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229338 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Messenger%20Stakes | Messenger Stakes | The Messenger Stakes is an American harness racing event for 3-year-old pacing horses. It was organized in 1956 at Roosevelt Raceway in Westbury, New York (on suburban Long Island) to join with the Cane Pace and the Little Brown Jug to create the Triple Crown of Harness Racing for Pacers. The race is named in honor of Messenger (1780–1808), a horse foaled in England and later brought to the United States. As a sire, virtually all harness horses in the U.S. can be traced back to Messenger.
One of the preeminent events for harness racing horses in North America, the race was held annually at Roosevelt Raceway until it closed down in 1988. From 1988 to 1994, the race changed locations several times, from Yonkers Raceway (Yonkers, New York) to Freestate Raceway to Rosecroft Raceway (both in Maryland). In 1995, it moved to The Meadows Racetrack in the Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania area. In 2004, the race was supposed to be moved back to Yonkers Raceway. However, due to construction at the track, the race was moved to Harrington Raceway in Delaware, where the event was held in 2004 and '05. The race moved back to Yonkers Raceway in November 2006. The 2015 edition was raced at Yonkers on September 5 for a total purse of US$500,000.
Much like the Little Brown Jug, the Messenger was raced in heat events, meaning a horse had to win an elimination heat and the final on the same day to be declared the winner. Starting from 2006 at Yonkers, there will be eliminations, if necessary, one week prior to the event.
Locations
1956–1987 - Roosevelt Raceway
1988, 2006–present - Yonkers Raceway
1989 - Freestate Raceway
1990–1994 - Rosecroft Raceway
1995–2003 - The Meadows Racetrack and Casino
2004–2005 - Harrington Raceway & Casino
Records
Most wins by a driver
8 – John Campbell (1986, 1987, 1990, 1994, 1995, 1998, 2000, 2004)
Most wins by a trainer
8 – Billy Haughton (1956, 1967, 1968, 1972, 1974, 1975, 1976, 1985)
Stakes record
1:50 3/5 – Allamerican Ingot (2002)
Messenger Stakes winners
References
Yonkers Raceway
Harness races in the United States
Harness races for three-year-old pacers
Messenger Stakes winners
Horse races in New York (state)
United States Triple Crown of Harness Racing
Sports in Yonkers, New York
Recurring sporting events established in 1956
1956 establishments in New York (state) | [
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229340 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Emperor%20Higashiyama | Emperor Higashiyama | was the 113th emperor of Japan, according to the traditional order of succession. Higashiyama's reign spanned the years from 1687 through to his abdication in 1709 corresponding to the Genroku era. The previous hundred years of peace and seclusion in Japan had created relative economic stability. The arts and theater and architecture flourished.
Events of Higashiyama's life
Early life
Before Higashiyama's ascension to the Chrysanthemum Throne, his personal name (imina) was or Tomohito. Tomohito was born on October 21, 1675 and was the fifth son of Emperor Reigen; his birth mother was a lady-in-waiting named Matsuki Muneko. While Prince Tomohito was the son of a secondary consort, he was adopted by empress Takatsukasa Fusako (chief consort or Chūgū). Tomohito's Imperial family lived with him in the Dairi of the Heian Palace. Events that took place before Tomohito became Crown Prince include a great flood that devastated Edo, a great famine that devastated Kyoto, and the Great Tenna Fire in Edo. The Shingon Buddhist temple Gokoku-ji was also founded in Edo where it remains today as one of the few sites in Tokyo that survived World War II. Tomohito-shinnō was proclaimed Crown prince in 1682, and given the pre-accession title of Go-no-miya (五宮). For the first time in over 300 years a ceremonial investiture was held for the occasion. A fire burned the Kyoto Imperial Palace to ashes in 1684 prompting reconstruction that took a year to complete. The effects from this fire on the Imperial family, if any, are unknown. Emperor Reigen's brother, former-Emperor Go-Sai, died on March 26, 1685 and a great comet was observed crossing the night sky.
Reign
Prince Tomohito acceded to the throne on May 2, 1687 as Emperor when his father abdicated in his favor, the era's name was changed from Jōkyō to Genroku to mark this event. While he held the political title of Emperor, it was in name only as the shoguns of the Tokugawa family controlled Japan. Initially, Emperor Reigen continued to rule in Higashiyama's name as a Cloistered Emperor as had been done in the Heian period. While this move caused trouble by provoking the ruling shogunate, Higashiyama's gentle character helped to improve relations with the Shōgun. This warmed relationship caused imperial property to be increased, and repairs carried out on Imperial mausoleums. Reigen meanwhile lived out his retirement in the Sentō-gosho (the palace for an ex-Emperor), and is now known for being the last "Cloistered Emperor" of Japan. On December 20, 1688 the esoteric Daijō-sai ceremony was revived because of the shogunate's insistence. This Shinto ritual had been in abeyance for over a century, and is performed only once by the emperor in the period of the enthronement ceremonies.
1688 (Genroku gannen): The Tokugawa shogunate revised the code of conduct for funerals (Fuku-kiju-ryō), which incorporated a code of conduct for mourning as well.
September 16, 1689 (Genroku 2): German physician Engelbert Kaempfer arrives at Dejima for the first time. Bakufu policy in this era was designed to marginalize the influence of foreigners; and Kaempfer had to present himself as "Dutch" in dealings with the Japanese. Regardless of this minor subterfuge, an unintended and opposite consequence of sakoku was to enhance the value and significance of a very small number of thoughtful observers like Kaempfer, whose writings document what he learned or discovered first-hand. Kaempfer's published accounts and unpublished writings provided a unique and useful perspective for Orientalists and Japanologists in the 19th century; and his work continues to be rigorously examined by modern researchers today.
1695 (Genroku 8, 8th month): Minting begun of Genroku coinage. The shogunate placed the Japanese character gen (元) on the obverse of copper coins, the same character used today in China for the yuan. There is no connection between those uses, however.
1695 (Genroku 8, 11th month): First kennel is established for stray dogs in Edo. In this context, Tokugawa Tsunayoshi comes to be nicknamed the .
1697 (Genroku 10): The fourth official map of Japan was made in this year, but it was considered to be inferior to the previous one—which had been ordered in 1605 (Shōhō 1) and completed in 1639 (Kan'ei 16). This Genroku map was corrected in 1719 (Kyōhō 4) by the mathematician Tatebe Katahiro (1644–1739), using high mountain peaks as points of reference, and was drawn to a scale of 1:21,600.
1697 (Genroku 10): Great fire in Edo.
1697 (Genroku 11): Another great fire in Edo. A new hall is constructed inside the enclosure of the Edo temple of Kan'ei-ji (which is also known as Tōeizan Kan'ei-ji or "Hiei-san of the east" after the principal temple of the Tendai Buddhist sect—that is to say, after the temple of Enryaku-ji at Mount Hiei near to Heian-kyō).
1703 (Genroku 15, 14th day of the 12th month): when the Akō Incident took place, in which a band of Forty-seven rōnin (leaderless samurai) avenged the death of their master Asano Naganori, due to the bloodshed, Emperor Higashiyama nearly withdrew the imperial will.
1703 (Genroku 16, 5th month): First performance of Chikamatsu Monzaemon's play The Love Suicides at Sonezaki.
1703 (Genroku 16, 28th day of the 11th month): The Great Genroku earthquake shook Edo and parts of the shōguns castle collapsed. The following day, a vast fire spread throughout the city. Parts of Honshū's coast were battered by tsunami, and 200,000 people were either killed or injured.
October 28, 1707 (Hōei 4, 14th day of the 10th month): 1707 Hōei earthquake. The city of Osaka suffers tremendously because of a very violent earthquake.
November 15, 1707 (Hōei 4, 22nd day of the 10th month): An eruption of Mount Fuji; cinders and ash fell like rain in Izu, Kai, Sagami, and Musashi.
1708 (Hōei 5): The shogunate introduces new copper coins into circulation; and each coin is marked with the Hōei nengō name (Hōei Tsubo).
1708 (Hōei 5, 8th day of the 3rd month): There was a great fire in Heian-kyō.
1708 (Hōei 5, 8th month): Italian missionary Giovanni Sidotti landed in Yakushima, where he was promptly arrested.
1709 (Hōei 6): Shōgun Tsunayoshi appoints commission to repair and restore Imperial mausoleums.
1709 (Hōei 6, 4th month): Tokugawa Ienobu, Tsunayoshi's nephew, becomes the 6th shōgun of the Edo bakufu. and Emperor Nakamikado accedes to the throne.
July 27, 1709 (Hōei 6, 21st day of the 6th month): Emperor Higashiyama abdicated and the throne passed to his son.
January 16, 1710 (Hōei 6, 17th day of the 12th month): Higashiyama died.
Higashiyama is among those enshrined in the Imperial mausoleum, Tsuki no wa no misasagi, at Sennyū-ji in Higashiyama-ku, Kyoto. Also enshrined in this location are this emperor's immediate Imperial predecessors since Emperor Go-Mizunoo – Meishō, Go-Kōmyō, Go-Sai and Reigen. Higashiyama's immediate Imperial successors, including Nakamikado, Sakuramachi, Momozono, Go-Sakuramachi and Go-Momozono, are enshrined here as well.
Eras of reign
The years of Higashiyama's reign are more specifically identified by more than one era name or nengō.
Jōkyō (1684–1688)
Genroku (1688–1704)
Hōei (1704–1711)
Genealogy
Higashiyama's family included at least 11 children.
Spouse
Concubines
Issue
Fictional portrayals
Higashiyama appears under the name of Tomohito in the novel The Samurai's Wife by author Laura Joh Rowland. In the novel, detective Sano Ichiro is sent to investigate the murder of an important official in the Imperial Court. Tomohito is labelled as a suspect, and is portrayed as a childish oaf at the start of the novel. He is later revealed to be the instigator behind a coming revolution against the Tokugawa regime, so he can seize control of Japan himself. However, his plan fails, and he is once again placed in the Imperial Palace, where he seems to have accepted his fate to never leave the palace.
Ancestry
See also
Emperor of Japan
List of Emperors of Japan
Imperial cult
References
Further reading
Hammer, Joshua. (2006). Yokohama Burning: the Deadly 1923 Earthquake and Fire that Helped Forge the Path to World War II. New York: Simon & Schuster. ;
Meyer, Eva-Maria. (1999). Japans Kaiserhof in der Edo-Zeit: unter besonderer Berücksichtigung der Jahre 1846 bis 1867. Münster: LIT Verlag. ;
Ponsonby-Fane, Richard Arthur Brabazon. (1956). Kyoto: The Old Capital of Japan, 794–1869. Kyoto: Ponsonby Memorial Society.
__. (1959). The Imperial House of Japan. Kyoto: Ponsonby Memorial Society.
Screech, Timon. (2006). Secret Memoirs of the Shoguns: Isaac Titsingh and Japan, 1779–1822. London: RoutledgeCurzon. ;
Smith, Robert and Richard K. Beardsley. (2004). Japanese Culture: Its Development And Characteristics. Chicago, Aldine Publishing.
Titsingh, Isaac. (1834). Nihon Ōdai Ichiran; ou, Annales des empereurs du Japon. Paris: Royal Asiatic Society, Oriental Translation Fund of Great Britain and Ireland.
Traganeou, Jilly. (2004). The Tokaido Road: Traveling and Representation in Edo and Meiji Japan. New York: RoutledgeCurzon. ;
Varley, H. Paul. (1980). Jinnō Shōtōki: A Chronicle of Gods and Sovereigns. New York: Columbia University Press. ;
Japanese emperors
1675 births
1710 deaths
Emperor Higashiyama
Emperor Higashiyama
Emperor Higashiyama
Emperor Higashiyama
Deaths from smallpox
Infectious disease deaths in Japan
17th-century Japanese monarchs
18th-century Japanese monarchs
Japanese retired emperors | [
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229341 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reigen | Reigen | Reigen may refer to:
Reigen (play) or La Ronde, a 1900 play by Arthur Schnitzler
Reigen (film), a 1973 adaptation directed by Otto Schenk
Reigen (opera), a 1993 adaptation by Philippe Boesmans
Emperor Reigen, 112th emperor of Japan
Reigen, spin-off manga of Mob Psycho 100.
Reigen (singer) (born 1985), American singer-songwriter | [
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229347 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Emperor%20%C5%8Cgimachi | Emperor Ōgimachi | was the 106th Emperor of Japan, according to the traditional order of succession. He reigned from October 27, 1557, to his abdication on December 17, 1586, corresponding to the transition between the Sengoku period and the Azuchi–Momoyama period. His personal name was Michihito (方仁).
Genealogy
Ōgimachi was the first son of Emperor Go-Nara.
Lady-in-waiting: Madenokōji (Fujiwara) Fusako (万里小路 房子; d.1580) later Seiko-in (清光院), Madenokōji Hidefusa’s daughter
Second daughter: Princess Eikō (1540–1551; 永高女王)
Third daughter (b.1543)
Eldest son: , also known as Prince Sanehito and posthumously named Yōkwōin daijō-tennō. Masahito's eldest son was who became Emperor Go-Yōzei. Go-Yōzei elevated the rank of his father, even though his father's untimely death made this impossible in life. In this manner, Go-Yōzei himself could enjoy the polite fiction of being the son of an emperor.
Daughter (1562–67, mother speculated)
Lady-in-waiting: Asukai Masatsuna’s daughter
daughter: ??? (春齢女王; 1549–1569)
daughter: Princess Eisho (永尊女王; 1563–1571)
Lady-in-waiting: Dai-Naishi (大典侍), Madenokōji Katafusa’s daughter
First daughter (1539–1543）
Events of Ōgimachi's life
Ōgimachi became Emperor upon the death of Emperor Go-Nara.
1560 (Eiroku 3, 1st month): Ōgimachi was proclaimed emperor. The ceremonies of coronation were made possible because they were paid for by Mōri Motonari and others.
1560 (Eiroku 3, 5th month): Imagawa Yoshimoto led the armies of the province of Suruga against the Owari; at the Battle of Okehazama, his forces fought against Oda Nobunaga, but Imagawa's army was vanquished and he was slain. Then Nobunaga took over the province of Owari. Tokugawa Ieyasu took over the province of Mikawa and made himself master of Okazaki Castle.
1564 (Eiroku 7): Oda Nobunaga completed the conquest of Mino; he built a new castle at Gifu.
1568 (Eiroku 11, 2nd month): Ashikaga Yoshihide became shōgun.
1568 (Eiroku 11, 9th month): Shōgun Yoshihide died from a contagious disease.
The finances of the emperor and his court were greatly strained. The authority of the Imperial Court also began to fall, but this trend reversed after Oda Nobunaga entered Kyoto in a show of allegiance but which also indicated that the Emperor had the Oda clan's support. Frequently using the Emperor as a mediator when fighting enemies, Nobunaga worked to unify the disparate elements to Japan. However, by around 1573, Nobunaga began demanding the Emperor's abdication, but the Emperor refused.
Before political power was transferred to Toyotomi Hideyoshi, in order to take advantage of Ōgimachi's authority, the power of the Imperial Family was increased. In this way, Hideyoshi and the Imperial Family entered into a mutually beneficial relationship.
In January of the year Tenshō 14 (1586), the regent had the Golden Tea Room brought to Kyoto Imperial Palace to host the emperor there.
In 1586, Emperor Ōgimachi abdicated in favor of his grandson, Imperial Prince Katahito (周仁親王), who became the Emperor Go-Yōzei. Ōgimachi retired to the Sentō Palace. On February 6, 1593, he died.
During Ōgimachi's reign, with the assistance of Oda Nobunaga and Toyotomi Hideyoshi, the imperial family was able to halt the political, financial, and cultural decline it had been in since the Ōnin War, and began a time of recovery.
Ōgimachi is enshrined with other emperors at the imperial tomb called Fukakusa no kita no misasagi (深草北陵) in Fushimi-ku, Kyoto.
Kugyō
Kugyō (公卿) is a collective term for the very few most powerful men attached to the court of the Emperor of Japan in pre-Meiji eras. Even during those years in which the court's actual influence outside the palace walls was minimal, the hierarchic organization persisted.
In general, this elite group included only three to four men at a time. These were hereditary courtiers whose experience and background would have brought them to the pinnacle of a life's career. During Ōgimachi's reign, this apex of the Daijō-kan included:
Daijō-daijin, Konoe Sakihisa, 1536–1612.
Sadaijin
Udaijin
Naidaijin
Dainagon
Eras of Ōgimachi's reign
The years of Ōgimachi's reign are more specifically identified by more than one era name or nengō.
Kōji (1555–1558)
Eiroku (1558–1570)
Genki (1570–1573)
Tenshō (1573–1592)
Ancestry
See also
Emperor of Japan
List of Emperors of Japan
Imperial cult
Notes
References
Ponsonby-Fane, Richard Arthur Brabazon. (1959). The Imperial House of Japan. Kyoto: Ponsonby Memorial Society. OCLC 194887
Titsingh, Isaac, ed. (1834). [Siyun-sai Rin-siyo/Hayashi Gahō, 1652], Nipon o daï itsi ran; ou, Annales des empereurs du Japon.] Paris: Oriental Translation Fund of Great Britain and Ireland.
Varley, H. Paul, ed. (1980). [ Kitabatake Chikafusa, 1359], Jinnō Shōtōki ([https://books.google.com/books?id=tVv6OAAACAAJ&dq=A+Chronicle+of+Gods+and+Sovereigns:+Jinn%C5%8D+Sh%C5%8Dt%C5%8Dki+of+Kitabatake+Chikafusa&lr= A Chronicle of Gods and Sovereigns: Jinnō Shōtōki. New York: Columbia University Press.
Ogimachi
1517 births
1593 deaths
People of Sengoku-period Japan
People of Azuchi–Momoyama-period Japan
1570s in Japan
1580s in Japan
16th-century Japanese monarchs
Japanese retired emperors | [
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229356 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/World%20Figure%20Skating%20Championships | World Figure Skating Championships | The World Figure Skating Championships ("Worlds") is an annual figure skating competition sanctioned by the International Skating Union. Medals are awarded in the categories of men's singles, women's singles, pair skating, and ice dance. Generally held in March, the World Championships are considered the most prestigious of the ISU Figure Skating Championships. With the exception of the Olympic title, a world title is considered to be the highest competitive achievement in figure skating.
The corresponding competition for junior-level skaters is the World Junior Championships. The corresponding competition for senior-level synchronized skating is the World Synchronized Skating Championships and for junior level the World Junior Synchronized Skating Championships.
History
The Internationale Eislauf-Vereinigung (International Skating Union) formed in 1892 to govern international competition in speed and figure skating. The first championship, known as the Championship of the Internationale Eislauf-Vereingung, was held in Saint Petersburg, Russia, in 1896. There were four competitors and the winner of the event was Gilbert Fuchs.
The championships were presumed all-male since competitive skating was generally viewed as a male sport. However, there were no specific rules regarding the gender of competitors. In 1902, Madge Syers entered the championships, and won the silver medal. The 1903 ISU Congress considered gender issues, but passed no new rules. The 1905 ISU Congress established a second-class ladies' competition called the "ISU Championships", rather than the "World Championships" (winners were to be known as ISU champions not world champions). Men's and ladies' events were normally held separately. The first ladies' competition was held in Davos, Switzerland, in 1906; the event was won by Syers.
The first pairs competition was held in St. Petersburg in 1908, despite pairs competition being illegal in some countries and considered indecent. One such country was Japan, which had applied for the Winter Olympics in 1940. Early championships for both ladies and pairs, previously titled "ISU Championships", were retroactively given World Championship status in 1924.
In the early years, judges were invited by the host country and were often native. At the 1927 ladies' event in Oslo, Norway, three of the five judges were Norwegian; these three judges gave first place to Norwegian competitor Sonja Henie, while the Austrian and German judges placed defending champion Herma Szabo first. The controversial result stood, giving Henie her first world title, but the controversy led to the ISU introducing a new rule that allowed no more than one judge per country on the panel.
The 1930 Championships in New York City (the first to be held outside Europe) combined all three competitions into one event for the first time. Ice dancing entered the program officially in 1952, after having been an unofficial part of the championships since 1936.
Until 1959, national teams were allowed to field multiple competitors in each discipline; for example the United Kingdom entered six skaters in the ladies' singles competition in 1948, and five skaters represented the United States in each singles discipline in 1951. From 1960 onwards, the number of participants per country was limited to a maximum of three per discipline.
Compulsory figures were removed from the World Championships in 1991.
The 6.0 system was used for judging up to and including the 2004 event, after which the ISU Judging System was used from 2005 onward.
Every four years, because the World Championships take place around a month after the Winter Olympics, a large proportion of Olympic medalists have been absent from the competition. Many skaters need time to rest due to physical and mental exhaustion, and some Olympic medalists choose to cash in on their recent success by turning professional.
Cancellations
The World Figure Skating Championships have been cancelled 16 times in the competition's history: from 1915 through 1921 due to World War I; from 1940 through 1946 due to World War II; in 1961 as a result of the loss of the entire U.S. Figure Skating team in the crash of Sabena Flight 548; and in 2020 due to the COVID-19 pandemic.
The 2011 Championships, originally due to be held in Tokyo, Japan, were considered for cancellation after the Japan earthquake and tsunami, but were instead moved to Moscow, Russia.
The 2020 Championships, originally scheduled for Montreal, Canada, were cancelled by the Government of Quebec due to the COVID-19 pandemic. They were considering rescheduling the event for the autumn of 2020, but they were definitely cancelled on 16 April.
Eligibility and qualifying
Skaters may compete at the World Championships if they represent a member nation of the International Skating Union and are selected by their federation. Pairs and ice dance partnerships composed of skaters of different nationalities are not allowed to compete under two flags; they are required to choose one country and obtain the other country's permission.
Member nations select their entries according to their own criteria. Some countries rely on the results of their national championships while others have more varied criteria, which may include success at certain international events or specific technical requirements. All of the selected skaters must meet the ISU's age and TES requirements.
Age eligibility
Since 1996, skaters must be at least fifteen before July 1 of the previous year. Thus, to compete at the 2010 Worlds, skaters had to be 15 or older before July 1, 2009. A skater must turn 15 before it becomes July 1 in their place of birth – even an hour later is not accepted by the ISU. The World Junior Championships is the corresponding competition for skaters aged 13 to 19 (or up to 21 for male pair skaters and ice dancers) who are not old enough for senior Worlds or do not qualify. For a few years after the introduction of the 1996 age rules, a loophole existed for underage skaters who had medaled at Junior Worlds. The loophole was eventually eliminated. A few who had not medaled at Junior Worlds but had competed at senior Worlds before the introduction of the rules, such as Tara Lipinski of the United States, were allowed to continue competing in senior Worlds due to the Grandfather clause.
Minimum technical scores
Since 2010, only skaters who have reached minimum technical elements scores (TES) in the short and free programs at a prior international event are allowed to compete at the World Championships. The short and free scores may be attained at different international events in the ongoing or preceding season. After an ISU congress voted to eliminate the qualifying rounds, the TES minimums were raised for the 2013 World Championships.
Qualifying rounds
Because of the large number of entries at the World Championships, in some years the event included qualifying rounds for men and ladies. After the 2006 championships in Calgary, Canada, the ISU Congress voted to eliminate the qualifying round. It was later reintroduced and then eliminated again after the 2012 World Championships. After the short program, the top 24 single skaters and top 20 pairs advance to the free skate. In ice dance, the top 30 teams in the compulsory dance advanced to the original dance, and the top 24 after that segment advanced to the free dance.
Number of entries
Each national federation is entitled to send one entry per discipline. Depending on their results at the previous year's competition, some countries are allowed to send a second or third entry. If a country has only one entry, that skater/team must place in the top ten to earn a second entry and in the top two to earn three entries to next year's championships. If a country has two or three entries, their combined placement (best two) must be 28 or less to keep two entries for their country, and 13 or fewer to qualify three entries. All skaters who qualify for the free segment but place 16th or lower receive 16 placement points. All skaters who compete in the short segment but do not qualify for the free receive 18 placement points. Entries do not carry over and so countries must continue to earn their second or third spot every year.
There are exceptions if a skater is forced to withdraw in the middle of the competition due to a medical emergency or equipment problems.
Medalists
Men
Most titles:
: (26) , (22) , (15)
: (21) , (16) , (13)
: (19) , (15) , (13) /
Ladies
Most titles:
: (26) , (10) , (9)
: (22) , (17) , (9) , //
: (24) , (12) , (9) //
Pairs
Most titles:
: (34) ///, (18) , (12)
: (30) /, (13) , (10) ,
: (19) //, (17) , (11) ,
Ice dance
Most titles:
: (29) ///, (17) , (7)
: (20) //, (13) , (11)
: (20) , (14) , (13) //
Records
* Irina Rodnina won ten titles from 1969–1978, the first four times partnering with Alexei Ulanov
Cumulative medal count
See also
World Figure Skating Championships cumulative medal count
Figure skating at the Olympic Games
Major achievements in figure skating by nation
References
General
ISU World Figure Skating Championships results:
1896–2003 Men Ladies Pairs Ice dance
2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 2013 2014 2015 2016 2017 2018 2019
External links
International Skating Union
Worlds
Recurring sporting events established in 1896 | [
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229358 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Emperor%20K%C5%8Dmy%C5%8D | Emperor Kōmyō | (January 11, 1322 – July 26, 1380) was the second of the Emperors of Northern Court, although he was the first to be supported by the Ashikaga Bakufu. According to pre-Meiji scholars, his reign spanned the years from 1336 through 1348.
Genealogy
His personal name was Yutahito (豊仁), second son of Emperor Go-Fushimi. His mother was Neishi (寧子), the daughter of Saionji Kinhira (西園寺公衡)
Naishi: Ogimachi Sanjo Sanemi’s daughter
daughter: Jogakuin-dono (長照院; d.1422）
daughter
Naishi: Mikawa-no-kami’s daughter
son: Shuson (周尊)
Events of Kōmyō's life
In his own lifetime, Kōmyō and those around him believed that he occupied the Chrysanthemum Throne from September 20, 1336 to November 18, 1348.
When Ashikaga Takauji rebelled against Emperor Go-Daigo's Kenmu Restoration and entered Kyōto in 1336, Go-Daigo fled to Enryaku-ji on Mount Hiei. Despite lacking the sacred treasures, Prince Yutahito was enthroned as emperor, beginning the Northern Court. On the 12th month, 21st day, Go-Daigo escaped to Yoshino, founding the Southern Court.
On November 18, 1348, he abdicated in favor of the eldest son of his older brother, the former claimant to the throne Emperor Kōgon, who became Emperor Sukō.
In April 1352, taking advantage of the Kan'ō Disturbance, a family feud in the Ashikaga clan, the Southern Emperor Emperor Go-Murakami entered Kyoto, capturing it and carrying away Kōmyō along with Emperor Kōgon, Emperor Sukō, and the Crown Prince Tadahito. They all ended up finally in Anau, the location of the Southern Court.
In the Shōhei Reunification, Kōmyō and his companions were placed under house arrest in Yamato Province, in what is today the village of Nishiyoshino, Yoshino District, Nara. In 1355, returning to Kyōto, he entered a monastery.
July 26, 1380 (Kōryaku 2, 24th day of the 6th month): The former emperor died at age 60.
Eras of Kōmyō's reign
The years of Kōmyō's reign are more specifically identified by more than one era name or nengō.
Nanboku-chō Northern court
Eras as reckoned by pretender Court (as determined by Meiji rescript)
Kenmu (continued)
Ryakuō
Kōei
Jōwa
Nanboku-chō Southern court
Eras as reckoned by legitimate Court (as determined by Meiji rescript)
Engen
Kōkoku
Shōhei
Southern Court Rivals
Emperor Go-Daigo
Emperor Go-Murakami
Notes
References
Ponsonby-Fane, Richard Arthur Brabazon. (1959). The Imperial House of Japan. Kyoto: Ponsonby Memorial Society. OCLC 194887
Titsingh, Isaac, ed. (1834). [Siyun-sai Rin-siyo/Hayashi Gahō, 1652], ''Nipon o daï itsi ran; ou, Annales des empereurs du Japon.'' Paris: Oriental Translation Fund of Great Britain and Ireland.
See also
Emperor of Japan
List of Emperors of Japan
Imperial cult
Emperor Go-Kōmyō
Japanese emperors
1322 births
1380 deaths
Emperor Komyo
Emperor Komyo
Emperor Komyo
14th-century Japanese monarchs
Japanese retired emperors | [
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229365 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Emperor%20Hanazono | Emperor Hanazono | was the 95th emperor of Japan, according to the traditional order of succession. His reign spanned the years from 1308 through 1318.
Genealogy
Before his ascension to the Chrysanthemum Throne, his personal name (his imina) was Tomihito-shinnō (富仁親王).
He was the fourth son of the 92nd Emperor, Fushimi. He belonged to the Jimyōin-tō branch of the Imperial Family.
Consort: Ogimachi Michiko (正親町実子) later Senkomon’in (宣光門院, 1297–1360), Ogimachi Saneakira’s daughter
First Daughter: Imperial Princess Hisako (1318–1358; 寿子内親王) later Kianmon-in (徽安門院), married Emperor Kogon
Second Son: Imperial Prince Nobunaga (業永親王; 1327–1353) later Imperial Prince priest Genshi (源性入道親王)
Third son: Imperial Prince Naohito (直仁親王; 1335–1398)
Daughter: Imperial Princess Noriko (儀子内親王; d. 1348)
Priest Shōgoin
Daughter married to Kazan’in clan
Consort: Ichijo-no-Tsubone (d. 1325), Ogimachi Saneakira’s daughter
First Son: Imperial Prince Priest Kakuyo (1320–1382; 覚誉法親王)
lady-in-waiting: Wamuro Yoriko (葉室頼子), Wamuro Yorito’s daughter
Fifth Daughter: Imperial Princess Noriko (祝子内親王) – Nun
Princess
Events of Hanazono's life
Tomihito-shinnō became emperor upon the death of his second cousin, the Daikakuji-tō Emperor Go-Nijō.
Tokuji 3, in the 8th month (1308): In the 8th year of Go-Nijo-tennō'''s reign (後二条天皇八年), the emperor died at the young age of 24; and the succession (senso) was received by his cousin. Shortly thereafter, Emperor Hanazono is said to have acceded to the throne (sokui).
Tokuji 3, in the 10th month (1308): The nengō was changed to Enkyō to mark the accession of Emperor Hanazono.
Hanazono's father, the retired-Emperor Fushimi, and Hanazono's brother, the retired-Emperor Go-Fushimi, both exerted influence as cloistered emperors during this reign.
In these years, negotiations between the Bakufu and the two imperial lines resulted in an agreement to alternate the throne between the two lines every 10 years (the Bumpō Agreement). This agreement was not long-lasting. The negotiated provisions would soon broken by Hanazono's successor.
In 1318, he abdicated to his second cousin, the Daikakuji-tō Emperor Go-Daigo, who was Nijō's brother.
After his abdication, he raised his nephew, the future Northern Pretender Emperor Kōgon.
In 1335, he became a Buddhist monk of the Zen sect, and under his sponsorship, his palace became the temple of Myōshin-ji, now the largest network in Rinzai Buddhism. Many places and institutions in the area are named for him, including Hanazono University (the Rinzai university) and Hanazono Station.
He died in 1348. Hanazono's imperial tomb is known as Jurakuin no ue no misasagi; it is located in Higashiyama-ku, Kyoto.
He excelled at waka composition, and was an important member of the Kyōgoku School. He also left behind a diary, called Hanazono-in-Minki (Imperial Chronicles of the Flower Garden Temple or Hanazono-in) (花園院宸記). He was a very religious and literate person, never missing his prayers to the Amitabha Buddha.
Kugyō
is a collective term for the very few most powerful men attached to the court of the Emperor of Japan in pre-Meiji eras. Even during those years in which the court's actual influence outside the palace walls was minimal, the hierarchic organization persisted.
In general, this elite group included only three to four men at a time. These were hereditary courtiers whose experience and background would have brought them to the pinnacle of a life's career. During Hanazono's reign, this apex of the Daijō-kan included:
Sesshō, Kujō Moronori, 1308
Sesshō, Takatsukasa Fuyuhira, 1308–1311
Kampaku, Takatsukasa Fuyuhira, 1311–1313
Kampaku, Konoe Iehira, 1313–1315
Kampaku, Takatsukasa Fuyuhira, 1315–1316
Kampaku, Nijō Michihira, 1316–1318
Sadaijin
Udaijin
Nadaijin
Dainagon
Eras of Hanazono's reign
The years of Hanazono's reign are more specifically identified by more than one era name or nengō.
Tokuji (1306–1308)
Enkyō (1308–1311)
Ōchō (1311–1312)
Shōwa (1312–1317)
Bumpō (1317–1319)
Notes
References
Ponsonby-Fane, Richard Arthur Brabazon. (1959). The Imperial House of Japan. Kyoto: Ponsonby Memorial Society. OCLC 194887
Titsingh, Isaac. (1834). Nihon Ōdai Ichiran; ou, Annales des empereurs du Japon. Paris: Royal Asiatic Society, Oriental Translation Fund of Great Britain and Ireland. OCLC 5850691
Varley, H. Paul. (1980). Jinnō Shōtōki: A Chronicle of Gods and Sovereigns. New York: Columbia University Press. ; OCLC 59145842
See also
Emperor of Japan
List of Emperors of Japan
Imperial cult
Emperor Go-Hanazono
Japanese emperors
1297 births
1348 deaths
Emperor Hanazono
Emperor Hanazono
Emperor Hanazono
13th-century Japanese people
14th-century Japanese monarchs
Japanese diarists
Muromachi period Buddhist clergy
Zen Buddhist monks
Japanese Zen Buddhists
Waka poets
Japanese retired emperors | [
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229369 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Emperor%20Kameyama | Emperor Kameyama | was the 90th emperor of Japan, according to the traditional order of succession. His reign spanned the years from 1260 through 1274.
Genealogy
Before his ascension to the Chrysanthemum Throne, his personal name (his imina) was .
He was the 7th son of Emperor Go-Saga
Empress (Kōgō): Toin (Fujiwara Saneko) (洞院（藤原）佶子) later Kyogoku-in (京極院), Toin Saneo's daughter
First daughter: Imperial Princess Kenshi (睍子内親王; 1262–1264)
First son: Imperial Prince Tomohito (知仁親王; 1265–1267)
Second son: Imperial Prince Yohito (世仁親王) later Emperor Go-Uda
Empress (Chūgū – a lower rank than Kōgō) Saionji (Fujiwara) Kishi (西園寺（藤原）嬉子) later Imadegawa-in (今出川院), Saionji Kinsuke's daughter
Court Lady: Konoe (Fujiwara) Ishi (近衛（藤原）位子) later Shin-yōmeimon'in (新陽明門; 1262–1296）
Eighth son: Imperial Prince Hirohito (啓仁親王; 1276–1278)
Tenth son: Imperial Prince Tsuguhito (継仁親王; 1279–1280)
Court Lady: Saionji (Fujiwara) Eiko later Shōkunmon'in (藤原（西園寺）瑛子; 昭訓門院; 1273–1336, Saionji Sanekane
Fourteenth Son: Imperial Prince Tokiwai-no-miya Tsuneakira (常盤井宮恒明親王; 1303–1351）
Lady-in-waiting: Koga (Minamoto) Michiyoshi's daughter
Third Son: Imperial Prince Priest Shokaku (性覚法親王; 1267–1293）
Lady-in-waiting: Sanjō Sanehira's daughter
Fourth son: Imperial Prince Priest Ryōjo (良助法親王; 1268–1318)
Sixth son: Imperial Prince Priest Shōun (聖雲法親王; 1271–1314)
Seventh son: Imperial Prince Priest Kakusei (覚雲法親王; 1272–1323)
Fifth daughter: married Kujō Moronori
Lady-in-waiting: Fujiwara Saneto's daughter
Fifth Son: Imperial Prince Moriyoshi (守良親王)
Lady-in-waiting: Fujiwara Masako (藤原雅子), Hosshōji Masahira's daughter
Second daughter: Imperial Princess Kenshi (憙子内親王) – Empress Dowager Shōkeimon'in (昭慶門院) married Emperor Go-Daigo
Lady in waiting: Sochi-Naishi (帥典侍), Taira Tokinaka’s Daughter
Ninth son: Imperial Prince Priest Junjo (順助法親王; 1279–1322)
Eleventh son: Imperial Prince Priest Jidō (慈道法親王; 1282–1341)
Twentieth son: Imperial Prince Priest Gyōen (行円法親王)
Court Lady: Toin (Fujiwara) Miwako (洞院 禖子), Toin Saneo's daughter
Third Daughter: Imperial Princess Rishi (理子内親王; 1274–1282）
Court Lady: Nukigawa (貫川), Kyogoku temple's banished Priestess
Daughter: (d. 1329) married Konoe Iemoto
Court Lady: Priest Genkoma's daughter
Son: Imperial Prince Kaneyoshi (兼良親王)
Court Lady: Fujiwara Hisako (藤原寿子), Fujiwara Kagefusa's daughter
Son: Imperial Prince Sadayoshi (定良親王) later Imperial Prince Priest Eiun (叡雲法親王)
Court Lady: Sanjo Kinchika’s daughter
son: Imperial Prince Priest Sho'e (性恵法親王)
Court Lady: Ogura Kino’s daughter
son: Imperial Prince Priest In’un 恒雲法親王)
Events of Kameyama's life
In 1258, he became Crown Prince at age 9.
Other names Emperor Kameyama had were:
Kongogen (金剛源) – his name as a monk
Zenrinji-dono (禅林寺殿) – Literally "Lord Zen-Temple" From the fact that he had a Zen temple in the north wing of his Imperial Villa
Madenokō-ji-dono (from his residence)
Bun'ō Kōtei (From the era name; Kōtei is another word for Emperor)
The name Kameyama comes from the location of his tomb.
9 January 1260 (Shōgen 1, 26th day of the 11th month): In the 14th year of Go-Fukakusa-tennō 's reign (後深草天皇十四年), the emperor abdicated; and the succession (senso) was received by his younger brother. Shortly thereafter, Emperor Kameyama is said to have acceded to the throne (sokui).
In 1263, during the Kamakura Rebellion, the 6th shōgun, Imperial Prince Munetaka (eldest son of Emperor Go-Saga) was recalled from Kamakura to be replaced by his son Imperial Prince Koreyasu (age 2).
In 1265 a Mongol delegation arrived from Kublai Khan, ruler of the Mongol Empire. On its way to Japan, they looted islands. The Mongols invited Japan to submit to the rule of Kublai. The Emperor and the Imperial Court suggested compromise, but they were ignored by the shogun in Kamakura. The Mongolian delegation was sent back.
In 1274, abdicating to his son, Emperor Go-Uda, he began his reign as cloistered emperor.
During his time as cloistered emperor, the Mongols invaded the second time. Kameyama personally prayed at the Grand Shrine of Ise. On 15 August 1281, Kameyama-Jokō asked for Amaterasu intervention on behalf of Japan.
However, the Bakufu watched Kameyama with suspicion, and in 1287, encouraged Emperor Go-Uda to abdicate, and pushed for the enthronement of Emperor Go-Fukakusa's son, who became Emperor Fushimi. Kameyama's cloistered rule was suspended by this.
Later, Imperial Prince Hisa'aki, Emperor Go-Fukakusa's son, became shōgun strengthening the position of the Jimyōin-tō. This caused Kameyama to become despondent, and in 1289 he entered the priesthood, joining the Zen sect. Because of this, Zen Buddhism slowly penetrated into the Court Nobility.
In 1291, he helped establish the Buddhist temple Nanzen-ji in Kyōto.
In 1305, he died. Emperor Kameyama is enshrined at Kameyama no Misasagi at Tenryū-ji in Kyoto; and this Imperial mausoleum is maintained by the Imperial Household.
Kugyō
is a collective term for the very few most powerful men attached to the court of the Emperor of Japan in pre-Meiji eras. Even during those years in which the court's actual influence outside the palace walls was minimal, the hierarchic organization persisted.
In general, this elite group included only three to four men at a time. These were hereditary courtiers whose experience and background would have brought them to the pinnacle of a life's career. During Kameyama's reign, this apex of the Daijō-kan included:
Kampaku, Takatsukasa Kanehira, 1254–1261
Kampaku, Nijō Yoshizane, 1261–1265
Kampaku, Ichijō Sanetsune, 1265–1267
Kampaku, Konoe Motohira, 1267–1268
Kampaku, Takatsukasa Mototada, 1268–1273
Kampaku, Kujō Tadaie, 1273–1274
Sadaijin Udaijin Nadaijin DainagonEras of Kameyama's reign
The years of Kameyama's reign are more specifically identified by more than one era name or nengō.
Bun'ō (1260–1261)
Kōchō (1261–1264)
Bun'ei (1264–1275)
See also
Emperor of Japan
List of Emperors of Japan
Imperial cult
Emperor Go-Kameyama
Notes
References
Ponsonby-Fane, Richard Arthur Brabazon. (1959). The Imperial House of Japan. Kyoto: Ponsonby Memorial Society. OCLC 194887
Titsingh, Isaac. (1834). Nihon Ōdai Ichiran''; ou, Annales des empereurs du Japon. Paris: Royal Asiatic Society, Oriental Translation Fund of Great Britain and Ireland. OCLC 5850691
Japanese emperors
1249 births
1305 deaths
Emperor Kameyama
Emperor Kameyama
Emperor Kameyama
13th-century Japanese monarchs
14th-century Japanese people
Japanese retired emperors
Japanese Buddhist monarchs
Kamakura period Buddhist clergy
Japanese Zen Buddhists
Zen Buddhist priests | [
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229373 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gulf%20of%20Tonkin | Gulf of Tonkin | The Gulf of Tonkin (; Chữ Nôm: 泳北部, ; formerly known as or during the ROC period) is a gulf at the northwestern portion of the South China Sea, located off the coasts of Tonkin (northern Vietnam) and South China. It has a total surface area of . It is defined in the west and northwest by the northern coastline of Vietnam down to the Hòn La Island, in the north by China's Guangxi Zhuang Autonomous Region, and to the east by the Leizhou Peninsula and Hainan Island.
Etymology
The bay's Vietnamese and Chinese names – and , respectively – both mean "Northern Bay". Bắc Bộ is the native Vietnamese name of Tonkin. The name Tonkin, written "" in Hán-Nôm characters and in the Vietnamese alphabet, means "eastern capital", and is the former toponym for Hanoi, the present capital of Vietnam. It should not to be confused with Tokyo, which is also written "" and also means "eastern capital". During Vietnam's French colonial era, the northern region was called Tonkin.
1964 incident
On 4 August 1964, United States President Lyndon B. Johnson claimed that North Vietnamese forces had twice attacked American destroyers in the Gulf of Tonkin. Known today as the Gulf of Tonkin Incident, this event spawned the Gulf of Tonkin Resolution of 7 August 1964, ultimately leading to open war between North Vietnam and the United States. It furthermore foreshadowed the major escalation of the Vietnam War in South Vietnam, which began with the landing of US regular combat troops at Da Nang in 1965.
See also
Geography of China
Geography of Vietnam
Tonkin Gulf Yacht Club
References
Further reading
Tonkin
Bodies of water of the South China Sea
Gulfs of China
South China
Gulfs of Vietnam
Bodies of water of Guangdong
Bodies of water of Guangxi
Bodies of water of Hainan
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229376 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Emperor%20Takakura | Emperor Takakura | was the 80th emperor of Japan, according to the traditional order of succession. His reign spanned the years from 1168 through 1180.
Genealogy
Before his ascension to the Chrysanthemum Throne, his personal name (his imina) was Norihito-shinnō (憲仁親王). He was also known as Nobuhito-shinnō.
Takakura was the fourth son of Emperor Go-Shirakawa, and thus uncle to his predecessor, Emperor Rokujō. His mother was Empress Dowager Taira no Shigeko, the younger sister of Taira no Tokiko, the wife of Taira no Kiyomori. His empress consort was Taira no Tokuko (later Empress Dowager Kenrei), the daughter of Taira no Kiyomori, and thus his first cousin (as his mother and Tokuko's mothers were sisters).
Empress consort: Taira no Tokuko (平徳子) – later Kenreimon-in
First Son: Imperial Prince Tokihito (言仁親王) – later Emperor Antoku
Lady-in-waiting: Bōmon Shokushi (坊門殖子; 1157-1228) later Shichijō-in (七条院), Bomon Nobutaka's daughter
Second son: Imperial Prince Morisada (守貞親王; 1179-1223) – later Go-Takakura In (後高倉院) – father of Emperor Go-Horikawa
Fourth son: Imperial Prince Takahira (尊成親王) – later Emperor Go-Toba
Consort: Konoe Michiko (近衛通子; b.1163) or Rokujō-no-tsubone (六条局), Konoe Motozane’s daughter.
Lady-in-waiting: Horikawa Toyoko (堀河豊子) or Azechi-Naishi (按察典侍), Horikawa Yorisada’s daughter
Third daughter: Imperial Princess Kiyoko (潔子内親王; b.1179) – Saigū of Ise
Court Lady: Taira no Noriko (平範子) or Shōshō-Naishi (少将内侍), Taira Yoshisuke’s daughter
Third son: Imperial Prince Koreaki (惟明親王; 1172–1221) later Imperial Prince Priest Shōen (聖円入道親王)
Court Lady: Fujiwara Kimiko (藤原公子) or Sochi-no-Tsubone (帥局), Fujiwara no Kimishige’s daughter – former nanny of Takakura
First daughter: Imperial Princess Isako (功子内親王; b.1176) – Saigū of Ise
Court Lady: Kogō-no-Tsubone (小督局; b.1157), Fujiwara no Shigenori’s daughter
Second daughter: Imperial Princess Hanshi/ Noriko (範子内親王; 1177-1210) later Empress Dowager Bōmon-in (坊門院)
Events of Takakura's life
Although Takakura was formally enthroned, the reality was that government affairs were controlled by his father and his father-in-law.
1168 (Nin'an 3, 19th day of the 2nd month): In the 3rd year of Rokujō-tennō 's reign (六条天皇3年), the emperor was deposed by his grandfather, and the succession (‘‘senso’’) was received by his cousin, the third son of the retired-Emperor Go-Shirakawa.
1168 (Nin'an 3, 19th day of the 2nd month): Emperor Takakura is said to have acceded to the throne (‘‘sokui’’), and he is proclaimed emperor.
Takakura had his own views on the role of Emperor. He is said to have written:
"The Emperor is a ship. His subjects are water. The water enables a ship to float well, but sometimes the vessel is capsized by it. His subjects can sustain an Emperor well, but sometimes they overthrow him."
Ex-Emperor Go-Shirakawa exercised the powers attendant the well-settled patterns of cloistered rule. Taira no Kiyomori, who was the father of the Empress, did whatever he pleased as de facto Regent.
1172 (Jōan 2, 10th day of the 2nd month): Taira Kiyomori's daughter, Tokuko, becomes Takakura's consort.
May 27, 1177 (Jishō 1, 28th day of the 4th month): A great fire in the capital was spread by high winds; and the palace was reduced to cinders.
1178 (Jishō 2, 12th day of the 11th month): Takakura's consort, Taira-no Tokuko, gave birth to a son. Kiyomori rejoiced; and all the officers of the court congratulated the parents. In the next month, this infant was declared heir to Emperor Takakura.
1180 (Jisho 4, 21st day of the 2nd month): Emperor Takakura abdicated.
1180 (Jisho 4, 22nd day of the 4th month): Emperor Antoku's coronation ceremony.
1180 (Jisho 4, 2nd day of the 6th month): Former-emperor Go-Shirakawa-in, former-emperor Takakura-in and Emperor Antoku leave Kyoto for Fukuhara-kyō.
1180 (Jisho 4, 26th day of the 11th month): The capital is moved back to Kyoto from Fukuhara.
1180 (Jisho 4): A devastating whirlwind causes havoc in Heian-kyō, the capital.
1181 (Jisho 5, 14th day of the 1st month): Emperor Takakura died.
Soon after the birth of Emperor Takakura's son, Prince Tokihito, he was pressured to abdicate. The one-year-old infant would become Emperor Antoku.
Kugyō
Kugyō (公卿) is a collective term for the very few most powerful men attached to the court of the Emperor of Japan in pre-Meiji eras.
In general, this elite group included only three to four men at a time. These were hereditary courtiers whose experience and background would have brought them to the pinnacle of a life's career. During Takakura's reign, this apex of the Daijō-kan included:
Sesshō, Matsuo Motofusa, 1144–1230.
Kampaku, Konoe Motomichi, 1160–1233.
Daijō-daijin, Fujiwara Tadamasa.
Daijō-daijin, Fujiwara Moronaga, 1137–1192.
Sadaijin, Ōimikado Tsunemune, 1119–1189.
Udaijin, Kujō Kanezane, 1149–1207.
Nadaijin, Konoe Motomichi.
Nadaijin, Minamoto Masamichi, died 1175.
Nadaijin, Taira Shigemori, 1138–1179.
Dainagon
Eras of Takakura's reign
The years of Takakura's reign are more specifically identified by more than one era name or nengō.
Nin'an (1166–1169)
Kaō (1169–1171)
Jōan (1171–1175)
Angen (1175–1177)
Jishō (1177–1181)
Cultural references
Takakura is the "Imperial Sovereign" of the Japan-inspired land of Akatsurai in Book 6: "The Lords of the Rising Sun" in the Fabled Lands adventure gamebook series. He is portrayed as a young man with little real power, it being largely in the hands of his chancellor, "Lord Kiyomori".
Ancestry
See also
Emperor of Japan
List of Emperors of Japan
Imperial cult
Notes
References
Brown, Delmer M. and Ichirō Ishida, eds. (1979). Gukanshō: The Future and the Past. Berkeley: University of California Press. ; OCLC 251325323
Helmolt, Hans Ferdinand and James Bryce Bryce. (1907). The World's History: A Survey of Man's Progress. Vol. 2. London: William Heinemann.OCLC 20279012
Kitagawa, Hiroshi and Burce T. Tsuchida, ed. (1975). The Tale of the Heike. Tokyo: University of Tokyo Press. OCLC 164803926
Ponsonby-Fane, Richard Arthur Brabazon. (1959). The Imperial House of Japan. Kyoto: Ponsonby Memorial Society. OCLC 194887
Titsingh, Isaac. (1834). Nihon Odai Ichiran; ou, Annales des empereurs du Japon. Paris: Royal Asiatic Society, Oriental Translation Fund of Great Britain and Ireland. OCLC 5850691
Varley, H. Paul. (1980). Jinnō Shōtōki: A Chronicle of Gods and Sovereigns. New York: Columbia University Press. ; OCLC 59145842
Japanese emperors
1161 births
1181 deaths
12th-century Japanese monarchs
People of Heian-period Japan | [
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229379 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Federative%20units%20of%20Brazil | Federative units of Brazil | The federative units of Brazil () are subnational entities with a certain degree of autonomy (self-government, self-regulation and self-collection) and endowed with their own government and constitution, which together form the Federative Republic of Brazil. There are 26 states () and one federal district (). The states are generally based on historical, conventional borders which have developed over time. The states are divided into municipalities, while the Federal District assumes the competences of both a state and a municipality.
List
Other statistics, by: highest point, literacy rate, life expectancy, infant mortality, murder rate.
History
The present states of Brazil trace their history directly to the captaincies established by Portugal following the Treaty of Tordesillas which divided the World between Portugal and Spain.
The first administrative divisions of Brazil were the hereditary captaincies (capitanias hereditárias), stretches of land granted by the Portuguese Crown to noblemen or merchants with a charter to colonize the land. The first such captaincy was the island of São João, granted in 1504 to Fernão de Loronha. The continental land was divided into captaincies in 1534, generally following lines of latitude, although some followed meridians or diagonal lines. Each of the holders of these captaincies was referred to as a captain donatary (capitão donatário). The captaincies were to be inherited by the holders' descendants, but the Crown retained the power to reacquire them.
In 1549, the Portuguese Crown appointed Tomé de Sousa as the first governor-general of the vast Portuguese dominion in South America, known as the State of Brazil (Estado do Brasil). In 1621, the northern part of the dominion was detached, becoming a separate entity known as the State of Maranhão. However, captaincies continued existing under both states as regional administrations.
During the Iberian Union (1580–1640), which allowed Portuguese settlers to enter Spanish domains, the territory of Portuguese colonial domains in South America was more than doubled, with both states of Brazil and Maranhão greatly expanding westward. After the union ended, Portugal asserted its territorial claims, which Spain eventually accepted with the Treaty of Madrid in 1750. Several captaincies were created or merged during this period, in both the original and western domains, and some were returned to the Crown, becoming royal captaincies.
The government of the Marquis of Pombal (1750–1777) significantly centralized the administration of the Portuguese colonies. By 1759, all captaincies had been returned to the Crown, with captains becoming appointed rather than recognized by inheritance. Some captaincies were designated as captaincies-general, to which other captaincies were subordinated. In addition, the State of Grão-Pará and Rio Negro and the State of Maranhão and Piauí, which had been split from the State of Maranhão, were reincorporated into the State of Brazil in 1775, under a single governor-general. This centralization later helped to keep Brazil as a unified nation-state, avoiding fragmentation similar to that of the Spanish domains.
The captaincies became provinces in 1821, during the final years of the Kingdom of Brazil (united with Portugal), and maintained that designation after independence in 1822 under the Empire of Brazil. Most internal boundaries were kept unchanged from the end of the colonial period, generally following natural features such as rivers and mountain ridges. Some changes were made to suit domestic politics (transferring the Triângulo Mineiro from Goiás to Minas Gerais, transferring the south bank of the São Francisco River from Pernambuco to Minas Gerais and later to Bahia, separating the capital city of Rio de Janeiro as a Neutral Municipality outside of any province, splitting Amazonas from Pará, and splitting Paraná from São Paulo), as well as international border adjustments resulting from diplomatic settlement of territorial disputes. The Cisplatine Province was annexed into Brazil in 1821, declared independence as Uruguay in 1825, and was recognized by the Treaty of Montevideo in 1828.
When Brazil became a republic in 1889, all provinces became states, and the Neutral Municipality became the Federal District. In 1903, Brazil acquired the territory of Acre from Bolivia with the Treaty of Petrópolis.
In 1942–1943, with the entrance of Brazil into World War II, the Vargas regime detached six strategic territories from the borders of the country in order to administer them directly: the archipelago of Fernando de Noronha (from Pernambuco), Amapá (from Pará), Rio Branco (from Amazonas), Guaporé (from Mato Grosso and Amazonas), Ponta Porã (from Mato Grosso) and Iguaçu (from Paraná and Santa Catarina). Shortly after the war, the Brazilian constitution of 1946 returned Ponta Porã and Iguaçu to their original states. Guaporé was renamed Rondônia in 1956, and Rio Branco was renamed Roraima in 1962, while remaining territories along with Amapá and Fernando de Noronha. Acre became a state in 1962.
In 1960, the rectangular-shaped Distrito Federal was carved out of Goiás to contain the new capital, Brasília. The previous federal district became the state of Guanabara, but in 1975 it was reincorporated into its original state of Rio de Janeiro, becoming its capital as the city of Rio de Janeiro.
In 1977, the southern part of Mato Grosso became the state of Mato Grosso do Sul. In 1981, Rondônia became a state. The Brazilian constitution of 1988 created the state of Tocantins from the northern portion of Goiás, established Amapá and Roraima as states, and returned the archipelago of Fernando de Noronha to Pernambuco. The constitution thus ended all remaining territories, although it maintained the possibility of creating others in the future.
Proposed division of Pará
On 11 December 2011, a consultative referendum was held in the state of Pará about creating two new states from parts of it (Tapajós and Carajás, with the rest of the state remaining as Pará). Both proposals were rejected by about 66% of statewide voters, but reflecting a strong geographic split with over 90% approval by voters in the proposed breakaway regions and over 90% disapproval by those in the rest of the state.
Maps
Approximate correspondence between historical divisions
Government
The government of each state of Brazil is divided into executive, legislative and judiciary branches.
The state executive branch is headed by a state governor and includes a vice governor, both elected by the citizens of the state. The governor appoints several secretaries of state (each one in charge of a given portfolio) and the state attorney-general.
The state legislative branch is the legislative assembly, a unicameral body composed of deputies elected by the citizens of the state.
The judiciary in each of the states is composed of judges of law, who constitute the courts of first instance, and a Court of Justice, which is the court of second instance of the state and is composed of judges called desembargadores. Judges qualify through exams or are appointed.
The states are divided into municipalities, which have different competences and are considered autonomous from the states. Municipalities have a mayor, vice mayor and a chamber of aldermen, all elected by the citizens of the municipality, but do not have a separate judiciary.
The Federal District has the same executive, legislative and judiciary organization as a state, but it cannot be divided into municipalities, which is why its territory is composed of several administrative regions. These regions are directly managed by the government of the Federal District, which exercises constitutional and legal powers that are equivalent to those of the states, as well as those of the municipalities, thus simultaneously assuming all the obligations arising from them.
Fernando de Noronha is not a municipality, but a state district of Pernambuco (the only state district in the country). It is governed by an administrator-general, appointed by the governor of Pernambuco, and a council whose members are elected by the citizens of the district.
All states and the Federal District are represented in the national congress, each with three senators and between eight and 70 deputies, depending on their population. The citizens of all states and the Federal District vote for these national representatives and for president and vice president.
See also
Brazil socio-geographic division
List of Brazilian states by area
List of Brazilian states by Human Development Index
List of Brazilian states by murder rate
List of Brazilian states by population
List of Brazil state name etymologies
Provinces of Brazil
Regions of Brazil
References
External links
Economic statistical data for Brazil's 26 states and federal district (in English, Portuguese, and Spanish)
Map of Brazil, showing states and their standard time zones
Subdivisions of Brazil
States
States, Brazil | [
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229386 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Emperor%20Ichij%C5%8D | Emperor Ichijō | was the 66th emperor of Japan, according to the traditional order of succession.
Ichijō's reign spanned the years from 986 to 1011.
Biography
Before he ascended to the Chrysanthemum Throne, his personal name (imina) was Kanehito-shinnō (懐仁).
Kanehito-shinnō was the first son of Emperor En'yū and Fujiwara no Senshi, a daughter of Fujiwara no Kaneie. Since there are no documented siblings, it is supposed that he was an only child.
Ichijō had five Empresses or Imperial consorts and five Imperial sons and daughters.
Events of Ichijō's life
His reign coincided with the culmination of Heian period culture and the apex of the power of the Fujiwara clan. He ascended to the throne after a period of political instability that began within the Fujiwara clan after they successfully eliminated the Minamoto clan as a political rival. The internal power struggle that ensued within the Fujiwara saw the untimely ends of three emperors. Ichijō had been appointed crown prince under Emperor Kazan in 984. Two years later, after Emperor Kazan abdicated in 986, Ichijō ascended to the throne at the age of six. The young Emperor Ichijō was under the influence of his uncle Fujiwara no Michinaga from the start of his reign, though Michinaga's true ascent to political dominance did not begin until 995 after the deaths of his older brothers and the exile of his political rival and nephew, Korechika.
These events took place during the Kanna era (see Japanese era name nengō 年号), after Emperor Kazan abdicated. The succession (senso) was received by a cousin, the son of his father's younger brother.
August 1, 986 (Kanna 2, 23rd day of the 6th month): Emperor Ichijō is said to have acceded to the throne (sokui).
A son of Emperor Reizei, who was older than Ichijō, was appointed crown prince. Kaneie became the regent (Sesshō) and effectively ruled the state. After Kaneie died in 990, his first son and Ichijō's uncle Fujiwara no Michitaka was appointed regent.
March 1, 991 (Shōryaku 2, 12th day of the 2nd month): The former-Emperor En'yū died at the age of 33.
1008 (Kankō 5, 8th day of the 2nd month): Kazan died at the age of 41.
July 16, 1011 (Kankō 8, 13th day of the 6th month): In the 25th year of Emperor Ichijō's reign (一条天皇二十五年), the emperor abdicated; and the succession (senso) was received by his cousin. Shortly thereafter, Emperor Sanjō is said to have acceded to the throne (sokui).
July 19, 1011 (Kankō 8, 16th day of the 6th month): Emperor Ichijō takes tonsure as a Buddhist monk.
July 25, 1011 (Kankō 8, 22nd day of the 6th month): Emperor Ichijō died.
The mother of the emperor had a large influence over the appointment of officials, "the emperor's officials controls matters of the state, as the imperial mother makes affairs of the court solely her own."
Ichijō had two empress consorts. First was Teishi (or Fujiwara no Sadako), a daughter of Fujiwara no Michitaka. Second was Shōshi (or Akiko), a daughter of Fujiwara no Michinaga, a younger brother of Michitaka. Most people thought it impossible to have two empress consorts, but Michinaga claimed that the empress held two separate titles, Chūgū and Kōgō, which were different in principle and could therefore given to two different women.
The courts of both empresses were known as centers of culture. Sei Shōnagon, author of The Pillow Book, was a lady in waiting to Teishi. Murasaki Shikibu was a lady in waiting to Shoshi. There were other famous poets in the courts of the empresses.
Ichijō loved literature and music. For this reason, high ranked courtiers felt the necessity for their daughter to hold cultural salons with many skillful lady poets. Particularly he was fond of the flute. Ichijō was known for his temperate character and was beloved by his subjects.
During Ichijō's reign, Imperial visits were first made to the following four shrines: Kasuga, Ōharano, Matsunoo, and Kitano; and in the years which followed, Emperors traditionally made yearly Imperial visits to these shrines and to three others: Kamo, Iwashimizu and Hirano.
