007, and the 14th among "The Best Rock-'em, Sock-'em Movies of the Past 25 Years" in 2009, saying "Arnold Schwarzenegger has never been as manly as he was in this alien-hunting testosterone-fest." In 2012, IGN proclaimed it the 13th greatest action movie of all time. In 2008, Empire magazine ranked it 366th on their list of "The 500 Greatest Movies of All Time". Predator was ranked 4th in a 2015 Rolling Stone reader poll of the all-time best action films; it was described by reporter Andy Greene as "freakin' awesome". In a 2018 review for IGN, William Bibbiani called Predator, "The most subversive action movie of the 1980s" and cites examples from the film of satire of the action film genre as a whole. In his review, he writes, "Predator may be a big, macho action movie, but it's also highly critical of the kinds of characters you'd normally find in big, macho action movies, and the superficial, unquestioningly heroic stories they appear in." In 2013, NECA released action figure collectables of Major Dutch and the Predator. That same year, Predator was converted into 3D for a Blu-ray release. The Predator makes an appearance in Tom Clancy's Ghost Recon: Wildlands, in a bonus mission called "The Hunt". The line "Get to the choppa" was subsequently associated with Arnold Schwarzenegger, especially when Schwarzenegger said the line again in some of his later appearances, including The New Celebrity Apprentice and advertisements for the mobile video game Mobile Strike. In 2021, Fortnite collaborated with Predator making a playable skin for the character as well as a hidden enemy in the game, giving players the associated abilities such as invisibility and the shoulder cannon. Another game that has been influenced by "Predator" is the Contra series by Konami. Sequel and franchise The success of Predator led 20th Century Fox to finance three direct sequels over the next thirty-one years, each by different directors, starting with Predator 2 released in 1990. Arnold Schwarzenegger has not reprised his role as Dutch Schaefer in the subsequent sequels; he had been made offers to return but declined on all of these occasions. The success of Predator resulted in numerous novels, comic books, video games, toys, and other media and merchandise. A number of these began appearing under the Alien vs. Predator title, which brought the Predator creatures together with the creatures of the Alien films, and a film series followed with Alien vs. Predator in 2004 and Aliens vs. Predator: Requiem in 2007. See also List of monster movies List of American films of 1987 Arnold Schwarzenegger filmography Survival film Notes References External links Predator (franchise) films 1987 films 1980s action horror films 1987 horror films 1980s science fiction action films 1980s science fiction horror films 1980s monster movies American films American science fiction action films American science fiction horror films English-language films Spanish-language films American monster movies 20th Century Fox films Davis Entertainment films Films shot from the first-person perspective Films scored by Alan Silvestri Films directed by John McTiernan Films produced by John Davis Films produced by Joel Silver Films produced by Lawrence Gordon Films set in 1987 Films set in Central America Films set in jungles Films shot in Mexico Silver Pictures films Films about extraterrestrial life American action horror films Films with screenplays by Jim Thomas (screenwriter) Films with screenplays by John Thomas 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230483	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Commando%20%281985%20film%29	Commando (1985 film)	Commando is a 1985 American action film directed by Mark L. Lester and starring Arnold Schwarzenegger, Rae Dawn Chong, Alyssa Milano, Vernon Wells, Bill Duke and Dan Hedaya. The film was released in the United States on October 4, 1985. The film was nominated for a Saturn Award for Best Special Effects but lost to Back to the Future. The film's score was provided by James Horner. A commercial success, Commando was the 7th-highest-grossing R-rated film of 1985 worldwide, and the 25th-highest-grossing overall. Plot Retired United States Special Forces Colonel John Matrix is informed by his former superior Major General Franklin Kirby that all the other members of his former unit have been killed by unknown mercenaries. The mercenaries, among them Bennett, an Australian ex-member of Matrix's team discharged for excessive violence, attack Matrix's secluded mountain home and kidnap Matrix's young daughter Jenny. While trying to intercept them, Matrix is also overpowered and abducted by the mercenaries. He is taken before their commander, Arius, a South American former dictator Matrix removed from power. Arius blackmails Matrix into carrying out a political assassination in his home country of Val Verde, where Arius wishes to lead a military coup. With Jenny's life on the line, Matrix reluctantly agrees to fulfill the demand. After boarding a plane to Val Verde, Matrix manages to kill his guard, Henriques - by snapping his neck - and jumps from the plane just as it is taking off. With approximately 11 hours before the plane is scheduled to land, he sets out after another of Arius' men, Sully. He enlists the aid of an off-duty flight attendant, Cindy, and instructs her to follow Sully to a shopping mall. Cindy first assumes that Matrix is a madman, but after she sees Sully pull a gun on Matrix in the ensuing fight, she decides to assist him in his endeavor. After a lengthy car chase, Matrix catches up with Sully and drops him off a cliff to his death. Taking a motel key from Sully's jacket, Matrix tracks down and confronts Cooke, a former Green Beret in Arius' employ. He impales Cooke on a table leg after a lengthy fight. Matrix tells Cindy that Arius was going to kill Jenny, regardless of whether or not he did the job. Afterwards, Matrix and Cindy break into a warehouse owned by Arius which supplies weapons for his army. Matrix learns where Jenny is being held after looking at a map of the island where Arius' villa is located. Matrix breaks into a surplus store to equip himself with military weaponry, but is immediately arrested by the police. Cindy helps him escape by using a rocket launcher on the police car and, after commandeering a seaplane from a nearby marina controlled by Arius, Matrix and Cindy land the plane off the coast of Arius' island hideout. Matrix instructs Cindy to contact General Kirby and then proceeds to Arius' villa, killing Arius and his army. Jenny escapes to the villa's basement, but is captured by Bennett. Matrix tracks them, and after a lengthy fight, finally kills Bennett by impaling him with a steam pipe. Kirby arrives with a military detachment and asks Matrix to rejoin the unit, but Matrix declines and departs the island aboard the seaplane with Jenny and Cindy, telling Kirby "no chance." Cast Arnold Schwarzenegger as Colonel John Matrix Rae Dawn Chong as Cindy Alyssa Milano as Jenny Matrix Dan Hedaya as President Arius Vernon Wells as Captain Bennett James Olson as Major General Franklin Kirby David Patrick Kelly as "Sully" Bill Duke as Cooke Drew Snyder as Lawson Michael Delano as Forrestal Charles Meshack as Henriques Carlos Cervantes as Diaz Chelsea Field as Brunette Stewardess Bill Paxton as Intercept Officer Production Development Writer Jeph Loeb said his original script was about an Israeli soldier who had renounced violence. Steven de Souza rewrote the script, tailoring it to Schwarzenegger. Casting Vernon Wells was the first choice to be cast as Captain Bennett, mostly because of his role in Mad Max 2 (1981). Mark L. Lester stated that Wells was "the only one that could have played against him [Schwarzenegger]". He further added Bennett was "in love with Matrix but he hated him, too. He wanted to kill him but he was in love with him." Filming Principal photography commenced on April 22, 1985, and lasted for 45 days. The film was shot on location in California. San Nicolas Island off the coast of Santa Barbara, to which Matrix flies to rescue his daughter, was filmed on the Pacific coast at San Simeon. The barracks that are "attacked" are actually beach properties belonging to the Hearst Castle Estate. The house that Matrix storms at the film's climax was actually the former main residence of the Harold Lloyd Estate in the Benedict Canyon district of Beverly Hills. The car chase scene between Sully and Matrix starts on Ventura Blvd and moves into the hills on Benedict Canyon. The Sherman Oaks Galleria, in Sherman Oaks, California, served as the film's shopping mall location, and was used for six days after 9pm, after stores closed. The film was originally set to cost $8 million, but ended up costing $9 million once principal photography ended. Music Soundtrack A soundtrack album was released by Varèse Sarabande on December 2, 2003, as part of the label's CD Club and was limited to 3,000 copies. The score, composed by James Horner, is notable for its prominent use of steel drums and for reusing motifs from Horner's soundtrack for 48 Hours. Track listing "Prologue/Main Title" – 3:58 "Ambush and Kidnapping" – 2:35 "Captured" – 2:14 "Surprise" – 8:19 "Sully Runs" – 4:34 "Moving Jenny" – 3:44 "Matrix Breaks In" – 3:30 "Infiltration, Showdown and Finale" – 14:32 La-La Land Records released a limited edition of James Horner's score in August 2011. The release features approximately 62 minutes of music across 24 tracks and includes "We Fight for Love" by The Power Station. Release Toys Diamond Toymakers released a line of action figures in 1986 in an attempt to cash in on the success of G.I. Joe: A Real American Hero. Matrix now leads an elite special forces unit (which replaced his old deceased unit from the original film) called C-Team, made up of Spex, Blaster, and Chopper, against the forces of F.E.A.R., led by Psycho (who is based on the character of Bennett) and consisting of Lead-Head, Stalker, and Sawbones. There was an assortment of 4" figures, containing all of the above, a series of 8" figures, consisting of Matrix, Spex, Blaster, Psycho, Lead-Head, and Stalker. Chopper and Sawbones are absent. Finally, there was an 18" John Matrix that came with a pistol, an M16, and a grenade. Home media The first DVD of Commando was released in region 1 in the United States on May 25, 1999. Common with early DVD releases, the disc featured a non-anamorphic video transfer, a basic 2.0 surround track, and only the US theatrical trailer as an extra. DVDs released in other regions soon followed, some with anamorphic transfers, but the 2001 United Kingdom region 2 DVD was censored by the British Board of Film Classification (BBFC), with 12 seconds of cuts to an arm severing and closeups of the impaled Bennett. These cuts were brought over from the 1985 original theatrical release. However, a German master was used for the UK DVD, meaning the film was cut even more than it should have been, leading to 56 seconds of cuts instead of the BBFC's 12 seconds. If the film had been resubmitted to the BBFC, it would be passed uncut under the BBFC's new, more liberal rules. This has proven to be the case as the BBFC's website indicates that both versions of the film (the U.S. theatrical cut and the unrated edition) for the DVD were passed on June 11, 2007. With the unrated edition released, the film is available in its entirety, a first for the UK. On June 5, 2007, 20th Century Fox officially announced that a completely unedited and unrated director's cut of the film would be released on region 1 DVD on September 18, 2007. Through seamless branching, this disc not only features an unrated cut (which was claimed to run at 95 minutes, but is only 91 minutes, with 92 seconds of extra footage), but as a bonus, also contains the original 90-minute, R-rated US theatrical version. Aside from this, the DVD is a special edition, featuring an audio commentary from director Mark L. Lester (only on the theatrical cut), additional deleted scenes, a Pure Action featurette, a Let Off Some Steam featurette, and four photo galleries with over 150 photos. The transfer is anamorphically enhanced and features a 5.1 audio mix. In April 2008, the 90-minute theatrical version of the film was released to consumers on the high definition Blu-ray Disc format. On May 5, 2015, as part of the film's 30th anniversary, the director's cut of Commando was released on Blu-ray Disc in a limited edition, collectible metalpak as a Best Buy exclusive. It contains all of the special features that were included in the 2007 DVD release, including the 90-minute theatrical version of the film. Reception Box office Commando was a box office success grossing over $57.5 million against a $9 million budget. The film debuted at number one on the weekend of October 4–6, 1985 in the United States and spent three consecutive weeks at the top position. Critical response Review aggregation website Rotten Tomatoes gives the film a rating of 69% based on reviews from 35 critics, with an average rating of 5.80/10. The website's critical consensus reads, "The ultimate '80s Schwarzenegger movie, replete with a threadbare plot, outsized action, and endless one-liners." On Metacritic, the film has a rating of 51 out of 100, indicating "mixed or average reviews". D. J. R. Bruckner of The New York Times wrote that "two-thirds of this 90-minute film is mayhem unrelieved by humor and untouched by humanity," and suggested that if sequels were to be made, "more clever writers and subtler directors will have to be found. Even a cinematic comic book needs more artful care than this one was given." Variety wrote, "While it's not in the class of Schwarzenegger's last hit (The Terminator), Commando is actually superior to Rambo: First Blood Part II because of its deft mixture of humor and action (with most of the action brushed with humor) and its deliberate evasion of any political message." Patrick Goldstein of the Los Angeles Times wrote, "Full of spectacular stunts and shootouts, it's a gory crowd-pleaser, directed with jolting efficiency by low-budget veteran Mark L. Lester. If his scenarists had only given Lester a finale with as much explosive punch as his opening scenes, the film could have been a real treat instead of a glorified fireworks display." Gene Siskel of the Chicago Tribune gave the film 2 stars out of 4 and wrote that "Schwarzenegger plays his action scenes both with vengeance and a comic-book laugh, but the mix never gels," adding, "The concluding battle scenes are wimpy by comparison with the action in Rambo. All we see is a half-dozen barracks blown up, shot from four different angles. Wow, look at all of the splintered wood." Paul Attanasio of The Washington Post wrote that the film "starts out fun and ends up dreary—how long can you watch this stony Austrian take target practice?" Legacy Commando inspired many other action films, including Strike Commando (1987), Commando Squad (1987), and When Eagles Strike (2003). See also List of American films of 1985 Arnold Schwarzenegger filmography References External links 1985 films 1980s action films 1980s chase films 2003 soundtrack albums 20th Century Fox films American action films American chase films American films English-language films Films scored by James Horner Films about child abduction Films about terrorism Films directed by Mark L. Lester Films produced by Joel Silver Films set in a fictional country Films set in Los Angeles Films set in South America Films shot in Los Angeles James Horner albums Silver Pictures films Varèse Sarabande soundtracks Films about United States Army Special Forces Action film soundtracks Films with screenplays by Steven E. de Souza Films with screenplays by Jeph Loeb	[ -0.18893256783485413, -0.019328512251377106, -0.4750518500804901, -0.005166553892195225, 0.10320892930030823, 0.08106820285320282, 0.5236951112747192, -0.5581215620040894, -0.6312234401702881, 0.4939926266670227, 0.2991063594818115, 0.6985442042350769, 0.052388012409210205, -0.0905008316040039, 0.24458612501621246, 0.07458551973104477, 0.401094913482666, 0.25962722301483154, -0.2703252136707306, -0.5663898587226868, -0.09849799424409866, -0.31041356921195984, 0.5363998413085938, 0.2822111248970032, -0.5354976058006287, 0.45047271251678467, 0.21885837614536285, 0.6285743713378906, 0.34887826442718506, 0.2636512517929077, 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230484	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mount%20Elbrus	Mount Elbrus	Mount Elbrus (; ; ) is the highest and most prominent peak in Russia and Europe. It is situated in the western part of the Caucasus and is the highest peak of the Caucasus Mountains. The dormant volcano rises above sea level; it is the highest stratovolcano in Eurasia, as well as the tenth-most prominent peak in the world. The mountain stands in Southern Russia, in the Russian republic of Kabardino-Balkaria. Elbrus has two summits, both of which are dormant volcanic domes. The taller, western summit is ; the eastern summit is . The eastern summit was first ascended on 10 July 1829 by Khillar Khachirov, and the western summit in 1874 by a British expedition led by F. Crauford Grove and including Frederick Gardner, Horace Walker and the Swiss guide Peter Knubel. 8-year-old Gandham Bhuvan Jai became the youngest person to summit Mount Elbrus in September 2021. Etymology The name Elbrus seems to have a connection with Alborz (also called Elburz), which is also the name of a long mountain range in northern Iran, but the two should not be confused. The name is derived from Avestan Harā Bərəzaitī, a legendary mountain in Iranian mythology. Harā Bərəzaitī reflects Proto-Iranian Harā Bṛzatī, which was reformed into Middle Persian as Harborz, and into Modern Persian as Alborz. Bṛzatī is the feminine form of the adjective bṛzant ("high"), the reconstructed ancestor of Modern Ossetian bærzond ("high", "peak"), Modern Persian barz ("high"), berāzande ("elegant"), and boland ("high", "tall"), and Modern Kurdish barz ("high"). Harā may be interpreted as "watch" or "guard", from Indo-European *ser ("protect"). The name "Mingi Taw" used by Karachays and Balkars means "Eternal Mountain" in Turkic. Geography Situation Elbrus is situated in the northwest of the Caucasus, 100 kilometres from the Black Sea and 370 kilometres from the Caspian Sea, from where it is possible to see it in exceptionally clear weather. It rises 5,642 metres above sea level, and is the highest point of the Caucasus Mountains. Located eleven kilometres north of the Greater Caucasus Watershed, marking the border with Georgia, it is shared between the respective territories of the Russian republics of Kabardino-Balkaria and Karachay-Cherkessia. It is the highest peak in both Russia and Europe, far ahead of Mont Blanc in the Alps, which rises 4,809 metres above sea level. Elbrus is located 65 kilometres southwest of the city of Kislovodsk and 80 kilometers west-southwest of Nalchik. By road it is accessible from European route E50, known to Russians as either the M29 highway or the R217 highway. Nationalpark Elbrus, which is accessed by the A158 road out of Baksan, lies on its southeastern flank. Access permits are required south of Baksan because of border controls. Topography Elbrus is an almost symmetrical dormant volcano, in a vertical plane, with two main peaks, on either side of a pass located at 5,416 metres above sea level: the western summit is the highest point at 5,642 metres above sea level. while the eastern summit rises to 5,621 meters. The crater, 300 to 400 metres in diameter, located at the top of the eastern peak, was gradually filled with snow and ice. The snowfields of the volcano, covering an area of , feed 22 (or 23 depending on the sources) main glaciers and 77 secondary glaciers that give rise to the Baksan rivers: Kuban and Malka. Some of these glaciers, studied by scientists since the 1930s, can reach 400 metres in thickness but all are receding, having lost between 80 and 500 meters in length. The two main ones are called Bolshoi Azaou ("the great Azaou"), with an area of and a length of 9.28 km, and Irik, with an area of and a length of 9.31 km. This glacial activity has formed numerous small but deep lakes. Geology The Caucasus is formed by the northward collision of the Arabian Plate against the Eurasian Plate that causes numerous earthquakes in the region. The fault zone is complex and the largely lateral displacement at the level of Anatolia and Iran prevents the creation of a subduction phenomenon and explains the rarity of volcanoes in the mountain range. Elbrus is therefore one of the rare exceptions, made up of both metamorphic rocks (like schists or gneiss) and magmatic rocks (like granite, rhyolite or tuff). Elbrus started to form there 10 million years ago. The ejecta from the volcano cover an area of 260 km2. Fragments of rhyolite and rhyodacite as well as tuff and ignimbrite formations have been found and have allowed by uranium-lead dating to situate the formation of the main caldera around −700,000 years, probably corresponding to the end of 'a major eruptive cycle. Geochronological dating has revealed subsequent synchronous eruptive cycles in different focimagmatic deposits of the Greater Caucasus, demonstrating the common geological origin of this volcanic activity. It happens that modest fumaroles still sometimes escape from the eastern flank of Elbrus, at the level of the ancient lava flow of 24 kilometers long oriented from the crater to the north-northeast, and hot springs originate on the slopes of the mountain. Climate As Elbrus is located in the Northern Hemisphere, the summer period, the least rigorous, takes place from June to mid-September with an average of 50% of sunny days favorable to the ascent of the summit. However, the winds, dominated by westerly air masses, can turn violent and temperatures drop very quickly. Above 4000 meters above sea level, even in summer, arctic blizzard conditions with near zero visibility can develop. It is not uncommon for the wind to exceed 100 km/h. In winter, the temperature can drop below −50° at the top, but in the valleys hot, dry downdrafts can cause heavy snowfall. At low altitudes, the average precipitation is 500 mm and can reach 1000 mm in some years, while above 2000 meters it can exceed 1500 mm. Eruptive history Mount Elbrus was formed more than 2.5 million years ago. The volcano is currently considered dormant. Elbrus was active in the Holocene, and according to the Global Volcanism Program, the last eruption took place about AD 50. Evidence of recent volcanism includes several lava flows on the mountain, which look fresh, and roughly of volcanic debris. The longest flow extends down the northeast summit, indicative of a large eruption. There are other signs of activity on the volcano, including solfataric activity and hot springs. The western summit has a well-preserved volcanic crater about in diameter. History Greek mythology In the Periplus of the Euxine Sea, written in Greek in ca. 130, Arrian mentioned a summit in the Caucasus named Strobilos: “… as we turned from Astelphos toward Dioscurias, we saw the Caucasus range […] One peak of the Caucasus was pointed out—the name of the peak was Strobilos—where according to the story Prometheus was hung by Hephaistos on Zeus’ order”. (In Greek mythology, the Titan Prometheus was chained in the Caucasus as a punishment for stealing fire from the gods and giving it to mankind.) Arrian's Strobilos, or Latinized Strobilus, was later identified as Elbrus by some writers such as Douglas Freshfield in The Exploration of the Caucasus (1896). Freshfield called Elbrus “pinecone-shaped” for the sake of etymology. The ancient Greek word strobilos denotes rotating or twisted objects such as a spinning top or a pinecone. Early ascents (1829–1930s) The lower of the two summits was first ascended on by Khillar Khachirov, a guide for an Imperial Russian army scientific expedition led by General Georgi Emmanuel, and the higher (by about ) in 1874 by an English expedition led by F. Crauford Grove and including Frederick Gardner, Horace Walker, and the Swiss guide Peter Knubel from the Valais canton. During the early years of the Soviet Union, mountaineering became a popular sport of the populace, and there was tremendous traffic on the mountain. On 17 March 1936, a group of 33 inexperienced Komsomol members attempted the mountain, and ended up suffering four fatalities when they slipped on the ice and fell to their deaths. Second World War During the Battle of the Caucasus in World War II, the Wehrmacht occupied the area, surrounding the mountain from August 1942 to February 1943 with Gebirgsjäger from the 1st Mountain Division. The Nazi swastika was placed on the summit of Mount Elbrus on 21 August 1942. A possibly apocryphal story tells of a Soviet pilot being given a medal for bombing the main mountaineering hut, Priyut 11 (, "Refuge of the 11"), while it was occupied. He was later nominated for a medal for not hitting the hut, but instead the German fuel supply, leaving the hut standing for future generations. When news reached Adolf Hitler that a detachment of mountaineers was sent by the general officer commanding the German division to climb to the summit of Elbrus and plant the swastika flag at its top, he reportedly flew into a rage, called the achievement a "stunt" and threatened to court martial the general. Nazis swastikas were removed by USSR army mountaineers on 13 and 17 February 1943. Post-WWII The Soviet Union encouraged ascents of Elbrus, and in 1956 it was climbed en masse by 400 mountaineers to mark the 400th anniversary of the incorporation of Kabardino-Balkaria, the Autonomous Soviet Socialist Republic where Elbrus was located. Between 1959 and 1976, a cable car system was built in stages that can take visitors as high as . National park Since 1986, Elbrus has been incorporated into Prielbrusye National Park, one of the Protected areas of Russia. Special ascents In October 2021, Kazakh scientist Aida Tabelinova climbed Mount Elbrus as part of an international expedition led by Youth Club of the Russian Geographical Society and Rossotrudnichestvo to promote humanitarian cooperation. By vehicle In 1997 a team led by the Russian mountaineer Alexander Abramov took a Land Rover Defender to the summit of the East Peak, entering the Guinness Book of Records. The project took 45 days in total. They were able to drive the vehicle as high as the mountain huts at The Barrels (), but above this they used a pulley system to raise it most of the way. On the way down, a driver lost control of the vehicle and had to jump out. Although he survived the accident, the vehicle crashed onto the rocks and remains below the summit to this day. In 2016, the Russian climbers Artyom Kuimov and Sergey Baranov entered the Guinness Book of World Records by reaching the summit of Elbrus on ATVs. With horses In August 1998 a group of climbers from the Karachai-Cherkess Republic were the first in history to climb Mount Elbrus with horses. The horses were Imbir, Daur and Khurzuk, of the Karachai breed, fitted with special horseshoes with removable steel spikes. The organiser of the climb was Klych-Gery Urusov. Six people reached the eastern summit: three Karachai horsemen (Dahir Kappushev, Mohammed Bidzhiev, Murat Dzhatdoev) and three mountaineers (Boris Begeulov, Umar Bairamukov, Leila Albogachieva (Ingush nationality)), with two of the three horses (Daur and Khurzuk). A second equestrian climb was made in August 1999 by the same Karachai riders, with a Karachai horse (Igilik), reaching the higher western summit. A third equestrian ascent took place in 2019, by the Karachai horseman Aslan Khubiev with the Karachai horses Boz and Damly, helped by the Balkar guides Aslan Altuev and Askhat Guzoev. A fourth equestrian ascent took place on 4 September 2020 (see photo below). Two Karachai horsemen, Ramazan Alchakov and Abrek Ediev, and their Russian friend Ivan Kulaga, together with the two Karachai horses Almaz and Dzhigit, reached the western summit. A fifth equestrian ascent took place on 23 September 2020 by the Karachai horseman Taulan Achabaev and his cousin Rustam Achabaev, together with the stallion Bahr, reaching the higher western summit accompanied by the Balkar guide Aslan Altuev. Travel safety After the collapse of the USSR and until the early 2010s travel to Mount Elbrus has become increasingly dangerous due to economic problems, armed conflicts in various republics of Caucasus, and later due to the North Caucasus insurgency. Currently, Mount Elbrus is steadily becoming an important destination of domestic Russian tourism, with 424,000 visitors to the area in 2020. As of 2019, the United States Department of State has issued a travel advisory against climbing the mountain, as well as travel to the North Caucasian Federal District in general, due to the risk of terrorism and political instability. Infrastructure Refuges In 1929, eleven scientists erected a small hut at 4,160 metres and called it "Priyut 11" (Refuge of the 11). At the same site, a larger hut for 40 people was built in 1932. A wilderness hut was built in 1933 in the saddle between the two summits but collapsed after only a few years. Its remains can still be seen. In 1939, the Soviet Intourist travel agency built yet another structure a little above the "Priyut 11" site at 4,200 metres, covered in aluminium siding. It was meant to accommodate western tourists, who were encouraged to climb Mount Elbrus in commercial, guided tours to bring in foreign currency. Not much later, this hut was converted into a mountain barracks, serving as a base, first for Soviet and later German troops in the Battle of the Caucasus of World War II. On 16 August 1998, this hut burned down after a cooking stove fell over. After that, the new "Diesel hut" was built in the summer of 2001 a few metres below its ruins, so called because it is located at the site of the former diesel generator station. In addition, there is accommodation for six people each at the end of the short chairlift above the second cableway section. Painted red and white, these horizontal steel cylinders (called barrels, Russian bochki), are used as a base and for acclimatization by many mountaineers on their way to the summit. Besides the "barrels", there are several container-bases accommodation between about 3,800 and 4,200 metres. Pruitt Hut outhouse Mount Elbrus is said to be home to the 'world's nastiest' outhouse which is close to being the highest toilet in Europe, at , next to the old, burnt-out Pruitt Hut. The title was conferred by Outside magazine following a 1993 search and article. The "outhouse" is surrounded by and covered in ice, perched on the end of a rock. Observatory The Terskol Observatory, an astronomical observatory with the IAU code B18, is located 2.5 km north-west of Terskol village at an altitude of . Activities Ski lifts Three ski lifts take visitors up to an altitude of 3,847 metres. Until the mid-2000s, the first section was provided by the Elbrouz-1 cable car, construction of which began in 1959. Starting from the Azaou road at 2,180 metres above sea level in the valley, it leads to the old viewpoint (Stari Krougozor) at an altitude of 2,970 metres; at the foot of the terminal tongue of the Mali glacier Azaou, which has retreated since the construction of the facility. Its length is 1,740 metres, with a drop of 650 meters. The second section, built in 1976, leads to the Mir station at an altitude of 3,470 metres. Its length is 1,800 metres, with a drop of 500 metres. Finally, the last stretch is a chairlift single-seater which then makes it possible to avoid an hour's walk for hikers to the Garabachi huts, at an altitude of 3,847 metres. Built in the late 1970s, it is 1,000 metres long, with a drop of 250 metres. In December 2006, the first section of the cable car is modernized to meet safety requirements, thanks to the construction of a new cable car in parallel with the existing one. In August 2009, a new cable car was built to reach the second section. On 27 December 2015, the gondola to go up the third section was put into service, thus becoming the second-highest gondola in Europe after that of Zermatt in Switzerland; which is 3,883 m high. Its capacity is 750 people per hour. The ski resort is busiest in April and May. Mountaineering There are a wide variety of routes up the mountain, but the normal route, which is free of crevasses, continues more or less straight up the slope from the end of the cable car system, which takes passengers up to . During the summer, it is not uncommon for 100 people to attempt the summit via this route each day. Winter ascents are rare, and are usually undertaken only by very experienced climbers. Elbrus is notorious for its brutal winter weather, and summit attempts are few and far between. The climb is not technically difficult, but it is physically arduous because of the altitude and the frequent strong winds. The average annual death toll on Elbrus is 15–30, primarily due to "many unorganized and poorly equipped" attempts to reach the mountain's summit. The normal route, on the southern slope, is the easiest, the safest and the fastest, by using the ski lifts to the Garabachi 36 refuges offering 11 cylindrical cabins (the "barrels") of 6 beds each and a total of 80 berths, with water from the melting glacier in summer, and electric heating. At an hour and a half walk, at an altitude of 4,157 metres, is the Diesel refuge, offering 50 places and built in 2001 on the site of the former refuge of the 11 accidentally burned down on Aug 16, 1998. After an additional two hours of walking, the normal route passes close to the Pastoukhov rocks, which can be reached by a snowmobile. The rest of the ascent to the two main peaks can only be done on foot in about ten hours. The route is well signposted; but it can be risky to go more than fifty meters from it because of the few crevasses or in the event of under-equipment. A variant allows you to reach the Diesel refuge from the Ice camp, at an altitude of 3,680 metres. Another route leads to the summit from Kioukiourtliou-Kolbachi (4,639 m) via the Dome of Koupol at 4,912 meters, on the western side of the mountain. This route, much longer, is accessible either from the first section of the cable car by crossing the moraines in a north-west direction via the Khoti Outaou pass then obliquely towards the summit, or from the Khourzouk valley. There is no refuge but the terrain is more suitable for camping. Other routes by the east from the valley, the glacier and the Iryk pass (3,667 m), or by the north are possible but are more hazardous due to the absence or obsolescence of the installations. During Soviet times, Mount Elbrus was home to climbing speed competitions and was training for national Himalayan expeditions (1982 and 1989). The best mountaineers tested their endurance during this prestigious event. In September 1987, Vladimir Balyberdine organized the first official race between the refuge and the pass. In 1990, Anatoli Boukreev set a record by climbing from the refuge to the eastern summit in a time of 1 hour and 47 minutes. In 2005, with the growing enthusiasm for extreme sports and the increase in the number of mountaineers in Russia, this tradition was relaunched and a new race was organized between Bochki and the western summit. In 2006, the best mountaineers from the former Soviet republics participated in the competition: Denis Urubko from Kazakhstan, Sergei Seliverstov and Alexander Kerimov from Kyrgyzstan, and Sergei Sourmonin from Russia. For the first time, one of the routes offers a height difference of over 3,000 metres, starting at the Azaou glades at an altitude of 2,400 metres and arriving at the western summit. Denis Ouroubko sets a time of 3 hours 55 minutes and 58 seconds on this course. On the route starting from the Garabachi huts, Svetlana Sharipova is the best female with a time of 3 hours 21 minutes and 29 seconds. It is possible to go around Mount Elbrus. The easiest route takes between eight and ten days of hiking, with the crossing of several glaciers and the crossing of many passes. It starts from the village of Baksan in the Kirtyk valley, then passes through the Kirtykaouch pass (3,242 m), descends to the Malka river where it is possible to discover the Sultan Falls from a height of forty metres near the sources. the Jilasu, then connects Khourzouk after the Bourountach pass (3,072 m), and finally crosses the Oullou-Kam river, the Khoti Outaou pass (3,456 m), the Azaou glacier to descend to Terskol and finally return to the point of departure. In September 2012, an emergency shelter is installed on the "saddle" of Elbrus, between the eastern summit and the western summit, station EG 5300. It was then the highest mountain refuge in Europe. However, the shelter was destroyed by winds in December of the same year. In 2013, a new, more modest emergency shelter, capable of accommodating four to six people, was built 300 metres from the EG 5300 station, by the Russian Mountaineering Federation. Elbrus Race The first race on Elbrus took place in 1990, with Soviet and American climbers competing. The race was won by Anatoli Boukreev, with Kevin Cooney in second, followed by Patrick Healy. Route Priut 11 () – East (lower) was summited in 1 hour and 47 minutes. Regular competitions began to take place in 2005, with a choice of two routes: the "classic" climb from "Barrels" at to the western summit () and a long climb, from the Azau Meadow at to the same summit. In 2006, Denis Urubko won the long ascent in 3 hours, 55 minutes, 59 seconds. On 24 September 2010, under the Artur Hajzer program "Polish Winter Himalayism 2010–2015", the Polish Mountaineering Association sent a 13-person team for training purposes. Andrzej Bargiel set a new long course record of 3 hours, 23 minutes, 37 seconds. The record time for the full race, ascent and descent, of the long route is 4:20:45, set on 7 May 2017 by the Swiss-Ecuadorian mountain guide Karl Egloff. Egloff broke the previous record set in September 2014 by Vitaliy Shkel by more than 18 minutes. He reached the summit in 3:24:14, missing Bergiel's record ascent-only time by 37 seconds; the race organisation and the International Skyrunning Federation nevertheless consider Egloff's ascent a record as well. The fastest times by a woman on the long route were set by Diana Zelenova (4:30:12 for the ascent in 2017) and Oksana Stefanishina (6:25:23 for the full race in 2015). See also Highest points of Russian Federal subjects List of elevation extremes by country List of volcanoes in Russia Seven Summits Volcanic Seven Summits References Further reading Anthony Huxley, Standard Encyclopedia of the World's Mountains (New York: Putnam, 1962) External links Mount Elbrus on SummitPost "Elbrus, Mount." Encyclopædia Britannica. 2006. Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 14 November 2006 <http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-9032240>. Computer generated summit panoramas North South. There are a few discontinuities due to incomplete data. NASA Earth Observatory pages on Mount Elbrus: Mt. Elbrus (July 2003), Mt. Elbrus, Caucasus Range (November 2002) Mt. Elbrus Expedition Cybercast Archives Horses on Elbrus, Kavkaz Karatchai Cinema Tebou TV (KKCTebouTV) video, 1999: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=GTVzLGFYA1g Mountains of Kabardino-Balkaria Inactive volcanoes Stratovolcanoes of the Caucasus Seven Summits Volcanic Seven Summits Extreme points of Earth Stratovolcanoes of Russia Mountains of Karachay-Cherkessia Volcanoes of Russia Five-thousanders of the Caucasus Highest points of countries Climbing areas of Russia Elbrus	[ -0.45779696106910706, 0.6531825661659241, 0.3661245107650757, -0.6595182418823242, -0.3589586913585663, 0.27269214391708374, 1.0392228364944458, 0.4153977036476135, -0.28753572702407837, -0.20055484771728516, -0.6438679099082947, 0.26893776655197144, -0.3717888295650482, 0.6016602516174316, -0.11789227277040482, 0.587841808795929, 0.18405529856681824, 0.4141061305999756, -0.18510667979717255, -0.31285515427589417, 0.7026976346969604, -0.31023311614990234, 0.7364055514335632, -0.5273098349571228, 0.4921542704105377, 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230487	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Poincar%C3%A9%20group	Poincaré group	The Poincaré group, named after Henri Poincaré (1906), was first defined by Hermann Minkowski (1908) as the group of Minkowski spacetime isometries. It is a ten-dimensional non-abelian Lie group, which is of importance as a model in our understanding the most basic fundamentals of physics. Overview A Minkowski spacetime isometry has the property that the interval between events is left invariant. For example, if everything were postponed by two hours, including the two events and the path you took to go from one to the other, then the time interval between the events recorded by a stop-watch you carried with you would be the same. Or if everything were shifted five kilometres to the west, or turned 60 degrees to the right, you would also see no change in the interval. It turns out that the proper length of an object is also unaffected by such a shift. A time or space reversal (a reflection) is also an isometry of this group. In Minkowski space (i.e. ignoring the effects of gravity), there are ten degrees of freedom of the isometries, which may be thought of as translation through time or space (four degrees, one per dimension); reflection through a plane (three degrees, the freedom in orientation of this plane); or a "boost" in any of the three spatial directions (three degrees). Composition of transformations is the operation of the Poincaré group, with proper rotations being produced as the composition of an even number of reflections. In classical physics, the Galilean group is a comparable ten-parameter group that acts on absolute time and space. Instead of boosts, it features shear mappings to relate co-moving frames of reference. Poincaré symmetry Poincaré symmetry is the full symmetry of special relativity. It includes: translations (displacements) in time and space (P), forming the abelian Lie group of translations on space-time; rotations in space, forming the non-Abelian Lie group of three-dimensional rotations (J); boosts, transformations connecting two uniformly moving bodies (K). The last two symmetries, J and K, together make the Lorentz group (see also Lorentz invariance); the semi-direct product of the translations group and the Lorentz group then produce the Poincaré group. Objects that are invariant under this group are then said to possess Poincaré invariance or relativistic invariance. 10 generators (in four spacetime dimensions) associated with the Poincaré symmetry, by Noether's theorem, imply 10 conservation laws: 1 for the energy, 3 for the momentum, 3 for the angular momentum and 3 for the velocity of the center of mass. Poincaré group The Poincaré group is the group of Minkowski spacetime isometries. It is a ten-dimensional noncompact Lie group. The abelian group of translations is a normal subgroup, while the Lorentz group is also a subgroup, the stabilizer of the origin. The Poincaré group itself is the minimal subgroup of the affine group which includes all translations and Lorentz transformations. More precisely, it is a semidirect product of the translations and the Lorentz group, with group multiplication . Another way of putting this is that the Poincaré group is a group extension of the Lorentz group by a vector representation of it; it is sometimes dubbed, informally, as the inhomogeneous Lorentz group. In turn, it can also be obtained as a group contraction of the de Sitter group SO(4,1) ~ Sp(2,2), as the de Sitter radius goes to infinity. Its positive energy unitary irreducible representations are indexed by mass (nonnegative number) and spin (integer or half integer) and are associated with particles in quantum mechanics (see Wigner's classification). In accordance with the Erlangen program, the geometry of Minkowski space is defined by the Poincaré group: Minkowski space is considered as a homogeneous space for the group. In quantum field theory, the universal cover of the Poincaré group which may be identified with the double cover is more important, because representations of are not able to describe fields with spin 1/2, i.e. fermions. Here is the group of complex matrices with unit determinant, isomorphic to the Lorentz-signature spin group . Poincaré algebra The Poincaré algebra is the Lie algebra of the Poincaré group. It is a Lie algebra extension of the Lie algebra of the Lorentz group. More specifically, the proper (), orthochronous () part of the Lorentz subgroup (its identity component), , is connected to the identity and is thus provided by the exponentiation of this Lie algebra. In component form, the Poincaré algebra is given by the commutation relations: where is the generator of translations, is the generator of Lorentz transformations, and is the Minkowski metric (see Sign convention). The bottom commutation relation is the ("homogeneous") Lorentz group, consisting of rotations, , and boosts, . In this notation, the entire Poincaré algebra is expressible in noncovariant (but more practical) language as where the bottom line commutator of two boosts is often referred to as a "Wigner rotation". The simplification permits reduction of the Lorentz subalgebra to and efficient treatment of its associated representations. In terms of the physical parameters, we have The Casimir invariants of this algebra are and where is the Pauli–Lubanski pseudovector; they serve as labels for the representations of the group. The Poincaré group is the full symmetry group of any relativistic field theory. As a result, all elementary particles fall in representations of this group. These are usually specified by the four-momentum squared of each particle (i.e. its mass squared) and the intrinsic quantum numbers , where is the spin quantum number, is the parity and is the charge-conjugation quantum number. In practice, charge conjugation and parity are violated by many quantum field theories; where this occurs, and are forfeited. Since CPT symmetry is invariant in quantum field theory, a time-reversal quantum number may be constructed from those given. As a topological space, the group has four connected components: the component of the identity; the time reversed component; the spatial inversion component; and the component which is both time-reversed and spatially inverted. Other dimensions The definitions above can be generalized to arbitrary dimensions in a straightforward manner. The d-dimensional Poincaré group is analogously defined by the semi-direct product with the analogous multiplication . The Lie algebra retains its form, with indices and now taking values between and . The alternative representation in terms of and has no analogue in higher dimensions. Super-Poincaré algebra A related observation is that the representations of the Lorentz group include a pair of inequivalent two-dimensional complex spinor representations and whose tensor product is the adjoint representation. One may identify this last bit with four-dimensional Minkowski space itself (as opposed to identifying it with a spin-1 particle, as would normally be done for a pair of fermions, e.g. a pion being composed of a quark-anti-quark pair). This strongly suggests that it might be possible to extend the Poincaré algebra to also include spinors. This leads directly to the notion of the super-Poincaré algebra. The mathematical appeal of this idea is that one is working with the fundamental representations, instead of the adjoint representations. The physical appeal of this idea is that the fundamental representations correspond to fermions, which are seen in nature. So far, however, the implied supersymmetry here, of a symmetry between spatial and fermionic directions, cannot be seen experimentally in nature. The experimental issue can roughly be stated as the question: if we live in the adjoint representation (Minkowski spacetime), then where is the fundamental representation hiding? See also Euclidean group Representation theory of the Poincaré group Wigner's classification Symmetry in quantum mechanics Center of mass (relativistic) Pauli–Lubanski pseudovector Particle physics and representation theory Continuous spin particle Notes References Lie groups Particle physics Group Quantum field theory Theory of relativity Symmetry	[ -0.8845360279083252, -0.24966496229171753, -0.3438834249973297, -0.01886308193206787, -0.7330813407897949, 0.7360485792160034, -0.31983867287635803, -0.09101749956607819, -0.10054158419370651, -1.0081785917282104, -0.6234143972396851, 0.09693513810634613, -0.4591422379016876, 0.2760982811450958, 0.05627208575606346, 0.2887785732746124, 1.0769600868225098, 0.047145962715148926, -1.1721075773239136, -0.7790351510047913, 0.27199843525886536, 0.26610103249549866, 0.19771651923656464, -0.30571413040161133, -0.009781199507415295, 0.016853725537657738, -0.10042226314544678, 0.42655351758003235, 0.9602833986282349, 0.8219515681266785, 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230488	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Minkowski%20space	Minkowski space	In mathematical physics, Minkowski space (or Minkowski spacetime) () is a combination of three-dimensional Euclidean space and time into a four-dimensional manifold where the spacetime interval between any two events is independent of the inertial frame of reference in which they are recorded. Although initially developed by mathematician Hermann Minkowski for Maxwell's equations of electromagnetism, the mathematical structure of Minkowski spacetime was shown to be implied by the postulates of special relativity. Minkowski space is closely associated with Einstein's theories of special relativity and general relativity and is the most common mathematical structure on which special relativity is formulated. While the individual components in Euclidean space and time may differ due to length contraction and time dilation, in Minkowski spacetime, all frames of reference will agree on the total distance in spacetime between events. Because it treats time differently than it treats the 3 spatial dimensions, Minkowski space differs from four-dimensional Euclidean space. In 3-dimensional Euclidean space (e.g., simply space in Galilean relativity), the isometry group (the maps preserving the regular Euclidean distance) is the Euclidean group. It is generated by rotations, reflections and translations. When time is amended as a fourth dimension, the further transformations of translations in time and Galilean boosts are added, and the group of all these transformations is called the Galilean group. All Galilean transformations preserve the 3-dimensional Euclidean distance. This distance is purely spatial. Time differences are separately preserved as well. This changes in the spacetime of special relativity, where space and time are interwoven. Spacetime is equipped with an indefinite non-degenerate bilinear form, variously called the Minkowski metric, the Minkowski norm squared or Minkowski inner product depending on the context. The Minkowski inner product is defined so as to yield the spacetime interval between two events when given their coordinate difference vector as argument. Equipped with this inner product, the mathematical model of spacetime is called Minkowski space. The analogue of the Galilean group for Minkowski space, preserving the spacetime interval (as opposed to the spatial Euclidean distance) is the Poincaré group. As manifolds, Galilean spacetime and Minkowski spacetime are the same. They differ in what further structures are defined on them. The former has the Euclidean distance function and time interval (separately) together with inertial frames whose coordinates are related by Galilean transformations, while the latter has the Minkowski metric together with inertial frames whose coordinates are related by Poincaré transformations. History Complex Minkowski spacetime In his second relativity paper in 1905–06 Henri Poincaré showed how, by taking time to be an imaginary fourth spacetime coordinate , where is the speed of light and is the imaginary unit, Lorentz transformations can be visualized as ordinary rotations of the four dimensional Euclidean sphere Poincaré set for convenience. Rotations in planes spanned by two space unit vectors appear in coordinate space as well as in physical spacetime as Euclidean rotations and are interpreted in the ordinary sense. The "rotation" in a plane spanned by a space unit vector and a time unit vector, while formally still a rotation in coordinate space, is a Lorentz boost in physical spacetime with real inertial coordinates. The analogy with Euclidean rotations is only partial since the radius of the sphere is actually imaginary which turns rotations into rotations in hyperbolic space. (see hyperbolic rotation) This idea, which was mentioned only very briefly by Poincaré, was elaborated in great detail by Minkowski in an extensive and influential paper in German in 1908 called "The Fundamental Equations for Electromagnetic Processes in Moving Bodies". Minkowski, using this formulation, restated the then-recent theory of relativity of Einstein. In particular, by restating the Maxwell equations as a symmetrical set of equations in the four variables combined with redefined vector variables for electromagnetic quantities, he was able to show directly and very simply their invariance under Lorentz transformation. He also made other important contributions and used matrix notation for the first time in this context. From his reformulation he concluded that time and space should be treated equally, and so arose his concept of events taking place in a unified four-dimensional spacetime continuum. Real Minkowski spacetime In a further development in his 1908 "Space and Time" lecture, Minkowski gave an alternative formulation of this idea that used a real time coordinate instead of an imaginary one, representing the four variables of space and time in coordinate form in a four dimensional real vector space. Points in this space correspond to events in spacetime. In this space, there is a defined light-cone associated with each point, and events not on the light-cone are classified by their relation to the apex as spacelike or timelike. It is principally this view of spacetime that is current nowadays, although the older view involving imaginary time has also influenced special relativity. In the English translation of Minkowski's paper, the Minkowski metric as defined below is referred to as the line element. The Minkowski inner product of below appears unnamed when referring to orthogonality (which he calls normality) of certain vectors, and the Minkowski norm squared is referred to (somewhat cryptically, perhaps this is translation dependent) as "sum". Minkowski's principal tool is the Minkowski diagram, and he uses it to define concepts and demonstrate properties of Lorentz transformations (e.g. proper time and length contraction) and to provide geometrical interpretation to the generalization of Newtonian mechanics to relativistic mechanics. For these special topics, see the referenced articles, as the presentation below will be principally confined to the mathematical structure (Minkowski metric and from it derived quantities and the Poincaré group as symmetry group of spacetime) following from the invariance of the spacetime interval on the spacetime manifold as consequences of the postulates of special relativity, not to specific application or derivation of the invariance of the spacetime interval. This structure provides the background setting of all present relativistic theories, barring general relativity for which flat Minkowski spacetime still provides a springboard as curved spacetime is locally Lorentzian. Minkowski, aware of the fundamental restatement of the theory which he had made, said Though Minkowski took an important step for physics, Albert Einstein saw its limitation: For further historical information see references , and . Causal structure Where is velocity, and , , and are Cartesian coordinates in 3-dimensional space, and is the constant representing the universal speed limit, and is time, the four-dimensional vector is classified according to the sign of . A vector is timelike if , spacelike if , and null or lightlike if . This can be expressed in terms of the sign of as well, which depends on the signature. The classification of any vector will be the same in all frames of reference that are related by a Lorentz transformation (but not by a general Poincaré transformation because the origin may then be displaced) because of the invariance of the interval. The set of all null vectors at an event of Minkowski space constitutes the light cone of that event. Given a timelike vector , there is a worldline of constant velocity associated with it, represented by a straight line in a Minkowski diagram. Once a direction of time is chosen, timelike and null vectors can be further decomposed into various classes. For timelike vectors one has future-directed timelike vectors whose first component is positive, (tip of vector located in absolute future in figure) and past-directed timelike vectors whose first component is negative (absolute past). Null vectors fall into three classes: the zero vector, whose components in any basis are (origin), future-directed null vectors whose first component is positive (upper light cone), and past-directed null vectors whose first component is negative (lower light cone). Together with spacelike vectors there are 6 classes in all. An orthonormal basis for Minkowski space necessarily consists of one timelike and three spacelike unit vectors. If one wishes to work with non-orthonormal bases it is possible to have other combinations of vectors. For example, one can easily construct a (non-orthonormal) basis consisting entirely of null vectors, called a null basis. Vector fields are called timelike, spacelike or null if the associated vectors are timelike, spacelike or null at each point where the field is defined. Properties of time-like vectors Time-like vectors have special importance in the theory of relativity as they correspond to events which are accessible to the observer at (0, 0, 0, 0) with a speed less than that of light. Of most interest are time-like vectors which are similarly directed i.e.all either in the forward or in the backward cones. Such vectors have several properties not shared by space-like vectors. These arise because both forward and backward cones are convex whereas the space-like region is not convex. Scalar product The scalar product of two time-like vectors and is Positivity of scalar product: An important property is that the scalar product of two similarly directed time-like vectors is always positive. This can be seen from the reversed Cauchy–Schwarz inequality below. It follows that if the scalar product of two vectors is zero then one of these at least, must be space-like. The scalar product of two space-like vectors can be positive or negative as can be seen by considering the product of two space-like vectors having orthogonal spatial components and times either of different or the same signs. Using the positivity property of time-like vectors it is easy to verify that a linear sum with positive coefficients of similarly directed time-like vectors is also similarly directed time-like (the sum remains within the light-cone because of convexity). Norm and reversed Cauchy inequality The norm of a time-like vector is defined as The reversed Cauchy inequality is another consequence of the convexity of either light-cone. For two distinct similarly directed time-like vectors and this inequality is or algebraically, From this the positivity property of the scalar product can be seen. The reversed triangle inequality For two similarly directed time-like vectors and , the inequality is where the equality holds when the vectors are linearly dependent. The proof uses the algebraic definition with the reversed Cauchy inequality: The result now follows by taking the square root on both sides. Mathematical structure It is assumed below that spacetime is endowed with a coordinate system corresponding to an inertial frame. This provides an origin, which is necessary in order to be able to refer to spacetime as being modeled as a vector space. This is not really physically motivated in that a canonical origin ("central" event in spacetime) should exist. One can get away with less structure, that of an affine space, but this would needlessly complicate the discussion and would not reflect how flat spacetime is normally treated mathematically in modern introductory literature. For an overview, Minkowski space is a -dimensional real vector space equipped with a nondegenerate, symmetric bilinear form on the tangent space at each point in spacetime, here simply called the Minkowski inner product, with metric signature either or . The tangent space at each event is a vector space of the same dimension as spacetime, . Tangent vectors In practice, one need not be concerned with the tangent spaces. The vector space nature of Minkowski space allows for the canonical identification of vectors in tangent spaces at points (events) with vectors (points, events) in Minkowski space itself. See e.g. or These identifications are routinely done in mathematics. They can be expressed formally in Cartesian coordinates as with basis vectors in the tangent spaces defined by Here and are any two events and the second basis vector identification is referred to as parallel transport. The first identification is the canonical identification of vectors in the tangent space at any point with vectors in the space itself. The appearance of basis vectors in tangent spaces as first order differential operators is due to this identification. It is motivated by the observation that a geometrical tangent vector can be associated in a one-to-one manner with a directional derivative operator on the set of smooth functions. This is promoted to a definition of tangent vectors in manifolds not necessarily being embedded in . This definition of tangent vectors is not the only possible one as ordinary n-tuples can be used as well. A tangent vector at a point may be defined, here specialized to Cartesian coordinates in Lorentz frames, as column vectors associated to each Lorentz frame related by Lorentz transformation such that the vector in a frame related to some frame by transforms according to . This is the same way in which the coordinates transform. Explicitly, This definition is equivalent to the definition given above under a canonical isomorphism. For some purposes it is desirable to identify tangent vectors at a point with displacement vectors at , which is, of course, admissible by essentially the same canonical identification. The identifications of vectors referred to above in the mathematical setting can correspondingly be found in a more physical and explicitly geometrical setting in . They offer various degree of sophistication (and rigor) depending on which part of the material one chooses to read. Metric signature The metric signature refers to which sign the Minkowski inner product yields when given space (spacelike to be specific, defined further down) and time basis vectors (timelike) as arguments. Further discussion about this theoretically inconsequential, but practically necessary choice for purposes of internal consistency and convenience is deferred to the hide box below. In general, but with several exceptions, mathematicians and general relativists prefer spacelike vectors to yield a positive sign, , while particle physicists tend to prefer timelike vectors to yield a positive sign, . Authors covering several areas of physics, e.g. Steven Weinberg and Landau and Lifshitz ( and respectively) stick to one choice regardless of topic. Arguments for the former convention include "continuity" from the Euclidean case corresponding to the non-relativistic limit . Arguments for the latter include that minus signs, otherwise ubiquitous in particle physics, go away. Yet other authors, especially of introductory texts, e.g. , do not choose a signature at all, but instead opt to coordinatize spacetime such that the time coordinate (but not time itself!) is imaginary. This removes the need of the explicit introduction of a metric tensor (which may seem as an extra burden in an introductory course), and one needs not be concerned with covariant vectors and contravariant vectors (or raising and lowering indices) to be described below. The inner product is instead effected by a straightforward extension of the dot product in to . This works in the flat spacetime of special relativity, but not in the curved spacetime of general relativity, see (who, by the way use ). MTW also argues that it hides the true indefinite nature of the metric and the true nature of Lorentz boosts, which aren't rotations. It also needlessly complicates the use of tools of differential geometry that are otherwise immediately available and useful for geometrical description and calculation – even in the flat spacetime of special relativity, e.g. of the electromagnetic field. Terminology Mathematically associated to the bilinear form is a tensor of type at each point in spacetime, called the Minkowski metric. The Minkowski metric, the bilinear form, and the Minkowski inner product are all the same object; it is a bilinear function that accepts two (contravariant) vectors and returns a real number. In coordinates, this is the matrix representing the bilinear form. For comparison, in general relativity, a Lorentzian manifold is likewise equipped with a metric tensor , which is a nondegenerate symmetric bilinear form on the tangent space at each point of . In coordinates, it may be represented by a matrix depending on spacetime position. Minkowski space is thus a comparatively simple special case of a Lorentzian manifold. Its metric tensor is in coordinates the same symmetric matrix at every point of , and its arguments can, per above, be taken as vectors in spacetime itself. Introducing more terminology (but not more structure), Minkowski space is thus a pseudo-Euclidean space with total dimension and signature or . Elements of Minkowski space are called events. Minkowski space is often denoted or to emphasize the chosen signature, or just . It is perhaps the simplest example of a pseudo-Riemannian manifold. An interesting example of non-inertial coordinates for (part of) Minkowski spacetime are the Born coordinates. Another useful set of coordinates are the light-cone coordinates. Pseudo-Euclidean metrics The Minkowski inner product is not an inner product, since it is not positive-definite, i.e. the quadratic form need not be positive for nonzero . The positive-definite condition has been replaced by the weaker condition of non-degeneracy. The bilinear form is said to be indefinite. The Minkowski metric is the metric tensor of Minkowski space. It is a pseudo-Euclidean metric, or more generally a constant pseudo-Riemannian metric in Cartesian coordinates. As such it is a nondegenerate symmetric bilinear form, a type tensor. It accepts two arguments , vectors in , the tangent space at in . Due to the above-mentioned canonical identification of with itself, it accepts arguments with both and in . As a notational convention, vectors in , called 4-vectors, are denoted in italics, and not, as is common in the Euclidean setting, with boldface . The latter is generally reserved for the -vector part (to be introduced below) of a -vector. The definition yields an inner product-like structure on , previously and also henceforth, called the Minkowski inner product, similar to the Euclidean inner product, but it describes a different geometry. It is also called the relativistic dot product. If the two arguments are the same, the resulting quantity will be called the Minkowski norm squared. The Minkowski inner product satisfies the following properties. Linearity in first argument Symmetry Non-degeneracy The first two conditions imply bilinearity. The defining difference between a pseudo-inner product and an inner product proper is that the former is not required to be positive definite, that is, is allowed. The most important feature of the inner product and norm squared is that these are quantities unaffected by Lorentz transformations. In fact, it can be taken as the defining property of a Lorentz transformation that it preserves the inner product (i.e. the value of the corresponding bilinear form on two vectors). This approach is taken more generally for all classical groups definable this way in classical group. There, the matrix is identical in the case (the Lorentz group) to the matrix to be displayed below. Two vectors and are said to be orthogonal if . For a geometric interpretation of orthogonality in the special case when and (or vice versa), see hyperbolic orthogonality. A vector is called a unit vector if . A basis for consisting of mutually orthogonal unit vectors is called an orthonormal basis. For a given inertial frame, an orthonormal basis in space, combined with the unit time vector, forms an orthonormal basis in Minkowski space. The number of positive and negative unit vectors in any such basis is a fixed pair of numbers, equal to the signature of the bilinear form associated with the inner product. This is Sylvester's law of inertia. More terminology (but not more structure): The Minkowski metric is a pseudo-Riemannian metric, more specifically, a Lorentzian metric, even more specifically, the Lorentz metric, reserved for -dimensional flat spacetime with the remaining ambiguity only being the signature convention. Minkowski metric From the second postulate of special relativity, together with homogeneity of spacetime and isotropy of space, it follows that the spacetime interval between two arbitrary events called and is: This quantity is not consistently named in the literature. The interval is sometimes referred to as the square root of the interval as defined here. The invariance of the interval under coordinate transformations between inertial frames follows from the invariance of provided the transformations are linear. This quadratic form can be used to define a bilinear form via the polarization identity. This bilinear form can in turn be written as where is a matrix associated with . While possibly confusing, it is common practice to denote with just . The matrix is read off from the explicit bilinear form as and the bilinear form with which this section started by assuming its existence, is now identified. For definiteness and shorter presentation, the signature is adopted below. This choice (or the other possible choice) has no (known) physical implications. The symmetry group preserving the bilinear form with one choice of signature is isomorphic (under the map given here) with the symmetry group preserving the other choice of signature. This means that both choices are in accord with the two postulates of relativity. Switching between the two conventions is straightforward. If the metric tensor has been used in a derivation, go back to the earliest point where it was used, substitute for , and retrace forward to the desired formula with the desired metric signature. Standard basis A standard basis for Minkowski space is a set of four mutually orthogonal vectors such that These conditions can be written compactly in the form Relative to a standard basis, the components of a vector are written where the Einstein notation is used to write . The component is called the timelike component of while the other three components are called the spatial components. The spatial components of a -vector may be identified with a -vector . In terms of components, the Minkowski inner product between two vectors and is given by and Here lowering of an index with the metric was used. Raising and lowering of indices Technically, a non-degenerate bilinear form provides a map between a vector space and its dual; in this context, the map is between the tangent spaces of and the cotangent spaces of . At a point in , the tangent and cotangent spaces are dual vector spaces (so the dimension of the cotangent space at an event is also ). Just as an authentic inner product on a vector space with one argument fixed, by Riesz representation theorem, may be expressed as the action of a linear functional on the vector space, the same holds for the Minkowski inner product of Minkowski space. Thus if are the components of a vector in a tangent space, then are the components of a vector in the cotangent space (a linear functional). Due to the identification of vectors in tangent spaces with vectors in itself, this is mostly ignored, and vectors with lower indices are referred to as covariant vectors. In this latter interpretation, the covariant vectors are (almost always implicitly) identified with vectors (linear functionals) in the dual of Minkowski space. The ones with upper indices are contravariant vectors. In the same fashion, the inverse of the map from tangent to cotangent spaces, explicitly given by the inverse of in matrix representation, can be used to define raising of an index. The components of this inverse are denoted . It happens that . These maps between a vector space and its dual can be denoted (eta-flat) and (eta-sharp) by the musical analogy. Contravariant and covariant vectors are geometrically very different objects. The first can and should be thought of as arrows. A linear functional can be characterized by two objects: its kernel, which is a hyperplane passing through the origin, and its norm. Geometrically thus, covariant vectors should be viewed as a set of hyperplanes, with spacing depending on the norm (bigger = smaller spacing), with one of them (the kernel) passing through the origin. The mathematical term for a covariant vector is 1-covector or 1-form (though the latter is usually reserved for covector fields). uses a vivid analogy with wave fronts of a de Broglie wave (scaled by a factor of Planck's reduced constant) quantum mechanically associated to a momentum four-vector to illustrate how one could imagine a covariant version of a contravariant vector. The inner product of two contravariant vectors could equally well be thought of as the action of the covariant version of one of them on the contravariant version of the other. The inner product is then how many time the arrow pierces the planes. The mathematical reference, , offers the same geometrical view of these objects (but mentions no piercing). The electromagnetic field tensor is a differential 2-form, which geometrical description can as well be found in MTW. One may, of course, ignore geometrical views all together (as is the style in e.g. and ) and proceed algebraically in a purely formal fashion. The time-proven robustness of the formalism itself, sometimes referred to as index gymnastics, ensures that moving vectors around and changing from contravariant to covariant vectors and vice versa (as well as higher order tensors) is mathematically sound. Incorrect expressions tend to reveal themselves quickly. The formalism of the Minkowski metric The present purpose is to show semi-rigorously how formally one may apply the Minkowski metric to two vectors and obtain a real number, i.e. to display the role of the differentials, and how they disappear in a calculation. The setting is that of smooth manifold theory, and concepts such as convector fields and exterior derivatives are introduced. A full-blown version of the Minkowski metric in coordinates as a tensor field on spacetime has the appearance Explanation: The coordinate differentials are 1-form fields. They are defined as the exterior derivative of the coordinate functions . These quantities evaluated at a point provide a basis for the cotangent space at . The tensor product (denoted by the symbol ) yields a tensor field of type , i.e. the type that expects two contravariant vectors as arguments. On the right hand side, the symmetric product (denoted by the symbol or by juxtaposition) has been taken. The equality holds since, by definition, the Minkowski metric is symmetric. The notation on the far right is also sometimes used for the related, but different, line element. It is not a tensor. For elaboration on the differences and similarities, see Tangent vectors are, in this formalism, given in terms of a basis of differential operators of the first order, where is an event. This operator applied to a function gives the directional derivative of at in the direction of increasing with fixed. They provide a basis for the tangent space at . The exterior derivative of a function is a covector field, i.e. an assignment of a cotangent vector to each point , by definition such that for each vector field . A vector field is an assignment of a tangent vector to each point . In coordinates can be expanded at each point in the basis given by the . Applying this with , the coordinate function itself, and , called a coordinate vector field, one obtains Since this relation holds at each point , the provide a basis for the cotangent space at each and the bases and are dual to each other, at each . Furthermore, one has for general one-forms on a tangent space and general tangent vectors . (This can be taken as a definition, but may also be proved in a more general setting.) Thus when the metric tensor is fed two vectors fields , both expanded in terms of the basis coordinate vector fields, the result is where , are the component functions of the vector fields. The above equation holds at each point , and the relation may as well be interpreted as the Minkowski metric at applied to two tangent vectors at . As mentioned, in a vector space, such as that modelling the spacetime of special relativity, tangent vectors can be canonically identified with vectors in the space itself, and vice versa. This means that the tangent spaces at each point are canonically identified with each other and with the vector space itself. This explains how the right hand side of the above equation can be employed directly, without regard to spacetime point the metric is to be evaluated and from where (which tangent space) the vectors come from. This situation changes in general relativity. There one has where now , i.e. is still a metric tensor but now depending on spacetime and is a solution of Einstein's field equations. Moreover, must be tangent vectors at spacetime point and can no longer be moved around freely. Chronological and causality relations Let . We say that chronologically precedes if is future-directed timelike. This relation has the transitive property and so can be written . causally precedes if is future-directed null or future-directed timelike. It gives a partial ordering of spacetime and so can be written . Suppose x ∈ M is timelike. Then the simultaneous hyperplane for x is Since this hyperplane varies as x varies, there is a relativity of simultaneity in Minkowski space. Generalizations A Lorentzian manifold is a generalization of Minkowski space in two ways. The total number of spacetime dimensions is not restricted to be ( or more) and a Lorentzian manifold need not be flat, i.e. it allows for curvature. Complexified Minkowski space Complexified Minkowski space is defined as . Its real part is the Minkowski space of four-vectors, such as the four-velocity and the four-momentum, which are independent of the choice of orientation of the space. The imaginary part, on the other hand, may consist of four-pseudovectors, such as angular velocity and magnetic moment, which change their direction with a change of orientation. We introduce a pseudoscalar which also changes sign with a change of orientation. Thus, elements of are independent of the choice of the orientation. The inner product-like structure on is defined as for any . A relativistic pure spin of an electron or any half spin particle is described by as , where is the four-velocity of the particle, satisfying and is the 4D spin vector, which is also the Pauli–Lubanski_pseudovector satisfying and . Generalized Minkowski space Minkowski space refers to a mathematical formulation in four dimensions. However, the mathematics can easily be extended or simplified to create an analogous generalized Minkowski space in any number of dimensions. If , -dimensional Minkowski space is a vector space of real dimension on which there is a constant Minkowski metric of signature or . These generalizations are used in theories where spacetime is assumed to have more or less than dimensions. String theory and M-theory are two examples where . In string theory, there appears conformal field theories with spacetime dimensions. de Sitter space can be formulated as a submanifold of generalized Minkowski space as can the model spaces of hyperbolic geometry (see below). Curvature As a flat spacetime, the three spatial components of Minkowski spacetime always obey the Pythagorean Theorem. Minkowski space is a suitable basis for special relativity, a good description of physical systems over finite distances in systems without significant gravitation. However, in order to take gravity into account, physicists use the theory of general relativity, which is formulated in the mathematics of a non-Euclidean geometry. When this geometry is used as a model of physical space, it is known as curved space. Even in curved space, Minkowski space is still a good description in an infinitesimal region surrounding any point (barring gravitational singularities). More abstractly, we say that in the presence of gravity spacetime is described by a curved 4-dimensional manifold for which the tangent space to any point is a 4-dimensional Minkowski space. Thus, the structure of Minkowski space is still essential in the description of general relativity. Geometry The meaning of the term geometry for the Minkowski space depends heavily on the context. Minkowski space is not endowed with a Euclidean geometry, and not with any of the generalized Riemannian geometries with intrinsic curvature, those exposed by the model spaces in hyperbolic geometry (negative curvature) and the geometry modeled by the sphere (positive curvature). The reason is the indefiniteness of the Minkowski metric. Minkowski space is, in particular, not a metric space and not a Riemannian manifold with a Riemannian metric. However, Minkowski space contains submanifolds endowed with a Riemannian metric yielding hyperbolic geometry. Model spaces of hyperbolic geometry of low dimension, say or , cannot be isometrically embedded in Euclidean space with one more dimension, i.e. or respectively, with the Euclidean metric , disallowing easy visualization. By comparison, model spaces with positive curvature are just spheres in Euclidean space of one higher dimension. Hyperbolic spaces can be isometrically embedded in spaces of one more dimension when the embedding space is endowed with the Minkowski metric . Define to be the upper sheet () of the hyperboloid in generalized Minkowski space of spacetime dimension . This is one of the surfaces of transitivity of the generalized Lorentz group. The induced metric on this submanifold, the pullback of the Minkowski metric under inclusion, is a Riemannian metric. With this metric is a Riemannian manifold. It is one of the model spaces of Riemannian geometry, the hyperboloid model of hyperbolic space. It is a space of constant negative curvature . The in the upper index refers to an enumeration of the different model spaces of hyperbolic geometry, and the for its dimension. A corresponds to the Poincaré disk model, while corresponds to the Poincaré half-space model of dimension . Preliminaries In the definition above is the inclusion map and the superscript star denotes the pullback. The present purpose is to describe this and similar operations as a preparation for the actual demonstration that actually is a hyperbolic space. Hyperbolic stereographic projection In order to exhibit the metric it is necessary to pull it back via a suitable parametrization. A parametrization of a submanifold of is a map whose range is an open subset of . If has the same dimension as , a parametrization is just the inverse of a coordinate map . The parametrization to be used is the inverse of hyperbolic stereographic projection. This is illustrated in the figure to the left for . It is instructive to compare to stereographic projection for spheres. Stereographic projection and its inverse are given by where, for simplicity, . The are coordinates on and the are coordinates on . Pulling back the metric One has and the map The pulled back metric can be obtained by straightforward methods of calculus; One computes according to the standard rules for computing differentials (though one is really computing the rigorously defined exterior derivatives), and substitutes the results into the right hand side. This yields This last equation shows that the metric on the ball is identical to the Riemannian metric in the Poincaré ball model, another standard model of hyperbolic geometry. See also Hyperspace Introduction to the mathematics of general relativity Minkowski plane Remarks Notes References Giulini D The rich structure of Minkowski space, https://arxiv.org/abs/0802.4345v1 *Wikisource translation: The Fundamental Equations for Electromagnetic Processes in Moving Bodies Various English translations on Wikisource: Space and Time Wikisource translation: On the Dynamics of the Electron Robb A A: Optical Geometry of Motion; a New View of the Theory of Relativity Cambridge 1911, (Heffers). http://www.archive.org/details/opticalgeometryoOOrobbrich Robb A A: Geometry of Time and Space, 1936 Cambridge Univ Press http://www.archive.org/details/geometryoftimean032218mbp External links visualizing Minkowski space in the context of special relativity. 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230489	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lorentz%20group	Lorentz group	In physics and mathematics, the Lorentz group is the group of all Lorentz transformations of Minkowski spacetime, the classical and quantum setting for all (non-gravitational) physical phenomena. The Lorentz group is named for the Dutch physicist Hendrik Lorentz. For example, the following laws, equations, and theories respect Lorentz symmetry: The kinematical laws of special relativity Maxwell's field equations in the theory of electromagnetism The Dirac equation in the theory of the electron The Standard Model of particle physics The Lorentz group expresses the fundamental symmetry of space and time of all known fundamental laws of nature. In general relativity physics, in cases involving small enough regions of spacetime where gravitational variances are negligible, physical laws are Lorentz invariant in the same manner as that of special relativity physics. Basic properties The Lorentz group is a subgroup of the Poincaré group—the group of all isometries of Minkowski spacetime. Lorentz transformations are, precisely, isometries that leave the origin fixed. Thus, the Lorentz group is an isotropy subgroup of the isometry group of Minkowski spacetime. For this reason, the Lorentz group is sometimes called the homogeneous Lorentz group while the Poincaré group is sometimes called the inhomogeneous Lorentz group. Lorentz transformations are examples of linear transformations; general isometries of Minkowski spacetime are affine transformations. Mathematically, the Lorentz group may be described as the indefinite orthogonal group O(1,3), the matrix Lie group that preserves the quadratic form on R4. This quadratic form is, when put on matrix form (see classical orthogonal group), interpreted in physics as the metric tensor of Minkowski spacetime. The Lorentz group is a six-dimensional noncompact non-abelian real Lie group that is not connected. The four connected components are not simply connected. The identity component (i.e., the component containing the identity element) of the Lorentz group is itself a group, and is often called the restricted Lorentz group, and is denoted SO+(1,3). The restricted Lorentz group consists of those Lorentz transformations that preserve the orientation of space and direction of time. Its fundamental group has order 2, and its universal cover, the indefinite spin group Spin(1,3), is isomorphic to both the special linear group SL(2, C) and to the symplectic group Sp(2, C). These isomorphisms allow the Lorentz group to act on a large number of mathematical structures important to physics, most notably the spinors. Thus, in relativistic quantum mechanics and in quantum field theory, it is very common to call SL(2, C) the Lorentz group, with the understanding that SO+(1,3) is a specific representation (the vector representation) of it. The biquaternions, popular in geometric algebra, are also isomorphic to SL(2, C). The restricted Lorentz group also arises as the point symmetry group of a certain ordinary differential equation. Connected components Because it is a Lie group, the Lorentz group O(1,3) is both a group and admits a topological description as a smooth manifold. As a manifold, it has four connected components. Intuitively, this means that it consists of four topologically separated pieces. The four connected components can be categorized by two transformation properties its elements have: Some elements are reversed under time-inverting Lorentz transformations, for example, a future-pointing timelike vector would be inverted to a past-pointing vector Some elements have orientation reversed by improper Lorentz transformations, for example, certain vierbein (tetrads) Lorentz transformations that preserve the direction of time are called . The subgroup of orthochronous transformations is often denoted O+(1,3). Those that preserve orientation are called proper, and as linear transformations they have determinant +1. (The improper Lorentz transformations have determinant −1.) The subgroup of proper Lorentz transformations is denoted SO(1,3). The subgroup of all Lorentz transformations preserving both orientation and direction of time is called the proper, orthochronous Lorentz group or restricted Lorentz group, and is denoted by SO+(1, 3). (Note that some authors refer to SO(1,3) or even O(1,3) when they actually mean SO+(1, 3).) The set of the four connected components can be given a group structure as the quotient group O(1,3)/SO+(1,3), which is isomorphic to the Klein four-group. Every element in O(1,3) can be written as the semidirect product of a proper, orthochronous transformation and an element of the discrete group {1, P, T, PT} where P and T are the parity and time reversal operators: P = diag(1, −1, −1, −1) T = diag(−1, 1, 1, 1). Thus an arbitrary Lorentz transformation can be specified as a proper, orthochronous Lorentz transformation along with a further two bits of information, which pick out one of the four connected components. This pattern is typical of finite-dimensional Lie groups. Restricted Lorentz group The restricted Lorentz group is the identity component of the Lorentz group, which means that it consists of all Lorentz transformations that can be connected to the identity by a continuous curve lying in the group. The restricted Lorentz group is a connected normal subgroup of the full Lorentz group with the same dimension, in this case with dimension six. The restricted Lorentz group is generated by ordinary spatial rotations and Lorentz boosts (which are rotations in a hyperbolic space that includes a time-like direction ). Since every proper, orthochronous Lorentz transformation can be written as a product of a rotation (specified by 3 real parameters) and a boost (also specified by 3 real parameters), it takes 6 real parameters to specify an arbitrary proper orthochronous Lorentz transformation. This is one way to understand why the restricted Lorentz group is six-dimensional. (See also the Lie algebra of the Lorentz group.) The set of all rotations forms a Lie subgroup isomorphic to the ordinary rotation group SO(3). The set of all boosts, however, does not form a subgroup, since composing two boosts does not, in general, result in another boost. (Rather, a pair of non-colinear boosts is equivalent to a boost and a rotation, and this relates to Thomas rotation.) A boost in some direction, or a rotation about some axis, generates a one-parameter subgroup. Surfaces of transitivity If a group acts on a space , then a surface is a surface of transitivity if is invariant under , i.e., , and for any two points there is a such that . By definition of the Lorentz group, it preserves the quadratic form The surfaces of transitivity of the orthochronous Lorentz group , of spacetime are the following: is the upper branch of a hyperboloid of two sheets. Points on this sheet are separated from the origin by a future time-like vector. is the lower branch of this hyperboloid. Points on this sheet are the past time-like vectors. is the upper branch of the light cone, the future light cone. is the lower branch of the light cone, the past light cone. is a hyperboloid of one sheet. Points on this sheet are space-like separated from the origin. The origin . These surfaces are , so the images are not faithful, but they are faithful for the corresponding facts about . For the full Lorentz group, the surfaces of transitivity are only four since the transformation takes an upper branch of a hyperboloid (cone) to a lower one and vice versa. These observations constitute a good starting point for finding all infinite-dimensional unitary representations of the Lorentz group, in fact, of the Poincaré group, using the method of induced representations. One begins with a "standard vector", one for each surface of transitivity, and then ask which subgroup preserves these vectors. These subgroups are called little groups by physicists. The problem is then essentially reduced to the easier problem of finding representations of the little groups. For example, a standard vector in one of the hyperbolas of two sheets could be suitably chosen as . For each , the vector pierces exactly one sheet. In this case the little group is , the rotation group, all of whose representations are known. The precise infinite-dimensional unitary representation under which a particle transforms is part of its classification. Not all representations can correspond to physical particles (as far as is known). Standard vectors on the one-sheeted hyperbolas would correspond to tachyons. Particles on the light cone are photons, and more hypothetically, gravitons. The "particle" corresponding to the origin is the vacuum. Homomorphisms and isomorphisms Several other groups are either homomorphic or isomorphic to the restricted Lorentz group SO+(1, 3). These homomorphisms play a key role in explaining various phenomena in physics. The special linear group SL(2,C) is a double covering of the restricted Lorentz group. This relationship is widely used to express the Lorentz invariance of the Dirac equation and the covariance of spinors. The symplectic group Sp(2,C) is isomorphic to SL(2,C); it is used to construct Weyl spinors, as well as to explain how spinors can have a mass. The spin group Spin(1,3) is isomorphic to SL(2,C); it is used to explain spin and spinors in terms of the Clifford algebra, thus making it clear how to generalize the Lorentz group to general settings in Riemannian geometry, including theories of supergravity and string theory. The restricted Lorentz group is isomorphic to the projective special linear group PSL(2,C) which is, in turn, isomorphic to the Möbius group, the symmetry group of conformal geometry on the Riemann sphere. This relationship is central to the classification of the subgroups of the Lorentz group according to an earlier classification scheme developed for the Möbius group. The Weyl representation The Weyl representation or spinor map is a pair of surjective homomorphisms from SL(2,C) to SO+(1,3). They form a matched pair under parity transformations, corresponding to left and right chiral spinors. One may define an action of SL(2,C) on Minkowski spacetime by writing a point of spacetime as a two-by-two Hermitian matrix in the form in terms of Pauli matrices. This presentation, the Weyl presentation, satisfies Therefore, one has identified the space of Hermitian matrices (which is four-dimensional, as a real vector space) with Minkowski spacetime, in such a way that the determinant of a Hermitian matrix is the squared length of the corresponding vector in Minkowski spacetime. An element acts on the space of Hermitian matrices via where is the Hermitian transpose of . This action preserves the determinant and so SL(2,C) acts on Minkowski spacetime by (linear) isometries. The parity-inverted form of the above is which transforms as That this is the correct transformation follows by noting that remains invariant under the above pair of transformations. These maps are surjective, and kernel of either map is the two element subgroup ±I. By the first isomorphism theorem, the quotient group PSL(2,C) = SL(2,C) / {±I} is isomorphic to SO+(1,3). The parity map swaps these two coverings. It corresponds to Hermitian conjugation being an automorphism of These two distinct coverings corresponds to the two distinct chiral actions of the Lorentz group on spinors. The non-overlined form corresponds to right-handed spinors transforming as while the overline form corresponds to left-handed spinors transforming as It is important to observe that this pair of coverings does not survive quantization; when quantized, this leads to the peculiar phenomenon of the chiral anomaly. The classical (i.e. non-quantized) symmetries of the Lorentz group are broken by quantization; this is the content of the Atiyah–Singer index theorem. Notational conventions In physics, it is conventional to denote a Lorentz transformation as thus showing the matrix with spacetime indexes A four-vector can be created from the Pauli matrices in two different ways: as and as The two forms are related by a parity transformation. Note that Given a Lorentz transformation the double-covering of the orthochronous Lorentz group by given above can be written as Dropping the this takes the form The parity conjugate form is Proof That the above is the correct form for indexed notation is not immediately obvious, partly because, when working in indexed notation, it is quite easy to accidentally confuse a Lorentz transform with its inverse, or its transpose. This confusion arises due to the identity being difficult to recognize when written in indexed form. Lorentz transforms are not tensors under Lorentz transformations! Thus a direct proof of this identity is useful, for establishing its correctness. It can be demonstrated by starting with the identity where so that the above are just the usual Pauli matrices, and is the matrix transpose, and is complex conjugation. The matrix is Written as the four-vector, the relationship is This transforms as Taking one more transpose, one gets The symplectic group The symplectic group Sp(2,C) is isomorphic to SL(2,C). This isomorphism is constructed so as to preserve a symplectic bilinear form on that is, to leave the form invariant under Lorentz transformations. This may be articulated as follows. The symplectic group is defined as where Other common notations are for this element; sometimes is used, but this invites confusion with the idea of almost complex structures, which are not the same, as they transform differently. Given a pair of Weyl spinors (two-component spinors) the invariant bilinear form is conventionally written as This form is invariant under the Lorentz group, so that for one has This defines a kind of "scalar product" of spinors, and is commonly used to defined a Lorentz-invariant mass term in Lagrangians. There are several notable properties to be called out that are important to physics. One is that and so The defining relation can be written as which closely resembles the defining relation for the Lorentz group where is the metric tensor for Minkowski space and of course, as before. Covering groups Since is simply connected, it is the universal covering group of the restricted Lorentz group . By restriction, there is a homomorphism . Here, the special unitary group SU(2), which is isomorphic to the group of unit norm quaternions, is also simply connected, so it is the covering group of the rotation group SO(3). Each of these covering maps are twofold covers in the sense that precisely two elements of the covering group map to each element of the quotient. One often says that the restricted Lorentz group and the rotation group are doubly connected. This means that the fundamental group of the each group is isomorphic to the two-element cyclic group Z2. Twofold coverings