The actual site of Ichijō's grave is known. This emperor is traditionally venerated at a memorial Shinto shrine (misasagi) at Kyoto.
The Imperial Household Agency designates this location as Ichijō's mausoleum. It is formally named En'yū-ji no kita no misasagi.
Ichijō is buried amongst the "Seven Imperial Tombs" at Ryōan-ji Temple in Kyoto. The mound which commemorates the Emperor Ichijō is today named Kinugasa-yama. The emperor's burial place would have been quite humble in the period after Ichijo died.
These tombs reached their present state as a result of the 19th century restoration of imperial sepulchers (misasagi) which were ordered by Emperor Meiji.
Kugyō
is a collective term for the very few most powerful men attached to the court of the Emperor of Japan in pre-Meiji eras.
In general, this elite group included only three to four men at a time. These were hereditary courtiers whose experience and background have brought them to the pinnacle of a life's career.
During Kazan's reign, this apex of the Daijō-kan included:
Sesshō, Fujiwara no Kaneie (藤原兼家), 929–990.
Sesshō, Fujiwara no Michitaka (藤原道隆), 953–995.
Kampaku, Fujiwara no Kaneie.
Kampaku, Fujiwara no Michikane, 961–995.
Daijō-daijin, Fujiwara no Kaneie.
Daijō-daijin, Fujiwara no Yoritada (藤原頼忠), 924–989.
Daijō-daijin, Fujiwara no Tamemitsu(藤原為光), 942–992.
Sadaijin, Fujiwara no Michinaga (藤原道長), 966–1027.
Udaijin, Fujiwara no Michikane (藤原道兼).
Naidaijin, Fujiwara no Michitaka.
Naidaijin, Fujiwara no Korechika (藤原伊周), 973–1010.
Naidaijin, Kan'in Kinsue (藤原公季), 956–1029.
Dainagon
Eras of Ichijō's reign
The years of Ichijō's reign are more specifically identified by more than one era name or nengō.
Eien (987–988)
Eiso (988–990)
Shōryaku (990–995)
Chōtoku (995–999)
Chōhō (999–1004)
Kankō (1004–1012)
Consorts and children
Empress (Kōgō): Fujiwara no Teishi/Sadako (藤原定子), Fujiwara no Michitaka‘s 1st daughter
First Daughter: Imperial Princess Shushi/Nagako (脩子内親王; 997–1049)
First son: Imperial Prince Atsuyasu (敦康親王; 999–1019)
second Daughter: Imperial Princess Bishi (媄子内親王; 1001–1008)
Empress (Chūgū): Fujiwara no Shōshi/Akiko (藤原彰子) later Jōtō-mon-In (上東門院), Fujiwara no Michinaga‘s daughter
Second son: Imperial Prince Atsuhira (敦成親王) later Emperor Go-Ichijō
Third son: Imperial Prince Atsunaga (敦良親王) later Emperor Go-Suzaku
Consort (Nyōgo): Fujiwara no Gishi (藤原義子; 974–1053), Fujiwara no Kinsue‘s daughter
Consort (Nyōgo): Fujiwara no Genshi (藤原元子; b.979), Fujiwara no Akimitsu‘s daughter; later married Minamoto no Yorisada
Consort (Nyōgo): Fujiwara no Sonshi (藤原尊子; 984–1022), Fujiwara no Michikane‘s daughter; later married Fujiwara no Michitō in 1015
Consort (Mikushige-dono-no-Bettō): Fujiwara no Michitaka‘s 4th daughter (985-1002)
Ancestry
Notes
References
Brown, Delmer M. and Ichirō Ishida, eds. (1979). Gukanshō: The Future and the Past. Berkeley: University of California Press. ; OCLC 251325323
Moscher, Gouverneur. (1978). Kyoto: A Contemplative Guide. ; OCLC 4589403
Ponsonby-Fane, Richard Arthur Brabazon. (1959). The Imperial House of Japan. Kyoto: Ponsonby Memorial Society. OCLC 194887
Titsingh, Isaac. (1834). Nihon Odai Ichiran; ou, Annales des empereurs du Japon. Paris: Royal Asiatic Society, Oriental Translation Fund of Great Britain and Ireland. OCLC 5850691
Varley, H. Paul. (1980). Jinnō Shōtōki: A Chronicle of Gods and Sovereigns. New York: Columbia University Press. ; OCLC 59145842
See also
Emperor of Japan
List of Emperors of Japan
Imperial cult
Emperor Go-Ichijō
Seimei Shrine
Japanese emperors
980 births
1011 deaths
People of Heian-period Japan
Heian period Buddhist clergy
10th-century Japanese monarchs
11th-century Japanese monarchs
Japanese Buddhist monarchs
Japanese retired emperors
People from Kyoto | [
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229388 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Corineus | Corineus | Corineus, in medieval British legend, was a prodigious warrior, a fighter of giants, and the eponymous founder of Cornwall.
According to Geoffrey of Monmouth's History of the Kings of Britain (1136), he led the descendants of the Trojans who fled with Antenor after the Trojan War and settled on the coasts of the Tyrrhenian Sea. After Brutus, a descendant of the Trojan prince Aeneas, had been exiled from Italy and liberated the enslaved Trojans in Greece, he encountered Corineus and his people, who joined him in his travels. In Gaul, Corineus provoked a war with Goffarius Pictus, king of Aquitania, by hunting in his forests without permission, and killed thousands single-handedly with his battle-axe. After defeating Goffarius, the Trojans crossed to the island of Albion, which Brutus renamed Britain after himself. Corineus settled in Cornwall, which was then inhabited by giants. Brutus and his army killed most of them, but their leader, Gogmagog, was kept alive for a wrestling match with Corineus. The fight took place near Plymouth, and Corineus killed him by throwing him over a cliff.
Corineus was the first of the legendary rulers of Cornwall. After Brutus died the rest of Britain was divided between his three sons, Locrinus (England), Kamber (Wales) and Albanactus (Scotland). Locrinus agreed to marry Corineus's daughter Gwendolen, but fell in love instead with Estrildis, a captured German princess. Corineus threatened war in response to this affront, and to pacify him Locrinus married Gwendolen, but kept Estrildis as his secret mistress. After Corineus died Locrinus divorced Gwendolen and married Estrildis, and Gwendolen responded by raising an army in Cornwall and making war against her ex-husband. Locrinus was killed in battle, and Gwendolen threw Estrildis and her daughter, Habren, into the River Severn.
The tale is preserved in the works of later writers, including Michael Drayton and John Milton.
As to Corineus's stature, he is represented as being the largest of Brutus's crew in the Middle English prose Brut Raphael Holinshed comments that Corineus was not a giant, but names a source, the Architrenius that describes Corineus as a man 12 cubits (18 feet) tall.
See also
Corinius
References
British traditional history
Characters in works by Geoffrey of Monmouth
Cornish folklore
Monarchs of Cornwall
Medieval legends
Gog and Magog | [
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229405 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/James%20Stockdale | James Stockdale | James Bond Stockdale (December 23, 1923 – July 5, 2005) was a United States Navy vice admiral and aviator awarded the Medal of Honor in the Vietnam War, during which he was a prisoner of war for over seven years.
Stockdale was the most senior naval officer held captive in Hanoi, North Vietnam. He had led aerial attacks from the carrier during the 1964 Gulf of Tonkin incident. On his next deployment, while commander of Carrier Air Wing Sixteen aboard the carrier , his A-4 Skyhawk jet was shot down in North Vietnam on September 9, 1965. He served as President of the Naval War College from October 1977 until he retired from the Navy in 1979. As vice admiral, Stockdale was the president of The Citadel from 1979 to 1980.
Stockdale was a candidate for Vice President of the United States in the 1992 presidential election, on Ross Perot's independent ticket.
Early life and education
Stockdale was born in Abingdon, Illinois, on December 23, 1923, the son of Mabel Edith (née Bond) and Vernon Beard Stockdale. Following a brief period at Monmouth College, he entered the United States Naval Academy in Annapolis, Maryland, in June 1943.
Naval career
On June 5, 1946, he graduated with a Bachelor of Science degree from the Naval Academy with the Class of 1947 due to the reduced schedule still in effect from World War II. Academically he ranked 130th among 821 graduates in his class. His first assignment was assistant gunnery officer aboard the destroyer minesweeper from June to October 1946. He next served aboard the from October 1946 to February 1947, the from February 1947 to July 1948, and the from July 1948 to June 1949.
Stockdale was accepted for flight training in June 1949 and reported to Naval Air Station Pensacola in Florida. He was designated a Naval Aviator at Naval Air Station Corpus Christi in Texas, in September 1950. He was next assigned for additional training at Naval Air Station Norfolk in Virginia from October 1950 to January 1951. In January 1954, he was accepted into the United States Naval Test Pilot School at the Naval Air Station Patuxent River base in Southern Maryland, and he completed his training in July 1954. There he tutored the U.S. Marine Corps aviator John Glenn in mathematics and physics. He was a test pilot until January 1957.
In 1959, the U.S. Navy sent Stockdale to Stanford University, where he earned a Master of Arts degree in international relations and comparative Marxist thought in 1962. Stockdale preferred the life of a fighter pilot over academia, but he later credited Stoic philosophy with helping him cope as a prisoner of war.
Vietnam War
Gulf of Tonkin Incident
On August 2, 1964, while on a DESOTO patrol in the Tonkin Gulf, the destroyer engaged three North Vietnamese Navy P-4 torpedo boats from the 135th Torpedo Squadron. After fighting a running gun and torpedo battle, in which Maddox fired over 280 shells, and the torpedo boats expended their 6 torpedoes (all misses) and hundreds of rounds of 14.5mm machinegun fire; the combatants broke contact. As the torpedo boats turned for their North Vietnamese coastline, four F-8 Crusader fighter aircraft from arrived, and immediately attacked the retreating torpedo boats.
Stockdale (commander VF-51 (Fighter Squadron 51)), with Lieutenant (Junior Grade) Richard Hastings attacked torpedo boats T-333 and T-336, while Commander R. F. Mohrhardt and Lieutenant Commander C. E. Southwick attacked torpedo boat T-339. The four F-8 pilots reported scoring no hits with their Zuni rockets, but reported hits on all three torpedo boats with their 20 mm cannon.
Two nights later, on August 4, 1964, Stockdale was overhead during the second reported attack in the Tonkin Gulf. Unlike the first event, which was an actual sea battle, no Vietnamese forces were, however, believed to have been involved in the second engagement. In the early 1990s, he recounted: "[I] had the best seat in the house to watch that event, and our destroyers were just shooting at phantom targets—there were no PT boats there. ... There was nothing there but black water and American fire power."
The next morning, on August 5, 1964, President Johnson ordered bombing raids on North Vietnamese military targets which he announced were retaliation for the alleged incident of August 4. When Stockdale was awoken in the early morning and was told he was to lead these attacks he responded: "Retaliation for what?" Later, while a prisoner of war, he was concerned that he would be forced to reveal this secret about the Vietnam War.
Prisoner of war
On September 9, 1965, while flying from on a mission over North Vietnam, Stockdale ejected from his Douglas A-4 Skyhawk, which had been struck by enemy fire and completely disabled. He parachuted into a small village, where he was severely beaten and taken prisoner.
Stockdale was held as a prisoner of war in the Hỏa Lò Prison (the infamous "Hanoi Hilton") for the next seven-and-a-half years. As the senior Naval officer, he was one of the primary organizers of prisoner resistance. Tortured routinely and denied medical attention for the severely damaged leg he suffered during capture, Stockdale created and enforced a code of conduct for all prisoners which governed torture, secret communications, and behavior. In the summer of 1969, he was locked in leg irons in a bath stall and routinely tortured and beaten. When told by his captors that he was to be paraded in public, Stockdale slit his scalp with a razor to purposely disfigure himself so that his captors could not use him as propaganda. When they covered his head with a hat, he beat himself with a stool until his face was swollen beyond recognition. When Stockdale was discovered with information that could implicate his friends' so-called "black activities", he slit his wrists so they could not torture him into confession. During the course of his captivity, due to torture, his leg was broken twice.
Early in Stockdale's captivity, his wife, Sybil Stockdale, organized The League of American Families of POWs and MIAs, with other wives of servicemen who were in similar circumstances. By 1968, she and her organization, which called for the president and the U.S. Congress to publicly acknowledge the mistreatment of the POWs (something that had never been done despite evidence of gross mistreatment), gained the attention of the American press. Sybil Stockdale personally made these demands known at the Paris Peace Talks.
Stockdale was one of eleven U.S. military prisoners known as the "Alcatraz Gang": George Thomas Coker, USN; George G. McKnight, USAF; Jeremiah Denton, USN (who had graduated with Stockdale from the Naval Academy); Harry Jenkins, USN; Sam Johnson, USAF; James Mulligan, USN; Howard Rutledge, USN; Robert Shumaker, USN (originator of the name "Hanoi Hilton"); Ronald Storz, USAF (died in captivity); and Nels Tanner, USN. Because they had been resistance leaders they were separated from other captives and placed in solitary confinement in "Alcatraz", a special facility in a courtyard behind the North Vietnamese Ministry of National Defense, located about one mile away from Hỏa Lò Prison. In Alcatraz, each of the prisoners was kept in an individual windowless and concrete cell measuring with a light bulb kept on around the clock, and locked in leg irons each night. Of the eleven, Storz died in captivity there in 1970.
The Stockdale Paradox
James C. Collins related a conversation he had with Stockdale regarding his coping strategy during his period in the Vietnamese POW camp. When Collins asked which prisoners didn't make it out of Vietnam, Stockdale replied:
Collins called this the Stockdale Paradox.
Return to the United States
Stockdale was released as a prisoner of war on February 12, 1973, during Operation Homecoming.
On March 4, 1976, Stockdale received the Medal of Honor. Stockdale filed charges against two other officers (Marine Corps Lieutenant Colonel Edison W. Miller and Navy Captain Walter E. "Gene" Wilber) who, he felt, had given aid and comfort to the enemy. However, the Department of the Navy under the leadership of then-Secretary of the Navy John Warner took no action and retired these men "in the best interests of the Navy." Both Miller and Wilber received letters of censure.
Debilitated by his captivity and mistreatment, Stockdale could not stand upright and could barely walk upon his return to the United States, which prevented his return to active flying status. In deference to his previous service, the Navy kept him on active duty, steadily promoting him over the next few years before he retired as a vice admiral on September 1, 1979. He completed his career by serving as the president of the Naval War College at Newport, Rhode Island, from October 13, 1977, until August 22, 1979.
Civilian academic work and writings
After his retirement in 1979, he became the president of The Citadel. His tenure there was short and stormy as he found himself at odds with the college's board as well as most of its administration, by proposing radical changes to the college's military system and other facets of the college. He left The Citadel to become a fellow of the Hoover Institution at Stanford University in 1981. During his twelve-year tenure at the Hoover Institution, Stockdale wrote and lectured extensively. His primary focus was ancient Stoicism and the Roman slave-turned-philosopher Epictetus, whose lessons captured in The Enchiridion Stockdale credited with providing him strength during his ordeals as a prisoner in the Hanoi Hilton. Between 1981 and 1988 Stockdale also served as chair of the White House Fellows under the Reagan administration.
In 1984 Stockdale and his wife Sybil co-authored In Love and War: the Story of a Family's Ordeal and Sacrifice During the Vietnam War which was published by Harper and Row. It recounts Stockdale's experiences while in Vietnam and in alternating chapters also tells the story of Sybil Stockdale's early involvement in the League of American Families of POWs and MIAs which she helped to found and served as its first chairperson. Their story was later made into an NBC television movie under the name In Love and War starring James Woods and Jane Alexander.
Stockdale was a member of the board of directors of the Rockford Institute, and was a frequent contributor to Chronicles: A magazine of American Culture.
Vice-Presidential candidacy
Stockdale came to know businessman and presidential candidate Ross Perot through his wife's work in establishing an organization to represent the families of Vietnam POWs. On March 30, 1992, Perot announced that he had asked Stockdale to be his provisional Vice Presidential nominee on Ross Perot's 1992 independent ticket. Perot intended to replace Stockdale with another candidate, but did not do so before he dropped out of the race in July 1992.
Perot eventually re-entered the race in the fall of 1992, with Stockdale still in place as the vice-presidential nominee. Stockdale was not informed that he would be participating in the October 13 vice-presidential debate held in Atlanta, Georgia, until a week before the event. He had no formal preparation for the debate, unlike his opponents Al Gore and Dan Quayle, and did not discuss any political issues with Perot beforehand.
Stockdale opened the debate by saying, "Who am I? Why am I here?", when responding to a request for an opening statement from debate moderator, Hal Bruno, the political director of ABC News. Initially, the rhetorical questions drew applause from the audience. However, his unfocused style for the rest of the debate (including asking the moderator to repeat one question because he didn't have his hearing aid turned on) made him appear confused and almost disoriented. An unflattering recreation of the moment on Saturday Night Live later that week, with Phil Hartman as Stockdale, cemented a public perception of Stockdale as slow-witted. He was also often parodied for his repeated use of the term "gridlock" to describe slow governmental policy.
As his introduction to the large segment of American voters who had not previously heard of him, the debate was disastrous for Stockdale. He was portrayed in the media as elderly and confused, and his reputation never recovered. In a 1999 interview with Jim Lehrer, Stockdale explained that the statements were intended as an introduction of himself and his personal history to the television audience:
It was terribly frustrating because I remember I started with, "Who am I? Why am I here?" and I never got back to that because there was never an opportunity for me to explain my life to people. It was so different from Quayle and Gore. The four years in solitary confinement in Vietnam, seven-and-a-half years in prisons, drop the first bomb that started the ... American bombing raid in the North Vietnam. We blew the oil storage tanks of them off the map. And I never—I couldn't approach—I don't say it just to brag, but, I mean, my sensitivities are completely different.
In a 1994 HBO comedy special, Dennis Miller gave an impassioned defense of Stockdale's debate performance:
Now I know (Stockdale's name has) become a buzzword in this culture for doddering old man, but let's look at the record, folks. The guy was the first guy in and the last guy out of Vietnam, a war that many Americans, including your new President, chose not to dirty their hands with. He had to turn his hearing aid on at that debate because those fucking animals knocked his eardrums out when he wouldn't spill his guts. He teaches philosophy at Stanford University, he's a brilliant, sensitive, courageous man. And yet he committed the one unpardonable sin in our culture: he was bad on television.
Perot and Stockdale received 19 percent of the vote in the 1992 presidential election, one of the best showings by an independent ticket in U.S. electoral history, although they did not carry any states.
Military awards
Stockdale's decorations and awards include:
Medal of Honor citation
Stockdale's official Medal of Honor citation reads:
Later life and death
Stockdale retired to Coronado, California, as he slowly succumbed to Alzheimer's disease. He died from the illness on July 5, 2005. He was 81. Stockdale's funeral service was held at the Naval Academy Chapel and he was buried at the United States Naval Academy Cemetery.
Legacy
The Vice Admiral James Bond Stockdale Award for Inspirational Leadership is a United States Navy award established in 1980 by United States Secretary of the Navy Edward Hidalgo to honor the inspirational leadership of Stockdale. The award was first made in 1981.
The U.S. Navy has named a number of structures after Stockdale, including the Arleigh Burke-class guided missile destroyer , christened on May 10, 2008. At the Naval Air Station North Island in Coronado, California, the main gate (inaugurated on August 30, 2007) and the headquarters building for the Pacific Fleet's Survival, Evasion, Resistance and Escape (SERE) school were both named in his honor. In July 2008, a statue of him was erected in front of Luce Hall at the U.S. Naval Academy; the hall which houses the Vice Admiral James B. Stockdale Center for Ethical Leadership.
In 1976, he received the Golden Plate Award of the American Academy of Achievement.
Stockdale Center, the student center at Monmouth College in Monmouth, Illinois, which he attended prior to transferring to the Naval Academy, was dedicated in his honor in 1989.
He was enshrined in the National Aviation Hall of Fame in 2002.
The Admiral James & Sybil Stockdale Arena at South Kent School was named after Stockdale and his wife in April 2014.
In October 2014, Airbase Arizona of the Commemorative Air Force placed on display a restored Grumman AF-2S Guardian (BuNo 126731) flown by VADM Stockdale early in his Navy career with his name on the canopy rail and all markings as they were when he flew the aircraft in the 1950s.
Stockdale's naval experiences and his leadership decisions while senior Naval officer in prison in North Vietnam are an integral part of every Midshipman's educational experience at Annapolis.
A luxury suite at the Loews Annapolis Hotel, where Perot announced his candidacy, was named in Stockdale's honor.
The Abingdon-Avon High School Auditorium in Abingdon, Illinois, has been named "Stockdale Auditorium" in his honor.
Electoral history
1992 election for U.S. President/Vice President – popular vote share
Clinton/Gore (D), 43.0% (370 Electoral Votes)
Bush/Quayle (R), 37.7% (168 Electoral Votes)
Perot/Stockdale (I), 18.9% (0 Electoral Votes)
Writings by James Stockdale
Books
Taiwan and the Sino-Soviet Dispute, Stanford, California, 1962.
The Ethics of Citizenship, University of Texas at Dallas, 1981, Andrew R. Cecil lectures on moral values in a free society featured Stockdale and other speakers.
James Bond Stockdale Speaks on the "Melting Experience: Grow or Die", Hoover Institution, Stanford, 1981 speech to the graduating class of John Carroll University in Cleveland, Ohio.
A Vietnam Experience: Ten Years of Reflection, Hoover Institution, Stanford, 1984, .
In Love and War: The Story of a Family's Ordeal and Sacrifice During the Vietnam Years
1984 Original, Harper & Row, New York, .
1990 Reprint, Naval Institute Press, Annapolis, Maryland, .
Courage Under Fire: Testing Epictetus's Doctrines in a Laboratory of Human Behavior, Hoover Institution, Stanford, 1993, .
Thoughts of a Philosophical Fighter Pilot, Hoover Institution, Stanford, 1995 .
Other writings
Stockdale on Stoicism I: The Stoic Warrior's Triad
Stockdale on Stoicism II: Master of My Fate
See also
List of Medal of Honor recipients for the Vietnam War
List of United States presidential candidates (1856–present)
List of Mount Holyoke College people
List of United States Naval Academy alumni (Medal of Honor)
List of prisoners of war
References
Online sources
Interview with Jim Lehrer on 1992 Vice-Presidential debate
Hoover Institution Biography (archived)
Washington Post obituary for Stockdale July 6, 2005
The Guardian report on Stockdale's death July 2005
Admiral Stockdale's Personal Webpage (archived)
Memorial Service for Admiral James B. Stockdale (archived)
Naval Academy Tribute to Stockdale
United States Navy Announces the Death of Retired Vice Adm. James B. Stockdale (archived)
Naval War College: Past presidents
Oil Portrait of James B. Stockdale (archived) by Margaret Holland Sargent
Additional references
Apart from the works written by Stockdale himself, the following work refers extensively to Stockdale's involvement in the Tonkin Gulf:
Edwin E. Moise, Tonkin Gulf and the Escalation of the Vietnam War UNC Press North Carolina 1996
The following book is based on the series of lectures delivered for the course in moral philosophy established at the Naval War College by Admiral Stockdale in 1978, when Stockdale was president of the college. The course was designed by Stockdale and Professor Joseph Brennan, who continued to teach it after Stockdale retired from the Navy. The Foreword was written by Stockdale.
Joseph Gerard Brennan, FOUNDATIONS OF MORAL OBLIGATION: The Stockdale Course, Presidio Press, Novato, California (1994)
External links
1923 births
2005 deaths
20th-century American politicians
United States Navy personnel of the Vietnam War
American test pilots
American torture victims
American Vietnam War pilots
Aviators from Illinois
Burials at the United States Naval Academy Cemetery
Deaths from Alzheimer's disease
Illinois Independents
Neurological disease deaths in California
Monmouth College alumni
Military personnel from Illinois
National Aviation Hall of Fame inductees
People from Abingdon, Illinois
Recipients of the Air Medal
Presidents of The Citadel, The Military College of South Carolina
Recipients of the Distinguished Flying Cross (United States)
Recipients of the Legion of Merit
Presidents of the Naval War College
Recipients of the Navy Distinguished Service Medal
Recipients of the Silver Star
Shot-down aviators
Sons of the American Revolution
United States Naval Academy alumni
United States Navy admirals
United States Navy Medal of Honor recipients
United States Naval Aviators
1992 United States vice-presidential candidates
Vietnam War prisoners of war
Vietnam War recipients of the Medal of Honor
Writers from Illinois | [
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229411 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Paran%C3%A1%20%28state%29 | Paraná (state) | Paraná () is one of the 26 states of Brazil, in the south of the country, bordered on the north by São Paulo state, on the east by the Atlantic Ocean, on the south by Santa Catarina state and the province of Misiones, Argentina, and on the west by Mato Grosso do Sul and Paraguay, with the Paraná River as its western boundary line. It is subdivided into 399 municipalities, and its capital is the city of Curitiba. Other major cities are Londrina, Maringá, Ponta Grossa, Cascavel, São José dos Pinhais and Foz do Iguaçu. The state is home to 5.4% of the Brazilian population and has 6.2% of the Brazilian GDP.
Crossed by the Tropic of Capricorn, Paraná has what is left of the araucaria forest, one of the most important subtropical forests in the world. At the border with Argentina is the National Park of Iguaçu, considered by UNESCO as a World Heritage Site. At only from there, at the border with Paraguay, the largest dam in the world was built, the Hidroelétrica de Itaipu (Itaipu Hydroelectric Dam). The crime rate is considered low by Brazilian standards and the state is one of the most developed ones in the nation, ranking 4th in gross domestic product, only behind the states of Rio de Janeiro, São Paulo and Minas Gerais.
History
Before the discovery of the region by European explorers, indigenous populations inhabited the region for thousands of years. This included the Carijó in the lands closer to the sea, from the Tupi group, and the Caingangues in the interior, who belonged to the Jê group.
Colonisation of the state by settlers started in the 16th century, but was mainly confined to the coasts. Being a region mostly abandoned by the Portuguese, the region was explored by other European countries, who searched primarily for Pau brasil. The most noteworthy presence was that of the Spanish, which brought with them jesuits. Soon, Jesuit reductions were opened in the western and south-western parts of the state, whose territory largely belonged to the Spanish crown. In 1554, Domingo Martínez de Irala founded the town of Ontiveros, one league away from the Guaíra Falls.
In the 1940s, the northern part of the state was settled as a result of the expansion of the São Paulo coffee industry. The south-eastern part of the state was settled as a result of migration from Rio Grande do Sul.
Geography
Paraná is bounded on the north by São Paulo state, on the east by the Atlantic Ocean, on the south by Santa Catarina state and the Misiones Province of Argentina, and on the west by Mato Grosso do Sul and the republic of Paraguay, with the Paraná River as its western boundary line.
The state can be separated into five main topographic areas, from east to west: a coastal zone, the mountains of Serra do Mar, and then three plateaus, each lower than the other, until the Paraná River is reached.
Climate
According to the Köppen climate classification, the north and west of the state, and the east coast, is of the Cfa climate type, with the remainder being Cfb. An alternative analysis using the ECMWF model indicates that the Aw and Cwa Köppen types appear in the north. The northern part of the state is the convergence point between the Tropical Atlantic and Equatorial Continental air masses.
Temperature and precipitation
The annual mean air temperature ranges between 15 and 24°, with the highest temperatures found in the northwest and the lowest around Palmas, which is considered the coldest city of Paraná by the meteorological body Simepar. In the coastal plain minimum average temperatures range between .
Precipitation is less than a year in the north of the state, rising to above in the southwest and southeast of the state.
Climate subtypes
The Cfa climate, subtropical with good distribution of annual rainfall and hot summers, occurs in the coastal plain and western parts of the state. Average temperature is , with rainfall of per year.
The Cfb climate, warm to hot temperate with good distribution of annual rainfall and mild summers, occurs at higher elevationu. The average annual temperatures are and rainfall of per year.
The Cwa climate, subtropical with hot summers and dry winters, has occurred in the north-western part of the state territory. It is what is called a tropical climate, because in contrast to the two described above, whose good distribution of rainfall is registered throughout the year, this has characteristic rainy index of tropical systems, with dry winters and wet summers. The thermal medium per year varies around and the wet content amounts to to per year. Almost the entire state territory is subject to a great number of frost per year. Cities with this climate include Paranavaí (according with Maack) with some characteristics - Cfa(h), transition with a humid climate all year round.
Demographics
Parana is the sixth most populous state in Brazil. Its level of urbanization is 83.5%.
Ethnic groups
The 2010 IBGE survey gave the following breakdown by race for the state: White 70.0%, Mixed 25.3%, Black 3.1%, Asian 1.1%, and Amerindian 0.2%.
Parana's white population is primarily descendant of Portuguese, Italian, Polish and Ukrainian immigrants, but many German families also settled in the state. A variation of German known as Paraná-Wolga-Deutsch originated in the area.
Initially settled by the Guarani and Kaingang Amerindians, until the 17th century, virtually no European presence existed in Paraná. The number of settlers grew around 1750 and the population was composed of Amerindians, Portuguese, and some Spaniards. African slaves from Angola and Mozambique were also present, but in fewer numbers than in other Brazilian areas, because Paraná was an unexplored region that did not need much slave manpower. As part of the province of São Paulo, immigration grew in the mid-19th century, mostly composed of Italian, German, Polish, Ukrainian, and Japanese peoples. While large numbers of Poles and Ukrainians are present in Paraná, their presence in the rest of Brazil is relatively small, especially Ukrainians. In the early 20th century, two waves of migration to Paraná occurred: one coming from the north, mostly of Portuguese, but also of African and Amerindian origin, and another from southern Brazil to the southwest and west, mostly of Portuguese, Italian, and German origins.
Major cities
Most populous cities in Parana
Curitiba
Londrina
Maringá
Ponta Grossa
Cascavel
São José dos Pinhais
Foz do Iguaçu
Colombo
Religion
According to the 2010 Brazilian Census, most of the population (69.6%) is Roman Catholic, other religious groups include Protestants or evangelicals (22.2%), Spiritists (1.0%), Nones 4.6%, and people with other religions (2.6%).
Economy
In 2013, the Paraná had the fifth largest GDP of Brazil, representing 5.90% of the Brazilian GDP in 2005, against 6.4% in 2003.
About 15% of Paraná's GDP comes from agriculture. Another 40% comes from industry and the remaining 45% comes from the tertiary sector. As for its exports, in 2012 the main products exported were soybeans (18.73%), Meat Poultry (10.50%), sugar in Natura (8.09%), Soybean Meal (8.00%) and corn (6.36%). The state's largest company is the government-owned Copel, which supplies electricity, natural gas and other utilities to Paraná and some surrounding areas and in 1997 was among the first Brazilian companies to be listed on the New York Stock Exchange (ELP).
The main economic activities are agriculture, industry (agribusiness, automotive, and paper) and plant extraction (wood and yerba mate).
Despite the good social indicators and high standard of living, unemployment is still a problem and the state is one of most difficult for foreigners trying to find jobs.
In agriculture, the state stands out in the production of soybeans, maize, wheat, sugarcane, cassava, beans, tomato, orange and yerba mate, in addition to also producing coffee, oat, barley, peach, tangerine and strawberry.
In 2020, the South Region produced 32% of the national total of cereals, vegetables and oilseeds. There were 77.2 million tons, second place in Brazil, losing only to the Midwest. Paraná (14.9%) was the 2nd largest producer in the country.
In soy, Paraná is the 2nd largest producer in the country, with about 16% of national production. It produced 19.8 million tons in 2020. In 2017, it was also 2nd largest producer of maize (corn). Brazil is the biggest producer of soy and the 2nd biggest producer of corn in the world.
Regarding sugarcane, Paraná was, in 2017, the fifth largest producer of cane, third of sugar and fifth of alcohol in the country. It harvested about 46 million tons of cane this year. The state's sugar and alcohol sector has 25 plants and employs around 55,000 people. The regions of Umuarama, Paranavaí, Maringá and Jacarezinho concentrate production. Brazil is the largest world producer, with 672.8 million tons harvested in 2018.
In cassava production, Brazil produced a total of 17.6 million tons in 2018. Paraná was the 2nd largest producer in the country, with 3.2 million tons.
Since 2006, Paraná has been leading the production of beans in Brazil. Brazil is the 3rd largest producer of beans in the world, with an annual harvest of around 3 million tons, 11% of world production. In 2018, the South Region was the main bean producer with 26.4% of the total, followed by the Midwest (25.4%), Southeast Region (25.1%), Northeast (20.6%) and North (2.5%). The State of Paraná leads the ranking of the main national producers with 18.9% of the total produced.
Paraná is the 2nd largest national producer of wheat, with 2.2 million tons in 2019, almost equal to Rio Grande do Sul, the biggest producer. The South Region is also the largest producer of oats in Brazil. In 2019, national production was close to 800 thousand tons, being almost all carried out in the South (Paraná and Rio Grande do Sul).
About orange, Paraná was the 3rd largest producer in Brazil in 2018, with a total of 834 thousand tons.
Although not a large production, Paraná is the Brazilian leader in the production of barley. The state harvested 219.2 thousand tons in 2019, 60% of the national production. However, Brazil is far from being self-sufficient in the production of barley. The Brazilian market consumes, on average, 1.5 million tons per year. Brazil produces 335 thousand tons, close to 22%. Most, 73%, come from Argentina and Uruguay.
In 2018, Paraná was the 4th largest produce of tangerine in Brazil. Paraná also has a part of the production of peaches in Brazil. In 2019, in Brazil, there was a total production area of around 4 thousand hectares of strawberry. Paraná was the 4th largest producers in the country.
In coffee, Paraná is the producer state located further south in the country. It was once the largest producing state in Brazil: in 1962, Paraná accounted for 58% of national production, but in 2017, it had only 2.7% of the total produced in the country. The coffee culture has been replaced by other planting crops, and the state's focus today has been to invest in special, more expensive coffee beans.
In 2019, Brazil produced about 900 thousand tons of yerba mate annually, according to the IBGE. Paraná is the largest producer in volume and Rio Grande do Sul in plantation areas (and where the sector is more industrialized). According to 2017 data, Paraná harvested 301 thousand tons of yerba mate by extractive method, and 237 thousand tons in plantation. The productive potential of yerba mate is still little explored in Brazil, with a good part of the harvest carried out by the extractive system and with low levels of productivity. However, many new producers are adopting more professional and efficient production systems, with technical acuity of management and globalized market vision. This tends to increase Brazil's export of this product.
In 2017, the state's cattle herd was 9.3 million head, 10th place in the country.
In 2018, Paraná produced a total of 4.4 billion liters of milk, making it the 2nd largest producer in the country. The city of Castro was the largest producer in the country in 2018, with 292 million liters of milk.
In pork, the 3 southern states are the largest producers in the country. Brazil had 41.1 million head in 2017. Paraná (17.2%) is the 2nd largest producer.
The Brazilian poultry flock, in 2018, was of the order of 1.5 billion heads. In 2017, the biggest poultry producing state in Brazil was Paraná (25.3%). In terms of chickens, in 2017 there were 242.8 million heads in the country. Among the states that were the largest producers, São Paulo led with 21.9%, followed by Paraná (10.1%). In the production of chicken eggs, the state ranks 2nd in Brazil, with 9,6% of national production.
In fish farming, western Paraná, in municipalities close to Toledo and Cascavel, has become the largest fish-producing region in the country, with tilapia as the main cultivated species. The west represents 69% of all production in Paraná, the largest national producer, with 112 thousand tons. Of this amount, 91% refer to tilapia breeding.
The South region was the main producer of honey in the country in 2017, accounting for 39.7% of the national total. Paraná was the 2nd largest producer in the country, with 14.3%.
About industry, Paraná had an industrial GDP of R $92.8 billion in 2017, equivalent to 7.8% of the national industry. It employs 763,064 workers in the industry. The main industrial sectors are: Food (19.1%), Industrial Services of Public Utility, such as Electricity and Water (18.5%), Construction (17.3%), Motor Vehicles (8.1%), and Petroleum Derivatives and Biofuels (5.7%). These 5 sectors concentrate 68.7% of the state's industry.
In Brazil, the automotive sector represents close to 22% of industrial GDP. In 2019 the state came 2nd in national vehicle production, with a share of 15%. The state has Volkswagen, Renault, Audi, Volvo and DAF plants.
In the paper and cellulose sector, Brazilian pulp production was 19.691 million tons in 2019. The country exported US$7.48 billion in pulp this year, US$3.25 billion only to China. Brazilian forest-based industry exports totaled US$9.7 billion (US$7.48 billion in cellulose, US$2 billion in paper and US$265 million in wood panels). Paper production was 10.535 million tons in 2019. The country exported 2.163 million tons. In 2016, the paper and cellulose industry in the South of the country represented 33% of the national total. This year, Paraná was the national leader in the production of roundwood (mainly eucalyptus) for the pulp and paper industry (15.9 million m³); Brazil was the second country that produced the most cellulose in the world and the eighth in the production of paper. The city that most produced these woods in Brazil was Telêmaco Borba (PR), and the 5th largest was Ortigueira (PR). In 2016, the top five states producing logs for paper and cellulose (mainly eucalyptus) were: Paraná (15.9 million m³), São Paulo (14.7 million m³), Bahia (13.6 million m³), Mato Grosso do Sul (9.9 million m³) and Minas Gerais (7.8 million m³). Together, they correspond to 72.7% of the national production of 85.1 million m³. The ten largest producing municipalities had 22.9% of the country's production. They were the cities of Telêmaco Borba (PR), Três Lagoas (MS), Caravelas (BA), Mucuri (BA), Ortigueira (PR), São Mateus (ES), Dom Eliseu (PR), Nova Viçosa (BA), Water Clara (MS) and Ribas do Rio Pardo (MS).
Paraná is the largest producer of oil shale in Brazil. In the city of São Mateus do Sul, there is a Petrobras plant specialized in the production of the material. Approximately 7,800 tons are processed daily.
In Food industry, In 2019, Brazil was the 2nd largest exporter of processed foods in the world, with a value of U $34.1 billion in exports. The Brazilian food and beverage industry's revenue in 2019 was R $699.9 billion, 9.7% of the country's Gross Domestic Product. In 2015, the industrial food and beverage sector in Brazil comprised 34,800 companies (not counting bakeries), the vast majority of which were small. These companies employed more than 1,600,000 workers, making the food and beverage industry the largest employer in the manufacturing industry. There are around 570 large companies in Brazil, which concentrate a good part of the total industry revenue. Paraná created food companies of national importance such as Frimesa, C.Vale, Nutrimental, Copacol, Coopavel and Matte Leão.
In Electronics industry, the turnover of industries in Brazil reached R $153.0 billion in 2019, about 3% of the national GDP. The number of employees in the sector was 234.5 thousand people. Exports were US$5.6 billion, and the country's imports were US$32.0 billion. Brazil, despite its efforts over the decades to get rid of the dependence on technology imports, has not yet managed to reach this level. Imports are concentrated in expensive components, such as processors, microcontrollers, memories, under-mounted magnetic disks, lasers, LED and LCD. Cables for telecommunication and electricity distribution, wires, optical fibers and connectors are manufactured in the country. Brazil has two large electro-electronic production hubs, located in the Metropolitan Region of Campinas, in the State of São Paulo, and in Free Economic Zone of Manaus, in the State of Amazonas. There are large internationally renowned technology companies, as well as part of the industries that participate in its supply chain. The country also has other smaller centers, and one of them is at Curitiba, capital of Paraná. The technological center of Curitiba has companies such as Siemens and Positivo Informatics. In all, 87 companies and 16 thousand employees work at Tecnoparque, an area of 127 thousand square meters created by state law in 2007. Tecnoparque can grow up to 400 thousand square meters and receive up to four times the number of workers it has today, reaching 68 thousand people.
In the household appliances industry, sales of so-called "white line" equipment (refrigerator, air conditioning and others) were 12.9 million units in 2017. The sector had its peak sales in 2012, with 18.9 million units. The brands that sold the most were Brastemp, Electrolux, Consul and Philips. Brastemp is originally from São Bernardo do Campo-SP. Consul is originally from Santa Catarina, having merged with Brastemp and today being part of the multinational Whirlpool Corporation. Another famous Brazilian brand was Prosdócimo, founded in Curitiba, which was sold to Electrolux.
In the small appliances sector, Paraná has one of the famous companies: Britânia, originally from Curitiba.
Infrastructure
International airports
Afonso Pena International Airport is Curitiba's main airport. It is located in the nearby city of São José dos Pinhais.
Foz do Iguaçu International Airport
Sports
Two of the biggest football sides in the state are Club Athletico Paranaense and Coritiba Foot Ball Club, who play the Atletiba derby. Curitiba was one of the 12 host cities of the 2014 FIFA World Cup.
See also
Military Police of Paraná State
References
External links
Brazilian Tourism Portal
States of Brazil | [
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229414 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Maranh%C3%A3o | Maranhão | Maranhão () is a state in Brazil. Located in the country's Northeast Region, it has a population of about 7 million and an area of . Going clockwise from the north, it borders on the Atlantic Ocean for 2,243 km and the states of Piauí, Tocantins and Pará. The people of Maranhão have a distinctive accent inside the common Northeastern Brazilian dialect. Maranhão is described in books such as The Land of the Palm Trees by Gonçalves Dias and Casa de Pensão by Aluísio Azevedo. The state has 3.4% of the Brazilian population and produces only 1.3% of the Brazilian GDP. it is the poorest state in the country of Brazil.
The dunes of Lençóis are an important area of environmental preservation. Also of interest is the state capital of São Luís, designated a Unesco World Heritage Site. Another important conservation area is the Parnaíba River delta, between the states of Maranhão and Piauí, with its lagoons, desert dunes and deserted beaches or islands, such as the Caju island, which shelters rare birds.
Geography
The northern portion of the state is a heavily forested plain traversed by numerous rivers, occupied by the eastern extension of the tropical moist forests of Amazonia. The Tocantins–Araguaia–Maranhão moist forests occupy the northwestern portion of the state, extending from the Pindaré River west into neighboring Pará state. The north-central and northeastern portion of the state, extending eastward into northern Piauí, is home to the Maranhão Babaçu forests, a degraded tropical moist forest ecoregion dominated by the Babaçu palm. Much of the forest has been cleared for cattle grazing and agriculture, and the Babaçu palm produces edible oil which is extracted commercially.
The southern portion of the state belong to the lower terraces of the great Brazilian Highlands, occupied by the Cerrado savannas. Several plateau escarpments, including the Chapada das Mangabeiras, Serra do Tiracambu, and Serra das Alpercatas, mark the state's northern margin and the outlines of river valleys.
The climate is hot, and the year is divided into a wet and dry season, extreme humidity being characteristic of the former. The heat, however, is greatly modified on the coast by the south-east trade winds.
The rivers of the state all flow northward to the Atlantic and a majority of them have navigable channels. The Gurupí River forms the northwestern boundary of the state, separating Maranhão from neighboring Pará, and the Tocantins River forms part the state's southwestern boundary with Tocantins state. The Parnaíba River forms the eastern boundary of Maranhão, but it has one large tributary, the Balsas, entirely within the state. Other rivers in the state include the Turiassu (or Turiaçu) which runs just east of the Gurupi, emptying into the Baía de Turiassu; the Mearim, Pindaré, and Grajaú, which empty into the Baía de São Marcos; and the Itapecuru and Munim which discharge into the Baía de São José. Like the Amazon, the Mearim has a pororoca or tidal bore in its lower channel, which greatly interferes with navigation.
The western coastline has many small indentations, which are usually masked by islands or shoals. The largest of these are the Baía de Turiassu, facing which is São João Island, and the contiguous bays of São Marcos and São José, between which is the large island of São Luís. This indented shoreline is home to the Maranhão mangroves, the tallest mangrove forests in the world. The coastline east of Baía de São José is less indented and characterized by sand dunes, including the stark dune fields of the Lençóis Maranhenses National Park, as well as restinga forests that form on stabilized dunes.
Highest point
Chapada das Mangabeiras 804 m, at 10º 15' 45" S, 46º 00' 15" W.
History
The etymology of Maranhão is uncertain; the name probably originates from Portuguese settlers from Maranhão in Avis in the province of Alentejo. The word was first used to refer to the Amazon River.
The first known European to explore Maranhão was the Spanish explorer Vicente Yáñez Pinzón in 1500, but it was granted to João de Barros in 1534 as a Portuguese hereditary captaincy. The first European settlement, however, was made by a French trading expedition under Jacques Riffault, of Dieppe, in 1594, who lost two of his three vessels in the vicinity of São Luís Island, and left a part of his men on that island when he returned home. Subsequently, Daniel de La Touche, Seigneur de La Rividière was sent to report on the place, and was then commissioned by the French crown to found a colony on the island (Equinoctial France); this was done in 1612. The French were expelled by the Portuguese in 1615, and the Dutch held the island from 1641 to 1644. In 1621 Ceará, Maranhão and Pará were united and called the "Estado do Maranhao", which was separated from the southern captaincies. Very successful Indian missions were soon begun by the Jesuits, who were temporarily expelled as a result of a civil war in 1684 for their opposition to the enslavement of the Indians. Ceará was subsequently detached, but the State of Maranhão remained separate until 1774, when it again became subject to the colonial administration of Brazil.
In the late 18th century, there was a great influx of enslaved peoples into the region, which corresponded to the increased cultivation of cotton. According to the historian Sven Beckert, the region's cotton exports "doubled between 1770 and 1780, nearly doubled again by 1790, and nearly tripled once more by 1800."
Maranhão did not join in the Brazilian declaration of independence of 1822, but in the following year the Portuguese were driven out by British sailor and liberator Admiral Lord Cochrane and it became part of the Empire of Brazil. For this achievement Lord Cochrane became 1st Marques of Maranhão and Governor of Maranhão Province.
São Luís is the Brazilian state capital which most closely resembles a Portuguese city. By the early 20th century São Luís had about 30,000 inhabitants, and contained several convents, charitable institutes, the episcopal palace, a fine Carmelite church, and an ecclesiastical seminary. The historic city center was declared a World Heritage Site in 1997.
Demographics
According to the IBGE, there were 6,400,000 people residing in the state in 2008. The population density was 18.6 inhabitants/km2.
Urbanization: 68.1% (2004); Population growth: 1.5% (1991–2000); Houses: 1,442,500 (2005).
The last PNAD (National Research for Sample of Domiciles) census revealed the following numbers: 4,271,000 Brown (Multiracial) people (66.74%), 1,636,000 White people (25.57%), 410,000 Black people (6.41%), 43,000 Asian people (0.67%), 39,000 Amerindian people (0.60%).
According to a DNA study from 2005, the average ancestral composition of São Luís, the biggest city in Maranhão, is 42% European, 39% native American and 19% African.
Largest cities
Religion
According to the 2010 Brazilian Census, most of the population (74.5%) is Roman Catholic, other religious groups include Protestants or evangelicals (17.2%), Spiritists (0.2%), Nones 6.3%, and people with other religions (1.8).
Economy
Maranhão is one of the poorest states of Brazil. The service sector is the largest component of GDP at 70%, followed by the industrial sector at 19.6%. Agriculture represents 10.4% of GDP (2015). Maranhão is the fourth-largest economy in the Northeast region and the 17th-largest in Brazil.
Maranhão exports: aluminium 50%, iron 23.7%, soybean 13.1% (2002). Share of the Brazilian economy: 0.9% (2004).
Maranhão is also known as the land of the palm trees, as the various species of this tree provide its major source of income. The most important of them, from an economic point of view, is the babassu. Agribusiness, the aluminium and alumina transformation industries, the pulp industry, natural gas production, and the food and timber industries complement the state economy.
The Maranhão agricultural sector stands out in the production of rice (fifth-largest rice production in the country, and highest in the Northeast), cassava (second-largest planted area in the Northeast), soybean, cotton (in both cases second-largest producer in the Northeast), sugarcane, corn and eucalyptus. Agriculture benefits from the infrastructure of railroads (Ferrovia Carajás and Ferrovia Norte-Sul) and ports (Itaqui and Ponta da Madeira) and the proximity to the European and American markets.
Maranhão has the second largest cattle herd in the Northeast and the 12th largest in the country, with 7.6 million animals.
The state also produces natural gas in the Parnaíba basin, with a production of 8.4 million m3 per day, used in thermal power stations. Maranhão is the 6th largest producer in the country. Maranhão also has a hydroelectric plant (Estreito Hydroelectric Plant), a wind farm (in Lençóis Maranhenses), and other thermal power stations.
Itaqui Port annually moves millions of tons of cargo, being an important logistics corridor for the Center-West of the country. It is the second deepest port in the world. Among the main products handled in 2017 are soybeans (6,152,909 tons), corn (1,642,944 tons), fertilizers (1,536,697 tons), copper (836,062 tons), coal (636,254 tons), pig iron (505,733 t) clinker + slag (225,796 t), manganese (147,063 t), rice (89,833 t), imported liquid bulk (3,881,635 t), caustic soda (86,542 t), ethanol and LPG (150,753 t), totaling an annual turnover of 17,140,470 tons.
The port of Ponta da Madeira, belonging to the Vale do Rio Doce is mainly destined for the export of iron ore brought from the Serra dos Carajás, in Pará. Between January and November 2017, 153.466 million tons were transported, and it is the national champion in moving loads. The Alumar Consortium Port transported 13.720 million tons between January and November 2017, mainly alumina.
Education
Portuguese is the official national language, and thus the primary language taught in schools. English and Spanish are part of the official high school curriculum.
Educational institutions
Educational institutions in Maranhão include:
Universidade Federal do Maranhão (UFMA) (Federal University of Maranhão)
Universidade Estadual do Maranhão (UEMA) (State University of Maranhão)
Universidade Estadual da Região Tocantina do Maranhão (UEMASUL) (State University of the Tocantina Region of Maranhão)
Centro Universitário do Maranhão (UNICEUMA) (University Center of Maranhão)
Unidade de Ensino Superior do Sul do Maranhão (UNISULMA)
Unidade de Ensino Superior Dom Bosco (UNDB)
Instituto Federal do Maranhão (IFMA)
Instituto Estadual do Maranhão (IEMA)
Instituto de Teologia Logos (ITL) (Logos Institute of Theology)
Colégio Militar Tiradentes (CMT)
Infrastructure
Airports
Marechal Cunha Machado International Airport is located from the center of São Luís. It began handling international flights in October 2004. It has a covered area of and a capacity of one million passengers per year.
Renato Moreira Airport is a national airport located in Imperatriz. Infraero has administered the airport since November 3, 1980, one year before it was officially opened. The passenger terminal was modified and expanded in 1998, giving it new arrival and departure areas, an expanded main concourse, and air conditioning of the entire terminal.
Highways
BR-010 and BR-230.
Railroads
Ferrovia Carajás
Ferrovia Norte-Sul
Ferrovia São Luís-Teresina
Telecommunications
The telephone area codes (named DDD in Brazil) for Maranhão are 98 and 99.
Flag
The flag of Maranhão was designed by the poet Joaquim de Souza Andrade, and was adopted by decree nr. 6, of December 21, 1889.
The colored strips (red, white and black) symbolize the different ethnic groups which make up the population, and their mixing and living together. The white star in the upper left corner symbolizes Maranhão itself, and is supposed to be Beta Scorpii, as the constellation Scorpius is also depicted on the national flag of Brazil. The flag has a ratio of 2:3.
Portrayals in film
Andrucha Waddington's The House of Sand (Casa de Areia, 2005) prominently features the sand dunes of Maranhão.
Carla Camurati's Carlota Joaquina, Princess of Brazil (1995) was filmed in the historical center of São Luís, a UNESCO World Heritage Site.
The song "Kadhal Anukkal" from the film Endhiran (Tamil, 2010) featuring Aishwarya Rai and Rajnikanth was filmed at the Lençóis Maranhenses National Park sand dunes.
Notes
References
This article incorporates text from the Catholic Encyclopedia, a publication now in the public domain.
External links
Freguesia de Maranhão em Portugal - https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Maranh%C3%A3o_(Avis)
Official website
Relação Sumária das Cousas do Maranhão, by Simão Estácio da Silveira, a contemporary account of the early Portuguese colonization of Maranhão, published in Lisbon in 1624 by a leading coloniser
History of the Commerce of Maranhão (1612 - 1895), by Jerônimo de Viveiros (PDF)
Revista do Instituto Histórico e Geográfico Brasileiro, 1909, Tomo LXXII - Parte I, Chronicle of the Jesuits in Maranhão, by João Felipe Bettendorf (PDF)
Historical geographical dictionary of Maranhão, by César Marques
States of Brazil
Former Portuguese colonies | [
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229415 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Konin%20%28disambiguation%29 | Konin (disambiguation) | Konin is a city in central Poland.
Konin may also refer to:
Emperor Kōnin (光仁天皇, Kōnin-tennō), emperor of Japan who reigned 770–781
Kōnin (era) (弘仁), a Japanese era name for the years 810–824
Konin, Łódź Voivodeship, a village in central Poland
Konin, Lubusz Voivodeship, a village in west Poland
Konin, Nowy Tomyśl County, a village in Greater Poland Voivodeship (west-central Poland)
Konin, Silesian Voivodeship, a village in south Poland | [
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229419 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rio%20de%20Janeiro%20%28state%29 | Rio de Janeiro (state) | Rio de Janeiro () is one of the 27 federative units of Brazil. It has the second largest economy of Brazil, with the largest being that of the state of São Paulo. The state, which has 8.2% of the Brazilian population, is responsible for 9.2% of the Brazilian GDP.
The state of Rio de Janeiro is located within the Brazilian geopolitical region classified as the Southeast (assigned by IBGE). Rio de Janeiro shares borders with all the other states in the same Southeast macroregion: Minas Gerais (N and NW), Espírito Santo (NE) and São Paulo (SW). It is bounded on the east and south by the South Atlantic Ocean. Rio de Janeiro has an area of . Its capital is the city of Rio de Janeiro, which was the capital of the Portuguese Colony of Brazil from 1763 to 1815, of the following United Kingdom of Portugal, Brazil and the Algarves from 1815 to 1822, and of later independent Brazil as a kingdom and republic from 1822 to 1960.
The state's 22 largest cities are Rio de Janeiro, São Gonçalo, Duque de Caxias, Nova Iguaçu, Niterói, Campos dos Goytacazes, Belford Roxo, São João de Meriti, Petrópolis, Volta Redonda, Magé, Macaé, Itaboraí, Cabo Frio, Armação dos Búzios, Angra dos Reis, Nova Friburgo, Barra Mansa, Barra do Piraí, Teresópolis, Mesquita and Nilópolis.
Rio de Janeiro is the smallest state by area in the Southeast macroregion and one of the smallest in Brazil. It is, however, the third most populous Brazilian state, with a population of 16 million of people in 2011 (making it the most densely populated state in Brazil) and has the third longest coastline in the country (after those of the states of Bahia and Maranhão).
In the Brazilian flag, the state is represented by Mimosa, the beta star in the Southern Cross (β Cru).
Demonym
The original demonym for the State of Rio de Janeiro is fluminense, from Latin flumen, fluminis, meaning "river". While carioca (from Old Tupi) is an older term, first attested in 1502, fluminense was sanctioned in 1783, twenty years after the city had become the capital of the Brazilian colonies, as the official demonym of the Royal Captaincy of Rio de Janeiro and subsequently of the Province of Rio de Janeiro. From 1783 through the Imperial Regime, carioca remained an unofficial term which other Brazilians used for the inhabitants of the city as well as the province. During the first years of the Brazilian Republic, carioca came to be the name given to those who lived in the city's slums or a pejorative used to refer to the bureaucratic elite of the Federal District. Only when the city lost its status as Federal District (to Brasília) and became the State of Guanabara in 1960 did carioca become an official demonym along with guanabarino. In 1975, Guanabara State was incorporated into Rio de Janeiro State, becoming the present City of Rio de Janeiro. Carioca became the demonym of the city, while fluminense continues to be used for the state as a whole.
History
Hereditary captainships
European presence in Rio de Janeiro dates back to 1502. Rio de Janeiro originated from parts of the captainships of de Tomé and São Vicente. Between 1555 and 1567, the territory was occupied by the French, who intended to install a colony, France Antarctique. Aiming to prevent the occupation of the Frenchmen, in March 1565, the city of Rio de Janeiro was established by Estácio de Sá.
In the 17th century, cattle raising and sugar cane cultivation stimulated the city's progress, which was definitively assured when the port started to export gold extracted from Minas Gerais in the 18th century. In 1763, Rio de Janeiro became the capital of Colonial Brazil. With the flight of the Portuguese royal family from Portugal to Brazil in 1808, the region soon benefited from urban reforms to house the Portuguese. Chief among the promoted changes were: the transformation of agencies of public administration and justice, the creation of new churches, and hospitals, the foundation of the first bank of the country - the Banco do Brasil - and the Royal Press, with the Gazette do Rio of Janeiro. The following years witnessed the creation of the Jardim Botânico (Botanical Garden) and the Academia Real Militar.
There followed a process of cultural enhancement influenced not only by the arrival of the Royal Family, but also by the presence of European graphic artists who were hired to record the society and Brazilian natural features. During this same time, the Escola Real de Ciências, Artes e Ofícios (The Royal School of Sciences, Arts, and Works) was founded as well.
The neutral city
In 1834, the city of Rio de Janeiro was transformed into a "neutral city", remaining as capital of the state, while the captainships became provinces, with headquarters in Niterói, a neighbouring city. In 1889, the city became the capital of the Republic, the neutral city became the federal district and the province a state. In 1894, Petrópolis became the capital of Rio de Janeiro, until 1902 when Niterói recovered its capital status. With the relocation of the federal capital to Brasília in 1960, the city of Rio de Janeiro became Guanabara State. Niterói remained the state capital for Rio de Janeiro state, while Rio de Janeiro served the same status for Guanabara.
The new state of Rio de Janeiro
In 1975, the states of Guanabara and Rio de Janeiro were merged under the name of Rio de Janeiro, with the city of Rio de Janeiro as state capital. The symbols of the former State of Rio de Janeiro were preserved, while the symbols of Guanabara were kept by the city of Rio de Janeiro.
Geography
The state is part of the Mata Atlântica biome and is made up of two distinct morphological areas: a coastal plain, known as baixada, and a plateau, which are disposed in parallel fashion from the shoreline on the Atlantic Ocean inland towards Minas Gerais.
The coastline extends 635 kilometers and is formed by the bays of Guanabara, Sepetiba, and Ilha Grande.
There are prominent slopes near the ocean, featuring also diverse environments, such as restinga vegetation, bays, lagoons and tropical forests.
Most of the state however consists of highlands, often higher than 1000 m, formed by several mountain chains like the Serra do Mar which separates Rio from the state of São Paulo. The highest point of the state, the Pico das Agulhas Negras (Black Needles Peak) is located in the Serra da Mantiqueira which forms the physical border with neighbouring Minas Gerais.
Its principal rivers are the Guandu, the Piraí, the Paraíba do Sul, the Macaé and the Muriaé.
Vegetation and animal life
Tropical forests used to cover more than 90% of the territory of Rio; large portions were devastated for urbanization and for plantations (coffee, sugar cane); preserved areas can be found in the steepest parts of the mountain chains.
The state's tropical coast and river areas are the only remaining habitat of the golden lion tamarin.
Climate
The entire state is located within the tropics (the Tropic of Capricorn passes just a few kilometers south of the state's southernmost point) so a tropical climate is predominant. However, due to altitude, temperatures can drop to freezing point or below in some parts. Frost is not uncommon in some mountainous cities such as Teresópolis, Nova Friburgo and Petrópolis and snow has been reported occasionally in the Itatiaia National Park.
Annual mean temperatures on the coast are around , in summer and in winter. In the mountains annual mean temperatures are around but can range from at an elevation of above sea level to in the Itatiaia National Park. Summers in these areas tend to be warm but not hot, with averages around . Winters are quite chilly by Brazilian standards with lows around
Rains tend to be concentrated in the summer (December to March) with a dry season in the winter (June to September). Most of the state receives between of rainfall in a year.
Demographics
According to the IBGE of 2008, there were 15,772,000 people residing in the state. The population density was .
Urbanization: 96.9% (2004); Population growth: 1.3% (1991–2000).
The last PNAD (National Household Survey) census revealed the following numbers: 8,509,000 White people (54.2%), 5,302,000 Pardo (Multiracial) people (33.8%), 1,809,000 Black people (11.5%), 25,000 Asian people (0.2%), 19,000 Amerindian people (0.1%).
People of Portuguese ancestry predominate in most of the state. The Brazilian census of 1920 showed that 39,74% of the Portuguese who lived in Brazil lived in Rio de Janeiro. Including all of the Rio de Janeiro, the proportion raised to 46,30% of the Portuguese who lived in Brazil. The numerical presence of the Portuguese was extremely high, accounting for 72% of the foreigners who lived in the capital. Portuguese born people accounted for 20,36% of the population of Rio, and those with a Portuguese father or a Portuguese mother accounted for 30,84%. In other words, native born Portuguese and their children accounted for 51,20% of the inhabitants of Rio, or a total of 267664 people in 1890.
Other European ethnic groups, such as Swiss, Finnish and Germans settled mostly in the mountainous areas (Nova Friburgo, Petrópolis, etc.) and in the capital. Italians and Spaniards are also present in the capital as well as in the surrounding cities.
People of African descent are numerous, particularly in the metropolitan area of the capital city. Those of mixed-race ancestry (tri-racials, mulatos, and some caboclos and cafuzos) make up the majority of the population in many cities. The city of Itaguaí was considered a Japanese colony in the 20th century, but many of the Asian Cariocas that once lived there moved overseas (most of them to Japan) as well to other Brazilian states like São Paulo.
Largest cities
Religion
According to the 2010 Brazilian census, there were 7 324 315 Roman Catholics (45.8%), 4 696 906 Protestants (29.4%), 647 572 Spiritists (4%), and 2 416 303 people without religion (14.6%). There are also adherents to Islam, Judaism, Buddhism, Hinduism, esoterism, neo-paganism, afro-Brazilian religions and Asian religions. Together, the adherents of these and other minority constitute 6.2% of Rio de Janeiro's population.
Rio de Janeiro is the state with the lowest percentage of Catholics in Brazil, and the state with the highest percentage of people without religion (such as atheists, and agnostics). In addition, it is the state with the highest percentage of spiritists in Brazil. The variety of denominations is a mark of the presence of religious diversity in the demographic profile of the state.
Economy
The industrial sector is the largest component of GDP at 51.6%, followed by the service sector at 47.8%. Agriculture represents 0.6% of GDP (2004). Rio de Janeiro (state) exports: petroleum 44.8%, fuel 17.5%, siderurgy 13%, chemicals 3.6%, not ferrous metals 2.8%, vehicles 2.1% (2002).
Participation in the Brazilian economy: 15.6% (2004).
There are 3,915,724 vehicles in the state (as of Jan. 2006), 10 million mobile phones, 5.3 million telephones, and 92 cities.
Education
The state of Rio de Janeiro has the 4th best education in Brazil, second only to the Federal District, São Paulo and Goiás.
The state has the fourth lowest illiteracy rate in Brazil, about 4% of its population. The illiteracy rate in the state is compared to countries like Singapore, Portugal, and China.
Colleges and universities
Most of the state's leading universities are public. The most prestigious university is the Federal University of Rio de Janeiro, regarded as the best Federal university in Brazil, and fifth best in Latin America according to the QS World University Rankings.
Some other well-known colleges, and universities in the state:
Public
Federal University of Rio de Janeiro (UFRJ)
State University of Rio de Janeiro (UERJ)
Fluminense Federal University (UFF)
Federal University of the State of Rio de Janeiro (UNIRIO)
Federal Rural University of Rio de Janeiro (UFRRJ)
Military Institute of Engineering (IME-RJ)
State University of Northern Rio de Janeiro (UENF)
Federal Institute of Rio de Janeiro (IFRJ)
Fluminense Federal Institute (IFF)
Centro Universitário Estadual da Zona Oeste (UEZO)
Private
Pontifical Catholic University of Rio de Janeiro (PUC-RIO)
Catholic University of Petrópolis (UCP)
Estácio De Sá University (UNESA)
Fundação Getúlio Vargas (FGV)
Universidade Grande Rio (UNIGRANRIO)
Universidade Cândido Mendes (UCAM)
University of Vassouras (USS)
Universidade Castelo Branco (UCB)
Universidade Santa Úrsula (USU)
Universidade Veiga de Almeida (UVA)
Universidade Salgado de Oliveira (UNIVERSO)
Culture
Carnival
The occasion of the last five days leading up to Lent is annually cause for a great explosion of joy in Rio – a round-the-clock party uniting emotions, creativity, plasticity, colours, sounds and much fantasy. It is the greatest popular party in the world, a unique record of the rich cultural melting pot typical of Brazil. In Rio, it is celebrated in various ways, most famously through the elaborate competition of samba schools comprising thousands of dancers in each school, each of which has composed a new "enredo de samba" (samba script) for the year that is released and popularized by the time Carnaval arrives, thus already recognizable for its lyrics, themes, and rhythms by the energized audience in the bleachers thronging to see the all-night competition of one samba school after another until dawn. Each samba school consists of 'alas' (wings) of samba dancers costumed to carry out one aspect of the theme of the song they all sing. This event began in the 1930s as a diversion for what politicians sought to assuage as an otherwise restive populace. It came to be held on the bleacher-lined Marques du Sapucai for decades until a covered sambadrome was built in the 1980s.
In other parts of the city, Carnaval festivities include the Banda de Ipanema, a street parade of transvestite costuming that draws its throngs of revelers to the streets of Ipanema. In the city center on the final night of Carnaval, into the wee hours of Quarta Cinza (Ash Wednesday), a very different flavor of street parade is provided by Quilombo (the word given to slave refugee colonies) with authentic African costuming. For others, Carnaval is a time of clubbing in costume in more exclusive locales in the Zona Sul.
The film Black Orpheus is set in the context of Carnaval in Rio.
New Year's Eve
In Rio de Janeiro, a globally unique New Year's Eve celebration involves the whole city population. Local inhabitants and visitors join in flocking to the ocean to celebrate the night of the year when thanks are given and wishes are made to the goddess of the sea, Iemanja. In honor of her traditional garb, celebrants dress in white and bear gifts like flowers, especially white, and even blancmange. At midnight, beachgoers on the typically hot midsummer night, walk into the surf and cast their flowers (and wishes for the coming year) on the lapping waves to be carried out to honor the goddess (the tradition says that wishes will turn to reality if the waves take the gifts to the sea, and won't if the gifts come back to the beach). Nearby parties, concerts and music last into the dawn, many choosing to sleep it off on the beach on New Year's Day. In recent years, campfires and the oral tradition of shared stories around statues of Iemanja has modernized into massive fireworks displays and to a mega-concert on the famous beach of Copacabana.
Infrastructure
International airport
Since August 2004, with the transfer of many flights from Santos Dumont Airport, to Rio de Janeiro-Galeão International Airport, Rio de Janeiro has second international airport of Brazil. According to data from the official Brazilian travel bureau, Embratur, nearly 40% of foreign tourists who visit Brazil choose Rio as their gateway, meaning Galeão Airport. Besides linking Rio to the rest of Brazil with domestic flights, Galeão has connections to 18 other countries. It can handle up to 15 million passengers a year in two passenger terminals. Located 20 kilometers from downtown Rio, the international airport is served by several quick access routes, such as the Linha Vermelha/Red Line and Linha Amarela/Yellow Line freeways and Avenida Brasil/Brazil Avenue, thus conveniently serving residents of the city's southern, northern and western zones. There are special shuttle buses linking Galeão to Santos Dumont, and bus and taxi service to the rest of the city. The airport complex also has Brazil's longest runway at , and one of South America's largest and best equipped cargo logistics terminals.
Highways
The main Federal highways that cross the state are:
BR-101
BR-116
BR-040
BR-354
BR-356
BR-393
BR-465
BR-493
BR-495
Port
Construction is underway on a new Port of Açu. The port will cover 36 square miles. This USD 1.6 billion project at Sao Joao da Barra, approximately 280 kilometers from Rio de Janeiro, has been under construction since October 2007 and will be operational in 2013. It is forecast that the port will eventually handle over 63 million tons of iron ore, 10 million tons of steel products, 15 million tons of coal, 5 million tons of dry bulk and 7.5 million tons of general cargo. A breakwater damn to protect ships from ocean waves is also planned.
Sports
Sports are a very popular pastime in Rio de Janeiro. The most popular is association football. Rio de Janeiro is home to four traditional Brazilian football clubs: Flamengo, Vasco, Fluminense and Botafogo. The state football league is Campeonato Carioca. The city of Rio de Janeiro hosted the 2014 FIFA World Cup. The city built a new stadium near the Maracanã, to hold 45,000 people. It was named after Brazilian ex-FIFA president João Havelange.
Other notable sports events in Rio include the MotoGP Brazilian Grand Prix and the World Beach volleyball finals. Jacarepaguá was the place of Formula One Brazilian Grand Prix into 1978-1990 and the Champ Car event into 1996–1999. WCT/WQS Surf championships were contested on the beaches from 1985 to 2001.
On 2 October 2009, Rio de Janeiro was selected to host the 2016 Olympic Games, which will be the first to be held in South America. The games began in August. Two years ago, in 2014, the FIFA games were held. Much of the infrastructure was used again.
State flag
An eagle, symbol of Brazil's royal family, appears on the state flag with the rock formation Dedo de Deus ("The Finger of God") near Teresópolis in the background.
The outer part of the coat of arms represents the state's agricultural richness, sugarcane (left) and coffee (right).
Flags used in Rio de Janeiro over the years
Gallery
See also
List of Governors of Rio de Janeiro
List of municipalities in Rio de Janeiro
List of country subdivisions by GDP over 100 billion US dollars
Notes
References
External links
Official website
State Judiciary
State Assembly
State University
Northern State University
State Attornery Office
State Civil Defence
State Military Police
State Civil Police
States of Brazil
States and territories established in 1975
1975 establishments in Brazil | [
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] |
229422 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/S%C3%A3o%20Paulo%20%28state%29 | São Paulo (state) | São Paulo () is one of the 26 states of the Federative Republic of Brazil and is named after Saint Paul of Tarsus. A major industrial complex, the state has 21.9% of the Brazilian population and is responsible for 33.9% of Brazil's GDP. São Paulo also has the second-highest Human Development Index (HDI) and GDP per capita, the fourth-lowest infant mortality rate, the third-highest life expectancy, and the third-lowest rate of illiteracy among the federative units of Brazil. São Paulo alone is wealthier than Argentina, Uruguay, Paraguay, and Bolivia combined. São Paulo is also the world's twenty-eighth-most populous sub-national entity and the most populous sub-national entity in the Americas.
With more than 46 million inhabitants in 2019, São Paulo is the most populous Brazilian state, the most populous national subdivision in the Americas, and the third most populous political unit of South America, surpassed only by the rest of the Brazilian Federation and Colombia. The local population is one of the most diverse in the country and descended mostly from Italians, who began immigrating to the country in the late 19th century; of the Portuguese, who colonized Brazil and installed the first European settlements in the region; indigenous peoples, many distinct ethnic groups; Africans, who were brought from Africa as slaves in the colonial era and migrants from other regions of the country. In addition, Levantine, Germans, Spanish, Japanese, Chinese, and Greeks also are present in the ethnic composition of the local population.
The area that today corresponds to the state territory was already inhabited by indigenous peoples from approximately 12,000 BC. In the early 16th century, the coast of the region was visited by Portuguese and Spanish explorers and navigators. In 1532 Martim Afonso de Sousa would establish the first Portuguese permanent settlement in the Americas—the village of São Vicente, in the Baixada Santista. In the 17th century, the paulistas bandeirantes intensified the exploration of the colony's interior, which eventually expanded the territorial domain of Portugal and the Portuguese Empire in South America. In the 18th century, after the establishment of the Province of São Paulo, the region began to gain political weight. After independence in 1820, São Paulo began to become a major agricultural producer (mainly coffee) in the newly constituted Empire of Brazil, which ultimately created a rich regional rural oligarchy, which would switch on the command of the Brazilian government with Minas Gerais's elites during the early republican period in the 1880s. Under the Vargas Era, the state was one of the first to initiate a process of industrialization and its population became one of the most urban of the federation.
The city of São Paulo, the homonymous state capital, is ranked as the world's 12th largest city and its metropolitan area, with 20 million inhabitants, is the 9th largest in the world and first in the Americas. Regions near the city of São Paulo are also metropolitan areas, such as Campinas, Santos, Sorocaba and São José dos Campos. The total population of these areas coupled with the state capital—the so-called "Expanded Metropolitan Complex of São Paulo"—exceeds 30 million inhabitants, i.e. approximately 75 percent of the population of São Paulo statewide, the first macro-metropolis in the southern hemisphere, joining 65 municipalities that together are home to 12 percent of the Brazilian population.
History
Early period
In pre-European times, the area that is now São Paulo state was occupied by the Tupi people's nation, who subsisted through hunting and cultivation. The first European to settle in the area was João Ramalho, a Portuguese sailor who may have been shipwrecked around 1510, ten years after the first Portuguese landfall in Brazil. He married the daughter of a local chieftain and became a settler. In 1532, the first colonial expedition, led by Martim Afonso de Sousa of Portugal, landed at São Vicente (near the present-day port at Santos). De Sousa added Ramalho's settlement to his colony.
Early European colonization of Brazil was very limited. Portugal was more interested in Africa and Asia. But with English and French raiding privateer ships just off the coast, the territory had to be protected. Unwilling to shoulder the naval defense burden himself, the Portuguese ruler, King Joao III, divided the coast into "captaincies", or swathes of land, 50 leagues apart. He distributed them among well-connected Portuguese, hoping that each would be self-reliant. The early port and sugar-cultivating settlement of São Vicente was one rare success connected to this policy. In 1548, João III brought Brazil under direct royal control.
Fearing Indian attack, he discouraged development of the territory's vast interior. Some whites headed nonetheless for Piratininga, a plateau near São Vicente, drawn by its navigable rivers and agricultural potential. Borda do Campo, the plateau settlement, became an official town (Santo André da Borda do Campo) in 1553. The history of São Paulo city proper begins with the founding of a Jesuit mission of the Roman Catholic order of clergy on January 25, 1554—the anniversary of Saint Paul's conversion. The station, which is at the heart of the current city, was named São Paulo dos Campos de Piratininga (or just Pateo do Colégio). In 1560, the threat of Indian attack led many to flee from the exposed Santo André da Borda do Campo to the walled fortified Colegio. Two years later, the Colégio was besieged. Though the town survived, fighting took place sporadically for another three decades.
By 1600, the town had about 1,500 citizens and 150 households. Little was produced for export, save a number of agricultural goods. The isolation was to continue for many years, as the development of Brazil centered on the sugar plantations in the north-east.
The city's location, at the mouth of the Tietê-Paranapanema river system (which winds into the interior), made it an ideal base for another activity—enslaving expeditions. The economics were simple. Enslaved manpower for Brazil's northern sugar plantations were in short supply. Enslaved Africans were expensive, so demand for indigenous captives soared. The task was, nonetheless, hard, if not impossible, to achieve.
Expansion
Among those who attempted to enslave the native were explorers of the hinterland called "bandeirantes". From their base in São Paulo, they also combed the interior in search of natural riches. Silver, gold and diamonds were companion pursuits, as well as the exploration of unknown territories. Roman Catholic missionaries sometimes tagged along, as efforts at converting the natives aborigines (Indians) worked hand in hand with Portuguese colonialism.
Despite their atrocities, the wild and hardy bandeirantes are now equally remembered for penetrating Brazil's vast interior. Trading posts established by them became permanent settlements. Interior routes opened up. Though the bandeirantes had no loyalty to the Portuguese crown, they did claim land for the king. Thus, the borders of Brazil were pushed forward to the northwest and the Amazon region and west to the Andes Mountains.
French Emperor Napoleon's invasion of Portugal in 1807 prompted the British with their vast powerful Royal Navy to evacuate King João VI of Portugal, Portugal's prince regent, from the capital Lisbon, across the Atlantic to Rio de Janeiro and Brazil then became the first overseas colony to become the temporary headquarters of the Portuguese Empire. João VI rewarded his hosts with economic reforms that would prove crucial to São Paulo's rise. Brazil's ports—long closed to non-Portuguese ships—were opened up to international trade. Restrictions on domestic manufacturing were waived.
When Napoleon was defeated in 1815, with the end of the Napoleonic Wars, João gave political shape to his territory, which soon became the United Kingdom of Portugal, Brazil and the Algarves. Portugal and Brazil, in other words, were ostensibly co-equals. Returning to Portugal six years later, João left his son, Pedro, to rule as regent and governor.
Empire of Brazil period
Pedro inherited his father's love of Brazil, resisting demands from Lisbon that Brazil should be ruled from Europe once again. Legend has it that in 1822 the regent was riding outside São Paulo when a messenger delivered a missive demanding his return to Europe, and Dom Pedro waved his sword and shouted "Independência ou morte!" (Independence or death).
João had whetted the appetite of Brazilians, who now sought a full break from the monarchy. The ever-restless Paulistas were at the vanguard of the independence movement. The small mother country of Portugal was in no position to resist—on September 7, 1822, Dom Pedro rubber-stamped Brazil's independence. He was crowned emperor shortly afterwards. The emperors ruled an independent Brazil until 1889. Over this time, the growth of liberalism in Europe had a parallel in Brazil. As the Brazilian provinces became more assertive, São Paulo was the scene of a minor (and unsuccessful) liberal revolution in 1842. When independence was declared, the city of São Paulo had just 25,000 people and 4,000 houses, but the next 60 years would see gradual growth. In 1828, the Law School, the pioneer of the city's intellectual tradition, opened. The first newspaper, O Farol Paulistano, appeared in 1827. Municipal developments such as botanical gardens, an opera house and a library, gave the city a cultural boost.
Regardless, São Paulo still faced many hurdles, especially transport. Mule-trains were the main method of transportation, and the road from the plateau down to the port of Santos was famously arduous. In the late 1860s São Paulo got its first railway line, developed by British engineers, to the Port of Santos. Other lines, such as a railway to Campinas, were soon built. This was good timing, because in the 1880s the coffee craze hit in earnest. Brazil, which had been growing it since the mid-18th century, could grow more. The Paraíba valley, which spans the states of Rio de Janeiro and São Paulo, had suitable soil and climate. São Paulo city, at the western end of the Paraíba valley, was well positioned to channel the coffee to the port of Santos.
Republican era
Meanwhile, the Brazilian monarchy had fallen in 1889. A feudalistic regime, the new republic had friends only among the sugar planters of the Northeast, whose dominance Paulistanos, among others, despised. In 1891, a new federal constitution, which delegated power to the states, was approved. The new coffee elite saw its chance. São Paulo ironed out a power-sharing understanding—known as the "café com leite" (coffee-and-milk) deal—with dairy-rich Minas Gerais, Brazil's other dominant state. Together, they held a virtual lock on federal power. Brazilian politics now became a favourite pastime of the once-rebellious Paulistanos, who sent several presidents to Rio de Janeiro—including Prudente de Morais, Brazil's first civilian president, who took office in 1894.
Plantation labor was needed—this time for coffee, not sugar. Slavery had been fading since the import of enslaved Africans was outlawed in 1850. São Paulo, thanks to such figures as Luiz Gama (a former slave), was a center of abolitionism. In 1888, Brazil abolished slavery (it was the last country in the Americas to do so) and the freed African-Brazilians who had been helping build the nation were then forced to beg for their jobs back, working for food and shelter only because of the failure of the system to integrate them as equal citizens with Euro-Brazilians. In an effort to "bleach the race", as the nation's leaders feared Brazil was becoming a "black country", Spanish, Portuguese and Italian nationals were given incentives to become farm workers in São Paulo. The state government was so eager to bring in European immigrants that it paid for their trips and provided varying levels of subsidy.
By 1893, foreigners made up over 55 percent of São Paulo's population. Fearing oversupply, the government applied the brakes briefly in 1899; then the boom resumed. From 1908, the Japanese arrived in great numbers, many destined for the plantations on fixed-term contracts. By 1920, São Paulo was Brazil's second-largest city; a half-century before, it had been just the tenth-largest. Immigration and migration of Paulistas from other towns as well as Nordestinos and citizens from other states, the coffee industry, and modernization through the manufacturing of textiles, car and airplane parts, as well as food and technological industries, construction, fashion, and services transformed the greater São Paulo area into a thriving megalopolis and one of the world's greatest multiethnic regions.
Early 20th century
Between 1901 and 1910, coffee made up 51 percent of Brazil's total exports, far overshadowing rubber, sugar and cotton. But reliance on coffee made Brazil (and São Paulo in particular) vulnerable to poor harvests and the whims of world markets. The development of plantations in the 1890s, and widespread reliance on credit, took place against fluctuating prices and supply levels, culminating in saturation of the international market around the start of the 20th century. The government's policies of "valorisation "—borrowing money to buy coffee and stockpiling it, in order to have a surplus during bad harvests, and meanwhile taxing coffee exports to pay off loans—seemed feasible in the short term (as did its manipulation of foreign-exchange rates to the advantage of coffee growers). But in the longer term, these actions contributed to oversupply and eventual collapse.
São Paulo's industrial development, from 1889 into the 1940s, was gradual and inward looking. Initially, industry was closely associated with agriculture: cotton plantations led to the growth of textile manufacturing. Coffee planters were among the early industrial investors.
The boom in immigration provided a market for goods, and sectors such as food processing grew. Traditional immigrant families such as the Matarazzo, Diniz, Mofarrej and Maluf became industrialists, entrepreneurs, and leading politicians.
Restrictions on imports forced by world wars and government policies of "import substitution" and trade tariffs, all contributed to industrial growth. By 1945, São Paulo had become the largest industrial center in South America. World War I sent ripples through Brazil. Inflation was rampant. Some 50,000 workers went on strike.
The growing of the urban population grew increasingly resentful of the coffee elite. Disaffected intellectuals expressed their views during a memorable "Week of Modern Art" in 1922. Two years later, a garrison of soldiers staged a revolt (eventually quashed by government troops).
The stand-off was also political: politics had been long monopolised by the Paulista Republican Party, but in 1926 a more left-leaning party rose in opposition. In 1928, the PRP amended São Paulo's state constitution to give it more control over the city. The turbulence was mirrored on Brazil's national scene. With the Great Depression, coffee prices plunged, as did real GDP. Americans, keen investors during the 1920s, backed away.
The opening of the first highway between São Paulo and Rio in 1928 was one of the few bright spots. Into the breach stepped Getúlio Vargas, a southerner veteran in state politics. In Brazil's 1930 presidential elections, he opposed Júlio Prestes, a favorite son of São Paulo. Vargas lost the election, but with backing from Minas Gerais state—São Paulo's former ally and neighbor to the north—he seized power regardless.
Paulista War
The Constitutionalist Revolution of 1932 or Paulista War is the name given to the uprising of the population of the Brazilian state of São Paulo against the federal government of Vargas. Its main goal was to press the provisional government headed by Getúlio Vargas to enact a new Constitution, since it had revoked the previous one, adopted in 1889. However, as the movement developed and resentment against President Vargas grew deeper, it came to advocate the overthrow of the Federal Government and the secession of São Paulo from the Brazilian federation. But, it is noted that the separatist scenario was used as guerrilla tactics by the Federal Government to turn the population of the rest of the country against the state of São Paulo, broadcasting the alleged separatist notion throughout the country. There is no evidence that the movement's commanders sought separatism.
The uprising started on July 9, 1932, after five protesting students were killed by government troops on May 23, 1932. On the wake of their deaths, a movement called MMDC (from the initials of the names of each of the four students killed, Martins, Miragaia, Dráusio and Camargo) started. A fifth victim, Alvarenga, was also shot that night, but died months later.
Revolutionary troops entrenched in the battlefield. In a few months, the state of São Paulo rebelled against the federal government. Counting on the solidarity of three other powerful states, (Rio Grande do Sul, Minas Gerais and Rio de Janeiro), the politicians of São Paulo expected a quick war. However, that solidarity was never translated into actual support, and the São Paulo civil war was won by the Federation on October 2, 1932.
In spite of its military defeat, some of the movement's main demands were finally granted by Vargas afterwards: the appointment of a non-military state Governor, the election of a Constituent Assembly and, finally, the enactment of a new Constitution in 1934. However that Constitution was short lived, as in 1937, amidst growing extremism on the left and right wings of the political spectrum, Vargas closed the National Congress and enacted another Constitution, which established an authoritarian regime called Estado Novo.
Late 20th century
Vargas's rule was a study in political turbulence. Elected in 1934, he ruled by dictatorship (albeit a popular one, thanks to his health and social-welfare programmes) from 1937 to 1945—a period dubbed the "Estado Novo". Thrown out by a coup in 1945, he ran for office again in 1950, and was overwhelmingly elected. On the verge of being overthrown from office again, he committed suicide in 1954. Vargas's main legacy was the centralization of power.
The encouragement of industry and diversification of agriculture, not to mention the abolition of subsidies on coffee, finally did away with the dominance of the coffee oligarchies. His replacement, Juscelino Kubitschek, focused on heavy industry. Kubitschek built car factories, steel plants, hydro-power infrastructure and roads. Petrobras, Brazil's oil monolith, was set up in 1953. By 1958, São Paulo state controlled some 55 percent of Brazil's industrial production, up from 17 percent in 1907. Another of Kubitschek's pet projects was the creation of Brasília, which became Brazil's capital in 1960—the year Kubitschek stepped down. The University of São Paulo was founded in 1934; two years after São Paulo's failed uprising. It has established itself as the most prestigious higher learning institution in the country.
With a transitional government from military to civil and a new currency that made stagnant the economy during the mid- to late 1980s, unemployment and crime became rampant. São Paulo, by now the world's third-largest city after Mexico City and Tokyo, was hard-hit. Wealthy Brazilians retreated to suburban highly secured housing complexes such as Alphaville, and favelas, pockets of substandard living slums that lined the periphery, had a tremendous growth. For the first time in history, Brazil experienced large segments of its population immigrating to continents such as North America, Europe, Australia, and East Asia, particularly to Japan.
Geography
São Paulo is one of 27 states of Brazil, located southwest of the Southeast Region. The state area is , most of the north of the Tropic of Capricorn, and the 12th unit of the Brazilian federation in area and the second in the Southeast region, behind only Minas Gerais. The state has a relatively high relief, having 85 percent of its surface between three hundred and nine hundred meters above sea level, 8 percent below three hundred meters and 7 percent over nine hundred meters.
The distance between its north and south end points is , and between the east–west extremes. The state time zone follows the Brasilia time, which is three hours late in relation to the Greenwich Meridian. It is limited to the states of Minas Gerais to the north and northeast, the Paraná to the south, Rio de Janeiro to the east, Mato Grosso do Sul to the west, and the Atlantic Ocean to the southeast.
The coastline consists of plains below , that border the Serra do Mar. Located in the Serra da Mantiqueira, Mine Stone, with above sea level, is the highest point the state territory and the fifth in the country.
São Paulo has its territory divided into 21 watersheds, inserted in three river basin districts, the largest of which is the Paraná, which covers much of the state territory. Noteworthy is the Rio Grande, which born in Minas Gerais and join with Paranaiba to form the Parana River, which separates São Paulo from Mato Grosso do Sul.
Two major rivers Paulistas tributaries of the left bank of the Paraná River are the Paranapanema, which is long and a natural divider between São Paulo and Paraná in most of its course, and the Tiete River, which has a length of and runs through the state territory from southeast to northwest, from its source in Salesópolis, to its mouth in the city of Itapura.
Climate
The state territory covers seven distinct climatic types, taking into account the temperature and rainfall. In the mountain areas of the state, there are subtropical climate (Cfa in Köppen climate classification), in areas of high altitude such as the Serra do Mar e Serra da Mantiqueira, having humid, hot summers and average temperatures below in the month cooler year; and oceanic (Cfb and Cwb) with regular and well distributed throughout the year and warmer summers rains.
On the coast, the climate is super-humid tropical type, very similar to the prevailing equatorial climate in the Amazon (Af), with rainfall exceeding sixty monthly millimeters in every month of the year, without the existence of a dry season. The tropical climate of altitude (Cwa), predominant in the state territory, specifically in the center of the state, is characterized by a summer rainy season and a dry season in winter, with temperatures above in the hottest month of the year. In other areas, there is tropical savanna climate (Aw) with rainfall less than in one or more months of the year and warmer, with average temperatures above during the year. There are also small areas with characteristics of monsoons (Am).
The occurrence of snow is very rare, but has been recorded in Campos do Jordão and there are also reports that the phenomenon has occurred in several parts of the south of the state, except for the Ribeira Valley. The frosts are common, especially in higher areas with altitude of .
Demographics
According to the IBGE estimates for 2014, there were 44,035,304 people residing in the state. The population density was . The last PNAD (National Research for Sample of Domiciles) research revealed the following numbers: 27,612,000 White people (63.1%), 12,842,000 Brown (Multiracial) people (29.3%), 2,810,000 Black people (6.4%), 451,000 Asian people (1%), and 54,000 Amerindian people (0.1%).
People of Italian descent predominate in many towns, including the capital city, where 65 percent of the population has at least one Italian ancestor. The Italians mostly came from Veneto and Campania.
Portuguese and Spanish descendants predominate in most towns. Most of the Portuguese immigrants and settlers came from the Entre-Douro-e-Minho Province in northern Portugal, the Spanish immigrants mostly came from Galicia and Andalusia.
People of African or Mixed background are relatively numerous. São Paulo is also home to the largest Asian population in Brazil, as well to the largest Japanese community outside Japan itself.
There are many people of Levantine descent, mostly Syrian and Lebanese. The majority of Brazilian Jews live in the state, especially in the capital city but there are also communities in Greater São Paulo, Santos, Guarujá, Campinas, Valinhos, Vinhedo, São José dos Campos, Ribeirão Preto, Sorocaba and Itu.
People of more than 70 different nationalities emigrated to Brazil in the past centuries, most of them through the Port of Santos in Santos, São Paulo. Although many of them spread to other areas of Brazil, São Paulo can be considered a true melting-pot. People of German, Hungarian, Lithuanian, Russian, Chinese, Korean, Polish, American, Bolivian, Greek and French background, as well as dozens of other immigrant groups, form sizable groups in the state.
A genetic study, from 2013, showed the overall composition of São Paulo to be: 61.9% European, 25.5% African and 11.6% Native American, respectively.
According to an autosomal DNA genetic study (from 2006), the overall results were: 79 percent of the ancestry was European, 14 percent are of African origin, and 7 percent Native American.
Major cities
Religion
According to the 2010 demographic census, of the total population of the state, there were 24 781 288 Roman Catholics (60.06%), 9 937 853 Protestants or evangelicals (24.08%), 1 356 193 spiritists (3.29%), 444 968 Jehovah's Witnesses (1.08%), 153 564 Buddhists (0.37%), 141 553 Umbanda and Candomblecists (0.34%), 81 810 Brazilian Catholic Apostolic Church (0.20%), 70 856 new Eastern religious (0.17%), 65 556 Mormons(0.16%), 51 050, Jewish (0.12%), 31 618 Orthodox Christians (0.08%), 20 375 spiritualists (0.05%), Esoteric 17 827 (0.04%), 14 778 Islamic (0.04%), 4,591 belonging to indigenous traditions (0.01%) and 1,822 Hindus (0.00%). There were still 3 357 682 people without religion (8.14%), 214 332 with indeterminate religion or multiple membership (0.52%), 50 153 did not know (0.12%) and 18 038 did not declare (0.04%).
Crime
São Paulo, as well as other states of Brazil, has two types of police forces to carry out public safety in their territory, the Military Police of São Paulo State (PMESP), the largest police in Brazil and the third largest in Latin America, with 138,000 soldiers, and the Civil Police of the State of São Paulo, which exercises judicial police function and is subordinate to the state government.
According to data from the "Map of Violence 2011", published by the Sangari Institute and the Ministry of Justice, the homicide rate per 100,000 inhabitants in the state of São Paulo is the lowest in Brazil. The number of homicides in São Paulo fell from 39.7 to 10.1 per 100,000 inhabitants between 1998 and 2014. The state, which occupied the 5th place among the most violent states in the country in 1998, then came to occupy the 27th position in 2016.
Government and politics
The Brazilian Social Democracy Party (PSDB) has formed the government of the state since 1994, and was re-elected in 2018 for four more years. The current governor is João Doria (2019–2023).
Local politicians of note (with party affiliations) include: former President of Brazil (1994–2002) Fernando Henrique Cardoso (PSDB), former president (2002–2010) Luiz Inácio Lula da Silva (PT), José Serra (PSDB), Geraldo Alckmin (PSDB), Mário Covas (PSDB), Antonio Palocci (PT), Eduardo Suplicy (PT), Aloízio Mercadante (PT), Marta Suplicy (MDB), Gilberto Kassab (PSD), and Paulo Maluf (PP). Maluf is a controversial figure in São Paulo City politics, and is frequently accused of corruption. However, many voters used to support him because of his achievements during his governments, which the most well-known was the São Paulo subway system (the first in Brazil) and the João Goulart expressway, also known as Minhocão. Maluf has, however, failed to be elected in the last elections for governor of the state and for mayor of the state capital.
Three of last four Brazilian presidents, Fernando Henrique Cardoso (PSDB), Luiz Inácio Lula da Silva (PT) and Michel Temer (MDB), were politicians from São Paulo, although Cardoso was actually born in the state of Rio de Janeiro, and Lula in Pernambuco. Cardoso and Lula respectively live in the cities of São Paulo and São Bernardo do Campo. The current president, Jair Bolsonaro (PSL), was born in small town of Glicério, in the state northwest, but built his political career in the state of Rio de Janeiro.
According to the Strategist De Leon Petta, São Paulo state is geopolitically responsible to split Brazil in two parts, the federal integrated area and the south non-integrated area. Because of its strong self-determination, São Paulo functions as a backup to the rest of Brazil and as a historical pioneer, creating innovations for the rest of the country to sustain its own demands and needs. If it is a fact that on one side São Paulo functions as a geopolitical buffer, blocking the South from a stronger national cohesion, then the other side is also true—a failed São Paulo would probably wreck all of Brazil. At the same time that São Paulo is an anchor whose administration hinders presidential and federal authority, the state of São Paulo also prevents reckless rulers from freely taking complete control of the country and establishing an excessively centralized government. If by one side this is the reason of the south area has feelings for separation by the other side this prevented major economic and political crisis to spread in the same level across the country.
Economy
In 2009 the service sector was the largest component of GDP at 69%, followed by the industrial sector at 31%. Agriculture represents 2% of GDP. The state produces 34% of Brazilian goods and services. São Paulo (state) exports: vehicles 17%, airplanes and helicopters 12%, food industry 10%, sugar and alcohol fuel 8%, orange juice 5%, telecommunications 4% (2002).
São Paulo state is responsible for approximately a third of Brazilian GDP. The state's GDP (PPP) amounts US$1.221 trillion, making it the biggest economy in Latin America and in the Southern Hemisphere. Its economy is based on machinery, the automobile and aviation industries, services, financial companies, commerce, textiles, orange growing, sugar cane and coffee bean production.
São Paulo, one of the largest economic poles in both Latin and South America, has a diversified economy. Some of the largest industries are metal-mechanics, sugar cane, textile and car and aviation manufacturing. Service and financial sectors, as well as the cultivation of oranges, cane sugar and coffee form the basis of an economy which accounts for 34% of Brazil's GDP (equivalent to US$727.053 billion).
The towns of Campinas, Ribeirão Preto, Bauru, São José do Rio Preto, Piracicaba, Jaú, Marilia, Botucatu, Assis, and Ourinhos are important university, engineering, agricultural, zoo-technique, technology, or health sciences centers. The Instituto Butantan in São Paulo is a herpetology serpentary science center that collects snakes and other poisonous animals, as it produces venom antidotes. The Instituto Pasteur produces medical vaccines. The state is also at the vanguard of ethanol production, soybeans, aircraft construction in São José dos Campos, and its rivers have been important in generating electricity through its hydroelectric plants.
Moreover, São Paulo is one of the world's most important sources of beans, rice, oranges and other fruit, coffee, sugar cane, alcohol, flowers and vegetables, maize, cattle, swine, milk, cheese, wine, and oil producers. Textile and manufacturing centers such as Rua José Paulino and 25 de Marco in São Paulo city is a magnet for retail shopping and shipping that attracts customers from the whole country and as far as Cape Verde and Angola in Africa.
In agriculture, it is a giant producer of sugar cane and oranges, and also has large production of coffee, soy, maize, bananas, peanuts, lemons, persimmons, tangerines, cassavas, carrots, potatoes and strawberrys.
In 2019, São Paulo produced 425,617,093 tons of sugar cane. São Paulo production is equivalent to 56.5% of the Brazilian production of 752,895,389 tons, exceeds the production of India (2nd largest world producer of cane) in 2019 (which was 405,416,180 tons) and was equivalent to 21.85% of the world cane production in the same year (1,949,310,108 tons).
In 2019, São Paulo produced 13,256,246 tons of orange. São Paulo production is equivalent to 78% of Brazilian production of 17,073,593 tons, exceeds the production of China (2nd largest orange producer in the world) of 2019 (which was 10,435,719 tons) and was equivalent to 16.84% of world production of orange in the same year (78,699,604 tons). Most of it is destined for the industrialization and export of juice.
In 2017, São Paulo represented 9.8% of the total national production of coffee (third place).
The state of São Paulo concentrates more than 90% of the national production of peanuts, and Brazil exports around 30% of the peanuts it produces.
São Paulo is also the largest national producer of banana, with 1 million tons in 2018. The country produced 6.7 million tons this year. Brazil was already the 2nd largest producer of the fruit in the world, currently in 3rd place, losing only to India and Ecuador.
The cultivation of soy, on the other hand, is increasing, however, it is not among the largest national producers of this grain. In the 2018–2019 harvest, São Paulo harvested 3 million tons (Brazil produced 120 million).
São Paulo also has a considerable production of maize (corn). In 2019, it produced almost 2 million tons. It is the sixth largest producer of this grain in Brazil. State demand is estimated at 9 million tons, for animal feed, which requires the State of São Paulo to buy corn from other units of the Federation.
In the production of cassava, Brazil produced a total of 17.6 million tons in 2018. São Paulo was the third largest producer in the country, with 1.1 million tons.
In 2018, São Paulo was the largest producer of tangerine in Brazil. About persimmon, São Paulo is the largest producer in the country with 58%. The Southeast is the largest producer of lemon in the country, with 86% of the total obtained in 2018. Only the state of São Paulo produces 79% of the total.
In 2019, in Brazil, there was a total production area of around 4 thousand hectares of strawberry. São Paulo ranked second in Brazil with 800 hectares, with production concentrated in the municipalities of Piedade, Campinas, Jundiaí, Atibaia and nearby municipalities.
With regard to carrot, Brazil ranked fifth in the world ranking in 2016, with an annual production of around 760 thousand tons. In relation to the exports of this product, Brazil occupies the seventh world position. Minas Gerais and São Paulo are the 2 largest producers in Brazil. In São Paulo, the producing municipalities are Piedade, Ibiúna and Mogi das Cruzes. As for potato, the main national producer is the state of Minas Gerais, with 32% of the total produced in the country. In 2017, Minas Gerais harvested around 1.3 million tons of the product. São Paulo owns 24% of the production.
Regarding the bovine herd, in 2019 São Paulo had approximately 10.3 million head of cattle (6.1 million for beef, 1 million for milk production, 3 million for both). The production of milk this year was 1.78 billion liters. The number of birds to lay eggs was 56.49 million heads. Production of eggs was 1.34 billion dozen. The State of São Paulo is the largest national producer with 29.4%. In the production of poultry for production in São Paulo, there was a production of 690.96 million heads in 2019, equivalent to an offer of 1.57 million tons of chicken. The number of pigs in the state in 2019 is 929.62 thousand heads. Production was 1.46 million head, or 126 thousand tons of pork.
In 2018, when it comes to chickens, the first ranking region was the Southeast, with 38.9% of the total head of the country. A total of 246.9 million chickens were estimated for 2018. The state of São Paulo was responsible for 21.9%. The national production of chicken eggs was 4.4 billion dozen in 2018. The Southeast region was responsible for 43.8% of the total produced. The state of São Paulo was the largest national producer (25.6%). The number of quail was 16.8 million birds. The Southeast is responsible for 64%, highlighting São Paulo (24.6%).
Regarding industry, São Paulo had an industrial GDP of R $378.7 billion in 2017, equivalent to 31.6% of the national industry and employed 2,859,258 workers in the industry. The main industrial sectors are: construction (18.7%), food (12.7%), chemical products (8.4%), industrial services for public services, such as electricity and water (7.9%), and motor vehicles (7.0%). These 5 sectors concentrate 54.7% of the state's industry.
In 2019, Rio de Janeiro was the largest producer of oil and natural gas in Brazil, with 71% of the total volume produced. São Paulo is in second place, with an 11.5% share in total production.
In Brazil, the automotive sector represents about 22% of industrial GDP. ABC Paulista is the first center and largest automobile center in Brazil. When the country's manufacturing was practically restricted to ABC, the State represented 74.8% of Brazilian production in 1990. In 2017, this index decreased to 46.6%, and in 2019, to 40.1%, due to a phenomenon of internalization of vehicle production in Brazil, driven by factors such as unions, which made payroll and labor burdens excessively burdensome, discouraged investment, and favored the search for new cities. The development of ABC cities has also helped curb the appeal, due to rising real estate costs and a higher density of residential areas. São Paulo has factories of GM, Volkswagen, Ford, Honda, Toyota, Hyundai, Mercedes-Benz, Scania and Caoa.
In the production of tractors, in 2017, the main manufacturers in Brazil were John Deere, New Holland, Massey Ferguson, Valtra, Case IH and the Brazilian Agrale. They all have factories in the southeast, basically in São Paulo.
In the steel industry, Brazilian crude steel production was 32.2 million tons in 2019. Minas Gerais represented 32.3% of the volume produced in the period, with 10,408 million tons. The other largest steel centers in Brazil in 2019 were: Rio de Janeiro (8,531 million tons), Espírito Santo (6,478 million tons) and São Paulo (2,272 million tons). Some steel manufacturers in São Paulo are COSIPA (owned by Usiminas), Aços Villares and Gerdau, which has factories in Mogi das Cruzes and Pindamonhangaba, which produce special steel, and Araçariguama, which produces long steel for civil construction.
In 2011, Brazil had the sixth largest chemical industry in the world, with net sales of US$157 billion, or 3.1% of world sales. At that time, there were 973 chemical factories for industrial use. They are concentrated in the Southeast Region, mainly in São Paulo. The chemical industry contributed 2.7% to the Brazilian GDP in 2012 and was established as the fourth largest sector in the manufacturing industry. Despite registering one of the largest sales in the sector in the world, the Brazilian chemical industry, in 2012 and 2013, experienced a strong transfer of production abroad, with a drop in national industrial production and an increase in imports. A third of consumption in the country was supplied by imports. 448 products stopped being manufactured in Brazil between 1990 and 2012. This led to the interruption of 1,710 production lines. In 1990, the share of imported products in Brazilian consumption was only 7%, in 2012 it was 30%. The main companies in the sector in Brazil are: Braskem, BASF, Bayer, among others. In 2018, the Brazilian chemical sector was the eighth largest in the world, representing 10% of national industrial GDP and 2.5% of total GDP. In 2020, imports will occupy 43% of the internal demand for chemical products. Since 2008, the average use of capacity in the Brazilian chemical industry has been at a level considered low, ranging from 70 to 83%.
In Food Industry, in 2019, Brazil was the second largest exporter of processed foods in the world, with a value of U $34.1 billion in exports. The income of the Brazilian food and beverage industry in 2019 was R $699.9 billion, 9.7% of the country's Gross Domestic Product. In 2015, the food and beverage industry in Brazil comprised 34,800 companies (not including bakeries), the vast majority of which were small. These companies employed more than 1,600,000 workers, making the food and beverage industry the largest employer in the manufacturing industry. There are around 570 large companies in Brazil, which concentrate a good part of the total industry income. São Paulo created companies such as: Yoki, Vigor, Minerva Foods, Bauducco, Santa Helena, Marilan, Ceratti, Fugini, Chocolates Pan, Embaré, among others.
In the Pharmaceutical Industry, most companies in Brazil have been established in São Paulo and Rio de Janeiro for a long time. In 2019, the situation was that, due to the tax advantages offered in states like Pernambuco, Goiás and Minas Gerais, companies left RJ and SP and went to these states. In 2017, Brazil was considered the sixth largest pharmaceutical market in the world. Drug sales in pharmacies reached around R $57 billion (US$17.79 billion) in the country. The pharmaceutical market in Brazil had 241 regularized and authorized laboratories for the sale of medicines. Of these, the majority (60%) have national capital. Multinational companies had approximately 52.44% of the market, with 34.75% in commercialized packaging. Brazilian laboratories represent 47.56% of the market in sales and 65.25% in boxes sold. In the distribution of medicine sales by state, São Paulo ranked first: São Paulo's pharmaceutical industry had a turnover of R $53.3 billion, 76.8% of total sales across the country. The companies that benefited the most from the sale of medicines in the country in 2015 were EMS, Hypermarcas (NeoQuímica), Sanofi (Medley), Novartis, Aché, Eurofarma, Takeda, Bayer, Pfizer and GSK.
In the footwear industry, in 2019 Brazil produced 972 million pairs. Exports were around 10%, reaching almost 125 million pairs. Brazil ranks fourth among world producers, behind China, India and Vietnam, and 11th among the largest exporters. Of the pairs produced, 49% were made of plastic or rubber, 28.8% were made of synthetic laminate, and only 17.7% were made of leather. The largest polo in Brazil is located in Rio Grande do Sul, but São Paulo has important shoe centers, such as the one in the city of Franca, specialized in men's footwear, in the city of Jaú, specialized in women's footwear and in the city of Birigui, specialized in children's footwear. Jaú, Franca and Birigui represent 92% of footwear production in the state of São Paulo. Birigui has 350 companies, which generate around 13 thousand jobs, producing 45.9 million pairs per year. 52% of children's shoes in the country are produced in this city. From Birigui came the majority of the most famous children's shoe factories in the country. Jaú has 150 factories that produce around 130 thousand pairs of cheap women's shoes per day. The footwear sector in Franca has around 550 companies and employs around 20,000 employees. Most of the country's most famous men's shoe factories come from São Paulo. Overall, however, the Brazilian industry has been struggling to compete with Chinese footwear, which has an unbeatable price due to the difference in tax collection from one country to another, in addition to the absence of strong Brazilian labor taxes in China. Brazilian businessmen have had to invest in value-added products, combining quality and design, in order to survive.
In the textile industry, Brazil, despite being among the 5 largest producers in the world in 2013, and being representative in the consumption of textiles and clothing, has very little insertion in world trade. In 2015, Brazilian imports ranked 25th (US$5.5 billion). And in exports, it was only 40th in the world ranking. Brazil's share of world textile and clothing trade is only 0.3%, due to the difficulty of competing in price with producers from India and mainly from China. The gross value of production, which includes the consumption of intermediate goods and services, of the Brazilian textile industry corresponded to almost R $40 billion in 2015, 1.6% of the gross value of industrial production in Brazil. São Paulo (37.4%) is the largest producer. The main productive areas of São Paulo are the Metropolitan Region of São Paulo and Campinas.
In Electronics industry, the billing of industries in Brazil reached R $153.0 billion in 2019, about 3% of national GDP. The number of employees in the sector was 234.5 thousand people. Exports were $5.6 billion, and the country's imports were $32.0 billion. Brazil, despite decades-long efforts to rid itself of dependence on technology imports, has yet to reach this level. Imports are concentrated on expensive components such as processors, microcontrollers, memories, magnetic disks, lasers, LEDs and LCDs mounted below. The cables for telecommunications and electricity distribution, cables, optical fibers and connectors are manufactured in the country. Brazil has two large centers for the production of electronic products, located in the Metropolitan Region of Campinas, in the State of São Paulo, and in the Free Trade Zone of Manaus, in the State of Amazonas. There are large, internationally renowned technology companies as well as part of the industries that participate in its supply chain. The country also has other smaller centers, such as the municipalities of São José dos Campos and São Carlos, in the state of São Paulo. In Campinas there are industrial units of groups such as General Electric, Samsung, HP and Foxconn, a manufacturer of Apple and Dell products. São José dos Campos, focuses on the aviation industry. This is where the headquarters of Embraer is located, a Brazilian company that is the third largest aircraft manufacturer in the world, after Boeing and Airbus. In the production of cell phones and other electronic products, Samsung produces in Campinas; LG produces in Taubaté; Flextronics, which produces Motorola cell phones, produces in Jaguariúna; and Semp-TCL produces in Cajamar.
In the household appliances industry, sales were 12.9 million units in 2017. The sector had its peak in sales in 2012, with 18.9 million units. The brands that sold the most were Brastemp, Electrolux, Consul and Philips. Brastemp is originally from São Bernardo do Campo. São Paulo was also the place where Metalfrio was founded.
Several famous multinationals have factories in São Paulo, such as Coca-Cola, Nestlé, PepsiCo, Ambev, Procter & Gamble and Unilever.
Tourism
A significant portion of the state economy is tourism. Besides being a financial center, the state also offers a huge variety of tourist destinations:
São Paulo, the state capital city is the center of business tourism in Brazil, which gives the city about 45,000 events per year. São Paulo also has the largest hotel network in Brazil. Because of real estate speculation in the mid-1990s, nowadays there is an excess supply in the number of vacancies. The city also has demand in gastronomic culinary tourism after receiving the title of the "World Capital of Gastronomy. Cultural tourism is also highlighted given the amount of museums, theaters and events like the Biennale and the Biennale of Arts of the Book.
The coast of São Paulo state along the South Atlantic Ocean has 622 km of beaches of all kinds and sizes. Among the cities that receive the most tourists in the summer are Santos, Praia Grande, Ubatuba, São Sebastião, among others.
In the interior, it is possible to find resorts, rural tourism, eco-municipalities with a European- like climate, waterfalls, caves, rivers, mountains, spas, parks, historical buildings from the 16th, 17th and 18th centuries, and Jesuit / Roman Catholic church architecture archaeological sites such as the Alto Ribeira Tourist State Park (PETAR).
Those looking for intense entertainment can browse the Hopi Hari, a major theme park in Brazil, in the Metropolitan Region of Campinas; the complex also includes a hotel and the water park Wet 'n Wild. Also you can find the Parque Aquático Thermas dos Laranjais, which is the most visited water park in Latin America and the fifth in the world, located in Olímpia, a municipality in the northern part of the state. In terms of ecotourism, Sprout Juquitiba has a fine infrastructure. In winter, the city of Campos do Jordão emerges as the main tourist reference state, with the Winter Festival and several other attractions in an environment where the temperature can drop down below 0 (zero) degrees (Celsius).
Education and science
With 15.027 primary schools, 12.539 pre-school units, 5.639 secondary schools and more than 578 universities, the state's education network is the largest in the country.
The HDI education factor in the state in 2005 reached the mark of 0.921 - a very high level, in accordance with the standards of the United Nations Development Program (UNDP).
São Paulo is also the largest research and development center in Brazil, responsible for 52% of Brazilian scientific production and 0.7% of world production in the period between the 1998 and 2002. In addition to many universities, São Paulo also has important research institutes such as the Institute of Technological Research (IPT), the Nuclear and Energy Research Institute (IPEN), the Butantan Institute, the Biological Institute, the Pasteur Institute, the Institute of Tropical Medicine of São Paulo (IMTSP), the Forestry Institute, the National Institute of Space Research (INPE), the National Synchrotron Light Laboratory (LNS) and the Agronomic Institute of Campinas (IAC).
Educational institutions
Instituto de Pesquisas Energéticas e Nucleares (IPEN) (Nuclear and Energy Research Institute, Public);
Instituto Tecnológico da Aeronáutica (ITA) (Air Force Technological Institute, Public);
Universidade de São Paulo (USP) (University of São Paulo, Public);
Universidade Federal de São Paulo (Unifesp) (Federal University of São Paulo, Public);
Universidade Estadual Paulista (Unesp) (São Paulo State University, Public);
Universidade Estadual de Campinas (Unicamp) (University of Campinas, Public);
Universidade Federal de São Carlos (UFSCar) (Federal University of São Carlos, Public);
Instituto Federal de Educação, Ciência e Tecnologia de São Paulo (IFSP) (São Paulo Federal Institute of Education, Science and Technology, Public);
Instituto Mauá de Tecnologia (Mauá) (Mauá Institute of Technology, Private);
Pontifícia Universidade Católica de São Paulo (PUC-SP) (Pontifical Catholic University of São Paulo, Private);
Universidade Presbiteriana Mackenzie (Mackenzie) (Mackenzie Presbyterian University, Private);
Universidade de Sorocaba (UNISO) (University of Sorocaba, Private)
Fundação Getúlio Vargas (FGV) (Getúlio Vargas Foundation, Private);
Pontifícia Universidade Católica de Campinas (Pontifical Catholic University of Campinas, Private);
Universidade Federal do ABC (UFABC) (Federal University of ABC, Public);
Faculdade de Medicina de Marília (FAMEMA) (Marília Faculty of Medicine, Public);
Faculdade de Medicina de São José do Rio Preto (FAMERP) (São José do Rio Preto Faculty of Medicine, Public);
Universidade Metodista de São Paulo (UMESP) (Methodist University of São Paulo, Private);
Faculdade de Teologia Metodista Livre (FTML) (Free Methodist College, Private);
Faculdade de Tecnologia do Estado de São Paulo (FATEC) (São Paulo State Technological College, Public);
Universidade de Ribeirão Preto (UNAERP) (Ribeirão Preto, Private);
Universidade de Marília (UNIMAR) (Marília, Private);
Universidade Paulista (UNIP) (Private)
Infrastructure
Transport
Airports
Every day nearly 100,000 people pass through São Paulo-Guarulhos International Airport , which connects Brazil to 28 countries. There are 370 companies established there, generating 53,000 jobs. The original airport's two terminals are designed to handle 20.5 million passengers a year, but the recently opened third terminal expanded the capacity for 42 million users.
São Paulo International Airport is also one of the main air cargo hubs in Brazil. The roughly 100 cargo flights a day carry everything from fruits grown in the São Francisco Valley to medications. The airport's cargo terminal is South America's largest and stands behind only Mexico City's in all of Latin America. In 2013, over 343 thousand metric tons of freight passed through the container terminal.
Congonhas-São Paulo Airport or just Congonhas Airport is one of São Paulo's three commercial airports, situated 8 kilometres (5 miles) from the city downtown at Washington Luís Avenue, in the Campo Belo district. It is owned by the City of São Paulo and managed by Infraero. In 2013, it was the busiest airport in Brazil in terms of aircraft movements and the second busiest in terms of passengers, handling 209,555 aircraft movements and 17,119,530 passengers.
Located 14 kilometers from downtown Campinas and 99 kilometers from the city of São Paulo, Viracopos-Campinas International Airport can be reached by three highways: Santos Dumont, Bandeirantes and Anhanguera. The city of Campinas is one of Brazil's leaders in technology. Besides excellent highway connections, it is the location of major universities and many high-tech companies. Because of this, the airport is one of Infraero's highest investment priorities. The old "landing field" as it was called has become one of the main connection points in Latin America.
The air cargo import/export terminal of Campinas has an area of over 81,000 square meters. The airport began to concentrate in the international air cargo sector in the 1990s and today this is the airports leading source of revenue. Since 1995, Infraero has been investing to implement the first phase of the airport's master plan, making major improvements to the cargo and passenger terminals. The first phase was completed in the first half of 2004, when the airport received new departure and arrival lounges, public areas and commercial concessions. In 2012, the airport received a new terminal, it has since been privatized.
Railways
In rail transport, the state has more than of railways, which comes from the banks of the Parana River on the border of São Paulo and Mato Grosso do Sul, to the Port of Santos, on the Atlantic coast, for the carriage of goods. The first of such urban transit systems in Brazil and South America, it began operations in 1974. It consists of four color-coded lines: Line 1-Blue, Line 2-Green, Line 3-Red and Line 5-Lilac; Line 4-Yellow started to work in May 2010, and will be completed only in 2016.
The metro system carries 2.8 million passengers a day. Metro itself is far from covering the entire urban area in the city of São Paulo. Another company, Companhia Paulista de Trens Metropolitanos (CPTM), ["São Paulo Metropolitan Train Company"] works along with the metro system and runs additional commuter railways converted into light rail service lines, which total six lines (numbers 7, 8, 9, 10, 11 and 12), 261 km long, serving 89 stations. Metro and CPTM are integrated through various stations. Metro and CPTM both operate as state-owned companies, and have received awards in the recent past as one of the cleanest systems in the world by ISO9001. The São Paulo metro transports three million people by day. A regional rail network is also proposed.
Highways
The highway system of São Paulo is the largest state system of the Brazilian Highway System, surpassing the . It is an interconnected network, divided into three levels: municipal (); state (); and federal (). More than 90% of São Paulo population is about from a paved road.
São Paulo has the largest number of highways of Latin America and, according to a survey by the Confederação Nacional do Transporte (National Transport Confederation), the road system of the state is the best in Brazil, with 59.4% of its roads classified as "excellent". The survey also found that of the 10 best Brazilian highways, nine are in São Paulo.
The São Paulo highway system, however, is heavily criticized for the high cost imposed on its users. The state of São Paulo concentrates more than half of the toll roads in Brazil and a new toll plaza is created every 40 days average. According to a report of the Folha de S. Paulo, the cost of tolls to travel the coastal path of of the federal highway BR-101, which connect Rio Grande do Norte to Rio Grande do Sul, is cheaper than to go through the of highways separating the municipalities of São Paulo and Ribeirão Preto. The prices charged by private concessionaires who run the system are frequent targets of complaints from drivers.
Ports
In maritime transport, the state of São Paulo has two major ports: the Port of Santos, located in municipality of Santos and occupies the 39th position in the world by containerized cargo; and the Port of São Sebastião, located in São Sebastião (San Sebastian) municipality.
Water
Culture
São Paulo state is a cosmopolitan region, a land influenced by its encounter with different traditions beginning with the Tupi-Guarani Native American nation, the intrusion of Iberian and other European elements and the traffic of enslaved Africans. In the 19th and early 20th centuries, European, Asian, and Middle-Eastern immigrants also made their way there. Earlier, the land had been the starting point of the bandeirantes expeditions, which sought to enslave the Natives of the hinterlands and explore their mineral wealth. Hence, São Paulo influenced most of Western Brazil, as well as the states of Minas Gerais, its neighbor north of it, and Paraná, which was originally part of the old São Paulo province.
A very distinctive character in the culture of São Paulo state is the Caipira tradition, a mixture of Luso-Native-Brazilian and immigrant elements, mainly southern Italian, which influenced its dialect, somewhat different from the Portuguese language spoken in São Paulo city, although the latter is also heavily Italianized. The caipira culture is strong in countryside cities, although centers like Piracicaba, São Carlos, São José do Rio Preto, Araraquara, Ribeirão Preto, Barretos, Campinas, Marilia, Assis, Presidente Prudente, Jaú and Bauru also have a strong retroflex R style of pronunciation and unusual usage of words. It seems that the influence is actually from the Calabrian or Sicilian Italian dialect though, and many of the words peculiar to the region are actually archaic Portuguese forms. Native languages might also have stressed the more nasal sounds of words ending in /m/ or /n/, which is also a feature of other dialects in Brazil.
Cuisine
Caipira food typically includes fried or barbecued beef steaks; fried eggs; couve (collard green); taioba (cabbage); manioc (corn flour); farofa (stuffing); frango Caipira (freshly baked or pan-seared chicken); frango a Passarinho (fried chicken pieces of chicken); fried breaded sardine or fish fillet; and pork chops or baked pork with lettuce or cabbage and tomato, seasoned with garlic, lemon, and onions. Bean stew with carne seca (dried charque beef), toicinho (bacon) and white rice is always the staple, but macarronada (spaghetti) is always present on Sunday luncheons, and fried sausages are often eaten daily. Mildly spiced legumes, as well as zucchini and other types of squash, are often prepared as a stew with or without meat, and sometimes with quiabo (ocra) and abobora or butternut squash are a favorite dessert, as are sweetened sidra, canjica (white corn kernels cooked in milk, coconut, and condensed milk and peanut bits). Pudim de leite, or milk custard, pave' (mounted cookies in rich condensed and heavy cream sauce) and manjar (white flan) are other mouth-watering treats. If none of these desserts are present, countryside meals will rarely leave out citrics such as oranges and mexericas, bananas, caquis or abacaxi (pineapple). Home-made loaves or regular bakery fresh rolls with butter or corn meal or orange cakes are served with coffee and milk or mate tea in the afternoon before dinner or before bed. Pastries like chicken coxinha fried dumplings and risolis, and the Mediterranean or Syrian-Lebanese kibe and open sfihas are often served in birthday and wedding parties followed by a glazed cake, guarana' and other sodas, champagne, caipirinha sugar-cane liquor or beer. Chopp or draft beer is a must in weddings celebrations.
Fine arts
Another distinctive character in the state of São Paulo is the so-called "Brazilian erudite culture". São Paulo was the home of the Brazilian Week of Modern Art (Semana da Arte Moderna), organized mostly by poets and artists from São Paulo, like Mário de Andrade, Oswald de Andrade, Menotti del Picchia, Tarsila do Amaral and Anita Malfatti, Victor Brecheret and Lasar Segall. São Paulo was also the birthplace of Brazilian classical composers, like Carlos Gomes (the most famous Brazilian opera composer), Elias Álvares Lobo and Camargo Guarnieri. OSESP, the São Paulo state orchestra is known internationally and it has had both national and international directors.
Museums
São Paulo has some of the most impressive museums in the country, such as the Museu Paulista do Ipiranga, which honors the site of the independence of Brazil and has numerous Native American artifacts, funeral urns and other historic objects, besides the monument resting place of Dom Pedro, Brazil's first emperor and his wife. The Museu de Arte de São Paulo or MASP on Avenida Paulista is the most important Latin American collection of European paintings, and the Pinacoteca do Estado on Avenida Tiradentes exhibits paintings and sculptures. The Museu de Arte Sacra on the same avenue features national Barroc art and an Italian nativity scene, besides having in the chapel next door, the tomb of Frei Galvão, the first Brazilian saint. Across from Pinacoteca is the Luz station built in Britain and assembled in Brazil with the innovating Museu da Língua Portuguesa, the first interactive language museum in the world. Ibirapuera Park features Museu do Presepio or Creche museum, AfroBrasil, the African-Brazilian museum, and the Bienal book and art fair site conducted every two years. The city of São Carlos in the center of the state has the Museu do Avião, an open airplane museum.