are characteristic of spin groups. Indeed, in addition to the double coverings Spin+(1, 3) = SL(2, C) → SO+(1, 3) Spin(3) = SU(2) → SO(3) we have the double coverings Pin(1, 3) → O(1, 3) Spin(1, 3) → SO(1, 3) Spin+(1, 2) = SU(1, 1) → SO(1, 2) These spinorial double coverings are constructed from Clifford algebras. Topology The left and right groups in the double covering SU(2) → SO(3) are deformation retracts of the left and right groups, respectively, in the double covering SL(2,C) → SO+(1,3). But the homogeneous space SO+(1,3)/SO(3) is homeomorphic to hyperbolic 3-space H3, so we have exhibited the restricted Lorentz group as a principal fiber bundle with fibers SO(3) and base H3. Since the latter is homeomorphic to R3, while SO(3) is homeomorphic to three-dimensional real projective space RP3, we see that the restricted Lorentz group is locally homeomorphic to the product of RP3 with R3. Since the base space is contractible, this can be extended to a global homeomorphism. Generators of boosts and rotations The Lorentz group can be thought of as a subgroup of the diffeomorphism group of R4 and therefore its Lie algebra can be identified with vector fields on R4. In particular, the vectors that generate isometries on a space are its Killing vectors, which provides a convenient alternative to the left-invariant vector field for calculating the Lie algebra. We can write down a set of six generators: Vector fields on R4 generating three rotations i J, Vector fields on R4 generating three boosts i K, (TODO: where is ... ) It may be helpful to briefly recall here how to obtain a one-parameter group from a vector field, written in the form of a first order linear partial differential operator such as The corresponding initial value problem (consider a function of a scalar and solve with some initial conditions) is The solution can be written or where we easily recognize the one-parameter matrix group of rotations exp(i λ Jz) about the z axis. Differentiating with respect to the group parameter and setting it λ=0 in that result, we recover the standard matrix, which corresponds to the vector field we started with. This illustrates how to pass between matrix and vector field representations of elements of the Lie algebra. The exponential map plays this special role not only for the Lorentz group but for Lie groups in general. Reversing the procedure in the previous section, we see that the Möbius transformations that correspond to our six generators arise from exponentiating respectively η/2 (for the three boosts) or iθ/2 (for the three rotations) times the three Pauli matrices Conjugacy classes Because the restricted Lorentz group SO+(1, 3) is isomorphic to the Möbius group PSL(2,C), its conjugacy classes also fall into five classes: Elliptic transformations Hyperbolic transformations Loxodromic transformations Parabolic transformations The trivial identity transformation In the article on Möbius transformations, it is explained how this classification arises by considering the fixed points of Möbius transformations in their action on the Riemann sphere, which corresponds here to null eigenspaces of restricted Lorentz transformations in their action on Minkowski spacetime. An example of each type is given in the subsections below, along with the effect of the one-parameter subgroup it generates (e.g., on the appearance of the night sky). The Möbius transformations are the conformal transformations of the Riemann sphere (or celestial sphere). Then conjugating with an arbitrary element of SL(2,C) obtains the following examples of arbitrary elliptic, hyperbolic, loxodromic, and parabolic (restricted) Lorentz transformations, respectively. The effect on the flow lines of the corresponding one-parameter subgroups is to transform the pattern seen in the examples by some conformal transformation. For example, an elliptic Lorentz transformation can have any two distinct fixed points on the celestial sphere, but points still flow along circular arcs from one fixed point toward the other. The other cases are similar. Elliptic An elliptic element of SL(2,C) is and has fixed points = 0, ∞. Writing the action as and collecting terms, the spinor map converts this to the (restricted) Lorentz transformation This transformation then represents a rotation about the axis, exp(). The one-parameter subgroup it generates is obtained by taking to be a real variable, the rotation angle, instead of a constant. The corresponding continuous transformations of the celestial sphere (except for the identity) all share the same two fixed points, the North and South poles. The transformations move all other points around latitude circles so that this group yields a continuous counterclockwise rotation about the axis as increases. The angle doubling evident in the spinor map is a characteristic feature of spinorial double coverings. Hyperbolic A hyperbolic element of SL(2,C) is and has fixed points = 0, ∞. Under stereographic projection from the Riemann sphere to the Euclidean plane, the effect of this Möbius transformation is a dilation from the origin. The spinor map converts this to the Lorentz transformation This transformation represents a boost along the axis with rapidity . The one-parameter subgroup it generates is obtained by taking to be a real variable, instead of a constant. The corresponding continuous transformations of the celestial sphere (except for the identity) all share the same fixed points (the North and South poles), and they move all other points along longitudes away from the South pole and toward the North pole. Loxodromic A loxodromic element of SL(2,C) is and has fixed points = 0, ∞. The spinor map converts this to the Lorentz transformation The one-parameter subgroup this generates is obtained by replacing η+iθ with any real multiple of this complex constant. (If η, θ vary independently, then a two-dimensional abelian subgroup is obtained, consisting of simultaneous rotations about the axis and boosts along the -axis; in contrast, the one-dimensional subgroup discussed here consists of those elements of this two-dimensional subgroup such that the rapidity of the boost and angle of the rotation have a fixed ratio.) The corresponding continuous transformations of the celestial sphere (excepting the identity) all share the same two fixed points (the North and South poles). They move all other points away from the South pole and toward the North pole (or vice versa), along a family of curves called loxodromes. Each loxodrome spirals infinitely often around each pole. Parabolic A parabolic element of SL(2,C) is and has the single fixed point = ∞ on the Riemann sphere. Under stereographic projection, it appears as an ordinary translation along the real axis. The spinor map converts this to the matrix (representing a Lorentz transformation) This generates a two-parameter abelian subgroup, which is obtained by considering a complex variable rather than a constant. The corresponding continuous transformations of the celestial sphere (except for the identity transformation) move points along a family of circles that are all tangent at the North pole to a certain great circle. All points other than the North pole itself move along these circles. Parabolic Lorentz transformations are often called null rotations. Since these are likely to be the least familiar of the four types of nonidentity Lorentz transformations (elliptic, hyperbolic, loxodromic, parabolic), it is illustrated here how to determine the effect of an example of a parabolic Lorentz transformation on Minkowski spacetime. The matrix given above yields the transformation Now, without loss of generality, pick . Differentiating this transformation with respect to the now real group parameter and evaluating at α=0 produces the corresponding vector field (first order linear partial differential operator), Apply this to a function , and demand that it stays invariant, i.e., it is annihilated by this transformation. The solution of the resulting first order linear partial differential equation can be expressed in the form where is an arbitrary smooth function. The arguments of give three rational invariants describing how points (events) move under this parabolic transformation, as they themselves do not move, Choosing real values for the constants on the right hand sides yields three conditions, and thus specifies a curve in Minkowski spacetime. This curve is an orbit of the transformation. The form of the rational invariants shows that these flowlines (orbits) have a simple description: suppressing the inessential coordinate , each orbit is the intersection of a null plane, , with a hyperboloid, . The case 3 = 0 has the hyperboloid degenerate to a light cone with the orbits becoming parabolas lying in corresponding null planes. A particular null line lying on the light cone is left invariant; this corresponds to the unique (double) fixed point on the Riemann sphere mentioned above. The other null lines through the origin are "swung around the cone" by the transformation. Following the motion of one such null line as increases corresponds to following the motion of a point along one of the circular flow lines on the celestial sphere, as described above. A choice instead, produces similar orbits, now with the roles of and interchanged. Parabolic transformations lead to the gauge symmetry of massless particles (like photons) with helicity \|\| ≥ 1. In the above explicit example, a massless particle moving in the direction, so with 4-momentum P=(p, 0, 0, p), is not affected at all by the -boost and -rotation combination defined below, in the "little group" of its motion. This is evident from the explicit transformation law discussed: like any light-like vector, P itself is now invariant, i.e., all traces or effects of have disappeared. 1 = 2 = 3 = 0, in the special case discussed. (The other similar generator, as well as it and z comprise altogether the little group of the lightlike vector, isomorphic to (2).) Appearance of the night sky This isomorphism has the consequence that Möbius transformations of the Riemann sphere represent the way that Lorentz transformations change the appearance of the night sky, as seen by an observer who is maneuvering at relativistic velocities relative to the "fixed stars". Suppose the "fixed stars" live in Minkowski spacetime and are modeled by points on the celestial sphere. Then a given point on the celestial sphere can be associated with , a complex number that corresponds to the point on the Riemann sphere, and can be identified with a null vector (a light-like vector) in Minkowski space or, in the Weyl representation (the spinor map), the Hermitian matrix The set of real scalar multiples of this null vector, called a null line through the origin, represents a line of sight from an observer at a particular place and time (an arbitrary event we can identify with the origin of Minkowski spacetime) to various distant objects, such as stars. Then the points of the celestial sphere (equivalently, lines of sight) are identified with certain Hermitian matrices. Lie algebra As with any Lie group, a useful way to study many aspects of the Lorentz group is via its Lie algebra. Since the Lorentz group SO(1,3) is a matrix Lie group, its Lie algebra so(1,3) is an algebra of matrices, which may be computed as . If is the diagonal matrix with diagonal entries , then the Lie algebra o(1,3) consists of matrices such that . Explicitly, so(1,3) consists of matrices of the form , where are arbitrary real numbers. This Lie algebra is six dimensional. The subalgebra of so(1,3) consisting of elements in which , , and equal zero is isomorphic to so(3). Note that the full Lorentz group O(1,3), the proper Lorentz group SO(1,3) and the proper orthochronous Lorentz group all have the same Lie algebra, which is typically denoted so(1,3). Since the identity component of the Lorentz group is isomorphic to a finite quotient of SL(2,C) (see the section above on the connection of the Lorentz group to the Möbius group), the Lie algebra of the Lorentz group is isomorphic to the Lie algebra sl(2,C). Note that sl(2,C) is three dimensional when viewed as a complex Lie algebra, but six dimensional when viewed as a real Lie algebra. Generators of the Möbius group Another generating set arises via the isomorphism to the Möbius group. The following table lists the six generators, in which The first column gives a generator of the flow under the Möbius action (after stereographic projection from the Riemann sphere) as a real vector field on the Euclidean plane. The second column gives the corresponding one-parameter subgroup of Möbius transformations. The third column gives the corresponding one-parameter subgroup of Lorentz transformations (the image under our homomorphism of preceding one-parameter subgroup). The fourth column gives the corresponding generator of the flow under the Lorentz action as a real vector field on Minkowski spacetime. Notice that the generators consist of Two parabolics (null rotations) One hyperbolic (boost in the ∂z direction) Three elliptics (rotations about the x, y, z axes, respectively) Let's verify one line in this table. Start with Exponentiate: This element of SL(2,C) represents the one-parameter subgroup of (elliptic) Möbius transformations: Next, The corresponding vector field on C (thought of as the image of S2 under stereographic projection) is Writing , this becomes the vector field on R2 Returning to our element of SL(2,C), writing out the action and collecting terms, we find that the image under the spinor map is the element of SO+(1,3) Differentiating with respect to at =0, yields the corresponding vector field on R4, This is evidently the generator of counterclockwise rotation about the axis. Subgroups of the Lorentz group The subalgebras of the Lie algebra of the Lorentz group can be enumerated, up to conjugacy, from which the closed subgroups of the restricted Lorentz group can be listed, up to conjugacy. (See the book by Hall cited below for the details.) These can be readily expressed in terms of the generators given in the table above. The one-dimensional subalgebras of course correspond to the four conjugacy classes of elements of the Lorentz group: generates a one-parameter subalgebra of parabolics SO(0,1), generates a one-parameter subalgebra of boosts SO(1,1), generates a one-parameter of rotations SO(2), (for any ) generates a one-parameter subalgebra of loxodromic transformations. (Strictly speaking the last corresponds to infinitely many classes, since distinct give different classes.) The two-dimensional subalgebras are: generate an abelian subalgebra consisting entirely of parabolics, generate a nonabelian subalgebra isomorphic to the Lie algebra of the affine group Aff(1), generate an abelian subalgebra consisting of boosts, rotations, and loxodromics all sharing the same pair of fixed points. The three-dimensional subalgebras use the Bianchi classification scheme: generate a Bianchi V subalgebra, isomorphic to the Lie algebra of Hom(2), the group of euclidean homotheties, generate a Bianchi VII_0 subalgebra, isomorphic to the Lie algebra of E(2), the euclidean group, , where , generate a Bianchi VII_a subalgebra, generate a Bianchi VIII subalgebra, isomorphic to the Lie algebra of SL(2,R), the group of isometries of the hyperbolic plane, generate a Bianchi IX subalgebra, isomorphic to the Lie algebra of SO(3), the rotation group. The Bianchi types refer to the classification of three-dimensional Lie algebras by the Italian mathematician Luigi Bianchi. The four-dimensional subalgebras are all conjugate to generate a subalgebra isomorphic to the Lie algebra of Sim(2), the group of Euclidean similitudes. The subalgebras form a lattice (see the figure), and each subalgebra generates by exponentiation a closed subgroup of the restricted Lie group. From these, all subgroups of the Lorentz group can be constructed, up to conjugation, by multiplying by one of the elements of the Klein four-group. As with any connected Lie group, the coset spaces of the closed subgroups of the restricted Lorentz group, or homogeneous spaces, have considerable mathematical interest. A few, brief descriptions: The group Sim(2) is the stabilizer of a null line, i.e., of a point on the Riemann sphere—so the homogeneous space SO+(1,3)/Sim(2) is the Kleinian geometry that represents conformal geometry on the sphere S2. The (identity component of the) Euclidean group SE(2) is the stabilizer of a null vector, so the homogeneous space SO+(1,3)/SE(2) is the momentum space of a massless particle; geometrically, this Kleinian geometry represents the degenerate geometry of the light cone in Minkowski spacetime. The rotation group SO(3) is the stabilizer of a timelike vector, so the homogeneous space SO+(1,3)/SO(3) is the momentum space of a massive particle; geometrically, this space is none other than three-dimensional hyperbolic space H3. Generalization to higher dimensions The concept of the Lorentz group has a natural generalization to spacetime of any number of dimensions. Mathematically, the Lorentz group of n+1-dimensional Minkowski space is the indefinite orthogonal group O(n,1) of linear transformations of Rn+1 that preserves the quadratic form The group O(1, n) preserves the quadratic form It is isomorphic to O(n,1) but enjoys greater popularity in mathematical physics, primarily because the algebra of the Dirac equation, and more generally, spinors and Clifford algebras, are "more natural" with this signature. Many of the properties of the Lorentz group in four dimensions (where ) generalize straightforwardly to arbitrary n. For instance, the Lorentz group O(n,1) has four connected components, and it acts by conformal transformations on the celestial (n−1)-sphere in n+1-dimensional Minkowski space. The identity component SO+(n,1) is an SO(n)-bundle over hyperbolic n-space Hn. The low-dimensional cases and are often useful as "toy models" for the physical case , while higher-dimensional Lorentz groups are used in physical theories such as string theory that posit the existence of hidden dimensions. The Lorentz group O(n,1) is also the isometry group of n-dimensional de Sitter space dSn, which may be realized as the homogeneous space O(n,1)/O(n−1,1). In particular O(4,1) is the isometry group of the de Sitter universe dS4, a cosmological model. See also Notes References Reading List Emil Artin (1957) Geometric Algebra, chapter III: Symplectic and Orthogonal Geometry via Internet Archive, covers orthogonal groups O(p,q) A canonical reference; see chapters 1–6 for representations of the Lorentz group. An excellent resource for Lie theory, fiber bundles, spinorial coverings, and many other topics. See Lecture 11 for the irreducible representations of SL(2,C). . See Chapter 6 for the subalgebras of the Lie algebra of the Lorentz group. See also the See Section 1.3 for a beautifully illustrated discussion of covering spaces. See Section 3D for the topology of rotation groups. §41.3 (Dover reprint edition.) An excellent reference on Minkowski spacetime and the Lorentz group. See Chapter 3 for a superbly illustrated discussion of Möbius transformations. . 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230491	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fock%20space	Fock space	The Fock space is an algebraic construction used in quantum mechanics to construct the quantum states space of a variable or unknown number of identical particles from a single particle Hilbert space . It is named after V. A. Fock who first introduced it in his 1932 paper "Konfigurationsraum und zweite Quantelung". Informally, a Fock space is the sum of a set of Hilbert spaces representing zero particle states, one particle states, two particle states, and so on. If the identical particles are bosons, the -particle states are vectors in a symmetrized tensor product of single-particle Hilbert spaces . If the identical particles are fermions, the -particle states are vectors in an antisymmetrized tensor product of single-particle Hilbert spaces . (See symmetric algebra and exterior algebra respectively.) A general state in Fock space is a linear combination of -particle states, one for each . Technically, the Fock space is (the Hilbert space completion of) the direct sum of the symmetric or antisymmetric tensors in the tensor powers of a single-particle Hilbert space , Here is the operator which symmetrizes or antisymmetrizes a tensor, depending on whether the Hilbert space describes particles obeying bosonic or fermionic statistics, and the overline represents the completion of the space. The bosonic (resp. fermionic) Fock space can alternatively be constructed as (the Hilbert space completion of) the symmetric tensors (resp. alternating tensors ). For every basis for there is a natural basis of the Fock space, the Fock states. Definition The Fock space is the (Hilbert) direct sum of tensor products of copies of a single-particle Hilbert space Here , the complex scalars, consists of the states corresponding to no particles, the states of one particle, the states of two identical particles etc. A general state in is given by where is a vector of length 1 called the vacuum state and is a complex coefficient, is a state in the single particle Hilbert space and is a complex coefficient, , and is a complex coefficient, etc. The convergence of this infinite sum is important if is to be a Hilbert space. Technically we require to be the Hilbert space completion of the algebraic direct sum. It consists of all infinite tuples such that the norm, defined by the inner product is finite where the particle norm is defined by i.e., the restriction of the norm on the tensor product For two general states and the inner product on is then defined as where we use the inner products on each of the -particle Hilbert spaces. Note that, in particular the particle subspaces are orthogonal for different . Product states, indistinguishable particles, and a useful basis for Fock space A product state of the Fock space is a state of the form which describes a collection of particles, one of which has quantum state , another and so on up to the th particle, where each is any state from the single particle Hilbert space . Here juxtaposition (writing the single particle kets side by side, without the ) is symmetric (resp. antisymmetric) multiplication in the symmetric (antisymmetric) tensor algebra. The general state in a Fock space is a linear combination of product states. A state that cannot be written as a convex sum of product states is called an entangled state. When we speak of one particle in state , we must bear in mind that in quantum mechanics identical particles are indistinguishable. In the same Fock space, all particles are identical. (To describe many species of particles, we take the tensor product of as many different Fock spaces as there are species of particles under consideration). It is one of the most powerful features of this formalism that states are implicitly properly symmetrized. For instance, if the above state is fermionic, it will be 0 if two (or more) of the are equal because the antisymmetric (exterior) product . This is a mathematical formulation of the Pauli exclusion principle that no two (or more) fermions can be in the same quantum state. In fact, whenever the terms in a formal product are linearly dependent; the product will be zero for antisymmetric tensors. Also, the product of orthonormal states is properly orthonormal by construction (although possibly 0 in the Fermi case when two states are equal). A useful and convenient basis for a Fock space is the occupancy number basis. Given a basis of , we can denote the state with particles in state , particles in state , ..., particles in state , and no particles in the remaining states, by defining where each takes the value 0 or 1 for fermionic particles and 0, 1, 2, ... for bosonic particles. Note that trailing zeroes may be dropped without changing the state. Such a state is called a Fock state. When the are understood as the steady states of a free field, the Fock states describe an assembly of non-interacting particles in definite numbers. The most general Fock state is a linear superposition of pure states. Two operators of great importance are the creation and annihilation operators, which upon acting on a Fock state add or respectively remove a particle in the ascribed quantum state. They are denoted for creation and for annihilation respectively. To create ("add") a particle, the quantum state is symmetric or exterior- multiplied with ; and respectively to annihilate ("remove") a particle, an (even or odd) interior product is taken with , which is the adjoint of . It is often convenient to work with states of the basis of so that these operators remove and add exactly one particle in the given basis state. These operators also serve as generators for more general operators acting on the Fock space, for instance the number operator giving the number of particles in a specific state is . Wave function interpretation Often the one particle space is given as , the space of square-integrable functions on a space with measure (strictly speaking, the equivalence classes of square integrable functions where functions are equivalent if they differ on a set of measure zero). The typical example is the free particle with the space of square integrable functions on three-dimensional space. The Fock spaces then have a natural interpretation as symmetric or anti-symmetric square integrable functions as follows. Let and , , , etc. Consider the space of tuples of points which is the disjoint union It has a natural measure such that and the restriction of to is . The even Fock space can then be identified with the space of symmetric functions in whereas the odd Fock space can be identified with the space of anti-symmetric functions. The identification follows directly from the isometric mapping . Given wave functions , the Slater determinant is an antisymmetric function on . It can thus be naturally interpreted as an element of the -particle sector of the odd Fock space. The normalization is chosen such that if the functions are orthonormal. There is a similar "Slater permanent" with the determinant replaced with the permanent which gives elements of -sector of the even Fock space. Relation to the Segal–Bargmann space Define the Segal–Bargmann space space of complex holomorphic functions square-integrable with respect to a Gaussian measure: where Then defining a space as the nested union of the spaces over the integers , Segal and Bargmann showed that is isomorphic to a bosonic Fock space. The monomial corresponds to the Fock state See also Fock state Tensor algebra Holomorphic Fock space Creation and annihilation operators Slater determinant Wick's theorem Noncommutative geometry Grand canonical ensemble, thermal distribution over Fock space References External links Feynman diagrams and Wick products associated with q-Fock space - noncommutative analysis, Edward G. Effros and Mihai Popa, Department of Mathematics, UCLA R. Geroch, Mathematical Physics, Chicago University Press, Chapter 21. 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230497	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Caucasus%20Mountains	Caucasus Mountains	The Caucasus Mountains is a mountain range at the intersection of Asia and Europe. Stretching between the Black Sea and the Caspian Sea, it is surrounded by the Caucasus region and is home to Mount Elbrus, the highest peak in Europe at above sea level. The Caucasus Mountains include the Greater Caucasus in the north and Lesser Caucasus in the south. The Greater Caucasus runs west-northwest to east-southeast, from the Caucasian Natural Reserve in the vicinity of Sochi, Russia on the northeastern shore of the Black Sea to Baku, Azerbaijan on the Caspian Sea. The Lesser Caucasus runs parallel to the Greater about south. The Greater and Lesser Caucasus ranges are connected by the Likhi Range, and to the west and east of the Likhi Range lie the Colchis Plain and the Kur-Araz Lowland. The Meskheti Range is a part of the Lesser Caucasus system. In the southeast, the Aras River separates the Lesser Caucasus from the Talysh Mountains which straddles the border of southeastern Azerbaijan and Iran. The Lesser Caucasus and the Armenian Highland constitute the Transcaucasian Highland, which at their western end converges with the highland plateau of Eastern Anatolia in the far north east of Turkey. Mountains near Sochi hosted part of the 2014 Winter Olympics. Geology Geologically, the Caucasus Mountains belong to the Alpide belt system that extends from southeastern Europe into Asia and is considered a border between the two continents. The Greater Caucasus Mountains are mainly composed of Cretaceous and Jurassic rocks with the Paleozoic and Precambrian rocks in the higher regions. Some volcanic formations are found throughout the range. On the other hand, the Lesser Caucasus Mountains are formed predominantly of the Paleogene rocks with a much smaller portion of the Jurassic and Cretaceous rocks. The evolution of the Caucasus began from the Late Triassic to the Late Jurassic during the Cimmerian orogeny at the active margin of the Tethys Ocean while the uplift of the Greater Caucasus is dated to the Miocene during the Alpine orogeny. The Caucasus Mountains formed largely as the result of a tectonic plate collision between the Arabian Plate moving northwards with respect to the Eurasian Plate. As the Tethys Sea was closed and the Arabian Plate collided with the Iranian Plate and was pushed against it and with the clockwise movement of the Eurasian Plate towards the Iranian Plate and their final collision, the Iranian Plate was pressed against the Eurasian Plate. As this happened, the entire rocks that had been deposited in this basin from the Jurassic to the Miocene were folded to form the Greater Caucasus Mountains. This collision also caused the uplift and the Cenozoic volcanic activity in the Lesser Caucasus Mountains. The entire region is regularly subjected to strong earthquakes from this activity. While the Greater Caucasus Mountains have a mainly folded sedimentary structure, the Lesser Caucasus Mountains are largely of volcanic origin. The Javakheti Volcanic Plateau in Georgia and the surrounding volcanic ranges which extend well into central Armenia are some of the youngest features of the region. Only recently was the Caucasus a scene for intense volcanic activity: the Armenian highland was flooded by calc-alkaline basalts and andesites in the Pliocene and the highest summits of the Caucasus, the Elbrus, and the Kazbek, formed as Pleistocene-Pliocene volcanoes. The Kazbek is no longer active, but the Elbrus erupted in postglacial times and fumarole activity is registered near its summit. Contemporary seismic activity is a prominent feature of the region, reflecting active faulting and crustal shortening. Clusters of seismicity occur in Dagestan and in northern Armenia. Many devastating earthquakes have been documented in historical times, including the Spitak earthquake in December 1988 which destroyed the Gyumri-Vanadzor region of Armenia. Notable peaks Mount Elbrus, at , in the Caucasus Mountains, is sometimes cited as the highest peak in Europe. Mount Elbrus is higher than Mont Blanc, the highest peak in the Alps and Western Europe at . However, there are some technical disagreements over whether Mount Elbrus is in Europe. The crest of the Greater Caucasus Mountains is usually taken to define the Greater Caucasus Watershed which marks the continental boundary between Asia and Europe for the region between the Black and Caspian seas, this classification would place Mount Elbrus at the junction with Asia. The table below lists some of the highest peaks of the Caucasus. With the exception of Shkhara, the heights are taken from Soviet 1:50,000 mapping. The list includes the ten ultras (mountains of more than 1,500 m prominence) and all mountains over 4,500 m height with 300 m prominence. Mount Ararat (5,137 m) in Turkey is just south of the Lesser Caucasus. {\| class = "wikitable"3 \|+ Some of the Highest peaks in the Caucasus Mountains \|- ! Peak name ! Elevation ! Prominence ! Country \|- \| Elbrus \|\| \|\| \| Russia \|- \| Dykh-Tau \|\| \|\| \| Russia \|- \| Shkhara \|\| \|\| \| Georgia / Russia \|- \| Koshtan-Tau \|\| \|\| \|\| Russia \|- \| Pushkin peak\|\| \|\| \|\|Russia \|- \| Janga \| \|\| \|\| Georgia / Russia \|- \| Mizhirgi \|\| \|\| \| Russia \|- \| Kazbek \|\| \|\| \| Georgia / Russia \|- \| Katyn-Tau \|\| \|\| \| Georgia / Russia \|- \| Kukurtlu Dome \|\| \|\| \| Russia \|- \| Gistola \|\| \|\| \| Georgia / Russia \|- \| Shota Rustaveli \|\| \|\| \| Georgia / Russia \|- \| Tetnuldi \|\| \|\| \| Georgia \|- \| Dzhimara \| \|\| \|\| Georgia / Russia \|- \| Ushba \|\| \|\| \| Georgia \|- \| Dumala-Tau \|\| \|\| \| Russia \|- \| Gora Uilpata \|\| \|\| \| Russia \|- \| Tikhtengen \|\| \|\| \| Georgia / Russia \|- \| Ailama \|\| \|\| \| Georgia \|- \| Tiutiun-Tau \|\| \|\| \| Russia \|- \| Jailik \|\| \|\| \| Russia \|- \| Salinan \|\| \|\| \| Russia \|- \| Tebulosmta \|\| \|\| \| Georgia / Russia \|- \| Mount Bazardüzü \|\| \|\| \| Azerbaijan \|- \| Gora Shan \|\| \|\| \| Georgia / Russia \|- \| Tepli \|\| \|\| \| Russia \|- \| Diklo \|\| \|\| \| Georgia \|- \| Mount Shahdagh \|\| \|\| \| Azerbaijan \|- \| Gora AddalaShukgelmezr \| \|\| \|\| Russia \|- \| Gora Dyultydag \|\| \|\| \| Russia \|- \| Aragats \|\| \|\| \| Armenia \|- \| Deavgay \|\| \|\| \| Russia \|} Climate The climate of the Caucasus varies both vertically (according to elevation) and horizontally (by latitude and location). Temperature generally decreases as elevation rises. Average annual temperature in Sukhumi, Abkhazia at sea level is while on the slopes of Mt.Kazbek at an elevation of , average annual temperature falls to . The northern slopes of the Greater Caucasus Mountain Range are 3 °C (5.4 °F) colder than the southern slopes. The highlands of the Lesser Caucasus Mountains in Armenia, Azerbaijan, and Georgia are marked by sharp temperature contrasts between the summer and winter months due to a more continental climate. Precipitation increases from east to west in most areas. Elevation plays an important role in the Caucasus and mountains generally receive higher amounts of precipitation than low-lying areas. The northeastern regions (Dagestan) and the southern portions of the Lesser Caucasus Mountains are the driest. The absolute minimum annual precipitation is in the northeastern Caspian Depression. Western parts of the Caucasus Mountains are marked by high amounts of precipitation. The southern slopes of the Greater Caucasus Mountain Range receive higher amounts of precipitation than the northern slopes. Annual precipitation in the Western Caucasus ranges from while in the Eastern and Northern Caucasus (Chechnya, Ingushetia, Kabardino-Balkaria, Ossetia, Kakheti, Kartli, etc.) precipitation ranges from . The absolute maximum annual precipitation is around the Mt. Mtirala area which lies on the Meskheti Range in Ajaria. The precipitation of the Lesser Caucasus Mountain Range (Southern Georgia, Armenia, western Azerbaijan), not including the Meskheti Range, varies from 300- annually. The Caucasus Mountains are known for the high amount of snowfall, although many regions which are not located along the windward slopes do not receive nearly as much snow. This is especially true for the Lesser Caucasus Mountains which are somewhat isolated from the moist influences coming in from the Black Sea and receive considerably less precipitation (in the form of snow) than the Greater Caucasus Mountains. The average winter snow cover of the Lesser Caucasus Mountains ranges from . The Greater Caucasus Mountains (especially the southwestern slopes) are marked by heavy snowfall. Avalanches are common from November to April. Snow cover in several regions (Svaneti and northern Abkhazia) may reach . The Mt. Achishkho region, which is the snowiest place in the Caucasus, often records snow depths of . Landscape The Caucasus Mountains have a varied landscape which mainly changes according to elevation and distance from large bodies of water. The region contains biomes ranging from subtropical lowland marshes and forests to glaciers (Western and Central Caucasus), and highland semideserts, steppes, and alpine meadows in the south (mainly in Armenia and Azerbaijan). The northern slopes of the Greater Caucasus Mountains are covered by oak, hornbeam, maple, and ash forests at lower elevations while birch and pine forests take over at higher elevations. Some of the lowest areas of the region are covered by steppes and grasslands. The slopes of the Northwestern Greater Caucasus (Kabardino-Balkaria, Cherkessia, etc.) also contain spruce and fir forests. The alpine zone replaces the forest at around above sea level. The permafrost/glacier line generally starts around . The southeastern slopes of the Greater Caucasus Mountains are covered by beech, oak, maple, hornbeam, and ash forests. Beech forests tend to dominate in higher locations. The southwestern slopes of the Greater Caucasus are covered by Colchian forests (oak, buxus, beech, chestnut, hornbeam, elm) at lower elevations with coniferous and mixed forests (spruce, fir and beech) taking over at higher elevations. The alpine zone on the southern slopes may extend up to above sea level while the glacier/snow line starts at . The northern and western slopes of the Lesser Caucasus Mountains are characterized both by Colchian and other deciduous forests at lower elevations while mixed and coniferous forests (mainly spruce and fir) dominate at higher elevations. Beech forests are also common at higher elevations. The southern slopes of the Lesser Caucasus Mountains are largely covered by grasslands and steppes up to an elevation of . The highest areas of the region contain alpine grasslands as well. Volcanic and other rock formations are common throughout the region. The volcanic zone extends over a large area from southern Georgia into Armenia and southwestern Azerbaijan. Some of the prominent peaks of the region include Mt. Aragats, Didi Abuli, Samsari, and others. The area is characterized by volcanic plateaus, lava flows, volcanic lakes, volcanic cones and other features. The Lesser Caucasus Mountains lack the type of glaciers and glacial features that are common on the Greater Caucasus Mountain Range. History Crossing the Caucasus Mountain range was an important section of the northern arm of the Silk Route. There was one pass on the southeast end in Derbent (known as the Caspian Gates or Gates of Alexander), and multiple passes throughout the range: Jvari Pass at 2379 m and above the Darial Gorge on the Georgian Military Road, Mamison Pass on the Ossetian Military Road at 2911 m, and Roki Tunnel at 2310 m. Image gallery See also Zagros Mountains Notes References Parts of this article are from the NASA Earth Observatory: Further reading External links Caucasus 01 01 Caucasus04 Caucasus04 Mountain ranges of Asia Mountain ranges of Europe Mountain ranges of Armenia Mountain ranges of Azerbaijan Mountain ranges of Georgia (country) Mountain ranges of Iran Mountain ranges of Russia Mountain ranges of Turkey 01 01 Physiographic provinces Landforms of Kabardino-Balkaria Landforms of Karachay-Cherkessia	[ -0.0301726832985878, 0.3934294283390045, -0.2015836387872696, -0.40883100032806396, 0.007002572994679213, 0.46621596813201904, 0.8397544026374817, 0.532088577747345, -0.19704793393611908, -0.008650273084640503, -0.5441576242446899, -0.07844773679971695, -0.6488657593727112, 0.90488600730896, -0.3445209860801697, 0.8665686845779419, 0.20675399899482727, 0.39045068621635437, -0.13955025374889374, -0.5668542981147766, 0.2998602092266083, -0.07645056396722794, 0.7611228823661804, 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230503	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Number%2096%20%28TV%20series%29	Number 96 (TV series)	Number 96 is an Australian television soap opera/serial that broadcast from March 1972 to August 1977. It screened week nights in the prime time 8.30 pm slot and was one of the most popular Australian TV series of the 1970s. Created by Cash Harmon Television, the production firm of Don Cash and Bill Harmon for the Ten Network (known then as the 0-10 Network that were lagging between the Nine Network and Seven Network ratings), requesting a similar localised version of long established British soap opera Coronation Street, and one that explored adult subject matter and controversial issues. Number 96, although considered a drama series, was an eclectic mix combining light entertainment, comedy and elements of vaudeville. It became famous for its adult storylines, nude glimpses, and comedy characters, as well as its Agatha Christie-style whodunnit story arcs. There were many confronting storylines and firsts, including the world's first gay character, an interracial romance, transgender, rape, illegal abortion and other taboo subjects that were not being addressed at that time, even in America. Storylines explored the lives and relationships of a four-story apartment block in Sydney, at 96 Lindsay Street, Paddington. The Duke and Duchess of Bedford visited the set and appeared in a cameo in the series, in a storyline in which they come to visit Baroness Amanda Von Pappernburg (played by Carol Raye). Cult status Number 96 was the first Australian soap opera/serial to gain a significant cult following, prior to the network's internationally successful series Prisoner. It led to tie-in books and novels, merchandising, a 1974 feature film also called Number 96, and a short-lived 1980 American remake. When the series started its cast was one of the largest ever assembled for a local production. When it ended after 1218 episodes it was the longest running soap opera produced in Australia, having surpassed the ABC series Bellbird. Number 96 was surpassed by The Young Doctors in 1982. At the series' height New York newspaper The Times stated it was one of the highest rating programs of its kind in the world. When the stars travelled from Sydney to Melbourne via train to attend the Logie Awards ceremony they were mobbed at stations during whistle stops. Crowds in Melbourne were greater in number than those that met The Beatles during their only Australian tour in 1964. Whilst the program was extremely popular in Australia, and made for the Australian market, because of its risqué subject matter and storylines, highly controversial for its time, it did not sell in many overseas markets including the United Kingdom and even in the United States. The series based at the time during mass-emigration to Australia, featured a multicultural cast primarily of British extraction, as well as many well known veteran actors in Australia, mainly from the early days of radio and stage. Indeed, as theatre had been the preferred form of entertainment, many stars like Wendy Blacklock, were reluctant to go into a TV serial. The series, although originally based on elements of Coronation Street, was later more likened to US serial Peyton Place. Broadcasting and production In 1972 Australian television featured many imported shows. Previous Australian soaps Autumn Affair, The Story Of Peter Grey and Motel were only mildly successful. Long running ABC soap Bellbird was moderately popular in the city, but more popular in rural areas. The popular Crawford Productions shows Homicide, Division 4 and Matlock Police were police procedurals, rather than conventional soap operas. Bill Harmon and Don Cash had previously worked in New York at NBC, and became a partnership after arriving in Australia and producing adventure series The Rovers and a couple of unsuccessful films. Production of Number 96 started in October 1971. It was produced in monochrome for the first three years and switched to colour production in late 1974. The premise, original story outlines and original characters were devised by series creator David Sale, who had also written for comedy series The Mavis Bramston Show. Sale also wrote the scripts for the first episodes of Number 96 and continued as a script writer and storyliner for much of the show's run. A building at 83 Moncur Street, Woollahra was used for exterior establishing shots of the block of flats. The majority of taping was done on sets at Channel Ten's studio based then in North Ryde, Sydney. Directors included Peter Benardos and Brian Phillis. Regular writers included David Sale, Johnny Whyte who was the series final script editor, Lynn Foster, Ken Shadie and Eleanor Witcombe. Storylines and characters Number 96 was known for its groundbreaking adult storylines and nude glimpses, its comedy characters, and controversial storylines including teenage drug addiction and a black mass conducted by devil worshipers. Whodunits included a panty snatcher dubbed the knicker snipper, the pantyhose murderer, and the bomb in the building. A story where Rose Godulfus (Vivienne Garrett) took marijuana was the first time the Australian Broadcasting Control Board exercised the 101 censorship code. Early shock moments involved the travails of the pregnant Helen Eastwood (Briony Behets) whose husband Mark (Martin Harris) had an affair with Rose Godolfus. Doctor Gordon Vansard (Joe James) was struck off for providing drugs for an illegal abortion. His wife Sonia (Lynn Rainbow) suffered from mental delusions. Sonia returned for the film version of Number 96. The series launched the career of Abigail, who was promoted as a sex symbol. It was the first soap globally to feature an ongoing gay character, Don Finlayson (Joe Hasham). Don was a dependable lawyer who was joined by his more flamboyant partner Dudley Butterfield, played by Chard Hayward. The series featured a transgender character portrayed by Sydney cabaret performer Carlotta, (credited as Carole Lee) in a short storyline in 1973. There was an interracial romance featuring character Chad Farrell, played by dancer Ronne Arnold in 18 episodes, and an ongoing role in 20 episodes for indigenous actress Justine Saunders, who as Rhonda Jackson campaigns for Aboriginal rights. Main cast Key cast members, appearing in 75 or more episodes: (Actors who are highlighted in yellow were original cast.) Others Original actors are highlighted in yellow. Celebrity cameos TV host Mike Walsh, made a cameo appearance as himself. Cameos included Lorrae Desmond, Toni Lamond, Hazel Phillips, (who had auditioned for the role of Vera Collins), Carlotta and dancer Ronne Arnold. The series featured over 100 performers, as well as crew members, including screenwriters and technicians and upcoming performers who were given the opportunity to develop their craft, as well as featuring alumni of the acting world that came into the series in guest roles including: Judi Farr, Paula Duncan, Sheila Helpmann (sister of Robert Helpmann), Enid Lorimer, Noeline Brown, Henri Szeps, Ray Meagher, Rowena Wallace, Jon English, Anne Charleston, Pat Bishop, Brian Moll, Penne Hackforth-Jones, Wendy Hughes, Chris Haywood, Tristan Rogers, Reg Gorman, Penny Ramsey, Shane Porteous, Joyce Jacobs, Brian Wenzel and Moya O'Sullivan. Numerous stars wanted to appear in guest roles, even racing identity Gai Waterhouse, who had completed a drama course in England, also suggested was a young Bryan Brown (although having been in England he had acquired a British accent, and was not suited at the time by producer Bill Harmon, even though he hails from Parramatta). Controversies The show attracted many complaints. The Australian Broadcasting Control Board repeatedly sanctioned the network. To keep the series on air, each episode was previewed to ensure it complied with Control Board guidelines. Sometimes offending scenes would be cut from the episode after its Sydney airing and were not seen when episode screened elsewhere. Consequently, the first episodes feature cuts and screen blackouts. Paperwork of the removed material survives with the National Film and Sound Archive but the actual reel of footage has not been found. Eventually due to the show's popularity the Broadcasting Control Board relaxed its restrictions and stopped previewing episodes. International screenings Cast members were amazed to learn the show was screening in some overseas countries. Cast member Bettina Welch reported seeing it dubbed in Italy. But despite a short late-night run in Toronto, Canada on Citytv, the content was far too explicit for US and UK television. An attempt to sell the show at Cannes TV Festival in 1975 with a topless model backfired when British newspaper Daily Mirror reported that "it got a swift 'No Entry' sign" from there broadcasters the BBC and ATV." Film adaptation Number 96 was adapted as a feature film in 1974 and titled Number 96. One of the major drawcards being it was a full colour production, unlike the series which was still broadcasting in monochrome. It had the same creative team and mostly the same cast as the series. Although it received mostly negative reviews, audiences lined up all down George Street to gain a cinema seat. It earned nearly A$2.5 million on a A$100,000 budget, and was to that time one of the most profitable Australian movies ever made. Characters in the film received applause when they made their entrances. Series evolution Number 96 was Australia's highest-rated program for 1973 and 1974. The series was shot on videotape initially in black-and-white but switching to colour in late 1974. Many black and white episodes are lost, the videotapes being wiped for re-use, which was the official policy at Channel Ten at the time. During 1974, the series shifted its emphasis from sexual situations and drama to focus more on comedy. By mid-1975 ratings had gone into decline so a bold new storyline was devised to revitalise the series. The Mad Bomber storyline, in August–September 1975, came in the wake of news from periodical TV Week that the ratings for Number 96 had dropped to half what they had been at the beginning of 1974. In an unprecedented move, 40 complete scripts were discarded and rewritten, while the Number 96 set was sealed off to non-essential personnel. The new storyline involved a mysterious figure planting a time bomb in Number 96, following a series of warnings and false alarms. The dramatic storyline was intended to draw back viewers and to provide a mechanism to quickly write out several existing characters in a bid to freshen