Sports
Football is the most popular sport in the state. The biggest clubs from the state are Corinthians, Palmeiras, São Paulo, Santos, Ponte Preta, Guarani, Portuguesa, XV de Piracicaba. Other sports like Basketball and Volleyball are also quite popular. In basketball, famous Brazilian players such as Hortência Marcari, "Magic" Paula and Janeth Arcain are from São Paulo. Many of the internationally recognized racing drivers, like Emerson Fittipaldi, Ayrton Senna, Rubens Barrichello, Hélio Castroneves and Felipe Massa are also from São Paulo.
São Paulo hosted the opening game in the 2014 FIFA World Cup, that took place in Brazil.
Corrida de São Silvestre
The São Silvestre Race takes place every New Year's Eve in São Paulo. It was first held in 1925, when the competitors ran about 8,000 metres across the streets. Since then, the distance raced has varied, and it is now fixed at 15 km. Registration takes place from 1 October, with the maximum number of entrants limited to 15,000.
In 1989, The São Silvestre Race became two races, the masculine and the feminine competition. There is also a children's race called São Silvestrinha.
Brazilian Grand Prix
The Brazilian Grand Prix () is a Formula One championship race which occurs at the Autódromo José Carlos Pace in Interlagos. In 2006 the Grand Prix was the final round of the FIA Formula 1 World Championship. The Spanish driver Fernando Alonso won the 2006 drivers championship at this circuit by coming second in the race. The race was won by the young Brazilian driver Felipe Massa, driving for the Scuderia Ferrari team.
See also
List of municipalities in São Paulo by HDI
List of municipalities in the state of São Paulo by population
List of people from São Paulo
History of the State of São Paulo
History of the City of São Paulo
References
Bibliography
External links
Official website
State Assembly
State Judiciary
States of Brazil | [
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229424 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List%20of%20fictional%20rabbits%20and%20hares | List of fictional rabbits and hares | This is a list of fictional rabbits and hares (Leporidae). Fantasy hybrids such as jackalopes are not listed.
Literature
Comics
Video media
Film
Television
{|class="wikitable sortable"
!Name
!Species
!Film
!Notes
|-
|Assoud
|Rabbit
|Tomorrow's Pioneers
|An aggressively anti-Semitic rabbit.
|-
|Benny Rabbit
|Rabbit
|Sesame Street
|An irritated, grouchy rabbit who works as a bellhop at the Furry Arms Hotel.
|-
|Bedtime Bunny
|Rabbit
|Jim Henson's Pajanimals
|A bunny with pajamas who lives in the Land of Hush
|-
|Mr. Bunny Rabbit
|Rabbit
|Captain Kangaroo
|
|-
|Christine
|Rabbit
|Bear in the Big Blue House
|A female gray rabbit who is Ojo's best friend
|-
|Cleo
|Rabbit
|Rainbow
|A new blue rabbit puppet with a southern accent
|-
|Mr. Floppy
|Rabbit
|Unhappily Ever After
|
|-
|Greg
|Rabbit
|Greg the Bunny
|
|-
|Hartley Hare
|Hare
|Pipkins
|-
|Haru
|"Beastars"
|-
|Jax
|Jackrabbit
|Power Rangers Beast Morphers
|Zoey's Beast Bot partner
|-
|Meadow
|Rex rabbit
|Elmo's World
|A boy's pet rabbit only shown in the episode School
|-
|Mixy
|Rabbit
|The Ferals
|A simple-minded, but affectionate pink rabbit and one of the four gang members of the Ferals.
|-
|Oscar
|Rabbit
|Oscar the Rabbit in Rubbidge/Oscar and the Great Wooferoo
|A rabbit who wears a red coat and a yellow scarf. He lives in the land of Rubbidge.
|-
|Rapid T. Rabbit
|Rabbit
|Rapid T. Rabbit and Friends|An independently produced children's puppet show.
|-
|Willahara
|Rabbit/Hare Wesen
|Grimm (TV Series)|A group of people who woge(morphing) into rabbit-humanoid "wesen".
|-
|Zoef
|Hare
|De Fabeltjeskrant| A super quick hare who always mentions his own name (Zoef! Zoef!), whenever he talks. He is always in a hurry.
|}
Animation
Video games
Advertising mascots
The Cadbury's Caramel Bunny
Dr. Rabbit, a dentist character created by Colgate
Duracell Bunny
Energizer Bunny
Glenda, the Plan 9 Bunny
Gus Honeybun
Hip Hop
Nesquik bunny
Noid
The Playboy Bunny
The Trix rabbit
Jive Bunny, the face of the UK chart-topping novelty pop music act Jive Bunny and the Mastermixers
The Gamestop Bunny mascot
Carl, the Blockbuster rabbit
Fantasy
Mythology and folklore
Cabbit
The Easter Bunny
Hare of Inaba
Hare in one of Aesop's Fables, The Hare and the Tortoise
The Moon Rabbit, India, China, Japan.
Nanabhozo or Mahnabohzo, rabbit god of many Amerindian tribes
The rabbit taken to the moon by Quetzalcoatl, Aztec deity
Rabbits, of Chinese zodiac year
Fictional hybrid species
Cabbit
Jackalope
Skvader
Wererabbit
Wolpertinger
Others
Lulla, a stuffed bowtie blue from Suzy's Zoo''
See also
List of fictional animals
Moon gazing hare
Moon rabbit
Rabbits in the arts
Rabbits in culture and literature
Three hares
References
Rabbits | [
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229428 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Barth%20syndrome | Barth syndrome | Barth syndrome (BTHS) is an X-linked genetic disorder. The disorder, which affects multiple body systems, is diagnosed almost exclusively in males. It is named after Dutch pediatric neurologist Peter Barth.
Synonyms AGM2,Type 2 3-methylglutaconic aciduria,BTHS,Cardioskeletal myopathy - neutropenia
Presentation
Though not always present, the cardinal characteristics of this multi-system disorder include: cardiomyopathy (dilated or hypertrophic, possibly with left ventricular noncompaction and/or endocardial fibroelastosis), neutropenia (chronic, cyclic, or intermittent), underdeveloped skeletal musculature and muscle weakness, growth delay, exercise intolerance, cardiolipin abnormalities, and 3-methylglutaconic aciduria.
It can be associated with stillbirth.
Barth syndrome is manifested in a variety of ways at birth. A majority of BTHS patients are hypotonic at birth, show signs of cardiomyopathy within the first few months of life, and experience a deceleration in growth in the first year, despite adequate nutrition. As patients progress into childhood, their height and weight lag significantly behind other children. While most patients express normal intelligence, a high proportion of BTHS patients also express mild or moderate learning disabilities. Physical activity is also hindered due to diminished muscular development and muscular hypotonia. Many of these disorders are resolved after puberty. Growth accelerates during puberty, and many patients reach a normal adult height.
Cardiomyopathy is one of the more severe manifestations of BTHS. The myocardium is dilated, reducing the systolic pump of the ventricles. For this reason, most BTHS patients have left myocardial thickening (hypertrophy). While cardiomyopathy can be life-threatening, it is commonly resolved or substantially improved in BTHS patients after puberty.
Neutropenia is another deadly manifestation of BTHS. Neutropenia is a granulocyte disorder that results in a low production of neutrophils, the body's primary defenders against bacterial infections. Surprisingly, however, BTHS patients have relatively fewer bacterial infections than other patients with neutropenia.
The clinical manifestations presented by patients with this syndrome include: dilated cardiomyopathy (enlarged and weakened heart). Most men diagnosed with BTHS present DCM up to ten years of age, and endocardial fibroelastosis (EFE) or left ventricular non-compaction (LVNV) may occur. When symptoms occur during pregnancy between the 2nd and 3rd trimester, it can cause complications to the fetus, such as heart failure, hydrops fetalis, miscarriage or stillbirth. In adolescents, the ventricular arrhythmia responsible for sudden cardiac death can occur.
Skeletal myopathy (muscle weakness) causes delay in motor development, loss of strength and muscle tone, exercise intolerance and lethargy. During the developmental phase, boys present deficits in weight height and even pubertal delay. With regard to neutropenia, some patients develop a chronic, cyclic or intermittent condition. These changes in neutrophils allow patients with the syndrome to be vulnerable to infections, such as mouth ulcers, skin abscesses, fever and bacterial infections.
Cause
Mutations in the tafazzin gene (TAZ, also called G4.5) are closely associated with
Barth syndrome. The tafazzin gene product functions as an acyltransferase in complex lipid metabolism. In 2008, Dr. Kulik found that all the BTHS individuals that he tested had abnormalities in their cardiolipin molecules, a lipid found inside the mitochondria of cells. Cardiolipin is intimately connected with the electron transport chain proteins and the membrane structure of the mitochondria which is the energy producing organelle of the cell. The human tafazzin gene, NG_009634, is listed as over 10,000 base pairs in length and the full-length mRNA, NM_000116, is 1919 nucleotides long encoding 11 exons with a predicted protein length of 292 amino acids and a molecular weight of 33.5 kDa. The tafazzin gene is located at Xq28; the long arm of the X chromosome. Mutations in tafazzin that cause Barth syndrome span many different categories: missense, nonsense, deletion, frameshift, splicing (see Human Tafazzin (TAZ) Gene Mutation & Variation Database).iPLA2-VIA has been suggested as a target for treatment.
Barth's syndrome (BTHS), or cardioskeletal myopathy, also known as type II 3-methylglutaconium aciduria, is a congenital syndrome of phospholipid metabolism characterized by increased and weakened cardiomyopathy, being inherited from the mother, the syndrome modifies the BTHS gene on the chromosome. X. It is a rare and serious disorder that affects only men, and sometimes fatal.
Type of inheritance and encoded genes
BTHS is an X-linked recessive inheritance condition, usually transmitted from mother to baby, where a mother carrying the Barth syndrome mutation (the gene is called tafazzin - also called TAZ or G4.5) does not has symptoms of this disorder, probably due to distorted X-chromosome inactivation.
There are some literatures that address cases of women with the syndrome who may not have developed the disease, but who have a 50% chance of transmitting the modified gene to their children. In these cases, there is a 50% chance that a child generated by a carrier of the syndrome will have a modified gene. The descendants of this affected man may be the carriers, usually asymptomatic, since the gene will be modified. Thus, Barth's cases in family histories must be investigated in order to define the genetic risk in each family. Any boy who is matrilineally related to an individual with Barth syndrome should be tested for this disease because the phenotype can vary widely, even among affected siblings.
It is understood that BTHS is caused by a mutation in the Tafazzin – TAZ gene. Tafazzin is known as a protein, in humans it is encoded by the TAZ gene. It is highly expressed in cardiac and skeletal muscle and acts as a phospholipid-lysophospholipid transacylase.
Gene-encoded protein and its function
BTHS is caused by mutations in the TAZ gene (tafazzin - protein; Xq28), which encodes the acyltransferase Taz1p involved in the metabolism of cardiolipin, a phospholipid that plays an important role in the inner membranes of mitochondria. Deficiency in Taz1p function results in abnormal cardiolipin remodeling that ends up compromising the structure and/or function of the mitochondrial respiratory chain.
Barth's syndrome alters the BTHS gene on the X chromosome, which can cause cardiac, immunological and male developmental complications. It can be seen by a professional at birth or within a few months after birth.
Diagnosis
Diagnosis may include blood, urinary, and/or imaging tests, as best discussed below:
Blood tests used for white blood cell counts.
Urinalysis used to determine the presence of an increase in organic acid characteristically seen with BTHS.
Echocardiogram or cardiac ultrasound to assess the structure, function and condition of the heart.
DNA sequencing analysis to determine BTHS gene abnormality.
Differential diagnosis
Differential diagnosis includes hereditary, dilated and nutritional cardiomyopathy and cyclic or idiopathic neutropenia.
Treatment
Currently there is no treatment for Barth syndrome, although some of the symptoms can be successfully managed. There are currently clinical trials happening for possible treatments in the future like AAV9-mediated TAZ gene replacement strategy. The University of Florida has run a research investigation exploring the TAZ gene that has shown initial promising results, but more research and pre-clinical and clinical testing needs to be done before the gene therapy is approved by the FDA as a treatment.
Epidemiology
It has been documented, to date, in more than 120 males (see Human Tafazzin (TAZ) Gene Mutation & Variation Database). It is believed to be severely under-diagnosed and may be estimated to occur in 1 out of approximately 300,000 births. Family members of the Barth Syndrome Foundation and its affiliates live in the US, Canada, the UK, Europe, Japan, South Africa, Kuwait, and Australia.
Barth syndrome has been predominately diagnosed in males, although by 2012 a female case had been reported.
Early diagnosis of the syndrome is complicated and critical. According to some international literature, it is believed that its prevalence is estimated at around 1 / 454,000 and an incidence at 1 / 140,000 (South West England, South Wales) to 1 / 300,000 - 1 / 400,000 live births (USA). In other materials, it addresses that the syndrome affects approximately one in every 200,000 births. In existing cases, the occurrence may be underdiagnosed due to its complex nature. Bringing to the Brazilian reality, there may be cases, however, in scientific literature there are few materials found.
The syndrome is named after neurologist Dr. Peter Barth, a pediatric neurologist, who through his studies around 1983, described a class scheme demonstrating that the disease is not communicable. There is still no cure for Barth Syndrome, but there are ways to stabilize some symptoms of the disease.
History
The syndrome was named for Dr. Peter Barth (pediatric neurologist) (1932-) in the Netherlands for his research and discovery in 1983. He described a pedigree chart, showing that this is an inherited trait.
See also
3-Methylglutaconic aciduria
noncompaction cardiomyopathy: mutations to the affected genes in Barth syndrome are also present here.
References
External links
Phospholipid metabolism disorders
Syndromes affecting the heart
Syndromes affecting blood
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229431 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Saint%20Croix | Saint Croix | Saint Croix ( ) is an island in the Caribbean Sea, and a county and constituent district of the United States Virgin Islands (USVI), an unincorporated territory of the United States.
St. Croix is the largest of the islands in the territory. However the capital, Charlotte Amalie, is located on St. Thomas. In the 2010 United States Census, St. Croix's population was 50,601. As of the 2020 United States Census, St. Croix’s population is 41,004. The island's highest point is Mount Eagle, at . St. Croix's nickname is "Twin City", for its two towns, Frederiksted on the western end and Christiansted on the northeast part of the island. the most eastern point of the United States exists at point Udall St Croix
Name
The island's indigenous Taino name is Ay Ay. Its modern name is derived from the French Sainte-Croix, itself a translation of the Spanish name Isla de la Santa Cruz (meaning "island of the Holy Cross"), given by Columbus in 1493. The French name was partially retained under Danish rule as Sankt Croix, and the island was finally given its current spelling following the US takeover in 1917. The associated demonym for the island is Crucian or Cruzan, derived from the original Spanish name.
History
Igneri pottery indicates that people's presence on the island from 1–700, followed by the Taíno from 700 to 1425, before the encroachment by the Caribs in 1425. However, the island was devoid of habitation by 1590.
The island was inhabited by various indigenous groups during its prehistory. Christopher Columbus landed on Santa Cruz (Holy Cross), as he called it, on 14 November 1493, and immediately was attacked by the Kalinago, who lived at Salt River on the north shore. This is the first recorded fight between the Spanish and a New World native population, and Columbus gave the battle site the name Cabo de la Flecha (Cape of the Arrow). The Spanish never colonized the Islands, but most or all of the native population was eventually dispersed or killed. By the end of the 16th century, the islands were said to be uninhabited.
Dutch and English settlers landed at Saint Croix in 1625, joined by some French refugees from Saint Kitts. However, the English expelled the Dutch and French settlers, before they themselves were evicted by a Spanish invasion from Puerto Rico in August 1650. The Spanish occupation was short-lived, since a French force of 166 men attacked, and in the following year 1651 had established a colony of 300 on the island. From 1651 until 1664, the Knights of Malta (at the time a vassal state of the Kingdom of Sicily), ruled the island in the name of Louis XIV. The island then passed to the French West India Company. The colony was evacuated to San Domingo in 1695, when France battled the English and Dutch in the War of the Grand Alliance. The island then lay uninhabited and abandoned for another 38 years.
In 1725, St. Thomas Governor Frederik Moth encouraged the Danish West Indies Company's directors to consider purchasing Santa Cruz (Saint Croix). On 15 June 1733, France and Denmark-Norway concluded a treaty by which the Danish West India Company bought Saint Croix for 750,000 livres. Louis XV ratified the treaty on 28 June, and received half the payment in French coins, with the remaining half paid in 18 months. On 16 November 1733, Moth was named the first Danish governor of Saint Croix. The 1742 census lists 120 sugar plantations, 122 cotton plantations, and 1906 slaves, compared to 360 whites on the island. By 1754, the number of slaves had grown to 7,566. That year, King Frederick took direct control of Saint Croix from the company.
For nearly 200 years, Saint Croix, St. Thomas and St. John were known as the Danish West Indies. By the mid to late 18th century, "at the peak of the plantation economy, the enslaved population of Saint Croix numbered between 18,000 and 20,000, the white population ranging between 1,500 and 2,000".
Future Founding Father Alexander Hamilton and his brother lived with their mother Rachel Faucette on Saint Croix, after she returned to the island in 1765. Their residence was in the upper floor of a house at 34 Company Street, while Rachel used the lower floor as a shop selling food items. Within two years, however, Hamilton lost his father, James Hamilton, by abandonment, and his mother to death. Official documents from the island, a 1768 probate court testimony from his uncle, established Alexander's age at 13. By 1769, Hamilton's cousin, aunt, uncle, and grandmother had also died. His brother James became an apprentice carpenter, and Alexander Hamilton became the ward of Thomas Stevens, a merchant on King Street. Hamilton was soon clerking in the export-import business of Beekman and Cruger, at the intersection of King and King's Cross Streets. In 1772, local businessmen funded Hamilton's further education in New York.
The slave trade was abolished in the Danish colonies in 1792, although the prohibition did not go into effect until the end of 1802. Existing enslaved people were freed in 1848, after the 1848 St. Croix Slave Revolt led by General "Buddhoe" Gottlieb.
The British occupation of the Danish West Indies took place at the end of March 1801, with the arrival of a British fleet at St Thomas. Denmark-Norway accepted the Articles of Capitulation and the British occupied the islands without a shot being fired. Their occupation lasted only until April 1802, when Britain returned the islands to Denmark-Norway.
A second British invasion of the Danish West Indies took place in December 1807, when a British fleet captured St Thomas on 22 December, and Saint Croix on 25 December. Denmark-Norway did not resist and the invasion again was bloodless. This occupation lasted until 20 November 1815. Both invasions were due to Denmark's alliance with France during the Napoleonic Wars. On the conclusion of a peace with France, the islands were returned to Denmark.
The island was shaken by the 1878 St. Croix labor riot.
In 1916, Denmark sold Saint Croix, St. Thomas, and St. John to the United States, formalizing the transfer in the Treaty of the Danish West Indies, in exchange for a sum of US$25 million in gold. In a national referendum on the issue, 64.2% of Danish voters approved the sale. An unofficial referendum held in the islands resulted in 99.83% vote in favor of the purchase. Formal transfer of the islands to the U.S. took place on 1 April 1917.
The island's inhabitants were granted United States citizenship in 1927. Industrialization of the island and its move away from an agrarian society took place in the 1960s. The 2012 shutdown of the Hovensa refinery resulted in the loss of many jobs. Agriculture has seen a slow resurgence, due to an increase in demand for local produce and agricultural products.
In 1989, Hurricane Hugo struck the island with Category 4 winds. The United States Army, the Federal Bureau of Investigation, and the United States Marshals Service were ordered in to restore order.
Category 5 Hurricane Maria's weaker outer eyewall crossed St. Croix in September 2017; sustained winds reached over 150 mph and gusted up to 250 mph in some places on the western end of the island. Maria damaged or destroyed 70% of the buildings on St. Croix, including schools and the island's only hospital.
Geography
Saint Croix lies at . The easternmost point in the United States of America in the western hemisphere is Saint Croix's Point Udall. The island has an area of . The terrain is rugged, though not extremely so. The highest point on the island, Mount Eagle, is high. Most of the east end is quite hilly and steep, as is the north side from Christiansted west. From the north-side hills, a fairly even plain slopes down to the south coast; this was cultivated as the prime sugar land on the island.
Climate
The trade wind blows more or less along the length of the island. The hills of the western part of the island receive a good deal more rain than the east end; annual rainfall is on the whole extremely variable, averaging perhaps a year. The east end of the island is a dry desert range with a substantial amount of cactus, while the west end has lush vegetation and palm trees. The island has multiple ecosystems in a small geographic area. Fairly severe and extended drought has always been a problem, particularly considering the lack of fresh ground water and lack of freshwater streams or rivers on the island. The island has a desalination plant, but most residential homes and businesses have built-in cisterns used to collect rainwater.
Demographics
Inhabitants are called Crucians (frequently written as "Cruzans").
Due to Saint Croix's history of immigration, there is much debate as to what constitutes a native Crucian. The consensus in Crucian society is that if one is bahn ya ("born here" in Crucian dialect) on Saint Croix, they can claim to be Crucian, but not necessarily a native Crucian. Those considered to be the native Crucians (or by the more politically correct term: ancestral native Crucian) of Saint Croix are persons who can trace their ancestry to the era prior to U.S. Virgin Islands acquisition of American citizenship in 1927. Ancestral native Crucians (approximately one-fourth to one-third of Saint Croix's population) largely consist of the descendants of enslaved Africans brought to the island by Europeans during the 18th and 19th centuries, as well as the descendants of paid laborers recruited by the Danes from the British and Dutch West Indies after the Danish emancipation law in 1848. As on other Caribbean islands, many ancestral natives are also descended from European settlers and planters that migrated to the West Indies during the 17th, 18th, and 19th centuries. Due to a low number of European females in the colonial West Indies, many European males in colonial Saint Croix produced offspring with the majority African population, whose mixed-heritage descendants bear the surnames of their European ancestors. In addition, there are also a handful of ancestral families on the island (traditionally known as bukra) of full European ancestry.
Due to historical economic and political differences, as well as the remnants of a 19th-century caste system based on skin complexion, socioeconomic class differences among ancestral native Crucians can vary widely, even within the same family. Most ancestral native Crucians today are employed by the Government of the Virgin Islands, although there are others who are involved in the tourism industry, as well as the legal and medical professions.
Puerto Rican migration was prevalent in the 1930s, 40s and 50s, when many Puerto Ricans relocated to Saint Croix for work after the collapse of the sugar industry. However, the total population actually declined by 50% in the century preceding 1945.
The United States Navy purchase of two-thirds of the nearby Puerto Rican island of Vieques during World War II resulted in the displacement of thousands of Viequenses, many of whom relocated to Saint Croix because of its similar size and geography. The local holiday, Puerto Rico/U.S. Virgin Islands Friendship Day, has been celebrated since the 1960s on the second Monday of October, which is also the same date as Columbus Day. Puerto Ricans in Saint Croix, most of whom have lived on the island for more than a generation, have kept their culture alive while integrating it into the native Crucian culture and society. For example, in informal situations, many Puerto Ricans in Saint Croix speak a unique Spanglish-like combination of Puerto Rican Spanish and the local Crucian Creole English.
Migration from "down-island" (a local colloquial term for islands in the Lesser Antilles located to the east and southeast), occurred mainly throughout the 1960s and 70s. In that period, agriculture declined as the major industry in Saint Croix and was replaced by tourism, alumina production, and oil refining. Jobs were plentiful in these industries and down-islanders came to Saint Croix by the thousands. The demand for imported labor in Saint Croix was exacerbated by the fact that many ancestral native Crucians, having acquired American citizenship several decades earlier, migrated to the mainland United States to pursue educational and career opportunities. Many down-islanders made Saint Croix their permanent home, while others eventually relocated to the mainland United States or returned to their native countries. Most down-islanders came from St. Kitts and Nevis, Antigua, St. Lucia and Dominica, although people from every Anglophone Caribbean nation can be easily found on St. Croix. Down islanders and their Saint Croix-born offspring form the majority of Saint Croix's middle class, which has dwindled in size since the 2008 global recession.
Although down-island migration to Saint Croix is most commonly thought of as a mid-20th century phenomenon brought upon by American immigration policy, it is important to note that persons of both European and African descent from the nearby islands of Anguilla, St. Martin, Sint Eustatius, Saba, St. Kitts, Nevis, Antigua, and Montserrat have been migrating to Saint Croix since the 1600s. In addition, many ancestral native Crucians also share family ties with Barbados, as Bajans were heavily recruited to Saint Croix to work on sugar plantations throughout the late 19th century.
Continental Americans, although small in number in comparison with Caribbean immigrants, have also been part of the Saint Croix community. Most reside on the East End of Saint Croix and tend to work in the tourism industry, real estate, and legal professions. Many are temporary residents or retirees, as well.
Arab Palestinians have been an influential part of the local economy since the 1960s, when they first started to migrate to St. Croix to set up shops, supermarkets and gas stations.
In the 21st century, recent waves of migration to Saint Croix have included people from the Dominican Republic, Haiti, Jamaica, the Philippines, and various South American nations.
Saint Croix's history of migration has sometimes caused tensions between immigrants and Crucians whose ancestry on the island dates back for generations. Tensions have subsided to some extent in recent years, mainly due to intermarriage among Crucians and other Caribbean peoples. In the late 1990s, many people supported legislation to define as a "native U.S. Virgin Islander" anyone who could trace their ancestry on the island to 1927, the year in which U.S. Virgin Islanders were granted United States citizenship. This effort by a select group of nationalist senators eventually failed after much public outcry and controversy. It was learned that most native-born U.S. Virgin Islanders would not qualify as "native" under the proposed legislation, as their immigrant ancestors had arrived later than 1927, but thousands of Danish citizens would have qualified.
In 2009, the proposed U.S. Virgin Islands Constitution voted by the Fifth Constitutional Convention established three definitions of U.S. Virgin Islanders: "Ancestral Native Virgin Islander" – those with ancestral ties (and their descendants); "Native Virgin Islander" – those born on the island (and their descendants); and "Virgin Islander" – any United States citizen who has resided in the territory for five years. The proposed constitution was rejected by the United States Congress in 2010 for violating the principle of equal rights for all citizens of the territory, "native" or not, and was sent back to the convention for further consideration.
The total population of the island as per the 2010 U.S. Census is 50,601.
Subdivisions
Saint Croix is divided into the following subdistricts (with population as per the 2010 U.S. Census):
Anna's Hope Village (pop. 4,041)
Christiansted (pop. 2,626)
East End (pop. 2,453)
Frederiksted (pop. 3,091)
Northcentral (pop. 4,977)
Northwest (pop. 4,863)
Sion Farm (pop. 13,003)
Southcentral (pop. 8,049)
Southwest (pop. 7,498)
Language
English has been the dominant language on St. Croix since the 1700s and has been the official language since 1917, when the Danish West Indies were purchased by the United States. Previously, the official language was Danish, although it was not widely spoken. Other languages spoken throughout St. Croix's colonial history have included Irish, Scots, Spanish, and French, as well as a now-extinct Dutch Creole spoken by St. Thomas and St. John-born people living in St. Croix, as well as the local creole English, which still exists today.
Known on the island as Crucian, Virgin Islands Creole English is spoken by the majority of the population in informal situations. Spanish is spoken by migrants from Puerto Rico and the Dominican Republic and their St. Croix-born offspring, and various French creoles are spoken by St. Lucian, Dominican (Dominica), and Haitian immigrants. Arabic is common among the large Palestinian community on St. Croix. Immigrants from the Anglophone Caribbean that migrated to St. Croix after their formative years tend to speak the English creoles of their respective islands in informal situations, which are, for the most part, mutually intelligible with Virgin Islands Creole English.
Religion
Christianity is the predominant religion; the island has been called the "Land of Churches" for the approximately 150 churches that serve its 50,000 residents.
Protestant denominations are the most prevalent, but there is also a significant Roman Catholic presence due to Saint Croix's large Hispanic population, as well as Irish influence during the Danish colonial period. Anglican, Methodist, Moravian, Presbyterian, Pentecostal and Seventh-day Adventists are among the Protestant denominations prevalent on the island. There are also followers of the Jehovah's Witness faith, as well as The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints (also known as LDS or Mormon).
As in most of the Caribbean, various forms of Rastafari are practiced on the island. Islam is prevalent among the small local Arab population, and there is a small Jewish presence as well.
Economy
Saint Croix was once an agricultural powerhouse in the Caribbean, but this period ended with the rapid industrialization of the island's economy in the 1960s. Like many other Caribbean islands today, Saint Croix has tourism as one of its main sources of revenue. A number of other industries on the island contribute to the economy.
Saint Croix was home to HOVENSA, one of the world's largest oil refineries. HOVENSA is a limited liability company owned and operated by Hess Oil Virgin Islands Corp. (HOVIC), a division of U.S.-based Hess Corporation, and Petroleos de Venezuela, SA (PDVSA), the national oil company of Venezuela. Gas prices on the island were slightly higher than average when compared to gas prices in the continental United States.
On January 18, 2012, the company announced that the HOVENSA refinery would be permanently shut down. This had a major adverse effect on the economy of Saint Croix and the entire U.S. Virgin Islands, as the refinery employed 1,200 residents and 950 contractors. The refinery has since reopened under new ownership.
Saint Croix is also home to the Cruzan Rum Distillery, makers of Cruzan Rum, a brand of Beam Suntory, Inc. The Cruzan Rum Distillery was founded in 1760 as Estate Diamond, and for many years used locally grown sugar cane to produce a single "dark"-style rum. The distillery now imports sugar cane molasses from other countries in the region, primarily from the Dominican Republic and South America. In recent years, Cruzan Rum, along with Bacardi from Puerto Rico and Gosling's from Bermuda, has contributed to the resurgence of "single barrel," super-premium rum. The quality and smoothness of the Cruzan Estate Rums has won more than 30 Spirit Awards. Cruzan Estate Diamond Rum (aged five years in American oak barrels) and Cruzan Single Barrel Estate Rum (aged 12 years in American oak barrels) are two examples.
Diageo has completed construction of a new distillery on a 26-acre industrial site next to the Hovensa Refinery. The new distillery produces Captain Morgan Rum. Diageo's entrance into the U.S. Virgin Islands rum industry has been controversial. The cash-strapped U.S. Virgin Islands government secured $250 million in bonds for the plant, about which the Puerto Rican government has bitterly complained.
Transportation
Cars drive on the left hand side of the road, but nearly all the automobiles on the island have left side steering columns. This has proven difficult for new residents and visitors from right-hand traffic locales such as the mainland United States, the French and Dutch West Indies, the Dominican Republic, and Puerto Rico. Roads are generally in poor shape, with numerous potholes.
There is a public bus service called Virgin Islands Transit, also known as VITRAN, operated by the Virgin Islands Department of Public Works.
In addition to taxis and buses, St. Croix has shared taxis, locally known as "taxi buses" (also found on the other U.S. Virgin Islands). Taxi buses are full-sized vans running a route from Frederiksted to Christiansted. Taxi buses are privately owned and operated; they do not follow a regular schedule, and there are no pre-specified stops. People simply wait by the side of the road until a taxi bus approaches, then flag the driver down by waving. Passengers can get out anywhere along the taxi route. Taxi buses are not metered and are required by law to charge a flat rate of $2.50, regardless of where a rider gets on and off. Taxis to specific locations are much more expensive and are typically used by tourists.
Ferry service to St. Thomas was restarted in April 2017. The QE IV Ferry makes one trip per day departing from Gallows Bay, Christiansted to Charlotte Amalie, St. Thomas. The journey takes 2.5 hours and costs $50. The QE IV Ferry does not operate during hazardous weather conditions. Some Ferry companies based in St. Thomas and St. John sometimes operate St. Croix-to-St. Thomas service for special occasions, such as the St. Croix Agricultural Fair in February, Virgin Islands Carnival, Crucian Christmas Carnival, as well as horse races.
The Henry E. Rohlsen International Airport serves St. Croix with regular flights from the U.S. mainland, Puerto Rico, and the Eastern Caribbean. Seaplanes, operated by Seaborne Airlines, make the trip from St. Croix to St. Thomas, departing and arriving in Christiansted Harbor.
Although St. Croix is a U.S. territory, the U.S. Virgin Islands are maintained as a free port in a separate customs zone. Therefore, travelers to and from the contiguous United States and Puerto Rico must clear U.S. customs but do not need to present a passport, and only need proof of U.S. citizenship or nationality. The immigration status of non-U.S. citizens may be verified during this process.
Education
The St. Croix School District operates a number of public schools in St. Croix. There also exist multiple private schools, including St. Croix Montessori, Star Apple Montessori School, The Good Hope Country Day School, AZ Academy, St. Mary's Catholic School, Free Will Baptist, St. Croix SDA School, and The Manor School. The only colleges on the island are the University of the Virgin Islands, St. Croix campus and Barry University, which operates a physician assistant training program.
Culture
Festivals
The island's largest festival, termed "Crucian Christmas Carnival," is celebrated on St. Croix throughout late December and early January. Another significant festival is the Agricultural and Food Fair held in mid-February.
Several times a year, there is a nighttime festival in Christiansted called "Jump-Up" and a monthly event called "Sunset Jazz" in Frederiksted, where local jazz musicians play on Frederiksted Beach. Every year on the Saturday before Mardi Gras, there is a local Mardi Croix parade and a dog parade through the North Shore.
The St. Croix Half Ironman Triathlon is held in the first week of May. The Triathlon includes a swim, a bike ride, and a run. Because the bicycle route includes a ride up an extremely steep hill known as "The Beast", this triathlon is often nicknamed "Beauty and the Beast".
Points of interest
Frederiksted maintains its Victorian era architecture and original seven street by seven street city design and is host to several historic structures. Among them are St. Patrick's Catholic Church built in the 1840s and its primary school, the Customs House, the 19th Century Apothecary, and many other buildings; some of which due to hurricanes past have fallen into very scenic ruins. Frederiksted operates at a more relaxed pace than most of the island, and is more lively during Carnival in January and whenever visiting cruise ships are in port.
Salt River Bay National Historical Park and Ecological Preserve contains the only known site where members of a Columbus expedition set foot on what is now United States territory. It also preserves upland watersheds, mangrove forests, and estuarine and marine environments that support threatened and endangered species. The site is marked by Fort Salé, a remaining earthworks fortification from the French period of occupation, about 1617. The park also preserves prehistoric and colonial-era archeological sites including the only existent example of a ball court in the Caribbean. This is one of two sites on the island for bioluminescent bays (the other being Altona Lagoon).
Fort Christiansværn built in 1749 and other buildings are maintained by the National Park Service as the Christiansted National Historic Site.
Buck Island Reef National Monument preserves a island just north of St. Croix and the surrounding reefs. This is a popular destination for snorkelers. Buck Island maintains a U.S. Coast Guard weather station and is also home to a student monitored lemon shark breeding ground. Green Cay (pronounced green key) is a small island located southwest of Buck Island; it is managed by the US Fish and Wildlife Service. It hosts a nearby reef popular among scuba divers and snorkelists—Tamarind Reef.
The farmer's market (1 Estate, Kingshill, 00850, St. Croix) offers local fruit and vegetables, as well as plants, local food, and delicious juices. The outdoor vendors open every Saturday from 6 a.m. to 12 p.m., sometimes longer. You can visit the farmer's market all-year round to taste the fresh fruit and vegetables and enjoy a typical Cruzan breakfast.
Scuba diving, snorkeling, and watersports
The waters surrounding St. Croix are warm year-round, with temperatures ranging from – , making it a popular destination for watersports including scuba diving, snorkeling, kayaking, paddleboarding, surfing, kite surfing, parasailing, jet skiing, fishing, and sailing. Two of the island's most popular underwater sites for scuba divers are the Frederiksted Pier and the drop-off into deep water at Salt River Bay National Historical Park and Ecological Preserve.
Frederiksted is known for reef diving and access to wreck diving. The western side of the island has calm waters that allow snorkeling with access from the beach. Paddleboarding is popular near Frederiksted for the same reason. The Frederiksted Pier attracts scuba divers and snorkelers, as well as those who simply jump off it. The shallow water and sandy bottom around the pier are ideal for recreational diving by novice scuba divers in PADI Discover Scuba Diving programs (also called resort diving), for extended shore diving, night diving, and for underwater photography, especially of its abundant seahorse population.
A few hundred meters off the northern coast of the island, from Salt River to Cane Bay, the bottom drops suddenly into a deep trench, where coral reefs, abundant tropical fish, and migrant sea turtles may be observed. Kayaking is popular in the Salt River area as well.
The town of Christiansted, a short distance from Buck Island and Green Cay, is a former capital of the Danish West Indies. It lies just east of the northern underwater drop-off and is protected by a reef.
Bioluminescent bays
There are two bioluminescent bays or bio bays on St. Croix. The most widely known and visited is located at Salt River Bay National Historical Park and Ecological Preserve. A second bio bay can be found at Altona Lagoon. Bio bays are extremely rare with "only seven-year-round lagoons known to exist in the Caribbean".
A combination of factors creates the necessary conditions for bioluminescence: red mangrove trees surround the water (the organisms have been related to mangrove forest, although mangrove is not necessarily associated with this species). A study at the bio bay located at Salt River is being conducted by faculty and students from the University of South Carolina, the University of North Carolina-Wilmington and the University of the Virgin Islands. Their research is focused on analyzing quality and nutrient composition of the water, the distribution of a micro-organism, the dinoflagellate Pyrodinium bahamense, which glows whenever the water is disturbed, and the abundance of "cysts", dormant dinoflagellates embedded in the sea floor.
A concurrent complementary study is being undertaken by the St. Croix Environmental Association in conjunction with Scripps Institution of Oceanography which focuses on counting the photon density of the phenomenon over time and through various conditions of weather and other impacts. Water quality and taxonomic analysis from both studies will be shared and correlated to create one of the most thorough investigations of year-round bioluminescent bays to date.
The two bio bays on St Croix have very different characteristics. The one at Altona Lagoon is large in size but is very shallow allowing one to see the various marine life swimming and agitating the water, lighting it up. The bio bay at Salt River is smaller in size but is deeper than Altona Lagoon. Because of its depth this bay is also home to a second form of bioluminescence called Ctenophora or comb-jellies, which are not found at Altona Lagoon.
A third bioluminescent organism is also found in Salt River. A species of marine Odontosyllis fireworm performs its brilliant green mating ritual within 57 hours after the full moon, females rising to the surface and leaving a luminescent green puddle for the males to race through, fertilizing the eggs.
Protected areas
Buck Island Reef National Monument, managed by the National Park Service (a federal agency)
Christiansted National Historic Site, managed by the National Park Service (a federal agency)
Green Cay National Wildlife Refuge, managed by the US Fish and Wildlife Service (a federal agency)
Salt River Bay National Historical Park and Ecological Preserve, co-managed by the Territory of the Virgin Islands and the National Park Service (a federal agency)
Sandy Point National Wildlife Refuge, managed by the US Fish and Wildlife Service (a federal agency)
Point Udall
St. Croix East End Marine Park: managed by the Government of the Virgin Islands through the Department of Planning and Natural Resources' Division of Coastal Zone Management
Notable residents
Hans Jonatan (1784–1827), possibly the first person of color to live in Iceland
Joe Aska, former professional American football running back
Raja Bell, professional basketball player, Utah Jazz
De Apostle, reggae singer-songwriter
Bennie Benjamin, musician, songwriter
Judah P. Benjamin, American and Confederate politician
Victor Borge, Danish pianist and comedian
Edmund Bourke (1761–1821), Danish diplomat
Livingstone Bramble, boxer (raised on St. Croix) from Montserrat
Georg Carstensen, Danish engineer founder of Tivoli Gardens
Annie de Chabert, political figure, entrepreneur
Horace Clarke, professional baseball player, New York Yankees and San Diego Padres
Quentin Coryatt, professional NFL American football player, Indianapolis Colts
Frank Crosswaith – union leader
Francis J. D'Eramo, Judge at the United States Virgin Islands Superior Court of St. Croix.
Dezarie, reggae singer
Tim Duncan, former professional NBA basketball player
Walt Frazier, former professional NBA basketball player
Jack Gantos, author (mentioned in Hole in My Life)
Muhammad Halim, Olympic triple jumper
Alexander Hamilton, American statesman, first United States Secretary of the Treasury (born on Nevis)
Jimmy Hamilton, jazz musician
Hubert Harrison, Harlem activist and intellectual "The Father of Harlem Radicalism"
Elizabeth Hawes, clothing designer, author and social critic, who wrote a book about her life in St. Croix titled But Say It Politely
Casper Holstein, Harlem Renaissance philanthropist
Roy Innis, civil rights advocate, chairman, Congress of Racial Equality (CORE)
Rea Irvin, illustrator and first art director on The New Yorker magazine
Peter Jackson, 19th-century Australian boxing champion
Linval Joseph, professional NFL American football player, Minnesota Vikings
William Alexander Leidesdorff, entrepreneur
Audre Lorde, poet, feminist
Midnite, roots reggae band
Abraham Markoe, American revolutionary figure
Hanik Milligan, former professional American football player
Warren Mosler, economist
Richard Cooper Newick, boat builder and designer
Maureen O'Hara, actress
Regine Olsen, Kierkeegard's former fiancée, whose husband Johan Frederik Schlegel was the island's governor
Elmo Plaskett, baseball player
Jasmin St. Claire, pornographic actress
Sugar Ray Seales, Olympic gold medalist, boxer
Jim Simpson, Hall of Fame sportscaster
Allen Stanford, financier convicted of fraud
Andre Wadsworth, professional NFL American football player, Arizona Cardinals
Hannibal Ware, Inspector General of the U.S. Small Business Administration
Erika J. Waters, academic and critic
Henry S. Whitehead, American author of horror fiction and fantasy
Mike Yard, contributor on The Nightly Show
See also
1878 St. Croix Labor Riots
Culture of the Virgin Islands
Music of the Virgin Islands
St. George Village Botanical Garden
Virgin Islands patch reefs
WSVI, ABC TV station
WTJX-TV, Virgin Island Public Television
Notes
References
External links
St. Croix – United States Virgin Islands Department of Tourism
Office of the Lieutenant Governor – Office of the Lieutenant Governor Gregory R. Francis
St. Croix USVI Google Map – Satellite Map of St. Croix, USVI
Islands of the United States Virgin Islands
Places with bioluminescence
Former Danish colonies
1650 establishments in the French colonial empire
1733 disestablishments in the French colonial empire
1733 establishments in the Danish colonial empire
1916 disestablishments in the Danish colonial empire
1916 establishments in the United States | [
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229432 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Abd%20al-Karim%20Qasim | Abd al-Karim Qasim | Abd al-Karim Qasim Muhammad Bakr al-Fadhli al-Zubaidi ( ) (21 November 1914 – 9 February 1963) was an Iraqi Army brigadier and nationalist who came to power when the Iraqi monarchy was overthrown during the 14 July Revolution. He ruled the country as the prime minister until his downfall and execution during the 1963 Ramadan Revolution.
During his rule, Qasim was popularly known as al-zaʿīm (الزعيم), or "The Leader".
Early life and career
Abd al-Karim's father, Qasim Muhammed Bakr Al-Fadhli Al-Zubaidi was a farmer from southern Baghdad and an Iraqi Sunni Muslim who died during World War I, shortly after his son's birth. Qasim's mother, Kayfia Hassan Yakub Al-Sakini was a Shia Feyli Kurd Muslim from Baghdad.
Qasim was born in Mahdiyya, a lower-income district of Baghdad on the left side of the river, now known as Karkh, on December 21 1914, the youngest of three sons. When Qasim was six, his family moved to Suwayra, a small town near the Tigris, then to Baghdad in 1926. Qasim was an excellent student and entered secondary school on a government scholarship. After graduation in 1931, he attended Shamiyya Elementary School from 22 October 1931 until 3 September 1932, when he was accepted into Military College. In 1934, he graduated as a second lieutenant. Qasim then attended al-Arkan (Iraqi Staff) College and graduated with honours (grade A) in December 1941. In 1951, he completed a senior officers’ course in Devizes, Wiltshire. Qasim was nicknamed "the snake charmer" by his classmates in Devizes because of his gift in convincing them to undertake improbable courses of action during military exercises.
Militarily, he participated in the suppression of the tribal disturbances in the Middle Euphrates region in 1935, in the Anglo-Iraqi War in May 1941 and the Barzani revolt in 1945. Qasim also served during the Iraqi military involvement in the Arab-Israeli War from May 1948 to June 1949. Toward the latter part of the mission, he commanded a battalion of the First Brigade, which was situated in the Kafr Qassem area south of Qilqilya. In 1956–57, he served with his brigade at Mafraq in Jordan in the wake of the Suez Crisis. By 1957 Qasim had assumed leadership of several opposition groups that had formed in the army.
14 July Revolution
On 14 July 1958, Qasim used troop movements planned by the government as an opportunity to seize military control of Baghdad and overthrow the monarchy. The king, several members of the royal family, and their close associates, including Prime Minister Nuri as-Said, were executed.
The coup was discussed and planned by the Free Officers and Civilians Movement, which although inspired by the Egypt's eponymous movement, was not as advanced or cohesive. From as early as 1952 the Iraqi Free Officers and Civilians Movement's initial cell was led by Qasim and Colonel Isma'il Arif, before being joined later by an infantry officer serving under Qasim who would later go on to be his closest collaborator, Colonel Abdul Salam Arif. By the time of the coup in 1958, the total number of agents operating on behalf of the Free Officers had risen to around 150 who were all planted as informants or go-betweens in most units and depots of the army.
The coup was triggered when King Hussein of Jordan, fearing that an anti-Western revolt in Lebanon might spread to Jordan, requested Iraqi assistance. Instead of moving towards Jordan, however, Colonel Arif led a battalion into Baghdad and immediately proclaimed a new republic and the end of the old regime.
King Faisal II ordered the Royal Guard to offer no resistance, and surrendered to the coup forces. Around 8 am, Captain Abdul Sattar Sabaa Al-Ibousi, leading the revolutionary assault group at the Rihab Palace, which was still the principal royal residence in central Baghdad, ordered the King, Crown Prince 'Abd al-Ilah, Crown Princess Hiyam ('Abd al-Ilah's wife), Princess Nafeesa ('Abd al-Ilah's mother), Princess Abadiya (Faisal's aunt) and several servants to gather in the palace courtyard (the young King having not yet moved into the newly completed Royal Palace). When they all arrived in the courtyard they were told to turn towards the palace wall. All were then shot by Captain Abdus Sattar As Sab’, a member of the coup led by Qasim.
In the wake of the brutal coup, the new Iraqi Republic was proclaimed and headed by a Revolutionary Council. At its head was a three-man Sovereignty Council, composed of members of Iraq's three main communal/ethnic groups. Muhammad Mahdi Kubbah represented the Arab Shi’a population; Khalid al-Naqshabandi the Kurds; and Najib al Rubay’i the Arab Sunni population. This tripartite Council was to assume the role of the Presidency. A cabinet was created, composed of a broad spectrum of Iraqi political movements, including two National Democratic Party representatives, one member of al-Istiqlal, one Ba’ath representative and one Marxist.
After seizing power, Qasim assumed the post of Prime Minister and Defence Minister, while Colonel Arif was selected as Deputy Prime Minister and Interior Minister. They became the highest authority in Iraq with both executive and legislative powers. Muhammad Najib ar-Ruba'i became Chairman of the Sovereignty Council (head of state), but his power was very limited.
On 26 July 1958, the Interim Constitution was adopted, pending a permanent law to be promulgated after a free referendum. According to the document, Iraq was to be a republic and a part of the Arab nation while the official state religion was listed as Islam. Powers of legislation were vested in the Council of Ministers, with the approval of the Sovereignty Council, whilst executive function was also vested in the Council of Ministers.
Prime minister
Qasim assumed office after being elected as Prime Minister shortly after the coup in July 1958. He held this position until he was overthrown in February 1963.
Despite the encouraging tones of the temporary constitution, the new government descended into autocracy with Qasim at its head. The genesis of his elevation to "Sole Leader" began with a schism between Qasim and his fellow conspirator Arif. Despite one of the major goals of the revolution being to join the pan-Arabism movement and practise qawmiyah (Arab nationalism) policies, Qasim soon modified his views, once in power. Qasim, reluctant to tie himself too closely to Nasser's Egypt sided with various groups within Iraq (notably the social democrats) that told him such an action would be dangerous. Instead he found himself echoing the views of his predecessor, Said, by adopting a wataniyah policy of "Iraq First". This caused a divide in the Iraqi government between the Iraqi Nationalist Qasim, who wanted Iraq's identity to be secular and civic nationalist, revolving around Mesopotamian identity, and the Arab Nationalists who sought an Arab identity for Iraq and closer ties to the rest of the Arab world.
Unlike the bulk of military officers, Qasim did not come from the Arab Sunni north-western towns, nor did he share their enthusiasm for pan-Arabism: he was of mixed Sunni-Shia parentage from south-eastern Iraq. His ability to remain in power depended, therefore, on a skilful balancing of the communists and the pan-Arabists. For most of his tenure, Qasim sought to balance the growing pan-Arab trend in the military.
He lifted a ban on the Iraqi Communist Party, and demanded the annexation of Kuwait. He was also involved in the 1958 Agrarian Reform, modelled after the Egyptian experiment of 1952.
Qasim is said by his admirers to have worked to improve the position of ordinary people in Iraq, after the long period of self-interested rule by a small elite under the monarchy which had resulted in widespread social unrest. Qasim passed law No. 80 which seized 99% of Iraqi land from the British-owned Iraq Petroleum Company, and distributed farms to more of the population. This increased the size of the middle class. Qasim also oversaw the building of 35,000 residential units to house the poor and lower middle classes. The most notable example of this was the new suburb of Baghdad named Madinat al-Thawra (revolution city), renamed Saddam City under the Ba'ath regime and now widely referred to as Sadr City. Qasim rewrote the constitution to encourage women's participation in society.
Qasim tried to maintain the political balance by using the traditional opponents of pan-Arabs, the right wing and nationalists. Up until the war with the Kurdish factions in the north, he was able to maintain the loyalty of the army.
He appointed as a minister Naziha al-Dulaimi, who became the first woman minister in the history of Iraq and the Arab world. She also participated in the drafting of the 1959 Civil Affairs Law, which was far ahead of its time in liberalizing marriage and inheritance laws for the benefit of Iraqi women.
Power struggles
Despite a shared military background, the group of Free Officers that carried out the 14 July Revolution was plagued by internal dissension. Its members lacked both a coherent ideology and an effective organizational structure. Many of the more senior officers resented having to take orders from Arif, their junior in rank. A power struggle developed between Qasim and Arif over joining the Egyptian-Syrian union. Arif's pro-Nasserite sympathies were supported by the Ba'ath Party, while Qasim found support for his anti-unification position in the ranks of the Iraqi Communist Party.
Qasim's change of policy aggravated his relationship with Arif who, despite being subordinate to Qasim, had gained great prestige as the perpetrator of the coup. Arif capitalized upon his newfound position by engaging in a series of widely publicized public orations, during which he strongly advocated union with the UAR and making numerous positive references to Nasser, while remaining noticeably less full of praise for Qasim. Arif's criticism of Qasim became gradually more pronounced. This led Qasim to take steps to counter his potential rival. He began to foster relations with the Iraqi Communist Party, which attempted to mobilize support in favour of his policies. He also moved to counter Arif's power base by removing him from his position as deputy commander of the armed forces.
On 30 September 1958 Qasim removed Arif from his roles as Deputy Prime Minister and as Minister of the Interior. Qasim attempted to remove Arif's disruptive influence by offering him a role as Iraqi ambassador to West Germany in Bonn. Arif refused, and in a confrontation with Qasim on 11 October he is reported to have drawn his pistol in the Qasim's presence, although whether it was to assassinate Qasim or commit suicide is a source of debate. No blood was shed, and Arif agreed to depart for Bonn. However, his time in Germany was brief, as he attempted to return to Baghdad on 4 November amid rumours of an attempted coup against Qasim. He was promptly arrested, and charged on 5 November with the attempted assassination of Qasim and attempts to overthrow the regime. He was brought to trial for treason and condemned to death in January 1959. He was subsequently pardoned in December 1962 and was sentenced to life imprisonment.
Although the threat of Arif had been negated, another soon arose in the form of Rashid Ali, the exiled former prime minister who had fled Iraq in 1941. He attempted to foster support among officers who were unhappy with Qasim's policy reversals. A coup was planned for 9 December 1958, but Qasim was prepared, and instead had the conspirators arrested on the same date. Ali was imprisoned and sentenced to death, although the execution was never carried out.
Relations with Iran
Relations with Iran and the West deteriorated significantly under Qasim's leadership. He actively opposed the presence of foreign troops in Iraq and spoke out against it. Relations with Iran were strained due to his call for Arab territory within Iran to be annexed to Iraq, and Iran continued to actively fund and facilitate Kurdish rebels in the north of Iraq. Relations with the Pan-Arab Nasserist factions such as the Arab Struggle Party caused tensions with the United Arab Republic (UAR), and as a result the UAR began to aid rebellions in Iraqi Kurdistan against the government.
Kurdish revolts
The new Government declared Kurdistan "one of the two nations of Iraq". During his rule, the Kurdish groups selected Mustafa Barzani to negotiate with the government, seeking an opportunity to declare independence.
After a period of relative calm, the issue of Kurdish autonomy (self-rule or independence) went unfulfilled, sparking discontent and eventual rebellion among the Kurds in 1961. Kurdish separatists under the leadership of Mustafa Barzani chose to wage war against the Iraqi establishment. Although relations between Qasim and the Kurds had been positive initially, by 1961 relations had deteriorated and the Kurds had become openly critical of Qasim's regime. Barzani had delivered an ultimatum to Qasim in August 1961 demanding an end to authoritarian rule, recognition of Kurdish autonomy, and restoration of democratic liberties.
The Mosul uprising and subsequent unrest
During Qasim's term, there was much debate over whether Iraq should join the United Arab Republic, led by Gamal Abdel Nasser. Having dissolved the Hashemite Arab Federation with the Hashemite Kingdom of Jordan, Qasim refused to allow Iraq to enter the federation, although his government recognized the republic and considered joining it later.
Qasim's growing ties with the communists served to provoke rebellion in the northern Iraqi city of Mosul led by Arab nationalists in charge of military units. In an attempt to reduce the likelihood of a potential coup, Qasim had encouraged a communist backed Peace Partisans rally to be held in Mosul on 6 March 1959. Some 250,000 Peace Partisans and communists thronged through Mosul's streets that day, and although the rally passed peacefully, on 7 March, skirmishes broke out between communists and nationalists. This degenerated into a major civil disturbance over the following days. Although the rebellion was crushed by the military, it had a number of adverse effects that impacted Qasim's position. First, it increased the power of the communists. Second, it increased the strength of the Ba’ath Party, which had been growing steadily since the 14 July coup. The Ba'ath Party believed that the only way of halting the engulfing tide of communism was to assassinate Qasim.
Of the 16 members of Qasim's cabinet, 12 were Ba'ath Party members. However, the party turned against Qasim because of his refusal to join Gamel Abdel Nasser's United Arab Republic. To strengthen his own position within the government, Qasim created an alliance with the Iraqi Communist Party (ICP), which was opposed to any notion of pan-Arabism. Later that year, the Ba'ath Party leadership put in place plans to assassinate Qasim. Saddam Hussein was a leading member of the operation. At the time, the Ba'ath Party was more of an ideological experiment than a strong anti-government fighting machine. The majority of its members were either educated professionals or students, and Saddam fitted in well within this group.
The choice of Saddam was, according to journalist Con Coughlin, "hardly surprising". The idea of assassinating Qasim may have been Nasser's, and there is speculation that some of those who participated in the operation received training in Damascus, which was then part of the United Arabic Republic. However, "no evidence has ever been produced to implicate Nasser directly in the plot".
The assassins planned to ambush Qasim at Al-Rashid Street on 7 October 1959. One man was to kill those sitting at the back of the car, the others killing those in front. During the ambush it was claimed that Saddam began shooting prematurely, which disrupted the whole operation. Qasim's chauffeur was killed, and Qasim was hit in the arm and shoulder. The would-be assassins believed they had killed him and quickly retreated to their headquarters, but Qasim survived.
The growing influence of communism was felt throughout 1959. A communist-sponsored purge of the armed forces was carried out in the wake of the Mosul revolt. The Iraqi cabinet began to shift towards the radical-left as several communist sympathizers gained posts in the cabinet. Iraq's foreign policy began to reflect this communist influence, as Qasim removed Iraq from the Baghdad Pact on 24 March, and later fostered closer ties with the Soviet Union, including extensive economic agreements. However, communist successes encouraged attempts to expand on their position. The communists attempted to replicate their success at Mosul in Kirkuk. A rally was called for 14 July which was intended to intimidate conservative elements. Instead it resulted in widespread bloodshed between ethnic Kurds (who were associated with the ICP at the time) and Iraqi Turkmen, leaving between 31 and 79 people dead.
Despite being largely the result of pre-existing ethnic tensions, the Kirkuk "massacre" was exploited by Iraqi anti-communists and Qasim subsequently purged the communists and in early 1960 he refused to license the ICP as a legitimate political party. Qasim's actions led to a major reduction of communist influence in the Iraqi government. In retrospect, communist influence in Iraq peaked in 1959 and the ICP squandered its best chance of taking power by remaining loyal to Qasim, while his attempts to appease Iraqi nationalists backfired and contributed to his eventual overthrow. For example, Qasim released Salih Mahdi Ammash from custody and reinstated him in the Iraqi army, allowing Ammash to act as the military liaison to the Ba'athist coup plotters. Furthermore, notwithstanding his outwardly friendly posture towards the Kurds, Qasim was unable to grant Kurdistan autonomous status within Iraq, leading to the 1961 outbreak of the First Iraqi–Kurdish War and secret contacts between the Kurdistan Democratic Party (KDP) and Qasim's Ba'athist opponents in 1962 and 1963. The KDP promised not to aid Qasim in the event of a Ba'athist coup, ignoring long-standing Kurdish antipathy towards pan-Arab ideology. Disagreements between Qasim, the ICP and the Kurds thus created a power vacuum that was exploited by a "tiny" group of Iraqi Ba'athists in 1963.
Foreign policy
Qasim had withdrawn Iraq from the pro-Western Baghdad Pact in March 1959 and established friendly relations with the Soviet Union. Iraq also abolished its treaty of mutual security and bilateral relations with the UK. Iraq also withdrew from the agreement with the United States that was signed by the Iraqi monarchy in 1954 and 1955 regarding military, arms, and equipment. On 30 May 1959, the last of the British soldiers and military officers departed the al-Habbāniyya base in Iraq. Qasim supported the Algerian and Palestinian struggles against France and Israel.
Qasim further undermined his rapidly deteriorating domestic position with a series of foreign policy blunders. In 1959 Qasim antagonized Iran with a series of territory disputes, most notably over the Khuzestan region of Iran, which was home to an Arabic-speaking minority, and the division of the Shatt al-Arab waterway between south eastern Iraq and western Iran. On 18 December 1959, Abd al-Karim Qasim declared:
"We do not wish to refer to the history of Arab tribes residing in Al-Ahwaz and Mohammareh (Khurramshahr). The Ottomans handed over Muhammareh, which was part of Iraqi territory, to Iran."
After this, Iraq started supporting secessionist movements in Khuzestan, and even raised the issue of its territorial claims at a subsequent meeting of the Arab League, without success.
In June 1961, Qasim re-ignited the Iraqi claim over the state of Kuwait. On 19 June, he announced in a press conference that Kuwait was a part of Iraq, and claimed its territory. Kuwait, however, had signed a recent defence treaty with the British, who came to Kuwait's assistance with troops to stave off any attack on 1 July. These were subsequently replaced by an Arab force (assembled by the Arab League) in September, where they remained until 1962.
The result of Qasim's foreign policy blunders was to further weaken his position. Iraq was isolated from the Arab world for its part in the Kuwait incident, whilst Iraq had antagonised its powerful neighbour, Iran. Western attitudes toward Qasim had also cooled, due to these incidents and his perceived communist sympathies. Iraq was isolated internationally, and Qasim became increasingly isolated domestically, to his considerable detriment.
Overthrow and execution
After assuming power, Qasim demanded that the Anglo American-owned Iraq Petroleum Company (IPC) sell a 20% ownership stake to the Iraqi government, increase Iraqi oil production, hire Iraqi managers, and cede control of most of its concessionary holding. When the IPC failed to meet these conditions, Qasim issued Public Law 80, which unilaterally limited the IPC's concession to those areas where oil was actually being produced—namely, the fields at Az Zubair and Kirkuk—while all other territories (including North Rumaila) were returned to Iraqi state control. This effectively expropriated 99.5% of the concession. British and US officials and multinationals demanded that the Kennedy administration place pressure on the Qasim regime. The Government of Iraq, under Qasim, along with five petroleum-exporting nations met at a conference held 10–14 September 1960 in Baghdad, which led to the creation of the International Organization of Petroleum-Exporting Countries (OPEC).
Qasim's position was fatally weakened by 1962. His overthrow took place the following year. The perpetrators were the Ba’ath Party. By 1962, it was on the rise as a new group of leaders under the tutelage of began to re-invigorate the party. The Ba'ath Party was now able to plot Qasim's removal.
Qasim was overthrown by the Ba'athist coup of 8 February 1963 known as the Ramadan Revolution. While there have been persistent rumours that the Central Intelligence Agency (CIA) orchestrated the coup, declassified documents and the testimony of former CIA officers indicate there was no direct American involvement, although the CIA was actively seeking to find a suitable replacement for Qasim within the Iraqi military and had been informed of an earlier Ba'athist coup plot by a high-ranking informant within the Party. Despite evidence that the CIA had been closely tracking the Ba'ath Party's coup planning since "at least 1961", the CIA official working with Archie Roosevelt Jr. on a separate plan to instigate a military coup against Qasim, and who later became the head of the CIA's operations in Iraq and Syria, has "denied any involvement in the Ba'ath Party's actions", stating instead that the CIA's efforts against Qasim were still in the planning stages at the time. By contrast, Brandon Wolfe-Hunnicutt states that "Scholars remain divided in their interpretations of American foreign policy toward the February 1963 coup in Iraq," but cites "compelling evidence of an American role in the coup."
Qasim was given a short show trial and was shot soon after. Many of Qasim's Shi'ite supporters believed that he had merely gone into hiding and would appear like the Mahdi to lead a rebellion against the new government. To counter this sentiment and terrorize his supporters, Qasim's dead body was displayed on television in a five minute long propaganda video called The End of the Criminals that included close-up views of his bullet wounds amid disrespectful treatment of his corpse, which is spat on in the final scene. About 100 government loyalists were killed in the fighting as well as between 1,500 and 5,000 civilian supporters of the Qasim administration or the Iraqi Communist Party during the three day "house-to-house search" that immediately followed the coup.
In July 2004, Qasim's body was discovered by a news team associated with Radio Dijlah (Tigris) in Baghdad.
Legacy
The 1958 Revolution can be considered a watershed in Iraqi politics, not just because of its obvious political implications (e.g. the abolition of monarchy, republicanism, and paving the way for Ba'athist rule) but also because of its domestic reforms. Despite its shortcomings, Qasim's rule helped to implement a number of positive domestic changes that benefited Iraqi society and were widely popular, especially the provision of low-cost housing to the inhabitants of Baghdad's urban slums. While criticizing Qasim's "irrational and capricious behaviour" and "extraordinarily quixotic attempt to annex Kuwait in the summer of 1961", actions that raised "serious doubts about his sanity", Marion Farouk–Sluglett and Peter Sluglett conclude that, "Qasim's failings, serious as they were, can scarcely be discussed in the same terms as the venality, savagery and wanton brutality characteristic of the regimes which followed his own". Despite upholding death sentences against those involved in the 1959 Mosul uprising, Qasim also demonstrated "considerable magnanimity towards those who had sought at various times to overthrow him", including through large amnesties "in October and November 1961". Furthermore, not even Qasim's harshest critics could paint him as corrupt.
Land reform
The revolution brought about sweeping changes in the Iraqi agrarian sector. Reformers dismantled the old feudal structure of rural Iraq. For example, the 1933 Law of Rights and Duties of Cultivators and the Tribal Disputes Code were replaced, benefiting Iraq's peasant population and ensuring a fairer process of law. The Agrarian Reform Law (30 September 1958) attempted a large-scale redistribution of landholdings and placed ceilings on ground rents; the land was more evenly distributed among peasants who, due to the new rent laws, received around 55% to 70% of their crop. While "inadequate" and allowing for "fairly generous" large holdings, the land reform was successful at reducing the political influence of powerful landowners, who under the Hashemite monarchy had wielded significant power.
Women's rights
Qasim attempted to bring about greater equality for women in Iraq. In December 1959 he promulgated a significant revision of the personal status code, particularly that regulating family relations. Polygamy was outlawed, and minimum ages for marriage were also set out, with 18 being the minimum age (except for special dispensation when it could be lowered by the court to 16). Women were also protected from arbitrary divorce. The most revolutionary reform was a provision in Article 74 giving women equal rights in matters of inheritance. The laws applied to Sunni and Shi’a alike. The laws encountered much opposition and did not survive Qasim's government.
Social reform
Education was greatly expanded under the Qasim regime. The education budget was raised from approximately 13 million dinars in 1958 to 24 million dinars in 1960 and school enrolments increased. Attempts were also made in 1959 and 1961 to introduce economic planning to benefit social welfare and investment in housing, healthcare and education, whilst reforming the agrarian Iraqi economy along an industrial model. However, these changes were not truly implemented before Qasim's removal.
Notes
References
Bibliography
External links
Qasim, Abd al-Karim (1959). "Principles of 14th July revolution; a few collections of the epoch-making speeches delivered on some auspicious and historical occasions after the blessed, peaceful and miraculous revolution of July 14, 1958", Baghdad; Times Press.
Christopher Solomon, 60 years after Iraq’s 1958 July 14 Revolution, Gulf International Forum, August 9, 2018
Prime Ministers of Iraq
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Iraqi nationalists
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Leaders ousted by a coup
Executed prime ministers
People from Baghdad
Iraqi Muslims
Iraqi generals
Articles containing video clips
Executed Iraqi people
People executed by Iraq by firing squad
20th-century executions by Iraq | [
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229435 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ethiopian%20Orthodox%20Tewahedo%20Church | Ethiopian Orthodox Tewahedo Church | The Ethiopian Orthodox Tewahedo Church (, Yäityop'ya ortodoks täwahedo bétäkrestyan) is the largest Oriental Orthodox church. One of the few Christian churches in sub-Saharan Africa originating before European colonization of the continent, the Ethiopian Orthodox Tewahedo Church dates back centuries, and has a current membership of about 36 million people, the majority of whom live in Ethiopia. It is a founding member of the World Council of Churches. The Ethiopian Orthodox Tewahedo Church is in communion with the other Oriental Orthodox churches (the Eritrean Orthodox Tewahedo Church, the Coptic Orthodox Church of Alexandria, the Malankara Orthodox Syrian Church, the Armenian Apostolic Church and the Syriac Orthodox Church).
The Ethiopian Orthodox Tewahedo Church had been administratively part of the Coptic Orthodox Church of Alexandria from the first half of the 4th century until 1959, when it was granted autocephaly with its own patriarch by Saint Pope Cyril VI of Alexandria, Pope of the Coptic Orthodox Church of Alexandria.
Tewahedo (Geʽez: ተዋሕዶ) is a Geʽez word meaning "united as one". This word refers to the Oriental Orthodox belief in the one perfectly unified nature of Christ; i.e., a complete union of the divine and human natures into one nature is self-evident in order to accomplish the divine salvation of mankind, as opposed to the "two natures of Christ" belief commonly held by the Latin and Eastern Catholic, Eastern Orthodox, Anglican, Lutheran and most other Protestant churches. The Oriental Orthodox Churches adhere to a miaphysitic Christological view followed by Cyril of Alexandria, the leading protagonist in the Christological debates of the 4th and 5th centuries, who advocated mia physis tou theou logou sesarkōmenē, or "one (mia) nature of the Word of God incarnate" (μία φύσις τοῦ θεοῦ λόγου σεσαρκωμένη) and a hypostatic union (ἕνωσις καθ' ὑπόστασιν, henōsis kath hypostasin). The distinction of this stance was that the incarnate Christ has one nature, but that one nature is of the two natures, divine and human, and retains all the characteristics of both after the union.
Miaphysitism holds that in the one person of Jesus Christ, divinity and humanity are united in one (μία, mia) nature (φύσις - "physis") without separation, without confusion, without alteration and without mixing where Christ is consubstantial with God the Father. Around 500 bishops within the patriarchates of Alexandria, Antioch and Jerusalem refused to accept the dyophysitism (two natures) doctrine decreed by the Council of Chalcedon in 451, an incident that resulted in the second major split in the main body of the state church of the Roman Empire.
Name
Tewahedo ( täwaḥədo) is a Ge'ez word meaning "being made one" or "unified". This word refers to the Oriental Orthodox belief in the one composite unified nature of Christ; i.e., a belief that a complete, natural union of the divine and human natures into one is self-evident in order to accomplish the divine salvation of humankind. This is in contrast to the "two natures of Christ" belief (unmixed, but unseparated divine and human natures, called the hypostatic union) which is held by the Catholic Church and the Eastern Orthodox Church.
The Oriental Orthodox Churches are known as "non-Chalcedonian", and, sometimes by outsiders as "monophysite" (meaning "One Single Nature", in allusion to Jesus Christ). However, these churches themselves describe their Christology as miaphysite, meaning "one united nature" in reference to Jesus (the Greek equivalent of "Tewahedo").
History
Origins
Many traditions claim that Christian teachings were introduced to the region immediately after Pentecost. John Chrysostom speaks of the "Ethiopians present in Jerusalem" as being able to understand the preaching of Saint Peter in Acts, 2:38. Possible missions of some of the Apostles in the lands now called Ethiopia is also reported as early as the 4th century. Socrates of Constantinople includes Ethiopia in his list as one of the regions preached by Matthew the Apostle, where a specific mention of "Ethiopia south of the Caspian Sea" can be confirmed in some traditions such as the Roman Catholic Church among others. Ethiopian Church tradition tells that Bartholomew accompanied Matthew in a mission which lasted for at least three months. Paintings depicting these missions are available in the Church of St. Matthew found in the Province of Pisa, in northern Italy portrayed by Francesco Trevisan (1650–1740) and Marco Benefial (1688–1764).
The earliest account of an Ethiopian converted to the faith in the New Testament books is a royal official baptized by Philip the Evangelist (distinct from Philip the Apostle), one of the seven deacons (Acts, 8:26–27):
The passage continues by describing how Philip helped the Ethiopian treasurer understand a passage from the Book of Isaiah that the Ethiopian was reading. After Philip interpreted the passage as prophecy referring to Jesus Christ, the Ethiopian requested that Philip baptize him, and Philip did so. The Ethiopic version of this verse reads "Hendeke" (ህንደኬ); Queen Gersamot Hendeke VII was the Queen of Ethiopia from c. 42 to 52. Where the possibility of gospel missions by the Ethiopian eunuch cannot be directly inferred from the Books of the New Testament, Irenaeus of Lyons around 180 AD writes that "Simon Backos" preached the good news in his homeland outlining also the theme of his preaching as being the coming in flesh of God that "was preached to you all before." The same kind of witness is shared by 3rd and 4th century writers such as Eusebius of Caesarea and Origen of Alexandria.
Early Christianity became the established church of the Ethiopian Axumite Kingdom under king Ezana in the 4th century when priesthood and the sacraments were brought for the first time through a Syrian Greek named Frumentius, known by the local population in Ethiopia as "Selama, Kesaté Birhan" ("Father of Peace, Revealer of Light"). As a youth, Frumentius had been shipwrecked with his brother Aedesius on the Eritrean coast. The brothers managed to be brought to the royal court, where they rose to positions of influence and baptized Emperor Ezana. Frumentius is also believed to have established the first monastery in Ethiopia, named Dabba Selama after him. In 2016, scientists excavated a 4th-century AD basilica (radio-carbon dated) in northeastern Ethiopia at a site called Beta Samati. This is the earliest known physical evidence of a church in sub-Saharan Africa.
Middle Ages
Union with the Coptic Orthodox Church of Alexandria continued after the Arab conquest of Egypt. Abu Saleh records in the 12th century that the patriarch always sent letters twice a year to the kings of Abyssinia (Ethiopia) and Nubia, until Al Hakim stopped the practice. Cyril, 67th patriarch, sent Severus as bishop, with orders to put down polygamy and to enforce the observance of canonical consecration for all churches. These examples show the close relations of the two churches throughout the Middle Ages. In 1439, in the reign of Zara Yaqob, a religious discussion between Giyorgis and a French visitor led to the dispatch of an embassy from Ethiopia to the Vatican.
Jesuit interim
The period of Jesuit influence, which broke the connection with Egypt, began a new chapter in church history. The initiative in Roman Catholic missions to Ethiopia was taken, not by Rome, but by Portugal, in the course of a conflict with the Muslim Ottoman Empire and the Sultanate of Adal for the command of the trade route to India via the Red Sea.
In 1507 Mateus, or Matthew, an Armenian, had been sent as an Ethiopian envoy to Portugal. In 1520 an embassy under Dom Rodrigo de Lima landed in Ethiopia. An interesting account of the Portuguese mission, which lasted for several years, was written by Francisco Álvares, its chaplain.
Later, Ignatius Loyola wished to take up the task of conversion, but was forbidden to do so. Instead, the pope sent out João Nunes Barreto as patriarch of the East Indies, with Andre de Oviedo as bishop; and from Goa envoys went to Ethiopia, followed by Oviedo himself, to secure the king's adherence to Rome. After repeated failures some measure of success was achieved under Emperor Susenyos I, but not until 1624 did the Emperor make formal submission to the pope. Susenyos made Roman Catholicism the official state religion but was met with heavy resistance by his subjects and by the authorities of the Ethiopian Orthodox Church, and eventually had to abdicate in 1632 in favour of his son, Fasilides, who promptly restored Ethiopian Orthodox Christianity as the state religion. He then in 1633 expelled the Jesuits, and in 1665 Fasilides ordered that all Jesuit books (the Books of the Franks) be burned.
Influence on the Reformation
David Daniels has suggested that the Ethiopian Church has had a stronger impact on the Reformation than most scholars acknowledge. For Martin Luther, who spearheaded the Reformation, Daniels says "the Ethiopian Church conferred legitimacy on Luther's emerging Protestant vision of a church outside the authority of the Roman Catholic papacy" as it was "an ancient church with direct ties to the apostles". According to Daniels, Martin Luther saw that the Ethiopian Orthodox Church practiced elements of faith including "communion in both kind, vernacular Scriptures, and married clergy" and these practices became customary in the Lutheran churches. The Ethiopian church also rejected papal supremacy, purgatory and indulgences, which the Lutherans disagreed with, and thus for Luther, the Ethiopian church was the "true forerunner of Protestantism". Luther belived that the Ethiopian church kept true apostolic practices which the Lutherans would adopt through reading the scriptures.
Luther made many positive statements about Ethiopian Christianity, such as "For the Ethiopians denote those who have the ardent faith" and "But the church is symbolized and called by the name ‘Ethiopia’".
In 1534, a cleric of the Ethiopian Orthodox Church, Michael the Deacon, met with Martin Luther and affirmed the Augsburg Confession as a "good creed". In addition, Martin Luther stated that the Lutheran Mass agreed with that used by the Ethiopian Orthodox Church. As a result, the Lutheran churches extended fellowship with the Ethiopian Orthodox Church.
Recent history
In more modern times, the Ethiopian Church has experienced a series of developments. The 19th century witnessed the publication of an Amharic translation of the Bible. Largely the work of Abu Rumi over ten years in Cairo, this version, with some changes, held sway until Emperor Haile Selassie ordered a new translation which appeared in 1960/1. Haile Selassie also played a prominent role in further reforms of the church, which included encouraging the distribution of Abu Rumi's translation throughout Ethiopia, as well as his promotion of improved education of clergy, a significant step in the Emperor's effort being the founding of the Theological College of the Holy Trinity Church in December 1944. A third development came after Haile Selassie's restoration to Ethiopia, when he issued, on 30 November, Decree Number 2 of 1942, a new law reforming the church. The primary objectives of this decree were to put the finances of the church in order, to create a central fund for its activities, and to set forth requirements for the appointment of clergy—which had been fairly lax until then.
The Coptic and Ethiopian churches reached an agreement on 13 July 1948, that led to autocephaly for the Ethiopian Church. Five bishops were immediately consecrated by the Coptic Pope of Alexandria and Patriarch of All Africa, empowered to elect a new patriarch for their church, and the successor to Qerellos IV would have the power to consecrate new bishops. This promotion was completed when Coptic Orthodox Pope Joseph II consecrated an Ethiopian-born Archbishop, Abuna Basilios, 14 January 1951. Then in 1959, Pope Cyril VI of Alexandria crowned Basilios as the first Patriarch of Ethiopia.
Basilios died in 1971, and was succeeded that year by Tewophilos. With the fall of Emperor Haile Selassie in 1974, the Ethiopian Orthodox Tewahedo Church was disestablished as the state church. The new Marxist government began nationalizing property (including land) owned by the church. Tewophilos was arrested in 1976 by the Marxist Derg military junta, and secretly executed in 1979. The government ordered the church to elect a new Patriarch, and Takla Haymanot was enthroned. The Coptic Orthodox Church refused to recognize the election and enthronement of Tekle Haymanot on the grounds that the Synod of the Ethiopian Church had not removed Tewophilos and that the government had not publicly acknowledged his death, and he was thus still the legitimate Patriarch of Ethiopia. Formal relations between the two churches were halted, although they remained in communion with each other. Formal relations between the two churches resumed on July 13, 2007.
Tekle Haymanot proved to be much less accommodating to the Derg regime than it had expected, and so when the patriarch died in 1988, a new patriarch with closer ties to the regime was sought. The Archbishop of Gondar, a member of the Derg-era Ethiopian Parliament, was elected and enthroned as Abuna Merkorios. Following the fall of the Derg regime in 1991, and the coming to power of the EPRDF government, Merkorios abdicated under public and governmental pressure. The church then elected a new Patriarch, Paulos, who was recognized by the Coptic Orthodox Pope of Alexandria. The former Merkorios then fled abroad, and announced from exile that his abdication had been made under duress and thus he was still the legitimate Patriarch of Ethiopia. Several bishops also went into exile and formed a break-away alternate synod.
As of 2005, there are many Ethiopian Orthodox churches located throughout the United States and other countries to which Ethiopians have migrated (Archbishop Yesehaq 1997). The Church claims about 36 million members in Ethiopia, forming 43.5% the country's population.
Paulos died on 16 August 2012, followed four days later by Prime Minister Meles Zenawi. On 28 February 2013, a college of electors assembled in Addis Ababa and elected Mathias to be the 6th Patriarch of the Ethiopian Orthodox Church.
On 25 July 2018, delegates from the Patriarchate in Addis Ababa, Ethiopia and those in the United States, declared reunification in Washington, D.C. with the assistance of Ethiopia's Prime Minister Abiy Ahmed. Declaring the end of a 26-year-old schism, the church announced that it acknowledges two Patriarchs, Merkorios, Fourth Patriarch of Ethiopia and Mathias I, Sixth Patriarch and Catholicos of Ethiopia, Archbishop of Axum and Ichege of the See of Saint Taklehaimanot.
Traditions
The faith and practice of Orthodox Ethiopian Christians include elements from Miaphysite Christianity as it has developed in Ethiopia over the centuries. Christian beliefs include belief in God (in Ge'ez / Amharic, ′Egziabeher, lit. "Lord of the Universe"), veneration to the Virgin Mary, the angels, and the saints, besides others. According to the Ethiopian Orthodox Church itself, there are no non-Christian elements in the religion other than those from the Old Testament, or Higge 'Orit (ሕገ ኦሪት), to which are added those from the New Testament, or Higge Wongiel (ሕገ ወንጌል). A hierarchy of Kidusan/ቅዱሳን (angelic messengers and saints) conveys the prayers of the faithful to God and carries out the divine will, so when an Ethiopian Christian is in difficulty, he or she appeals to them as well as to God. In more formal and regular rituals, priests communicate on behalf of the community, and only priests may enter the inner sanctum of the usually circular or octagonal church where the tabot ("ark") dedicated to the church's patron saint is housed. On important religious holidays, the tabot is carried on the head of a priest and escorted in procession outside the church. It is the tabot, not the church, which is consecrated. At many services, most parish members remain in the outer ring, where debteras sing hymns and dance.
The Eucharist is given only to those who feel pure, have fasted regularly, and have, in general, properly conducted themselves. In practice, communion is mainly limited to young children and the elderly; those who are at a sexually active age or who have sexual desires generally do not receive the Eucharist. Worshipers receiving communion may enter the middle ring of the church to do so.
Ethiopian Orthodox believers are strict Trinitarians, maintaining the Orthodox teaching that God is united in three persons: Father, Son, and Holy Spirit. This concept is known as səllasé (ሥላሴ), Ge'ez for "Trinity".
Daily services constitute only a small part of an Ethiopian Orthodox Christian's religious observance. Several holy days require prolonged services, singing and dancing, and feasting.
Fast days
An important religious requirement, however, is the keeping of fast days, during which adherents abstain from consuming meat and animal products, and refrain from sexual activity. The Ethiopian Orthodox Church has 250 fasting days, 180 of which are obligatory for laypeople, not just monks and priests, when vegan food is eaten by the faithful. During the 40-day Advent fast, only one vegan meal is allowed per day.
Fast for Hudadi or Abiye Tsome [ሁዳዴ/ዓብይ ጾም] (Great Lent), 55 days prior to Easter (Fasika). This fast is divided into three separate periods: Tsome Hirkal (ጾመ ህርቃል), eight days commemorating an early Christian figure; Tsome Arba (ጾመ አርባ), forty days of Lent; and Tsome Himamat (ጾመ ሕማማት), seven days commemorating Holy Week.
Fast of the Apostles, 10–40 days, which the Apostles kept after they had received the Holy Spirit. It begins after Pentecost.
The fast Tsome Dihnet (ጾመ ድህነት), which is on Wednesdays in commemoration of the plot organized to kill Jesus Christ by Caiaphas and the members of the house of the high priest and Fridays in commemoration of the Crucifixion of Jesus Christ (starts on Wednesday after Pentecost and spans up to Easter, in other words all Wednesdays and Fridays except during 50 days after Easter).
The fast of Dormition, 16 days.
The fast preceding Christmas, 40 days (Advent). It begins with Sibket on 15th Hedar and ends on Christmas Eve with the feast of Gena and the 29th of Tahsas and 28th if the year is preceded by leap year.
The Fast of Nineveh, commemorating the preaching of Jonah. It comes on Monday, Tuesday and Wednesday of the third week before Lent.
The gahad of Timkat (Epiphany), fast on the eve of Epiphany.
In addition to standard holy days, most Christians observe many saints' days. A man might give a small feast on his personal saint's day. The local voluntary association (called the maheber) connected with each church honours its patron saint with a special service and a feast two or three times a year.
Exorcism
Priests intervene and perform exorcisms on behalf of those believed to be afflicted by demons or buda. According to a 2010 Pew Research Center study, 74% of Christians in Ethiopia report having experienced or witnessed an exorcism. Demon-possessed persons are brought to a church or prayer meeting. Often, when an ill person has not responded to modern medical treatment, the affliction is attributed to demons. Unusual or especially perverse deeds, particularly when performed in public, are symptomatic of a demoniac. Superhuman strength — such as breaking one's bindings, as described in the New Testament accounts — along with glossolalia are observed in the afflicted. Amsalu Geleta, in a modern case study, relates elements that are common to Ethiopian Christian exorcisms:
It includes singing praise and victory songs, reading from the Scripture, prayer and confronting the spirit in the name of Jesus. Dialogue with the spirit is another important part of the exorcism ceremony. It helps the counsellor (exorcist) to know how the spirit was operating in the life of the demoniac. The signs and events mentioned by the spirit are affirmed by the victim after deliverance.
The exorcism is not always successful, and Geleta notes another instance in which the usual methods were unsuccessful, and the demons apparently left the subject at a later time. In any event, "in all cases the spirit is commanded in no other name than the name of Jesus."
Biblical canon
The Orthodox Tewahedo Church Canon contains 81 books. This canon contains the books accepted by other Orthodox Christians.
The Narrower Canon also includes Enoch, Jubilees, and I II III Meqabyan. (These are unrelated to the Greek I, II, III Maccabees with which they are often confused.) The canonical Enoch differs from the editions of the Ge'ez manuscripts in the British Museum and elsewhere (A-Q) used by foreign scholars (OTP), for example in the treatment of the Nephilim of Genesis 6. The current 81-book version, published in 1986, contains the same text as previously published in the Haile Selassie Version of the Bible, only with some minor modifications to the New Testament translation.
Some sources speak of the Broader Canon, which has never been published as a single compilation but is said to include all of the Narrower Canon, as well as additional New Testament books said to have been used by the early church: two Books of the Covenant, four Books of Sinodos, an Epistle of Peter to Clement — also known as "Ethiopic Clement" — and the Ethiopic Didascalia. These may not all bear close resemblance to works with similar titles known in the West. An eight-part Ethiopic version of the history of the Jewish people written by Joseph ben Gorion, known as the 'Pseudo-Josephus', is considered part of the broader canon, though it would be considered an Old Testament work.
Language
The divine services of the Ethiopian Church are celebrated in Geʽez. It has been the liturgical language of the church at least since the arrival of the Nine Saints (Pantelewon, Gerima (Isaac, or Yeshaq), Aftse, Guba, Alef, Yem’ata, Liqanos, and Sehma), who fled persecution by the Byzantine Emperor after the Council of Chalcedon (451). The Greek Septuagint was the version of the Old Testament originally translated into Ge'ez, but later revisions show clear evidence of the use of Hebrew, Syriac and Arabic sources. The first translation into a modern vernacular was done in the 19th century by a man who is usually known as Abu Rumi. Later, Haile Selassie sponsored Amharic translations of the Ge'ez Scriptures during his reign, one before World War II and one afterwards. Sermons today are usually delivered in the local language.
Architecture
There are many monolithic (rock-hewn) churches in Ethiopia, most famously eleven churches at Lalibela. Besides these, two main types of architecture are found—one basilican, the other native. The Church of Our Lady Mary of Zion at Axum is an example of the basilican design, though the early basilicas are nearly all in ruin. These examples show the influence of the architects who, in the 6th century, built the basilicas at Sanʻāʼ and elsewhere in the Arabian Peninsula. There are two forms of native churches: one oblong, traditionally found in Tigray; the other circular, traditionally found in Amhara and Shewa (though either style may be found elsewhere). In both forms, the sanctuary is square and stands clear in the centre, and the arrangements are based on Jewish tradition. Walls and ceilings are adorned with frescoes. A courtyard, circular or rectangular, surrounds the body of the church. Modern Ethiopian churches may incorporate the basilican or native styles and use contemporary construction techniques and materials. In rural areas, the church and outer court are often thatched, with mud-built walls. The church buildings are typically surrounded by a forested area, acting as a reservoir of biodiversity in otherwise de-forested parts of the country.
Ark of the Covenant
The Ethiopian Church claims that one of its churches, Our Lady Mary of Zion, is host to the original Ark of the Covenant that Moses carried with the Israelites during the Exodus. Only one priest is allowed into the building where the Ark is located, ostensibly due to biblical warnings of danger. As a result, international scholars doubt that the original Ark is truly there, although a case has been put forward by several writers including Graham Hancock in his book The Sign and the Seal.
Throughout Ethiopia, Orthodox churches are not considered churches until the local bishop gives them a tabot, a replica of the tablets in the original Ark of the Covenant. The tabot is at least six inches (15 cm) square, and it is made of either alabaster, marble, or wood (see acacia). It is always kept in ornate coverings on the altar. Only priests are allowed to touch the tabot. In an elaborate procession, the tabot is carried around the outside of the church amid joyful song on the feast day of that particular church's namesake. On the great Feast of T'imk'et, known as Epiphany or Theophany in Europe, a group of churches send their tabot to celebrate the occasion at a common location where a pool of water or a river is to be found.
Similarities to Judaism and Islam
The Ethiopian Church places a heavier emphasis on Old Testament teachings than one might find in Eastern Orthodox, Roman Catholic or Protestant churches, and its followers adhere to certain practices that one finds in Orthodox or Conservative Judaism. Ethiopian Christians, like some other Eastern Christians, traditionally follow dietary rules that are similar to Jewish Kashrut, specifically with regard to the slaughter of animals. Similarly, pork is prohibited, though unlike Rabbinical Kashrut, Ethiopian cuisine does mix dairy products with meat, which in turn makes it even closer to Karaite and Islamic dietary laws (see Halal). Women are prohibited from entering the church temple during menses; they are also expected to cover their hair with a large scarf (or shash) while in church, as described in 1 Corinthians, chapter 11. As with Orthodox synagogues, men and women sit separately in the Ethiopian church, with men on the left and women on the right (when facing the altar). (Women covering their heads and separation of the sexes in churches officially is common to some other Christian traditions; it is also the rule in some non-Christian religions, Islam and Orthodox Judaism among them). Ethiopian Orthodox worshipers remove their shoes when entering a church temple, in accordance with Exodus 3:5 (in which Moses, while viewing the burning bush, was commanded to remove his shoes while standing on holy ground). Furthermore, the Ethiopian Orthodox Tewahedo Church upholds Sabbatarianism, observing the seventh-day Sabbath (Saturday), in addition to the Lord's Day (Sunday), although more emphasis, because of the Resurrection of Christ, is laid upon Sunday. The Ethiopian Orthodox Church calls for male circumcision, with near-universal prevalence among Orthodox men in Ethiopia.
Debtera
A debtera is an itinerant lay priest figure trained by the Ethiopian Church as a scribe, cantor, and often as a folk healer, who may also function in roles comparable to a deacon or exorcist. Folklore and legends ascribe the role of magician to the debtera as well.
Patriarch-Catholicoi, archbishops and bishops
Patriarch-Catholicos
Since 1959, when the church was granted autocephaly by Cyril VI, Pope of the Coptic Orthodox Church of Alexandria, an Ethiopian Patriarch-Catholicos of Eritrea also carrying the title of Abuna is the head of the Ethiopian Orthodox Tewahedo Church. The Abuna who is known officially as Patriarch and Catholicos of Ethiopia, Archbishop of Axum and Ichege of the See of Saint Taklahaimanot. the incumbent head of the Ethiopian Orthodox Tewahedo Church is Mathias who acceded to this position on 28 February 2013.
Archbishops and bishops
Ethiopia:
Mathias and Merkorios, Co-Patriarchs and Head of all Archbishops of the Ethiopian Orthodox Tewahedo Church
Canada:
Demetrios, archbishop of Eastern Canada
Mathias, archbishop of Western Canada
Middle East:
Dimetros, Archbishop of the United Arab Emirates and its surrounding areas
Kewestos, Archbishop of Jerusalem
South America:
Thaddaeus, archbishop of the Caribbean and Latin America
United States:
Fanuel, archbishop of Washington, D.C
Markos, archbishop of New York and its surrounding areas.
Philipos, archbishop of Pennsylvania and Head of Eyesus Church in Baltimore
Yaekob, archbishop of Georgia and its surrounding areas (Southeastern States)
Ewesatewos, archbishop of Minnesota and its surrounding areas.
Natnael, archbishop of Colorado and surrounding areas
Selama, archbishop of Ohio
Sawiros, archbishop of Texas
Michael, archbishop of Northern California
Barnabas, archbishop of Southern California
Western Europe:
Yosef, Archbishop of Europe, in Rome.
Eparchies
The current eparchies of the church include:
See also
Abuna
Christianity in Ethiopia
Eritrean Orthodox Tewahedo Church
Ethiopian Catholic Church
Ethiopian chant
Ethiopian Orthodox Church in Exile
List of abunas of Ethiopia
Oriental Orthodox Church
References
Bibliography
Archbishop Yesehaq. 1997. The Ethiopian Tewahedo Church: An Integrally African Church. Winston-Derek Publishers.
Mikre-Sellassie Gebre-Amanuel. 1993. "The Bible and its canon in the Ethiopian Orthodox Church." The Bible Translator 44/1:111-123.
External links
Divine Liturgy of the Ethiopian Orthodox Church
Ethiopian Religions – Christianity, Islam, Judaism & Paganism
Ethiopian Orthodox Tewahedo Church (Ethiopian Orthodox Tewahedo Church -the oldest site)
CNEWA article by Ronald Roberson: Ethiopian Orthodox Tewahedo Church
Historical Evolution of Ethiopian Anaphoras
Abbink, J. A Bibliography on Christianity in Ethiopia. Leiden: African Studies Centre, 2003 (PDF)
An Introduction To Ethiopic Christian Literature BY J. M. Harden, Canon of Saint Patrick's, Dublin, 1926
Members of the World Council of Churches | [
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229436 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tropospheric%20scatter | Tropospheric scatter | Tropospheric scatter, also known as troposcatter, is a method of communicating with microwave radio signals over considerable distances – often up to and further depending on frequency of operation, equipment type, terrain, and climate factors. This method of propagation uses the tropospheric scatter phenomenon, where radio waves at UHF and SHF frequencies are randomly scattered as they pass through the upper layers of the troposphere. Radio signals are transmitted in a narrow beam aimed just above the horizon in the direction of the receiver station. As the signals pass through the troposphere, some of the energy is scattered back toward the Earth, allowing the receiver station to pick up the signal.
Normally, signals in the microwave frequency range travel in straight lines, and so are limited to line-of-sight applications, in which the receiver can be 'seen' by the transmitter. Communication distances are limited by the visual horizon to around . Troposcatter allows microwave communication beyond the horizon. It was developed in the 1950s and used for military communications until communications satellites largely replaced it in the 1970s.
Because the troposphere is turbulent and has a high proportion of moisture, the tropospheric scatter radio signals are refracted and consequently only a tiny proportion of the transmitted radio energy is collected by the receiving antennas. Frequencies of transmission around are best suited for tropospheric scatter systems as at this frequency the wavelength of the signal interacts well with the moist, turbulent areas of the troposphere, improving signal to noise ratios.
Overview
Discovery
Previous to World War II, prevailing radio physics theory predicted a relationship between frequency and diffraction that suggested radio signals would follow the curvature of the Earth, but that the strength of the effect would fall off rapidly and especially at higher frequencies. However, during the war, there were numerous incidents in which high-frequency radar signals were able to detect targets at ranges far beyond the theoretical calculations. In spite of these repeated instances of anomalous range, the matter was never seriously studied.
In the immediate post-war era, the limitation on television construction was lifted in the United States and millions of sets were sold. This drove an equally rapid expansion of new television stations. Based on the same calculations used during the war, the Federal Communications Commission (FCC) arranged frequency allocations for the new VHF and UHF channels to avoid interference between stations. To everyone's surprise, interference was common, even between widely separated stations. As a result, licenses for new stations were put on hold in what is known as the "television freeze" of 1948.
Bell Labs was among the many organizations that began studying this effect, and concluded it was a previously unknown type of reflection off the tropopause. This was limited to higher frequencies, in the UHF and microwave bands, which is why it had not been seen prior to the war when these frequencies were beyond the ability of existing electronics. Although the vast majority of the signal went through the troposphere and on to space, the tiny amount that was reflected was useful if combined with powerful transmitters and very sensitive receivers. In 1952, Bell began experiments with Lincoln Labs, the MIT-affiliated radar research lab. Using Lincoln's powerful microwave transmitters and Bell's sensitive receivers, they built several experimental systems to test a variety of frequencies and weather effects. When Bell Canada heard of the system they felt it might be useful for a new communications network in Labrador and took one of the systems there for cold weather testing.
In 1954 the results from both test series were complete and construction began on the first troposcatter system, the Pole Vault system that linked Pinetree Line radar systems along the coast of Labrador. Using troposcatter reduced the number of stations from 50 microwave relays scatted through the wilderness to only 10, all located at the radar stations. In spite of their higher unit costs, the new network cost half as much to build as a relay system. Pole Vault was quickly followed by similar systems like White Alice, relays on the Mid-Canada Line and the DEW Line, and during the 1960s, across the Atlantic Ocean and Europe as part of NATO's ACE High system.
Use
The propagation losses are very high; only about one trillionth () of the transmit power is available at the receiver. This demands the use of antennas with extremely large antenna gain. The original Pole Vault system used large parabolic reflector dish antennas, but these were soon replaced by billboard antennas which were somewhat more robust, an important quality given that these systems were often found in harsh locales. Paths were established at distances over . They required antennas ranging from and amplifiers ranging from to . These were analogue systems which were capable of transmitting a few voice channels.
Troposcatter systems have evolved over the years. With communication satellites used for long-distance communication links, current troposcatter systems are employed over shorter distances than previous systems, use smaller antennas and amplifiers, and have much higher bandwidth capabilities. Typical distances are between , though greater distances can be achieved depending on the climate, terrain, and data rate required. Typical antenna sizes range from while typical amplifier sizes range from to . Data rates over can be achieved with today's technology.
Tropospheric scatter is a fairly secure method of propagation as dish alignment is critical, making it extremely difficult to intercept the signals, especially if transmitted across open water, making them highly attractive to military users. Military systems have tended to be ‘thin-line’ tropo – so called because only a narrow bandwidth ‘information’ channel was carried on the tropo system; generally up to 32 analogue ( bandwidth) channels. Modern military systems are "wideband" as they operate 4-16 Mbit/s digital data channels.
Civilian troposcatter systems, such as the British Telecom (BT) North Sea oil communications network, required higher capacity ‘information’ channels than were available using HF (high frequency – to ) radio signals, before satellite technology was available. The BT systems, based at Scousburgh in the Shetland Islands, Mormond Hill in Aberdeenshire and Row Brow near Scarborough, were capable of transmitting and receiving 156 analogue ( bandwidth) channels of data and telephony to / from North Sea oil production platforms, using frequency-division multiplexing (FDMX) to combine the channels.
Because of the nature of the turbulence in the troposphere, quadruple diversity propagation paths were used to ensure reliability of the service, equating to about 3 minutes of downtime due to propagation drop out per month. The quadruple space and polarisation diversity systems needed two separate dish antennas (spaced several metres apart) and two differently polarised feed horns – one using vertical polarisation, the other using horizontal polarisation. This ensured that at least one signal path was open at any one time. The signals from the four different paths were recombined in the receiver where a phase corrector removed the phase differences of each signal. Phase differences were caused by the different path lengths of each signal from transmitter to receiver. Once phase corrected, the four signals could be combined additively.
Tropospheric scatter communications networks
The tropospheric scatter phenomenon has been used to build both civilian and military communication links in a number of parts of the world, including:
Allied Command Europe Highband (ACE High),
NATO military radiocommunication and early warning system throughout Europe from the Norwegian-Soviet border to the Turkish-Soviet border.
BT (British Telecom),
United Kingdom - Shetland to Mormond Hill
Fernmeldeturm Berlin,
Torfhaus-Berlin, Clenze-Berlin at Cold War times
Portugal Telecom,
Serra de Nogueira (northeastern Portugal) to Artzamendi (southwestern France)
CNCP Telecommunications,
Tsiigehtchic to Galena Hill, Keno City
Hay River - Port Radium - Lady Franklin Point
-
Guanabo to Florida City
Project Offices - AT&T Corporation,
Project Offices is the name sometimes used to refer to several structurally dependable facilities maintained by the ATT Corporation in the Mid-Atlantic states since the mid-th century to house an ongoing, non-public, company project. AT&T began constructing Project Offices in the . Since the inception of the Project Offices program, the company has chosen not to disclose the exact nature of business conducted at Project Offices. However, it has described them as central facilities.
Pittsboro, North Carolina
Buckingham, Virginia
Charlottesville, Virginia
Leesburg, Virginia
Hagerstown, Maryland
Texas Towers - Air defence radars,
The Texas Towers were a set of three radar facilities off the eastern seaboard of the United States which were used for surveillance by the United States Air Force during the Cold War. Modeled on the offshore oil drilling platforms first employed off the Texas coast, they were in operation from 1958 to 1963.
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: left; height: 100px;"
|-
!Tower ID
!Location
!Staffing unit
!Mainland station
!Notes
|-
| TT-1
| Cashes Ledge off New Hampshire coast
|
|
|Not built
|-
| TT-2
| Georges Bank off Cape Cod
| 762d Radar Squadron
| North Truro Air Force Station
|decommissioned 1963
|-
| TT-3
| Nantucket Shoals
| 773d Radar Squadron
| Montauk AFS
|decommissioned 1963
|-
| TT-4
| off Long Beach Island, New Jersey
| 646th Radar Squadron
| Highlands Air Force Station
| collapsed (1961)
|-
| TT-5
| Browns Bank south of Nova Scotia
|
|
| Not built
|}
Mid Canada Line,
A series of five stations (070, 060, 050, 415, 410) in Ontario and Quebec around the lower Hudson Bay.
Pinetree Line, Pole Vault,
A series of fourteen stations providing communications for Eastern seaboard radar stations of the US/Canadian Pinetree line, running from N-31 Frobisher Bay, Baffin Island to St. John's, Newfoundland and Labrador.
White Alice/DEW Line/DEW Training (Cold War era), /
A former military and civil communications network with eighty stations stretching up the western seaboard from Port Hardy, Vancouver Island north to Barter Island (BAR), west to Shemya, Alaska (SYA) in the Aleutian Islands (just a few hundred miles from the Soviet Union) and east across arctic Canada to Greenland. Note that not all station were troposcatter, but many were. It also included a training facility for White Alice/DEW line tropo-scatter network located between Pecatonica, Illinois to Streator, Illinois.
DEW Line (Post Cold War era), /
Several tropo-scatter networks providing communications for the extensive air-defence radar chain in the far north of Canada and the US.
North Atlantic Radio System (NARS),
NATO air-defence network stretching from RAF Fylingdales, via Mormond Hill, UK, Sornfelli (Faroe Islands), Höfn, Iceland to Keflavik DYE-5, Rockville.
European Tropospheric Scatter - Army (ET-A),
A US Army network from RAF Fylingdales to a network in Germany and a single station in France (Maison Fort). The network became active on 1966.
486L Mediterranean Communications System (MEDCOM),
A network covering the European coast of the Mediterranean Sea from San Pablo, Spain in the west to Incirlik Air Base, Turkey in the East, with headquarters at Ringstead in Dorset, England. Commissioned by the US Air Force in .
Royal Air Force,
Communications to British Forces Germany, running from Swingate in Kent to Lammersdorf in Germany.
Troposphären-Nachrichtensystem Bars, Warsaw Pact
A Warsaw Pact tropo-scatter network stretching from near Rostok in the DDR (Deutsches Demokratisches Republik), Czechoslovakia, Hungary, Poland, Byelorussia USSR, Ukraine USSR, Romania and Bulgaria.
TRRL SEVER,
A Soviet network stretching across the USSR.
-
A single section from Srinigar, Kashmir, India to Dangara, Tajikistan, USSR.
Indian Air Force,
Part of an Air Defence Network covering major air bases, radar installations and missile sites in Northern and central India. The network is being phased out to be replaced with more modern fiber-optic based communication systems.
Peace Ruby, Spellout, Peace Net,
An air-defence network set up by the United States prior to the 1979 Islamic Revolution. Spellout built a radar and communications network in the north of Iran. PeaceRuby built another air-defence network in the south and PeaceNet integrated the two networks.
-
A tropo-scatter system linking Al Manamah, Bahrain to Dubai, United Arab Emirates.
Royal Air Force of Oman,
A tropo-scatter communications system providing military comms to the former SOAF - Sultan of Oman's Air Force, (now RAFO - Royal Air Force of Oman), across the Sultanate of Oman.
Royal Saudi Air Force,
A Royal Saudi Air Force tropo-scatter network linking major airbases and population centres in Saudi Arabia.
Yemen,
A single system linking Sana'a with Sa'dah.
BACK PORCH and IWCS,
Two networks run by the United States linking military bases in Thailand and South Vietnam.
Phil-Tai-Oki,
A system linking the Taiwan with the Philippines and Okinawa.
Cable & Wireless Caribbean network
A troposcatter link was established by Cable & Wireless in 1960, linking Barbados with Port of Spain, Trinidad. The network was extended further south to Georgetown, Guyana in 1965.
Japanese Troposcatter Networks,
Two networks linking Japanese islands from North to South.
Tactical Troposcatter Communication systems
As well as the permanent networks detailed above, there have been many tactical transportable systems produced by several countries:
Soviet / Russian Troposcatter Systems
MNIRTI R-423-1 Brig-1/R-423-2A Brig-2A/R-423-1KF
MNIRTI R-444 Eshelon / R-444-7,5 Eshelon D
MNIRTI R-420 Atlet-D
NIRTI R-417 Baget/R-417S Baget S
NPP Radiosvyaz R-412 A/B/F/S TORF
MNIRTI R-410/R-410-5,5/R-410-7,5 Atlet / Albatros
MNIRTI R-408/R-408M Baklan
People's Republic of China (PRoC), People's Liberation Army (PLA) Troposcatter Systems
CETC TS-504 Troposcatter Communication System
CETC TS-510/GS-510 Troposcatter Communication System
Western Troposcatter Systems
AN/TRC-97 Troposcatter Communication System
AN/TRC-170 Tropospheric Scatter Microwave Radio Terminal
AN/GRC-201 Troposcatter Communication System
The U.S. Army and Air Force use tactical tropospheric scatter systems developed by Raytheon for long haul communications. The systems come in two configurations, the original "heavy tropo", and a newer "light tropo" configuration exist. The systems provide four multiplexed group channels and trunk encryption, and 16 or 32 local analog phone extensions. The U.S. Marine Corps also uses the same device, albeit an older version.
See also
Radio propagation
Non-line-of-sight propagation
Microwave
ACE High - Cold war era NATO European troposcatter network
White Alice Communications System - Cold war era Alaskan tropospheric communications link
List of White Alice Communications System sites
TV-FM DX
Distant Early Warning Line
References
Citations
Bibliography
External links
Russian tropospheric relay communication network
Troposcatter communication network maps
Tropospheric Scatter Communications - the essentials
Radio frequency propagation
Atmospheric optical phenomena | [
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229443 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Skip%20distance | Skip distance | A skip distance is the distance a radio wave travels, usually including a hop in the ionosphere. A skip distance is a distance on the Earth's surface between the two points where radio waves from a transmitter, refracted downwards by different layers of the ionosphere, fall. It also represents how far a radio wave has travelled per hop on the Earth's surface, for radio waves such as the short wave (SW) radio signals that employ continuous reflections for transmission.
Propagation Path
Radio waves from a particular transmitting antenna do not all get refracted by a particular layer of the ionosphere; some are absorbed, some refracted while a portion escapes to the next layer. At this higher layer, there is a possibility of this radio wave being bent downwards to earth again. This bending happens because each layer of the ionosphere has a refractive index that varies from that of the others. Because of the differing heights of refraction, or apparent reflection, the radio waves hit the earth surface at different points hence generating the skip distance. Skip distance is greatest during the night when the ionosphere is the highest.
References
External links
Principles of Radio Wave Propagation
Radio Waves and Communications Distance
See also
Maximum usable frequency
Radio | [
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] |
229444 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Birkenau%20%28disambiguation%29 | Birkenau (disambiguation) | Auschwitz II-Birkenau was a Nazi-German extermination camp, near Brzezinka, Poland, within the Auschwitz concentration camp complex during World War II.
Birkenau may also refer to:
Birkenau (Odenwald), a municipality in the Odenwald in southern Hesse in Germany
Brzezinka or Birkenau, a Polish village
See also
Brzezinka (disambiguation) | [
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229445 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Broadcast%20range | Broadcast range | A broadcast range (also listening range or listening area for radio, or viewing range or viewing area for television) is the service area that a broadcast station or other transmission covers via radio waves (or possibly infrared light, which is closely related). It is generally the area in which a station's signal strength is sufficient for most receivers to decode it. However, this also depends on interference from other stations.
Legal definitions
The "primary service area" is the area served by a station's strongest signal. The "city-grade contour" is 70 dBμ (decibels relative to one microvolt per meter of signal strength) or 3.16mV/m (millivolts per meter) for FM stations in the United States, according to Federal Communications Commission (FCC) regulations. This is also significant in broadcast law, in that a station must cover its city of license within this area, except for non-commercial educational and low-power stations.
The legally protected range of a station extends beyond this range, out to the point where signal strength is expected to be 1mV/m for most stations in North America, though for class B1 stations it is 0.7mV/m, and as low as 0.5mV/m for full class B stations (the maximum allowed in densely populated areas of both Canada and the U.S.).
Practical application
In reality, radio propagation changes along with the weather and tropospheric ducting, and occasionally along with other upper-atmospheric phenomena like sunspots and even meteor showers. Thus, while a broadcasting authority might fix the range to an area with exact boundaries (defined as a series of vectors), this is rarely if ever true. When a broadcast reaches well outside of its intended range due to unusual conditions, DXing is possible.
The local terrain can also play a major role in limiting broadcast range. Mountain ranges block FM broadcasts, AM broadcasts, and TV broadcasts, and other signals in the VHF and especially UHF ranges, respectively. This terrain shielding occurs when the line of sight is blocked by something through which the radio waves cannot pass, particularly stone. At times this may be moot due to weather, such as when the tall cumulonimbus clouds of a squall line of thunderstorms reflect the signal over the top, like an extremely tall radio tower. Conversely, heavy rain may attenuate the range of even local stations. ATSC digital television is affected by wind and trees (even if not surrounding the transmitter or receiver locations), apparently related to its use of 8VSB modulation instead of COFDM.
AM broadcasting stations have different issues, due to using the mediumwave band. Broadcast range in these stations is determined by ground conductivity, and the proper use and maintenance of grounding radials which act as a ground plane for the mast radiators used. Skywaves reflect off the ionosphere at a much greater distance above Earth's surface at night. This in turn causes mediumwave, most shortwave, and even longwave stations to travel much further at night, which is the side of the Earth where the solar wind pulls the ionosphere (and magnetosphere) away from the planet, instead of pushing toward it as on the day side. Because of this, many AM stations must cut power or go off-air at night, except for the very earliest stations still grandfathered on clear channels. Border blaster stations in northern Mexico also used this effect, along with very high-power transmitters, to extend their nighttime broadcast ranges well over the US/Mexico border and across most of the United States.
Various broadcast relay stations can help to extend a station's area by retransmitting them on the same or another channel. What is usually called a repeater in amateur radio is called a broadcast translator (different channel) or booster (same channel) in American broadcasting, or the much broader category or rebroadcasters in Canadian broadcasting (which includes more than just the low-power broadcasting used in the U.S.) Boosters are used only within the broadcast range of the parent station, and serve the same function locally as regional and national single-frequency networks do in Europe. Distributed transmission has also undergone tests in the U.S., but to preserve stations' market share in their home media markets, these will be limited to the broadcast area of a single large station. Satellite radio, which is designed for use without a dish, also uses ground repeaters in large cities due to the many obstructions their high-rise buildings cause to the many current and potential customers that are concentrated there.
Edge-of-range issues
Those at the edge of a station's broadcast range will typically notice static in an analog broadcast, while error correction will keep a digital signal clear until it hits the cliff effect and suddenly disappears completely. FM stations may flip back and forth (sometimes annoyingly rapidly when moving) due to the capture effect, while AM stations (including TV video) may overlay or fade with each other.
FM stereo will tend to get static more quickly than the monophonic sound due to its use of subcarriers, so stations may choose to extend the usable part of their range by disabling the stereo generator. Listeners can also choose to disable stereo decoding on the receiver, though loss of the stereo pilot tone causes this to happen automatically. Because this tends to turn on and off when at the threshold of reception, and the threshold is often set too low by the manufacturer's product design, manually disabling this when at the edge of the broadcast range prevents the annoying noisy-stereo/quiet-mono switching.
The same is true of analog TV stereo and second audio programs, and even for color TV, all of which use subcarriers. Radio reading services and other subcarrier services will also tend to suffer from dropouts sooner than the main station.
Technologies are available that allow for switching to a different signal carrying the same radio program when leaving the broadcast range of a station. Radio Data System allows for switching to a different FM or station with the same identifier, or even to (but not necessarily from) an AM station. Satellite radio also is designed to switch seamlessly between repeaters and/or satellite when moving outside the range of one or the other. HD Radio switches back to the analog signal as a fallback when the edge of the digital range is encountered, but the success of this from the listener's perspective depends on how well the station's broadcast engineer has synchronized the two.
Digital versus analog
Digital transmissions require less power to be received clearly than analog ones. The exact figure for various modes depends on how robust the signal is made to begin with, such as modulation, guard interval, and forward error correction. In each of these three factors, the caveat is that a higher data signaling rate means a tradeoff with reduced broadcast range. The hierarchical modulation used on DVB is a unique case, which reduces the range of the full-definition signal, in exchange for an increase in the usable range of the lower-definition part of the video.
Digital stations in North America usually are operated by the same groups as the analog side, and thus operate their own independent facilities. Because of this, the FCC requires U.S. TV stations to replicate their analog coverage with their digital signal as well. However, ATSC digital TV only requires about one-fifth the amount of power to reach the same area on the same channel as analog does. For HD Radio, the figure is only one percent of the station's analog wattage, in part because it is an in-band on-channel method, which uses sidebands that must prevent interference to adjacent channels, especially for older or cheaper receivers which have insufficient sensitivity and/or selectivity.
Broadcast engineering
Broadcast law | [
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229446 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anomalous%20propagation | Anomalous propagation | Anomalous propagation (sometimes shortened to anaprop or anoprop) includes different forms of radio propagation due to an unusual distribution of temperature and humidity with height in the atmosphere. While this includes propagation with larger losses than in a standard atmosphere, in practical applications it is most often meant to refer to cases when signal propagates beyond normal radio horizon.
Anomalous propagation can cause interference to VHF and UHF radio communications if distant stations are using the same frequency as local services. Over-the-air analog television broadcasting, for example, may be disrupted by distant stations on the same channel, or experience distortion of transmitted signals ghosting). Radar systems may produce inaccurate ranges or bearings to distant targets if the radar "beam" is bent by propagation effects. However, radio hobbyists take advantage of these effects in TV and FM DX.
Causes
Air temperature profile
The first assumption of the prediction of propagation of a radio wave is that it is moving through air with temperature that declines at a standard rate with height in the troposphere. This has the effect of slightly bending (refracting) the path toward the Earth, and accounts for an effective range that is slightly greater than the geometric distance to the horizon. Any variation to this stratification of temperatures will modify the path followed by the wave. Changes to the path can be separated into super and under refraction:
Super refraction
It is very common to have temperature inversions forming near the ground, for instance air cooling at night while remaining warm aloft. This happens equally aloft when a warm and dry airmass overrides a cooler one, like in the subsidence aloft cause by a high pressure intensifying. The index of refraction of air increases in both cases and the EM wave bends toward the ground instead of continuing upward.
On surface-base inversion, the beam will eventually hit the ground and a part of it can be reflected back toward the emitter. In upper air inversion, the bending will be limited to the layer involved but the bending will extend the path of the beam, possibly beyond the usual transmission horizon.
Atmospheric duct
When the inversion is very strong and shallow, the EM wave is trapped within the inversion layer. The beam will bounce many times inside the layer as within a waveguide. In surface-based ducting, the beam will hit the ground many times, causing return echoes at regular distances toward the emitter. In elevated ducts, the transmission can be extended to very large distances.
Under refraction
On the other hand, if the air is unstable and cools faster than the standard atmosphere with height, the wave is higher than expected and can miss the intended receiver.
Other causes
Other ways anomalous propagation is recorded is by troposcatters causing irregularities in the troposphere, scattering due to meteors, refraction in the ionized regions and layers of the ionosphere, and reflection from the ionosphere.
Finally, multipath propagation near the Earth's surface has multiple causes, including atmospheric ducting, ionospheric reflection and refraction, and reflection from water bodies and terrestrial objects such as mountains and buildings.
In radio
Anomalous propagation can be a limiting factor for the propagation of radiowaves, especially the super refraction. However, reflection on the ionosphere is a common use of this phenomenon to extend the range of the signal. Other multiple reflections or refractions are more complex to predict but can be still useful.
Radar
The position of the radar echoes depend heavily on the standard decrease of temperature hypothesis. However, the real atmosphere can vary greatly from the norm. Anomalous Propagation (AP) refers to false radar echoes usually observed when calm, stable atmospheric conditions, often associated with super refraction in a temperature inversion, direct the radar beam toward the ground. The processing program will then wrongly place the return echoes at the height and distance it would have been in normal conditions.
This type of false return is relatively easy to spot on a time loop if it is due to night cooling or marine inversion as one sees very strong echoes developing over an area, spreading in size laterally, not moving but varying greatly in intensity with time. After sunrise, the inversion disappears gradually and the area diminishes correspondingly. Inversion of temperature exists too ahead of warm fronts, and around thunderstorms' cold pool. Since precipitation exists in those circumstances, the abnormal propagation echoes are then mixed with real rain and/or targets of interest, which make them more difficult to separate.
Anomalous Propagation is different from ground clutter, ocean reflections (sea clutter), biological returns from birds and insects, debris, chaff, sand storms, volcanic eruption plumes, and other non-precipitation meteorological phenomena. Ground and sea clutters are permanent reflection from fixed areas on the surface with stable reflective characteristics. Biological scatterer gives weak echoes over a large surface. These can vary in size with time but not much in intensity. Debris and chaff are transient and move in height with time. They are all indicating something actually there and either relevant to the radar operator and/or readily explicable and theoretically able to be reproduced. AP in the sense of radar is colloquially known as "garbish" and ground clutter as "rubbage".
Doppler radars and Pulse-Doppler radars are extracting the velocities of the targets. Since AP comes from stable targets, it is possible to subtract the reflectivity data having a null speed and clean the radar images. Ground, sea clutter and the energy spike from the sun setting can be distinguished the same way but not other artifacts. This method is used in most modern radars, including air traffic control and weather radars.
See also
Non-line-of-sight propagation
Wave propagation
Notes
Radio frequency propagation
Radar signal processing
Radar meteorology | [
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229447 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Armenian%20Apostolic%20Church | Armenian Apostolic Church | The Armenian Apostolic Church () is the national church of the Armenian people. Part of Oriental Orthodoxy, it is one of the most ancient Christian institutions. The Kingdom of Armenia was the first state to adopt Christianity as its official religion under the rule of King Tiridates III of the Arsacid dynasty in the early 4th century. According to tradition, the church originated in the missions of Apostles Bartholomew and Thaddeus of Edessa in the 1st century.
It is sometimes referred to as the Armenian Orthodox Church or the Armenian Gregorian Church. The term Gregorian Church is an exonym not preferred by the church itself, as it views the apostles Bartholomew and Thaddeus as its founders, St. Gregory the Illuminator was merely the first official primate of the church. It is also known simply as the Armenian Church.
History
Origins
The Armenian Orthodox Church believes in apostolic succession through the apostles Bartholomew and Thaddeus of Edessa. According to tradition, the latter of the two apostles is said to have cured Abgar V of Edessa of leprosy with the Image of Edessa, leading to his conversion in 30 AD. Thaddaeus was then commissioned by Abgar to proselytize throughout Armenia, where he converted the king Sanatruk's daughter, who was eventually martyred alongside Thaddeus when Sanatruk later fell into apostasy. After this, Bartholomew came to Armenia, bringing a portrait of the Virgin Mary, which he placed in a nunnery he founded over a former temple of Anahit. Bartholomew then converted the sister of Sanatruk, who once again martyred a female relative and the apostle who converted her. Both apostles ordained native bishops before their execution, and some other Armenians had been ordained outside of Armenia by James the Just. Scholars including Bart Ehrman, Han Drijvers, and W. Bauer dismiss the conversion of Abgar V as fiction.
According to Eusebius and Tertullian, Armenian Christians were persecuted by kings Axidares, Khosrov I, and Tiridates III, the last of whom was converted to Christianity by Gregory the Illuminator. Ancient Armenia's adoption of Christianity as a state religion (the first state to do so) has been referred to by Nina Garsoïan as "probably the most crucial step in its history." This conversion distinguished it from its Iranian and Mazdean roots and protected it from further Parthian influence. According to Mary Boyce, the acceptance of Christianity by the Arsacid-Armenian rulers was partly in defiance of the Sassanids.
When King Tiridates III made Christianity the state religion of Armenia between 301 and 314, it was not an entirely new religion there. It had penetrated the country from at least the third century, and may have been present even earlier.
Tiridates declared Gregory to be the first Catholicos of the Armenian Orthodox Church and sent him to Caesarea to be consecrated. Upon his return, Gregory tore down shrines to idols, built churches and monasteries, and ordained many priests and bishops. While meditating in the old capital city of Vagharshapat, Gregory had a vision of Christ descending to the earth and striking it with a hammer. From that spot arose a great Christian temple with a huge cross. He was convinced that God intended him to build the main Armenian church there. With the king's help he did so in accordance with his vision, renaming the city Etchmiadzin, which means "the place of the descent of the Only-Begotten".
Initially, the Armenian Orthodox Church participated in the larger Christian world and was subordinated to the Bishop of Caesarea. Its Catholicos was represented at the First Council of Nicea (325). St. Vrtanes I the third Catholicos of the Armenian Apostolic Church through (333–341 AD), sent a letter with specific questions to Macarius of Jerusalem who was the Greek Orthodox Bishop of Jerusalem from (312-335, or 336 AD) sent to Jerusalem by a delegation of Armenian priests on the occasion of the Encaenia, in dedication of the Church of the Holy Sepulcher in Jerusalem in September 335 AD. In Macarius's letter to the Armenians in 335 AD, it seeks to correct irregularities in the initiation rites of Baptism and the Eucharist currently in use in the Armenian Church by articulating present practices in Jerusalem. In so doing, it reveals the divergent forms being practiced in Armenia, which have strong echoes of old East Syriac Rite. Orthopraxy was conceived by Vrtanes and his Armenian colleagues in terms of liturgical performance in Jerusalem. In 353, King Papas (Pap) appointed Catholicos Husik without first sending him to Caesarea for commissioning. Its Catholicos was still represented at the First Council of Constantinople (381).
As Gregory was consecrated by the bishop of Caesarea, he also accepted the Byzantine Rite. However, the Armenian Church, due to the influence of the Church in Edessa, the large presence of Syriacs in Armenia, as well as the number of Syriac priests that arrived in Armenia with Gregory, also cultivated the West Syriac Rite (Antiochian Rite). Since Armenians at the time didn't have an alphabet, its clergy learned Greek and Syriac language. From this synthesis, the new Armenian Rite came about, which had similarities both with the Byzantine and the Antiochian Syriac rite.
Christianity was strengthened in Armenia in the 5th century by the translation of the Bible into the Armenian language by the native theologian, monk, and scholar, Saint Mesrop Mashtots. Before the 5th century, Armenians had a spoken language, but it was not written. Thus, the Bible and Liturgy were written in Greek or Syriac rather than Armenian. The Catholicos Sahak commissioned Mesrop to create the Armenian alphabet, which he completed in 406. Subsequently, the Bible and Liturgy were translated into Armenian and written in the new script. The translation of the Bible, along with works of history, literature and philosophy, caused a flowering of Armenian literature and a broader cultural renaissance.