up the cast of characters and revamp the storylines. On 5 September 1975, a bomb exploded in the delicatessen, destroying it and the adjacent wine bar, which was crowded with customers. The makers of the show made a bold move, killing several long-running cast favourites, including Les, Aldo and Roma Godolfus (Johnny Lockwood and Philippa Baker), and then revealing schemer Maggie Cameron as the bomber and sending her off to prison. (She never planned for the bomb to kill anyone and merely wanted to scare residents into moving to facilitate a sale of the building.) Despite the publicity and major changes it brought, the bomb-blast storyline resulted in only a temporary boost to the program's ratings. By October central figures Lucy and Alf Sutcliffe (played by original cast members Elisabeth Kirkby and James Elliott) were also written out of the series. New, younger characters were added to the show, most of whom didn't last out the series. Two that did were orphaned teenage sisters Debbie and Jane Chester Dina Mann and Suzanne Church. Other enduring characters among the high cast turnover of the later period were the new blond sex-symbol Jaja Gibson (Anya Saleky), and Giovanni Lenzi (Harry Michaels), an exuberant Italian who worked in the deli. A later whodunit storyline was the Hooded Rapist in May 1976. Episodes around the time of episode 1000 in June 1976 saw an increase in location shooting, including Moncur Street, Woollahra (outside the building used in the credits), local parks, Chinatown, and Luna Park. The final year of Number 96 featured an continued emphasis on younger characters and the reintroduction of sexual situations and nudity. Don and Dudley had split; Don's new boyfriend was Rob Forsyth (John McTernan). The show's final months in 1977 included a range of shock storylines including a Nazi biker gang and a psychopathic blackmailer. Another bold move in the show's final months saw Number 96 feature what was publicised as Australian television's first full frontal nude scene when new character Miss Hemingway (Deborah Gray) made the first of several unveilings in April 1977. Number 96 had in November 1976 shown a brief full frontal nude flash when bit-part nurse fled Dudley's bedroom that caught on fire, but this was the first time full nudity was shown front and centre in protracted scenes. In one striking moment, Miss Hemingway wore a bra but no panties. Despite screening at 8.30 pm there were few complaints. Other bedroom farce comedy sequences of the period featured increasing levels of male and female semi-nudity, and other instances of full frontal female nudity. A scene where Jane Chester becomes a prostitute and is asked to whip her male client, new Number 96 resident Toby Buxton (Malcolm Thompson), featured a brief glimpse of full frontal male nudity. These changes to the series were made to combat falling viewing figures. However, they were not a success, and in July 1977 the series was cancelled due to declining ratings. Dorrie (Pat McDonald) and Herb Evans (Ron Shand) and Don Finlayson (Joe Hasham) where the only original cast members to remain to the final episode (Shand had not been in the unaired pilot). Series format The first episode began with an exterior shot of the building with moving vans being unloaded while Herb and Dorrie are heard having an argument. Each subsequent episode began with an exterior shot of the building while audio from the previous episode's final scene could be heard. The shot would zoom in on the apartment in which that scene occurred, or remain unchanged, as the show's title was displayed. The vision would then switch to the scene in question as a recap of the previous episode's cliffhanger. The feature film has a pre-credits sequence involving Vera being raped, followed by the film's opening titles. After this, the opening shot is a zoom-in on the exterior of flat 3 and the action starts with the interior activities of flat 3. The series was broadcast as five half-hour episodes each week for its first four years. From the beginning of 1976 episodes were broadcast as two one-hour episodes each week in most areas. However, from an internal perspective episodes continued to be written and compiled in half-hour instalments. Crew The production supervisor on the series was Kevin Powell, son of British film director Michael Powell. The show's studio directors were Peter Benardos and Brian Phillis. Audio directors included Terry Green, Ross Boyer, Larry Price, Robert Judson, John Keane and Steve Wakely. Director's assistants included Gillian B. Brown and Maggie Powell. Executive producer of the series was Bob Huber. Series producers included David Hannay and Ted Jobbins. Network producers were Nancy Sales Cash of Cash Harmon Television. Lighting directors included George Poole, Adrian O'Bearn, Phil Cullen, Paul Gilfeather, Richard Curtis and Peter Richardson. Floor managers included Keith Walker and Murray Graham. Credits director and opener and closer director was Monica Pendegast. Audio boom operators included Laurie Hutchins, Vladimir Lozinski, John Dodds, Paul McCloskey, Jack O'Brien, Steve Wakely (later a series audio director). Technical directors were Graham Wilson and Bob Clemeshacal. Cameramen who worked on the show over the years included Max Cleary, Allan Catt, Bob Henderson, Keith Watson, Dennis Livingston, Ian O'Brien, Chris Fraser, John Bott, Roy Chivers, Murray Kelso, Phil Lomas. Awards Aside from the four Logies won by cast member Pat McDonald during her run with the show, Number 96 won the "Best Drama" Logie in 1974, 1975 and 1976. Actor Bunney Brooke won the "Best Actress" Logie Award for her work as Flo in 1975. The series cast became stars in Australia and had their own Number 96 Passenger train, specially designed for cast and crew travel which for the show's first few years they would take the train from Sydney to Melbourne for the annual TV Week Logie Awards in a silver multi-carriaged train with the commissioner's carriage hooked up at the rear for VIPs. This train was specially-organised by publicity director Tom Greer. The 16-hour overnight journey left from the centre of Sydney at 4.30pm with a farewell party, complete with red carpet and jazz band in attendance; it would feature whistle stops at country sidings and saw thousands of people turn out to see their favourite stars, before it arrived at Spencer Street station. These whistle stops were all beamed back by television stations and went live to air. The rail service of the time was keen to promote its overnight tourism package's, and for the journey the train was christened as the "Spirit of 96". A humorous story, as told by Greer, was the engagement of a piano player (the outrageous John McDonald) to entertain the cast on the train on the way to Melbourne. John could only play upright pianos. The railways rang and said they could not get the upright around the passageway corners of the train so it would be impossible to get it on board. Greer demanded it be put on the train somehow even if it meant dismantling the piano and putting it back together – "key by key". In desperation, engineers arrived and took off the side of the carriage, loaded the piano on with a forklift, before replacing the carriage wall. The train used green steam locomotive number 3801, which frequently operated the Spirit of Progress train service between Sydney and Melbourne. Merchandise In 1975 the Number 96 Cookbook was released in Australian by the publisher Family Circle; it featured recipes from eight members of the cast. The series celebrated 1000 episodes in 1976 with a compilation special, Number 96: And They Said It Wouldn't Last, which reviewed the show's most famous story lines and recounted the exploits of its departed main characters. And They Said It Wouldn't Last was repeated at the start of 1977 with a new ending presented by Dina Mann. It is featured on the DVD release. Final night The final episode ended with a reunion curtain call of popular cast members past and present. A week after the airing of the final episode in Sydney a televised public auction of props and costumes from the series was held in the grounds of Channel 10. American version In 1980 a short-lived US remake of the same name on NBC retained the comedy, but toned down the sexual elements of the series. The series was launched over three consecutive nights, from 10 to 12 December. US television and TV Guide promotions for the series utilised advertising hyperbole, suggesting that the series had been "banned in Australia." The nudity and racy content of the original series was not present in the remake; it would probably not have been allowed in the US due to censorship standards there, so the US version only hinted at the sexual content that had been on display in the original. The US version of Number 96 was quickly cancelled due to low ratings. The US show was finally aired in parts of Australia in 1986. Reruns Channel 10 Sydney started a repeat run of the series on 4 February 1980, starting from the first episode fully produced in colour, episode number 585. Episodes were screened Monday through to Thursday, at midnight. The 1976 special, And They Said It Wouldn't Last, was repeated by Ten in a prime time slot in 1994. This edition of the special dropped the "And" from the original title and included a new introduction by Abigail. It concluded with a replay of the final episode's curtain call of actors. Cultural impact Number 96 was rated number 9 in the 2005 television special 50 Years 50 Shows which counted-down Australia's greatest television programs. McKenzie Wark, wrote in Celebrities, Culture and Cyberspace (published by Pluto Press, 1999): "Once, when I was a kid, I was walking down a suburban street at night, when i noticed a rhythmic flickering of light from inside the houses, Though screened from view by the drawn curtains, the lights from a row of separate houses were all pulsing in time, And then I heard the music and I knew everyone was watching the same show ... Number 96." John Singleton wrote: "When Shakespeare was writing his plays, people queued up for Shakespeare. Today they're queuing up for Number 96, so in my opinion Number 96 is today's Shakespeare." Phillip Adams, from newspaper The Age, wrote: "I believe that television serials provide a surrogate sense of community and that many viewers are more involved in Number 96, than they are in their own community." Documentary The series was featured in cinema documentary Not Quite Hollywood (2008). Interviewees included Number 96 actors Rebecca Gilling, Wendy Hughes, Lynette Curran, Briony Behets, Candy Raymond, Deborah Gray, Roger Ward, Norman Yemm, and an associate producer of Number 96 and The Unisexers, David Hannay. Missing episodes The first 584 episodes of Number 96 were produced in black and white. When Australian television was switched to colour in 1975 Channel 10 didn't think people would want to watch black and white again, so the master tapes were wiped or made into a "foyer display". The first three weeks (episodes 1–15), episodes 31–35 and two episodes from the 1974 black and white episodes (episodes 450 and 534) survive. Up to December 2016, 648 episodes survive. DVD releases A two-disc DVD of the Number 96 feature film (with commentary), plus documentary And They Said It Wouldn't Last, was released in July 2006. The DVD included archive footage of one of the Spirit of 96 train journeys, and a new documentary The Final Years, which featured clips from the series and new (2006) interviews with it s stars Elaine Lee (Vera Collins), Sheila Kennelly (Norma Whitaker), Wendy Blacklock (Edie MacDonald), Deborah Gray (Miss Hemingway), plus series creator, David Sale and TV historian, Andrew Mercado. Disc 1 also appears in a collection of Australian movies, Ozploitation: Volume 4. A DVD set of the complete The Pantyhose Strangler storyline was released in September 2008. Comprising 32 episodes on four discs, it started with Episode #649 (originally aired 1974-11-04) and culminated with #680 (original airdate 1975-01-27) and included a stills gallery (held over from the previous release) and a new commentary with actress Chantal Contouri, who portrayed Tracey Wilson. On 13 March 2010, another batch of episodes was released on DVD. Again comprising 32 episodes on four discs, Aftermath of Murder included episode #681 (original airdate 1975-01-28) through to #712 (original airdate 1975-03-12), archival Christmas cast messages from 1975, and new audio commentaries with its stars Elisabeth Kirkby (Lucy Sutcliffe) and Carol Raye (Baroness Amanda von Papenburg). The fourth DVD was launched to celebrate the series' 40th anniversary. Entitled The Beginning and the Bomb (March 2012), the set includes a selection of sixteen surviving black and white episodes (#1–10, #13, #31, #33–35 and #450) plus the complete, sixteen-episode Mad Bomber storyline in colour, Episodes #832 (originally aired 1975-08-27) to #847 (original airdate 1975-09-16). The set includes archival audio interviews with original actor James Elliott (Alf Sutcliffe) and director Peter Benardos, and a new audio commentary with Michael Kirby and TV historian Andrew Mercado. See also List of Australian television series The Box References External links Aussie Soap Archive: Number 96 Number 96 Home Page DVD boxed set announcement The History of Australian Television – Number 96 Number 96 at the National Film and Sound Archive Number 96 at Australian Screen Online 1970s Australian television series 1972 Australian television series debuts 1977 Australian television series endings 1980 American television series endings 1981 American television series endings Australian television soap operas Black-and-white Australian television shows English-language television shows Gay-related television shows Network 10 original programming NBC original programming Television controversies in Australia Television series by Cash Harmon Television Television series by CBS Studios Television shows set in Sydney LGBT-related controversies in television	[ -0.14187178015708923, -0.05823405459523201, 0.07772087305784225, -0.19662027060985565, -0.5296480059623718, 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230504	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Elbrus%20%28computer%29	Elbrus (computer)	The Elbrus () is a line of Soviet and Russian computer systems developed by Lebedev Institute of Precision Mechanics and Computer Engineering. These computers are used in the space program, nuclear weapons research, and defense systems, as well as for theoretical and researching purposes, such as an experimental Refal and CLU translators. History Historically, computers under the Elbrus brand comprised several different instruction set architectures. The first of them was the line of the large fourth-generation computers, developed by Vsevolod Burtsev. These were heavily influenced by the Burroughs large systems and similarly to them implemented tag-based architecture and a variant of ALGOL-68 as system programming language. After that Burtsev retired, and new Lebedev's chief developer, Boris Babayan, introduced the completely new system architecture. Differing completely from the architecture of both Elbrus 1 and Elbrus 2, it employed a VLIW approach. In 1992 a spin-off company Moscow Center of SPARC Technologies (MCST) was created and continued development, using the "Elbrus" moniker as a brand for all computer systems developed by the company. In the late 1990s, a series of SPARC-based CPUs were developed at MCST as a way to raise the fund for the in-house IP development and to fill the niche of domestically-developed CPUs for the backdoor-wary military. Models Elbrus 1 (1979) was the first in the line. A side development was an update of the 1965 BESM-6 as Elbrus-1K2. a 10-processor computer, with superscalar, out-of-order execution and RISC processors. Elbrus 2 (1984) Re-implementation of the Elbrus 1 architecture with faster ECL chips. Elbrus 3 (1990) was a 16-processor computer developed by the Babayan's team, and one of the first VLIW computers in the world. Elbrus 2000 (2001) was a microprocessor development of the Elbrus 3 architecture. Also known as Elbrus-S. Elbrus-3M1 (2005) is a two-processor computer based on Elbrus 2000 microprocessor working at 300MHz. Elbrus МВ3S1/C (2009) is a ccNUMA four-processor computer based on Elbrus-S microprocessor working at 500MHz. Elbrus-2S+ (2011) working at 500MHz, with capacity to calculate 16GFlops. Elbrus-2SM (2014) working at 300MHz, with capacity to calculate 9.6GFlops. Elbrus-4S (2014) working at 800MHz, with capacity to calculate 50GFlops. Elbrus-1S+ (2016) SoC with GPU, working at 600–1000MHz, with capacity to calculate 24GFlops. Elbrus-8S (2014–2015) working at 1300MHz, with capacity to calculate 250GFlops. Elbrus-8SV (2018) working at 1500MHz, with capacity to calculate 576GFlops. Elbrus-16S (2019) working at 2000MHz, with capacity to calculate 1.5TFlops. SPARC Elbrus-90micro (1998–2010) is a computer line based on SPARC instruction set architecture (ISA) microprocessors: MCST R80, R150, R500, R500S and MCST-4R working at 80, 150, 500 and 1000MHz. The Elbrus-90 is used to control the S-400 missile system. See also List of Soviet computer systems List of Russian microprocessors References External links Elbrus website (Russian) MCST: Microprocessors and VLSI (Russian) "Elbrus" processor info (Russian) "Elbrus-S" processor info (Russian) МВ3S1/C "Elbrus-S" based processor module (Russian) (I) Power Point document "Elbrus-3M1" (II) Power Point document "Elbrus-3M1" Russian microprocessors: An overview (Spanish - Espacial.org) Video of booting Windows 2000 on Elbrus microprocessor The Elbrus-2: a Soviet-era high performance computer – project and hardware history discussion, including an interview with Boris Babayan, from the Computer History Museum Realworldtech - From Russia, With Skepticism EDN Network: The Russians Are Coming? 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230513	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carrie%20Nation	Carrie Nation	Caroline Amelia Nation (November 25, 1846June 9, 1911), often referred to by Carrie, Carry Nation, or Hatchet Granny, was a radical member of the temperance movement, which opposed alcohol before the advent of Prohibition. Nation is noted for attacking alcohol-serving establishments (most often taverns) with a hatchet. Nation was also concerned about tight clothing for women; she refused to wear a corset and urged women not to wear them because of their harmful effects on vital organs. She described herself as "a bulldog running along at the feet of Jesus, barking at what He doesn't like", and claimed a divine ordination to promote temperance by destroying bars. Early life and first marriage Caroline Amelia Moore was born in Garrard County, Kentucky, to George Moore and Mary Campbell. Her father was a successful farmer, stock trader, and slaveholder of Irish descent. During much of her early life, Moore's health was poor and her family experienced financial setbacks. The family moved several times in Kentucky and finally settled in Belton, Missouri, in 1854. In addition to their financial difficulties, many of Moore's family members suffered from mental illness, her mother at times having delusions. There is speculation that the family did not stay in one place long because of rumors about Mary Moore's mental state. Some writers have speculated that Mary believed she was Queen Victoria because of her finery and social airs. Mary lived in an insane asylum in Nevada, Missouri, from August 1890 until her death on September 28, 1893. Mary was put in the asylum through legal action by her son, Charles, although there is suspicion that Charles instigated the lawsuit because he owed Mary money. The family moved to Texas as Missouri became involved in the Civil War in 1862. George did not fare well in Texas, and he moved his family back to Missouri. The family returned to High Grove Farm in Cass County. When the Union Army ordered them to evacuate their farm, they moved to Kansas City. Carrie nursed wounded soldiers after a raid on Independence, Missouri. The family again returned to their farm when the Civil War ended. In 1865, Moore met Charles Gloyd, a young physician who had fought for the Union, who was a severe alcoholic. Gloyd taught school near the Moores' farm while deciding where to establish his medical practice. He eventually settled on Holden, Missouri, and asked Moore to marry him. Moore's parents objected to the union because they believed he was addicted to alcohol, but the marriage proceeded. They were married on November 21, 1867, and separated shortly before the birth of their daughter, Charlien, on September 27, 1868. Gloyd died in 1869 of alcoholism. Influenced by the death of her husband, Carrie Gloyd developed a passionate activism against alcohol. With the proceeds from selling her inherited land (as well as that of her husband's estate), she built a small house in Holden. Gloyd moved there with her mother-in-law and Charlien, and attended the Normal Institute in Warrensburg, Missouri, earning her teaching certificate in July 1872. Gloyd taught at a school in Holden for four years. She obtained a history degree and studied the influence of Greek philosophers on American politics. Second marriage and "call from God" In 1874, Gloyd married David A. Nation, an attorney, minister, newspaper journalist, and father, 19 years her senior. The family purchased a 1,700 acre (690 ha) cotton plantation on the San Bernard River in Brazoria County, Texas. As neither knew much about farming, the venture was ultimately unsuccessful. David Nation moved to Brazoria to practice law. In about 1880, Carrie Nation moved to Columbia (now East Columbia) to operate the hotel owned by A. R. and Jesse W. Park. Her name is on the roll of Columbia Methodist Church in West Columbia. She lived at the hotel with her daughter, Charlien Gloyd, "Mother Gloyd" (Carrie's first mother-in-law), and David's daughter, Lola. Carrie Nation's husband also operated a saddle shop just southwest of this site. The family soon moved to Richmond, Texas, to operate a hotel. David Nation became involved in the Jaybird–Woodpecker War. As a result, he was forced to move back north to Medicine Lodge, Kansas, in 1889, where he found work preaching at a Christian church and Carrie ran a successful hotel. Carrie Nation began her temperance work in Medicine Lodge by starting a local branch of the Woman's Christian Temperance Union and campaigning for the enforcement of Kansas' ban on the sale of liquor. Her methods escalated from simple protests to serenading saloon patrons with hymns accompanied by a hand organ, to greeting bartenders with pointed remarks such as, "Good morning, destroyer of men's souls." She also helped her mother and her daughter who had mental health problems. Dissatisfied with the results of her efforts, Nation began to pray to God for direction. On June 5, 1900, she felt she received her answer in the form of a heavenly vision. As Nation described it:The next morning I was awakened by a voice which seemed to me speaking in my heart, these words, "GO TO KIOWA," and my hands were lifted and thrown down and the words, "I'LL STAND BY YOU." The words, "Go to Kiowa," were spoken in a murmuring, musical tone, low and soft, but "I'll stand by you," was very clear, positive and emphatic. I was impressed with a great inspiration, the interpretation was very plain, it was this: "Take something in your hands, and throw at these places in Kiowa and smash them." Responding to the revelation, Nation gathered several rocks – "smashers", she called them – and proceeded to Dobson's Saloon on June 7. Announcing "Men, I have come to save you from a drunkard's fate", she began to destroy the saloon's stock with her cache of rocks. After she similarly destroyed two other saloons in Kiowa, a tornado hit eastern Kansas, which Nation took as divine approval of her actions. "Hatchetations" Nation continued her destructive ways in Kansas, her fame spreading through her growing arrest record. After she led a raid in Wichita, Kansas, Nation's husband joked that she should use a hatchet next time for maximum damage. Nation replied, "That is the most sensible thing you have said since I married you." The couple divorced in 1901; they had no children. Between 1902 and 1906, she lived in Guthrie, Oklahoma. Alone or accompanied by hymn-singing women, Nation would march into a bar and sing and pray while smashing bar fixtures and stock with a hatchet. Between 1900 and 1910, she was arrested some 30 times for "hatchetations", as she came to call them. Nation paid her jail fines from lecture-tour fees and sales of stick pins in the shape of hatchets. The souvenirs were provided by a Topeka, Kansas, pharmacist. Engraved on the handle of the hatchet, the pin reads, "Death to Rum". In April 1901, Nation went to Kansas City, Missouri, a city known for its wide opposition to the temperance movement, and smashed liquor in various bars on 12th Street in downtown Kansas City. She was arrested, taken to court, and fined although the judge suspended the fine under the condition that she never return to Kansas City. She was arrested over 32 times—one report is that she was placed in the Washington DC poorhouse for three days for refusing to pay a $35 fine. Nation also conducted women's rights marches in Topeka, Kansas. She led hundreds of women that were part of the Home Defender's Army to march in opposition to saloons. In Amarillo, Texas, she received a strong response, as she was sponsored by the surveyor W. D. Twichell, an active Methodist layman. Later life and death Nation's anti-alcohol activities became widely known, with the slogan "All Nations Welcome But Carrie" becoming a bar-room staple. She published The Smasher's Mail, a biweekly newsletter, and The Hatchet, a newspaper. Suspicious that President William McKinley was a secret drinker, Nation applauded his 1901 assassination because drinkers "got what they deserved". Later in life Nation exploited her name by appearing in vaudeville in the United States and music halls in Great Britain. Nation, a proud woman more given to sermonizing than entertaining, found these venues uninspiring for her proselytizing. One of a number of pre-World War I acts that "failed to click" with foreign audiences, Nation was struck by an egg thrown by an audience member during one 1909 music hall lecture at the Canterbury Theatre of Varieties in Westminster, London. Indignantly, "The Anti-Souse Queen" ripped up her contract and returned to the United States. Seeking profits elsewhere, Nation sold photographs of herself, collected lecture fees, and marketed miniature souvenir hatchets. In October 1909, various press outlets reported that Nation claimed to have invented an aeroplane. Near the end of her life, Nation moved to Eureka Springs, Arkansas, where she founded the home known as "Hatchet Hall". In poor health, she collapsed during a speech in a Eureka Springs park, after proclaiming, "I have done what I could." Nation was taken to a hospital in Leavenworth, Kansas, the Evergreen Place Hospital and Sanitarium located on 25 acres at Limit Street and South Maple Avenue just outside the city limits of Leavenworth. Evergreen Place Hospital was founded and operated by Dr. Charles Goddard, a professor at the University of Kansas School of Medicine and a distinguished authority on nervous and mental troubles, liquor and drug habits. Nation died there on June 9, 1911. She is buried in the southeastern side of Belton Cemetery in Belton, Missouri. The Woman's Christian Temperance Union later erected a stone inscribed "Faithful to the Cause of Prohibition, She Hath Done What She Could" and the name "Carry A. Nation". Legacy In 1918, a drinking fountain was erected in Nation's memory by the Woman's Christian Temperance Union. It is currently housed at Naftzger Memorial Park in Wichita, Kansas. One frequently reported myth is that the original fountain was destroyed a few years after its inception when the driver of a beer truck lost control and ran into it. Jami Tracy, a curator of the Wichita-Sedgwick County Historical Museum, states that this ironic tale has "no substance whatsoever". Nation's home in Medicine Lodge, Kansas, the Carrie Nation House, was bought by the Woman's Christian Temperance Union in the 1950s and was declared a U.S. National Historic Landmark in 1976. A spring just across the street from Hatchet Hall in Eureka Springs is named after her. Humanitarian works Carrie Nation was known as "Mother Nature" for the charity and religious work she did. Because Nation believed drunkenness was a cause to many problems in society, she attempted to help those in prison. In 1890, Nation founded a sewing circle in Medicine Lodge, Kansas to make clothing for the poor as well as prepare meals for them on holidays like Thanksgiving and Christmas. In 1901, Nation established a shelter for wives and children of alcoholics in Kansas City, Missouri. This shelter would later be described as an "early model for today's battered women's shelter". In media Nation is portrayed by Valerie Buhagiar in Season 9 Episode 6 of the Canadian TV series Murdoch Mysteries. In "Bar Fights" (Episode 3, Season 4) of Comedy Central's Drunk History, Nation is portrayed by Vanessa Bayer. In the movie Beyond the Valley of the Dolls the band the Kelly Affair changes the band name to the Carrie Nations. In the OverSimplified video "Prohibition". A fictionalized version of Nation is portrayed in the musical Queen of the Mist, wherein she crosses paths with Annie Edson Taylor. Nation was portrayed by Julia Murney in the original Off-Broadway production. Carrie Nation is present as a loa in the short story "Black Glass" written by Karen Joy Fowler See also James Stuart McKnight, represented Carrie Nation's sister in a competency hearing Notes References Further reading The Use and Need of the Life of Carry A. Nation (1905) by Carry A. Nation Carry Nation (1929) by Herbert Asbury Cyclone Carry: The Story of Carry Nation (1962) by Carleton Beals Vessel of Wrath: The Life and Times of Carry Nation (1966) by Robert Lewis Taylor Carry A. Nation: Retelling The Life (2001) by Fran Grace External links Photos, letters, and other primary sources related to Carry Nation – Kansas Memory, the digital portal of the Kansas Historical Society Carrie Amelia Moore Nation (1846–1911) – The Encyclopedia of Arkansas History & Culture Carry A. Nation: The Famous and Original Bar Room Smasher – Kansas State Historical Society Photos of Carry Nation – Fort Bend Museum, hosted by the Portal to Texas History Carry Nation's hammer, Kansas Museum of History Carry Nation's purse, Kansas Museum of History 1846 births 1911 deaths 19th-century American criminals American female criminals American suffragists American temperance activists Kansas Prohibitionists People from Garrard County, Kentucky Prohibition in the United States Woman's Christian Temperance Union people Vaudeville performers Activists from Kansas	[ 0.17031559348106384, 0.2101648449897766, -0.33055612444877625, -0.4392622113227844, -0.2648327648639679, 0.6569805145263672, 1.0248466730117798, -0.14380493760108948, -0.23033274710178375, -0.04297890141606331, 0.7274962663650513, 0.3245764374732971, -0.24086613953113556, 0.42852461338043213, -0.7543618679046631, 0.38610249757766724, 0.0761372447013855, 0.3042655289173126, -0.08279963582754135, -0.048356909304857254, 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230514	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Intraplate%20earthquake	Intraplate earthquake	The term intraplate earthquake refers to a variety of earthquake that occurs within the interior of a tectonic plate; this stands in contrast to an interplate earthquake, which occurs at the boundary of a tectonic plate. Intraplate earthquakes are relatively rare compared to the more familiar boundary-located interplate earthquakes. Structures far from plate boundaries tend to lack seismic retrofitting, so large intraplate earthquakes can inflict heavy damage. Examples of damaging intraplate earthquakes are the devastating Gujarat earthquake in 2001, the 2012 Indian Ocean earthquakes, the 2017 Puebla earthquake, the 1811–1812 earthquakes in New Madrid, Missouri, and the 1886 earthquake in Charleston, South Carolina. Fault zones within tectonic plates The surface of the Earth is made up of seven primary and eight secondary tectonic plates, plus dozens of tertiary microplates. The large plates move very slowly, owing to convection currents within the mantle below the crust. Because they do not all move in the same direction, plates often directly collide or move laterally along each other, a tectonic environment that makes earthquakes frequent. Relatively few earthquakes occur in intraplate environments; most occur on faults near plate margins. By definition, intraplate earthquakes do not occur near plate boundaries, but along faults in the normally stable interior of plates. These earthquakes often occur at the location of ancient failed rifts, because such old structures may present a weakness in the crust where it can easily slip to accommodate regional tectonic strain. Compared to earthquakes near plate boundaries, intraplate earthquakes are not well understood, and the hazards associated with them may be difficult to quantify. Examples Examples of intraplate earthquakes include those in Mineral, Virginia in 2011 (estimated magnitude 5.8), Newcastle, New South Wales in 1989, New Madrid in 1811 and 1812 (estimated magnitude as high as 8.1), the Boston (Cape Ann) earthquake of 1755 (estimated magnitude 6.0 to 6.3), earthquakes felt in New York City in 1737 and 1884 (both quakes estimated at about 5.5 magnitude), and the Charleston earthquake in South Carolina in 1886 (estimated magnitude 6.5 to 7.3). The Charleston quake was particularly surprising because, unlike Boston and New York, the area had almost no history of even minor earthquakes. In 2001, a large intraplate earthquake devastated the region of Gujarat, India. The earthquake occurred far from any plate boundaries, which meant the region above the epicenter was unprepared for earthquakes. In particular, the Kutch district suffered tremendous damage, where the death toll was over 12,000 and the total death toll was higher than 20,000. In 2017, the 24–29 km deep magnitude 6.5 Botswana earthquake that shook eastern Botswana occurred at over 300 km from the nearest active plate boundary. The event occurred in an underpopulated area of Botswana. The 1888 earthquake in Río de la Plata was also an intraplate quake. Causes Many cities live with the seismic risk of a rare, large intraplate earthquake. The cause of these earthquakes is often uncertain. In many cases, the causative fault is deeply buried, and sometimes cannot even be found. Some studies have shown that it can be caused by fluids moving up the crust along ancient fault zones. Under these circumstances it is difficult to calculate the exact seismic hazard for a given city, especially if there was only one earthquake in historical times. Some progress is being made in understanding the fault mechanics driving these earthquakes. Intraplate earthquakes may be unrelated to ancient fault zones and instead caused by deglaciation or erosion. Prediction Scientists continue to search for the causes of these earthquakes, and especially for some indication of how often they recur. The best success has come with detailed micro-seismic monitoring, involving dense arrays of seismometers. In this manner, very small earthquakes associated with a causative fault can be located with great accuracy, and in most cases these line up in patterns consistent with faulting. Cryoseisms can sometimes be mistaken for intraplate earthquakes. See also References Further reading Stein, S., and S. Mazzotti (2007). "Continental Intraplate Earthquakes: Science and Policy Issues", Geological Society of America, Special Paper 425. External links Intraplate Earthquakes: Possible Mechanisms for the New Madrid and Charleston Earthquakes Symptomatic Features of Intraplate Earthquakes – PDF A physical understanding of large intraplate earthquakes – PDF Earthquake Hazards Program, USGS Types of earthquake ja:地震#内陸地殻内地震	[ -0.3776300549507141, 0.16228845715522766, -0.22525934875011444, 0.143464595079422, -0.6644965410232544, 0.10666801035404205, 0.4190094470977783, 0.3481183350086212, -0.19625863432884216, -0.5302677154541016, -0.49959856271743774, 0.393253892660141, 0.03952125087380409, 0.5183759927749634, -0.23655635118484497, 0.7671933174133301, 0.36417973041534424, 0.24603284895420074, -0.6271189451217651, 0.054338984191417694, -0.0016577955102548003, -0.41339021921157837, 0.3739064931869507, -0.31030553579330444, -0.4533003270626068, -0.12123085558414459, -0.347579687833786, -0.11033008247613907, 0.19463028013706207, -0.030960723757743835, -0.0928073525428772, 1.110788106918335, -0.39288854598999023, 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230515	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Matabele	Matabele	Matabele may refer to: Northern Ndebele people , a destroyer of the Royal Navy Matabele (beetle), a genus of beetle in the family Carabidae See also Ndebele (disambiguation)	[ 0.3048899173736572, -0.1732783019542694, -0.806861937046051, -0.11132656037807465, -0.19765934348106384, 0.9221852421760559, 0.16037268936634064, 0.2016519159078598, -0.9121711850166321, -0.3109990060329437, -0.01498389896005392, 0.2176119089126587, -0.7560019493103027, 0.5251861810684204, -0.3619069457054138, 0.5696637630462646, -0.14418037235736847, 0.5347742438316345, -0.013802096247673035, 0.27595311403274536, -0.32133740186691284, -0.1847471445798874, 0.11044630408287048, 0.20956239104270935, 0.04787326976656914, 0.20842505991458893, 0.9817633628845215, 0.07480379939079285, -0.0816938653588295, 0.22303105890750885, 0.5158629417419434, 0.3565317392349243, -0.0344662219285965, 0.1339695155620575, -0.17131800949573517, -0.2511950433254242, 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230517	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bryde%27s%20whale	Bryde's whale	Bryde's whale ( Brooder's), or the Bryde's whale complex, putatively comprises three species of rorqual and maybe four. The "complex" means the number and classification remains unclear because of a lack of definitive information and research. The common Bryde's whale (Balaenoptera brydei, Olsen, 1913) is a larger form that occurs worldwide in warm temperate and tropical waters, and the Sittang or Eden's whale (B. edeni, Anderson, 1879) is a smaller form that may be restricted to the Indo-Pacific. Also, a smaller, coastal form of B. brydei is found off southern Africa, and perhaps another form in the Indo-Pacific differs in skull morphology, tentatively referred to as the Indo-Pacific Bryde's whale. The recently described Omura's whale (B. omurai, Wada et al. 2003), was formerly thought to be a pygmy form of Bryde's, but is now recognized as a distinct species. Rice's whale (B. ricei), which makes its home solely in the Gulf of Mexico, was once considered a distinct population of Bryde's whale, but in 2021 it was described as a separate species. B. brydei gets its specific and common name from Johan Bryde, Norwegian consul to South Africa, who helped establish the first modern whaling station in the country, while B. edeni gets its specific and common names from Sir Ashley Eden, former High Commissioner of Burma (Myanmar). Sittang whale refers to the type locality of the species. Etymology In Japan, early whalers called it or . It preys on the anchovy and it was commonly associated with the skipjack. As modern whaling shifted to the Sanriku area, whalemen confused the sei whale with it; now only applies to the latter. Incidentally, anchovies are dominant prey for both species off Japan. They are now called , for their resemblance to the sei whale. Taxonomy The taxonomy is poorly characterised. The two genetically distinct, candidate species/subspecies/morphologies are Bryde's whale B. brydei and the Sittang or Eden's whale B. edeni, that differentiate by geographic distribution, inshore/offshore preferences, and size. For both putative species, the scientific name B. edeni is commonly used or they are simply referred to B. cf brydei/edeni. In 1878, the Scottish zoologist John Anderson, first curator of the Indian Museum in Calcutta, described Balaenoptera edeni, naming it after the former British High Commissioner in Burma, Sir Ashley Eden, who helped obtain the type specimen. Eden's Deputy Commissioner, Major A.G. Duff, sent a Mr Duke, one of his assistants, to Thaybyoo Creek, between the Sittang and Beeling Rivers, on the Gulf of Martaban, where he found a 37-foot whale, which had stranded there in June 1871 after swimming more than 20 miles up the creek—it was said to have "exhausted itself by its furious struggles" to get free and "roared like an elephant" before finally expiring. Despite terrible weather, he was able to secure almost the entire skull and nearly all its vertebrae, along with other bones. These were sent to Anderson, who described the specimen, which was physically mature, as a new species. In 1913, the Norwegian scientist Ørjan Olsen, based on the examination of a dozen "sei whales" brought to the whaling stations at Durban and Saldanha, in South Africa, described Balaenoptera brydei, naming it after the Norwegian consul to South Africa Johan Bryde. In 1950, the Dutch scientist G.C.A. Junge, after comparing specimens of B. edeni and B. brydei with a 39-foot, physically mature specimen that had stranded on Pulau Sugi, an island between Singapore and Sumatra, in July 1936, synonymized the two species into B. edeni. In the 1950s it was discovered that there were two types of "sei whale" off Japan, a northern form with longer, finer baleen and shorter ventral grooves and a southern form with shorter, coarser baleen and longer ventral grooves. They also differed in the shape of the palate. The former was caught off northeastern Honshu and eastern Hokkaido, while the latter was taken off western Kyushu and southern Honshu. Both were caught off the Bonin Islands, but at different seasons. It was realized that the northern form were indeed sei whales (B. borealis), but the southern form were Bryde's whale (B. brydei/edeni). A later study revealed that Bryde's caught off Japan exhibited lateral ridges on their rostrum, whereas sei whales lacked this feature. In the 1960s it was discovered that some of the "sei whales" being caught off Brazil were also Bryde's whales based on the same characters that distinguished the two species off Japan (i.e. three ridges on the rostrum versus one, shape of the palate, texture of the baleen, length of the ventral grooves). Description Several differences in anatomy are seen between Bryde's and Eden's whales; morphological similarities have caused confusions regarding species identification. Size Members of the Bryde's whale complex are moderately-sized rorquals, falling behind sei whales, but being larger than Omura's whale and the relatively small minke whales. The largest measured by Olsen (1913) was a female caught off Durban in November 1912, while the longest of each sex measured by Best (1977) at the Donkergat whaling station in Saldanha Bay, South Africa, were a female caught in October 1962 and a male caught in April 1963; both were the offshore form. At physical maturity, the coastal form off South Africa averages for males and for females, while the South Africa offshore form averages . The coastal form near Japan is slightly smaller, with adult males averaging and adult females . At sexual maturity, males average and females near Japan. Sexual maturity is reached at 8–11 years for both sexes in the offshore form off South Africa. At birth, they are . The body mass of Bryde's whales can range . External appearance The Bryde's whale is a baleen whale, more specifically a rorqual belonging to the same group as blue whales and humpback whales. It has twin blowholes with a low splashguard to the front. Like other rorquals, it has no teeth, but has two rows of baleen plates. Bryde's whales closely resemble their close relative the sei whale. They are remarkably elongated (even more so than fin whales), with the greatest height of the body being one seventh their total length—compared to 1/6.5 to 1/6.75 in fin whales and only 1/5.5 in sei whales. Bryde's are dark smoky grey dorsally and usually white ventrally, whereas sei whales are often a galvanized blue-grey dorsally and have a variably sized white patch on the throat, a posteriorly oriented white anchor-shaped marking between the pectoral fins, and are blue-grey beyond the anus—although Bryde's off South Africa can have a similar irregular white patch on the throat. Bryde's have a straight rostrum with three longitudinal ridges that extend from the blowholes, where the auxiliary ridges begin as depressions, to the tip of the rostrum. The sei whale, like other rorquals, has a single median ridge, as well as a slightly arched rostrum, which is accentuated at the tip. Bryde's usually have dark grey lower jaws, whereas sei whales are lighter grey. Bryde's have 250–370 pairs of short, slate grey baleen plates with long, coarse, lighter grey or white bristles that are long by wide, while sei whales have longer, black or dark grey baleen plates with short, curling, wool-like bristles. The 40 to 70 ventral pleats extend to or past the umbilicus, occupying about 58% and 57% of the total length, respectively; sei whales, though, have ventral pleats that extend only halfway between the pectoral fins and umbilicus, occupying only 45–47% of the total body length, whereas their umbilicus is usually 52% of the total body length. Both species are often covered with white or pink oval scars caused by bites from cookie-cutter sharks. Bryde's whales have an upright, falcate dorsal fin that is up to in height, average , and is usually between . It is often frayed or ragged along its rear margin and located about two-thirds of the way along the back. The broad, centrally notched tail flukes rarely break the surface. The flippers are small and slender. Behaviour Their blow is columnar or bushy, about high. Sometimes, they blow or exhale while under water. Bryde's whales display seemingly erratic behaviour compared to other baleen whales, because they surface at irregular intervals and can change directions for unknown reasons. They usually appear individually or in pairs, and occasionally in loose aggregations up to 20 animals around feeding areas. They are more active on the water surface than sei whales, especially in coastal waters. Breathing They regularly dive for about 5–15 minutes (maximum of 20 minutes) after four to seven blows. Bryde's whales are capable of reaching depths down to . When submerging, these whales do not display their flukes. Bryde's whales commonly swim at , but can reach . They sometimes generate short (0.4 seconds) powerful, low-frequency vocalizations that resemble a human moan. Diet Bryde's whales feed on a wide variety of fish, planktonic crustaceans, and cephalopods. In the western North Pacific, Bryde's whales caught by Japanese scientific whaling vessels (2000–2007) mainly fed on Japanese anchovy (Engraulis japonicus, 52%) and various species of euphausiid (36%, including Euphausia similis, E. gibboides, Thysanoessa gregaria, and Nematoscelis difficilis), as well as oceanic lightfish (Vinciguerria nimbaria, nearly 3%), and mackerels (Scomber spp., less than 2%). The prey differed by location and season. In coastal areas, euphausiids dominated the diet, comprising 89 and 75% of the diet in May and June, respectively. Further offshore, Japanese anchovy was the dominant species, accounting for nearly 100% of the diet in late summer. Based on the stomach contents of Bryde's whales caught by Japanese pelagic whaling expeditions in the North Pacific in the 1970s, the majority were found to feed on euphausiids (nearly 89%), whereas only about 11% fed on fish. Off South Africa, prey preferences differed between the inshore and offshore forms. The former mainly feed on anchovies (Engraulis capensis, 83%), maasbankers (Trachurus trachurus, 36%), and pilchards (Sardinops ocellata, 33%), with only one (or 3%) being found with euphausiids (Nyctiphanes capensis). The latter, however, mainly feed on euphausiids (primarily Euphausia lucens, but also E. recurva, N. capensis, and Thysanoessa gregaria), as well as various deep-sea fish (including Mueller's pearlside, Maurolicus muelleri, and a species of Lestidium). One was even found "full of baby squid" (later identified as Lycoteuthis diadema). In the Gulf of California, they mainly feed on Pacific sardine (Sardinops sagax) and Pacific thread herring (Opisthonema libertate) (about 88%), but also feed on euphausiids (mostly Nyctiphanes simplex, 11%). They have also been observed feeding on pelagic red crabs (Pleuroncodes planipes) off southern Baja California. In the Coral Sea, the South Pacific, and the Indian Ocean, they appear to mainly feed on euphausiids, while off Brazil, they have been observed feeding on sardines. Individuals caught off Western Australia were found with anchovies (E. australis) in their stomachs (though these individuals may refer to Omura's whale). Bryde's whales use several feeding methods, including skimming the surface, lunging, and bubble nets especially within Gulf of Tosa. Along southeastern coasts of Brazil, whales add twisting movements to lunge feeding. In the Pacific and northern Indian Ocean, Bryde's whales have been observed employing "tread-water feeding" or "trap feeding," a behaviour more commonly known from the northern Gulf of Thailand which is also performed by humpback whales in the northeastern Pacific. Reproduction and nurturing Bryde's whales breed in alternate years, apparently in any season, with an autumnal peak. Their gestation period is estimated at 12 months. Calves are about long at birth and weigh . They become sexually mature at 8–13 years of age, when females are . The mother nurses for 6–12 months. Distribution B. brydei B. brydei occurs in the Atlantic, Pacific, and Indian Oceans between the 40th parallels of latitude, preferring highly productive, tropical, subtropical, and warm, temperate waters of . In the North Pacific, they occur as far north as Honshu to the west and southern California in the east, with