Although unable to attend the Council of Ephesus (431), Catholicos Isaac Parthiev sent a message agreeing with its decisions. However, non doctrinal elements in the Council of Chalcedon (451) caused certain problems to arise.
Independence
Monophysitism spread from Syria to Armenia, from where it arrived to Georgia and Caucasian Albania.
At the First Council of Dvin in 506 the synod of the Armenian, Georgian, and Caucasian Albanian bishops were assembled during the reign of Catholicos Babken I. The participation of the Catholicoi of Georgia and Albania were set to make clear the position of the churches concerning the Council of Chalcedon. The "Book of Epistles" mentions that 20 bishops, 14 laymen, and many nakharars (rulers of Armenia) participated in the council. The involvement in the council discussion of different levels of lay persons seemed to be a general rule in Armenia.
Almost a century later (609–610) the 3rd Council of Dvin was convened during the reign of Catholicos Abraham I of Aghbatank and Prince Smbat Bagratuni, with clergymen and laymen participating. The Georgian Church disagreed with the Armenian Church, having approved the christology of Chalcedon. This council was convened to clarify the relationship between the Armenian and Georgian churches. After the Council, Catholicos Abraham wrote an encyclical letter addressed to the people, blaming Kurion and his adherents for the schism. The Council never set up canons; it only deprived Georgians from taking Communion in the Armenian Church. Despite this, the Albanian Church remained under the jurisdiction of the Armenian Church while in communion with the Georgian Church.
Miaphysitism versus monophysitism
Like all Oriental Orthodox Churches, the Armenian Church has been referred to as monophysite by both Roman Catholic and Eastern Orthodox theologians because it rejected the decisions of the Council of Chalcedon, which condemned the belief of one incarnate nature of Christ (monophysis). The Armenian Church officially severed ties with Rome and Constantinople in 554, during the Second Council of Dvin where the Chalcedonian dyophysite christological formula was rejected.
However, again like other Oriental Orthodox Churches, the Armenian Orthodox Church argues that the identification as "monophysitism" is an incorrect description of its position. It considers Monophysitism, as taught by Eutyches and condemned at Chalcedon, a heresy and only disagrees with the formula defined by the Council of Chalcedon. The Armenian Church instead adheres to the doctrine defined by Cyril of Alexandria, considered as a saint by the Chalcedonian churches as well, who described Christ as being of one incarnate nature, where both divine and human nature are united (miaphysis). To distinguish this from Eutychian and other versions of Monophysitism this position is called miaphysitism. Whereas the prefix "mono-" (< Greek μονο- < μόνος) means "single, alone, only", thus emphasising the singular nature of Christ, "mia" (μία "one" FEM), simply means "one" unemphatically, and allows for a compound nature.
In recent times, both Chalcedonian and non-Chalcedonian churches have developed a deeper understanding for each other's positions, recognizing their substantial agreement while maintaining their respective positions.
Structure and leadership
The Armenian Apostolic Church is the central religious authority for the Armenian Orthodox population in Armenia as well as for Armenian Orthodox communities worldwide.
It is headed by a Catholicos (the plural is Catholicoi). It is traditional in Eastern churches for the supreme head of the church to be named 'Patriarch', but in the Armenian Apostolic Church hierarchy, the position of the Catholicos is higher than that of the Patriarch. The Armenian Apostolic Church presently has two catholicoi (Karekin II, Supreme Patriarch and Catholicos of All Armenians, and Aram I, Catholicos of the Great House of Cilicia), and two patriarchs, plus primates, archbishops and bishops, lower clergy and laity serving the Church.
Both clergy and laity are involved in the administrative structure of the Church. Led by Karekin II, the spiritual and administrative work of the Armenian Church is carried out in Armenia in the areas of religion, preparation of clergy, Christian education, construction of new churches, social services, and ecumenical activities.
The following sees have their own jurisdiction:
The Catholicosate of the Great House of Cilicia located in Antelias, Lebanon, is led by Catholicos Aram I and it has dioceses in the countries of the Middle East, in Europe and in North and South America.
The Armenian Patriarchate of Jerusalem which has jurisdiction over all of the Holy Lands and the Diocese of Jordan, is led by Patriarch Archbishop Nourhan Manougian.
The Armenian Patriarchate of Constantinople and All of Turkey, which has jurisdiction in the modern day Republic of Turkey, is led by Patriarch Archbishop Sahak II Mashalian.
The three aforementioned historic hierarchical sees administer to the dioceses under their jurisdiction as they see fit, while there is only spiritual authority of the Catholicosate of All Armenians.
In addition to the responsibilities of overseeing their respective Dioceses, each hierarchical See, and the Mother See of Holy Etchmiadzin, has a Monastic Brotherhood.
Seminaries
The Mother See of Holy Etchmiadzin operates two seminaries, the Gevorkian Theological Seminary at the Mother See of Holy Etchmiadzin, and the Vaskenian Theological Academy at Lake Sevan. Over a 6-year course of simultaneous study, students receive both a bachelor's degree and a master's degree in Theology. The Great House of Cilicia operates one seminary, the Seminary of Antelias at Bikfaya, Lebanon. Upon graduation, students receive the equivalent of a high school diploma and pre-graduate theological study.
The Armenian Patriarchate of Jerusalem operates the St. Tarkmanchatz School (high school diploma) as well as the Theological Seminary of the Patriarchate. Graduates from the Theological Seminary can become ordained priests..
The Armenian Patriarchate of Constantinople had its own seminary, the Holy Cross Patriarchal Seminary, which was shut down by Turkish authorities in Turkey along with all other private schools of higher education.
St. Nersess Armenian Seminary in New Rochelle, NY also trains Armenian priests, awarding the Master of Divinity in Theology (through an affiliation with nearby OCA St. Vladimir's Seminary). St. Nersess also offers a Master of Arts in Armenian Christian Studies.
Structure
Regionally, each area of the world where the Armenian Church and faithful are located has dioceses, which are led by a primate from the Diocesan headquarters. Each diocese is made up of parishes and smaller communities.
The spiritual and administrative bodies representing the authority of the Armenian Church are the following:
The National Ecclesiastical Assembly is the supreme legislative body presided over by the Catholicos of All Armenians. The members of the National Ecclesiastical Assembly are elected by the individual Diocesan Assemblies. The National Ecclesiastical Assembly elects the Catholicos of All Armenians.
The Council of Bishops is an administrative-deliberative body presided over by the Catholicos of All Armenians. It makes suggestions on the dogmatic, religious, church, parish and canonical issues to be discussed as agenda items during the National Ecclesiastical Assembly.
The Supreme Spiritual Council is the highest executive body of the Armenian Church and is presided over by the Catholicos of All Armenians. The members of the Council can be elected by the National Ecclesiastical Assembly or appointed by the Catholicos of All Armenians. The Catholicos of All Armenians, Gevorg V. Soorenian established the Supreme Spiritual Council on January 1, 1924, to replace the Synod of Bishops.
The Diocesan Assembly is the highest legislative (canonical) body of each Diocese and is headed by the Primate of the Diocese. The Diocesan delegates (representatives of each parish community) elect the delegates to the National Ecclesiastical Assembly, the members of the Diocesan Council as well as discuss and decide on administrative issues within the Diocese such as committees, budgets, building, etc. In some Dioceses, the Diocesan Assembly elects the Primate of the Diocese.
The Diocesan Council is the highest executive power of a diocese, presided over by the Primate of the Diocese. It regulates the inner administrative activity of the Diocese under the direction of the Primate. The Diocesan Assembly elects members of the Diocesan Council.
The Monastic Brotherhood consists of the celibate clergy of the monastery who are led by an abbot. As of 2010, there were three brotherhoods in the Armenian Church – the brotherhood of the Mother See of Holy Etchmiadzin, the brotherhood of St. James at the Armenian Patriarchate of Jerusalem and the brotherhood of the See of Cilicia. Each Armenian celibate priest becomes a member of the brotherhood in which he has studied and ordained in or under the jurisdiction of which he has served. The brotherhood makes decisions concerning the inner affairs of the monastery. Each brotherhood elects two delegates who take part in the National Ecclesiastical Assembly.
The Parish Assembly is the general assembly of the community presided over by the spiritual pastor. The Parish Assembly elects or appoints the members of the Parish Council and the representatives or delegates to the Diocesan Assembly.
The Parish Council is the executive-administrative body of the community. It is presided over by the spiritual pastor of the community who takes up the inner administrative affairs of the parish and is engaged in the realization of its administrative and financial activities. Members of the parish council are elected or appointed at the parish assembly.
The Armenian Apostolic Church is one of a few apostolic churches in the world to have a democratic system; the people decide if they want to keep priests in their churches and may ask for different ones, as do some other ecclesiastical constitutions, such as Baptists and other Congregational churches.
Note that the Armenian Apostolic Church should not be confused, however, with the Armenian Catholic Church whose Patriarch-Catholicos (of the Armenian Catholic Rite) is Raphaël Bedros XXI Minassian, which is an Eastern Catholic church in communion with the Holy See in Rome.
Two Catholicosates
The Armenian Apostolic Church currently has two Sees, with the Catholicos of All Armenians residing in Etchmiadzin, Armenia, at the Mother See of Holy Etchmiadzin, having pre-eminent supremacy in all spiritual matters over the See of Cilicia, located in Antelias, Lebanon, which administers to the dioceses under its jurisdiction as they see fit. The two Sees are as follows:
Mother See of Holy Etchmiadzin
The Mother See of Holy Etchmiadzin () is the spiritual and administrative headquarters of the worldwide Armenian Church, the center of the faith of the Armenian nation – the Mother Cathedral of the Armenian Church, and the Pontifical residence of Karekin II.
Preserving the past are the numerous museums, libraries and the Mother Cathedral itself, in which many historically and monetarily precious items are contained. The Mother See is responsible for the preservation of artifacts, both those created by the Church and those given to the church as gifts over time.
Under the leadership and guidance of Karekin II, the Mother See administers social, cultural and educational programs for Armenia and the Diaspora.
The Mother Cathedral is the most recognised landmark of the Armenian Church. Built and consecrated by St. Gregory the Illuminator and St. Trdat the Great in AD 303, the Cathedral is located in the city of Vagharshapat, Armenia.
It is said that St. Gregory chose the location of the Cathedral in accordance with a vision. In his dream he saw "Miatsin", the Only Begotten Son of God, with glittering light on his face descending from the Heavens and with a golden hammer striking the ground where the Cathedral was to be located. Hence comes the name "Etchmiadzin", which translates literally to "the place" where Miatsin descended.
The Mother Cathedral is open every day; Divine Liturgy is celebrated every Sunday.
Great House of Cilicia
The Catholicosate of the Great House of Cilicia () located in Antelias, Lebanon, is a regional See of the Armenian Apostolic Church and is an autonomous church with jurisdiction over certain segments of the Armenian diaspora.
Catholicos Aram I was the head and Catholicos of the Great House of Cilicia. The See has jurisdiction over prelacies in Lebanon, Syria, Cyprus, Greece, Iran, the Persian Gulf, the United States, Canada and Venezuela. In the United States, Canada, Syria, and Greece there are also Dioceses that are related to the Mother See of Holy Etchmiadzin, so there is the duality of representation of the Armenian Apostolic churches in these countries.
The primacy of the Catholicosate of All Armenians (Mother See of Holy Etchmiadzin) has always been recognized by the Catholicossate of the Great House of Cilicia.
The rise of the Great House of Cilicia as an autocephalous church occurred after the fall of Ani and the Armenian Kingdom of the Bagradits in 1045. Masses of Armenians migrated to Cilicia and the Catholicosate was established there. The seat of the church (now known as the Catholicosate of the Great House of Cilicia) was first established in Sivas (AD 1058) moving to Tavbloor (1062), then to Dzamendav (1066), Dzovk (1116), Hromgla (1149), and finally to Sis (1293), then-capital of the Armenian Kingdom of Cilicia. Beginning in 1293 and continuing for more than six centuries, the city of Sis (modern-day Kozan, Adana, Turkey) was the center of the Catholicossate of the Great House of Cilicia.
After the fall of the Armenian Kingdom of Cilicia, in 1375, the Church continued in its leadership role in the Armenian community, and the Catholicos was recognized as Ethnarch (Head of Nation).
In 1441 Kirakos I Virapetsi of Armenia was elected Catholicos in Holy Etchmiadzin. At the same time the residing Catholicos in Sis, Gregory IX Mousabegian (1439–1446), remained as Catholicos of Cilicia. Since 1441, there have continued to be two Catholicosates in the Armenian Church, each having rights and privileges, and each with its own jurisdiction.
During the First World War and the 1915 Armenian genocide, the Armenian population and the home of the Catholicosate at the Monastery of St. Sophia of Sis (which can be seen to dominate the town in early 20th-century photographs), was destroyed.
The last residing Catholicos in Sis was Sahag II of Cilicia (Catholicos from 1902 to 1939), who followed his Armenian flock into exile from Turkey.
Since 1930, the Catholicosate of the Great House of Cilicia has been headquartered in Antelias, Lebanon.
Reasons for the division
The division of the two Catholicosates stemmed from frequent relocations of Church headquarters due to political and military upheavals.
The division between the two sees intensified during the Soviet period and to some extent reflected the politics of the Cold War. The Armenian Revolutionary Federation (ARF) Dashnaktsutyun social democratic political party that had dominated the independent Armenia from 1918 to 1920 and was active in the diaspora, saw the Church and clergy, with its worldwide headquarters at the Mother See of Holy Etchmiadzin in the Soviet Republic of Armenia, as a captive Communist puppet, and accused its clergy in the United States as unduly influenced by Communists, particularly as the clergy were reluctant to participate in nationalist events and memorials that could be perceived as anti-Soviet. On December 24, 1933, a group of assassins attacked Eastern Diocese Archbishop Levon Tourian as he walked down the aisle of Holy Cross Armenian Church in the Washington Heights neighborhood of New York City during the Divine Liturgy, and killed him with a butcher's knife. Nine ARF members were later arrested, tried and convicted. The incident divided the Armenian community, as ARF sympathizers established congregations independent of the Mother See of Holy Etchmiadzin, declaring loyalty instead to the See based in Antelias in Lebanon. The division was formalized in 1956 when the Antelias (Cilician) See accepted to provide spiritual and religious guidance to those communities that the Mother See of Holy Etchmiadzin refused.
The separation has become entrenched in the United States, with most large Armenian communities having two parish churches, one answering to each See, even though they are theologically indistinguishable. There have been numerous lay and clergy efforts at reunion, especially since the fall of the Soviet Union.
In 1995, Karekin II, Catholicos of Cilicia for the period 1983–1994, was elected Catholicos of All Armenians in the Mother See of Holy Etchmiadzin upon the death of Vazgen I, becoming Karekin I Catholicos of All Armenians, and serving as Supreme head of the church until 1999. He was unable to unite the two Catholicosates, however, despite his having headed both.
Two Patriarchates: Constantinople and Jerusalem
The Armenian Apostolic Church also has two Patriarchates of high authority both under the jurisdiction of the Catholicos of All Armenians. They are:
Armenian Patriarchate of Jerusalem () in the Armenian Quarter of Jerusalem headed since 2013 by the Patriarch of Jerusalem, Archbishop Nourhan Manougian.
Armenian Patriarchate of Constantinople in Istanbul, Turkey () headed since 2019 by Armenian Patriarch of Constantinople Archbishop Sahak II Mashalian.
Eparchies (dioceses)
List of eparchies
Armenia
Aragatsotn eparchy
Ararat Patriarchal eparchy
Artik eparchy
Gegharkunik eparchy
Gougark eparchy
Kotayk eparchy
Shirak eparchy
Syunik eparchy
Tavush eparchy
Vayots Dzor eparchy
Artsakh eparchy (de facto independent Artsakh)
Diaspora
Ukraine eparchy (revived Eparchy of Lviv that in 1630 declared union with Rome until World War II)
Comparison to other churches
Liturgically speaking, the Church has much in common both with the Latin Rite in its externals, especially as it was at the time of separation, as well as with the Eastern Orthodox Church. For example, Armenian bishops wear mitres almost identical to those of Western bishops. They usually do not use a full iconostasis, but rather a sanctuary veil (a curtain usually with a cross or divine image in the center, used also by the Syriac churches). The liturgical music is Armenian chant. Many of the Armenian churches also have pipe organs to accompany their chant.
Armenian priests below the rank of Very Reverend are allowed to be married before ordination and their descendants' surnames are prefixed with the prefix "Der" (or "Ter" in Eastern Armenian), meaning "Lord", to indicate their lineage. Such a married priest is known as a kahana.
The Armenian Apostolic Church celebrates the Nativity of Jesus in combination with the Feast of the Epiphany, putting Armenian Christmas on 6 January in the church's calendar. This contrasts with the more common celebration of Christmas on 25 December, originally a Western Christian tradition, which Armenia only briefly adopted before reverting to its original practice.
Armenian Apostolic Church uses a version of the Bible based on the Greek translation (Septuagint) of the Hebrew Old Testament, which was produced in Egypt in the court of King Ptolemy II Philadelphus (283-246 BC), and includes Deuterocanonical books that are not a part of the present Hebrew and Protestant canons. There is plenty of evidence indicating that the Septuagint was the Old Testament version used throughout the early Christian Church and was revised in the course of the first and second centuries.
Since 1923, the church has mainly used the Gregorian Calendar shared by most civil authorities and Western Christian churches (not the traditional Armenian calendar). The only exception is the Armenian Patriarchate of Jerusalem, where the old Julian calendar is used, putting Nativity celebrations on 19 January in the Gregorian calendar.
The Armenian Apostolic Church is distinct from the Armenian Catholic Church, the latter being a sui juris Eastern Catholic Church, part of the Catholic Church. When in the 1740s, Abraham-Pierre I Ardzivian, who had earlier become a Catholic, was elected as the patriarch of Sis, he led part of the Armenian Apostolic Church into full communion with the Pope and the Armenian Catholic Church was created.
Women in the Armenian Church
The Armenian Church does not ordain women to the priesthood. Historically, however, monastic women have been ordained as deacons within a convent environment. Monastic women deacons generally do not minister in traditional parish churches or cathedrals, although the late Mother Hrip'seme did minister and serve during public liturgies, including in the United States.
Women do serve as altar girls and lay readers, especially when a parish is so small that not enough boys or men are regularly available to serve.
Women commonly serve the church in the choir and at the organ, on parish councils, as volunteers for church events, fundraisers, and Sunday schools, as supporters through Women's Guilds, and as staff members in church offices.
In the case of a married priest (Der Hayr), the wife of the priest generally plays an active role in the parish and is addressed by the title Yeretzgin.
In limited circumstances, the Armenian Church allows for divorce and remarriage. Cases usually include either adultery or apostasy.
Armenian genocide victims canonization
On April 23, 2015, the Armenian Apostolic Church canonized all the victims of the Armenian genocide; this service is believed to be the largest canonization service in history. 1.5 million is the most frequently published number of victims, however, estimates vary from 700,000 to 1,800,000. It was the first canonization by the Armenian Apostolic Church in four hundred years.
Army Chaplaincy Program
The Army Chaplaincy Program of the Armenian Church is made up of more than 50 clergymen serving as military chaplains to the Armed Forces of Armenia. They organize various religious programs in the military, including delivering lectures and prayers. It is jointly funded and sponsored by the Ministry of Defence of Armenia and the Armenian Orthodox Church. All army chaplains are commissioned officers in the armed forces who hold a military rank. It was established in 1997 on the basis of a joint initiative of Catholicos Karekin I and Defense minister Vazgen Sargsyan. Since 2011, combined clergy company has taken part in the quinquennial Armenian Independence Day Parade on Republic Square in Yerevan.
Current state
In Armenia
The status of the Armenian Apostolic Church within Armenia is defined in the country's constitution. Article 8.1 of the Constitution of Armenia states: "The Republic of Armenia recognizes the exclusive historical mission of the Armenian Apostolic Holy Church as a national church, in the spiritual life, development of the national culture and preservation of the national identity of the people of Armenia." Among others, ethnographer Hranush Kharatyan has questioned the constitutionality of the phrase "national church".
In 2009, further constitutional amendments were drafted that would make it a crime for non-traditional religious groups to proselytize on adherents of the Apostolic Church. Minority groups would also be banned from spreading 'distrust' in other faiths. These draft amendments were put on hold after strong criticism voiced by the Council of Europe and the Organization for Security and Cooperation in Europe. Armenian
religious minorities and human rights groups also expressed serious concern over the amendments, with human rights activist Stepan Danielian stating "the Armenian Apostolic Church today wants to have a monopoly on religion". The Armenian Church defines religious groups operating outside its domain as "sects" and, in the words of spokesman Bishop Arshak Khachatrian, considers that "their activities in Armenia are nothing but a denial of the creed of the Armenian Apostolic Church, which is considered the national religion of the Armenian people". Hrant Bagratyan, former Prime Minister of Armenia, condemned the close association of the Armenian Apostolic Church with the Armenian government, calling the Church an "untouchable" organisation that is secretive of its income and expenditure.
In Artsakh
After the Bolshevik revolution and the subsequent annexation of Armenia by the U.S.S.R., all functioning religious institutions in NKAO were closed down and clergymen often either exiled or shot.
After a while the Armenian Apostolic Church resumed its activities. There were weddings, baptisms, and every Sunday Badarak at a free will attendance basis. The Armenian Apostolic Church since 1989 restored or constructed more than 30 churches worldwide. In 2009 the Republic of Artsakh government introduced a law entitled "Freedom of Conscience and Religious Organisations", article 8 of which provided that only the Armenian Apostolic Orthodox Church is allowed to preach on the territory of the Republic of Artsakh. However, the law did make processes available for other religious institutions to get approval from the government if they wished to worship within the Republic.
Armenian diaspora
Outside of West Asia, today there are notable Armenian Apostolic congregations in various countries in Europe, North America, South America, and South Asia.
Lebanon, home to a large and influential Armenian diaspora community with its own political parties, has more than 17 recognized Armenian Apostolic churches. The Armenian presence in Palestine and Israel is primarily found in the Armenian Quarter of Jerusalem, under the jurisdiction of the Armenian Patriarchate of Jerusalem. Syria has one Armenian church, St Sarkis, in Damascus. There are a number of Armenian churches in Jordan including the St Thaddeus church in the Armenian quarter of Jabal Ashrafieh in Amman and the St Garabed church at the site of the baptism of Jesus Christ by the Jordan river
The Armenian Patriarchate of Constantinople in Turkey and the Armenian Apostolic Church of Iran are important communities in the diaspora. These churches represent the largest Christian ethnic minorities in these predominantly Muslim countries.
The United Kingdom has three Armenian churches: St Sarkis in Kensington, London; Saint Yeghiche in South Kensington, London; and Holy Trinity in Manchester.
Ethiopia has had an Armenian church since the 1920s, when groups of Armenians were invited there after the Armenian genocide by Turkey.
Historical role and public image
The Armenian Apostolic Church is "seen by many as the custodian of Armenian national identity". "Beyond its role as a religious institution, the Apostolic Church has traditionally been seen as the foundational core in the development of the Armenian national identity as God's uniquely chosen people." According to a 2018 survey by the Pew Research Center, in Armenia 82% of respondents say it is very or somewhat important to be a Christian to be truly Armenian.
According to a 2015 survey 79% of people in Armenia trust it, while 12% neither trust it nor distrust it, and 8% distrust the church.
As both Eastern and Western Armenia became under Persian and Ottoman rule, the Armenian Apostolic Church was the centre of many Armenian liberation activities..
Controversies and criticisms
Medieval era
Early medieval opponents of the Armenian Church in Armenia included the Paulicians (7th-9th centuries) and the Tondrakians (9th-11th centuries).
The power relationship between catholicoi and secular rulers was sometimes a source of conflict. In 1037 king Hovhannes-Smbat of Ani deposed and imprisoned Catholicos Petros, who he suspected of holding pro-Byzantine views, and appointed a replacement catholicos. This persecution was highly criticized by the Armenian clergy, forcing Hovhannes-Smbat to release Petros and reinstall him to his former position. In 1038 a major ecclesiastical council was held in Ani, which denied the king the right to elect or remove a catholicos.
Architecture historian Samvel Karapetyan (1961-2016) has criticized many aspects of the Armenian Apostolic Church, especially its role in Armenian history. Karapetyan particularly had denounces, what he had calls, Armenian Church's loyal service to foreign invaders: "The Armenian Apostolic Church is a conscientious tax structure, which every conqueror needs."
Modern era
In independent Armenia, the Armenian Apostolic Church has often been criticized for its perceived support of the governments of Robert Kocharyan and Serzh Sargsyan despite the formal separation of church and state in Armenia. According to former Prime Minister Hrant Bagratyan religion and state management "have completely gotten mixed up". He called the church an "untouchable" organization that is secretive of its income and expenditure. Large-scale construction of new churches in the independence period and the negligence of endangered historic churches by the Apostolic church (and the government) have also been criticized.
In recent years, a few high-profile leaders of the church have been involved in controversies. In 2013 Navasard Ktchoyan, the Archbishop of the Araratian Diocese and Prime Minister Tigran Sargsyan were alleged to have been partners with a businessman charged with laundering US$10.7 million bank loan and then depositing most of it in accounts he controlled in Cyprus. In 2011 it was revealed that Ktchoyan drives a Bentley (valued at $180,000-$280,000). Pointing out the 34% poverty rate in Armenia, Asbarez editor Ara Khachatourian called it "nothing but blasphemy". He added "Archbishop Kchoyan's reckless disregard and attitude is even more unacceptable due to his position in the Armenian Church."
In October 2013 Father Asoghik Karapetyan, the director of the Museum of the Mother See of Holy Etchmiadzin, stated on television that a non-Apostolic Armenian is not a "true Armenian". A spokesperson for the Armenian Apostolic Church stated that it is his personal view. The statement received considerable criticism, though Asoghik did not retract his statement. In an editorial in the liberal Aravot daily Aram Abrahamyan suggested that religious identity should not be equated with national (ethnic) identity and it is up to every individual to decide whether they are Armenian or not, regardless of religion.
I
See also
Armenian Catholic Church
Armenian church architecture
Armenian Patriarchate of Constantinople
Armenian Patriarchate of Jerusalem
Holy See of Cilicia
Saint Narek chapel
Lists
List of Catholicoi of Armenia
List of Armenian Catholicoi of Cilicia
List of Armenian Patriarchs of Constantinople
List of Armenian Patriarchs of Jerusalem
Notes
References
Sources
Further reading
Armenian religious relations with the Roman Catholic Church
Pope Benedict XIV, Allatae Sunt (On the observance of Oriental Rites), Encyclical, 1755
Common Declaration of Pope John Paul II and Catholicos Karekin I, 1996
Common Declaration of John Paul II and Aram I Keshishian, 1997
John Paul II to Karekin I, 1999
Joint Declaration signed by John Paul II and Karekin II, 2000
Greeting by Pope Benedict XVI to Catholicos Aram I, 2008
Dialogue and Joint Declarations with the Roman Catholic Church
External links
Armenian Church Mother See of Holy Etchmiadzin website
Official site of the Armenian Catholicosate of Cilicia
Armenian Patriarchate of Jerusalem
301 establishments
Apostolic sees
Members of the National Council of Churches
Members of the World Council of Churches
National churches
Armenian culture
Religious organizations based in Armenia | [
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229449 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/William%20Ponsonby%20%28British%20Army%20officer%29 | William Ponsonby (British Army officer) | Major-General Hon. Sir William Ponsonby (13 October 177218 June 1815) was an Anglo-Irish politician and British Army officer who served in the Peninsula War and was killed at the Battle of Waterloo.
Early life and education
He was the second son of William Ponsonby, who was created Baron Ponsonby of Imokilly in 1806, and Hon. Louisa Molesworth. He was the grandson of politician Hon. John Ponsonby and great-grandson of the 3rd Duke of Devonshire and the 1st Earl of Bessborough. Educated at Kilkenny and Eton, he married Hon. Georgiana FitzRoy, youngest daughter of Charles FitzRoy, 1st Baron Southampton.
Together they had five children:
Hon. Anne Louisa (d. 23 Jan 1863), who married William Tighe Hamilton and together had at least one son, Frederick FitzRoy Hamilton.
Hon. Charlotte Georgiana (d. 7 Sep 1883), who married firstly Lt.-Col. John Horace Thomas Stapleton, son of Lt.-Gen. William Stapleton and Anna Maria Keppel (daughter of the Bishop of Exeter, Frederick Keppel), and had no issue. Secondly Rear-Adm. Sir Charles Talbot, son of Rev. Charles Talbot. They had seven children.
Mary Elizabeth (d. 14 Sep 1838), who married Rev. Henry George Talbot, brother of her sister's husband, Charles. They had one son, Maj. Henry Charles Talbot.
Frances Isabella (d. 1845), who married Rev. Hyde Wyndham Beadon, son of Rt. Rev. Richard Beadon and Annabella à Court, daughter of Sir William à Court, 1st Baronet. They had five children.
Lord William (6 Feb 1816 – 2 Oct 1861), married Maria Theresa Duerbeck but died without issue.
Political career
Between 1796 and 1798, Ponsonby sat as a Member of Parliament (MP) in the Irish House of Commons for the Tories and represented Bandonbridge. Subsequently, he stood for Fethard (County Tipperary) and held this seat until the Act of Union in 1801. He entered the British House of Commons in 1812, sitting for Londonderry until his death. In 1815, he was appointed a Knight Commander of the Order of the Bath (KCB).
Peninsular War
When Ponsonby's command, the 5th Dragoon Guards, arrived in the Peninsula in October 1811, it became part of John Le Marchant's heavy cavalry brigade. For the rest of the war, this brigade included the 5th Dragoon Guards and the 3rd and 4th Dragoons. Ponsonby took part in Le Marchant's famous charge at the Battle of Salamanca in July 1812. On that occasion, the British heavy dragoons rode down one French infantry division and part of a second before being repulsed. Upon Le Marchant's death in the battle, Ponsonby took over the brigade, participating in the campaign that included the Siege of Burgos. In 1813, Ponsonby led his 1,200-strong cavalry brigade at the Battle of Vitoria. During the Battle of the Pyrenees and the autumn campaigns in the mountains, the Duke of Wellington sent the bulk of his cavalry to the rear. On 25 January 1814, Ponsonby took leave of his brigade and in the final battles in France, Lord Charles Manners exercised command.
Battle of Waterloo
Ponsonby's part in the Battle of Waterloo is remembered because it highlights some pertinent points about cavalry charging. Ponsonby was in command of the Union Brigade, so-called because it included an English, a Scottish and an Irish regiment. The brigade consisted of the 1st Royal and 6th Inniskilling Regiments of Dragoons in the first line and the 2nd Royal North British Dragoons (Scots Greys) in reserve. It had counter-attacked to great effect against the disorganised French columns of d'Erlon's I Corps. Carried away by their initial success, however, the brigade failed to rally and continued towards the French positions. The Scots Greys in particular, forgetting their supporting role and ignoring the "recall", charged on in disordered groups, some of whom reached the French guns on the other side of the valley. By this time their horses were exhausted and a swift retribution followed in the form of a counter-attack by the French lancers. The brigade suffered very heavy losses (see table below) and played no further part in the battle. Ponsonby, who was mounted on a horse of less value than the best one in his stable, rode too far and with his horse mired in mud close to enemy lines, was set upon by French Lancers. Recognising his rank and worth as a prisoner, the French gestured to him, urging him to surrender. He failed to understand them, and, when a group of his own Union Brigade spotted him and rode to his rescue, the lancers from one of the French line regiments (either the 3rd Lancers or 4th Lancers) attached to d'Erlon's I Corps had no option but to kill him. Myths growing up after the battle turned this into a guardsman from the "Red Lancers", which included the surviving squadron of the Polish lancers of the Guard. Following Ponsonby's death, command of the Union Brigade devolved upon Lieutenant-Colonel Arthur Clifton of the 1st Royal Dragoons.
Memorials
Ponsonby has a large marble monument at the west end of the crypt of St Paul's Cathedral in London. It was designed by Edward Hodges Baily in 1815.
Other
In the 1970 film Waterloo, Ponsonby was played by Michael Wilding.
Notes
References
1772 births
1815 deaths
British Army generals
British Army commanders of the Napoleonic Wars
British military personnel killed in action in the Napoleonic Wars
Irish MPs 1790–1797
Irish MPs 1798–1800
Knights Commander of the Order of the Bath
William Ponsonby
People educated at Kilkenny College
UK MPs 1812–1818
Younger sons of barons
5th Dragoon Guards officers
Members of the Parliament of the United Kingdom for County Londonderry constituencies (1801–1922)
Members of the Parliament of Ireland (pre-1801) for County Cork constituencies
Members of the Parliament of Ireland (pre-1801) for County Tipperary constituencies | [
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229452 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Blanketing | Blanketing | Blanketing is a term used predominantly in the US to refer to receiver blocking, which is interference caused when a strong unwanted off-channel radio signal prevents the reception of another (wanted) transmission.
This problem is greatly reduced by even moderate-quality receivers, which have better selectivity (filtering) and dynamic range than poorly designed inexpensive or disposable ones.
See also
Blocking (radio)
Near–far problem
Broadcast engineering | [
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229454 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Co-channel%20interference | Co-channel interference | Co-channel interference or CCI is crosstalk from two different radio transmitters using the same channel. Co-channel interference can be caused by many factors from weather conditions to administrative and design issues. Co-channel interference may be controlled by various radio resource management schemes.
Cellular mobile networks
In cellular mobile communication (GSM & LTE Systems, for instance), frequency spectrum is a precious resource which is divided into non-overlapping spectrum bands which are assigned to different cells (In cellular communications, a cell refers to the hexagonal/circular area around the base station antenna). However, after certain geographical distance, these frequency bands are re-used, i.e. the same spectrum bands are reassigned to other distant cells. The co-channel interference arises in the cellular mobile networks owing to this phenomenon of frequency reuse. Thus, besides the intended signal from within the cell, signals at the same frequencies (co-channel signals) arrive at the receiver from the undesired transmitters located (far away) in some other cells and lead to deterioration in receiver performance.
Adverse weather conditions
For FM, vertical layering of moisture content and temperature in the atmosphere (inversion layers) can occasionally cause signals to travel hundreds or thousands of kilometres further than usual. An inversion layer (or duct) is most commonly observed over high pressure regions and may affect radio signals for several hours to several days. The phenomenon is commonly referred to as anomalous propagation and is more likely in hot, dry weather in late summer.
Poor frequency planning
Poor planning of frequencies by broadcasters can cause CCI, although this is rare. A very localised example is Listowel in the south-west of Ireland. The 2RN UHF television transmitter systems in Listowel and Knockmoyle (near Tralee) are on the same frequencies but with opposite polarisation. However, in some outskirts of Listowel town, both transmitters can be picked up causing heavy CCI. This problem forces residents in these areas to use alternative transmitters to receive RTÉ programming.
Overly-crowded radio spectrum
In many populated areas, there just isn't much room in the radio spectrum. Stations will be jam-packed in, sometimes to the point that one can hear loud and clear two, three, or more stations on the same frequency, at once. In the USA, the Federal Communications Commission (FCC) propagation models used to space stations on the same frequency are not always accurate in prediction of signals and interference. An example of this situation is in some parts of Fayetteville, Arkansas the local 99.5 FM KAKS is displaced by KXBL 99.5 FM in Tulsa, Oklahoma particularly on the west side of significant hills. Another example would be of Cleveland's WKKY 104.7 having interference from Toledo's WIOT 104.7 FM on the Ontario shore of Lake Erie, as well as Woodstock's CIHR-FM (on rare occasions), which is also on 104.7 FM, due to the signals traveling very far across Lake Erie. The interference to WIOT from the operation of W284BQ, translator, has been resolved by the FCC. Effective October 18, 2011 it must cease operation.
Daytime vs nighttime
In the medium frequency portion of the radio spectrum where most AM broadcasting is allocated, signals propagate full-time via groundwave and, at nighttime, via skywave as well. This means that during the nighttime hours, co-channel interference exists on many AM radio frequencies due to the medium waves reflecting off the ionosphere and being bounced back down to earth. In the United States, Canada, Mexico, and the Bahamas, there are international agreements on certain frequencies which allocate "clear-channel" broadcasting for certain stations to either have their respective frequencies to themselves at night, or to share their respective frequencies with other stations located over hundreds or even thousands of miles away. On other frequencies, there are "Regional Channels" where most stations on these frequencies either reduce power or change to a directional antenna system at nighttime to help reduce co-channel interference to each other's signals. In the United States, there are six "Local Channel" frequencies, also known as "graveyarders" where nearly every station on those frequencies has the same power and antenna pattern both day and night and, as a result of skywave propagation, there is normally massive co-channel interference in rural areas on these frequencies, often making it difficult, if not impossible, to understand what's being said on the nearest local station on the respective channel, or the other distant stations which are bouncing on the same channel, during the nighttime hours. Skywave has been used for long distance AM radio reception since radio's inception and should not be construed as a negative aspect of AM radio. FCC deregulation allowed many new AM radio stations on the former clear and regional channel designations; this is the principal cause of overcrowding on the AM band at night. A new source of interference on the AM broadcast band is the new digital broadcast system called HD, any AM station that broadcasts HD superimposes digital "hash" on its adjacent channels. This is especially apparent at night as some stations, for example WBZ transmits its 30 kHz wide signal for hundreds of miles at night causing documented interference and covering another station on an adjoining frequency (WYSL 1040) as far as 400 miles away.
Cancellation of signal
In addition, many AM stations, including but not limited to the clear channel-stations, often experience cancellation of their own signals within the inner and outer fringes of their normal groundwave coverage areas at nighttime due to the stations' individual skywave signals reaching the listeners' receivers at or near equal strength to the stations' individual groundwave signals; this phenomenon is very similar to the multipath interference experienced on FM Radio in the VHF band within mountainous regions and urban areas due to signals bouncing off of mountains, buildings, and other structures, except that the groundwave-skywave cancellation occurs almost exclusively at nighttime when skywave propagation is present.
Bleeding of adjacent bands
Even with frequency planning, bleeding of signals from adjacent bands can lead to interference. This can impair passive remote sensing used for environmental monitoring, such as by weather satellites. The advent of 5G may significantly increase deleterious effects on satellites which would impair numerical weather prediction performance, resulting in substantially adverse economic and public safety impacts. Due to such concerns, US Secretary of Commerce Wilbur Ross and NASA Administrator Jim Bridenstine in February 2019 urged the FCC to cancel proposed spectrum bidding, which this was rejected. Unlicensed operations or poorly regulated bands also can lead to interference.
See also
Adjacent-channel interference
Broadcast signal intrusion
Signal-to-interference ratio (SIR or S/I), also known as Carrier-to-interference ratio (CIR or C/I)
Frequency coordination
References
External links
An example of analog TV co-channel interference.
Siae Microelettronica patent
Interference
Radio frequency propagation
Radio resource management | [
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229457 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Operation%20Reinhard | Operation Reinhard | Operation Reinhard or Operation Reinhardt () was the codename of the secretive German plan in World War II to exterminate Polish Jews in the General Government district of German-occupied Poland. This deadliest phase of the Holocaust was marked by the introduction of extermination camps.
As many as two million Jews were sent to Bełżec, Sobibór, and Treblinka to be murdered in purpose-built gas chambers. In addition, mass-killing facilities, using Zyklon B, were developed at about the same time at the Majdanek concentration camp and at Auschwitz II-Birkenau, near the earlier-established Auschwitz I camp for ethnically Polish prisoners.
Background
After the German–Soviet war began, the Nazis decided to undertake the European-wide Final Solution to the Jewish Question. In January 1942, during a secret meeting of German leaders chaired by Reinhard Heydrich, Operation Reinhard was drafted; it was soon to become a major step in the systematic murder of the Jews in occupied Europe, beginning in the General Government district of German-occupied Poland. Within months, three top-secret camps (at Bełżec, Sobibór, and Treblinka) were built to efficiently kill tens of thousands of Jews every day.
These camps differed from Auschwitz and Majdanek, because the latter operated as forced-labour camps initially, before they became death camps fitted with crematoria. Unlike "mixed" extermination camps, the extermination camps of Operation Reinhard kept no prisoners, except as a means of furthering the camps' sole purpose of industrial scale murder. Very few Jews successfully escaped death (notably, only two at Bełżec). All other victims were killed on arrival.
The organizational apparatus behind the new extermination plan had been put to the test already during the "euthanasia" Aktion T4 programme ending in August 1941, during which more than 70,000 Polish and German disabled men, women, and children were murdered. The SS officers responsible for the Aktion T4, including Christian Wirth, Franz Stangl, and Irmfried Eberl, were all given key roles in the implementation of the "Final Solution" in 1942.
Operational name
The origin of the operation's name is debated by Holocaust researchers. Various German documents spell the name differently, some with "t" after "d" (as in "Aktion Reinhardt"), others without it. Yet another spelling (Einsatz Reinhart) was used in the Höfle Telegram. It is generally believed that Aktion Reinhardt, outlined at the Wannsee Conference on 20 January 1942, was named after Reinhard Heydrich, the coordinator of the so-called Final Solution of the Jewish Question, which entailed the extermination of the Jews living in the European countries occupied by Nazi Germany. Heydrich was attacked by British-trained Czechoslovakian agents on 27 May 1942 and died of his injuries eight days later. The earliest memo spelling out Einsatz Reinhard was relayed two months later.
Death camps
On 13 October 1941, SS and Police Leader Odilo Globočnik headquartered in Lublin received an oral order from Himmleranticipating the fall of Moscowto start immediate construction work on the first killing centre at Bełżec in the General Government territory of occupied Poland. Notably, the order preceded the Wannsee Conference by three months. The new camp was operational beginning 17 March 1942, with leadership brought in from Germany under the guise of Organisation Todt (OT).
Globočnik was given control over the entire programme. All highly secretive orders he received came directly from Himmler and not from SS-Gruppenführer Richard Glücks, head of the greater Nazi concentration camp system, which was run by the SS-Totenkopfverbände and engaged in slave labour for the war effort. Each death camp was managed by between 20 and 35 officers from the Totenkopfverbände (Death's Head Units) sworn to absolute secrecy, and augmented by the Aktion T4 personnel selected by Globočnik. The extermination program was designed by them based on prior experience from the forced euthanasia centres. The bulk of the actual labour at each "final solution" camp was performed by up to 100 mostly Ukrainian Trawniki guards, recruited by SS-Hauptsturmführer Karl Streibel from among the Soviet prisoners of war, and by up to a thousand Sonderkommando prisoners whom the Trawniki guards used to terrorise. The SS called their volunteer guards "Hiwis", an abbreviation of Hilfswillige (lit. "willing to help"). According to the testimony of SS-Oberführer Arpad Wigand during his 1981 war crimes trial in Hamburg, only 25 percent of recruited collaborators could speak German.
By mid-1942, two more death camps had been built on Polish lands: Sobibór (operational by May 1942) under the leadership of SS-Hauptsturmführer Franz Stangl, and Treblinka (operational by July 1942) under SS-Obersturmführer Irmfried Eberl.
The killing mechanism consisted of a large internal-combustion engine pumping exhaust fumes into rooms through long pipes. Starting in February–March 1943 the bodies of the dead were exhumed and cremated in pits. Treblinka, the last camp to become operational, used knowledge learned by the SS previously. With two powerful engines, run by SS-Scharführer Erich Fuchs, and the gas chambers soon rebuilt of bricks and mortar, this death factory had murdered between 800,000 and 1,200,000 people within 15 months, disposed of their bodies, and sorted their belongings for shipment to Germany.
The techniques used to deceive victims and the camps' overall layout were based on a pilot project of mobile killing conducted at the Chełmno extermination camp (Kulmhof), which began operating in late 1941 and used gas vans. Chełmno was not a part of Reinhard. It came under the direct control of SS-Standartenführer Ernst Damzog, commander of the SD in Reichsgau Wartheland. It was set up around a manor house similar to Sonnenstein. The use of gas vans had been previously tried and tested in the mass murder of Polish prisoners at Soldau, and in the extermination of Jews on the Russian Front by the Einsatzgruppen. Between early December 1941 and mid-April 1943, 160,000 Jews were sent to Chełmno from the General Government via the Ghetto in Łódź. Chełmno did not have crematoria; only the mass graves in the woods. It was a testing ground for the establishment of faster methods of killing and incinerating people, marked by the construction of stationary facilities for the mass murder a few months later. The Reinhard death camps adapted progressively as each new site was built.
Taken as a whole, Globočnik's camps at Bełżec, Sobibór, and Treblinka had almost identical design, including staff members transferring between locations. The camps were situated within wooded areas well away from population centres. All were constructed near branch lines that linked to the Ostbahn. Each camp had an unloading ramp at a fake railway station, as well as a reception area that contained undressing barracks, barber shops, and money depositories. Beyond the receiving zone, at each camp was a narrow, camouflaged path known as the Road to Heaven (called Himmelfahrtsstraße or der Schlauch by the SS), which led to the extermination zone consisting of gas chambers, and the burial pits, up to deep, later replaced by cremation pyres with rails laid across the pits on concrete blocks; refuelled continuously by the Totenjuden. Both Treblinka and Bełżec were equipped with powerful crawler excavators from Polish construction sites in the vicinity, capable of most digging tasks without disrupting surfaces. At each camp, the SS guards and Ukrainian Trawnikis lived in a separate area from the Jewish work units. Wooden watchtowers and barbed-wire fences camouflaged with pine branches surrounded all camps.
The killing centres had no electric fences, as the size of the prisoner Sonderkommandos (work units) remained relatively easy to controlunlike in camps such as Dachau and Auschwitz. To assist with the arriving transports only specialised squads were kept alive, removing and disposing of bodies, and sorting property and valuables from the dead victims. The Totenjuden forced to work inside death zones were kept in isolation from those who worked in the reception and sorting area. Periodically, those who worked in the death zones would be killed and replaced with new arrivals to remove any potential witnesses to the scale of the mass murder.
During Operation Reinhard, Globočnik oversaw the systematic murder of more than 2,000,000 Jews from Poland, Czechoslovakia, France, the Reich (Germany and Austria), the Netherlands, Greece, Hungary, Italy and the Soviet Union. An undetermined number of Roma were also murdered in these death camps, many of them children.
Extermination process
To achieve their purposes, all death camps used subterfuge and misdirection to conceal the truth and trick their victims into cooperating. This element had been developed in Aktion T4, when disabled and handicapped people were taken away for "special treatment" by the SS from "Gekrat" wearing white laboratory coats, thus giving the process an air of medical authenticity. After supposedly being assessed, the unsuspecting T4 patients were transported to killing centres. The same euphemism "special treatment" (Sonderbehandlung) was used in the Holocaust.
The SS used a variety of ruses to move thousands of new arrivals travelling in Holocaust trains to the disguised killing sites without panic. Mass deportations were called "resettlement actions"; they were organised by special Commissioners and conducted by uniformed police battalions from Orpo and Schupo in an atmosphere of terror. Usually, the deception was absolute; in August 1942, people of the Warsaw Ghetto lined up for several days to be "deported" to obtain bread allocated for travel. Jews unable to move or attempting to flee were shot on the spot. Even though death in the cattle cars from suffocation and thirst was rampant, affecting up to 20 percent of trainloads, most victims were willing to believe that the German intentions were different. Once alighted, the prisoners were ordered to leave their luggage behind and march directly to the "cleaning area" where they were asked to hand over their valuables for "safekeeping". Common tricks included the presence of a railway station with awaiting "medical personnel" and signs directing people to disinfection facilities. Treblinka also had a booking office with boards naming the connections for other camps further east.
The Jews most apprehensive of danger were brutally beaten to speed up the process. At times, the new arrivals who had suitable skills were selected to join the Sonderkommando. Once in the changing area, the men and boys were separated from the women and children and everyone was ordered to disrobe for a communal bath: "quicklythey were toldor the water will get cold". The old and sick, or slow, prisoners were taken to a fake infirmary named the Lazarett, that had a large mass grave behind it. They were killed by a bullet in the neck, while the rest were being forced into the gas chambers.
To drive the naked people into the execution barracks housing the gas chambers, the guards used whips, clubs, and rifle butts. Panic was instrumental in filling the gas chambers because the need to evade blows on their naked bodies forced the victims rapidly forward. Once packed tightly inside (to minimize available air), the steel air-tight doors with portholes were closed. The doors, according to Treblinka Museum research, originated from the Soviet military bunkers around Białystok. Although other methods of extermination, such as the cyanic poison Zyklon B, were already being used at other Nazi killing centres such as Auschwitz, the Aktion Reinhard camps used lethal exhaust gases from captured Soviet tank engines. Fumes would be discharged directly into the gas chambers for a given period, then the engines would be switched off. SS guards would determine when to reopen the gas doors based on how long it took for the screaming to stop from within (usually 25 to 30 minutes). Special teams of camp inmates (Sonderkommando) would then remove the corpses on flatbed carts. Before the corpses were thrown into grave pits, gold teeth were removed from mouths, and orifices were searched for jewellery, currency, and other valuables. All acquired goods were managed by the SS-Wirtschafts-Verwaltungshauptamt (Main SS Economic and Administrative Department).
During the early phases of Operation Reinhard, victims were simply thrown into mass graves and covered with lime. From 1943, to hide the evidence of the crime, all bodies were burned in open air pits. Special Leichenkommando (corpse units) had to exhume bodies from the mass graves around these death camps for incineration. Reinhard still left a paper trail; in January 1943, Bletchley Park intercepted an SS telegram by SS-Sturmbannführer Hermann Höfle, Globočnik's deputy in Lublin, to SS-Obersturmbannführer Adolf Eichmann in Berlin. The decoded Enigma message contained statistics showing a total of 1,274,166 arrivals at the four Aktion Reinhard camps until the end of 1942 but the British code-breakers did not understand the meaning of the message, which amounted to material evidence of how many people the Germans had murdered.
Camp commandants
Temporary substitution policy
In the winter of 1941, before the Wannsee Conference but after the commencement of Operation Barbarossa, the Nazi demands for forced labor greatly intensified. Himmler and Heydrich approved a Jewish substitution policy in Upper Silesia and in Galicia under the "extermination through labour" doctrine. Many Poles had already been sent to the Reich, creating a labour shortage in the General Government. Around March 1942, while the first extermination camp (Bełżec) began gassing, the deportation trains arriving in the Lublin reservation from Germany and Slovakia were searched for the Jewish skilled workers. After selection, they were delivered to Majdan Tatarski instead of for "special treatment" at Bełżec. For a short time, these Jewish laborers were temporarily spared death, while their families and all others were murdered. Some were relegated to work at a nearby airplane factory or as forced labor in the SS-controlled Strafkompanies and other work camps. Hermann Höfle was one of the chief supporters and implementers of this policy. There were problems with food supplies and the ensuing logistical challenges. Globočnik and Friedrich-Wilhelm Krüger complained and the mass transfer was stopped even before the three extermination camps were operational.
Disposition of the property of the victims
Approximately 178 million German Reichsmarks' worth of Jewish property (equivalent to million euros) was taken from the victims, with vast transfers of gold and valuables to the Reichsbank's "Melmer" account, Gold Pool, and monetary reserve. But this wealth did not only go to the German authorities, because corruption was rife within the death camps. Many of the individual SS members and policemen involved in the killings took cash, property, and valuables for themselves. The higher-ranking SS men stole on an enormous scale. It was a common practice among the top echelon. Two Majdanek commandants, Karl-Otto Koch and Hermann Florstedt, were tried by the SS for it in April 1945. SS-Sturmbannführer Georg Konrad Morgen, an SS judge from the SS Courts Office, prosecuted so many Nazi officers for individual violations that Himmler personally ordered him to restrain his cases by April 1944.
Aftermath and cover up
Operation Reinhard ended in November 1943. Most of the staff and guards were then sent to northern Italy for further Aktion against Jews and local partisans. Globočnik went to the San Sabba concentration camp, where he supervised the detention, torture and killing of political prisoners. To cover up the mass murder of more than two million people in Poland during Operation Reinhard, the Nazis implemented the secret Sonderaktion 1005, also called Aktion 1005 or Enterdungsaktion ("exhumation action"). The operation, which began in 1942 and continued until the end of 1943, was designed to remove all traces that mass murder. Leichenkommando ("corpse units") comprising camp prisoners were created to exhume mass graves and cremate the buried bodies, using giant grills made from wood and railway tracks. Afterwards, bone fragments were ground up in special milling machines, and all remains were then re-buried in new pits. The Aktion was overseen by squads of Trawniki guards. After the war, some of the SS officers and guards were tried and sentenced at the Nuremberg trials for their role in Operation Reinhard and Sonderaktion 1005. Many others escaped conviction, such as Ernst Lerch, Globočnik's deputy and chief of his Main Office, whose case was dropped for lack of witness testimony.
See also
Action 14f13 (1941–44), a Nazi extermination operation that killed prisoners who were sick, elderly, or deemed no longer fit for work
Aktion Erntefest (November 1943), an operation to kill all the remaining Jews in the Lublin Ghetto
August Frank memorandum theft of victim's property
Operation Reinhard in Warsaw (Grossaktion Warsaw, July 1942), a similar operation to move Jews to the death camps
Katzmann Report (1943), a document detailing the outcome of Operation Reinhard in southern Poland.
Korherr Report, a report from the SS statistical bureau detailing how many Jews remained alive in Nazi Germany and occupied Europe in 1943
Operation Reinhard in Kraków (June 1942), the clearance of the Jewish ghetto
Footnotes
Citations
References
document size 20.2 MB. Monograph, chapt. 3: with list of Catholic rescuers of Jews who escaped from Treblinka; selected testimonies, bibliography, alphabetical indexes, photographs, English language summaries, and forewords by Holocaust scholars.
See Smith's book excerpts at: Hershl Sperling: Personal Testimony by David Adams.
Reinhard
Heinrich Himmler
Holocaust massacres and pogroms in Poland
Reinhard Heydrich | [
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229459 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Clear-channel%20station | Clear-channel station | A clear-channel station is an AM radio station in North America that has the highest protection from interference from other stations, particularly concerning night-time skywave propagation. The system exists to ensure the viability of cross-country or cross-continent radio service, and is enforced through a series of treaties and statutory laws. Known as Class A stations since 1982, they are occasionally still referred to by their former classifications of Class I-A (the highest classification), Class I-B (the next highest class), or Class I-N (for stations in Alaska too far away to cause interference to the primary clear-channel stations in the lower 48 states). The term "clear-channel" is used most often in the context of North America and the Caribbean, where the concept originated.
Since 1941, these stations have been required to maintain an effective radiated power of at least 10,000 watts to retain their status. Nearly all such stations in the United States, Canada and The Bahamas broadcast at 50,000 watts, with several clear-channel stations in Mexico going as high as 150,000 watts and XEW in Mexico City having operated at 250,000 watts for over 80 years. Cuba was originally included in the plan and had several stations given clear-channel status, but stopped participating after the Cuban Revolution of 1959.
Description
Sixty medium wave frequencies were set aside in 1941 under the North American Regional Broadcasting Agreement (NARBA) for nighttime use by only one, two or three specific AM stations, covering a wide area via skywave propagation. These frequencies were known as the "clear channels", and the stations on them are thus clear-channel stations. NARBA set aside 37 Class I-A frequencies and 27 Class I-B frequencies. The Class I-N stations in Alaska shared those same frequencies. Where only one station was assigned to a clear channel, the treaty provides that it must operate with a nominal power of 50 kilowatts or more. These were for the most part Class I-A. Stations on the other clear channels, with two or more stations, must use between 10 kW and 50 kW, and most often use a directional antenna so as not to interfere with each other. In addition to the frequencies, the treaty also specified the specific locations where stations on Class I-B channels could be built.
Some of the original NARBA signatories, including the United States, Canada and Mexico, have implemented bilateral agreements that supersede NARBA's terms, eliminating among other things the distinction between the two kinds of clear channel: the original "I-A" and "I-B" classes, and the newer, U.S.-only "I-N" class, which are now all included in class A. Classes "I-A" and "I-B" still mandate a minimum efficiency of 362.10 mV/m/kW at 1 km, whereas Class "I-N" is permitted to use the lower Class B minimum efficiency of 281.63 mV/m/kW at 1 km. There exist exceptions, where a former Class B station was elevated to Class A, yet it maintained its previous antenna system, or made only minor changes thereto.
Clear-channel stations, unlike all other AM stations in North America, have a secondary service area; that is, they are entitled to protection from interference to their nighttime skywave signals. Other stations are entitled, at most, to protection from nighttime interference in their primary service area—that which is covered by their groundwave signal.
Many stations beyond those listed in the treaty have been assigned to operate on a clear channel (and some had been long before NARBA came into effect in 1941). In most cases, those stations operate during the daytime only, so as not to interfere with the primary stations on those channels. Since the early 1980s, many such stations have been permitted to operate at night with such low power as to be deemed not to interfere; these stations are still considered "daytimers" and are not entitled to any protection from interference to their nighttime signals. Another group of stations, formerly known as class II stations, were licensed to operate on the former "I-B" clear channels with significant power at night, provided that they use directional antenna systems to minimize radiation towards the primary stations.
History
For the U.S., a form of clear channels first appeared in 1922 when the Commerce Department moved stations which had all used three (initially two) frequencies (two for entertainment stations, one for "weather and crop reports") onto 52 frequencies. Two were set aside for low-power local and regional stations, while the large stations in major cities each got their own frequency. A few frequencies were used on both the East and West coasts, which were considered far enough apart to limit interference. At that time, large stations were limited to 1000 watts and some licences were revoked.
On November 11, 1928 the United States implemented General Order 40, which classified each allocation in the AM band as either Local, Regional or Clear. The classification system considered stations in Canada as well. Gradually maximum power was increased to 50,000 watts: additionally there were some short-lived experiments with 250–500 kilowatt "super-power" operations. This system was continued in the 1941 NARBA system, although almost all stations shifted broadcast frequencies. The FCC's intent behind licensing 50,000 watt clear-channel stations was to provide reliable radio service to the thousands of Americans who lived in the vast rural areas of the United States. As a result, these stations usually reached large portions of North America at night. Radio fans (and staff at those stations) often affectionately call such stations "flamethrowers" or "blowtorches" because of their high power, and boast about their reach by a combined state and provincial count of their coverage area.
As early as the 1930s, debate raged in Washington, D.C., and in the U.S. broadcasting industry over whether continuation of the clear-channel system was justifiable. The licensees of clear-channel stations argued that, without their special status, many rural areas would receive no radio service at all. Rural broadcasters pointed out that most of the clear-channel stations were licensed to serve large cities on the two coasts, which made little sense for a service that was meant to provide radio to the vast rural areas in the middle of the country. The clear-channel licensees requested that the power limit on the "I-A" channels in the U.S., set at 50 kW by the FCC, be lifted entirely. They pointed to successful experiments made by WLW in Cincinnati before World War II, and in later years successful implementation by state broadcasters in Europe and the Middle East, as evidence that this would work and improve the service received by most Americans. Other broadcasters, particularly in the western states, argued to the contrary; that if the special status of the clear-channel stations was eliminated, they would be able to build facilities to provide local service to those rural "dark areas".
One of the most outspoken of the small-town broadcasters, Ed Craney of KGIR in Butte, Montana, went so far as to apply to move his station, then on the 1370 kHz regional channel, to a class I-A signal on 660 kHz, asking the FCC to downgrade the NBC New York flagship, WEAF, to make way for the Butte station. The FCC denied Craney's petition.
In 1941 several existing clear-channel stations applied for power increases to between 500 and 750 kW; dissemination of national defense information is cited as one reason this would be in the public interest. In October 1941 the FCC's engineering department presented a report on a complete reorganization of the clear-channel service; the report considered the possibility of "some 25 superpower stations of 500,000 watts or more, strategically located to provide maximum service" (as Broadcasting described it), and suggested that stations would have to be relocated away from the east and west coasts in such a scenario, as coastal stations waste energy over the oceans. One complication the FCC considered was the "Wheeler resolution", passed by the United States Senate in 1938, expressing the view of the Senate that radio stations should be limited to a maximum power of 50 kW.
One station, KOB in Albuquerque, New Mexico, fought a long legal battle against the Federal Communications Commission (FCC) and New York's WABC for the right to move from a regional channel to a clear channel, 770 kHz, arguing that the New York signal was so weak in the mountain west that it served no one. KOB eventually won the argument in the late 1960s; it and several other western stations were allowed to move to eastern clear channels. (Western clear channels, such as 680 in San Francisco, had been "duplicated" in the eastern states for many years.) These new class II-A assignments (in places like Boise, Idaho; Las Vegas and Reno, Nevada; Lexington, Nebraska; Casper, Wyoming; Kalispell, Montana; and others) began what would later be called "the breakdown of the clear channels". The class I-A station owners' proposal to increase power fifteenfold was not immediately quashed, but the new II-A stations would make it effectively impossible for stations on the duplicated channels to do so, and the owners eventually lost interest. That proposal was finally taken off the FCC's docket in the late 1970s.
On May 29, 1980 the FCC voted to limit the protection for all clear-channel stations to a 750-mile (1 207 km) radius around the transmitter. Stations on those frequencies outside the area of protection were no longer required to sign off or power down after sundown.
In 1987 the FCC changed its rules to prohibit applications for new "class-D" stations. (Class-D stations have night power between zero and 250 watts, and frequently operate on clear channels.) However, any existing station could voluntarily relinquish nighttime authority, thereby becoming a class-D, and several have done so since the rule change.
Daytimers
Daytimers (also known as daytime-only stations) are AM radio stations that are limited to broadcasting during the daytime only, as their signals would interfere with clear-channel and other radio stations at night, when solar radiation is reduced, and medium wave radio signals can propagate much farther. Such stations are allowed three manners of operation after sunset; to sign off the air completely until sunrise, reduce power (sometimes dramatically, to only a few watts), or switch to a nighttime-only frequency (such as the Detroit area's WNZK, which broadcasts on 690 during the day, and on 680 at night). Their broadcast class is Class D. A great number of these stations use FM translators to continue their broadcasts overnight, and some also broadcast on the internet and have separate streams that air when the station's over-the-air signal has signed off.
Daytime-only stations first originated in the late 1920s shortly after General Order 40 was imposed. One of the first to do so was WKEN in Kenmore, New York (now WUFO). WKEN proposed the concept to avoid the then-common practice of having to share one frequency between multiple stations; under General Order 40, WKEN would have had to share its frequency with WKBW, and the daytime-only proposal allowed both stations their own frequency. WUFO remains a daytime-only station to the present day, albeit with a 24/7 FM translator introduced in mid-2017.
As of 2013, daytimers only exist in the United States and Mexico. The last Canadian daytime station, CKOT, signed off on February 17 of that year after converting to the FM band. There were 61 daytimers in Mexico in 2015.
List of all clear-channel stations
The following two tables show all of the class-A stations in North America.
First is the Canada, Mexico, and contiguous United States table, for the former class I-A and class I-B stations. General Order 40 allocations are in bold.
Second is the Alaska table, for the former class I-N stations.
Under the most recent treaty, Mexican Class A stations that previously operated with 50 kW or less (but a minimum of 10 kW nights) may increase power to 100 kW days while retaining their 10 kW night operation. This created some anomalies where stations licensed for 10 kW during all hours could increase power to 100 kW days and 10 kW nights, unless a directional antenna system was installed for nights, in which case the maximum night power was 50 kW. Additionally, one Class B station that had been operating non-directionally with 100 kW days and 50 kW nights was required to reduce power to 50 kW during all hours.
Notes
List of former clear-channel stations
See also
Regulation of radio broadcast in the United States
Clear Channel Communications
MW DX
References
External links
AM Station Classes - Clear, Regional, and Local Channels (FCC Website)
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229460 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sporadic%20E%20propagation | Sporadic E propagation | Sporadic E (abbreviated Es or SpE) is an unusual form of radio propagation using characteristics of the Earth's ionosphere. Whereas most forms of skywave propagation use the normal and cyclic ionization properties of the ionosphere's F region to refract (or "bend") radio signals back toward the Earth's surface, sporadic E propagation bounces signals off smaller "clouds" of unusually ionized atmospheric gas in the lower E region (located at altitudes of approx. 90 to 160 km; 50 to 100 miles). This occasionally allows for long-distance communication at VHF frequencies not usually well-suited to such communication.
Communication distances of 800–2200 km (500 to 1400 miles) can occur using a single Es cloud. This variability in distance depends on a number of factors, including cloud height and density. MUF also varies widely, but most commonly falls in the 25 – 150 MHz range, which includes the FM broadcast band (87.5–108 MHz), Band I VHF television (American channels 2-6, Russian channels 1-5, and European channels 2-C, which are no longer used in Western Europe), CB radio (27 MHz) and the amateur radio 2-meter, 4-meter, 6-meter, and 10-meter bands. Strong events have allowed propagation at frequencies as high as 250 MHz.
As its name suggests, sporadic E is an abnormal event, but can happen at almost any time; it does, however, display seasonal patterns. Sporadic E activity peaks predictably in the summertime in both hemispheres. In North America, the peak is most noticeable in mid-to-late June, trailing off through late July and into early August. A much smaller peak is seen around the winter solstice. Activity usually begins in mid-December in the southern hemisphere, with the days immediately after Christmas being the most active period.
On June 12, 2009, sporadic E allowed some television viewers in the eastern United States to see VHF analog TV stations from other states at great distances, in places and on TV channels where local stations had already done their permanent analog shutdown on the final day of the DTV transition in the United States. This was possible because VHF has been mostly avoided by digital TV stations, leaving the analog stations the last ones on the band. As of April, 2010, it was possible for many Americans to see Canadian and Mexican analog in this manner when sporadic-E occurs, until those countries do their own analog shutdowns over the following few years.
In some cases it is even possible to get DTV Es receptions from well over 1000 miles (1600 km), since some US stations still use Band 1 even for DTV; these signals are characterized for being either extremely clear or extremely blocky. They are also much easier to identify. Furthermore, ATSC 3.0 could make Es DTV reception easier due to its modulation scheme being more resistant to multipath propagation as well as impulse noise encountered on those frequencies.
Characteristics
Television and FM signals received via Sporadic E can be extremely strong and range in strength over a short period from just detectable to overloading. Although polarisation shift can occur, single-hop Sporadic E signals tend to remain in the original transmitted polarisation. Long single-hop () Sporadic E television signals tend to be more stable and relatively free of multipath images. Shorter-skip () signals tend to be reflected from more than one part of the Sporadic E layer, resulting in multiple images and ghosting, with phase reversal at times. Picture degradation and signal-strength attenuation increases with each subsequent Sporadic E hop.
Sporadic E usually affects the lower VHF band I (TV channels 2–6, E2-E4 and R1-R5) and band II (88–108 MHz FM broadcast band). A 1945 FCC engineering study concluded that Sporadic E caused interference issues 1% of the time for a station broadcasting at 42 MHz, but only .01% for one at 84 MHz. The typical expected distances are about . However, under exceptional circumstances, a highly ionized Es cloud can propagate band I VHF signals down to approximately . When short-skip Es reception occurs, i.e., under in band I, there is a greater possibility that the ionized Es cloud will be capable of reflecting a signal at a much higher frequency—i.e., a VHF band 3 channel—since a sharp reflection angle (short skip) favours low frequencies, a shallower reflection angle from the same ionized cloud will favour a higher frequency. In this case even Sporadic E DVB-T reception might be possible if a mux uses VHF band 3, preferably channel E5, especially if QPSK is used, due to its low signal requirements. In addition to that, Band 3 signals are more affected by Tropospheric propagation which may indirectly increase the actual MUF because the signals only need to be refracted to low enough elevations that they get refracted towards the ground by the troposphere.
At polar latitudes, Sporadic E can accompany auroras and associated disturbed magnetic conditions and is called Auroral-E.
No conclusive theory has yet been formulated as to the origin of Sporadic E. Attempts to connect the incidence of Sporadic E with the eleven-year Sunspot cycle have provided tentative correlations. There seems to be a positive correlation between sunspot maximum and Es activity in Europe. Conversely, there seems to be a negative correlation between maximum sunspot activity and Es activity in Australasia.
Equatorial E-skip
Equatorial E-skip is a regular daytime occurrence over the equatorial regions and is common in the temperate latitudes in late spring, early summer and, to a lesser degree, in early winter. For receiving stations located within +/− 10 degrees of the geomagnetic equator, equatorial E-skip can be expected on most days throughout the year, peaking around midday local time.
Polar E-skip
Unlike equatorial or mid-latitude Es, sporadic E propagation over polar paths is rare and gives unexpected contacts between locations surrounding the Arctic, even during periods of low solar activity.
Notable sporadic E DX receptions
In 1939, there were some news reports of reception of an early Italian television service in England about away.
The Medford Mail Tribune in Medford, Oregon reported on June 1, 1953, that KGNC-TV, Channel 4 in Amarillo, and KFEL-TV, Channel 2 from Denver had been received on the Trowbridge and Flynn Electric Company's television set at their Court Street warehouse and, with a pre-amplifier, a New York station's test pattern was reportedly picked up.
The June 4, 1953 issue of the Brimfield News in Brimfield, Illinois reported that area residents "'saw' Salt Lake City Monday (via Television)." It reported that a local farm family witnessed interference to WHBF-TV, Channel 4 of Rock Island, Illinois by KDYL-TV in Salt Lake City, which "blocked out all their favorite programs."
In June 1981, Rijn Muntjewerff (the Netherlands) received 55.25 MHz TV-2 Guaiba, Porto Alegre, Brazil, via a combination of sporadic E and afternoon TEP at a distance of .
On May 30, 2003, Girard Westerberg made the first known reception of digital television by sporadic E when he decoded the PSIP ID of KOTA-DT (broadcasting on channel 2 in Rapid City, South Dakota) in Lexington, Kentucky, away.
On June 26, 2003, Paul Logan (Lisnaskea, Northern Ireland) was the first DXer to receive transatlantic Sporadic E at frequencies above 88 MHz. Stations received included 88.5 MHz WHCF Bangor, Maine (), and 97.5 MHz WFRY Watertown, New York (). David Hamilton from Cumnock in Ayrshire, Scotland received CBTB from Baie Verte, Newfoundland and Labrador, Canada on 97.1 MHz on this day also.
On July 20, 2003, Jozsef Nemeth from (Győr, Hungary) received TR3 Radio Miras on OIRT FM 70.61 MHz from Türkmenistan, Uly Balkan transmitter away.
On June 15, 2005, Danny Oglethorpe in Shreveport, Louisiana received a test signal from KBEJ-TV (channel 2, Fredericksburg, Texas) by Sporadic E at a very short distance for this propagation mode: .
On June 26, 2009, Paul Logan (Lisnaskea, Northern Ireland) had transatlantic Sporadic-E receptions on the FM band from eight US States and one Canadian Province. The most distant signal received was that of 90.7 WVAS Radio in Montgomery, Alabama at 6456 km / 4012 miles. This reception was recorded and later confirmed by WVAS Newsreader Marcus Hyles.
On November 24, 2016, many radio listeners from Australia and New Zealand were able to listen to radio stations from other states of Australia, overlapping many radio signals. Many people complained about this, saying that many of their favourite radio stations got replaced by other radio stations from other states. Later, the ACMA confirmed that this was caused by Sporadic E.
See also
TV and FM DX
Notes
Further reading
Radio Science (1972): "Special Issue on sporadic E", 7, (3)
Radio Science (1975): "Special Issue on recent advances in the physics and chemistry of the E region", 10, (3)
Mid-Latitude Sporadic-E: A Review
Smith, Ernest K. Worldwide Occurrence of Sporadic E. U.S. Department of Commerce, National Bureau of Standards, 1957.
VHF PROPAGATION, A GUIDE FOR RADIO AMATEURS (Neubeck, West, CQ Publications)
One account of the DTV transition/Es event on June 12, 2009
Sporadic E overview
Ionosphere
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229466 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/National%20Geographic | National Geographic | National Geographic (formerly the National Geographic Magazine, sometimes branded as NAT GEO) is an American monthly magazine published by the National Geographic Society. Known for its photojournalism, it is one of the most widely read magazines of all time.
The magazine was founded in 1888 as a scholarly journal, nine months after the establishment of the society. In 1905, it began including pictures, a style for which it became well-known. Its first color photos appeared in the 1910s. During the Cold War, the magazine committed itself to presenting a balanced view of the physical and human geography of nations beyond the Iron Curtain. In later years, the magazine became outspoken on environmental issues. Since 2019, controlling interest has been held by The Walt Disney Company.
Topics of features generally concern science, geography, history, and world culture. The magazine is well known for its distinctive appearance: a thick square-bound glossy format with a yellow rectangular border. Map supplements from National Geographic Maps are included with subscriptions. It is available in a traditional printed edition and an interactive online edition.
, the magazine was circulated worldwide in nearly 40 local-language editions and had a global circulation of at least 6.5million per month (down from about 12 million in the late 1980s), including 3.5 million within the U.S. , its Instagram page has 191million followers, the most of any account not belonging to an individual celebrity. , the magazine had won 25 National Magazine Awards.
History
The first issue of the National Geographic Magazine was published on September 22, 1888, nine months after the Society was founded. It was initially a scholarly journal sent to 165 charter members and currently it reaches the hands of 40 million people each month. Starting with its January 1905 publication of several full-page pictures of Tibet in 1900–01, the magazine changed from being a text-oriented publication closer to a scientific journal to featuring extensive pictorial content, and became well known for this style. The June 1985 cover portrait of the presumed to be 12-year-old Afghan girl Sharbat Gula, shot by photographer Steve McCurry, became one of the magazine's most recognizable images.
National Geographic Kids, the children's version of the magazine, was launched in 1975 under the name National Geographic World.
In the late 1990s, the magazine began publishing The Complete National Geographic, an electronic compendium of every past issue of the magazine. It was then sued over copyright of the magazine as a collective work in Greenberg v. National Geographic and other cases, and temporarily withdrew the availability of the compilation. The magazine would prevail in the dispute, and in July 2009, resumed republishing containing all past issues through December 2008. The collection was later updated to make more recent issues available, and the archive and electronic edition of the magazine are available online to the magazine's subscribers.
In September 2015, the National Geographic Society moved the magazine to a new partnership, National Geographic Partners, in which 21st Century Fox held a 73% controlling interest.
From December 2017 until March 2019, Disney acquired 21st Century Fox, including the latter's interest in National Geographic Partners. NG Media publishing unit was operationally transferred into Disney Publishing Worldwide.
Administration
The current editor-in-chief of the magazine is Susan Goldberg. Goldberg is also Editorial Director for National Geographic Partners, overseeing the print and digital expression of National Geographic's editorial content across its media platforms including National Geographic magazine. She is responsible for the news, National Geographic Traveler magazine, National Geographic History magazine, and maps. She is also responsible for all the editorial digital content with the exception of National Geographic Books and Kids. Goldberg reports to Gary Knell, CEO of National Geographic Partners.
Editors-in-chief
The magazine had a single "editor" from 1888 to 1920. From 1920 to 1967, the chief editorship was held by the president of the National Geographic Society. Since 1967, the magazine has been overseen by its own "editor" and/or "editor-in-chief". The list of editors-in-chief includes three generations of the Grosvenor family between 1903 and 1980.
John Hyde: (October 1888 – September 1900; Editor-in-Chief: September 1900 – February 1903)
Gilbert Hovey Grosvenor (1875–1966): (Editor-in-Chief: February 1903 – January 1920; Managing Editor: September 1900 – February 1903; Assistant Editor: May 1899 – September 1900)
Gilbert Hovey Grosvenor: (1920–1954) (president of the society and editor-in-chief at the same time)
John Oliver La Gorce (1879–1959): (May 1954 – January 1957) (president of the society at the same time)
Melville Bell Grosvenor (1901–1982): (January 1957 – August 1967) (president of the society at the same time) (thereafter editor-in-chief to 1977)
Frederick Vosburgh (1905–2005): (August 1967 – October 1970)
Gilbert Melville Grosvenor (born 1931): (October 1970 – July 1980) (then became president of the society)
Wilbur E. Garrett: (July 1980 – April 1990)
William Graves: (April 1990 – December 1994)
William L. Allen: (January 1995 – January 2005)
Chris Johns: (January 2005 – April 2014) (first "editor-in-chief" since MBG)
Susan Goldberg: (April 2014 – present)
Articles
During the Cold War, the magazine committed itself to presenting a balanced view of the physical and human geography of nations beyond the Iron Curtain. The magazine printed articles on Berlin, de-occupied Austria, the Soviet Union, and Communist China that deliberately downplayed politics to focus on culture. In its coverage of the Space Race, National Geographic focused on the scientific achievement while largely avoiding reference to the race's connection to nuclear arms buildup. There were also many articles in the 1930s, 1940s and 1950s about the individual states and their resources, along with supplementary maps of each state. Many of these articles were written by longtime staff such as Frederick Simpich. There were also articles about biology and science topics.
In later years, articles became outspoken on issues such as environmental issues, deforestation, chemical pollution, global warming, and endangered species. Series of articles were included focusing on the history and varied uses of specific products such as a single metal, gem, food crop, or agricultural product, or an archaeological discovery. Occasionally an entire month's issue would be devoted to a single country, past civilization, a natural resource whose future is endangered, or other theme. In recent decades, the National Geographic Society has unveiled other magazines with different focuses. Whereas in the past, the magazine featured lengthy expositions, recent issues have shorter articles.
Photography
In addition to being well known for articles about scenery, history, and the most distant corners of the world, the magazine has been recognized for its book-like quality and its standard of photography. It was during the tenure of Society President Alexander Graham Bell and editor Gilbert H. Grosvenor (GHG) that the significance of illustration was first emphasized, in spite of criticism from some of the Board of Managers who considered the many illustrations an indicator of an “unscientific” conception of geography. By 1910, photographs had become the magazine's trademark and Grosvenor was constantly on the search for "dynamical pictures" as Graham Bell called them, particularly those that provided a sense of motion in a still image. In 1915, GHG began building the group of staff photographers and providing them with advanced tools including the latest darkroom.
The magazine began to feature some pages of color photography in the early 1930s, when this technology was still in its early development. During the mid-1930s, Luis Marden (1913–2003), a writer and photographer for National Geographic, convinced the magazine to allow its photographers to use the so-called "miniature" 35 mm Leica cameras loaded with Kodachrome film over bulkier cameras with heavy glass plates that required the use of tripods. In 1959, the magazine started publishing small photographs on its covers, later becoming larger photographs. National Geographic photography quickly shifted to digital photography for both its printed magazine and its website. In subsequent years, the cover, while keeping its yellow border, shed its oak leaf trim and bare table of contents, to allow for a full page photograph taken for one of the month's articles. Issues of National Geographic are often kept by subscribers for years and re-sold at thrift stores as collectibles. The standard for photography has remained high over the subsequent decades and the magazine is still illustrated with some of the highest-quality photojournalism in the world. In 2006, National Geographic began an international photography competition, with over eighteen countries participating.
In conservative Muslim countries like Iran and Malaysia, photographs featuring topless or scantily clad members of primitive tribal societies are often blacked out; buyers and subscribers often complain that this practice decreases the artistic value of the photographs for which National Geographic is known.
Gallery
Map supplements
Supplementing the articles, the magazine sometimes provides maps of the regions visited.
National Geographic Maps (originally the Cartographic Division) became a division of the National Geographic Society in 1915. The first supplement map, which appeared in the May 1918 issue of the magazine, titled The Western Theatre of War, served as a reference for overseas military personnel and soldiers' families alike. On some occasions, the Society's map archives have been used by the United States government in instances where its own cartographic resources were limited. President Franklin D. Roosevelt's White House map room was filled with National Geographic maps. A National Geographic map of Europe is featured in the displays of the Winston Churchill museum in London showing Churchill's markings at the Yalta Conference where the Allied leaders divided post-war Europe.
In 2001, National Geographic released an eight-CD-ROM set containing all its maps from 1888 to December 2000. Printed versions are also available from the National Geographic website.
Language editions
In April 1995, National Geographic began publishing in Japanese, its first local language edition. The magazine is currently published in 30 local editions around the world.
The following local-language editions have been discontinued:
In association with Trends Publications in Beijing and IDG Asia, National Geographic has been authorized for "copyright cooperation" in China to publish the yellow-border magazine, which launched with the July 2007 issue of the magazine with an event in Beijing on July 10, 2007, and another event on December 6, 2007, in Beijing also celebrating the 29th anniversary of normalization of U.S.–China relations featuring former President Jimmy Carter. The mainland China version is one of the two local-language editions that bump the National Geographic logo off its header in favor of a local-language logo; the other one is the Persian version published under the name Gita Nama.
Worldwide editions are sold on newsstands in addition to regular subscriptions. In several countries, such as Hungary, Slovenia, Croatia, Turkey and Ukraine National Geographic paved the way for a subscription model in addition to traditional newsstand sales.In the United States, newsstand sales began in 1998; previously, membership in the National Geographic Society was the only way to receive the magazine.
Awards
On May 1, 2008, National Geographic won three National Magazine Awards—an award solely for its written content—in the reporting category for an article by Peter Hessler on the Chinese economy; an award in the photojournalism category for work by John Stanmeyer on malaria in the Third World; and a prestigious award for general excellence.
Between 1980 and 2011 the magazine has won a total of 24 National Magazine Awards.
In May 2006, 2007, and 2011 National Geographic magazine won the American Society of Magazine Editors' General Excellence Award in the over two million circulation category. In 2010, National Geographic Magazine received the top ASME awards for photojournalism and essay. In 2011, National Geographic Magazine received the top-award from ASME—the Magazine of the Year Award.
In April 2014, National Geographic received the National Magazine Award ("Ellie") for best tablet edition for its multimedia presentation of Robert Draper's story "The Last Chase," about the final days of a tornado researcher who was killed in the line of duty.
In February 2017, National Geographic received the National Magazine Award ("Ellie") for best website. National Geographic won the 2020 Webby Award for News & Magazines in the category Apps, Mobile & Voice. National Geographic won the 2020 Webby Award and Webby People's Voice Award for Magazine in the category Web.
Controversies
On the magazine's February 1982 cover, the pyramids of Giza were altered, resulting in the first major scandal of the digital photography age and contributing to photography's "waning credibility".
The cover of the October 1988 issue featured a photo of a large ivory male portrait whose authenticity, particularly the alleged Ice Age provenance, has been questioned.
In 1999, the magazine was embroiled in the Archaeoraptor scandal, in which it purported to have a fossil linking birds to dinosaurs. The fossil was a forgery.
In 2010, the magazine's Your Shot competition was awarded to William Lascelles for a photograph presented as a portrait of a dog with fighter jets flying over its shoulder. Lascelles had, in reality, created the image using photo editing software.
In March 2018, the editor of National Geographic, Susan Goldberg, said that historically the magazine's coverage of people around the world had been racist. Goldberg stated that the magazine ignored non-white Americans and showed different groups as exotic, thereby promoting racial clichés.
See also
Asian Geographic
Australian Geographic
Canadian Geographic and Géographica in Canada
Chinese National Geography (founded in 1949)
Chris Johns (photographer), staff photographer and subsequently, editor-in-chief (2005–2014) of the magazine
GEO, Germany
Joel Sartore staff photographer, head of The Photo Ark project
John Patric, noted writer for National Geographic during the 1930s and 1940s
National Geographic Kids
National Geographic Traveler
The Photo Ark
Royal Geographical Society
Vokrug sveta (Russian: Around the World)
References
Further reading
Robert M. Poole, Explorers House: National Geographic and the World it Made, 2004; reprint, Penguin Press, 2006,
Stephanie L. Hawkins, American Iconographic: "National Geographic," Global Culture, and the Visual Imagination, University of Virginia Press, 2010, , 264 pages. A scholarly study of the magazine's rise as a cultural institution that uses the letters of its founders and its readers; argues that National Geographic encouraged readers to question Western values and identify with others.
Moseley, W.G. 2005. “Reflecting on National Geographic Magazine and Academic Geography: The September 2005 Special Issue on Africa” African Geographical Review. 24: 93–100.
External links
All the magazine's covers published since 1888 until the year 2000
Archived National Geographic magazines on the Internet Archive
1888 establishments in Washington, D.C.
Magazines established in 1888
Magazines published in Washington, D.C.
Monthly magazines published in the United States
National Geographic Partners
National Geographic Society magazines
Science and technology magazines published in the United States | [
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229468 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cyberman | Cyberman | The Cybermen are a fictional race of cyborgs who are among the most persistent enemies of The Doctor in the British science fiction television programme Doctor Who. Within the context of the series, the Cybermen are a species of emotionless space-faring cyborgs who, often painfully, surgically convert human beings (or other similar species) to join and populate their ranks. First appearing in 1966, the Cybermen were created by Dr. Kit Pedler (the unofficial scientific advisor to the show) and story editor Gerry Davis.
The Cybermen have seen many redesigns and costume changes over Doctor Whos long run, as well as a number of varying origin stories. In their first appearance, The Tenth Planet (1966), they are humans from Earth's nearly identical "twin planet" of Mondas who upgraded themselves into cyborgs in a bid for self-preservation. Forty years later, the two-part story, "Rise of the Cybermen" and "The Age of Steel" (2006), depicted the Cybermen as a business corporation's invention on a parallel universe version of Earth (albeit with a reference to the Cybermen of Mondas). Doctor Who audio dramas, novels, and comic books have also elaborated on existing origin stories or presented alternatives. The 2017 episode, "The Doctor Falls", explains the different origins as parallel evolution, due to the inevitability of humans and human-like species attempting to upgrade themselves through technology; this perspective resolves continuity differences in the Cybermen's history.
A mainstay of Doctor Who since the 1960s, the Cybermen have also appeared in related programs and spin-off media, including novels, audiobooks, comic books, and video games. Cybermen stories were produced in officially licensed Doctor Who products between 1989 and 2005, when the TV show was off the air, with writers either filling historical gaps or depicting new encounters between them and the Doctor. The species also appeared in the Doctor Who TV spin-off Torchwood, appearing in the fourth episode, "Cyberwoman" (2006).
Creation
The name "Cyberman" comes from cybernetics, a term used in Norbert Wiener's book Cybernetics or Control and Communication in the Animal and the Machine (MIT Press, 1948). Wiener used the term in reference to the control of complex systems, particularly self-regulating control systems, in the animal world and in mechanical networks. By 1960, doctors were researching surgical or mechanical augmentation of humans and animals to operate machinery in space, leading to the portmanteau "cyborg", for "cybernetic organism".
In the 1960s, "spare-part" surgery began with the development of gigantic heart-lung machines. Public discussion included the possibility of wiring amputees' nerve endings directly into machines. In 1963, Kit Pedler discussed with his wife (who was also a doctor) what would happen if a person had so many prostheses that they could no longer distinguish themselves between man and machine. He got the opportunity to develop this idea when, in 1966, after an appearance on the BBC science programmes Tomorrow's World and Horizon, the BBC hired him to consult on the Doctor Who serial The War Machines (1966). That eventually led to him writing, with Gerry Davis, The Tenth Planet (1966) for Doctor Who.
Pedler, influenced by the logic-driven Treens from the Dan Dare comic strip, originally envisaged the Cybermen as "space monks", but was persuaded by Davis to concentrate on his fears about the direction of spare-part surgery. The Cybermen were originally imagined as human but with plastic and metal prostheses. The Cybermen of The Tenth Planet still have human hands, and their facial structures are visible beneath the masks they wear, but over time they evolved into metallic, more fully mechanized designs.
A variety of specialized forms of Cybermen have been shown, in particular Cyber Leaders and Cyber Controllers, with power to command other Cybermen.
Appearances
Television
Classic series (1963–1996)
The Cybermen first appear in the serial The Tenth Planet in 1966, set in 1986. This serial explains how, millions of years ago, Earth had a twin planet known as Mondas that was knocked out of solar orbit and drifted into deep space. The Mondasians, already far in advance of Earth's technology and fearful for their race's survival, replaced most of their bodies with cybernetic parts. Having eventually removed all emotion from their brains (to maintain their sanity), the natives installed a drive propulsion system to pilot the planet itself through space. As the original race was limited in numbers and were continually being depleted, the Mondasians – now Cybermen – became a race of conquerors who reproduced by forcibly changing other organic beings into Cybermen. The First Doctor (William Hartnell) opposes these Cybermen when they attempt to drain the Earth's energy to make way for Mondas' return to the solar system; in this encounter, Mondas absorbs too much energy from Earth, destroying it and all Cybermen on Earth. The adventure takes its physical toll on the Doctor, forcing him to regenerate for the first time, becoming the Second Doctor (Patrick Troughton).
The Cybermen next appeared later in the same television season in The Moonbase (1967) opposite the Second Doctor. In 2070, the Cybermen attempt to remotely destroy the Earth by affecting its weather patterns with a device called the Gravitron. However, the Gravitron is used against them, hurling them into space. In the following season, The Tomb of the Cybermen saw a 25th Century human expedition discover sarcophagi containing hibernating Cybermen on the planet Telos, where the creatures arise and attack. This episode introduced the cybermats, small mechanical scouts used by the Cybermen, as well as the Cyber Controller. In The Wheel in Space (1968), the Doctor and his crew face off against the Cybermen on a marooned Earth space station in the 21st Century. This episode introduces the Cyber-Planner, an immobile unit which directs the Cybermen. The Cybermen plan to take over the space station, after which their fleet will invade Earth. The Doctor uses an x-ray laser to destroy the Cybermen. In the next season, The Invasion has the Doctor and his companions visit late 20th century England, where he discovers an army of Cybermen are hidden on Earth and working with magnate Tobias Vaughn (Kevin Stoney) to invade Earth. Their invasion is defeated by the Doctor and the military support of the newly formed United Nations Intelligence Taskforce.
The Cybermen did not face the Third Doctor (Jon Pertwee) during his era, but one is shown as part of an exhibit in Carnival of Monsters (1973). The Third Doctor would however face Cybermen in the 20th anniversary special The Five Doctors (1983).
The Fourth Doctor (Tom Baker) is next to encounter a group of Cybermen in Revenge of the Cybermen (1975). These Cybermen are depicted as the wandering remnants of a fallen empire, ravaged by the so-called Cyber-Wars against victorious humanity, which had exploited the Cybermen's weakness to gold. These Cybermen attempt to restore the glory of their race by destroying the gold-rich asteroid Voga.
Cybermen were not seen again until Earthshock (1982), in which the Fifth Doctor (Peter Davison) encounters Cybermen in Earth in the year 2526. The Cybermen plan to destroy the planet with a large bomb while alien dignitaries visit Earth to discuss the ongoing Cyber-Wars. After the Doctor foils this plan, they decide to crash their freighter into the planet to achieve the same result. The freighter is hurled back in time, however, and the Doctor's companion, boy genius Adric (Matthew Waterhouse), is trapped on board as the freighter crashes into prehistoric Earth, killing Adric and triggering the K-T extinction event. The Cybermen appear once more in the Fifth Doctor's era, alongside the four previous Doctors, in The Five Doctors (1983), when they are transported to the Doctor's home planet of Gallifrey by the Time Lord President Borusa (Philip Latham).
Attack of the Cybermen (1985) is set much earlier in the Cyber-Wars than Revenge—during a time when the Cybermen faced defeat following the human invention of the glittergun and the discovery of gold-rich Voga. The Cybermen attempt to use a time machine to avert the destruction of Mondas. Their plan fails and, due to the intervention of the Sixth Doctor (Colin Baker), they also lose their adopted homeworld of Telos to its original inhabitants, the Cryons.
The Cybermen appeared for a final time in the classic series in Silver Nemesis (1988), in which a fleet of Cybermen warships assemble to convert Earth into a new Mondas. A Cybermen scouting party is sent to Earth in search of the legendary Nemesis statue, a Time Lord artefact of immense power, made of the "living metal" validium. The intervention of the Seventh Doctor (Sylvester McCoy) and his companion Ace (Sophie Aldred), however, ensures that the Nemesis destroys the entire cyber-fleet instead.
Between the series' cancellation and its subsequent revival, the Cybermen make one brief appearance, in the 1993 Children in Need special Dimensions in Time, as one of several enemies used by evil Time Lady the Rani (Kate O'Mara) to hunt the Doctor.
Revived series (2005–present)
Doctor Who was revived after a long hiatus by new showrunner Russell T Davies in 2005. By then, development of CGI let script-writers include large numbers of Cybermen or Daleks in stories. In the first series of the revived programme, the Cybermen do not appear except for the inactive head of one, which is seen in a private museum of alien artefacts on Earth in the episode "Dalek". For Series 2 in 2006, Cybermen were reintroduced with a new origin story set in a parallel universe. In the "Rise of the Cybermen" and "The Age of Steel" two-part story, the Tenth Doctor (David Tennant) and his companions, Rose Tyler (Billie Piper) and Mickey Smith (Noel Clarke), crash land in a parallel London where the Cybermen are being created on modern-day Earth. The Cybermen are created by the owner of Cybus Industries, the dying transhumanist mad scientist John Lumic (Roger Lloyd-Pack). Lumic's Cybermen successfully convert much of the world's population by placing their human brains into robotic shells. The Doctor and his friends free London from their control. A human resistance group, the Preachers, then sets about to clean up the remainder of Lumic's factories around the world. The Cybermen reappear in the 2006 two-part finale "Army of Ghosts" and "Doomsday", exploiting a breach between universes to invade the Doctor's Earth. This breach is caused by a transport device belonging to the Daleks, who reveal themselves and trigger all-out war between the two species. The Doctor ultimately re-opens the breach, causing the Cybermen and all but a few Daleks to become trapped inside before it is re-sealed. Cybermen next appear in the 2008 Doctor Who Christmas special "The Next Doctor", emerging in 1851 London after the Daleks damaged the walls of reality in the previous episode, "Journey's End". They attempt to raise a new army on Earth using period technology, but are again foiled by the Doctor.
After Steven Moffat took over the role of executive producer in 2010, Cybermen of essentially the design introduced by Davies continued to appear. No explicit reference is made to their origin, but generally the stylised 'c' (for Cybus Corporation) on their breastplate had been replaced by a plain circle, implying that they were not from the parallel universe. They appear in "The Pandorica Opens" (2010) alongside many of the Doctor's recurring enemies as part of an alliance dedicated to stopping him, arriving in cyber ships in 102 CE. They appear again in "A Good Man Goes to War" (2011), when the Eleventh Doctor's (Matt Smith) companion Rory Williams (Arthur Darvill) demands the location of a secret asteroid base in a quadrant of space which they monitor in the 52nd century. The Doctor destroys a large fleet of their spaceships to indicate their seriousness. In "Closing Time", an ancient slumbering cyber ship is awakened in 2011 Colchester, and the Doctor and his friend Craig Owens (James Corden) work together to repel a Cyberman invasion. This episode also reintroduces cybermats to the series. Neil Gaiman's episode "Nightmare in Silver" (2013) depicts the re-emergence of the Cybermen in the distant future, following what was believed to be their complete eradication by humankind. These redesigned Cybermen have discarded many of their limitations, exhibiting increased speed, rapid upgrading to overcome weaknesses, and the ability to cyberconvert any biological organism into their ranks. The Eleventh Doctor undergoes a partial cyber-conversion, and mentally duels with a Cyber-Planner for control of his body. The emperor of the galaxy (Warwick Davis) orders a planet's destruction to wipe out the Cyberman, but one intact cybermite (new, minuscule cybermat variants) is later seen floating through space. A dead Cyberman head is briefly shown in the UNIT Black Archive in "The Day of the Doctor", and in "The Time of the Doctor" they are among the many species which besiege the planet Trenzalore for centuries. In the latter episode, the Doctor also uses a disembodied Cyberman head, devoid of any remaining organic parts; named "Handles", he serves as the Doctor's personal assistant and confidant for several centuries until his eventual 'death' brings the Doctor to tears.
In the two-part finale of the 2014 series, "Dark Water" and "Death in Heaven", the Twelfth Doctor (Peter Capaldi) learns too late that the Cybermen have formed an alliance with a female incarnation of the Master, Missy (Michelle Gomez), who is converting the stolen bodies of the dead into an army. A cyberconversion process begins on all of Earth's dead. Missy offers the Doctor control of the Cybermen army so they can rule the universe together, but her plan is foiled when Danny Pink (Samuel Anderson), the cyber-converted boyfriend of the Doctor's companion Clara Oswald (Jenna Coleman), resists his programming and destroys himself along with all the other Cybermen. Cybermen are next seen in "Face the Raven" (2015), among the various alien refugees hiding in London, and in series finale "Hell Bent", in which a rusted Cyberman is imprisoned in the Cloisters of Gallifrey. The origin of another group of Cybermen is told in the two-part Series 10 finale "World Enough and Time" and "The Doctor Falls", when a Mondasian colony ship is stuck escaping the gravity of a black hole for many years. The human-like Mondasians, assisted unknowingly by the Master (John Simm), begin upgrading their population to adapt to life aboard the decaying ship.
The Doctor reflects on all the societies that have created Cybermen and concludes that the Cybermen is an example of parallel evolution; the Cybermen will always arise and be developed on human-like species across the universe. Ultimately, this encounter with the Cybermen proves brutal: the Doctor's companion Bill Potts (Pearl Mackie) is cyberconverted; two incarnations of the Master (Simm and Gomez) kill one another in a disagreement over standing alongside the Doctor; and the Doctor's companion Nardole (Matt Lucas) is left behind on the ship to look after human colonists, for whom inevitable cyberconversion has been delayed but not averted, though the Doctor manages to destroy most of the Cybermen in a massive explosion. The Doctor, exhausted and wounded to a point of nearing death, awakens in his TARDIS and begins to regenerate. At the same time, the cyberconverted Bill is saved by her old flame Heather who turns her into the same sort of being Heather became after being infected by a sentient liquid.
Cybermen feature heavily in Series 12 (2020). In "Fugitive of the Judoon", experienced companion Captain Jack Harkness (John Barrowman) sends a message to the Thirteenth Doctor (Jodie Whittaker): "do not give the lone Cyberman what it wants". In "The Haunting of Villa Diodati", the Doctor encounters this Cyberman, the sole survivor of the Cyber-Wars, partially-converted Ashad (Patrick O'Kane). She ignores Jack's warning and gives him the Cyberium, the total knowledge of the defeated Cyberman empire, to save human history. This leads to Ashad rejuvenating the Cyber-Empire in season finale "Ascension of the Cybermen" and "The Timeless Children", intending to end all organic life in the universe with a "Death Particle" once he transforms the Cybermen into a purely technological race. However, the Master (Sacha Dhawan) convinces Ashad to change his plans to form an alliance against the Doctor, but swiftly betrays him and confiscates the Cyberium, converting the massacred Time Lord civilisation into "CyberMasters" – a new race of infinitely regenerating Cybermen.
An army of CyberWarriors released by Ashad are defeated after the Doctor's companions destroy a carrier ship containing much of the Cyber-Army, while Ko Sharmus (Ian McElhinney) — who reveals himself to be a former resistance general who helped defeat the CyberEmprie and sent the Cyberium back in time in the first place — uses the Death Particle to destroy Gallifrey, intending to wipe out the CyberMasters and the Master. Nonetheless, the Master yells for his new army to follow him offscreen, leading to the Series 13 (2021) finale "The Vanquishers," which reveals the Master survived the destruction of the planet. Following the events of "The Timeless Children," the Doctor was also imprisoned in a Judoon prison throughout the first act of the 2021 New Years Special "Revolution of the Daleks." One of the Doctor's cellmates, seen briefly as a cameo, is a Cyberman that resembles their design in the cancelled anniversary special Lost in the Dark Dimension.
In the revival series, some Cybermen who have interacted with the Doctor have been portrayed by actor Paul Kasey.
Spin-offs
The Cybermen have appeared in various spin-off media.
Novels
The Cybermen were also featured in the novel Iceberg by actor David Banks, who played the Cyber Leader in the television series from Earthshock to Silver Nemesis. Banks had previously written, in 1988, Cybermen, a fictional history of the Cybermen which included a "future" design for them. The Missing Adventure Novel Killing Ground also features Cybermen of the type seen in Revenge of the Cybermen. During this novel, the Sixth Doctor's new companion Grant Markham returns to his home planet and learns that a group of Cybermen have hidden on it for centuries, with his robophobia being based around the repressed memory of witnessing a Cyberman kill his mother before he escaped.
In two Virgin Missing Adventures novels by Craig Hinton, the Cybermen become Cyberlords at some point in their history. They are mentioned in passing in Hinton's The Crystal Bucephalus, where the Cyberlord Hegemony is a peaceful future version of the Cybermen who have an empire in the Milky Way; their description was modelled after Banks's designs. In The Quantum Archangel, there are numerous unexplained references to the Cyberlords as an extremely advanced race. At one point, they are referred to as the Time Lords' greatest ally in the Millennium War, though because that war was supposed to have taken place a very long time before the modern era, it is unclear how this bit of Cyberhistory fits in or whether or not they have achieved advanced time travel capabilities. While not explicitly mentioned, Hinton may have adopted this idea from the aborted script for the Five Doctors by Robert Holmes (scriptwriter), which would have had the Cybermen adopting Time Lord DNA to achieve their higher state of being.
The Past Doctor Adventures novel Illegal Alien featured Cybermen and Cybermats in London during the Blitz. Cyber-technology left over from that adventure was subsequently misused in Loving the Alien, written by the same authors. The Fifth Doctor story Warmonger by Terrance Dicks has the Cybermen join the Doctor's alliance against Morbius. The First Doctor story The Time Travellers by Simon Guerrier, set in an alternate reality, has the Cybermen (who are never named) living at the South Pole and trading advanced technology to South Africa. The Eighth Doctor Adventures novel Hope by Mark Clapham features the Silverati, a group of cybernetically enhanced humans heavily reminiscent of the Cybermen, in existence in the very far future as the universe approaches its end, with some evidence suggesting that the Silverati were adapted from remnants of the Cybermen of the present.
Audio dramas
The Cybermen have appeared in several Big Finish audio plays battling the Doctor, the first of which was Sword of Orion (released on CD in 2001 and broadcast on BBC 7 in 2005), where the Eighth Doctor deals with humans and androids engaged in a war who seek Cyber-technology to improve their sides. The 2002 play Spare Parts explored aspects of the Cybermen's origin, revealing that the design was ironically only perfected after their creator, Doctorman Allan, studied the biology of the Fifth Doctor and duplicated a third lobe to the Doctor's brain that controlled his body functions. They were the villains in the company's BBCi webcast Real Time in 2002 and appeared in a linked trilogy of plays entitled The Harvest (2004), The Reaping (2006) and The Gathering (2006), where small groups of Cybermen attempt to manipulate humans into setting up conversion factories on Earth. They appear in Human Resources, which Big Finish produced for radio BBC 7 and subsequently released on CD, and sees the Eighth Doctor averting a plan to take control of a new weapons system. In the Fourth Doctor Adventures audio The Fate of Krelos/Return to Telos, the Fourth Doctor, Leela and K9 discover that the Cybermen planted nanobots on Jamie during their past trip to Telos that allow the Cybermen to infect K9 and subsequently use the TARDIS to take over the machinery of the planet Krelos, but the Doctor is able to use a robot drone to go back to his original trip to Telos and prevent Jamie being exposed to the nanites, undoing these events. The Sixth Doctor joins forces with the Second Doctor's companions Jamie and Zoe to deal with two different Cybermen assaults in Legend of the Cybermen and Last of the Cybermen; Legend sees Zoe made into the new Mistress of the Land of Fiction, bringing in the Sixth Doctor and a fictional version of Jamie to stop the Cybermen conquering the Land, and Last depicts the Sixth swapping places with the Second just as the younger Doctor discovers a Cybermen plot to alter the outcome of the last battle of the Cyber-Wars.
The first instalment of a four-CD series titled Cyberman, which does not feature the Doctor, was released in September 2005. Sword of Orion and the Cyberman series are set around the "Great Orion Cyber-Wars" of the 26th century, when androids rebelled against humanity in the Orion System and both human and android turned to the Cybermen to gain a military advantage. In Sword of Orion, the Cybermen are still entombed on Telos and are mostly forgotten, setting it before Earthshock; by the time of Cyberman, Telos has been destroyed by an asteroid collision, placing that series after Attack of the Cybermen. The Bernice Summerfield play The Crystal of Cantus features a former human colony turned into Cybermen, with Irving Braxiatel planning to use them as a private army. A Cyberman tomb also appeared in the Bernice Summerfield play Silver Lining, which came free with Doctor Who Magazine #351.
In March 2018, the Cybermen had their first encounter with the Third Doctor (this time played by Tim Treloar) in The Tyrants of Logic, one of the stories in Volume 4 of Big Finish's The Third Doctor Adventures series. In the story, the Doctor and companion Jo Grant (Katy Manning) arrive in the town of Port Anvil on the planet Burnt Salt. They come across a mysterious crate, which the Cybermen set about to reclaim as it contains the "Cyber Leveler," a type of tactician similar to the Cyber Controller. In the ensuing adventure, the Doctor is exposed to "Cyber Smoke," a poisonous gas that prepares a body for cyber conversion. The Doctor is able to fight off the infection for a time, and develop a cure, which he then uses against the Cybermen, defeating them.
Comics
They have also appeared in the various Doctor Who comic strips, beginning with The Coming of the Cybermen in TV Comic #824-#827. TV Comic cashed in on their frequent presence in the TV series in the late 1960s by featuring them regularly, and they appeared in Flower Power (TVC #832-#835), Cyber-Mole (TVC #842-#845), The Cyber Empire (TVC #850-#853), Eskimo Joe (TVC #903-#906), Masquerade (TVC Holiday Special 1968), The Time Museum (TVC Annual 1969), The Champion (TVC Holiday Special 1969) and Test-Flight (TVC Annual 1970). Their absence from the TV show for most of the 1970s was reflected in a lack of appearances in the strip: they eventually returned in the early 1980s in the Doctor Who Monthly strip Junk-Yard Demon (DWM #58-#59). They made further appearances after the publication was re-titled Doctor Who Magazine: Exodus/Revelation/Genesis (DWM #108-#110), The World Shapers (DWM #127-#129, written by Grant Morrison, which revealed that the Voord were the race that evolved into the Cybermen and that Mondas was previously the planet Marinus), The Good Soldier (DWM #175-#178) and The Flood (DWM #346-#353). In addition, a Cyberman named Kroton, who originally appeared in a couple of Doctor Who Weekly back-up strips called Throwback: The Soul of a Cyberman (DWW #5-#7) and Ship of Fools (DWW #23-#24), was reintroduced in Unnatural Born Killers (DWM #277) and was briefly a companion of the Eighth Doctor in The Company of Thieves (DWM #284-#286) and The Glorious Dead (DWM #287-#296). The Cybermen had their own one-page strip in DWM from issues #215-#238, written by Alan Barnes and drawn by Adrian Salmon.
In 1996, the Radio Times published a Doctor Who comic strip. The first story, entitled Dreadnought, featured the Cybermen attacking a human starship in 2220 and introduced the strip companion Stacy Townsend.
In the Doctor Who/Star Trek crossover, Assimilation2, the Cybermen join forces with the Borg, forcing the Eleventh Doctor to join forces with the crew of the Enterprise-D to stop them. The Borg and Cybermen have begun to attack and convert worlds without warning, with the apparent 'leader' being a Cyber-Controller with Borg components. The Doctor also recalls a past incident where he helped the crew of the original Enterprise defeat a Cyberman infiltration of a Federation outpost in his fourth incarnation, although it would appear that this is a recent addition to his history as the Eleventh Doctor also remembers not remembering that encounter. The Cybermen attempt to subvert and take over the Borg Collective, forcing the Doctor and the Enterprise to ally with the Borg to stop the Cybermen and restore the Collective to normal.
The Cybermen also feature in the Titan Comics 2016 multi-Doctor event story Supremacy of the Cybermen, which depicts the last Cybermen at the end of the universe forming an alliance with Rassilon- after he was exiled from Gallifrey by the Twelfth Doctor in "Hell Bent"- with the goal of conquering Gallifrey and using Time Lord energy to regenerate the universe into one under Cyber-control. Although Rassilon's insight allows the Cybermen to conquer history and defeat all of the past Doctors, the Twelfth Doctor is able to convince Rassilon to help him after the Cybermen betray Rassilon, the two turning the Cybermens' equipment against them so that the universe is 'regenerated' to a point before the Cybermen conquered Gallifrey, with only the Twelfth Doctor (and possibly Rassilon) remembering these events.
Video games
The 2010 video game Blood of the Cybermen, features Cybermen of the 2006 design without the Cybus Industries chest plate. These Cybermen are unearthed in the Arctic in 2010; their ship is said to have been damaged by a time-storm and crashed 10,000 years earlier. The player plays as the Eleventh Doctor and his companion Amy, who work to defeat the Cybermen. They also appear on Telos in both the android games Doctor Who: The Mazes of Time and Doctor Who and the Dalek.
The Cybermen appear as enemies in Lego Dimensions, and one was added as a playable character in Wave 3.
Physical characteristics
While the Doctor's archenemy, the Daleks, were on the whole unchanged during the original series's 26-season run, the Cybermen were seen to change with almost every encounter. The Cybermen are humanoid, but have been altered until they have few remaining organic parts. They retain living human brains. In their first appearance in the series, the only parts of their bodies that still seemed human were their hands; by their next appearance in The Moonbase (1967), their bodies were entirely covered in their metallic suits, with their hands replaced by three finger claws, but they changed back to regular five-fingered hands in The Invasion (1968). As they are relatively few, the Cybermen tend towards covert activity, scheming from hiding and using human pawns or robots to act in their place until they need to appear. They also seek to increase their numbers by converting others into Cybermen (a process known as "cyber-conversion" or "Cybernisation" in the older episodes and "upgrading" in the newer episodes), an often painful process as body parts are removed and replaced with cybernetic replacements.
It is implied that there are still organic components beneath their suits, meaning they are cyborgs, not robots: in The Tenth Planet, a Cyberman tells a group of humans that "our brains are just like yours", although by the time of Attack of the Cybermen (1985), their brains seem to have been replaced with electronics. Also in this story, two human slave-prisoners of the Cybermen on the planet Telos, named Bates and Stratton, reveal that their organic arms and legs have been removed by the Cybermen and replaced by cyber-substitutes. In Earthshock (1982), the actors' chins were vaguely visible through a clear perspex area on the helmet to suggest some kind of organic matter. In The Tomb of the Cybermen (1967), veins and brains were visible through the domed head of the Cyber-Controller, and similarly, in Attack of the Cybermen (1985) and "The Age of Steel" (2006), the Cyber-Controller's brain is visible through the dome. The first is a Mondas Cyber Controller, and the second involves alternative Earth's John Lumic. However, in Revenge of the Cybermen (1975), the Doctor says they are "total machine creatures".
The audio play Real Time implies that the converted victim's face remains beneath the Cyberman faceplate, although the audio plays, like all non-televised spin-off media, are of uncertain canonicity with regard to the television series. In the 2014's "Death in Heaven", Danny Pink removes the faceplate showing his face underneath. The Virgin New Adventures novel Iceberg by David Banks states that some Cybermen experience rare flashes of emotional memory from the time before they were converted; these flashes are then usually suppressed. The Cybermen in the revived series are usually constructed from human brains bonded to a Cyberman exoskeletal shell with an artificially-grown nervous system threaded throughout ("The Age of Steel"), although direct grafting of cyber-components is another method of conversion ("Cyberwoman"). In "The Pandorica Opens", a Cyberman head is shown to open up, revealing an entire human skull, not just the brain.
Although the Cybermen often claim that they have done away with human emotion, they have exhibited emotions ranging from anger to smug satisfaction in their confrontations with the Doctor. Some Cybermen in the early stories were even given individual names such as "Krang". Some parallel Earth Cybermen did retain some memories of their pre-conversion lives, although their emotional response varied. In "Cyberwoman", the partial conversion led to a degree of insanity in Lisa Hallett, which was retained even after she transferred her brain into a fully human body. In "Doomsday", Yvonne Hartman retains at least some elements of her personality (including her voice being heard over the usual Cyberman voice) to prevent the advance of a group of other Cybermen, and is last seen weeping what appears to be either an oil-like substance or blood. In the same episode, the Cyber-Leader expresses clear frustration at the humans' refusal to surrender, although in a later scene he criticises the Doctor for showing emotion. In "The Age of Steel", the Doctor defeats the Cybermen by shutting down their emotional inhibitors, enabling them to "see" what had become of them. Their realisation of what they had become led them to either simply shut down out of sheer horror, or partially explode. Lastly, when the first Cyber Leader is killed, his head explodes with some white liquid leaking down his body; there are references in that episode to a patented Cybus Industries mixture of chemicals used to preserve the brain. In "Death in Heaven", Danny Pink also retains some of his personality traits, including shock at seeing his reflection and what he's become, but also his love for Clara Oswald. The Doctor turns it on to gain intelligence and reveal that the Cybermen have developed a way to cyber-convert dead human remains. Only then does the Doctor exploit Danny's keeping of his personality traits, even under the inhibitor, to command the Cyber-Army. In "The Doctor Falls", the Doctor's companion Bill retains her complete sense of self and identity, even to the point of not initially seeing herself as a Cyberman, as a result of her experiences resisting mind control and telepathic suggestions in a past adventure. However, Cyberman program does manifest in her bursts of anger and she says her mind cannot hold on forever.
The Virgin Missing Adventures novel Killing Ground, by Steve Lyons suggests that some Cybermen imitate emotions to intimidate and unnerve their victims. The Big Finish Productions audio play Spare Parts (set on Mondas in the early days of Cyber-conversion) suggests that the Cybermen deliberately remove their emotions as part of the conversion process to stifle the physical and emotional trauma of becoming a Cyberman.
This motive behind the removal of emotions is made more explicit in "The Age of Steel", where it is done by an emotional inhibitor. In that episode, deactivating their emotional inhibitors causes the converted Cybermen to realise what they have become, driving them insane and killing them.
Weaknesses
The Cybermen have had a number of weaknesses since their introduction. The most notable weakness of the original Cybermen is the element gold. Their aversion to gold was not mentioned until they try to destroy the planetoid Voga (the so-called "Planet of Gold") in Revenge of the Cybermen (1975). Initially, it was explained that, due to its non-corrodible nature, gold essentially chokes their respiratory systems. For example, the glittergun, a weapon used during the Cyber-Wars in the future, fired gold dust at its targets. However, in later serials, gold appeared to affect them rather as silver affects werewolves, with gold coins or gold-tipped bullets fired at them having the same effect. The revived series's Cybermen have no such weakness, though the tie-in website for the episode mentions it. Cybermen are also efficiently killed when shot with their own guns, or by a Dalek. Other weaknesses from early stories include solvents, gravity based technology, and excessive levels of radiation. In "The Age of Steel", an EMP grenade is shown to disable a Cyberman and shut down its emotional inhibitor. The vulnerability to gold is clearly not present in some early Cyberman types, for example the type seen in the 1968 serial The Invasion were unlikely to possess it, or perhaps more likely the weakness is not known, otherwise the Doctor/UNIT would simply have used it and not needed the elaborate plan involving the assistance of a Russian missile base and the Cybermen's puppet ally, Tobias Vaughn. In "Nightmare in Silver", the Doctor uses gold to slow down though not destroy some circuitry of technologically advanced Cybermen in the distant future. It is unclear precisely how many of the different types, and which types, of Cyberman are vulnerable to gold.
Their armour is often depicted as flexible and resistant to bullets, but can be penetrated by gold arrows and projectiles made of gold. The Cybus Cybermen are bullet-proof and are very resilient, but are not indestructible – they are vulnerable to high explosives, electromagnetic pulses, specialised weaponry and Dalek weapons.
Costumes
For The Tenth Planet, the original Cyberman costumes, including the "handle" shapes on their heads, were designed by Sandra Reid. The masks and one-piece bodystockings were made from jersey fabric, with holes trimmed with vinyl where the Cybermen "eyes" and "mouths" were; the actors' features were darkened to hide their faces. The fabric of the costumes were coloured a faint blue so they could show up on black and white television cameras. Over the top of the stockings, the Cybermen wore polythene suits ribbed with metal wings, along with epaulettes made of metal, and plastic piping. Their boots were short Wellington boots, painted silver. In a 2016 interview, Reid, by then going by the name Alexandra Tynan, described the motivation behind her designs was "I had a planning meeting that I had to be at, and I had to have a design drawing with me. My motivation was the clock on the wall!" Although the script specified the Cybermen should keep their human hands, Reid wanted them to wear gloves. However, Reid mistakenly forgot she said she would make special gloves for the Cybermen until the first day in the studio. Instead, make-up designer Gillian James hastily added silver paint to the actors' human hands. The chest units and "handles" were built by Shawcraft of Uxbridge. The handles were adapted from lorry headlamps, while the chest units used a lot of clear plastic and had battery-powered flashing mechanisms. The handles were intended as the housing for wires that lit up the lamps, but in a test shot the bulb exploded and the idea was dropped. Tynan explained in 2016, "I indicated that there was going to be a chest unit there, but I didn't do any designs for them, because I knew that the units were going to be a props thing."
Producer Innes Lloyd's production team wished to update the Cybermen for The Moonbase and make them look more sophisticated and robotic. Sandra Reid designed new costumes for this serial. These were based on a one-piece silver jumpsuit made from vinyl fabric, and the Cybermen were given gloves with three-fingered hands. Their boots were lace-up army boots painted silver. Fibreglass helmets and chest units made from aluminium were built by freelance prop makers Jack and John Lovell. Silver tape was added around the eye and mouth area for emphasis, and on Reid's instruction, the Lovells attached "hydraulic joints" consisting of tubing from a vacuum cleaner manufacturer and plastic practice golf balls. Costume designer Daphne Dare, consulting with Reid over the phone, took over midway through production of The Moonbase while Reid was recovering from surgery. Eight of these costumes were reused, with slight repainting and additions, for The Tomb of the Cybermen, Reid's final Doctor Who serial, and a new costume was built for the Cyber Controller, with a red-domed cranium built that was intended to light up, but the lighting mechanism failed.
For the filmed inserts in The Wheel in Space, Martin Baugh supervised the creation of the costumes, made from a thinner one-piece material. Junction boxes, linked by steel rods, were used at the joints and near the neck to give the impression of something more technological and functional than was seen in The Moonbase and The Tomb of the Cybermen. The same chest units from before were used, with the lamp at the bottom of the unit. New helmets were cast with simpler handles that extended out further from the head. These introduced a "teardrop" shape to the Cybermen's eyes. An unmodified Tomb of the Cybermen suit was also used to swell the Cybermen's numbers during the spacewalk scene, and was positioned at the back to hide the difference from the other two costumes. Mid-production, the suits were redesigned again for the more extensive recordings of The Wheel in Space in the studio. Baugh's solution was to spray-paint two padded wet suits to make them look bulkier, with the helmets, junction boxes and rods from the filmed inserts modified or removed to make the actors move more freely. The hands from the earlier Wheel in Space costumes were cut off and used as gloves for the new costumes. The chest units were turned upside down so the lamps, mounted beneath the Cybermen's chins, could be fired as a weapon in a tighter shot.
For The Invasion, costume designer Bobi Bartlett ordered a resculpt of the helmet moulds with more head space for the actors to be done by outside company Trading Post. This included the sculpting of two large "ear muffs". The helmet was made of a light fibreglass. The costumes featured army boots, and now had five-fingered gloves, rather than three. Wetsuits were reused for this serial, and a simpler and sturdier version of the chest units, with the light at the top of the unit as before, was commissioned. At each of the joints there were now domes connected by a set of ribbed rods.
While production notes in Doctor Who: The Complete History claimed that the brief appearance of a Cyberman in Carnival of Monsters consisted of a diving suit from The Invasion, Gavin Rymill in Doctor Who Magazine wrote that this Cyberman was a Cyber Controller costume from The Tomb of the Cybermen. Both sources concurred that the helmet originated from The Invasion, and the back of the helmet was left unfastened.
Prue Handley was the costume designer on Revenge of the Cybermen. The costumes were built by freelance prop company Alister Bowtell, and were again based on wet suits, with rubber tubing along the arms and at the knees and elbow. The chest unit props from The Moonbase returned, and included bits of broken television sets. New, larger fibreglass helmets were made, and the costumes had silver gloves and Wellington boots.
The Earthshock designs by Dinah Collin included a set of Mk 2C RAF flight suits with built-in pipes used to pump cool air around. The Revenge of the Cybermen head was reshaped and recut by Richard Gregory of the freelance company Imagineering to add more details. There was a transparent section in the face through where the actor's moving jaw could be seen. New chest units were made in fibreglass, and they were decorated with ammunition trays. Also worn with the costumes were padded zip-back gloves and Tecnica Moon Boots. For The Five Doctors and Attack of the Cybermen, the jaw area was sprayed silver, and less ostentatious boots were worn. Anushia Nieradzik was the costume designer on Attack of the Cybermen. A specially modified Cyber Controller costume with a tall silver dome on its head was made for Attack of the Cybermen; as with the Controller costume used in The Tomb of the Cybermen, its helmet had no handles. For Silver Nemesis, the same head and chest pieces returned with a dappled plastic jaw and the removal of the ammunition trays. A plainer type of flight suit without built-in pipes was used for the bodies, and cable junction boxes with plastic tubes were added to the limbs for more detail. The costumes had cricket gloves sprayed silver, and Dr. Martens boots.
The redesign of the Cybermen in "Rise of the Cybermen" and "The Age of Steel" was a month-long process involving nearly every part of the design team. The production team decided on an Art Deco approach, and the final design was handed to Neill Gorton's team at Millennium FX, who also built the final costumes. The head was designed to be able to be turned independently from the body; such movement had not been possible in previous helmets. Millennium's Martin Rezard was the lead sculptor of a full-sized clay Cyberman, from which moulds were taken to create over forty fibreglass pieces to make up the head and body of each costume. Powdered aluminium was added to the final layer of the fibreglass, and each component was hand polished until it gleamed. Each of the fibreglass pieces were clipped onto a basic Lycra suit assembled by Jo Glover. The gloves and neck were cast in a soft silver-tinted silicone by Helen Rowe and Alex Whathey. Ten Cyberman costumes were made, including the Cyber Controller, which had a visible brain and pipes connecting him to his life support systems. In "A Good Man Goes to War" the costumes no longer had the Cybus Industries "C" logo introduced in "Rise of the Cybermen".
The sleeker and more elegant design introduced in "Nightmare in Silver" was made by the Millennium FX team from flexible polyurethane rubber, painted to look metallic using a new process originally developed for use in the car industry.
The "Mondasian Cybermen" in "World Enough and Time" and "The Doctor Falls" were created by the Millennium FX team, and were an updated version of Sandra Reid's 1966 design of the Cybermen for The Tenth Planet. The Chest units and helmets and other like attachments were moulded and constructed by Millennium FX. The costumes themselves were built from a silver latex fabric by costume designer Robin Archer. The Cybermen's hands were covered by rubber gloves. Millennium also created the transitional "patients" that evolve into Cybermen from the two-parter. Despite the Tenth Planet Cybermen not having gloves, director Rachel Talalay said that the reason for adding them to the Mondasian Cybermen in the series 10 two-part finale was "partially an issue because of skintone" with Pearl Mackie's Cyberman, but also to "get a scarier feel and something more artificial by putting the gloves on them". She further explained that in The Tenth Planet it was hard to tell if they had skintone gloves or not to justify their addition.