vagrants reported as far north as Washington in the United States. They occur throughout the eastern tropical Pacific, including Peru and Ecuador, where they are absent from July to September. They have also been reported in an upwelling area off Chile between 35° and 37°S. In the southwestern Pacific, they occur as far south as the North Island of New Zealand. Based on osteological features, a specimen from Taiwan was referred to B. brydei, while several specimens from the Philippines and Indonesia differed slightly in skull morphology and were referred to the putative Indo-Pacific Bryde's whale. Mitochondrial DNA analysis showed that Bryde's whales caught in the pelagic western North Pacific and Bonin Islands (resident population), as well as biopsy samples taken from whales off Hawaii, the west coast of Baja California, and the southern Gulf of California, belonged to B. brydei. Resident or semi-resident groups also exist off Hawaiian and Northwestern Hawaiian Islands, and Northern Mariana Islands. Bryde's whales do not occur within central to northern Sea of Japan on regular basis or at least in large numbers. One of the northernmost records in modern times was of a beached, 5-meter-long specimen at Nakhodka in 2011. B. brydei occurs throughout the Indian Ocean north of about 35°S. Those of the southern Indian Ocean appear to correspond to B. brydei, as do the individuals illegally caught by the Soviets in the 1960s in the northwest Indian Ocean, as well as the Maldives. Individuals sighted in the Red Sea may or may not be B. brydei. In the North Atlantic, they have been recorded as far north as Cape Hatteras. They occur throughout the wider Caribbean—two specimens from Aruba were found through mtDNA analysis to be firmly placed within B. brydei and to form a clade with a specimen from Madeira and individuals of the offshore form of South Africa. They were first recorded in the Azores in 2004 and showing mixed traits of offshore and inshore forms, but do not occur in the Mediterranean Sea (regarding the bones of a baleen whale found, Bryde's whale was listed as one of suggested species). They appear to occur off Brazil year-round, such as around Rio de Janeiro—Cape Frio, Armação dos Búzios, entrance to Guanabara Bay, Ilha Anchieta State Park, Ilha Grande, and so on. Individuals of the inshore form off South Africa are also resident year-round, occurring mainly between Cape Recife and Saldanha Bay, whereas the larger offshore form migrates to West African equatorial waters in the winter. Regular occurrences have been noted around Cape Verde as well. B. edeni The type specimen is from the Gulf of Martaban coast of Myanmar, while other referred specimens were found on the Bay of Bengal coast of Myanmar, Bangladesh, India, Thailand to Vietnam, Taiwan and continental China. A population found off southern and southwestern Japan in the East China Sea has also been referred to B. edeni. A whale stranded in Hong Kong and another saved from a river in eastern Australia were found to be closely related to the Junge specimen and the East China Sea whales. Bryde's whale (most had auxiliary ridges) of small size—estimated at in length—sighted off the northeastern side of the Solomon Islands during a survey in late November and early December 1993 may be referable to B. edeni. Four of the whales, estimated at in length, were accompanied by calves that ranged from in length. It is unknown whether eight small individuals—reaching only at maturity—caught off western and eastern Australia between 1958 and 1963 are specimens of B. edeni or B. omurai. Along Chinese coasts, for example, whales were once thought to be abundant along southern coasts from Fujian and Guangdong Provinces to Hainan Island and the north-eastern tip of the Gulf of Tonkin such as off Tieshangang District and around Weizhou and Xieyang Islands. Population The population may include up to 90,000–100,000 animals worldwide, with two-thirds inhabiting the Northern Hemisphere. For management purposes, the U.S. population is divided into three groups: the Eastern Tropical Pacific stock (11,000–13,000 animals) and the Hawaiian stock (350–500) and an endangered stock of about 100 whales in the Gulf of Mexico. As of 2016, the Bryde's whale is considered to be critically endangered in New Zealand as there are approximately 200 left in the wild. Prior to 2006, only two confirmed sightings of Bryde's whale had been reported in the eastern North Pacific north of Baja California—one in January 1963, only a kilometer off La Jolla (originally misidentified as a fin whale), and another in October 1991 west of Monterey Bay. Between August 2006 and September 2010, six sightings were made by scientists in the Southern California Bight. Five were west of San Clemente Island, and one between San Clemente Island and Santa Catalina Island. All but one involved single individuals. Another sighting was made off Dana Point, California, on 19 September 2009, which was originally misidentified as a fin whale. In general, data are insufficient to determine population trends. Conservation Balaenoptera edeni is listed as least concern by the International Union for the Conservation of Nature and Natural Resources. It is listed in Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora (CITES) Appendix I, which prohibits commercial international trade. Balaenoptera brydei has yet to be evaluated. Bryde's whale is listed on Appendix II of the Convention on the Conservation of Migratory Species of Wild Animals. It is listed on Appendix II as it has an unfavourable conservation status or would benefit significantly from international co-operation organised by tailored agreements. In addition, Bryde's whale is covered by the Memorandum of Understanding for the Conservation of Cetaceans and Their Habitats in the Pacific Islands Region (Pacific Cetaceans MOU). Whaling Historically, this species was not significantly targeted by commercial whalers, but became more important in the 1970s as the industry depleted other targets. Artisanal whalers have taken them off the coasts of Indonesia and the Philippines. Modern whaling for Bryde's whales is thought to have begun from coastal stations in Japan in 1906, where it continued uninterrupted until 1987—they were also caught offshore in the western North Pacific by both Japanese (1971–79) and Soviet (1966–79) fleets, as well as from Taiwan (1976–80), the Bonin Islands (1946–52 and 1981–87), and the Philippines (1983–85). In 1997, an estimated over 20,000 Bryde's whales had been caught in the western North Pacific between 1911 and 1987 (the Japanese were later found to have falsified their reported take from the Bonin Islands between 1981 and 1987, reporting a catch of only 2,659 instead of the true take of 4,162). A population assessment done in the mid-1990s stated that the population in the western North Pacific may have declined by as much as 49% during 1911–96. Norwegian factory ships off Baja California took an additional 34 Bryde's whales between 1924 and 1929; two were also caught off central California in 1966. An estimated 5,542 Bryde's whales were caught off Peru between 1968 and 1983, including a reported catch of 3,589 between 1973 and 1983. An unknown number were also caught off Chile from 1932 to 1979. Over 2,000 were caught off Cape Province, South Africa, from 1911 to 1967, most (1,300) during 1947–67. The majority of the 2,536 sei whales caught by the pirate whaler Sierra in the South Atlantic between 1969 and 1976 are believed to have been Bryde's whales. At least some Bryde's whales were among the 5,000 sei whales recorded in the catch off Brazil from 1948 to 1977, but possibly only 8%. Over 30,000 Bryde's whales were caught between 1911 and '87, including over 1,400 taken by the Soviets in the Southern Hemisphere from 1948 to 1973 (only 19 were reported). The peak reported catches were reached in 1973–74 and 1974–75, when over 1,800 were taken each year. Other threats and incidents Bryde's whales have not been reported as taken or injured in fishing operations. They are sometimes killed or injured by ship strikes. Anthropogenic noise is an increasing concern for all rorquals, which communicate by low-frequency sounds. These whales are protected off the US by the Marine Mammal Protection Act of 1972. In March 2019, a diver off the coast of South Africa was accidentally caught in the mouth of a feeding Bryde's whale. The diver and tour-operator, Rainer Schimpf, was photographing sharks circling a bait-ball of fish, when the whale suddenly appeared from below and opened its mouth near the surface in an attempt to swallow the fish. In doing so, it accidentally engulfed Schimpf as well; his entire upper body (down to his waist) went into the whale's mouth. The whale gripped him with its jaws for a few moments as Schimpf held his breath and feared the whale would deep dive. Soon after the whale submerged again, it quickly spat Schimpf (who was unharmed) back out and swam away. Tourists on jet skis have harassed whales off the gulf coast of Phetchaburi Province, Thailand. See also List of cetaceans Marine biology References Bibliography Baker A.N.; Madon B. (2007). Bryde's whales (Balaenoptera cf. brydei Olsen 1913) in the Hauraki Gulf and Northeastern New Zealand waters. Science for Conservation 272. p. 23. Department of Conservation, New Zealand. Bryse's whales (Balaenoptera cf. brydei Olsen 1913) in the Hauraki Gulf and northeastern New Zealand waters. (PDF) . Retrieved on 2011-09-15. National Audubon Society Guide to Marine Mammals of the World, Reeves, Stewart, Clapham and Powell, 2002, . Whales & Dolphins Guide to the Biology and Behaviour of Cetaceans, Maurizio Wurtz and Nadia Repetto. . Encyclopedia of Marine Mammals, editors Perrin, Wursig and Thewissen, . Whales, Dolphins and Porpoises, Carwardine (1995, reprinted 2000), . Named after a Norwegian diplomat, The Star, 16 December 2006. External links Voices in the Sea – Sounds of the Bryde's Whale Bryde's Whale – American Cetacean Society Drone footage of Bryde's whales feeding Baleen whales Cetaceans of the Indian Ocean Cetaceans of the Atlantic Ocean Cetaceans of the Pacific Ocean Mammals described in 1913 Animal species groups	[ -0.19450056552886963, 0.3525412678718567, 0.09039010107517242, -0.2302859127521515, -0.3752891719341278, 0.6371695399284363, 0.20670269429683685, 0.03052639402449131, -0.4774864912033081, 0.05515952780842781, 0.12171871215105057, 0.06281588971614838, 0.2588893175125122, 0.8392695188522339, 0.31550490856170654, 0.7869414687156677, -0.0006722229882143438, 0.4296695291996002, 0.1139291450381279, -0.6721355319023132, -0.017053941264748573, -1.040220856666565, 0.30492931604385376, -0.4589410722255707, 0.08875049650669098, 0.3743801414966583, 0.41894590854644775, 0.5799140334129333, -0.002996882190927863, 0.18712247908115387, 0.02814588136970997, 0.9634910821914673, -0.29187020659446716, 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230518	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pastoral%20council	Pastoral council	A pastoral council is a consultative body in dioceses and parishes of the Roman Catholic Church that serves to advise the parish priest or bishop about pastoral issues. The council's main purpose is to investigate, reflect and reach conclusions about pastoral matters to recommend to the parish priest or bishop as appropriate. Number A 2003 survey by the U.S. Conference of Catholic Bishops found half of U.S. dioceses and three-quarters of U.S. parishes had councils. Council guidelines have different recommendations about the size of the council. The average is 15 members. Scope Bishops and priests may consult their councils about practical matters. On the diocesan level, this may include "missionary, catechetical and apostolic undertakings within the diocese, concerning the promotion of doctrinal formation and the sacramental life of the faithful; concerning pastoral activities to help the priests in the various social and territorial areas of the diocese; concerning public opinion on matters pertaining to the Church as it is more likely to be fostered in the present time; etc." ("Circular Letter on 'Pastoral Councils,'" (Omnes Christifideles) published in 1973 by the Sacred Congregation for the Clergy, no 9). Vatican II origins The concept of the pastoral council was first articulated in the 1965 Vatican II Decree on Bishops (Christus Dominus, par. 27). The decree recommended that bishops establish diocesan pastoral councils with a threefold purpose. The purpose is to investigate pastoral matters, to ponder or reflect over them, and to reach conclusions that the council can recommend to the bishop. Six other official documents of the Church define the diocesan pastoral council in this threefold way: Paul VI, "Ecclesiae Sanctae I" (1966) no. 16; the 1971 Synod of Bishops' "The Ministerial Priesthood," art. 2, II, section 3; the 1973 "Directory on the Pastoral Ministry of Bishops," no. 204; the 1973 "Circular Letter on 'Pastoral Councils'" by the Sacred Congregation for the Clergy, no 9; the 2002 "Instruction" by the Congregation for the Clergy, "The Priest, Pastoral and Leader" (par 26); and the 2004 "Directory" by the Congregation for Bishops, "Apostolorum successores" (par. 184). In a 1988 address to the bishops of Chile, Cardinal Joseph Ratzinger spoke of Vatican II as a "pastoral council" with a modest intent, and not as a "rupture with tradition" as described by Marcel Lefebvre. Canon law Canon 511 of the 1983 Code of Canon Law speaks about diocesan pastoral councils: "In each diocese, to the extent that pastoral circumstances recommend it, a pastoral council is to be established whose responsibility it is to investigate under the authority of the bishop all those things which pertain to pastoral works, to ponder them and to propose practical conclusions about them." This reflects the threefold purpose of the pastoral council as first described in the Vatican II Decree on Bishops at paragraph 27. Canon 536 of the 1983 Code legislates about parish pastoral councils. It states that "§1. If the diocesan bishop judges it opportune after he has heard the presbyteral council, a pastoral council is to be established in each parish, over which the pastor presides and in which the Christian faithful, together with those who share in pastoral care by virtue of their office in the parish, assist in fostering pastoral activity. §2. A pastoral council possesses a consultative vote only and is governed by the norms established by the diocesan bishop." Consequently, the establishment of parish pastoral councils depends upon the judgment of the diocesan bishop, after having consulted his presbyteral council. If he judges it appropriate, a pastoral council is established in each parish of his diocese. More recent documents The purpose of the parish pastoral council, as described in Canon 536, is the "fostering" of "pastoral activity" in the parish. Because the pastor is the proper shepherd of the parish, it follows that his pastoral council possesses a consultative vote only. In fact, the 1997 Instruction on Certain Questions Regarding the Collaboration of the Non-Ordained Faithful in the Sacred Ministry of Priest states that, "It is for the Parish Priest to preside at parochial councils. They are to be considered invalid, and hence null and void, any deliberations entered into, (or decisions taken), by a parochial council which has not been presided over by the Parish Priest or which has assembled contrary to his wishes" (Article 5, § 3). According to The Priest, Pastor and Leader of the Parish Community, the 2002 Instruction of the Sacred Congregation for the Clergy, "The basic task of such a council is to serve, at institutional level, the orderly collaboration of the faithful in the development of pastoral activity which is proper to priests. The pastoral council is thus a consultative organ in which the faithful, expressing their baptismal responsibility, can assist the parish priest, who presides at the council, by offering their advice on pastoral matters. The lay faithful ought to be ever more convinced of the special meaning that their commitment to the apostolate takes on in their parish; hence it is necessary to have a more convinced, extensive and decided appreciation for 'Parish Pastoral Councils'. There are clear reasons for such: In the present circumstances the lay faithful have the ability to do very much and, therefore, ought to do very much towards the growth of an authentic ecclesial communion in their parishes in order to reawaken missionary zeal towards nonbelievers and believers themselves who have abandoned the faith or grown lax in the Christian life". "All of the faithful have the right, sometimes even the duty, to make their opinions known on matters concerning the good of the Church. This can happen through institutions which have been established to facilitate that purpose: [...]the pastoral council can be a most useful aid...providing proposals and suggestions on missionary, catechetical and apostolic initiatives [..] as well as on the promotion of doctrinal formation and the sacramental life of the faithful; on the assistance to be given to the pastoral work of priests in various social and territorial situations; on how better to influence public opinion etc. The pastoral council is to be seen in relation to the context of the relationship of mutual service that exists between a parish priest and his faithful. It would therefore be senseless to consider the pastoral council as an organ replacing the parish priest in his government of the parish, or as one which, on the basis of a majority vote, materially constrains the parish priest in his direction of the parish." United States In American Roman Catholic parishes, the parish council arose after Vatican II in the new era of lay participation in parish decision making. It was a response to the Vatican II Decree on the Apostolate of Lay People (Apostolicam actuositatem, par. 26). This decree, published in 1965, recommended the establishment of councils at all levels of the Catholic Church (including the parish) with one purpose, namely, to assist in the Church's "apostolate" or mission. The decree also said that such apostolic councils "may coordinate" lay initiatives, so long as they do not interfere with the autonomy of such initiatives. Many Catholics throughout the world interpreted the decree as calling for parish councils that would coordinate parish committees or commissions. This was the genesis of the "parish council". Development into pastoral councils In 1983, the revised Code of Canon Law was published. It did not refer to par. 26 of the Decree on the Laity, nor did it speak of "apostolic" councils or "parish councils" per se. Instead, in canon 536, it recommended (but did not mandate) "pastoral" councils at the parish level [see the article on "pastoral" councils]. The idea of the "pastoral" council had its genesis in the 1965 Vatican II Decree on Bishops (Christus Dominus, par. 27). This decree recommended "pastoral" councils at the diocesan level (but not at the parish level). Canon 536 applied the "pastoral" council idea to parishes. The "pastoral" council (according to the decree) has a threefold purpose. It (1) investigates pastoral matters, (2) ponders or reflects on them, and (3) reaches conclusions, conclusions that are recommended to the pastor. When the new Code was promulgated, it clarified the identity of what had hitherto been called the "parish" councils. These councils were now "parish pastoral" councils with a "consultative only" vote. Threefold purpose Canon 536 (which recommends parish pastoral councils) defines the purpose of councils in an extremely brief way. It says that they "give their help in fostering parish activity." Canon 536 does not mention the threefold task of the pastoral council – the task of investigating, reflecting, and reaching conclusions – but canon 511 does (in a reference to diocesan pastoral councils). Four other Vatican documents define the "pastoral" councils in terms of this threefold task (Paul VI, "Ecclesiae Sanctae I," no. 16; the 1971 Synod of Bishops' "The Ministerial Priesthood," art 2, II, section 3; the 1973 "Directory on the Pastoral Ministry of Bishops," no. 204; and the 1973 "Circular Letter on 'Pastoral Councils'" by the Sacred Congregation for the Clergy, no 9). Those who read canon 536 without referring to these other Vatican documents that speak of the "pastoral" council may not realize that investigating, pondering, and reaching conclusions is precisely what defines the pastoral council. Confusion with "pastoral" councils Parish councils are sometimes mistakenly distinguished from parish pastoral councils, as if the two were separate parish entities. The first parish councils were, properly speaking, "apostolate" councils of the type recommended in the Decree on Laity, par. 26. When the Code of Canon Law was revised, it did not refer to apostolate councils, but called for pastoral councils. Those who do not know about the development of the "pastoral" council idea in the Vatican documents of 1971, 1973, and 1984 may mistakenly believe that the "parish" councils that emerged immediately after Vatican II are separate from pastoral councils. They may wrongly suppose that "parish" councils are bureaucratically structured decision making bodies, independent of the pastor, that oversee such parish matters as the annual plan, schedule and budget, capital improvements, and the like. But councils do not make decisions independently of the pastor and have a consultative vote only. References Mark F. Fischer, Pastoral Councils in Today's Catholic Parish (Mystic, CT: Twenty-Third Publications - Bayard, 2001), . External links Parish Pastoral Councils, edited by Mark F. 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230519	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Terez%C3%ADn	Terezín	Terezín (; ) is a town in Litoměřice District in the Ústí nad Labem Region of the Czech Republic. It has about 2,900 inhabitants. It is a former military fortress composed of the citadel and adjacent walled garrison town. The town centre is well preserved and is protected by law as an urban monument reservation. Terezin is most infamously the location of the Nazi’s notorious Theresienstadt Ghetto. Administrative parts Villages of České Kopisty, Nové Kopisty and Počaply are administrative parts of Terezín. Geography Terezín is located in North Bohemia, along the Ohře River, near its confluence with the Elbe at Litoměřice. History On 10 January 1780, the Habsburg emperor Joseph II ordered the erection of the fortress, named Theresienstadt after his mother Empress Maria Theresa. In the times of Austria–Prussia rivalry, it was meant to secure the bridges across the Ohře and Elbe rivers against Prussian troops invading the Bohemian lands from neighbouring Saxony. Simultaneously, Josefov Fortress (Josephstadt) was erected near Jaroměř as a protection against Prussian attacks. Construction of Theresienstadt started at the westernmost cavalier on 10 October 1780 and lasted ten years. The fortress consisted of a citadel, the "Small Fortress" (Kleine Festung), to the east of the Ohře, and a walled town, the "Main Fortress" (Große Festung), to the west. The total area of the fortress was . In peacetime it held 5,655 soldiers, and in wartime around 11,000 soldiers could be placed here. Trenches and low-lying areas around the fortress could be flooded for defensive purposes. Garrison church in the Main Fortress was designed by Heinrich Hatzinger, Julius D’Andreis and Franz Joseph Fohmann. The fortress was never under direct siege. During the Austro-Prussian War, on 28 July 1866, part of the garrison attacked and destroyed an important railway bridge near Neratovice (rail line Turnov – Kralupy nad Vltavou) that was shortly before repaired by the Prussians. This attack occurred two days after Austria and Prussia had agreed to make peace, but the Theresienstadt garrison was ignorant of the news. During the second half of the 19th century, the fortress was also used as a prison. During World War I, the fortress was used as a political prison camp. Many thousand supporters of Russia (Ukrainian Russophiles from Galicia and Bukovina) were placed by Austro-Hungarian authorities in the fortress. Gavrilo Princip, who assassinated Franz Ferdinand, Archduke of Austria and his wife, died there of tuberculosis in 1918. With the collapse of the Austro-Hungarian Empire in 1918, the town became part of the newly formed state of Czechoslovakia. It was located in an area with a high proportion of ethnic Germans in the population, known as the Sudetenland. Nazi Germany used this population of ethnic Germans as a rationale for expansion of the borders of the Fatherland. In 1938, it annexed the Sudetenland. It then followed in 1939 by occupying the rest of Bohemia, and the Moravia part of Czechoslovakia. World War II After the Munich Agreement in September 1938 and following the occupation of the Czech lands in March 1939, with the existing prisons gradually filled up as a result of the Nazi terror, the Prague Gestapo Police prison was set up in the Small Fortress (see History) in 1940. The first inmates arrived on 14 June 1940. By the end of the war 32,000 prisoners of whom 5,000 were women passed through the Small Fortress. These were primarily Czechs, later other nationals, for instance citizens of the former Soviet Union, Poles, Germans, and Yugoslavs. Most of the prisoners were arrested for various acts of resistance to the Nazi regime; among them were the family members and supporters of the assassins of Reinhard Heydrich. Many prisoners were later sent to concentration camps such as Mauthausen. The Jewish Ghetto was created in 1941. By 1940, Germany assigned the Gestapo to adapt Terezín, better known by the German name Theresienstadt, as a ghetto and concentration camp. Considerable work was done in the next two years to adapt the complex for the dense overcrowding that inmates would be subjected to. It held primarily Jews from Czechoslovakia, as well as tens of thousands of Jews deported chiefly from Germany and Austria, as well as hundreds from the Netherlands and Denmark. More than 150,000 Jews were sent there, including 15,000 children. Although it was not an extermination camp, about 33,000 died in the ghetto. This was mostly due to the appalling conditions arising out of extreme population density, malnutrition and disease. About 88,000 inhabitants were deported to Auschwitz and the other extermination camps. As late as the end of 1944, the Germans were still deporting Jews to the death camps. At the end of the war, there were 17,247 survivors of Theresienstadt (including some who had survived the death camps). Part of the fortification (Small Fortress) served as the largest Gestapo prison in the Protectorate of Bohemia and Moravia. It was on the other side of the river from the ghetto and operated separately. Around 90,000 people went through it, and 2,600 died there. The complex was taken over for operation by the International Red Cross on 2 May 1945, with the Commandant and SS guards fleeing within the next two days. Some were later captured. The camp and prison were liberated on 9 May 1945 by the Soviet Army. After World War II After the German surrender the small fortress was used as an internment camp for ethnic Germans. The first prisoners arrived on 10 May 1945. On 29 February 1948 the last German prisoners were released and the camp was officially closed. Among the interned Germans were former Nazis like Heinrich Jöckel, the former commander of Terezín and other SS members. A great group of internees was arrested because of their German nationality, among them young boys and elderly people. In the first phase of the camp lasting until July 1945 mortality was high due to diseases, malnutrition and incidents of simple outright murder. Commander of the camp in that period was Stanislav Franc. He was guided by a spirit of revenge and tolerated whimsical mistreatment of the prisoners by the guards. In July 1945 the camp shifted under the control of the Czech Ministry for Domestic Affairs. The new commander appointed was Otakar Kálal. From then on the inmates were gradually transferred to Germany and Terezín was increasingly used as a hub for the forced migration of Germans from the Czech lands into Germany proper. Modern history After the related war uses, the government retained a military garrison until 1996. In 2002 the town was struck by floods during which the crematorium was damaged. According to the Fund, a long-term conservation plan was conceived, which includes further repairs, documentation, and archaeological research. In mid-April 2008, 327 bronze grave markers were stolen from the Jewish cemetery; another 700 were stolen the following week. The high price of metal encouraged the vandalizing thieves. Some grave markers were recovered. Economy The troops' departure and closing down of related operations had a negative effect on the local economy of the town. Terezín is still trying to develop a more diverse economy; its history can attract heritage tourism. Terezín is noted for its production of furniture and knitwear, as well as for manufacturing. Sights Terezín Fortress is one of the most visited memorial sites in Central Europe. In 2002, the fortress, which was in a deteriorated condition, was listed in the 2002 World Monuments Watch by the World Monuments Fund. The organization called for a comprehensive conservation plan, while providing funding for emergency repairs from American Express. A conservation plan was eventually developed in cooperation with national authorities. The town provides many museums, most of them reflect its history. Terezín Memorial include: Small Fortress; Ghetto Museum; National Cemetery; Memorial on the bank of the Ohře River; Park of the Terezín Children; Former Magdeburg Barracks; Jewish Prayer Room; Railway siding; Columbarium; Ceremonial Halls and the Central Morgue of the Ghetto; Jewish Cemetery and the Crematorium; Cemetery of Soviet soldiers. Other museums include: Museum of Franz Joseph I of Austria; Cavalier 2 with an exhibition of lives of soldiers in the 18th century; Museum of Nostalgy with an exhibition of things from the socialist era of the country; La Grace Museum in the Cavalier 2 complex; Geocaching Museum in the Cavalier 2 complex; Sappeur Corps Museum; Museum of road bicycle racing. Notable people Alexander Ypsilantis (1792–1828), leader of the Greek revolution of 1821 Pauline Metzler-Löwy (1853–1921), Austrian contralto singer Gavrilo Princip (1894–1918), the assassin of Franz Ferdinand, died here in imprisonment Zuzana Růžičková (1927–2017), harpsichordist Twin towns – sister cities Terezín is twinned with: Dębno, Poland Komárno, Slovakia Strausberg, Germany Representation in other media Waiting for Leah (1992), a novel by Arnošt Lustig set in the fortress in 1944 describing the last few days before the deportation to the east of the 17-year-old narrator, as the Germans are in a hurry to complete their final solution. The author was sent by the Nazis to Terezín in 1942, then to Auschwitz and Buchenwald, which he survived. I Never Saw Another Butterfly (1994), a collection of works of art and poetry by Jewish children who lived in the concentration camp Theresienstadt. This book is named after a 1942 poem by Pavel Friedmann (born 1921) who was incarcerated at Theresienstadt and was later killed at Auschwitz. Where known, the fate of each young author is listed. In Austerlitz (2001) by W. G. Sebald the eponymous character's mother is deported to the ghetto in Terezín, before being later sent east, where she perished at another camp. And A Child Shall Lead (2005), a play by American writer Michael Slade, takes place in Terezín concentration camp during World War II, specifically 1942–1945. The play revolves around eight Jewish children, from ages six to fifteen, who create a secret newspaper to tell the world what is happening behind the camp's walls. In The Lost Wife (2011), a novel by Alyson Richman, one of the main characters, Lenka, is transported to Terezín concentration camp during World War II. Czech novelist Ivan Klíma describes his childhood time in the Terezín ghetto in his autobiography, My Crazy Century (2013). Born Survivors (2015), a novel by Wendy Holden tells of three young mothers and their extraordinary story of courage, defiance and hope. Gallery References External links (in Czech) Official tourist portal (in English) Fortress Details A Visit to Terezín, an article from Think Prague Magazine with pictures Fortress details (in Czech) Terezín Memorial Cities and towns in the Czech Republic Forts in the Czech Republic Populated places in Litoměřice District World War II sites in the Czech Republic Populated places established in the 1780s	[ -0.2150968611240387, 0.45439890027046204, 0.48629578948020935, -0.10794509202241898, 0.013826186768710613, 1.020325779914856, 0.6641455292701721, 0.08730325847864151, -0.09897401183843613, -0.16663037240505219, 0.3878549337387085, -0.3580693304538727, -0.16305707395076752, 0.5452101230621338, -0.4307277798652649, 0.6758577823638916, 0.4348582327365875, -0.1390051245689392, 0.6050330400466919, -0.32900071144104004, 0.5718097686767578, -0.17425377666950226, 0.19841128587722778, 0.3909623920917511, -0.40614545345306396, 0.15094396471977234, -0.5325626730918884, 0.442518949508667, 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230526	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ahrem	Ahrem	Ahrem was a village in Germany near Cologne. Ahrem is now part of the town Erftstadt. Geographical location , population 1,103 (2003). The first written documentation about Ahrem was in 1256, when the archbishop of Cologne mentions Ainhem. However the name of the village points to roots in the time of the Franks; it means "village of Arn (or Arno)". This dating is supported by a cemetery which was dated to the 6th century. Ahrem belonged to the clerical state of Cologne, in the Amt Lechenich. Originally it was a few separated farm buildings, but during the centuries grew a core settlement around the main street and the small brook Lechenicher Mühlengraben. The village remained small - in 1801 it had just 215 citizens. During the communal reform of 1968 the village was incorporated into the new city of Erftstadt. 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230527	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Seismic%20hazard	Seismic hazard	A seismic hazard is the probability that an earthquake will occur in a given geographic area, within a given window of time, and with ground motion intensity exceeding a given threshold. With a hazard thus estimated, risk can be assessed and included in such areas as building codes for standard buildings, designing larger buildings and infrastructure projects, land use planning and determining insurance rates. The seismic hazard studies also may generate two standard measures of anticipated ground motion, both confusingly abbreviated MCE; the simpler probabilistic Maximum Considered Earthquake (or Event ), used in standard building codes, and the more detailed and deterministic Maximum Credible Earthquake incorporated in the design of larger buildings and civil infrastructure like dams or bridges. It is important to clarify which MCE is being discussed. Calculations for determining seismic hazard were first formulated by C. Allin Cornell in 1968 and, depending on their level of importance and use, can be quite complex. The regional geology and seismology setting is first examined for sources and patterns of earthquake occurrence, both in depth and at the surface from seismometer records; secondly, the impacts from these sources are assessed relative to local geologic rock and soil types, slope angle and groundwater conditions. Zones of similar potential earthquake shaking are thus determined and drawn on maps. The well known San Andreas Fault is illustrated as a long narrow elliptical zone of greater potential motion, like many areas along continental margins associated with the Pacific ring of fire. Zones of higher seismicity in the continental interior may be the site for intraplate earthquakes) and tend to be drawn as broad areas, based on historic records, like the 1812 New Madrid earthquake, since specific causative faults are generally not identified as earthquake sources. Each zone is given properties associated with source potential: how many earthquakes per year, the maximum size of earthquakes (maximum magnitude), etc. Finally, the calculations require formulae that give the required hazard indicators for a given earthquake size and distance. For example, some districts prefer to use peak acceleration, others use peak velocity, and more sophisticated uses require response spectral ordinates. The computer program then integrates over all the zones and produces probability curves for the key ground motion parameter. The final result gives a 'chance' of exceeding a given value over a specified amount of time. Standard building codes for homeowners might be concerned with a 1 in 500 years chance, while nuclear plants look at the 10,000 year time frame. A longer-term seismic history can be obtained through paleoseismology. The results may be in the form of a ground response spectrum for use in seismic analysis. More elaborate variations on the theme also look at the soil conditions. Higher ground motions are likely to be experienced on a soft swamp compared to a hard rock site. The standard seismic hazard calculations become adjusted upwards when postulating characteristic earthquakes. Areas with high ground motion due to soil conditions are also often subject to soil failure due to liquefaction. Soil failure can also occur due to earthquake-induced landslides in steep terrain. Large area landsliding can also occur on rather gentle slopes as was seen in the Good Friday earthquake in Anchorage, Alaska, March 28, 1964. MCEs In a normal seismic hazard analyses intended for the public, that of a "maximum considered earthquake", or "maximum considered event" (MCE) for a specific area, is an earthquake that is expected to occur once in approximately 2,500 years; that is, it has a 2-percent probability of being exceeded in 50 years. The term is used specifically for general building codes, which people commonly occupy; building codes in many localities will require non-essential buildings to be designed for "collapse prevention" in an MCE, so that the building remains standing - allowing for safety and escape of occupants - rather than full structural survival of the building. A far more detailed and stringent MCE stands for "maximum credible earthquake", which is used in designing for skyscrapers and larger civil infrastructure, like dams, where structural failure could lead to other catastrophic consequences. These MCEs might require determining more than one specific earthquake event, depending on the variety of structures included. US seismic hazard maps Some maps released by the USGS are shown with peak ground acceleration with a 10% probability of exceedance in 50 years, measured in Metre per second squared. For parts of the US, the National Seismic Hazard Mapping Project in 2008 resulted in seismic hazard maps showing peak acceleration (as a percentage of gravity) with a 2% probability of exceedance in 50 years. Temblor, a company founded in 2014, offers a seismic hazard rank for the all of the conterminous US. This service is free and ad-free for the public. The hazard rank "is made for the likelihood of experiencing strong shaking (0.4g peak ground acceleration) in 30 years, based on the 2014 USGS NSHMP hazard model." See also C. Allin Cornell Earthquake engineering Mitigation of seismic motion Neotectonics Seismic loading Seismic performance Vibration control References External links Global Seismic Hazard Assessment Program Infrastructure Risk Research Project at The University of British Columbia, Vancouver, Canada Diagnose the impact of global earthquakes from direct and indirect eyewitnesses contributions Earthquake and seismic risk mitigation	[ 0.1175685003399849, 0.14429906010627747, -0.34978294372558594, 0.26634952425956726, -0.2484515905380249, -0.18721328675746918, 0.792128324508667, 0.050059955567121506, -0.17210076749324799, -0.4852229952812195, -0.46181797981262207, 0.46886178851127625, -0.14422084391117096, 0.2241869866847992, 0.11535430699586868, 0.44625428318977356, 0.4150652289390564, 0.08953811973333359, -0.1127825528383255, -0.00606902502477169, -0.23163346946239471, -0.29994285106658936, 0.15048684179782867, -0.3992834687232971, 0.2875041663646698, -0.24509206414222717, 0.11321783065795898, 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230528	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Erft	Erft	The Erft () is a river in North Rhine-Westphalia, Germany. It flows through the foothills of the Eifel, and joins the Lower Rhine (left tributary). Its origin is near Nettersheim, and its mouth in Neuss-Grimlinghausen south of the Josef Cardinal Frings Bridge. The river is long, which is significantly shorter than it was originally. Due to the open-pit mining of lignite in the Hambacher Loch, the flow of the river had to be changed. The Erft gave its name to the town of Erftstadt, through which it flows, as well as to the Rhein-Erft district. It also flows through the towns of Bad Münstereifel, Euskirchen, Bergheim, Bedburg and Grevenbroich. 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230530	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Seismic%20risk	Seismic risk	Seismic risk refers to the risk of damage from earthquake to a building, system, or other entity. Seismic risk has been defined, for most management purposes, as the potential economic, social and environmental consequences of hazardous events that may occur in a specified period of time. A building located in a region of high seismic hazard is at lower risk if it is built to sound seismic engineering principles. On the other hand, a building located in a region with a history of minor seismicity, in a brick building located on fill subject to liquefaction can be as high or higher risk. A special subset is urban seismic risk which looks at the specific issues of cities. Risk determination and emergency response can also be determined through the use of an Earthquake scenario. Determination of seismic risk The determination of seismic risk is the foundation for risk mitigation decision-making, a key step in risk management. Large corporations and other enterprises (e.g., local governments) analyze their 'portfolio' of properties, to determine how to best allocate limited funds for structural strengthening of buildings, or other risk reduction measures such as emergency planning. In calculating the risk of each facility in the 'portfolio', potential life safety and economic losses due not only to structural damage, but also to equipment, contents and business interruption are considered. Public agencies (local, state governments and federal agencies) similarly analyze their portfolios. The interconnections of infrastructures such as water, road and highway, and electric power systems are also considered. Insurance companies routinely employ estimates of seismic risk in their operations to determine appropriate insurance rates, monitor over-accumulation of policies in a small area, and purchase reinsurance. A simplified method of calculating seismic risk for a given city, involves the use of a street survey. If you know the level of seismic hazard, the damage generally follows established patterns. Seismic risk is often determined using a seismic modeling computer programs which uses the seismic hazard inputs and combines them with the known susceptibilities of structures and facilities, such as buildings, bridges, electrical power switching stations, etc. The result gives probabilities for economic damage or casualties, for example the HAZUS computer program. While the results can be used as a general measure of seismic risk for types of buildings, the actual seismic risk for any individual building may vary considerably and will depend upon its exact configuration and condition. Acquiring and analyzing the specific data for an individual building or facility is one of the most expensive and daunting aspects of seismic risk estimation. Progress is made if one can calculate the 'fragility' or seismic capacity of the components within a structure. In 1999, ASTM produced guidelines for reporting seismic loss estimates on commercial properties, commonly known as Probable Maximum Loss or PML reviews. These guidelines specify the scope of work, qualifications of the reviewer, and proper nomenclature for reporting loss estimates. Reduction of seismic risk Seismic risk can be reduced by active programs that improve emergency response, and improve basic infrastructure. The concepts of earthquake preparedness can help plan for emergencies arising from an earthquake. Building codes are intended to help to manage seismic risk and are updated as more is learned about the effects of seismic ground motion on buildings. This type of active improvement of mitigation of damage from earthquakes is known as seismic retrofit. However, the changes generally do not immediately improve seismic risk in a community since existing buildings are rarely required to be upgraded to meet the revisions. See also Probabilistic risk assessment Probable Maximum Loss Seismic hazard Notes External links C. Allin Cornell HAZUS - Seismic Risk Program for the US An All HAZUS Web Space HAZUS Community website Infrastructure Risk Research Project at The University of British Columbia, Vancouver, Canada OIKOS - Educational European project based on Google Maps Mashups EMSC : Seismic real-time information Diagnose the impact of global earthquakes from direct and indirect eyewitnesses contributions Earthquake and seismic risk mitigation	[ 0.2783983647823334, 0.641494631767273, -0.5272447466850281, -0.009141657501459122, -0.18303918838500977, -0.2665548026561737, 0.6802534461021423, 0.21299034357070923, -0.3749975264072418, -0.3542693555355072, -0.4579658508300781, 0.6785715818405151, -0.2193608283996582, 0.39038535952568054, -0.20613126456737518, 0.08036160469055176, 0.3937493562698364, 0.5717591047286987, -0.10517121106386185, 0.12123435735702515, -0.4628158211708069, -0.4929811954498291, 0.05549439787864685, -0.29357728362083435, -0.11330866068601608, -0.2477240413427353, 0.09183335304260254, 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230531	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Erftstadt	Erftstadt	Erftstadt () is a town located about 20 km south-west of Cologne in the Rhein-Erft-Kreis, state of North Rhine-Westphalia, Germany. The name of the town derives from the river that flows through it, the Erft. The neighbouring towns are Brühl, Kerpen, Zülpich and Weilerswist. A landslide during the 2021 European floods led to the collapse of several houses. Education In Erftstadt are four further schools: two gymnasiums and two Realschulen. The largest gymnasium is the Ville-Gymnasium-Erftstadt, also known as VGE. Twin towns – sister cities Erftstadt is twinned with: Wokingham, England, United Kingdom (1977) Viry-Châtillon, France (1980) Jelenia Góra, Poland (1995) Wards of Erftstadt The town of Erftstadt consists of the following 14 Stadtbezirke: Ahrem Blessem/Frauenthal Bliesheim Borr Dirmerzheim Erp Friesheim Gymnich Herrig Kierdorf Köttingen Lechenich Liblar Niederberg Most of the town administration is in Liblar, the most populous Stadtbezirk. The second-most populous Stadtbezirk is Lechenich. Notable people Carl Schurz (1829–1906), politician and first German-born cabinet secretary (Secretary of the Interior 1877–1881) in the US Jean Bungartz (1854–1934), animal artist, specialist author, photographer, breeder, lived from 1886 to 1913 in Lechenich Josef Kentenich (1885–1968), founder of the Schoenstatt Apostolic Movement Bernd Alois Zimmermann (1918–1970), composer, born in Bliesheim Hennes Weisweiler (1919–1983), football coach, born in Lechenich Manfred Donike (1933–1995), cyclist, chemist and well-known doping investigator Manfred Donike (1960–2003), cyclist and functionary References External links Liblar and Carl Schurz Rhein-Erft-Kreis Rhine Province	[ 0.014543428085744381, 0.4450784921646118, 0.9299638867378235, -0.697356104850769, 0.2310142070055008, 0.510398805141449, 0.4742877185344696, 0.05360458046197891, 0.3227885365486145, -0.5535457134246826, 0.07407613843679428, 0.07989446073770523, 0.1685793101787567, 0.33170416951179504, -0.11581473797559738, 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230536	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Good%20Burger	Good Burger	Good Burger is a 1997 American comedy film directed by Brian Robbins and written by Dan Schneider, Kevin Kopelow, and Heath Seifert. Starring Kel Mitchell and Kenan Thompson, it is based on the comedy sketch of the same name on the Nickelodeon series All That and was produced by Nickelodeon Movies and Tollin/Robbins Productions. After being filmed from March to April 1997, it was released worldwide on July 25, 1997, by Paramount Pictures. The film grossed $23.7 million against a budget of $8.5 million. Plot The films opens with a clueless teenaged cashier named Ed who has a nightmare about talking burgers who he flew with before he falls into a bottomless pit, waking him up late for work at Good Burger. Meanwhile, on the first day of summer vacation, 16-year-old slacker high school student Dexter Reed takes his mother's car on a joyride while she is away on a business trip, but is involved in a car accident with his teacher, Mr. Wheat. With no driver's license or car insurance, Dexter is in danger of going to jail, but Mr. Wheat agrees to let him pay for the damage in exchange for not calling the police on him. With the damage estimated at $1,900, Dexter decides to take a summer job. After being fired from the new and soon-to-open Mondo Burger restaurant for clashing with the owner and manager, Kurt Bozwell, he ends up working for Good Burger. There, he meets and reluctantly befriends Ed alongside its other employees. Initially, neither of them are aware that Ed inadvertently caused Dexter's car accident; Ed had rollerbladed in front of Dexter on his way to make a delivery (due to the firing of one former delivery employee who forgot to wear pants to work), causing him to swerve and crash into Mr. Wheat's car. As they continue working together, Dexter realizes that Ed was the one who caused his accident, but eventually reconcile with him on a lunch break. The survival of the smaller Good Burger is threatened by the grand opening of Mondo Burger, with its newly built burger chain and oversized burgers. However, Good Burger is saved by a new secret delicious sauce created by Ed. Dexter takes advantage of Ed's gullibility to extort money from him so that he can pay off his debt sooner. Ed promptly signs a contract that gives Dexter 80% of the bonus he receives for his sauce. Dexter then tells Ed not to tell the sauce recipe to anyone to save Good Burger. Ed's sauce vastly increases Good Burger's sales but draws the attention of Kurt, who wants it for Mondo Burger. After failing to lure Ed there at a higher wage, Kurt sends an employee named Roxanne to seduce him into revealing the sauce recipe. As a result, she is repeatedly injured by his clumsiness and ultimately quits her job. When a dog refuses to eat a discarded Mondo Burger in favor of a discarded Good Burger, Ed and Dexter become suspicious and decide to investigate. They infiltrate Mondo Burger's kitchen and discover that their burgers are artificially enhanced with Triampathol, an illegal food chemical. Kurt discovers them, ignores them about when the customers are going to find out about the burgers being made with the chemical, and calls an acquaintance named Wade, who has them committed to an asylum called Demented Hills so that they cannot tell anybody else about this. Afterward, Kurt and his henchmen break into Good Burger, find Ed's secret sauce, but instead of stealing it, they begin tainting it with a synthetic toxin called shark poison. Otis, an elderly employee who was sleeping on the premises, catches them red-handed. Otis tries to call the police on Kurt and his henchmen, but not wanting prison to ruin Kurt's burger joint empire, he forbids Otis to and commit him to Demented Hills as well. After he informs Ed and Dexter about Kurt's scheme, they escape from Demented Hills and hijack an ice cream truck to head back to Good Burger, arriving just in time to prevent anyone from eating the poisoned sauce for which Ed had to tackle an old lady from eating her Good Burger that had extra poisoned sauce in it. Ed and Dexter then break into Mondo Burger to expose their chemically-altered burgers to the police. While Dexter creates a distraction, Ed tries to take a can of Triampathol but clumsily knocks another one into the meat grinder. Inspired, he pours another into the grinder. As Kurt corners Dexter on the roof, Ed suddenly arrives with an empty can. Kurt mocks Ed's actions, whereupon he snidely comments to Dexter that it was not empty when he found it. Mondo Burger then begins to collapse, as the burgers begin to explode due to the overuse of Triampathol (because when too much of the chemical is added, the food that is used for under a cooker might explode). A large artificial burger falls from the roof and smashes and crash-landed on Mr. Wheat's newly-repaired car. In the aftermath, Mondo Burger is shut down and Kurt is arrested for using the illegal Triampathol and contaminating Good Burger's sauce. Kurt tries to explain to the police that they are lying but the cops stop him and takes him and a can of Triampathol (for evidence) with them. Dexter tears up the contract with Ed and tells him that he gets to keep all the profits from his sauce. They head back to Good Burger, where their coworkers give them a hero's welcome for saving the restaurant. The film ends with Ed signing off with one of his lines: "Welcome to Good Burger, home of the Good Burger, may I take your order?" as the film fades to black. Cast Kel Mitchell as Ed, the teen cashier of Good Burger. Kenan Thompson as Dexter Reed, a 16-year-old high school student Abe Vigoda as Otis, an elderly Good Burger employee Jan Schweiterman as Kurt Bozwell, the owner of Mondo Burger Sinbad as Mr. Wheat, Dexter's accident-prone teacher Shar Jackson as Monique, a Good Burger employee and Dexter's love interest Dan Schneider as Mr. Baily, the owner and manager of Good Burger Ron Lester as Spatch, the head fry cook of Good Burger. Josh Server as Fizz, the drive-thru employee of Good Burger. Ginny Schreiber as Deedee, a female employee at Good Burger Linda Cardellini as Heather who has a crush on Ed. Shaquille O'Neal as Himself George Clinton as Dancing Crazy, a Demented Hills patient. Robert Wuhl as an angry customer. Carmen Electra as Roxanne, a henchwoman of Kurt (uncredited) Marques Houston as Jake, Dexter's schoolmate. J. August Richards as Griffin, one of Kurt's henchmen. Hamilton Von Watts as Troy, Kurt's other henchman. Floyd Levine as the Ice Cream Man. Lori Beth Denberg as Connie Muldoon, a customer Production Filming for Good Burger took place from March 9 to April 1997. Most of its scenes were recorded along Glendora Avenue in West Covina, California including at a restaurant currently known as "Peter's El Loco". Release The Action League Now! episode "Rock-a-Big Baby" was released prior to screenings of the film. Home media Paramount Home Video released the film on VHS on February 17, 1998, and on DVD on May 27, 2003. Warner Home Video (who released Paramount titles on DVD and Blu-ray under license) reissued it on DVD on September 24, 2013. On August 29, 2017, Paramount re-released the DVD, as the Warner Home Video distribution deal has ended. The DVD releases lack any special features. After many years, the film was released on Blu-ray on February 16, 2021. Potential sequels Aladdin published a children's novel, Good Burger 2 Go, as a sequel to the film. The book, written by Steve Holland, featured Ed following a short-changed customer around the globe. On September 23, 2015, Kenan Thompson and Kel Mitchell made a "Good Burger" sketch for a reunion on The Tonight Show Starring Jimmy Fallon. On March 5, 2018, Mitchell said there were talks on a Good Burger 2 in the moment. On December 13, 2018, he and Thompson stated they are open for a potential sequel or reboot. Reception Box office In its opening weekend, the film grossed $7.1 million, finishing #5 at the US box office. It went on to gross $23.7 million worldwide. It was released in the United Kingdom on February 13, 1998, where it only reached #14. Critical response Rotten Tomatoes gives the film an approval rating of 34% based on 41 reviews and an average rating of 4.3/10. The consensus reads, "Good Burger might please hardcore fans of the 1990s Nickelodeon TV series that launched leads Kenan and Kel to stardom, but for all others, it will likely prove a comedy that is neither satisfyingly rare nor well done." On Metacritic the film has a score of 41 out of 100 based on 17 critics, indicating "mixed or average reviews". Lisa Alspector of Chicago Reader gave the film a review, saying that, "The perceived notion that kids want their movies fast and furious is barely in evidenced in this 1997 comedy, a laboriously slow suburban adventure in which a teenager's summer of leisure slips through his fingers when he has to get a job—an experience that proves almost life threatening because of the cutthroat competition between two burger joints." Andy Seiler of USA Today gave the film two stars out of four, saying that, "Good Burger is not very well done, but it does have energy." Leonard Klady of Variety wrote, "The meat of the piece is definitely FDA cinematically approved, and perfect if you like this brand of entertainment with the works." Roger Ebert of the Chicago Sun-Times gave the film two stars out of four, writing "It didn't do much for me, but I am prepared to predict that its target audience will have a good time." Retrospective reviews well after the initial release have described its continued popularity; Nathan Rabin said that the film "obviously connected with a lot of children at the time of the film's release and holds up surprisingly well 18 years later." Courtney Eckerle said, "The 90s generation will never forget [this deliciously terrible movie]" and Tara Aquino of Mental Floss called it "a silly cult hit that's indelibly a part of Generation Y." Soundtrack A soundtrack containing hip hop, R&B, funk and punk rock was released on July 15, 1997 by Capitol Records. It peaked at 101 on the Billboard 200 and 65 on the Top R&B/Hip-Hop Albums. It features the single "All I Want" by 702, which reached number thirty-five on the Billboard Hot 100 chart. Literature 1997: Joseph Locke: Good Burger: A Novelization, Pocket Books, References External links 1990s buddy comedy films 1990s teen comedy films 1997 comedy films 1997 films African-American films All That American buddy comedy films American films American teen comedy films American children's comedy films English-language films Fictional restaurants Films about educators Films about food and drink Films based on television series Films directed by Brian Robbins Films scored by Stewart Copeland Films set in California Films set in psychiatric hospitals Films set in restaurants Films set in schools Films with screenplays by Dan Schneider Nickelodeon Movies films Paramount Pictures films Workplace comedy films	[ 0.35100510716438293, 0.6660192608833313, 0.12845291197299957, -0.3289632797241211, 0.35173922777175903, 0.06514028459787369, 0.3266620635986328, 0.44596612453460693, -0.15327894687652588, -0.12344049662351608, 0.0002907845482695848, 0.5190411806106567, 0.02081587351858616, 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230539	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Camel%20train	Camel train	A camel train or caravan is a series of camels carrying passengers and goods on a regular or semi-regular service between points. Despite rarely travelling faster than human walking speed, for centuries camels' ability to withstand harsh conditions made them ideal for communication and trade in the desert areas of North Africa and the Arabian Peninsula. Camel trains were also used sparingly elsewhere around the globe. Since the early 20th century they have been largely replaced by motorized vehicles or air traffic. Africa, Asia and the Middle East By far the greatest use of camel trains occurs between North and West Africa by the Tuareg, Shuwa and Hassaniyya, as well as by culturally-affiliated groups like the Toubou, Hausa and Songhay. These camel trains conduct trade in and around the Sahara Desert and Sahel. Trains travel as far south as central Nigeria and northern Cameroon in the west, and northern Kenya in the east of the continent. In antiquity, the Arabian Peninsula was an important route for the trade with India and Abyssinia. Camel trains have also long been used in portions of trans-Asian trade, including the Silk Road. As late as the early twentieth century, camel caravans played an important role connecting the Beijing/Shanxi region of eastern China with Mongolian centers (Urga, Uliastai, Kobdo) and Xinjiang. The routes went across Inner and Outer Mongolia. According to Owen Lattimore, who spent five months in 1926 crossing the northern edge of China (from Hohhot to Gucheng, via Inner Mongolia) with a camel caravan, demand for caravan trade was only increased by the arrival of foreign steamships into Chinese ports and the construction of the first railways in eastern China, as they improved access to the world market for such products of western China as wool. Australia In the English-speaking world the term "camel train" often applies to Australia, notably the service that once connected a railhead at Oodnadatta in South Australia to Alice Springs in the center of the continent. The service ended when the train line was extended to Alice Springs in 1929; that train is called "the Ghan", a shortened version of "Afghan Express", and its logo is camel and rider, in honor of the "Afghan cameleers" who pioneered the route. North America United States The history of camel trains in the United States consists mainly of an experiment by the United States Army. On April 29, 1856, thirty-three camels and five drivers arrived at Indianola, Texas. While camels were suited to the job of transport in the American Southwest, the experiment failed. Their stubbornness and aggressiveness made them unpopular among soldiers, and they frightened horses. Many of the camels were sold to private owners, others escaped into the desert. These feral camels continued to be sighted through the early 20th century, with the last reported sighting in 1941 near Douglas, Texas. British Columbia, Canada Camels were used from 1862 to 1863 in British Columbia, Canada during the Cariboo Gold Rush. Camel caravan organization While organization of camel caravans varied over time and the territory traversed, Owen Lattimore's account of caravan life in northern China in the 1920s gives a good idea of what camel transport is like. In his Desert Road to Turkestan he describes mostly camel caravans run by Han Chinese and Hui firms from eastern China (Hohhot, Baotou) or Xinjiang (Qitai (then called Gucheng), Barkol), plying the routes connecting those two regions through the Gobi Desert by way of Inner (or, before Mongolia's independence, Outer) Mongolia. Before Outer Mongolia's effective independence of China (circa 1920) the same firms also ran caravans into Urga, Uliassutai, and other centers of Outer Mongolia, and to the Russian border at Kyakhta, but with the creation of an international border, those routes came into decline. Less important caravan routes served various other areas of northern China, such as most centers in today's Gansu, Ningxia, and northern Qinghai. Some of the oldest Hohhot-based caravan firms had a history dating to the early Qing Dynasty. Camels Caravans originating from both ends of the Hohhot-Gucheng route were composed of two-humped Bactrian camels, suitable for the climate on the area, although very occasionally one could see single-humped dromedaries brought to this route by Uighur ("Turki", in Lattimore's parlance) caravan people from Hami A caravan would be normally composed of a number of files (, lian), of up to 18 camels each. Each of the rank-and-file caravan men, known as the camel-pullers (, la luotuo-de), was in charge of one such file. On the march, the camel-puller's job was to lead the first camel of his file by a rope tied to a peg attached to its nose, each of the other camels of the file being led by means of similar rope by the camel in front of it. Two files (lian) formed a ba, and the camel-pullers of the two files would help each other when loading cargo on the camels at the beginning of each day's march or unloading it when halted. To do their job properly camel-pullers had to be experts on camels: as Lattimore comments, "because there is no good doctoring known for him [a camel] when he is sick, they must learn how to keep him well." Taking care of camels' health included the ability to find the best available grazing for them and keeping them away from poisonous plants; knowledge of when one should not allow a camel to drink too much water; how to park camels for the night, allowing them to obtain the best possible shelter from wind-blown snow in winter; how to properly distribute the load to prevent it from hurting the animal; and how to treat minor injuries of the camels, such as blisters or pack-sores. The loading of camels was described by Mildred Cable and Francesca French in their book Through Jade Gate and Central Asia (1927): «In the loading of a camel its grumblings commence as the first bale is placed on its back, and continue uninterruptedly until the load is equal to its strength, but as soon as it shows signs of being in excess, the grumbling ceases suddenly, and then the driver says: "Enough! put no more on this beast!"» Caravan people A caravan could consist of 150 or so camels (8 or more files), with a camel-puller for each file. Besides the camel-pullers the caravan would also include a xiansheng (先生, literally, "Sir", "Mister") (typically, an older man with a long experience as a camel-puller, now playing the role of a general manager), one or two cooks, and the caravan master, whose authority over the caravan and its people was as absolute as that of a captain on a ship. If the owner of the caravan did not travel with the caravan himself, he would send along a supercargo--the person who will take care of the disposal of the freight upon arrival, but had no authority during the journey. The caravan could carry a number of paying passengers as well, who would alternate between riding on top of a camel load and walking. Camel-pullers' salary was quite low (around 2 silver taels a month in 1926, which would not be enough even for shoes and clothing he wore out while walking with his camels), although they were also fed and provided with tent space at the caravan owner's expense. Those people worked not so much for the wages as for the benefit of carrying some cargo—half of a camel load, or a full load—of their own on the caravan's camels; when successfully sold at the destination, it would bring a handy profit. Even more importantly, if a camel-puller could afford to buy a camel or a few of his own, he was allowed to include them into his file, and to collect the carriage-money for the cargo (assigned by the caravan owner) that they would carry. Once the camel-puller got rich enough to own close to a full file of 18 camels, he could join the caravan not as an employee but as a kind of a partner—now instead of earning wages he would be paying money (around 20 taels per round-trip in 1926) to the owner of (the rest of) the caravan for the benefit of joining the caravan, sharing in the food, etc. Diet The caravan people's food was mostly based around oat and millet flour, with some animal fat. A sheep would be bought from the Mongols and slaughtered every now and then, and tea was the usual daily drink; as fresh vegetables were scarce, scurvy was a danger. Besides the paid cargo and the food and gear for the men, the camels would also carry a fair amount of fodder for themselves (typically, dried peas when going west, and barley when going east, those being the cheapest types of camel feed in Hohhot and Gucheng, respectively). It was estimated that, when leaving its point of origin, for every 100 loads of merchandise the caravan would carry around 30 loads of fodder. When that was not enough (especially in winter) more fodder could be bought (very expensively) from dealers who would come to the caravan route's popular stopping places from the populated areas of Gansu or Ningxia to the south. Cargo Typical cargo carried by the caravans were commodities such as wool, cotton fabrics, or tea, as well as miscellaneous manufactured goods for sale in Xinjiang and Mongolia. Opium was carried as well, typically by smaller, surreptitious, caravans, usually in winter (since in the hot weather opium would be too easily detected by the smell). More exotic loads could include jade from Khotan, elk antlers prized in Chinese medicine, or even dead bodies of the Shanxi caravan men and traders, who happened to die while in Xinjiang. In the latter case, the bodies had been first "temporarily" buried in Gucheng in light-weight coffins, and when, after three or so years in the grave the flesh had been mostly "consumed away", the merchant guild sent the bodies to the east by a special caravan. Due to the special nature of the load, higher freight rate was charged for such "dead passengers". Camels have been historically used to traffic illicit drugs among their legal trade goods. With camel meat being illegal in some places, Camels themselves are smuggled. In India, ritual sacrifice and common slaughter has fueled camel smuggling. Speed According to Lattimore's diary, caravan travel in Inner Mongolia did not always follow a regular schedule. Caravans traveled or camped at any time of day or night, depending on weather, local conditions, and the need for rest. Since the caravan traveled at the walking speed of the men, the distance made in a day (a "stage") was usually between , depending on road and weather conditions, and distances between water sources. On occasions several days were spent in a camp without going forward, due to bad weather. A one-way trip from Hohhot to Gucheng ( by Lattimore's reckoning) could take anything from three to eight months. Smaller caravans owned by Mongols of the Alashan (the westernmost Inner Mongolia) and manned by Han Chinese from Zhenfan, were able to make longer marches (and, thus, cover longer distances faster) than the typical Han Chinese or Hui caravans, because the Mongols were able to always use "fresh" camels (picked from their large herd for just a single journey), every man was provided with a camel to ride, and loads were much lighter than in the "standard" caravans (rarely exceeding . These caravans would typically travel by day, from sunrise to sunset. Such a camel train is described in the accounts of the journey made by Peter Fleming and Ella Maillart in the Gobi Desert in the mid-1930s. Logistics Inns called caravanserai were spread along the route of a long caravan journey. These roadside inns specialized in catering to travelers along established trade routes, such as the Silk Road and the Royal Road. Because such long trade routes often passed through inhospitable desert regions, journeys would be impossible to complete successfully and profitably without caravanserai to provide necessary supplies and assistance to merchants and travelers. It was necessary for camels to spend at least two months between long journeys to recuperate, and the best time for that recuperation was in June–July, when camels shed their hair and the grazing is best. Therefore, the best practice was for a caravan to leave Hohhot in August, just after the grazing season; upon reaching Gucheng, weaker camels could stay there until the next summer by grazing whatever vegetation is available in winter, while the stronger ones, after a few weeks of recovery on a grain diet (grain being cheaper in Xinjiang than in eastern China), would be sent back in late winter/early spring, taking along plenty of grain for fodder, and returning to Hohhot before the next grazing season. Vice versa, one could leave Hohhot in the spring, spend the summer grazing season in Xinjiang, and come back in the late fall of the same year. Either way, it would be possible for the caravan people and their best camels to make a full round trip within a year. However, such perfect scheduling was not always possible, and it was often the case that a caravan sent out from Hohhot in August would end up staying on the other end of the route until and through the next grazing season, coming back to Hohhot about a year and a half after its departure. Loss of camels; camel hair trade On almost every journey quite a few camels in each caravan would be lost. On a particularly exhausting section of the trip, an animal already worn out by many weeks of walking, or accidentally poisoned by eating a poisonous plant, would kneel down and not rise anymore. Since killing a camel was considered bad karma by the caravan people, the hopeless animal—whose death, if it was owned by an individual camel-puller, would be a huge material loss for its owner—was simply left behind to die, "thrown on the Gobi" as the camel men would say. Since camels moult in the summer, camel owners received additional income from collecting several pounds of hair their animals dropped during the summer grazing (and shedding season); in northern China, the camel hair trade started around the 1880s. Later, caravan men learned the art of knitting and crocheting from the defeated White Russians (in exile in Xinjiang after the Russian Civil War) and the items they had made were transported to eastern China by camel caravan. Although the hair shed by the camels or picked from them was of course considered the property of the camel owners, caravan workers were entitled to make use of some hair for making knitwear for themselves (mostly socks) or for sale. Lattimore in 1926 observed camel-pullers "knitting on the march; if they ran out of yarn, they would reach back to the first camel of the file they were leading, pluck a handful of hair from the neck, and roll it in their palms into the beginning of a length of yarn; a weight was attached to this, and given a twist to start it spinning, and the man went on feeding wool into the thread until he had spun enough yarn to continue his knitting". Cultural associations "In The Desert" ("Верблюды", lit. = "camels") is a "traditional Russian" song, performed by Donald Swann. He provides an English-language translation after every line. The song is extremely repetitive ("Another camel is approaching"), rendering the translation largely redundant, "a whole caravan of camels is approaching". Fritz Mühlenweg wrote a book called In geheimer Mission durch die Wüste Gobi (part one in English Big Tiger and Compass Mountain), published in 1950. It was later shortened and translated into English under the title Big Tiger and Christian; it concerns the adventures of two boys who cross the Gobi Desert. See also Caravan (travellers) Caravanserai Cariboo camels Twenty mule team References Further reading Fleming, Peter (1936) News from Tartary: a journey from Peking to Kashmir. London: Jonathan Cape (Peter Fleming's account of his 1935 bid to travel the ancient trade route from China to India known as the 'Silk Road'.) Lattimore, Owen (1928) The Desert Road to Turkestan. London: Methuen & Co. Lattimore, Owen (1929) The Desert Road to Turkestan. Boston : Little, Brown, and Company Maillart, Ella (1936) Oasis interdites: de Pékin au Cachemire. Paris: Grasset Maillart, Ella (1937) Forbidden Journey: from Peking to Kashmir. London: Heinemann (trans. of Oasis interdites) Maillart, Ella (1942) Cruises & Caravans. London: Dent Michaud, Roland & Sabrina (1978) Caravans to Tartary. London: Thames and Hudson (translated from the French "Caravanes de Tartarie", du Chêne, 1977) Tolstoy, Alexandra (2003) The Last Secrets of the Silk Road: Four Girls Follow Marco Polo Across 5,000 Miles. 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230540	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sinbad%20%28disambiguation%29	Sinbad (disambiguation)	Sinbad is a fictional sailor and the hero of a story-cycle of Middle Eastern origin. Sinbad, Sindbad, or Sinbad the Sailor may also refer to: Places 41488 Sindbad, an asteroid People Sinbad (comedian) Sunpadh or Sinbad the Magus (fl. 8th century), Iranian religious leader and activist Arts, entertainment, and media Fictional characters Sinbad the Sailor, an alias of Edmond Dantes from The Count of Monte Cristo Thomas 'Sinbad' Sweeney, a character in Brookside Sinbad, a character from the Japanese manga/anime, Magi; and the main character in Magi: Adventure of Sinbad, loosely based on the original character Films Sinbad the Sailor (1935 film) Sinbad the Sailor (1947 film), starring Douglas Fairbanks Jr Sinbad (1992), a Japanese animated film Sinbad: Legend of the Seven Seas (2003) Television Sinbad (TV series), a 2012 UK television series Theater Sinbad (1891 musical) Sinbad (1918 musical) Other uses Sinbad (dog) (1937-1951), a pet dog on a U.S. Coast Guard ship MV Sinbad or HMS Audacity Sinbad (album), 1976 jazz album by Weldon Irvine See also Simbad (disambiguation) Sindbad-Nameh Szindbád, a 1971 Hungarian film by Zoltán Huszárik	[ -0.42781540751457214, 0.488962858915329, -0.4382336437702179, -0.16539627313613892, -0.2645166516304016, 0.27218329906463623, 0.4657139480113983, -0.11390569061040878, -0.3239225447177887, -0.00018611480481922626, -0.6554405689239502, 0.030484288930892944, -0.4163723289966583, 0.33040744066238403, 0.2637229561805725, -0.00068814487894997, 0.2268066108226776, 0.4133642911911011, -0.2760009765625, -0.08773541450500488, -0.1670803278684616, 0.0755460187792778, 0.14984659850597382, -0.29653316736221313, 0.3095598816871643, -0.18801330029964447, 0.19769960641860962, 0.07501126080751419, -0.3892627954483032, -0.16141214966773987, 0.016465485095977783, 0.0010018146131187677, 0.03988509252667427, -0.6764128804206848, -0.07272312790155411, -0.26445770263671875, -0.562571108341217, -0.2789017856121063, -0.26245763897895813, -0.6128249764442444, 0.04269256815314293, -0.1508910357952118, 0.5888185501098633, 0.33156484365463257, 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230542	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Appreciative%20inquiry	Appreciative inquiry	Appreciative inquiry (AI) is a model that seeks to engage stakeholders in self-determined change. According to Gervase Bushe, professor of leadership and organization development at the Beedie School of Business and a researcher on the topic, "AI revolutionized the field of organization development and was a precursor to the rise of positive organization studies and the strengths based movement in American management." It was developed at Case Western Reserve University's department of organizational behavior, starting with a 1987 article by David Cooperrider and Suresh Srivastva. They felt that the overuse of "problem solving" hampered any kind of social improvement, and what was needed were new methods of inquiry that would help generate new ideas and models for how to organize. History Cooperrider and Srivastva took a social constructionist approach, arguing that organizations are created, maintained and changed by conversations, and claiming that methods of organizing were only limited by people's imaginations and the agreements among them. In 2001, Cooperrider and Diana Whitney published an article outlining the five principles of AI. In 1996, Cooperrider, Whitney and several of their colleagues became centrally involved using AI to mid-wife the creation of the United Religions Initiative, a global organization dedicated to promoting grassroots interfaith cooperation for peace, justice and healing. This early partnership between URI and AI is chronicled in Birth of a Global Community: Appreciative Inquiry in Action by Charles Gibbs and Sally Mahé. AI was also used in the first (1999) and subsequent meetings of business leaders that created the UN Global Compact. In another of the early applications, Cooperrider and Whitney taught AI to employees of GTE (now part of Verizon) resulting in improvements in employees' support for GTE's business direction and as a part of continuous process improvement generated both improvements in revenue collection and cost savings earning GTE an Association for Talent Development award for the best organizational change program in the US in 1997. On May 8, 2010, Suresh Srivastva died. Bushe published a 2011 review of the model, including its processes, critiques, and evidence. He also published a history of the model in 2012. Basis and principles According to Bushe, AI "advocates collective inquiry into the best of what is, in order to imagine what could be, followed by collective design of a desired future state that is compelling and thus, does not require the use of incentives, coercion or persuasion for planned change to occur." The model is based on the assumption that the questions we ask will tend to focus our attention in a particular direction, that organizations evolve in the direction of the questions they most persistently and passionately ask. In the mid-1980s most methods of assessing and evaluating a situation and then proposing solutions were based on a deficiency model, predominantly asking questions such as "What are the problems?", "What's wrong?" or "What needs to be fixed?". Instead of asking "What's the problem?", others couched the question in terms of "challenges", which still focused on deficiency, on what needs to be fixed or solved. Appreciative inquiry was the first serious managerial method to refocus attention on what works, the positive core, and on what people really care about. Today, these ways of approaching organizational change are common. The five principles of AI are: The constructionist principle proposes that what we believe to be true determines what we do, and thought and action emerge from relationships. Through the language and discourse of day to day interactions, people co-construct the organizations they inhabit. The purpose of inquiry is to stimulate new ideas, stories and images that generate new possibilities for action. The principle of simultaneity proposes that as we inquire into human systems we change them and the seeds of change, the things people think and talk about, what they discover and learn, are implicit in the very first questions asked. Questions are never neutral, they are fateful, and social systems move in the direction of the questions they most persistently and passionately discuss. The poetic principle proposes that organizational life is expressed in the stories people tell each other every day, and the story of the organization is constantly being co-authored. The words and topics chosen for inquiry have an impact far beyond just the words themselves. They invoke sentiments, understandings, and worlds of meaning. In all phases of the inquiry effort is put into using words that point to, enliven and inspire the best in people. The anticipatory principle posits that what we do today is guided by our image of the future. Human systems are forever projecting ahead of themselves a horizon of expectation that brings the future powerfully into the present as a mobilizing agent. Appreciative inquiry uses artful creation of positive imagery on a collective basis to refashion anticipatory reality. The positive principle proposes that momentum and sustainable change requires positive affect and social bonding. Sentiments like hope, excitement, inspiration, camaraderie and joy increase creativity, openness to new ideas and people, and cognitive flexibility. They also promote the strong connections and relationships between people, particularly between groups in conflict, required for collective inquiry and change. Some researchers believe that excessive focus on dysfunctions can actually cause them to become worse or fail to become better. By contrast, AI argues, when all members of an organization are motivated to understand and value the most favorable features of its culture, it can make rapid improvements. Strength-based methods are used in the creation of organizational development strategy and implementation of organizational effectiveness tactics. The appreciative mode of inquiry often relies on interviews to qualitatively understand the organization's potential strengths by looking at an organization's experience and its potential; the objective is to elucidate the assets and personal motivations that are its strengths. Bushe has argued that mainstream proponents of AI focus too much attention on "the positive" and not enough on the transformation that AI can bring about through generating new ideas and the will to act on them. In a 2010 comparative study in a school district he found that even in cases where no change occurred participants were highly positive during the AI process. What distinguished those sites that experienced transformational changes was the creation of new ideas that gave people new ways to address old problems. He argues that for transformational change to occur, AI must address problems that concern people enough to want to change. However, AI addresses them not through problem-solving, but through generative images. Some of this is covered in a 90-minute discussion about AI, positivity and generativity by Bushe and Dr. Ron Fry of Case Western, at the 2012 World Appreciative Inquiry Conference. Distinguishing features The following table comes from the Cooperrider and Whitney (2001) article and is used to describe some of the distinctions between AI and approaches to organizational development not based on what they call positive potential: Appreciative inquiry attempts to use ways of asking questions and envisioning the future in order to foster positive relationships and build on the present potential of a given person, organization or situation. The most common model utilizes a cycle of four processes, which focus on what it calls: DISCOVER: The identification of organizational processes that work well. DREAM: The envisioning of processes that would work well in the future. DESIGN: Planning and prioritizing processes that would work well. DESTINY (or DEPLOY): The implementation (execution) of the proposed design. The aim is to build – or rebuild – organizations around what works, rather than trying to fix what doesn't. AI practitioners try to convey this approach as the opposite of problem solving. Implementing AI There are a variety of approaches to implementing appreciative inquiry, including mass-mobilised interviews and a large, diverse gathering called an Appreciative Inquiry Summit. These approaches involve bringing large, diverse groups of people together to study and build upon the best in an organization or community. Uses In Vancouver, AI is being used by the Dalai Lama Center for Peace and Education. The center, which was founded by the Dalai Lama and Victor Chan, is using AI to facilitate compassionate communities. See also Geoffrey Vickers introduced concept of 'Appreciative Systems' (1968) Kenneth J. Gergen instrumental in social constructionism and the concept of generativity David Cooperrider originated the theory of appreciative inquiry in his 1986 doctoral dissertation. Organization development Social constructionism Complexity theory and organizations Appreciative inquiry in education References Further reading Barrett, F.J. & Fry, R.E. (2005) Appreciative Inquiry: A Positive Approach to Building Cooperative Capacity. Chagrin Falls, OH: Taos Institute Cooperrider, D.L., Whitney, D. & Stavros, J.M. (2008) Appreciative Inquiry Handbook (2nd ed.) Brunswick, OH: Crown Custom Publishing. Gibbs, C., Mahé, s. (2004) "Birth of a Global Community: Appreciative Inquiry in Action". Bedford Heights, OH: Lakeshore Publishers. Lewis, S., Passmore, J. & Cantore, S. (2008) The Appreciative Inquiry Approach to Change Management. London, UK: Kogan Paul. Ludema, J.D. Whitney, D., Mohr, B.J. & Griffen, T.J. (2003) The Appreciative Inquiry Summit. San Francisco: Berret-Koehler. Whitney, D. & Trosten-Bloom, A. (2010) The Power of Appreciative Inquiry (2nd Ed.). San Francisco: Berrett-Koehler. External links Appreciative Inquiry Commons by The David L. Cooperrider Center for Appreciative Inquiry Appreciative inquiry at Harvard Business School Appreciative Inquiry: An Overview, scribd. 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230546	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Richard%20III%20%281995%20film%29	Richard III (1995 film)	Richard III is a 1995 British film adaptation of William Shakespeare's play of the same name, directed by Richard Loncraine. The film adapts the play's story and characters to a setting based on 1930s Britain, with Richard depicted as a fascist plotting to usurp the throne. Ian McKellen portrays the titular Richard, as well as co-writing the screenplay with Loncraine. The cast also includes Annette Bening as Queen Elizabeth, Jim Broadbent as the Duke of Buckingham, Robert Downey Jr. as Rivers, Kristin Scott Thomas as Anne Neville, Nigel Hawthorne as the Duke of Clarence, Maggie Smith as the Duchess of York, John Wood as King Edward IV, Tim McInnerny as Sir William Catesby, and Dominic West as the Earl of Richmond (the latter's first feature film role). The film premiered in Brazil on 20 August 1995, and was released in the United States on 29 December 1995, and in the United Kingdom on 26 April of the following year. While unsuccessful at the box office, it received critical acclaim, and won several accolades. At the 50th British Academy Film Awards, it won the awards for Best Production Design and Best Costume Design, with nominations for Best British Film, Best Adapted Screenplay, and Best Actor in a Leading Role. It also earned Oscar nominations for Best Art Direction and Best Costume Design, and McKellen was nominated for a Golden Globe Award for Best Actor – Motion Picture Drama. Plot In a fictitious alternate timeline of England in the late 1930s, a chaotic and bloody civil war (which occurs 450 years later than the actual historical event) ends with Lancastrian King Henry and his son Prince Edward assassinated by Field Marshal Richard Gloucester of the rival faction supported by the House of York. Richard's elder brother Edward York becomes King. Richard is determined to take the crown, and pits King Edward against his brother, George Clarence, who is imprisoned under a sentence of death. Meanwhile, Richard deceives and marries Prince Edward's widow Lady Anne Neville. Queen Elizabeth intercedes on Clarence's behalf and persuades Edward to spare his life. However, Richard destroys the royal pardon and commissions James Tyrrell to execute Clarence, ostensibly in compliance with Clarence's death sentence. Richard informs Edward of Clarence's death at a meeting with Prime Minister William Hastings, and the King dies from a stroke. As Edward's sons are underage, Richard becomes Regent, taking the title of Lord Protector with the support of the ambitious and corrupt Henry Buckingham. In order to undermine his rivals for the throne, Richard has Rivers, the Queen's brother, assassinated and uses the sordid circumstances of his death to damage the Queen's reputation and cast doubt on her sons' legitimacy. Hastings' reluctance to support Richard's claim to the crown so enrages Richard that he manufactures false charges of treason against Hastings, who is sentenced to death by hanging. Having made an example of his only vocal opponent, Richard persuades the Lord Mayor of London and members of the House of Lords to acknowledge his claim to the throne and crown him King. Acting on the advice of Archbishop Thomas and Lord Stanley, the Lancastrian heir, Henry Richmond, flees to France. Following his coronation Richard, now King Richard III, seeks to make his throne secure. He employs Tyrrell to murder the princes after failing to convince Buckingham to do so. Aware that Richmond intends to marry Elizabeth, he instructs Sir William Catesby to spread rumours that Lady Anne is ill and likely to die, intending to marry Elizabeth himself. Lady Anne is found dead sometime later from an apparent drug overdose. Impatient for the promised reward for his loyalty, Buckingham demands the Earldom of Hereford. Richard dismisses this in a high-handed manner, with the line "I am not in the giving vein". Buckingham, also disturbed by the murders of the princes and Hastings, flees to meet Richmond, but is later captured and killed by Tyrrell under Richard's orders. Meanwhile, Richmond gathers supporters, among them the Archbishop of Canterbury and Richard's mother, the Duchess of York. They are joined by Air marshal Thomas Stanley. Richmond marries Elizabeth and unites both Houses and political factions against Richard. With the army's loyalty slipping and the legitimacy of his claims to the crown weakened, Richard prepares for the final battle against the Lancastrians, who plan a seaborne invasion and an advance on London. Richard's remaining loyal troops, assembling in a marshalling yard, are attacked from the air, revealing Stanley's defection to the Lancastrian cause. The two armies meet soon after at a ruined Battersea Power Station. Richard and Richmond seek each other out, but when his vehicle stalls Richard flees into the structure. Pursued by Richmond, Richard is forced to exit onto exposed metal beams high above the burning battlefield. Cornered by Richmond and refusing to surrender, Richard falls into the inferno with a maniacal grin. Cast Ian McKellen as Richard, Duke of Gloucester, later King Richard III Annette Bening as Queen Elizabeth Jim Broadbent as the Duke of Buckingham Robert Downey Jr. as Rivers Kristin Scott Thomas as Lady Anne Neville Maggie Smith as the Duchess of York John Wood as King Edward IV Nigel Hawthorne as George, Duke of Clarence Adrian Dunbar as Sir James Tyrrel Edward Hardwicke as Lord Stanley Tim McInnerny as Sir William Catesby Jim Carter as Lord Hastings Dominic West as Henry, Earl of Richmond (the future King Henry VII) Trés Hanley as Lord Rivers' mistress Roger Hammond as Archbishop Thomas Donald Sumpter as Robert Brackenbury Bill Paterson as Richard Ratcliffe Kate Steavenson-Payne as Princess Elizabeth Christopher Bowen as Edward of Lancaster, Prince of Wales Matthew Groom as Prince Richard of York Marco Williamson as Edward of York, Prince of Wales Edward Jewesbury as King Henry VI Stacey Kent as Singer at the celebratory ball Michael Elphick has an uncredited cameo appearance as the second murderer of Edward's sons. Concept The film's concept was based on a stage production Richard Eyre directed for the Royal National Theatre, which also starred McKellen. The production was adapted for the screen by McKellen and directed by Richard Loncraine. The film is notable for its unconventional use of famous British landmarks, often using special effects to move them to new locations. The transformed landmarks include: St Pancras railway station, instead of the Palace of Westminster, is King Edward's seat of government. Battersea Power Station, relocated to the coast of Kent and portrayed as a heavily damaged military base. Bankside Power Station, rather than the actual Tower of London, depicted as the prison where Clarence is imprisoned. At the time of filming, the station was partially derelict, before its current use as the Tate Modern. Brighton Pavilion, King Edward's country retreat on a coastal clifftop. Senate House of the University of London, Richard's seat of government, used for interior and exterior scenes. The famous art deco facade and clock of Shell Mex House are also featured in exterior shots. The visually rich production features various symbols, uniforms, weapons, and vehicles that draw openly from fascist aesthetics, similar to those of the Third Reich as depicted in Nazi propaganda (especially Triumph of the Will) and war films. At the same time, obvious care is put into diluting and mixing the totalitarian references with recognizable British and American uniforms, props, and visual motifs. The resulting military uniforms, for instance, range from completely standard 1930s British Army and Air Force uniforms for good characters to heavily squadristi and SS-inspired insignia on British uniforms for Richard's entourage, with SS collar tabs replacing the gorget patches and a white boar replacing the royal crown on Richard's uniform. For road transport, great care was taken to ensure that all cars in filming were of pre-war vintage. For air transport, pre-war types were used again to ensure authenticity. As Lord Rivers arrives, he does so in a Pan-Am DC-3 airliner. As the Duchess of York (Maggie Smith) departs for France, she does so in a DeHavilland Dragon Rapide biplane airliner. For the climactic final battle, the restored Bristol Blenheim is used to represent Lord Stanley's air-attack, which is also period-correct for RAF deployment immediately before and during the start of the Second World War, for the period at which the film ends. Another example of this balanced approach to production design is the choice of tanks for battle scenes between Richmond's and Richard's armies: both use Soviet tanks (T-55s and T-34s respectively), mixed with German, American, and British World War II-era vehicles. To convey the out-of-place nature of the common-born Queen Elizabeth, she is reconfigured as an American socialite similar to Wallis Simpson, and members of the court treat her and her brother with marked disapproval. One of the play's most famous lines—"A horse! A horse! My kingdom for a horse!"—is re-contextualized by the 20th-century setting; during the climactic battle, Richard's jeep becomes stuck in a pile of debris, and his lament is a plea for a mode of transport with legs rather than wheels. The film enlarges the role of the Duchess of York considerably by combining her character with that of Queen Margaret, as compared with Laurence Olivier's 1955 film version of the play, in which the Duchess hardly appeared at all and Queen Margaret was completely eliminated. The roles of Rivers, Grey, Vaughan, and Dorset are combined into Rivers. The death scenes are shown rather than implied as in the play, and changed to suit the time (Hastings is hanged rather than beheaded) and historical accuracy (Clarence dies by having his throat cut in a bathtub, rather than being drowned in a wine barrel). Rivers—who usually dies offstage (or, in the case of Olivier's film, offscreen)—is impaled by a sharp spike spurting up from the bottom of his mattress while he lies in bed during sex with a woman in a hotel room. Each character's pre-death monologue is also removed, except those of Clarence and Buckingham. McKellen wrote, "When you put this amazing old story in a believable modern setting, it will hopefully raise the hair on the back of your neck, and you won't be able to dismiss it as 'just a movie' or, indeed, as 'just old-fashioned Shakespeare'." Awards Academy Awards Best Art Direction – Tony Burrough (nominated) Best Costume Design – Shuna Harwood (nominated) BAFTA Film Awards Best British Film (nominated) Best Actor – Ian McKellen (nominated) Best Adapted Screenplay – Ian McKellen and Richard Loncraine (nominated) Best Costume Design – Shuna Harwood (won) Best Production Design – Tony Burrough (won) Berlin Film Festival Silver Bear for Best Director – Richard Loncraine (won) Golden Bear (nominated) Golden Globe Awards Best Actor – Motion Picture Drama – Ian McKellen (nominated) Reception Richard III received universal acclaim from critics. On Rotten Tomatoes the film has a "Certified Fresh" approval rating of 94% based on 49 reviews, with an average score of 8.2/10. Empire magazine gave the film 4 out of 5 stars, calling it "fascinating" and "cerebral". Jeffrey Lyons said the film was "mesmerizing", while Richard Corliss in Time called it "cinematic". Mick LaSalle of the San Francisco Chronicle wrote, "the picture never stops coming at you". Roger Ebert of the Chicago Sun-Times gave the film four stars out of four and included it on his Great Movies list. Soundtrack The soundtrack to Richard III was released on 27 February 1996. "Come Live With Me" is a 1930s-style swing song, performed by Stacey Kent at the ball celebrating Edward IV's triumph. It is an original composition by Trevor Jones with anachronistic lyrics adapted from Christopher Marlowe's "The Passionate Shepherd To His Love", a poem actually written a century after the events depicted in the play. Legacy One of the T-34 tanks used in the film, originally in service with the Czech army, can still be seen in London, permanently located on a plot of land in Bermondsey on the corner of Mandela Way and Page's Walk. It is regularly repainted by graffiti artists. References External links McKellen's website about the film including an annotated copy of the screenplay. 1995 films British films British drama films Dystopian films English-language films British alternative history films Films set in the 1930s Films based on Richard III (play) Films directed by Richard Loncraine Modern adaptations of works by William Shakespeare Films scored by Trevor Jones Films about fascists	[ -0.5673956871032715, -0.002462950302287936, 0.14205960929393768, -0.7061306238174438, -0.20929576456546783, 0.41231420636177063, 0.8362644910812378, -0.5519094467163086, -0.46569737792015076, -0.07620146870613098, -0.2810347378253937, 0.6588853001594543, -0.09126799553632736, 0.09789961576461792, 0.5394116044044495, 0.5781862139701843, 0.7405523657798767, -0.11089667677879333, 0.15638338029384613, -0.8438174724578857, -0.19287437200546265, 0.3295357823371887, 0.7244923114776611, -0.048060715198516846, -0.15014414489269257, 0.42959386110305786, 0.6144887208938599, 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230547	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Case%20Western%20Reserve%20University	Case Western Reserve University	Case Western Reserve University (CWRU) is a private research university in Cleveland, Ohio. Case Western Reserve was established in 1967, when Western Reserve University, founded in 1826 and named for its location in the Connecticut Western Reserve, and Case Institute of Technology, founded in 1880 through the endowment of Leonard Case, Jr., formally federated. Case Western Reserve joined the Association of American Universities in 1969. Case Western Reserve undergraduate and graduate schools include the College of Arts and Sciences, Case School of Engineering, Mandel School of Applied Social Sciences, Case Medical School, Weatherhead School of Management, Case School of Dental Medicine, School of Law, and Frances Payne Bolton School of Nursing. Its main campus is approximately 5 miles (8 km) east of Downtown Cleveland in the neighborhood known as University Circle, an area containing many educational, medical, and cultural institutions. Case Western Reserve has a number of programs taught in conjunction with other University Circle institutions, including the Cleveland Clinic, the University Hospitals of Cleveland, the Louis Stokes Cleveland Department of Veteran's Affairs Medical Center, Cleveland Institute of Music, the Cleveland Hearing & Speech Center, the Cleveland Museum of Art, the Cleveland Institute of Art, the Cleveland Museum of Natural History, and the Cleveland Play House. Severance Hall, home of the Cleveland Orchestra, is on the Case Western Reserve campus. Seventeen Nobel laureates have been affiliated with Case Western Reserve's faculty and alumni or one of its two predecessors. History Western Reserve College (1826–1882) and University (1882–1967) Western Reserve College, the college of the Connecticut Western Reserve, was founded in 1826 in Hudson, Ohio, as the Western Reserve College and Preparatory School. Western Reserve College, or "Reserve" as it was popularly called, was the first college in northern Ohio. The school was called "Yale of the West"; its campus, now that of the Western Reserve Academy, imitated that of Yale. It had the same motto, "Lux et Veritas" (Light and Truth), the same entrance standards, and almost the same curriculum. The vision its founders had of Western Reserve College was that it would instill in students an "evangelical ethos", and produce ministers to remedy the acute shortage of them in Ohio. Liberal arts and sciences were important, but secondary. The college was located in Hudson because the town made the largest financial offer (to help in its construction). The town of Hudson, about 30 miles southeast of Cleveland, was a quiet antislavery center from the beginning: its founder, David Hudson, was against slavery, and founding trustee Owen Brown was a noted abolitionist who secured the location for the college. The abolitionist John Brown, who would lead the 1859 raid on Harpers Ferry, grew up in Hudson and was the son of co-founder Owen Brown. Hudson was a major stop on the Underground Railroad. Along with Presbyterian influences of its founding, the school's origins were strongly though briefly associated with the pre-Civil War abolitionist movement; the immediate abolition of slavery, instead of "colonizing" Africa with freed Blacks, was the dominant topic on campus in 1831, to the point that President Green complained nothing else was being discussed. The trustees were unhappy with the situation. The college's chaplain and sacred literature (Bible) professor, Beriah Green, gave four sermons on the topic, and then resigned, expecting that he would be fired. President Charles Backus Storrs took a leave of absence for health, and soon died. One of the two remaining professors, Elizur Wright, soon left to head the American Anti-Slavery Society. The center of American abolitionism, along with support from the well-to-do Tappan brothers, moved with Green to the Oneida Institute near Utica, New York, then, after a student walk-out, to Lane Seminary near Cincinnati, and finally, after a second mass student walkout, to Oberlin Collegiate Institute, later Oberlin College. "Oberlin's student body was the beneficiary of anti-abolitionist censure from other regional colleges, especially the Western Reserve College in nearby Hudson. Students flocked to Oberlin so that they could openly debate the antislavery issue without the threat of punishment or dismissal." Western Reserve was the first college west of the Appalachian Mountains to enroll (1832) and graduate (1836) an African-American student, John Sykes Fayette. Frederick Douglass gave the commencement speech in 1854. In 1838, the Loomis Observatory was built by astronomer Elias Loomis, and today remains the second oldest observatory in the United States, and the oldest still in its original location. In 1852, the Medical School became the second medical? school in the United States to graduate a woman, Nancy Talbot Clark. Five more women graduated over the next four years, including Emily Blackwell and Marie Zakrzewska, giving Western Reserve the distinction of graduating six of the first eight female physicians in the United States. By 1875, Cleveland had emerged as the dominant population and business center of the area, and the city wanted a prominent higher education institution. In 1882, with funding from Amasa Stone, Western Reserve College moved to Cleveland and changed its name to Adelbert College of Western Reserve University. Adelbert was the name of Stone's son. Case School of Applied Science (1880–1947) and Institute of Technology (1947–1967) In 1877, Leonard Case Jr. began laying the groundwork for the Case School of Applied Science by secretly donating valuable pieces of Cleveland real estate to a trust. He asked his confidential advisor, Henry Gilbert Abbey, to administer the trust and to keep it secret until after his death in 1880. On March 29, 1880, articles of incorporation were filed for the founding of the Case School of Applied Science. Classes began on September 15, 1881. The school received its charter by the state of Ohio in 1882. For the first four years of the school's existence, it was located in the Case family's home on Rockwell Street in downtown Cleveland. Classes were held in the family house, while the chemistry and physics laboratories were on the second floor of the barn. Amasa Stone's gift to relocate Western Reserve College to Cleveland also included a provision for the purchase of land in the University Circle area, adjacent to Western Reserve University, for the Case School of Applied Science. The school relocated to University Circle in 1885. In 1921 Albert Einstein came to Case campus during his first visit to the United States, out of respect of the physics work performed on campus. Besides noting the research done in the Michelson–Morley experiment, Einstein also met with Physics professor Dayton Miller to discuss his own research. During World War II, Case School of Applied Science was one of 131 colleges and universities nationally that took part in the V-12 Navy College Training Program which offered students a path to a Navy commission. Over time, the Case School of Applied Science expanded to encompass broader subjects, adopting the name Case Institute of Technology in 1947 to reflect the institution's growth. Led by polymer expert Eric Baer in 1963, the nation's first stand-alone Polymer Science and Engineering program was founded, to eventually become the Department of Macromolecular Science and Engineering. Federation of two universities Although the trustees of Case Institute of Technology and Western Reserve University did not formally federate their institutions until 1967, the institutions already shared buildings and staff when necessary and worked together often. One such example was seen in 1887, when Case physicist Albert Michelson and Reserve chemist Edward Morley collaborated on the famous Michelson–Morley experiment. There had been some discussion of a merger of the two institutions as early as 1890, but those talks dissolved quickly. In the 1920s, the Survey Commission on Higher Education in Cleveland took a strong stand in favor of federation and the community was behind the idea as well, but in the end all that came of the study was a decision by the two institutions to cooperate in founding Cleveland College, a special unit for part-time and adult students in downtown Cleveland. By the 1960s, Reserve President John Schoff Millis and Case President T. Keith Glennan shared the idea that federation would create a complete university, one better able to attain national distinction. Financed by the Carnegie Corporation, Cleveland Foundation, Greater Cleveland Associated Foundation, and several local donors, a study commission of national leaders in higher education and public policy was charged with exploring the idea of federation. The Heald Commission, so known for its chair, former Ford Foundation President Henry T. Heald, issued its final report, "Vision of a University." The report predicted that a federation could create one of the largest private universities in the nation. Case Western Reserve University (1967–present) In 1967, Case Institute of Technology, a school with its emphasis on engineering and science, and Western Reserve University, a school with professional programs and liberal arts, came together to form Case Western Reserve University. In 1968, the Department of Biomedical Engineering launched as a newly unified collaboration between the School of Engineering and School of Medicine as the first in the nation and as one of the first Biomedical Engineering programs in the world. The following year in 1969, the first Biomedical Engineering MD/PhD program in the world began at Case Western Reserve. The first computer engineering degree program in the United States was established in 1971 at Case Western Reserve. The "Forward Thinking" campaign was launched in 2011 by President Barbara Snyder to fundraise $1 billion, the largest in school history. The goal was reached in 2014 after 30 months. The board of trustees unanimously agreed to expand the campaign to $1.5 billion, which reached its mark a few years later in 2017. The campaign ultimately raised $1.82 billion. The first 2020 United States presidential debate was held at the Samson Pavilion of the Health Education Campus (HEC), shared by the Cleveland Clinic. In February 2020, president Barbara Snyder was appointed the president of Association of American Universities (AAU). Later that year, former Tulane University president Scott Cowen was appointed interim president. On October 29, 2020, Eric W. Kaler, former University of Minnesota president, was appointed as the new Case Western Reserve University president, effective July 1, 2021. Presidents Campus The university is approximately 5 miles (8 km) east of downtown Cleveland. The campus comprises a large portion of University Circle, a park-like city neighborhood and commercial center, home to many educational, medical, and other cultural institutions, including the historic Wade Park District. Case Western Reserve has a number of programs taught in conjunction with neighboring institutions, including the Cleveland Institute of Music, the Cleveland Institute of Art, the Cleveland Hearing & Speech Center, the Cleveland Museum of Art, the Cleveland Museum of Natural History, the Western Reserve Historical Society, Cleveland Botanical Garden, and the Cleveland Play House. Case Quad The Case Quadrangle, known also to students as the Engineering Quad, is located south of Euclid Avenue between Adelbert Road and Martin Luther King Jr. Drive. Most engineering and science buildings are located on this quad, notably the John D. Rockefeller Physics Building. The Case Quad also houses administration buildings, including Adelbert Hall. The famous Michelson–Morley experiment occurred here, where a historical marker and the Michelson-Morley Memorial Fountain stand as commemoration. Other notable campus buildings include the Strosacker Auditorium and Nord Hall. The southernmost edge consists of athletic areas—Adelbert Gymnasium, Van Horn Field and the Veale Convocation, Recreation and Athletic Center (commonly referred to as the Veale Center). The Veale Center houses the Horsburgh Gymnasium and the Veale Natatorium. Mather Quad The Flora Stone Mather Quadrangle, known to students as the Mather Quad, is home to many humanities and social sciences subjects. The quad is located north of Euclid Avenue between East Blvd., East 115th Street, and Juniper Road. The Flora Stone Mather College Historic District is more strictly defined by the area between East Blvd, Bellflower Road, and Ford Road north of Euclid Avenue. Named for the philanthropist wife of prominent industrialist Samuel Mather and sister-in-law of the famous statesman John Hay, the Mather Quad is home to Weatherhead School of Management, School of Law, Mandel School of Applied Social Sciences, and many departments of the College of Arts and Sciences. The Kelvin Smith Library, Thwing Center, and Tinkham Veale Student Center (known also as "The Tink") sit on the western edge of the Mather Quad and are often considered the center of campus. North Residential Village Situated on the northeast end of campus, the North Residential Village (NRV) is home to all Case Western Reserve's first-year students and many second-year students residing on campus. Constructed in the 1960s, the NRV consists of 12 4-floor buildings, an 11-floor building, Leutner (a dining hall), and a building containing the NRV area office and rehearsal space for Case Western Reserve's music department. Triangle Towers Triangle Towers are buildings located within Uptown that house both current students and staff and are also available for rent to the public. There are two towers, Tower 1 and Tower 2. Both overlook Uptown shops like Michell's Ice Cream and ABC Tavern. The Village at 115 Located between East 115th Street and East 118th Street, the Village at 115 opened in the fall of 2005 for upper-class students. The Village consists of seven houses that surround DiSanto Field and the Bill Sudeck Track. Village housing is apartment style, with apartments that house one to nine people (excluding eight person units). The apartments are fully furnished. The Village is also LEED Gold certified. Houses 1-4 & 6-7 are certified silver while house 5 is certified gold. Stephanie Tubbs Jones Residence Hall The Stephanie Tubbs Jones Residence Hall is located the north side of campus along East 115th Street before Wade Park Avenue. The hall is for upperclassman and is LEED Gold certified. As of 2019, the building is the newest residential hall on campus and consists of 5 floors along with 106 apartments. In addition to the apartments, the building also contains 8 townhouse-like residential units. South Residential Village Located between Murray Hill, Cedar, Edgehill, and Overlook roads, the South Residential Village (SRV) is home to most of Case Western Reserve's sophomore class. SRV is divided into two sections: Murray Hill Complex and Carlton Road Complex (known to students as bottom of the hill and top of the hill, respectively, due to the hill separating the two complexes). Carlton Road Complex includes three sophomore-only dormitories and several Greek life houses. Murray Hill Complex includes four sophomore only buildings and Fribley, the SRV dining hall. It also includes five Greek Houses. Transportation On and near campus, CircleLink serves as the free public shuttle service for residents, employees and visitors in University Circle and Little Italy with routes running every 20–30 minutes during service hours. Colloquially, the shuttle buses are known as Greenies. To supplement evening and nighttime hours, the Safe Ride Program provides personal pickup of students and staff upon request. For city public transit, rail and bus access are managed by the Greater Cleveland Regional Transit Authority (RTA). RTA passes of unlimited use are provided to undergraduate and full-time graduate students. The two Red Line rapid train stations are Little Italy–University Circle and Cedar–University. Notably, the Red Line connects campus to Cleveland Hopkins Airport and Downtown Cleveland. The bus rapid transit (BRT) HealthLine runs down the center of campus along Euclid Ave. Numerous RTA bus routes run through campus. Case Western Reserve parking is managed by Standard Parking, and includes a network over 50 surface lots and 15 parking structures. Pay-by-phone parking is an available option for meters throughout campus. Academics Rankings In U.S. News & World Reports 2021 rankings, Case Western Reserve was ranked as tied for 42nd among national universities and 155th among global universities. The 2020 edition of The Wall Street Journal/Times Higher Education (WSJ/THE) rankings ranked Case Western Reserve as 52nd among US colleges and universities. In 2018, Case Western Reserve was ranked 37th in the category American "national universities" and 146th in the category "global universities" by U.S. News & World Report. In 2019 U.S. News ranked it tied for 42nd and 152nd, respectively. Case Western Reserve was also ranked 32nd among U.S. universities—and 29th among private institutions—in the inaugural 2016 edition of The Wall Street Journal/Times Higher Education (WSJ/THE) rankings, but ranked tied for 39th among U.S. universities in 2019. Case Western Reserve is noted (among other fields) for research in electrochemistry and electrochemical engineering. The Michelson–Morley interferometer experiment was conducted in 1887 in the basement of a campus dormitory by Albert A. Michelson of Case School of Applied Science and Edward W. Morley of Western Reserve University. Michelson became the first American to win a Nobel Prize in science. Also in 2018, "The Hollywood Reporter" ranked CWRU's Department of Theater Master of Fine Arts program with the Cleveland Play House as 18th in the English-speaking world. In 2019, this ranking improved to 12th. In 2014, Washington Monthly ranked Case Western Reserve University as the 9th best National University, but in the 2018 rankings, Case Western Reserve was ranked the 118th best National University. In 2013, Washington Monthly ranked Case Western Reserve as the nation's 4th best National University for contributing to the public good. The publication's ranking was based upon a combination of factors including social mobility, research, and service. In 2009, the school had ranked 15th. Although Washington Monthly no longer ranks contributions to the public good as such, in its 2018 rankings of National Universities Case Western Reserve was ranked 180th in Social mobility and 118th in Service. In 2014, The Times ranked Case Western Reserve 116th worldwide, but in 2019 it ranked the university 132nd. In 2013, Case Western Reserve was among the Top 25 LGBT-Friendly Colleges and Universities, according to Campus Pride, a national organization that aims to make universities safer and more inclusive for lesbian, gay, bisexual and transgender (LGBT) individuals. The recognition follows Case Western Reserve's first five-star ranking on the Campus Pride Index, a detailed survey of universities' policies, services and institutional support for LGBT individuals. Case Western Reserve ranks 13th among private institutions (26th among all) in federal expenditures for science and engineering research and development, per the National Science Foundation. Case Western Reserve is included in the college educational guide, Hidden Ivies, which discusses the college admissions process and attempts to evaluate 63 colleges in comparison to Ivy League colleges. Undergraduate profile The undergraduate student body hails from all 50 states and over 90 countries. The six most popular majors are Biomedical Engineering, Biology/Biological Sciences, Social Work, Nursing, Mechanical Engineering, and Psychology. Since 2016, the top fields for graduating CWRU undergraduate students have been engineering, nursing, research and science, accounting and financial services, and information technology. Case Western Reserve has an acceptance rate of 27% for the class of 2023. The Class of 2023 had 82 percent of students from outside the state of Ohio and 16 percent from outside the United States. 70 percent graduated in the top 10 percent of their high school class. The mid-50% for SAT scores (25%–75%) were between 1360 and 1480. The mid-50% for ACT scores was 30 to 34 (superscored). Schools and programs The university in its present form consists of eight schools: College of Arts and Sciences (1826) School of Dental Medicine (1892) Case School of Engineering (1880) School of Law (1892) Weatherhead School of Management (1952) School of Medicine 'University Program' (1843) Cleveland Clinic Lerner College of Medicine ('College Program') (2002) Frances Payne Bolton School of Nursing (1898) Mandel School of Applied Social Sciences (1915) CWRU also supports over a hundred 'Centers' in various fields. Naming controversy In 2003, the university unveiled a new logo and branding campaign that emphasized the "Case" portion of its name. In 2006, interim university president Gregory Eastwood convened a task group to study reactions to the campaign. The panel's report indicated that it had gone so poorly that, "There appear to be serious concerns now about the university's ability to recruit and maintain high-quality faculty, fund-raising and leadership." Also, the logo was derided among the university's community and alumni and throughout northeastern Ohio; critics said it looked like "...a fat man with a surfboard." In 2007, the university's board of trustees approved a shift back to giving equal weight to "Case" and "Western Reserve." A new logo was chosen and implementation began July 1. In an open letter to the university community, interim president Eastwood admitted that "the university had misplaced its own history and traditions." Research Case Western Reserve is classified among "R1: Doctoral Universities – Very High Research Activity". Following is a partial list of major contributions made by faculty, staff, and students at Case Western Reserve since 1887: Case Western Reserve was the site of the Michelson-Morley interferometer experiment, conducted in 1887 by Albert A. Michelson of Case Institute of Technology and Edward W. Morley of Western Reserve University. This experiment proved the non-existence of the ether, and provided evidence that later substantiated Einstein's special theory of relativity Albert A. Michelson, who became the first American to win a Nobel Prize in science, taught at Case Institute of Technology. He won the prize in physics in 1907. Edward W. Morley, in 1895, made the most precise (to that date) determination of the atomic weight of oxygen, the basis for calculating the weights of all other elements. Dayton C. Miller, in 1896, performed the first full X-ray of the human body—on himself. George W. Crile, in 1905, performed the first modern blood transfusion, using a coupling device to connect blood vessels. Roger G. Perkins, in 1911, pioneered drinking water chlorination to eradicate typhoid bacilli. Henry J. Gerstenberger, in 1915, developed simulated infant formula. Claude S. Beck, in 1935, pioneered surgical treatment of coronary artery disease. Frederick S. Cross, in the 1950s, developed the first heart-lung machine used during open heart surgery. Claude S. Beck, in 1947, performed the first successful lifesaving defibrillation of the human heart and developed cardiopulmonary resuscitation (CPR). Robert Kearns, in 1964, invented the intermittent windshield wiper used in most modern automobiles. Frederick Reines, in 1965, first detected neutrinos created by cosmic ray collisions with the Earth's atmosphere and developed innovative particle detectors. Case Western Reserve had selected Prof. Reines as chair of the physics department based on Reines's work that first detected neutrinos emitted from a nuclear reactor—work for which Reines shared a 1995 Nobel Prize. Eric Baer, in 1967, pioneered the materials science of polymers and created the first comprehensive polymer science and engineering department at a major U.S. university. Joseph F. Fagan, in 1987, developed a test for infants to identify mental retardation within one year of birth. In 1987 the first edition of the Encyclopedia of Cleveland History was published. Huntington F. Willard of the School of Medicine and University Hospitals of Cleveland—collaborating with colleagues at Athersys, Inc., in 1997—created the first artificial human chromosomes, opening the door to more detailed study of human genetics and potentially offering a new approach to gene therapy. Roger Quinn, in 2001, developed robots such as Whegs that mimic cockroaches and other crawling insects Case Biorobotics Lab Tshilidzi Marwala, in 2006, began work on Local Loop Unbundling in Africa. He also chaired the Local Loop Unbundling Committee on behalf of the South African Government. Furthermore, Marwala and his collaborators developed an artificial larynx, developed the theory of rational counterfactuals, computer bluffing as well as establishing the relationship between artificial intelligence and the theory of information asymmetry. In 2007, a team from Case Western Reserve participated in the DARPA Urban Challenge with a robotic car named DEXTER. Team Case placed as one of 36 semi-finalists. DEXTER was the only car in the race without any seating for humans, and the only one built from scratch as a robot car. Case Western Reserve University researchers are developing atomically thin drumheads which is tens of trillions times smaller in volume and 100,000 times thinner than the human eardrum. They will be made with the intent to receive and transmit signals across a radio frequency range which will be far greater than what we can hear with the human ear. Simon Ostrach and Yasuhiro Kamotani led spacelab projects entitled surface tension driven convection experiment (STDCE) aboard the space shuttle STS-50 and the re-flight STDCE-2 in USML-2 aboard STS-73 studying oscillatory thermocapillary flows in the absence of gravitational effects. James T'ien has contributed to the study of numerous microgravity combustion space flight experiments including the Candle Flame In Non-Buoyant Atmospheres aboard the Space Shuttle STS-50 along with the reflight to Mir Orbiting Station in 1995, the Burning and Suppression of Solids (BASS) taking place aboard the International Space Station along with the experiment reflight (BASS-2). He received the NASA Public Service Medal in 2000. He is a member of the National Academy of Sciences and serves on the Committee of Biological and Physical Sciences in Space. . Today, the university operates several facilities off campus for scientific research. One example of this is the Warner and Swasey Observatory at Kitt Peak National Observatory in Arizona. Electrochemistry The Yeager Center for Electrochemical Sciences (YCES), formerly the Case Center for Electrochemical Sciences, has provided annual workshops on electrochemical measurements since the late 1970s. Related laboratories at Case include the Electrochemical Engineering and Energy Laboratory (EEEL), the Electrochemical Materials Fabrication Laboratory (EMFL), the Case Electrochemical Capacitor Fabrication Facility and the ENERGY LAB. The editor for the Journal of the Electrochemical Society is a Case professor, and the university is home to six Fellows of the Electrochemical Society. Some notable achievements involve the work on boron-doped diamond electrodes, in-situ electrochemical spectroscopy, polybenzibidazole (PBI) membranes for fuel cells and flow batteries and electrochemical sensors. In July 2018, the university was awarded $10.75 million by the U.S. Department of Energy to establish the Energy Frontier Research Center, which will explore "Breakthrough Electrolytes for Energy Storage." Sears think[box] Larry Sears and Sally Zlotnick Sears think[box] is a public-access design and innovation center at Case Western Reserve University that allows students and other users to access prototyping equipment and other invention resources. The makerspace is located in the Richey Mixon building, a seven-story, 50,000 sq. ft. facility behind the campus athletic center. Over $35 million has been invested in space including in large part from a funding of $10 million from alumni Larry Sears and his wife Sally Zlotnick Sears. Larry Sears is an adjunct faculty member in the Department of Electrical Engineering and Computer Science at CWRU and the founder of Hexagram, Inc. (Now ACLARA Wireless Technologies). Many projects and startup companies have come out of the makerspace. Student life The primary area for restaurants and shopping is the Uptown district along Euclid Ave adjacent to campus. Cleveland's Little Italy is within walking distance. A campus shuttle runs to Coventry Village, a shopping district in neighboring Cleveland Heights. Popular with students, Downtown Cleveland, Ohio City, Legacy Village, and Shaker Square are all a short driving distance or accessible by RTA. Music WRUW-FM (91.1 FM) is the campus radio station of Case Western Reserve University. Its motto "More Music, Fewer Hits" can be seen adorning the rear bumpers of many vehicles in the area. WRUW broadcasts at a power of 15,000 watts and covers most of Northeast Ohio 24 hours a day, 365 days a year. WRUW is staffed by Case Western Reserve students and community volunteers. The station's format can be classified as non-commercial "variety." Case Western Reserve is also home to 19 performing ensembles, including a cappella groups such as Dhamakapella, the Case Men's Glee Club, Case Women's Glee Club, Case in Point, and Solstice. Other ensembles include the Case/University Circle Symphony Orchestra, Camerata Chamber Orchestra, Case/CIM Baroque Orchestra, Concert Choir, Early Music Singers, Jazz Ensemble 1 and 2, Marching Spartans, Percussion Ensemble, Symphonic Winds, University Singers, Collegium Musicum, New Music Ensemble, Wind Ensemble, and Chamber Music. Case Western Reserve's main music venue is the Maltz Performing Arts Center. Case Western Reserve also has two main rehearsal spaces for performing arts music majors and school ensembles. Haydn Hall contains practice rooms with Steinway pianos, along with the department offices. Denison Hall serves as a rehearsal, practice, and teaching space for the music students and school ensembles, and is attached to Wade Commons. The Cleveland Youth Wind Symphony also rehearses in Denison Hall. Music majors may take lessons and courses at the Cleveland Institute of Music. For performances, all students, ensembles, and a cappella groups use Harkness Chapel. The bands and orchestra also perform at Severance Hall (the on-campus home of the Cleveland Orchestra) and CIM's Kulas Hall. Computing Case Western Reserve had the first ABET-accredited program in computer engineering. In 1968, the university formed a private company, Chi Corporation, to provide computer time to both it and other customers. Initially this was on a Univac 1108 (replacing the preceding UNIVAC 1107), 36 bit, one's complement machine. The company was sold in 1977 to Robert G. Benson in Beachwood, Ohio becoming Ecocenters Corporation. Project Logos, under ARPA contract, was begun within the department on a DEC System-10 (later converted to TENEX (BBN) in conjunction with connection to the ARPANET) to develop a computer-aided computer design system. This system consisted in a distributed, networked, graphics environment, a control and data flow designer and logic (both hardware and software) analyzer. An Imlac PDS-1 with lightpen interrupt was the main design workstation in 1973, communicating with the PDP-10 over a display communications protocol written by Don Huff as a Master Thesis and implemented on the Imlac by Ted Brenneman. Graphics and animation became another departmental focus with the acquisition of an Evans & Sutherland LDS-1 (Line Drawing System-1), which was hosted by the DEC System-10, and later with the acquisition of the stand-alone LDS-2. Case Western Reserve was one of the earliest universities connected to the ARPANET, predecessor to the Internet. ARPANET went online in 1969; Case Western Reserve was connected in January, 1971. Case Western Reserve graduate Ken Biba published the Biba Integrity Model in 1977 and served on the ARPA Working Group that developed the Transmission Control Protocol (TCP) used on the Internet. Case Western Reserve pioneered the early Free-net computer systems, creating the first Free-net, The Cleveland Free-Net, as well as writing the software that drove a majority of those systems, known as FreePort. The Cleveland Free-Net was shut down in late 1999, as it had become obsolete. It was the first university to have an all-fiber-optic network, in 1989. At the inaugural meeting in October, 1996, Case Western Reserve was one of the 34 charter university members of Internet2. The university was ranked No. 1 in Yahoo Internet Life's 1999 Most Wired College list. There was a perception that this award was obtained through partially false or inaccurate information submitted for the survey, and the university did not appear at all on the 2000 Most Wired College list (which included 100 institutions). The numbers reported were much lower than those submitted by Ray Neff in 1999. The university had previously placed No. 13 in the 1997 poll. In August 2003, Case Western Reserve joined the Internet Streaming Media Alliance, then one of only two university members. In September 2003, Case Western Reserve opened 1,230 public wireless access points on the Case Western Reserve campus and University Circle. Case Western Reserve was one of the founding members of OneCleveland, formed in October 2003. OneCleveland is an "ultra broadband" (gigabit speed) fiber optic network. This network is for the use of organizations in education, research, government, healthcare, arts, culture, and the nonprofit sector in Greater Cleveland. Case Western Reserve's Virtual Worlds gaming computer lab opened in 2005. The lab has a large network of Alienware PCs equipped with game development software such as the Torque Game Engine and Maya 3D modeling software. Additionally, it contains a number of specialized advanced computing rooms including a medical simulation room, a MIDI instrument music room, a 3D projection "immersion room," a virtual reality research room, and console room, which features video game systems such as Xbox 360, PlayStation 3, and Wii. This laboratory can be used by any student in the Electrical Engineering and computer science department, and is heavily used for the Game Development (EECS 290) course. Case Western's Internet Technology Service also runs a High Performance Computing Cluster (HPCC) utilizing 2684 processors over 200 computer nodes interconnected with gigabit fiberoptic ethernet. The HPCC is available for research utilizing a wide array of commercial and custom scientific software packages and computer languages including: Matlab, Mathematica, Ansys CFX Fluent and ICEM, Schrödinger, LAMMPS, Gaussian, NEURON, MCell, Python, Qhull, Sundials, Charmm/qchem, Rosetta, Gromacs, NAMD, C, C++, Fortran. Housing Residence halls are divided into two areas: one featuring suite-style rooms for second-year students in the South Residential Village, the other featuring double, single and suite style rooms for first-year students and upperclassmen in the North Residential Village. Both have gigabit ethernet network access and the wired network is one of the fastest that exists. A wireless campus network is also available in all buildings on campus and ranked as one of the fastest by Intel in 2005. Suite style housing, known as the Village at 115th, was opened in fall 2005 for upperclassmen and features one- to nine-person, "apartment-style" residence halls that come with air conditioning, a full kitchen area, and full-sized beds. Residence Life at Case Western Reserve has a recent history of being liberal in its policies, including allowing co-ed suites (an option offered to non-freshman students, when requested and agreed upon by all occupants of a suite) and several co-ed floors for freshmen, as well as a three-day guest policy. Pets are allowed except for dogs, cats, ferrets, and a few other small mammals, but requests are granted discussion. First-year students are grouped into one of four residential colleges that are overseen by first-year coordinators. The Mistletoe, Juniper, and Magnolia residential colleges were established when the "First Year Experience" system was introduced, and Cedar was created in the fall of 2005 to accommodate a large influx of new students. In the fall of 2007, Magnolia was integrated into Mistletoe, however, it was later re-separated in the fall of 2012. The areas of focus for each college are – Cedar: visual and performing arts; Mistletoe: service leadership; Juniper: multiculturalism and Magnolia: sustainability. Magnolia now includes Clarke Tower, which also houses second year students as well as first year students. The residential colleges plan events together and are run by college councils that take student input and use it to plan social and community service-oriented activities. 3rd year students who are allowed to live off campus through graduate students have several university owned, university controlled, and independent apartment options. Greek life Nearly one-half of the campus undergraduates are in a fraternity or sorority. There are ten sororities and sixteen fraternities currently on campus. Greek organizations are governed by an Interfraternity Council and Panhellenic Council. During the 2010–2011 school year, fraternities and sororities at Case collectively raised over $45,375 for philanthropy. In September 2010, the Delta Chi fraternity joined the Greek community, achieving chapter status in October 2012. In September 2012, Pi Beta Phi sorority began a colonization effort. In the Spring of 2013, Delta Sigma Phi fraternity began colonization efforts as well. In the Spring of 2014, a colony of Pi Kappa Phi was opened. In the 2014–2015 academic year a chapter of the sorority Sigma Sigma Sigma joined the campus along with the return of the fraternity Sigma Alpha Epsilon. Most recently, a colony of Alpha Gamma Delta was established in Spring 2018. Zeta Psi was suspended by its alumni board due to a slew of sexual assault allegations detailed on the Instagram page CWRU Survivors. Case's Interfraternity Council then voted to withdraw recognition of the chapter. The fraternities are: Beta Theta Pi Delta Chi Delta Tau Delta Delta Sigma Phi Delta Upsilon Phi Delta Theta Phi Gamma Delta Phi Kappa Psi Phi Kappa Tau Phi Kappa Theta Pi Kappa Phi Sigma Alpha Epsilon Sigma Chi Sigma Nu Theta Chi Zeta Beta Tau The sororities are: Alpha Chi Omega Alpha Gamma Delta Alpha Phi Delta Gamma Kappa Alpha Theta Phi Mu Phi Sigma Rho Pi Beta Phi Sigma Psi Sigma Sigma Sigma Safety and security Office of Emergency Management The Office of Emergency Management prepares for various levels of emergencies on campus, such as chemical spills, severe weather, infectious diseases, and security threats. RAVE, a multi-platform emergency alerting system, is operated by Emergency Management for issuing emergency alerts and instructions for events on campus. The Office of Emergency Management also performs risk assessment to identify possible safety issues and aims to mitigate these issues. Additionally, CERT is managed through Emergency Management, enabling faculty and staff members to engage in emergency preparedness. The Office of Emergency Management works closely with other campus departments, such as Police and Security Services, University Health Services, and Environmental Health and Safety, as well as community resources including city, state, and federal emergency management agencies. Police and security services Case operates a police force of sworn officers as well as a security officers. Starting as security only, the university expanded the role of protective services to include sworn officers who have arrest power and carry firearms. Some officers have additional training, such as SWAT training. On top of routine duties such as fingerprinting, traffic control, and bicycle registration, police and security also conduct investigations, undercover operations, and community outreach. Police and Security operate a fleet of vehicles, including police cruisers, scooters, and Smart cars. Police and Security are dispatched by a 24/7 campus dispatch center, responsible for emergency call handling, alarm monitoring, and video surveillance. Additionally, the dispatch center can send RAVE notifications and manages CWRU Shield, a mobile application allowing video, image, and text tips, safety checks, and viewing emergency procedures. CWRU Police also works closely with RTA transit police, University Circle Police, Cleveland Police, East Cleveland Police, Cleveland Heights Police, University Hospitals Police Department, and other surrounding emergency services. Police and Security, with conjunction with the Emergency Management Office, conduct tabletop drills and full-scale exercises involving surrounding emergency services. Traditions Starting in 1910, the Hudson Relay is an annual relay race event remembering and honoring the university relocation from Hudson, Ohio to Cleveland. Conceived by then-student, Monroe Curtis, the relay race was run from the old college in Hudson, Ohio to the new university in University Circle. Since the mid-1980s, the race has been run entirely in the University Circle area. The race is a distance of . It is held weekend before spring semester finals. Competing running teams are divided by graduating class. If a class wins the relay all four years, tradition dictates a reward of a champagne and steak dinner with the president of the university be awarded. Only six classes have won all four years—1982, 1990, 1994, 2006, 2011, and 2017. The winning classes of each year is carved on an original boulder located behind Adelbert Hall. Springfest is a day-long concert and student group festival that occurs later in the same day as Hudson Relays. The Springfest Planning Committee brings in several bands and a beer garden, student groups set up booths to entertain the student body, and various inflatable carnival-style attractions are brought in to add to the festive atmosphere. Occasionally, due to adverse weather conditions, the festival must be moved indoors, usually to Thwing Center or Adelbert Gym. Halloween at the Farm is a tradition established in the fall of 2002. Halloween at the Farm takes place at the Squire Valleevue Farm in Hunting Valley, Ohio. Students, their families, and faculty are invited to enjoy games, a bonfire, an open-air concert and hay rides. Organized by the members of the Class Officer Collective, HATF is one of the biggest events of the year. In the fall of 2009 the event was moved to the main campus and renamed "Halloween at Home". Since 1976, the Film Society of Case Western Reserve University has held a science fiction marathon. The film festival, the oldest of its type, boasts more than 34 hours of non-stop movies, cartoons, trailers, and shorts spanning many decades and subgenres, using both film and digital projection. The Film Society, which is student-run and open to the public, also shows movies on Friday and Saturday evenings throughout the school year. Athletics Case Western Reserve competes in 19 varsity sports—10 men's sports and 9 women's sports. All 19 varsity teams wear a commemorative patch on their uniforms honoring Case alumnus, M. Frank Rudy, inventor of the Nike air-sole. The Spartans' primary athletic rival is Carnegie Mellon University. DiSanto Field is home to the football, men's soccer, women's soccer, and track and field teams. Case Western Reserve is a founding and current member of the University Athletic Association (UAA). The conference participates in the National Collegiate Athletic Association's (NCAA) Division III. Case Institute of Technology and Western Reserve University were also founding members of the Presidents' Athletic Conference (PAC) in 1958. When the athletic departments of the two universities merged in 1971 they dominated the (PAC) for several years. The university remained a member of the PAC until 1983. In the fall of 1984 the university joined the North Coast Athletic Conference (NCAC), a pioneer in gender equality in sports, as a charter member. The 1998–99 school year marked the final season in which the Spartans were members of the NCAC. As the university had held joint conference membership affiliation with the UAA and the NCAC for over a decade. In 2014, the football team began competing as an associate member of the PAC, as only four out of the eight UAA member institutions sponsored football. The university offers ten men's sports and nine women's sports. In recent years, the Case Western Reserve baseball team has made appearances in the NCAA post-season. In 2014, the Spartans advanced to the NCAA Mid-East Regional Final before losing to Salisbury State 3–2. The 2014 team set a school record for victories in a season with 34, and also won a UAA title. In 2011, Spartan third baseman Chad Mullins was named the D3Baseball.com Player of the Year after hitting .437 with eight home runs and 71 RBIs. Mullins also ranked in the Division III national top ten in hits, runs scored, and total bases. Case Western Reserve has a long and historied cross country program. The Case Western Reserve's women's cross country team finished the 2006 season with a UAA Championship and a bid to the NCAA Championship. The Lady Spartans finished 10th in the nation. The women's team went on to finish even higher at nationals in 2007, earning a sixth-place finish at the NCAA DIII national championship. Both the men's and women's Cross Country teams qualified for and competed in the NCAA DIII national championships in 2008, with the women's team coming away with two All-Americans and a 16th-place finish. In 2009, they had two All-Americans and finished 15th. In 2010, the lady Spartans finished 19th, with one all-American. From 2006 to 2010 the women's cross country team earned 8 individual All-American Titles, including current professional marathoner Esther Erb. The Case Western Reserve football team reemerged in the mid-2000s under the direction of Head Coach Greg Debeljak. The 2007 team finished undefeated earning the school's first playoff appearance and first playoff victory, winning against Widener University. The undefeated seasons continued in both 2008 and 2009, earning more UAA titles and NCAA Division III playoff appearances, helping set up an all-time school record of a 38-game regular season win streak. In 2017, the Spartans again went undefeated and advanced to the NCAA Division III playoffs, defeating Illinois Wesleyan University in the first round, before being eliminated in the second round by the Mount Union Purple Raiders, the eventual NCAA Division III national champion. In total, the team has won eight UAA football championships–1988, 1996, 2007, 2008, 2009, 2011, 2016, and 2017. In 2014, the football team began competing as an associate member of the Presidents' Athletic Conference, winning the conference in 2017. All other sports continue to compete in the University Athletic Association. In 2019, the Spartans finished 9–2, winning an outright PAC title, and earning an automatic bid to the Division III playoffs, where they were defeated in the first round. The Case Western Reserve men's soccer team finished their 2006 season with a 17–2–2 record and a UAA championship. The team reached the Sweet 16 in their first-ever NCAA Division III tournament appearance and concluded the season ranked 12th in the nation. In 2018, the Case Western Reserve men's soccer team made their deepest NCAA run ever, advancing to the NCAA Division III "Elite Eight" before falling in the quarterfinals to Calvin College, 3–1. The 2018 team finished the season with a record of 16–2–2. In 2014, the Spartan men's tennis team was ranked in the Division III Top 10 for most of the season, and advanced to the NCAA Elite Eight before falling to Middlebury College. That same year, two CWRU tennis players, Eric Klawitter and Christopher Krimbill, won the NCAA men's doubles title. In 2021, the Spartan men's tennis team advanced all the way to the finals of the NCAA Division III championship before losing to Emory 5–2; the team finished with an overall 14–3 record, with two of those losses coming against non-Division III competition. CWRU has produced eight individual Division III national champions in Indoor and Outdoor Track and Field. The Case Western Reserve Ultimate Frisbee Team, although a club sport, competes against Division I teams around the country. Established in 1995, the Fighting Gobies have been successful, with the men's team taking home first place in the Ohio Valley Regional Tournament. CWRU wrestlers have won four individual Division III national titles. Notable people Notable alumni include John Charles Cutler, former surgeon general who violated human rights and led to deaths in the Tuskegee Syphilis Study, Terre Haute prison experiments, and the syphilis experiments in Guatemala; Anthony Russo and Joe Russo, Hollywood movie directors, Paul Buchheit, creator and lead developer of Gmail; Craig Newmark, billionaire founder of Craigslist; Peter Tippett, developer of the anti-virus software Vaccine, which Symantec purchased and turned into the popular Norton AntiVirus. Founders of Fortune 500 companies include Herbert Henry Dow, founder of Dow Chemical, Art Parker, founder of Parker Hannifin, and Edward Williams, co-founder of Sherwin-Williams. Other notable alumni include Pete Koomen, co-founder and CTO of Optimizely; Larry Hurtado, one of the leading New Testament scholars in the world; Harvey Hilbert, a zen master, psychologist and expert on post-Vietnam stress syndrome; Peter Sterling, neuroscientist and co-founder of the concept of allostasis; Ogiame Atuwatse III, Tsola Emiko the 21st Olu of Warri - a historic monarch of the Itsekiri people in Nigeria's Delta region, and Donald Knuth, a leading expert on computer algorithms and creator of the TeX typesetting system. Nobel laureates See also Association of Independent Technological Universities References Further reading External links Case Western Reserve Athletics website 1826 establishments in Ohio Educational institutions established in 1826 Technological universities in the United States Universities and colleges in Cleveland University Circle Universities and colleges formed by merger in the United States Private universities and colleges in Ohio Western Reserve, Ohio	[ -0.22806835174560547, -0.42861559987068176, -0.5204942226409912, 0.10426422953605652, 0.5095393657684326, 0.5243896842002869, 0.044959526509046555, 0.1961718201637268, 0.05644837021827698, -0.8404673337936401, 0.1164790689945221, 0.10090390592813492, 0.11006760597229004, 0.5885488390922546, -0.11199565976858139, -0.08857719600200653, -0.05603935196995735, 0.5108115673065186, -0.04077647253870964, -0.2725171446800232, -0.31608760356903076, -0.23848795890808105, 0.3725784718990326, 0.7797006964683533, 0.04712140932679176, 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230550	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vanity	Vanity	Vanity is the excessive belief in one's own abilities or attractiveness to others. Prior to the 14th century it did not have such narcissistic undertones, and merely meant futility. The related term vainglory is now often seen as an archaic synonym for vanity, but originally meant considering one's own capabilities and that God's help was not needed, i.e. unjustified boasting; although glory is now seen as having a predominantly positive meaning, the Latin term from which it derives, gloria, roughly means boasting, and was often used as a negative criticism. Religion and philosophy In many religions, vanity, in its modern sense, is considered a form of self-idolatry in which one likens oneself to the greatness of God for the sake of one's own image, and thereby becomes separated and perhaps in time divorced from the Divine grace of God. In Christian teachings, vanity is an example of pride, one of the seven deadly sins. Also, in the Baháʼí Faith, Baha'u'llah uses the term 'vain imaginings'. Philosophically, vanity may be a broader form of egotism and pride. Friedrich Nietzsche wrote that "vanity is the fear of appearing original: it is thus a lack of pride, but not necessarily a lack of originality." One of Mason Cooley's aphorisms is "Vanity well fed is benevolent. Vanity hungry is spiteful." Symbolism In Western art, vanity was often symbolized by a peacock, and in Biblical terms, by the Whore of Babylon. During the Renaissance, vanity was invariably represented as a naked woman, sometimes seated or reclining on a couch. She attends to her hair with comb and mirror. The mirror is sometimes held by a demon or a putto. Symbols of vanity include jewels, gold coins, a purse, and the figure of death. Some depictions of vanity include scrolls that read Omnia Vanitas ("All is Vanity"), a quotation from the Latin translation of the Book of Ecclesiastes. Although the term vanitas (Latin, "emptiness") originally meant not obsession by one's appearance, but the ultimate fruitlessness of humankind's efforts in this world, the phrase summarizes the complete preoccupation of the subject of the picture. "The artist invites us to pay lip-service to condemning her," writes Edwin Mullins, "while offering us full permission to drool over her. She admires herself in the glass, while we treat the picture that purports to incriminate her as another kind of glass—a window—through which we peer and secretly desire her." The theme of the recumbent woman often merged artistically with the non-allegorical one of a reclining Venus. In his table of the Seven deadly sins, Hieronymus Bosch depicts a bourgeois woman admiring herself in a mirror held up by a devil; behind her is an open jewelry box. A painting attributed to Nicolas Tournier, which hangs in the Ashmolean Museum, is An Allegory of Justice and Vanity: a young woman holds a balance, symbolizing justice; she does not look at the mirror or the skull on the table before her. Johannes Vermeer's painting Girl with a Pearl Earring is sometimes believed to depict the sin of vanity, because the young girl has adorned herself before a glass without further positive allegorical attributes. All is Vanity, by Charles Allan Gilbert (1873–1929), carries on this theme. An optical illusion, the painting depicts what appears to be a large grinning skull. Upon closer examination, it reveals itself to be a young woman gazing at her reflection in the mirror. In the film The Devil's Advocate, Satan (Al Pacino) claims that "vanity is his favourite sin". Such artistic works served to warn viewers of the ephemeral nature of youthful beauty, as well as the brevity of human life and the inevitability of death. In the RPG game Persona 5, the second target Ren Amamiya and his friends have to change the heart of is Ichiryusai Madarame, and artist that plagiarises his students work and abuses them as well, with one of his students committing suicide over his actions. He is represented by Vanity as his Palace is an art museum filled with plagiarised work. 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230552	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Corridor%207%3A%20Alien%20Invasion	Corridor 7: Alien Invasion	Corridor 7: Alien Invasion is a first-person shooter video game developed by Capstone Software and published by IntraCorp and GameTek. It was widely ignored for its outdated Wolfenstein 3D engine, which was technologically surpassed by Doom at the time. A sequel, Corridor 8: Galactic Wars, was in development, but later cancelled. Plot A military facility called the Delta Base worked on experimental space technology. Their latest experiment called a dimensional gate (or the Vortex) led to the discovery of an alien world. However those hostile aliens went through the Vortex and overran the base and killed everyone within. A single soldier of the Special Forces, penetrates the base to kill the aliens and destroy the source of their power. Gameplay Corridor 7 consists of 30 floors (plus an additional 10 in the CD version) and 6 bonus floors. The player is tasked with killing a certain number of enemies before the exit to the next floor is accessible. There are four difficulty settings, which influences the percentage of aliens that need to be eliminated and how much damage the player will take from enemy attacks and traps. In the CD version, there is a fifth setting, which randomly scatters enemies and items throughout the game. The player can activate the proximity map in one corner of the screen. This function shows a small section of the current level with all active aliens as yellow blips and can be expanded by finding the floor plan. The player is equipped with a visor capable of both infrared and night vision. Infrared is employed to detect invisible traps, while night vision is especially useful to better see when playing on dark levels. Ammunition and health are not scattered around the levels as objects to pick up, but rather as dispenser bays encased in the level walls. Health is also available in special rooms called "health chambers", where the player can obtain up to 100 hit points. There are two ammo types as well which power up human firearms and alien firearms respectively. Locked areas do require a color-coded (blue or red) passcard to be opened. These cards are granted by operating special wall-sized computer terminals; since these terminals are also placed behind the color-coded doors. Some of the aliens names are common names re-arranged or backwards (e.g. the Tenaj is Janet backwards, and the Otrebor is Roberto backwards as well). Multiplayer The immense success of the multiplayer modes in Doom is probably the reason behind the addition of LAN and modem gameplay modes in the CD release of Corridor 7. The only multiplayer mode featured is deathmatch, and an extra set of 8 multiplayer maps is included. Players can deathmatch impersonating either the Special Forces soldiers from the single-player mode or as one of the aliens; playing as an alien results in possessing the distinctive abilities of the creature chosen (e.g. speed or endurance). Legacy Corridor 8: Galactic Wars was the planned sequel to Corridor 7. The game was in development and used the Build engine, though it was never finished because the developer, Capstone Software, went bankrupt along with their parent company, IntraCorp, in 1996. The game only made it to prototype stage. In 2005, Les Bird released the Corridor 8 prototype and source code to a Corridor 7 fan, who put it onto his website as a free download. Reception References Steven M. Schafer, Corridor 7 Official guide - Brady publishing 1994 External links KBW's Corridor 7 Page Corridor 8 prototype and source code download 1994 video games Alien invasions in video games Commercial video games with freely available source code DOS games DOS-only games First-person shooters Science fiction video games Sprite-based first-person shooters Video games about extraterrestrial life Video games developed in the United States Video games with 2.5D graphics Wolfenstein 3D engine games Games commercially released with DOSBox	[ -0.1206759512424469, 0.06546090543270111, 0.4696059823036194, 0.1074303388595581, 0.5688352584838867, 0.024324463680386543, 0.07464823871850967, 0.32307741045951843, -0.13625089824199677, -0.384432852268219, -0.49007052183151245, 0.5397157669067383, -0.48638227581977844, 0.49124592542648315, 0.5128491520881653, 0.13942034542560577, 0.21795117855072021, 0.07420626282691956, -0.34069207310676575, 0.10149398446083069, 0.06067866459488869, 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230556	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lying%20%28disambiguation%29	Lying (disambiguation)	Lying is the practice of telling lies, or deliberate untruths. Lying may also refer to: Lying (position), a human horizontal position Lying (Bok book), a 1978 book by Sissela Bok Lying (Harris book), a 2011 book by Sam Harris Lying (film), a 2006 American film "Lying" (Amy Meredith song), 2010 "Lying", a song by Lil Baby and Lil Durk from The Voice of the Heroes, 2021 "Lying", a song by Peter Frampton from Premonition, 1986 "Lying", a song by PrettyMuch, 2019 See also Lied (disambiguation) Lying in (disambiguation)	[ 0.49537235498428345, 0.6034847497940063, -0.5362392067909241, 0.14022479951381683, -0.27769431471824646, -0.32767602801322937, 0.6794434189796448, 0.0366956926882267, -0.08020538091659546, 0.0141600351780653, -0.08414456248283386, 0.3197135031223297, -0.12033006548881531, 0.12629082798957825, -0.29645997285842896, 0.2031315714120865, 0.33390071988105774, 0.4881608486175537, 0.23366069793701172, -0.08027638494968414, -0.35883358120918274, -0.0031076185405254364, -0.36834487318992615, -0.8234483599662781, 0.09286647289991379, 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230560	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/David%20Cooperrider	David Cooperrider	David Cooperrider (born July 14, 1954), is the Fairmount Minerals Chair and Professor of Social Entrepreneurship at the Weatherhead School of Management at Case Western Reserve University, and Faculty Director at the Center for Business as an Agent of World Benefit at Case. Cooperrider also teaches at University of Pennsylvania as well as Claremont University, where he is The Peter F. Drucker Distinguished Fellow. Cooperrider is the founder, together with Suresh Srivastva, of the theory of Appreciative Inquiry. Cooperrider's original doctoral dissertation "Appreciative Inquiry Into Organizational Life" has been cited as “the first, and as yet, the best articulation of the theory and vision of appreciative inquiry.” It was completed and defended in 1985. Early life and education Cooperrider grew up in Oak Park, Illinois, and later completed his undergraduate studies at Augustana College in 1976. He earned a Master's of Science at Sir George Williams University in 1983 and his Ph.D. from Case Western Reserve University in 1985. Appreciative Inquiry Appreciative Inquiry was articulated first as a method for building generative theory. It was a call for "a scholarship of the positive," focusing attention on "what gives life" to human and ecological systems when they are most alive. Appreciative Inquiry is related to theories and practices such as organization development, strengths-based management, applied positive psychology, evaluation studies, change management, coaching and counseling, corporate strategy, sustainable development, social constructionism, design thinking, biomimicry, and learning theory. In a New York Times best-selling book, Marcus Buckingham concluded that the theory of Appreciative Inquiry was one of the three most important academic catalysts for the strengths revolution in management. Beyond the seminal work of Cooperrider and Srivastva, the other two giant sources of the strengths revolution in management included Peter Drucker's Effective Executive and Martin Seligman's call for a Positive Psychology in 2000. Together, appreciative inquiry, Drucker's management theory, and positive psychology have created a society-wide positive-strengths movement "because it works." What is big idea of Appreciative Inquiry? It began with the observation that ever since Taylorism, managers, researchers and consultants have seen organizations not only in machine-like terms, but in deficit-based terms as "problems to be solved" or fixed. True to Abraham Maslow's observation that "if all you have is a hammer, everything looks like a nail," those same managers and consultants became, over the years, quite good at finding, analyzing, and sometimes solving problems in organizations. So much so that organizations became problems personified—and hence a whole vocabulary of deficit-based change grew up centered on concepts like "gap analysis," "organizational diagnosis," "root causes of failure," "resistance," "unfreezing," "needs analysis," "threat analysis," and the need for high levels of dissatisfaction and urgent "burning platforms." Much like diagnostic medicine with its focus on illness, management had become locked in a problem-analytic view of the world, especially when it came to concepts and tools for managing change. Early in the 1980s almost two decades before the positive psychology field was christened, Cooperrider began to question the deficit-based change field and the root metaphor that "human systems are problems to be solved." He observed that the pervasive problematizing perspective was constraining and limiting, just as industrial era machine metaphors were also limiting. Cooperrider and Srivastva, in their earliest work at the acclaimed the Cleveland Clinic, engaged in a radical reversal of the traditional problem-analytic approach. Influenced by the writings of Albert Schweitzer on "reverence for life," they determined that organizations are not institutional machines incessantly in need of repair and that deteriorate steadily and over time. Rather organizations are, fundamentally, living systems and centers of human relatedness, alive and embedded in amplifying networks of infinite strengths. Instead of "problems to be solved," human systems are "mysteries to be appreciated." In a real way they are products of the miracle of human interaction and relatedness. The more we study "what gives life" versus "what’s wrong," the more we move in the direction or become what we study. Instead of studying low morale, for example, we should study human flourishing in the workplace "because human systems move in the direction of what they study." The simple act of observation in a human system changes the phenomenon itself. In another realm this concept has been called the Hawthorne effect. But in human systems, the result is even more powerful. Cooperrider called it "the exponential inquiry effect" to indicate how our first questions, like the early stage of a snowball, can grow into exponential tipping point movements. That's why he writes: "We live in worlds our questions create." In a classic conversation between Cooperrider and Peter Drucker, they found something in common: a realization that strengths do more than perform, they transform. For Drucker, the development of an appreciative eye is, in essence, the first task of great leadership. "What is leadership all about?" he asked, "Leadership is about the creation of an alignment of strengths in ways that make a system’s weaknesses irrelevant." That is what appreciative inquiry does: it provides the theory and tools for (1) the elevation of systemic strengths; (2) the unification and configuration of systemic strengths; and (3) the magnification of systemic strengths outward into society, that is, the discovery and design of positive institutions that bring our highest human strengths, such as love and courage, into the world. Today, Appreciative Inquiry's strengths-based tools and social constructionist concepts of human knowledge have been translated into many practices: the "4-D" action-research cycle of discovery, dream, design, and destiny; the Appreciative Inquiry Large Group Summit method; the art of the "unconditional positive question"; the SOAR approach to corporate strategy (versus SWOT); AI Executive Coaching; the Appreciative Inquiry massive online planning and design studio; generative metaphor intervention; the worldwide appreciative inquiry into Business as an Agent of World Benefit; and many others. What is so noteworthy about Appreciative Inquiry as a social construction is that it was treated, right from the beginning before open source, in an open, collaborative kind of way. Cooperrider made a decision early on: no trademarks or copyrights. In fact, Cooperrider always put on the cover pages of notes and his slides, just the opposite of copyright: he said instead used "right to copy." As a result, the collective creativity of the whole AI community and field, and its impacts into organization development, positive psychology, social constructionist thought, family therapy, and strengths-based management has burgeoned. The "Appreciative Inquiry Commons" was formed as a web platform for the free and full sharing of Appreciative Inquiry resources. David L. Cooperrider Center for Appreciative Inquiry The David L. Cooperrider Center for Appreciative Inquiry, located in the Robert P. Stiller School of Business at Champlain College, is a comprehensive hub for connecting students to learn, apply, and amplify Appreciative Inquiry. The center was dedicated on November 8, 2014, and is the only academic center in the world focused entirely on Appreciative Inquiry. The center is run by former Cooperrider graduate student and now Academic Director of the center, Dr. Lindsey Godwin. The stated purpose of the Center is to educate leaders to be the best in the world at seeing the best for the world, in order to discover and design positive institutions – organizations and communities that elevate, magnify, and bring our highest human strengths to the practice of positive organizational development and change. Cooperrider serves as honorary chair of the Center, acts as strategic consultant for the Robert P. Stiller School of Business at Champlain College, and participates in executive workshops at the College's Burlington, Vermont campus and in other locations. "The Stiller School of Business at Champlain College welcomes Dr. Cooperrider ...," said Donald Laackman, president of Champlain College. "Teaming with Dr. Cooperrider, our growing network of scholars, executives and certified Appreciative Inquiry practitioners will demonstrate and teach how strengths-based organizations can and do succeed." Impact Cooperrider's impact on the fields of leadership, human development and management theory is significant. His work at Case Western Reserve University in the early 1980s on Appreciative Inquiry anticipated and helped bring about today's positive psychology movement, strengths-based leadership models, and positive organizational scholarship (POS). Kim S. Cameron, Robert Quinn and Jane Dutton called Appreciative Inquiry “a pillar.” Management scholar Robert Quinn, in a 2000 book Change the World declared that “Appreciative Inquiry is revolutionizing the field of organization development.” Nobel Laureate Kofi Annan, likewise, wrote these words after calling upon David Cooperrider as an advisor and using Appreciative Inquiry to bring over 500 CEO's into a world summit at the United Nations: “Without your innovative methodology of Appreciative Inquiry, it would have been very difficult, perhaps even impossible, to constructively engage so many leaders of business, civil society, and government.” A UN Leaders report for the Global Compact's 8,000 corporations said “Appreciative Inquiry is the best large group method in the world today.” All of this also affected the experiential learning field, including his most recent work focused on "Flourishing Organizations." In 2000, for his contribution to organizational learning and development, Cooperrider was given the "Distinguished Contribution Award to Workplace Performance and Learning" by the American Society for Training and Development. Then, in 2004, for his world inquiry with Ron Fry into Business as an Agent of World Benefit, the Aspen Institute gave him the “Faculty Pioneer Award for Impact” in the domain of sustainable development. That work, including his book with Jane Dutton on The Organization Dimensions of Global Change: No Limits to Cooperation, has given birth to two major institutions and endowments: The Fowler Center for Sustainable Value and the ongoing global forum series hosted by Case Western Reserve University in partnership with the United Nations Global Compact and Academy of Management titled “The Global Forum for Business as an Agent of World Benefit.” According to Ode Magazine, "In the field of Corporate Social Responsibility and Sustainability, Cooperrider leads the movement towards a more sustainable future, ...". Bibliography Cooperrider has published numerous books and authored more than 60 articles and book chapters. His book with Diana Whitney Appreciative Inquiry: A Positive Revolution in Change has been a best-seller with multiple printings. His original article on Appreciative Inquiry (with Suresh Srivastva) in 1987, which appeared in the series Research in Organizational Change and Development, Vol. 1, has become an important source for its field since publication. Cooperrider's writings include: Books 1985, Appreciative Inquiry: A Methodology for Advancing Social Innovation. Phd Dissertation by David Cooperrider. 1990, Appreciative management and leadership: the power of positive thought in organizations coauthored with Suresh Srivastva. 1998, Organizational wisdom and executive courage coauthored with Suresh Srivastva. 1999, Appreciative Inquiry: Rethinking human organization toward a positive theory of change coauthored with Peter Sorenson, et al. 1999, The organizational dimensions of global change: No limits to cooperation coauthored with Jane Dutton. 2001, The Appreciative Organization coauthored with Harlene Anderson, et al. 2001, Encyclopedia of positive questions coauthored with Diana Whitney. 2004, Appreciative Inquiry handbook: For leaders of change coauthored with Diana Whitney and Jackie Stavros. 2004, Discourse and change in organizations. Volume one in Advances in Appreciative Inquiry coauthored with Michel Avital. 2005, Appreciative Inquiry: Foundations in positive organization development, coauthored with Peter Sorenson et al. 2005, Appreciative Inquiry: A positive revolution in change with Diana Whitney. 2007, Handbook of transformative cooperation coauthored with Sandy Piderit and Ronald Fry. 2007, Designing information and organizations with a positive lens (Volume Two in Advances in Appreciative Inquiry) coauthored with Michel Avital and Richard Boland. 2008, Essentials of Appreciative Inquiry coauthored with Diana Whitney and Jackie Stavros. 2010, Appreciative Inquiry and Sustainable Design (Volume Three in Advances in Appreciative Inquiry) coauthored with Tojo Thachenkery and Michel Avital. 2010, Developing Tomorrow's Leaders to Enact Corporate Citizenship: The Call and Opportunity for Business Schools coauthored with Ronald Fry. 2012, Advances in the AI Summit: Explorations into the Magic of Macro and Crowdsourcing coauthored with Lindsey Godwin et al. 2013, Appreciative Inquiry: An innovative approach to personal and organizational transformation with Miriam Subriana. Personal life Cooperrider lives in Chagrin Falls, Ohio with his wife Nancy, an artist. His son Matt is a wind energy consultant, his daughter Hannah is an interior designer, and his eldest son Daniel is a minister at a United Church of Christ congregation in New England. References External links Presentation from 2008 International Alliance for Learning Conference Case Western Reserve University faculty Living people 1954 births Augustana College (Illinois) alumni Sir George Williams University alumni American business theorists	[ -0.033989183604717255, 0.3031047582626343, -0.20891237258911133, -0.06647100299596786, 0.3728625774383545, 0.35986626148223877, 0.10822047293186188, -0.122653067111969, -0.15003032982349396, 0.1286424994468689, -0.2314951866865158, 0.7921584844589233, 0.29347172379493713, 0.5000326633453369, -0.010109632275998592, 0.0979025810956955, 0.23730060458183289, -0.2095298320055008, -0.4664841890335083, -0.20658856630325317, -0.6224170327186584, -0.36156710982322693, 0.328471839427948, 0.6935606598854065, -0.5465363264083862, 0.30461132526397705, 0.30920055508613586, 0.006720379460602999, -0.08488327264785767, 0.10940656065940857, 0.1261618286371231, 0.2319236546754837, 0.23903557658195496, -0.10047450661659241, 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230563	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Earthquake%20preparedness	Earthquake preparedness	Earthquake preparedness is a set of measures taken at the individual, organisational and societal level to minimise the effects of an earthquake. Preparedness measures can range from securing heavy objects, structural modifications and storing supplies, to having insurance, an emergency kit, and evacuation plans. Preparedness measures Preparedness can consist of survival measures, preparation that will improve survival in the event of an earthquake, or mitigating measures, that seek to minimise the effect of an earthquake. Common survival measures include storing food and water for an emergency, and educating individuals what to do during an earthquake. Mitigating measures can include firmly securing large items of furniture (such as bookcases and large cabinets), TV and computer screens that may otherwise fall over in an earthquake. Likewise, avoiding storing items above beds or sofas reduces the chance of objects falling on individuals. Planning for a related tsunami, tsunami preparedness, can also be part of earthquake preparedness. Building design and retrofitting Building codes in earthquake prone areas may have specific requirements designed to increase new buildings' resistance to earthquakes. Older buildings and homes that are not up to code may be modified to increase their resistance. Modification and earthquake resistant design are also employed in elevated freeways and bridges. Codes are not designed to make buildings earthquake proof in the sense of them suffering zero damage. The goal of most building designs is to reduce earthquake damage to a building such that it protects the lives of occupants and thus tolerance of some limited damage is accepted and considered a necessary tradeoff. A supplement or precursor to retrofitting can be the implementation of earthquake proof furniture. Earthquake modification techniques and modern building codes are designed to prevent total destruction of buildings for earthquakes of no greater than 8.5 on the Richter Scale. Although the Richter Scale is referenced, the localized shaking intensity is one of the largest factors to be considered in building resiliency. Artificial intelligence may help to assess buildings and plan precautionary operations: the Igor expert system is part of a mobile laboratory that supports the procedures leading to the seismic assessment of masonry buildings and the planning of retrofitting operations on them. It has been successfully applied to assess buildings in Lisbon, Rhodes, Naples. Types of preparedness The basic theme behind preparedness is to be ready for an earthquake. Preparedness starts with an individual's everyday life and involves items and training that would be useful in an earthquake. Preparedness continues on a continuum from individual preparedness through family preparedness, community preparedness and then business, non-profit and governmental preparedness. Some organisations blend these various levels. Business continuity planning encourages businesses to have a Disaster Recovery Plan. The US FEMA breaks down preparedness generally into a pyramid, with citizens on the foundational bottom, on top of which rests local government, state government and federal government in that order. Children may present particular issues and some planning and resources are directly focused on supporting them. The US FEMA has advice noting that "Disasters can leave children feeling frightened, confused, and insecure" whether a child has experienced it first hand, had it happen to a friend or simply seen it on television. People with disabilities or other special needs may have special emergency preparation needs. FEMA's suggestions for people with disabilities include having copies of prescriptions, charging devices for medical devices such as motorized wheel chairs and a week's supply of medication readily available. Preparedness can also cover pets. Preparedness can also encompass psychological preparedness: resources are designed to support both community members affected by a disaster and the disaster workers serving them. A multi-hazard approach, where communities are prepared for several hazards, are more resilient than single hazard approaches and have been gaining popularity. Long term power outages can cause damage beyond the original disaster that can be mitigated with emergency generators or other power sources to provide an emergency power system. The United States Department of Energy states: "homeowners, business owners, and local leaders may have to take an active role in dealing with energy disruptions on their own." Major institutions like hospitals, military bases and educational institutions often have extensive backup power systems. Preparedness does not stop at home or at school. The United States Department of Health and Human Services addresses specific emergency preparedness issues hospitals may have to respond to, including maintaining a safe temperature, providing adequate electricity for life support systems and even carrying out evacuations under extreme circumstances. FEMA encourages all businesses to have an emergency response plan and the Small Business Administration specifically advises small business owners to also focus emergency preparedness and provides a variety of different worksheets and resources. Given the explosive danger posed by natural gas leaks, Ready.gov states that "It is vital that all household members know how to shut off natural gas" and that property owners must ensure they have any special tools needed for their particular gas connections. Ready.gov also notes that "It is wise to teach all responsible household members where and how to shut off the electricity," cautioning that individual circuits should be shut off before the main circuit. Ready.gov further states that "It is vital that all household members learn how to shut off the water at the main house valve" and cautions that the possibility that rusty valves might require replacement. Achieving preparedness Levels of preparedness generally remain low, despite attempts to increase public awareness. Various methods exist to promote disaster preparedness, but they are rarely well documented and their efficacy is rarely tested. Hands on training, drills and face-to-face interaction have proven more successful at changing behaviour. Digital methods have also been used, including for examples educational videogames. See also HurriQuake Emergency management References External links USGS Earthquake hazards earthquakecountry.info Answers to FAQs about Earthquakes and Earthquake Preparedness The Southern California Earthquake Center (SCEC) Putting Down Roots in Earthquake Country An Earthquake Science and Preparedness Handbook produced by SCEC Dare to Prepare An earthquake preparedness campaign with detailed information of securing your building and its contents University of Mississippi, Center for Community Earthquake Preparedness Disaster preparedness Emergency management Humanitarian aid Occupational safety and health	[ 0.3015274107456207, 0.42963144183158875, -0.560850203037262, -0.09755435585975647, -0.2703069746494293, -0.05052318051457405, 1.0744825601577759, 0.06817138940095901, -0.3613526523113251, -0.3596149981021881, -0.6160079836845398, 0.5259450078010559, -0.2475079894065857, -0.06462153792381287, -0.43682146072387695, 0.4899492859840393, 0.4123202860355377, 0.5371232032775879, 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230566	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/America%27s%20Stonehenge	America's Stonehenge	America's Stonehenge is a privately owned tourist attraction and archaeological site consisting of a number of large rocks and stone structures scattered around roughly within the town of Salem, New Hampshire, in the United States. It is open to the public for a fee as part of a recreational area which includes snowshoe trails and an alpaca farm. A number of hypotheses exist as to the origin and purpose of the structures. One viewpoint is a mixture of land-use practices of local farmers in the 18th and 19th centuries and construction of structures by owner William Goodwin, an insurance executive who purchased the area in 1937. Some claim that the site has a pre-Columbian European origin, but this is regarded as pseudoarchaeological. Archaeologist David Starbuck has said: "It is widely believed that Goodwin may have 'created' much of what is visible at the site today." The site was first dubbed Mystery Hill by William Goodwin. This was the official name of the site until 1982, when it was renamed "America's Stonehenge", a term coined in a news article in the early 1960s. The rebranding was an effort to separate it from roadside oddity sites and to reinforce the idea that it is an ancient archaeological site. The area is named after Stonehenge in England, although there is no evidence of cultural or historical connection between the two. It is mentioned, as Mystery Hill, on New Hampshire Historical Marker No. 72. Origin The site first appears in print in the 1907 History of Salem, N.H.: Many believe that Pattee built the site in the nineteenth century, and no unequivocal pre-Columbian European artifacts have been found there. The site's history is muddled partly because of the activities of William Goodwin, who became convinced that the location was proof that Irish monks (the Culdees) had lived there long before the time of Christopher Columbus, and he sought to publicize the concept. The site has been altered by stone quarrying, and also by Goodwin and others who wanted to move the stones to what they considered to be their original locations; Goodwin might have been responsible for much of what can now be seen. Many of the stones have drill marks from the quarrying that took place on the site. More fanciful origins have also been proposed, but artifacts found on the site led archaeologists to the conclusion that the stones were actually assembled for a variety of reasons by local farmers in the 18th and 19th centuries. For example, there is a so-called "sacrificial stone" which contains grooves that some say channeled blood, but it closely resembles "lye-leaching stones" found on many old farms that were used to extract lye from wood ashes, the first step in the manufacture of soap. Barry Fell in the book America BC: Ancient Settlers in the New World, published in 1976 and revised in 1986, provides evidence of occupation in pre-Columbian times based on astronomically linked positioning of stones and claims of Ogham writing in Celto-Iberian dialects. In 1982, David Stewart-Smith, director of restoration at Mystery Hill, conducted an excavation of a megalith found in a stone quarry to the north of the main site. His research team excavated the quarry site under the supervision of the New Hampshire state archaeologist and discovered hundreds of chips and flakes from the stone. They concluded that this was evidence of tool manufacture, consistent with American Indian lithic techniques, although no date could be ascertained. Archaeologist Curtis Runnels stated, "No Bronze Age artifacts have been found there. ... In fact, no one has found a single artifact of European origin from that period anywhere in the New World." In 2019, the site was vandalized with power tools, with police saying the person may have been trying to re-enact a scene from a fictional work. On March 4, 2021, NH State Police arrested a member of the online group "QAnon" and charged him with criminal mischief. In popular culture American horror writer H. P. Lovecraft was an enthusiast for New England megalith sites, and he visited Mystery Hill sometime between 1928 and the 1930s. The site is popularly attributed as inspiration for his story "The Dunwich Horror". Scholars, however, place Lovecraft's visit too late to have inspired the 1929 story. Mystery Hill is also discussed in the 1974 horror story "Sticks" by Karl Edward Wagner. The site has been featured or mentioned on a number of television programs including: American History Channel TV series Secrets of the Ancient World which aired on January 14, 2002, in which Boston University archaeology professor Curtis Runnels refuted the theory that it was built by Celts in ancient history. In Search of... TV series which focused on investigating mysterious phenomena. The show presented the theory that the site was of ancient Minoan origin. The episode aired on April 24, 1977, as the second episode in the first season of the show. The X-Files, when character Shannon Ausbury mentioned it in episode 14 of season 2, Die Hand Die Verletzt. The episode originally aired on January 27, 1995. See also Stonehenge replicas and derivatives References Notes Further reading Cahill, Robert Ellis, New England's Ancient Mysteries 1993, Old Saltbox, Danvers, Mass: Fell, Barry, America B.C. 1989 (2nd edition), Pocket Books: Feldman, Mark, The Mystery Hill Story 1977, Mystery Hill Press Gage, Mary, America's Stonehenge Deciphered 2006, Powwow River Books: Goudsward, David, Stonehenge: The Mystery Hill Story 2003, Branden Books: Goudsward, David, Ancient Stone Sites of New England 2006, McFarland Publishing:0-7864-2462-1 Goudsward, David, H. P. Lovecraft in the Merrimack Valley 2013, Hippocampus Press: Lambert, Joanne, America's Stonehenge 1996, Sunrise Publications: 0-9652630-0-2 External links "Archaeology professor debunks claims for ancient rock structures as pseudoscientific fallacy", BU Bridge, 1 February 2002, Boston University Dec. 11, 2009 N.Y. Times travel article Discover Magazine "Light Elements: Yankee Doodle Druid" Salem, New Hampshire Landmarks in New Hampshire Archaeological sites in New Hampshire Pre-Columbian trans-oceanic contact Ruins in the United States Pseudoarchaeology Stonehenge replicas and derivatives Tourist attractions in Rockingham County, New Hampshire	[ -0.08618845045566559, 0.5881481766700745, -0.3180480897426605, -0.11058639734983444, 0.5754360556602478, 0.07396998256444931, 0.6071577668190002, 0.616155207157135, -0.28600797057151794, 0.16495570540428162, 0.11028216034173965, -0.04035864397883415, -0.1495579332113266, 0.9672296047210693, -0.5966713428497314, 0.5609399080276489, 0.15809732675552368, 0.026006050407886505, 0.5003023147583008, 0.06777112931013107, -0.3127981722354889, -0.280030757188797, 0.5928633809089661, -0.8697322607040405, 0.18956808745861053, -0.243716299533844, 0.48270872235298157, -0.47983869910240173, -0.43517908453941345, 0.13624559342861176, -0.4587160348892212, 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230567	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Urge%20Overkill	Urge Overkill	Urge Overkill is an American alternative rock band, formed in Chicago, Illinois, United States, consisting of Nathan Kaatrud, who took the stage name Nash Kato (vocals/guitar), and Eddie "King" Roeser (vocals/guitar/bass guitar). They are widely known for their song "Sister Havana" and their cover of Neil Diamond's "Girl, You'll Be a Woman Soon", which was notably used in Quentin Tarantino's Pulp Fiction. Their latest album, Oui, was released in 2022. History Kato and Roeser met at Northwestern University in 1985. They formed Urge Overkill (getting the name from a phrase in the lyrics of the Parliament song "Funkentelechy") in Chicago, Illinois, United States, in 1986, with drummer Pat Byrne, and released an EP, Strange, I..., on Ruthless Records. The EP was recorded by Kato's friend, Steve Albini. A full-length album, Jesus Urge Superstar, soon followed, again produced by Albini, and with Kriss Bataille taking over the drums. Their next effort, Americruiser, saw a drastic change in style. Jack "Jaguar" Watt (of the band Baron Lesh) was the new drummer and their sound from then on has been described as a "Stonesy fusion of arena rock and punk". Produced by Butch Vig, Americruiser was widely praised, and scored a college radio hit with the lead single, "Ticket to L.A." Watt returned to Baron Lesh and was replaced by Blackie Onassis (real name: John Rowan) on the next album The Supersonic Storybook, which was named by Material Issue's Jim Ellison was released in 1991. After opening for Nirvana on the American Nevermind tour, Urge Overkill returned to the studio to record another EP, Stull, in 1992 which featured the tracks, "Girl, You'll Be a Woman Soon" (produced and mixed by Kramer) and "Goodbye to Guyville". Having a strong following by this time, they jumped from their indie label, Touch & Go, to a major label, Geffen Records. Despite some criticism for the label switch, Urge Overkill's major-label debut, Saturation, received strong reviews upon release in 1993, and to support the album, they opened for Pearl Jam on their Vs. tour. The single "Sister Havana" finally gave the band a hit record and broad recognition. In 1993, the band contributed the track "Take a Walk" to the AIDS relief benefit album No Alternative produced by the Red Hot Organization. As the band recorded a follow-up album, cult filmmaker Quentin Tarantino used the group's cover version of the Neil Diamond song, "Girl, You'll Be a Woman Soon", in his 1994 film Pulp Fiction. When the movie became a hit, the song made it to number 59 on the Billboard Hot 100. Urge Overkill retained their sound for their next album, Exit the Dragon, released in 1995. Kato and Roeser started feuding, resulting in Roeser leaving the band. Roeser went on to perform with Jim Kimball (formerly of The Jesus Lizard) as L.I.M.E. and with his brother John in the band Electric Airlines. Now a duo consisting of Kato and Onassis, Urge Overkill moved to Sony's 550 Music in early 1997. After a break of several years, Kato released a solo album in 2000 called Debutante. Six of the album's 13 songs were co-written with Onassis. In 2004, Kato and Roeser reformed Urge Overkill without Onassis, recruiting former Gaza Strippers guitarist Mike "Hadji" Hodgkiss to play bass, keyboardist Chris Frantisak, and drummer Nate Arling. The reformed Urge Overkill performed shows at The Troubadour in West Hollywood, Double Door in Chicago, First Avenue in Minneapolis and the Bowery Ballroom in New York and continued to tour through Europe, North America, and Australia. On September 19, 2010, on the free form radio program Anything Anything with Rich Russo on WRXP-FM in New York, the first new Urge Overkill song in 15 years was played. The song was called "Effigy". Russo also announced an Urge Overkill show on October 4, 2010, at Mercury Lounge in New York. Live shows began happening, including being the musical guest at a "Roast of Quentin Tarantino" on December 1, 2010. The band released Rock & Roll Submarine, their first studio album in 16 years, in May 2011. A subsequent tour followed the release of the album. On October 8, 2011, Urge Overkill opened for Weezer at the Red Bull Riot Fest at the historic Congress Theater in Chicago. Urge Overkill had continued to perform live occasionally between 2012 and 2018. By 2019, the band had begun working on new material for the follow-up to Rock & Roll Submarine. Their first studio album in 11 years, Oui, was released on January 28, 2022. Discography Studio albums Extended plays Live albums Compilation albums Singles References External links Official website www.urgeoverkill.com - Latest tour dates/Mood Control Urge Overkill at Rolling Stone Musical groups established in 1986 Musical groups disestablished in 1997 Musical groups reestablished in 2004 Touch and Go Records artists Geffen Records artists Ruthless Records (Chicago) artists Alternative rock groups from Chicago Musical groups from Illinois 1986 establishments in Illinois	[ 0.26916924118995667, 0.64228755235672, -0.18579980731010437, -0.22551824152469635, -0.12143632769584656, 0.5335666537284851, 0.2958481013774872, -0.2976859211921692, 0.4441385865211487, -0.3032549321651459, 0.32663586735725403, 0.3037763237953186, -0.5465099811553955, 0.07701114565134048, -0.270316481590271, 0.5873157382011414, -0.08060844987630844, 0.0394679494202137, -0.37273114919662476, -0.42550399899482727, 0.36026638746261597, -0.04961921647191048, 0.4894603192806244, 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230569	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fredrik%20Pacius	Fredrik Pacius	Fredrik Pacius (; born Friedrich Pacius; March 19, 1809 – January 8, 1891) was a German-Finnish composer and conductor who lived most of his life in Finland. He has been called the "Father of Finnish music". Pacius was born in Hamburg. He was appointed music teacher at the University of Helsinki in 1834. In Helsinki he founded a musical society, the student choir Akademiska Sångföreningen and an orchestra. In 1848, Pacius wrote the music to the poem "Vårt land" by Johan Ludvig Runeberg, which was to become Finland's national anthem. Pacius's music was also used for the Estonian national anthem "Mu isamaa, mu õnn ja rõõm" and the Livonian ethnic anthem "Min izāmō, min sindimō". In 1852, he composed Kung Karls jakt (The Hunt of King Charles), which was the first Finnish opera, with a libretto in the style of Romantic nationalism, like the national anthem designed to convince Finland's grand duke (i.e. the Russian Emperor Nicholas I) of the total loyalty of his subjects in Finland. The libretto was written by the author and historian Zacharias Topelius in close collaboration with the composer. His compositions also include a violin concerto, a symphony, a string quartet and several other operas. Pacius died in Helsinki, aged 81. Works Orchestral Symphony in D minor (1850) Overture in E-flat major (1826) Violin Concerto in F-sharp minor (1845) Vocal music Kung Karls jakt (Kaarle-kuninkaan metsästys, "King Carl's Hunt"), opera (1852) Prinsessan av Cypern, Singspiel (1860) Die Loreley, opera (1862–87) Cantatas Choruses Lieder Chamber music String Quartet in E-flat major (1826) Literature Tomi Mäkelä, Friedrich Pacius – ein deutscher Komponist in Finnland: mit einer Edition der Tagebücher, Briefe und Arbeitsmaterialien von Silke Bruns, Hildesheim; Zürich [etc.]: Olms; Helsinki: Svenska Litteratursällskapet i Finland, 2014, Tomi Mäkelä, Fredrik Pacius, kompositör i Finland, Svenska Litteratursällskapet i Finland, Helsinki 2009; Tomi Mäkelä, Der Pionier. Fredrik Pacius, Opernwelt, 11, 2009, 36–44. External links Finnish Music Information Center page on Pacius' Vocal Works 1809 births 1891 deaths Musicians from Hamburg Finnish classical composers German emigrants to Finland Male opera composers National anthem writers 19th-century classical composers Burials at Hietaniemi Cemetery 19th-century male musicians Academics of the University of Helsinki Finnish opera composers	[ -0.03096345067024231, 0.3199769854545593, -0.33739808201789856, 0.1922394335269928, -0.05109281837940216, 0.8043882846832275, 0.48064589500427246, 0.07543552666902542, -0.5232779383659363, -0.61808842420578, -0.06491480767726898, -0.6570237278938293, -0.36298006772994995, 0.18928100168704987, -0.42740747332572937, 0.11642187833786011, -0.031236765906214714, -0.005085282493382692, -0.6278893947601318, 0.009158167988061905, -0.3070574402809143, 0.019988855347037315, 0.4967682659626007, 0.3449971675872803, -0.33938416838645935, -0.11311233043670654, -0.20610256493091583, 0.1641377955675125, 0.1521856039762497, 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