Unlike the Doctor's other foes, the Cybermen costumes have changed substantially in appearance over the years, looking more and more modern, although retaining certain commonalities of design, the most iconic being the "handles" attached to Cybermen heads. Other design elements include their round eyeholes and their chest units.
Aside from these changes, variations in design between rank-and-file Cybermen and their leaders have been seen. In The Wheel in Space and The Invasion (both 1968), the Cyber Director was depicted as an immobile mechanism. The Cyber Leader in "The Next Doctor" sports a transparent brain casing.
Because the Doctor is a time traveller, he meets the Cybermen at various points in their history out of sequence from the order the serials were made. This can be confusing since Cybermen from serials set in "earlier" periods of history can sometimes look more sophisticated than those from "later" periods. Lawrence Miles suggests in his reference work About Time 5 that the anachronistically designed Cybermen of Earthshock and Silver Nemesis are time travellers, like those in Attack of the Cybermen. The Doctor Who Role Playing Game "Cyber Files" worked around the contradiction by stating that in The Tenth Planet, the oldest designs of Cybermen were used for the attack while the later more sophisticated models remained on Mondas.
The Torchwood episode "Cyberwoman" features a partially cyber-converted woman who lacks the outer plating of a fully converted Cyberman. Her body is encased in metal structures but much of her flesh, including her face, is visible. She also has clearly visible metallic breasts, though it is not clear how much of her own flesh has been replaced and how much is merely covered. Another character speculates she could be 40–45% human, and 55–60% Cyberman.
Voice
Early Cybermen had an unsettling, sing-song voice, constructed by placing the inflections of words on the wrong syllables. In their first appearance, the effect of this was augmented by having a Cyberman abruptly open his mouth wide and keep it open, without moving his tongue or lips, while the separately recorded voice would be playing, and then shut it quickly when the line was finished. Although the cloth-like masks of the first Cybermen were soon replaced by a full helmet, a similar physical effect involving the mouth "hatch" opening and then shutting when the line was finished was used until The Wheel in Space (1968).
Later, the production team used special effects from its Radiophonic Workshop by adding first a mechanical larynx, then a vocoder, to modify speech to make it sound more artificial. In later stories of the original series and in the audio plays, two copies of the voice track were sampled and pitch-shifted downwards by differing amounts and layered to produce the effect, sometimes with the addition of a small amount of flanging. From Revenge of the Cybermen to Silver Nemesis (1988) the actors provided the voices themselves, using microphones and transmitters in the chest units.
The voices for the 2006 return of the Cybermen are similar to the buzzing electronic monotone voices of the Cybermen used in The Invasion. They were provided by Nicholas Briggs. As shown in the second series of Doctor Who Confidential, the timbre was created by processing Briggs' voice through a Moog moogerfooger ring modulator. Unusually, in "The Age of Steel", the Cyber-Controller (John Lumic, played by Roger Lloyd-Pack) retains his voice after being upgraded, but it is still electronic. In "Doomsday", a Cyberman which contains the brain of Torchwood Institute director Yvonne Hartman retains a female-sounding though still electronic voice, as does the partially converted Lisa Hallett in "Cyberwoman" when her Cyberman personality is dominant. In an effect reminiscent of the earliest Cybermen's mouths snapping open while speaking, the new Cybermen have a blue light in their "mouths" (or "teeth") which illuminates in synchronisation with their speech.
Since "The Next Doctor" in 2008, the Cybermen have had nasally-sounding electronic voices; this continued all the way until "Closing Time" in 2011. Between the 2013 episode "Nightmare in Silver" and 2017 episode "The Doctor Falls", the Cybermen (continuing to be voiced by Briggs) now have deep, almost growl-like voices. Their mouths retain a blue light-up effect but flicker luminously instead of staying lit as opposed to the 2006 design.
The Patients in "World Enough and Time" (Pre Mondasian Cybermen) communicated through speech synthesis keyboards, similar to those used in hospitals for people unable to talk normally or use their vocal cords. These voices were disturbing in that they almost 'replicated' actual human speech, but with stilted delivery
Variants
Some Cybermen are given titles, being credited as "Cyber Leader" (or variants thereof), "Cyber Lieutenant", "Cyber Scout" or the "Cyber Controller".
An immobile computer, referred to as the "Cyber Planner", appears in The Wheel in Space and The Invasion. A Cyber Planner also takes over the Eleventh Doctor's body in "Nightmare in Silver".
The original Controller is seen (and destroyed) in two serials, Tomb of the Cybermen and Attack of the Cybermen, and in each may or may not be the same consciousness in different bodies; it appears to recognise and remember the Doctor from previous encounters. In the Virgin New Adventures novel Iceberg, the first Cyber Controller is created by implanting a Cyber Director, or Cyber Planner, into the skull of a recently converted Cyberman.
The parallel universe Cyber Controller in "The Age of Steel" uses the brain of John Lumic, the creator of the Cybermen in that parallel reality.
In "Doomsday", a Cyber Leader appears, and when he is destroyed, mention is made of downloading his data files into another Cyberman unit, which is then upgraded to Cyber Leader.
The 2008 Christmas special, "The Next Doctor", featured a new, more agile variant called a Cybershade. The Doctor theorises that it is a more primitive version of a Cyberman, using the brain of a cat, and they physically resemble animals as they cannot speak and walk on all fours. In the same story a "Cyber-King" appears; according to the Doctor, it is a "Dreadnought-class" ship for use in invasions resembling a Cyberman hundreds of feet tall, and contains a Cyber-factory in its chest. It is controlled from within its mouth. Its right arm can be converted into a cannon, and its left into a laser.
"The Time of the Doctor" introduced a unique prototype Cyberman that was made of wood to avoid detection by the Church of the Papal Mainframe and equipped with blowtorches.
After Bill Potts is wounded on the bridge of a Mondasian colony ship, and taken down the ship's lifts to be surgically repaired, she encounters half converted Mondasians referred to only as 'The Patients'. They wore grey surgical robes and their faces were entirely covered with cloth bags, save for a nasal canulla that administered fluids and all were hooked up to IV drips. Most remained stationary; confined to wheelchairs in the "out ward" while some walked the hospital grounds; being prepped for additional surgery and rounding up humans in the city and leading them to the hospital. During the early stages of these experiments (a precursor to cyber-conversion), The Patients were shown to feel the pain caused by this process, with some even begging for death, twisting in their chairs and jabbing at their speech keyboards. They were capable of attacking, following commands (such as restraining Bill) and possessed great strength. They could be incapacitated, though not killed by gunfire.
In Ascension of the Cybermen, Cyber Warriors are introduced who are a special type of Cyberman. Ravio describes them as "Warrior Class". Their armour is specifically designed in a medieval way, giving the appearance of a medieval warrior. The chest is that of a 2013 Cyberman but with less detail. They also have small guns on their arms.
In Doctor Who The Timeless Child there are "Cyber Masters" Cybermen created by the Master using nano time lord technology with the help of the cybermens celerium to be able to convert dead time lords into Cybermen who Regenerate
Technology
Cybermen technology is almost completely oriented towards weaponry, apart from their own bodies. When originally seen in The Tenth Planet, they had large energy weapons that attached to their chests. In The Moonbase, the Cybermen had two types of weaponry: an electrical discharge from their hands, which stunned the target, and a type of gun. They also made use of a large laser cannon with which they attempted to attack the base itself.
The hand discharge was also present in The Tomb of the Cybermen, which featured a smaller, hand-held Cyber-weapon shaped like a pistol that was described as an X-ray laser. In The Wheel in Space, the Cybermen could use the discharge to also operate machinery, and had death rays built into their chest units. They displayed the same units in The Invasion as well as carrying large rifles for medium distance combat. In Revenge of the Cybermen and the audio play Real Time, their weapons were built into their helmets. Killing Ground indicates that this type of Cybermen also have more powerful hand weapons. Subsequent appearances have shown them armed almost exclusively with hand-held cyberguns.
The Cybermen have access to weapons of mass destruction known as cobalt bombs, also sometimes as Cyber-bombs, which were banned by the galactic Armageddon Convention (Revenge of the Cybermen). A "Cyber-megatron bomb" was mentioned in The Invasion, supposedly powerful enough to destroy all life on Earth. In Earthshock, the Cybermen also used android drones as part of their plans to invade Earth.
The revived programme Cybermen electrocute their victims by touching them and at first carried no other weaponry. In "Army of Ghosts" and "Doomsday", the Cybermen are equipped with retractable energy weapons housed within their forearms (these were actually first shown in "The Age of Steel", but only very briefly and were not used during that episode), but also use advanced human weapons to battle the Daleks. The arm mounted guns prove effective against humans but are unable to penetrate Dalek shields. Two Cybermen sent to parley with Dalek Thay at the Battle of Canary Wharf shot the Dalek but were promptly exterminated. In the Torchwood episode "Cyberwoman", the partially converted Lisa Hallett used her electrical touch against the Torchwood team, as well as an energy beam fired from her arm which could only stun the part of the body at which it was aimed. In "The Pandorica Opens", the Cybermen again have the wrist-blaster, but also regain the modified human weapons. In "Nightmare in Silver", the Cybermen have the ability to move at a warp-like speed. At this speed they appear as blurry after images. Cyberman had also overcome the weakness of solely being able to convert human-like species; the Doctor had been safe from being in danger of conversion until this point.
The Mondasian Cybermen from The Tenth Planet were updated for the Series 10 Finale. As opposed to shooting from their chest pieces they used their lanterns as weapons. This was in the Novelisation for The Tenth Planet. They also had the ability to emit electricity.
Cybermat
The Cybermen also use smaller, cybernetic creatures called "cybermats" as weapons of attack. In their first appearance in The Tomb of the Cybermen, they resembled oversized metallic silverfish and had segmented bodies with hair-like tactile sensor probes along the base of their heads, which were topped with crystalline eyes. The Second Doctor described them as a "form of metallic life," implying that they may be semi-organic like the Cybermen, and that they too attack by feeding off brain waves. They were defeated using electricity.
The second model of Cybermat seen in The Wheel in Space was used for sabotage, able to tune in on human brainwaves. They were carried to the "Wheel" in small but high-density sacs that sank through the hull of the space station, causing drops in air pressure. These Cybermats had solid photoreceptors for eyes instead of crystals. The Second Doctor used an audio frequency to jam them, causing them to spin, crash and disintegrate.
The third model, seen in Revenge of the Cybermen, was a much larger, snake-like cybermat that could be remotely controlled and could inject poison into its victims. It had no visible eyes or other features, and was as vulnerable to gold dust as the Cybermen were.
The original model was later mentioned in a conversation between the Doctor and his double during The Rebel Flesh, reaffirming that that model of Cybermat killed by feeding on brainwaves.
The fourth model of cybermat appears for the first time in the revived series in the 2011 episode "Closing Time", where it is shown to have an organic mouth full of sharp teeth, and transmits power to a crashed cyber-ship.
In the audio play Spare Parts, "mats" are cybernetically augmented creatures, sometimes kept as pets. Cybermats of a different design are used for surveillance by Mondas' Central Committee. The creatures occasionally go wild, chewing on power sources, and must be rounded up by a "mat-catcher." In the Past Doctor Adventures novel Illegal Alien by Mike Tucker and Robert Perry, set in the 1940s, the Cybermen create cybermats by cyber-converting local animals like cats or birds, possibly because of lack of technological resources.
In the Bernice Summerfield audio adventure The Crystal of Cantus, a Cyberman reveals that the organs of children who are too small to be fully cyber-converted are used in the creation of cybermats.
The cybermats appeared in the video game "Blood of the Cybermen" where instead of killing, they turned individuals into cyberslaves. The slaves have mostly human bodies, but have Cyberman heads and arms. The Cybermen see the cyberslaves as inferior, and delete them once they have served their purpose.
An upgraded form of cybermats appeared in "Nightmare in Silver". They were incredibly small mechanical insects that were more versatile and were able to partially convert other lifeforms into Cybermen. They were referred to as cybermites.
See also
Borg (Star Trek)
Cylon (Battlestar Galactica)
References
Sources
External links
Designer Alexandra Tynan discusses the creation of the cybermen on the Boxcutters podcast
Doctor Who races
Brain–computer interfacing in fiction
Fictional cyborgs
Fictional elements introduced in 1966
Fictional characters who can move at superhuman speeds
Fictional kidnappers
Fictional characters with superhuman strength
Fictional warrior races
Human-derived fictional species
Torchwood characters
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229470 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Haikouichthys | Haikouichthys | Haikouichthys is an extinct genus of craniate (animals with notochords and distinct heads) that lived 535 million years ago, during the Cambrian explosion of multicellular life. Haikouichthys had a defined skull and other characteristics that have led paleontologists to label it a true craniate, and even to be popularly characterized as one of the earliest fishes. Cladistic analysis indicates that the animal is probably a basal chordate or a basal craniate; but it does not possess sufficient features to be included uncontroversially even in either stem group. It was formally described in 1999.
Description
Haikouichthys is about long and is narrower than Myllokunmingia, another putative chordate that comes from the same beds. The holotype of Haikouichthys ercaicunensis was found in the Yuansshan member of the Qiongzhusi Formation in the 'Eoredlichia' Zone near Haikou at Ercaicun, Kunming City, Yunnan, China, hence its name "Haikou fish from Ercaicun". The fossil was recovered among the Chengjiang fauna, in one of a series of Lagerstätten sites where thousands of exquisitely preserved soft-bodied fossils have already been found. Following the discovery of the holotype, additional Lower Cambrian fossils of Haikouichthys ercaicunensis have been discovered.
The animal has a distinct head and tail. The head has at least six and perhaps nine probable gills. There are a number of segments (myomeres) with rear directed chevrons in the tail. There is a notochord. There is a prominent dorsal fin with fin radials similar, but not comparable, to those of hagfish and lampreys. The fin radials seem to angle "forward" toward the end thought on the basis of internal structures to be the head. This happens with a few modern fish but is an uncommon arrangement. There are 13 circular structures along the bottom that may be gonads, slime organs, or something else entirely.
See also
Ostracoderm
Arandaspis
Pikaia – Cambrian chordate
Myllokunmingia – close relative
Zhongjianichthys – eel-like close relative
Lancelet – living animal with similar morphology
References
External links
Oldest fish fossil caught
Maotianshan shales fossils
Prehistoric jawless fish genera
Fossil taxa described in 1999
Cambrian fish
Cambrian genus first appearances
Cambrian genus extinctions
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229473 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/President%20of%20Argentina | President of Argentina | The president of Argentina (), officially known as the president of the Argentine Nation (), is both head of state and head of government of Argentina. Under the national Constitution, the president is also the chief executive of the federal government and commander-in-chief of the armed forces.
Through Argentine history, the office of the Head of State has undergone many changes, both in its title as in its features and powers. Current President Alberto Fernández was sworn into office on 10 December 2019. He succeeded Mauricio Macri.
The Constitution of Argentina, along with several constitutional amendments, establishes the requirements, powers, and responsibilities of the president and term of office and the method of election.
History
The origins of Argentina as a nation can be traced to 1776, when it was separated by the Spanish King from the existing Viceroyalty of Peru, creating the new Viceroyalty of the Río de la Plata. The Head of State continued to be the King, but he was represented locally by the Viceroy. These Viceroys were seldom natives of the country.
By the May Revolution of 25 May 1810, the first Argentine autonomous government, known as the Primera Junta, was formed in Buenos Aires. It was later known as the Junta Grande when representatives from the provinces joined. These early attempts at self-government were succeeded by two Triumvirates and, although the first juntas had presidents, the King of Spain was still regarded as Head of State (as independence had not yet been declared), and the executive power was still not in the hands of a single person.
This power was vested in one man when the position of Supreme Director was created by the 1813 National Assembly. The Supreme Directors became Heads of State after Independence was declared on 9 July 1816, but there was not yet truly a presidential system.
In 1816, Congress declared Independence and composed a Constitution. This established an executive figure, named Supreme Director, who was vested with presidential powers. This constitution gave the Supreme Director the power of appointing Governors of the provinces. Due to political circumstances, this constitution never came into force, and the central power was dissolved, leaving the country as a federation of provinces.
A new constitution was drafted in 1826. This constitution was the first to create a President, although this office retained the powers described in the 1816 constitution. This constitution did come into force, resulting in the election of the first President, Bernardino Rivadavia. Because of the Cisplatine War, Rivadavia resigned after a short time, and the office was dissolved shortly after.
A civil war between unitarios (unitarians, i.e. Buenos Aires centralists) and federalists ensued in the following decades. At this time, there was no central authority, and the closest to that was the Chairman of Foreign Relations, typically the Governor of the Province of Buenos Aires. The last to bear this title was Juan Manuel de Rosas, who in the last years of his governorship was elected Supreme Chief of the Confederation, gaining effective rule of the rest of the country.
In 1852, Rosas was deposed, and a constitutional convention was summoned. This constitution, still in force, established a national federal government, with the office of the President. The term was fixed as six years, with no possibility of reelection. The first elected president under the constitution was Justo José de Urquiza, but Buenos Aires seceded from the Argentine Confederation as the State of Buenos Aires. Bartolomé Mitre was the first president of the unified country, when Buenos Aires rejoined the Confederation. Thus, Rivadavia, Urquiza, and Mitre are considered the first presidents of Argentina by different historians: Rivadavia for being the first one to use the title, Urquiza for being the first one to rule under the 1853 constitution, and Mitre for being the first president of Argentina under its current national limits.
In 1930, 1943, 1955, 1962, 1966, and 1976, military coups deposed elected Presidents. In 1966 and 1976, the federal government was undertaken by a military junta, where power was shared by the chiefs of the armed forces. In 1962, the President of the Senate ruled, but in the other cases, a military chief assumed the title of President.
It is debatable whether these military presidents can properly be called Presidents, as there are issues with the legitimacy of their governments. The position of the current Argentine government is that military Presidents Jorge Rafael Videla and Leopoldo Fortunato Galtieri were explicitly not legitimate presidents. They and their immediate successors were denied the right to a presidential pension after the conclusion of their terms. The status of earlier military presidents, however, remains more uncertain.
Powers and duties
The president of the nation has the following powers:
Is the supreme head of the nation, head of government and is politically responsible for the general administration of the country.
Issues the instructions and regulations necessary for the execution of the laws of the nation, without altering their spirit with regulatory exceptions.
Participates in the making of laws under the Constitution, promulgates them and has them published. The Executive Power shall in no case under penalty, and void, issue legislative provisions. Only when exceptional circumstances make it impossible to follow the ordinary procedures foreseen by this Constitution for the enactment of laws, and not try to rules governing criminal matters, taxation, electoral or political party regime, may issue decrees on grounds of necessity and urgency, which will be decided by a general agreement of ministers who shall countersign them together with the head of the cabinet of ministers. The head personally and within ten days submit the decision to the consideration of the Joint Standing Committee, whose composition should respect the proportion of the political representation of each chamber. This commission shall submit its report within ten days to the plenary of each House for its specific treatment, they immediately considered the Chambers. A special law enacted with the absolute majority of all the members of each House shall regulate the procedure and scope of Congress intervention.
Appoints the judges of the Supreme Court with the Senate by two-thirds of the members present, at a public meeting convened for that purpose. Appoints the other judges of the lower federal courts according to a binding three candidates proposed by the Judiciary Council, with the Senate, in public session, in which the suitability of candidates will be considered. A new appointment, the same consent, it is necessary to keep in under any of those judges, once they reach the age of seventy-five years. All appointments of judges whose age is indicated or over shall be five years and maybe repeated indefinitely, by the same procedure.
May grant pardons or commute sentences for crimes subject to federal jurisdiction, following a report of the court, except in cases of impeachment by the House of Representatives.
Grant pensions, retirements, pensions and licenses under the laws of the Nation.
Appoints and removes ambassadors, ministers plenipotentiary and business with the Senate; alone appoints and removes the chief of cabinet ministers and other cabinet ministers, the officers of his Secretariat, consular agents and employees whose appointments are not otherwise regulated by this Constitution.
Annually attends the opening session of the Congress, both Houses assembled for this purpose, this time realising the state of the Nation, on amendments promised by the Constitution, and recommend to their consideration such measures as he shall judge necessary and expedient.
Attends regular sessions of Congress, or convokes extraordinary sessions when a serious interest order or progress requires.
Oversees the performance of the duties of the chief of the Ministerial Cabinet as regards the collection of the revenues of the Nation and its investment in accordance with the law or budget of national expenditures.
Traditionally, the president is the godfather of the seventh sons or the seventh daughters. This tradition came from Tsarist Russia and became law in 1974. A similar tradition is attached to the king and queen of the Belgians.
Features of the office
Requirements
Section 90 of the Argentine Constitution establishes the requirements for becoming president. The president must be a natural-born citizen of the country, or have been born to an Argentine citizen if born abroad. The president must also be at least 30 years old. In addition, all the requirements for becoming a senator apply. That is, a presidential candidate must be a native of his or her province or a resident of his or her province for at least two years and have an annual income of at least 2,000 pesos.
Sections 94 to 98 detail the electoral requirements. A modified two-round system, or ballotage, is used (Section 94). Unlike in most countries using a two-round system, presidential candidates in Argentina do not need to win a majority of the vote to win the presidency in a single round. In order to win the election in the first round, the winning candidate's party must receive either more than 45 percent of so-called "positive votes," or votos positivos (Section 97) or at least 40 percent of positive votes and be more than 10 percentage points ahead of the next most-voted candidate (Section 98). Positive votes are valid votes cast for any of the candidates, leaving out of the count blank and spoiled ballots.
If no candidate obtains the necessary votes to win in the first round, then the two candidates with the most votes compete in the second round, held two weeks later, when the candidate with the most votes in that round is elected president.
Term duration
Under the 1994 constitutional amendment, the president serves for four years, with a possibility of immediate reelection for one more term. A present who has served two consecutive terms may be elected again after an interval of one term. There is no limit on how many times a candidate may seek the presidency if they are unsuccessful. The same rules apply, mutatis mutandis, to the Vice Presidency of Argentina.
Under the constitution of 1853, the president served for six years, with no possibility of consecutive reelection. In 1949, the constitution was amended to allow the president to run for an unlimited number of six-year terms. This provision was repealed in 1957. After the 1966 military coup d'état, the regime shortened the presidential term to four years. However, political instability led to frequent turnovers in office. With the restoration of democracy in 1983, the term was restored to six years.
Prior to the 1994 constitutional reform, the president and vice president were required to be Roman Catholics. This stipulation was abolished in 1994.
Compensation and privileges of office
As of 2015, the president and vice president enjoy a salary paid by the National Treasury, which can not be altered during the period of their appointment. During the same period, they may not hold any other office nor receive any other emolument from the Nation or from any province. The president's salary is $131,421 Argentine pesos per month.
The Casa Rosada in Buenos Aires is the official workplace of the president and the Quinta de Olivos their official residence; he or she is entitled to use its staff and facilities. It has a summer residence in the town of Chapadmalal, in the Buenos Aires Province, which is called the Presidential Unit Chapadmalal. The Presidential Guard is responsible for the security of the entire presidential family.
To move the president uses aircraft that are part of the Presidential Air Group:
The main aircraft is a Boeing 757 known as Tango 01 after its military registry: "T-01" (the "T" stands for "Transport", although it is fortuitously pronounced "Tango", as in the Argentine national dance, in the NATO alphabet). The 757 entered the service in 1995 replacing the former T-01, a Boeing 707. The aircraft is nicknamed Virgen de Luján after Argentina's patron saint. The Tango 01 757 has been an object of political contention for the last decade (and a political campaign hot-topic during the 1999 presidential election), with many politicians and media commentators denouncing this aircraft as an unnecessary and expensive luxury prone to abuse by presidents, their families, friends and political allies.
The current presidential fleet also includes two Fokker F28 (T-02 and T-03) (one always in service) and Learjet 60 (T-10). The Learjet is also used by the Air Force chief of staff.
As helicopters, a Sikorsky S-70 (H-01pic) and two Sikorsky S-76 (H-02pic and H-03pic) also make-up the fleet, with an additional Air Force Bell 212, as needed. During Néstor Kirchner and Cristina Fernández administration AAP used different aircraft for their global flights, most notably Boeing 747 loaned from Aerolíneas Argentinas and a private Bombardier Global 5000.
De facto governments
Following military coups that overthrew the constitutional government were de facto military presidents in 1930–1932, 1943–1946, 1955–1958, 1966–1973 and 1976–1983 that brought in addition to the powers of the president also corresponding to Congress. The subsequent analysis of the validity of their actions led to the subsequent formulation of the doctrine of de facto governments.
That doctrine was nullified by the constitutional reform of 1994, which added Article 36 (see below).
Article 29 of the Constitution of 1853 had an article that considered the usurpation of public power as 'treason', but was referred to the de jure rulers. For this reason the constitutional reform of 1994 included Article 36 which says:
"Article 36. This Constitution shall rule even when its observance is interrupted by acts of force against the institutional order and the democratic system. These acts shall be irreparably null.
"Their authors shall be punished with the penalty foreseen in Section 29, disqualified in perpetuity from holding public offices and excluded from the benefits of pardon and commutation of sentences.
"Those who, as a consequence of these acts, were to assume the powers foreseen for the authorities of this Constitution or for those of the provinces, shall be punished with the same penalties and shall be civil and criminally liable for their acts. The respective actions shall not be subject to prescription.
"All citizens shall have the right to oppose resistance to those committing the acts of force stated in this section.
"He who, procuring personal enrichment, incurs in serious fraudulent offence against the Nation shall also attempt against the democratic system, and shall be disqualified to hold public office for the term specified by law.
"Congress shall enact a law on public ethics which shall rule the exercise of public office."
In summary, the article states:
Absolute nullity of the acts issued by the government installed by force;
The authors shall be punished as traitors;
These crimes are barred and the authors can not receive the benefit of the amnesty;
Every citizen has the right to resistance against these acts of force.
Line of succession
Vice President
The office of vice president was established by the 1853 Constitution for the purpose of providing a succession in case the president is unable to complete their term via death, resignation, or removal from office. The Argentine Constitution (art. 88) entitles the vice president to exercise the duties of the president, both in the case of a temporary absence and in the case of a permanent absence due to health reasons.
Further succession
In the absence of both the president and the vice president, the succession is regulated by the Law 20,972 ("Acephaly Law"). It provides that the executive power must be temporarily exercised (without assuming the title of president) by the provisional president of the Senate; in his or her absence, by the president of the Chamber of Deputies; and in the absence of both, by the president of the Supreme Court.
In case of the permanent absence of both the president and the vice president, due to resignation, death, or removal, the Constitution (art. 88) entitles the National Congress Assembled to select a new president from among the current senators, deputies and governors, within the following two days of the death or resignation of the former president, and to provide him or her with a mandate to call for elections.
Facts
President elected to the most terms: Juan Perón, three terms, elected consecutively in 1946 and 1951, and in 1973.
President elected with the largest margin of victory: Cristina Fernández de Kirchner in 2011 with 54.11% to the 16% of Hermes Binner.
President who held office for most time: Julio Argentino Roca, for 12 years, in two terms (1880–1886 and 1898–1904).
President who held office for most time continuously: Carlos Menem, for 10 years and 5 months, in two terms (1989–1999).
President who held office for the shortest time (not counting interim presidents): Arturo Rawson, for three days: 4 to 6 June 1943.
First president: Bernardino Rivadavia, 1826.
First president under the present Constitution: Justo José de Urquiza, 1854 to 1860.
First president born an Argentine citizen: Domingo Faustino Sarmiento, 1811 (the country was named United Provinces of the Río de la Plata at the time, but the Constitution of Argentina recognises that name as one of the official names of the country).
First President elected in the twentieth century: Manuel Quintana, in 1904.
First President elected in the twenty-first century: Néstor Kirchner, in 2003.
First de facto president: José Félix Uriburu, 1930.
Last de facto president: Reynaldo Bignone, left in 1983.
First female president: Isabel Perón (1974–1976).
First directly elected female president: Cristina Fernández de Kirchner, in 2007.
Presidents who died in office: Manuel Quintana (1906), Roque Sáenz Peña (1914) and Juan Perón (1974).
Longest-lived president: Roberto Levingston (1920–2015); shortest-lived president: Nicolás Avellaneda (1836-1885).
Presidents who were assassinated: Justo José de Urquiza (1870) and Pedro Eugenio Aramburu (1970), both after concluding their terms.
Living former presidents as of : Isabel Perón, Adolfo Rodríguez Saá, Eduardo Duhalde, Cristina Fernández de Kirchner and Mauricio Macri.
See also
History of Argentina
Politics of Argentina
List of vice presidents of Argentina
List of heads of state of Argentina
References
Bibliography
External links
ElHistoriador.com.ar (presidents and ministries of the Argentine Nation).
Apodos: la historia también tiene sentido del humor
Government of Argentina
1826 establishments in Argentina | [
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229481 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/National%20Public%20Safety%20Commission%20%28Japan%29 | National Public Safety Commission (Japan) | The is a Japanese Cabinet Office commission. It is headquartered in the 2nd Building of the Central Common Government Office at 2-1-2 Kasumigaseki in Kasumigaseki, Chiyoda, Tokyo.
The commission consists of a chairperson who holds the rank of Minister of State and five other members appointed by the Prime Minister, with consent of both houses of the Diet. The commission operates independently of the cabinet, but coordinates with it through the Minister of State.
The commission's function is to guarantee the neutrality of the police system by insulating the force from political pressure and ensuring the maintenance of democratic methods in police administration. It administers the National Police Agency, and has the authority to appoint or dismiss senior police officers.
List of current members
Ryota Takeda (Chairperson; from Liberal Democratic Party)
Takashi Oda (Journalist, Director at The Yomiuri Shimbun Holdings)
Yūko Kawamoto (Economist, Professor at Waseda University)
Shin'ichi Kitajima (Diplomat)
Keiji Kimura (Former Chairman of Mitsubishi Estate; currently a member of the Japan Sumo Association)
Yūko Andō (Lawyer)
List of former chairperson
Kenji Yamaoka
Sadakazu Tanigaki
Hiroshi Nakai
Kansei Nakano
Junzo Yamamoto
History
The Japanese government established a European-style civil police system in 1874, under the centralized control of the Police Bureau within the Home Ministry, to put down internal disturbances and maintain order during the Meiji Restoration. By the 1880s, the police had developed into a nationwide instrument of government control, providing support for local leaders and enforcing public morality. They acted as general civil administrators, implementing official policies and thereby facilitating unification and modernization. In rural areas especially, the police had great authority and were accorded the same mixture of fear and respect as the village head. Their increasing involvement in political affairs was one of the foundations of the authoritarian state in Japan in the first half of the twentieth century.
The centralized police system steadily acquired responsibilities, until it controlled almost all aspects of daily life, including fire prevention and mediation of labor disputes. The system regulated public health, business, factories, and construction, and it issued permits and licenses. The Peace Preservation Law of 1925 gave police the authority to arrest people for "wrong thoughts". Special Higher Police were created to regulate the content of motion pictures, political meetings, and election campaigns. Military police operating under the army and navy and the justice and home ministries aided the civilian police in limiting proscribed political activity. After the Manchurian Incident of 1931, military police assumed greater authority, leading to friction with their civilian counterparts. After 1937 police directed business activities for the war effort, mobilized labor, and controlled transportation.
After Japan's surrender in 1945, occupation authorities retained the prewar police structure until a new system was implemented and the Diet passed the 1947 Police Law. Contrary to Japanese proposals for a strong, centralized force to deal with postwar unrest, the police system was decentralized. About 1,600 independent municipal forces were established in cities, towns, and villages with 5,000 inhabitants or more, and a National Rural Police was organized by prefecture. Civilian control was to be ensured by placing the police under the jurisdiction of public safety commissions controlled by the National Public Safety Commission in the Office of the Prime Minister. The Home Ministry was abolished and replaced by the less powerful Ministry of Home Affairs, and the police were stripped of their responsibility for fire protection, public health, and other administrative duties.
When most of the occupation forces were transferred to Korea in 1950–51, the 75,000 strong National Police Reserve was formed to back up the ordinary police during civil disturbances, and pressure mounted for a centralized system more compatible with Japanese political preferences. The 1947 Police Law was amended in 1951 to allow the municipal police of smaller communities to merge with the National Rural Police. Most chose this arrangement, and by 1954 only about 400 cities, towns, and villages still had their own police forces. Under the 1954 amended Police Law, a final restructuring created an even more centralized system in which local forces were organized by prefectures under a National Police Agency.
The revised Police Law of 1954, still in effect in the 1990s, preserves some strong points of the postwar system, particularly measures ensuring civilian control and political neutrality, while allowing for increased centralization. The National Public Safety Commission system has been retained. State responsibility for maintaining public order has been clarified to include coordination of national and local efforts; centralization of police information, communications, and record keeping facilities; and national standards for training, uniforms, pay, rank, and promotion. Rural and municipal forces were abolished and integrated into prefectural forces, which handled basic police matters. Officials and inspectors in various ministries and agencies continue to exercise special police functions assigned to them in the 1947 Police Law.
See also
Public safety
References
External links
Official website
Law enforcement in Japan
Government agencies of Japan
Police oversight organizations | [
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229490 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Law%20enforcement%20in%20South%20Korea | Law enforcement in South Korea | South Korea has a relatively unified and integrated approach to law enforcement. For example, the National Police Agency (NPA) provides all general policing services throughout the country. Due to the unitary system, local police organizations are directly under the NPA.
This differs from the situation in many countries such as France, where policing is split between the National Police and Gendarmerie, or such as the United States, which have a layered system of national, state/regional, and/or local law enforcement organizations.
However, South Korea has several independent agencies that only enforce a specific law or laws—for example, the Ministry of Justice and Ministry of Economy and Finance have their own enforcement organizations for either border control or taxation, respectively. However, they are not formally called police.
List of law enforcement organizations
Ministry of the Interior and Safety
National Police Agency
Provincial Police Agencies: Seoul, Busan, Daegu, Incheon, Daejeon, Gwangju, Ulsan, Gyeonggi Nambu, Gyeonggi Bukbu, Gangwon, Chungbuk, Chungnam, Jeonbuk, Jeonnam, Gyeongbuk, Gyeongnam, Jeju
Ministry of Economy and Finance
National Tax Service
Investigation Bureau
International Taxation Bureau
Korea Customs Service
Audit Policy Bureau
Investigation and Surveillance Bureau
Information Management and International Affairs Bureau
Seoul Metropolitan Government
38 Tax Collection Division
Ministry of Land, Infrastructure and Transport
Railway Police
Government of Jeju Special Self-Governing Province
Jeju Municipal Police (autonomous)
Ministry of Maritime Affairs and Fisheries
Korea Coast Guard (KCG; Korean: 해양경찰청; Sino-Korean word: 海洋警察廳, Revised Romanization: Haeyang-gyeongchal-cheong, literally translates to the 'National Maritime Police Agency')
Ministry of Justice
Prosecution Service
Provincial Prosecutors' Office
Korea Immigration Service
Border Control Division
Investigation & Enforcement Division
Korea Correctional Service
National Intelligence Service (formerly the Korea Central Intelligence Agency [KCIA] and the Agency for National Security Planning [ANSP])
The Korean National Police Agency
Korean National Police Agency is composed of 1 deputy commissioner general, 8 bureaus, 9 offices and 32 divisions.
Community Safety, Investigation Bureau, Traffic and Foreign Affairs Bureaus are responsible for basic policing. Public Security, Intelligence and National Security Bureaus govern public order. Spokesperson’s Office, Planning and Coordination Office, Police Administration and Human Resources Office, Audit and Inspection Office, ICT and Equipment Policy Office, Scientific Investigation Office, Police Situation Control Center provide administrative support.
Affiliated institutions include the Korean National Police University, Police Training Institute, Central Police Academy, Korean Police Investigation Academy and the National Police Hospital.
Furthermore, the Korean National Police is regionally divided over the 18 metropolitan cities and provinces, placing 255 stations, 518 precincts and 1,433 police boxes under metropolitan and provincial police agencies
General safety description
The following list is a description of safety for citizens, tourists, and others who are related to being in South Korea.
Emergency numbers: 112 for the police and 119 for the ambulance and fire department.
For tourist they can call 1330 for the Korea Travel Hotline. This number is operated by the Korea Tourism Organization, where they can contact employees 24/7. Furthermore, this number is also available to request the help of translators to make you understandable, for example about taxi drivers or shop assistants.
Pay attention to your personal belongings, like phone, wallet, money and credit cards.
Travel and identity documents, like ID-card and passport should be kept in a safe place. Preferably bring a photocopy of travel documents.
Public demonstrations in South Korea, mostly in Seoul, happen often. Usually the demonstrations go out without any problems, but the atmosphere can change quickly and incident can happen. It has therefore best to avoid all demonstrations and large gatherings.
Safety around the Demilitarized zone (DMZ)
Since the end of the Korean War in 1953, Korea has been divided between North Korea and South Korea, separated by a demilitarized zone, which the short name for is (DMZ).
Take extra care and follow the advice of the local authorities.
The DMZ is only accessible in an organized context.
Visitors are accompanied militarily and it is strictly forbidden to leave the group.
References
External links
Korea National Police Agency Official website
Seoul Metropolitan Police Agency Official website
Korea, South: Korean National Police—photius.com
South Korea—A Comparative Criminology Tour of the World
"SOUTH KOREA: Police brutality against protesting farmers must end"—Asian Human Rights Commission
"Workers' Anger on the Rise in South Korea"—PICIS Newsletter, no. 74, 4 July 2000
Korean Police Operation 101 -Part 1: Contacting the Korean Police—naver.com blog | [
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229497 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Acre%20%28state%29 | Acre (state) | Acre () is a state located in the west of the North Region of Brazil and the Amazonia Legal. Located in the westernmost part of the country, at a two-hour time difference from Brasília, Acre is bordered clockwise by the Brazilian states of Amazonas and Rondônia to the north and northeast, the Bolivian department of Pando to the southeast, and the Peruvian regions of Madre de Dios, Ucayali and Loreto to the south and west.
Its capital and largest city is Rio Branco. Other important places include Cruzeiro do Sul, Sena Madureira, Tarauacá and Feijó.
Intense extractive activity in the rubber industry, which reached its height in the early 20th century, attracted Brazilians from many regions to the state. From the mixture of sulista, southeastern Brazil, nordestino, and indigenous traditions arose a diverse cuisine. It combines sun-dried meat (carne-de-sol) with pirarucu, a typical fish of the region. Such dishes are seasoned with tucupi, a sauce made from manioc.
Fluvial transport, concentrated on the Juruá and Moa rivers, in the western part of the state, and the Tarauacá and Envira rivers in the northwest, is the principal form of transportation, especially between November and June. Heavy seasonal rains frequently make the BR-364 impassable in those months; it usually connects Rio Branco to Cruzeiro do Sul.
Etymology
The name, which was given to the territory in 1904, is derived from one of the local rivers, and to the state in 1962, perhaps originates from the Tupi word a'kir ü "green river", or from the form a'kir, of the Tupi word ker, "to sleep, to rest". It is believed more likely to be derived from Aquiri, a transliteration by European explorers of the term Umákürü, or Uakiry, from the Ipurinã dialect. Another hypothesis is that Acquiri derives from Yasi'ri, or Ysi'ri, meaning "flowing or swift water".
According to one account, agriculturist João Gabriel de Carvalho Melo wrote during an 1878 trip on the Purús River to merchant Viscount of Santo Elias (from Pará), asking him for goods to be sent to the "mouth of the Aquiri River". In Belém, the local merchant or his employees either misinterpreted Gabriel's handwriting, or he spelled the name wrong: the goods and invoice which Gabriel received were marked as having been sent to the Acre River.
Acre possesses some nicknames: the End of Brazil, The Rubber Tree State, the Latex State (from when it was a center of rubber production) and the Western End.
The native inhabitants of Acre are called acrianos, in the singular acriano. Until the entry according to the Orthographic Agreement of 1990, the correct spelling was acreano in the singular and in the plural acreanos. In 2009, with the new orthographic agreement, the change generated controversy between the Academy of Letters of Acre (Academia Acreana de Letras) and the Brazilian Academy of Letters (Academia Brasileira de Letras). The latter said that the change would mean the denial of the state's historical and cultural roots, by changing the last letter of the toponym from "E" to "I".
Geography
The state of Acre occupies an area of (58,911 mi2) in the extreme west of Brazil. It is located at 70º west longitude and at 9º south latitude. In Brazil, the state is part of the North Region, forming borders with the states of Amazonas and Rondônia, and with two countries: Peru and Bolivia.
Practically all of the terrain of the state of Acre is part of the low sandstone plateau, or terra firme, morphological unit which dominates most of the Brazilian Amazon. These terranes rise, in Acre, from the southeast to the northeast, with very tabular topography in general. In the extreme west is found the Serra da Contamana or Serra do Divisor, along the western border, with the highest altitudes in the state (). About 63% of the state's surface lies between in height; 16% between 300 and 609 (984 and 1,998 ft); and 21% between 200 and 135 (656 and 443 ft).
The climate is hot and very humid, of the Am type in the Köppen climate classification system, and the monthly average temperatures vary between , being the lowest average of the North Region. The rainfall reaches an annual total of , with a clear dry season in the months of June, July, and August.
The Amazon Rainforest covers all of the state territory. Very rich in rubber trees of the most valuable species (Hevea brasiliensis) and Brazil nut trees (Bertholletia excelsa), the forest guarantees that Acre is the greatest national producer of rubber and nuts. Acre's principal rivers, mostly navigable during the wet season (the Juruá, Tarauacá, Envira, Purús, Iaco, and Acre), cross the state with almost parallel courses which converge only outside of its territory.
The largest recorded Black Caiman, measured at and weighing , was shot in Acre in 1965.
The Amazon represents over half of the planet's remaining rainforests and comprises the largest and most species-rich tract of tropical rainforest in the world. Wet tropical forests are the most species-rich biome, and tropical forests in the Americas are consistently more species-rich than the wet forests in Africa and Asia. As the largest tract of tropical rainforest in the Americas, the Amazonian rainforests have unparalleled biodiversity. More than 1/3 of all species in the world live in the Amazon Rainforest.
History
The region of present-day Acre is thought to have been inhabited by Pre-Columbian civilizations since at least 2,100 years ago. Evidence includes complex geoglyphs of this age found in the area. The natives who crafted them are believed to have had a relatively advanced knowledge of this technology. Since at least the early 15th century, the region has been inhabited by peoples who spoke Panoan languages; their territory was geographically close to that of the Inca.
In the mid-18th century, the region was colonized by the Spanish and became part of the Viceroyalty of Peru. Following the Peruvian and Bolivian wars of independence, which ended in 1826, the region and large portions around it became part of Bolivia, but independent of Spain. It was a territory of the short-lived Peru–Bolivian Confederation (1836–1839), until the two countries separated and the region returned to Bolivian control.
The discovery of rubber tree groves in the region in the mid-19th century attracted numerous immigrants, especially from Brazil and Europe, seeking to build on the rubber boom. Despite the increased numbers of Brazilians, the Treaty of Ayacucho (1867) determined that the region belonged to Bolivia. By 1877, Acre's population was composed almost entirely of Brazilians coming from the Northeast.
In 1899, Brazilian settlers from Acre created an independent state in the region called the Republic of Acre. Bolivians tried to gain control of the area, but Brazilians revolted and there were border confrontations. This resulted in what was known as the Acre War. On November 17, 1903, with the signing over and sale in the Treaty of Petrópolis, Brazil received final possession of the region. Acre was integrated into Brazil as a territory divided into three departments. The territory was acquired by Brazil for two million pounds sterling. The land was taken from Mato Grosso in accordance with terms for the construction of the Madeira-Mamoré railway.
Acre was united in 1920. On June 15, 1962, it was elevated to the category of state, and was the first to be governed by a woman, Iolanda Fleming, a teacher.
During the early twentieth century, rubber seedlings were taken to Southeast Asia, where competitive plantations were established, reducing the importance of the Amazon in production. But during the Second World War, Japanese forces took over the rubber tree groves of Malaya.
Acre was called on to produce rubber for the Allied war effort. The Rubber Soldiers, natives mostly of the Ceará plantation, increased production and provided critical supplies to the Allies.
Acre's decisive contribution to the Allied victory may have helped Brazil attract North American investment to form the National Steel Company (Companhia Siderúrgica Nacional) in the postwar era. This company aided in the industrialization of the Central-south, which did not yet possess basic heavy industries.
On April 4, 2008, Acre won a judicial debate with the state of Amazonas in relation to the dispute surrounding the Cunha Gomes Line. It annexed part of the municipalities of Envira, Guajará, Boca do Acre, Pauini, Eirunepé and Ipixuna. The territorial redefinition consolidated the incorporation of 1.2 million hectares of the Liberdade, Gregório, and Mogno forest complex to the territory of Acre, which corresponds to .
Initial settlement
Since the 1970s, numerous geoglyphs, major geometric earthworks, have been discovered on deforested land in Acre, and dated to between 1–1250 AD. These are cited as evidence of complex Pre-Columbian societies. The BBC's Unnatural Histories explored studies of this area, concluding that the Amazon rainforest, rather than being a pristine "wilderness", has been shaped by man for at least 11,000 years. Traditional ancient practices included forest gardening. Ondemar Dias is credited as the first to discover the geoglyphs in 1977. Alceu Ranzi expanded their findings by flying over Acre.
During the 17th century, Portuguese expeditions reached many of the far ends of present-day Brazil. The expansion of the exploration to the west followed, and they reached lands under control by the Spanish colonies. The two nations negotiated to establish their territories, under the Treaties of Madrid (1750) and San Ildefonso (1777). Both of the treaties were based on the explorations of Portuguese bandeirante Manoel Félix de Lima of the Guaporé and Madeira river basins. The treaties established the riverbeds of the Mamoré and Guaporé to their maximum western limits on the left bank of the Javari as the border between the Spanish and Portuguese territories.
The Portuguese created the new royal captaincy of Mato Grosso (1751), stimulating settlement toward the frontier. New centers developed: Vila Bela (1752) on the banks of the Guaporé, Vila Maria (1778) on the Paraguay River, and Casalvasco (1783). Until the mid-19th century, there was little effort to settle the area systematically. At that time, the great virgin source of rubber attracted commercial interest, and development followed.
The empire was directed towards agricultural exports, based on coffee as the most important commodity. The territories of the extreme west were unknown and usually overlooked. For example, although Cândido Mendes de Almeida's Atlas of the Empire of Brazil (1868), was considered a model of its time, geographers knew nothing of the Acre River and its principal tributaries, which did not appear at all in the atlas.
Some few armed bands of Brazilian explorers exploited the rural and unpopulated region, not knowing and little interested in whether they were "controlled" by Brazil, Peru, or Bolivia.
But the rubber boom of the mid-19th century, stimulated exploration by various expeditions to survey this resource and develop a plan for colonial settlement. At that time, João Rodrigues Cametá initiated the conquest of the Purús River; Manuel Urbano da Encarnação, an Indian with extensive knowledge of the region, reached the Acre River, traveling up it as far as the vicinity of the Xapuri; and João da Cunha Correia reached the drainage basin of the upper Tarauacá. For the most part, these expeditions took place on Bolivian land.
Exploitative activities, the industrial importance of the rubber reserves, and the penetration of Brazilian colonists in the region raised the attention of Bolivia, which solicited a better fixation of boundaries. After much failed negotiation, in 1867 the Treaty of Ayacucho was signed, which recognized the colonial uti possidetis, or use of that territory by Brazil. A border was established parallel to the confluence of the Beni and Mamoré rivers, running eastward to the headwaters of the Javari River, even though the source of this river was not yet known.
Northeast occupation
As the price of rubber rose in the market, the demand for it grew. The race to the Amazon increased. Plantations multiplied in the valleys of the Acre, Purús and, farther west, the Tarauacá. In the year 1873–1874, in the drainage basin of the Purús, the population rose from around one thousand to four thousand inhabitants. The Brazilian imperial government, already sensitive to the resulting offerings of rubber, considered the entire valley of the Purús to be Brazilian.
In the second half of the 19th century, disturbances were registered in the demographic and geo-economic balance of the empire. The coffee boom in the south attracted financial resources and workers, to detriment of the northeast. The growing impoverishment of that region stimulated migratory waves to the states of Rio de Janeiro, Minas Gerais, and São Paulo. The movement of population became particularly active during the prolonged drought of the northeastern interior, from 1877 to 1880. Hundreds of Ceará indigenous people headed for the rubber plantations in search of work.
The Cearense migration reached the banks of the Juruá and accelerated the occupation of land which Bolivia would later reclaim. The great fluvial rivers and their tributary systems were full of small ship fleets transporting colonists, goods, and supply material to the most isolated centers. The governments of Amazonas and Pará quickly established supply houses, which financed various types of operations, guaranteed credit, and promoted the commercial incentive of the rubber tree groves.
The rubber race had the frantic urgency of gold rushes of the 18th century. The situation drew the attention of the government to the economic use and development of an almost completely unknown area. The activities of private businesses would enable the government to incorporate the new region.
Land dispute
In 1890, José Manuel Pando, a Bolivian official, alerted his government to the fact that more than three hundred rubber plantations had been developed in the Jura basin, and most were occupied by Brazilians on what was nominally Bolivian territory. The Brazilian penetration had advanced west from the 64th meridian to beyond the 72nd, in an extension of one thousand kilometers, despite the borders having been established. The Treaty of 1867 limited Brazil to land above the confluence of the Beni and Mamoré rivers.
In 1895 a new commission to define the borders was created. The Brazilian representative, Gregório Taumaturgo de Azevedo, resigned after verifying that the ratification of the Treaty of 1867 would harm the Brazilian rubber gatherers already settled in Bolivian territory. In 1899, the Bolivians established an administrative post in Puerto Alonso, exacting taxes and customs duties upon Brazilian activities. The following year, Brazil accepted the sovereignty of Bolivia in the zone, when it officially recognized the old boundaries at the confluence of the Beni and Mamoré rivers.
Distant from the diplomatic process, the rubber workers judged their interests to have been cheated, and initiated insurrection movements. Some of this was in response to brutal treatment and abuse by forces managed by the major rubber companies. In the same year that Bolivia established administration in Puerto Alonso (1899), two serious uprisings occurred.
In April, a Cearense lawyer, José Carvalho, led an armed movement, which culminated in the expulsion of the Bolivian authorities. Shortly thereafter, Bolivia began negotiations with an Anglo-American trust, the Bolivian Syndicate, in order to promote, with exceptional force (exacting of taxes, armed force), the political and economic incorporation of Acre into its territory. The governor of Amazonas, Ramalho Júnior, informed of the agreement by a functionary of the Bolivian consulate in Belém, Luis Gálvez Rodríguez de Arias, sent military contingents forward to occupy Puerto Alonso. Gálvez proclaimed the independence of Acre, in the form of a republic. He became its president with the acquiescence of the rubber gatherers. Under protests from Bolivia, President Campos Sales abolished the ephemeral republic (March 1900).
Bolivians, reinstated in the region, suffered in 1900 from the assault of the so-called Floriano Peixoto expedition, or "expedition of the poets". It was made up of intellectual bohemians from Manaus. Following brief fighting in the area surrounding Puerto Alonso, the expedition was completely scattered.
Ultimately, the Bolivian government signed a contract with the Bolivian Syndicate (July 1901). The Brazilian congress, shocked by the arbitrariness of the act, took measures, canceling commercial accords and navigation between the two countries, and suspending the right of travel to Bolivia.
At the same time, Brazilians organized a large armed assault on the disputed area. The operations were led by a former student of the Military School of Rio Grande do Sul (Escola Militar do Rio Grande do Sul), José Plácido de Castro. The rubber gatherers occupied the village of Xapuri in Alto Acre (August 1902), and took Bolivian officials into custody. Finally, Plácido de Castro's forces besieged Puerto Alonso, proclaiming the Independent State of Acre, after the capitulation of Bolivian troops (February 1903).
Diplomatic intervention
José Plácido de Castro was proclaimed governor of the new Independent State of Acre, and he had to discuss the question of borders in the diplomatic sphere. The Baron of Rio Branco, who had just assumed the role of Brazil's Minister of External Relations, immediately opened channels which were meant to have put an end to the question.
The simplest problem, with the Bolivian Syndicate, was resolved by Brazil paying one hundred and ten thousand pounds to renounce the contract (February 1903). Next, commercial relations were reestablished with Bolivia, while a part of the territory on the upper Purús and Juruá, militarily occupied in March 1903, was declared litigious.
Bolivia finally agreed to cede to Brazil an area of , in exchange for two million pounds sterling, paid in two installments. Brazil committed to the construction of a Madeira-Mamoré Railway, connecting Porto Velho to Guajará-Mirim, at the confluence of the Beni and Madeira rivers. These actions were ratified in the Treaty of Petrópolis (November 17, 1903), through which Brazil acquired the future territory, now state of Acre.
Peru had also claimed sovereignty over the entire territory of Acre and part of the state of Amazonas, based on historic colonial titles. After armed conflicts between Brazilians and Peruvians on the upper Purús and Juruá, a joint administration was established in those regions (1904). The studies to determine the borders proceeded until the end of 1909, when a treaty was signed that completed the political integration of Acre into Brazilian territory.
Development from territory to statehood
Exercising a prominent role in national exports until 1913, when rubber was introduced to European and North American markets, Acre enjoyed a period of great prosperity. At the start of the 20th century, in a period of less than ten years, it grew to have more than 50,000 inhabitants.
From 1946 on, the federal government undertook actions to revive the economy of the Amazon Basin, and to include it in regional development projects.
Attending to the judicial arrangements of the Treaty of Petrópolis, President Rodrigues Alves sanctioned the law which created the Territory of Acre (1904), further dividing it into three departments: Alto Acre, Alto Purús, and Alto Juruá, the latter being separated to form Alto Tarauacá (1912). The departmental administration was exercised until 1921 by mayors appointed by the President of Brazil. At that time the arrangements were altered, passing the administration to a governor. The second Constitution of Brazil (1934) conceded to Acre the right to elect representatives to the National Congress of Brazil.
During the Estado Novo (New State) political ideas involving the valorization of the interior took hold, with the intention of promoting the articulation of more isolated areas. Thereafter, the vote of 1946 commended the channeling of budgetary resources from the Union to the Amazon, determining that the Territory of Acre would be elevated to the condition of state as soon as its revenue reached the equivalent of the lowest state tax exaction.
In the 1960s, the second cycle of efforts to accelerate the progress of the Amazon area was begun with the Superintendency of the Development of the Amazon (Superintendência do Desenvolvimento da Amazônia or SUDAM, 1966). Better networking of regional sub-sectors within the state was sought out, thus connecting the branch lines of the Transamazônica, which connected Rio Branco and Brasiléia, on the upper course of the Acre River, and Cruzeiro do Sul, on the banks of the Juruá, crossing the valleys of the Purús and the Tarauacá. Planning politics developed, therefore, destined to correct the demographic, economic, and political distortions of national integration.
Demographics
According to the IBGE of 2007, there were 664,000 people residing in the state. making Acre the third least populated state. The population density was 4.5 inh./km2.
Urbanization: 69.6% (2006); Population growth: 3.3% (1991–2000); Houses: 162,000 (2006).
The last PNAD (National Research for Sample of Domiciles) census revealed the following numbers: 441,000 Brown (Multiracial) people (66.5%), 172,000 White (26.0%), 45,000 Black (6.8%), 4,000 Asian or Amerindian people (0.7%).
Indigenous population
Acre is inhabited by various indigenous groups of the Panoan language family, including Kashinawa, Jaminawa and Xanenawa. There are also three groups of other language families, Madiha (Kulina) of the Arawan family as well as Yine (Manchineri) and Ashaninka (Kampa) of the Arawakan family.
Largest cities
Economy
The service sector is the largest component of GDP at 66%, followed by the industrial sector at 28.1%. Agriculture represents 5.9%, of GDP (2004). Acre exports: wood 85.6%, poultry (chicken and wild turkey) 4.7%, wood products 1.7% (2002).
Share of the Brazilian economy: 0.2% (2005).
Education
Portuguese is the official national language, and thus the primary language taught in schools. English and Spanish are also part of the official high school curriculum.
Educational institutions
Universidade Federal do Acre (Ufac) (Federal University of Acre);
Faculdade da Amazônia Ocidental (Faao) (College of Western Amazon);
Faculdade de Ciências Jurídicas e Sociais Applicadas Rio Branco (Firb);
Instituto de Educação, Ciência e Tecnologia do Vale do Juruá (Ieval);
Instituto de Ensino Superior do Acre (Iesacre);
União Educacional do Norte (Uninorte).
Infrastructure
International airport
Rio Branco
Rio Branco International Airport is located in a rural zone of the municipality of Rio Branco, in the state of Acre. It was opened on November 2, 1999, with a unique characteristic: it moved 22 kilometers away from the previous airport site. Rio Branco Airport serves domestic and international flights (by scheduled carriers and air taxi firms) along with general and military aviation. The terminal can receive 270 thousand passengers a year and serves an average of 14 daily operations.
Cruzeiro do Sul
Cruzeiro do Sul International Airport is located 18 kilometers away from the city center, which helps access to the Alto Juruá region. It was opened on October 28, 1970, and absorbed by Infraero on March 31, 1980. The airport infrastructure was built in 1976 by the municipal government. In 1994 the runway was totally renovated.
Highways
BR-364 (Rio Branco to Southeastern Brazil);
BR-317 (Rio Branco to south of Acre);
AC-040 (Rio Branco to Plácido de Castro);
AC-401 (Plácido de Castro to Acrelândia);
AC-010 (Rio Branco to Porto Acre).
Sports
Rio Branco provides visitors and residents with various sport activities.
Stadiums
Arena da Floresta stadium;
José de Melo stadium;
Federação Acreana de Futebol stadium;
Dom Giocondo Maria Grotti stadium;
Adauto de Brito stadium;
and many others.
The Arena da Floresta stadium in Rio Branco was one of the 18 candidates to host games in the 2014 FIFA World Cup, which was held in Brazil, but did not make it to the final 12 chosen.
Flag
The flag was adopted on March 15, 1921. It is a variation of the flags used by the secessionist state of Acre, with the yellow and green parts exchanged and mirrored. The yellow color symbolizes peace, green hope, and the star symbolizes the light which guided those who worked to make Acre a state of Brazil.
Statistical and legal subdivisions
Acre is divided into twenty-two municipalities, five microregions and two mesoregions:
Vale do Acre
Microregion of Brasileia
Microregion of Rio Branco
Microregion of Sena Madureira
Vale do Juruá
Microregion of Cruzeiro do Sul
Microregion of Tarauacá
References
External links
States of Brazil
1962 establishments in Brazil
States and territories established in 1962 | [
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229499 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Abner%20Read | Abner Read | Abner Read (1821–1863) was an officer of the United States Navy who distinguished himself in the American Civil War. He died of injuries sustained while patrolling the Mississippi River, in command of the . At the time of his death, he had attained the rank of lieutenant commander.
Early life and education
Abner Read was born April 5, 1821, in Urbana, Ohio, to Ezra Read and Nancy (Clark) Read. He studied at Ohio University, but left that institution a year before graduating to accept a warrant as a midshipman, effective March 2, 1839. Assigned to , he departed New York City in that schooner on March 16, 1840 and proceeded to South American waters where he served first in Enterprise and then in until the latter sailed for home early in 1844.
Following a year of study at the naval school in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, Read was promoted to passed midshipman on July 2, 1845. then took him to the Atlantic coast of Africa where she operated against slavers through the summer of 1847.
Sea and shore duty, 1848–1860
Next ordered to , he departed New York in that storeship on January 9, 1848 and proceeded to Veracruz where she arrived a week after the signing of the Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo. His vessel promptly began issuing supplies to the warships of Commodore Matthew C. Perry's squadron and continued such duty until heading home in June.
Fredonia again left New York on December 11, 1848, bound for California. Gold recently had been discovered there, greatly increasing the importance of and the interest in that newly acquired territory. The ship proceeded south along the Atlantic coast of the Americas, rounded Cape Horn, reached San Francisco Bay on July 31, 1849, and operated on the west coast during the most tempestuous year of the gold rush. She got underway homeward on July 4, 1850, and reached New York on January 7, 1851.
Leave and a tour of duty in , the receiving ship at Philadelphia, ensued before Read reported to the side-wheel steamer in the autumn of 1853. She took him to the Mediterranean, but he left that ship while she was still in European waters and returned to the United States for duty at the Portsmouth Navy Yard.
Meanwhile, Read had been rising in rank. He received his commission as master effective April 12, 1853 and was promoted to lieutenant on February 6, 1854.
Read joined the wardroom of the sloop-of-war in the fall of 1854, departed Norfolk, Virginia, in her on December 16, 1854, and cruised through the West Indies unsuccessfully seeking information concerning . That sloop-of-war had departed Aspinwall, Colombia, (now Colón, Panama), on September 29, 1854 and had not been heard from since sailing.
Soon after Falmouth returned to New York in August, Read was shocked to be "dropped from the Navy" on September 13, 1855 in compliance with the recommendation of a board of officers charged with carrying "...into execution an act [of Congress] to promote the efficiency of the Navy." He appealed this decision and was reinstated in rank by a board of inquiry in 1858.
His first ship following his return to duty was which departed New York in the autumn of 1858 and took him back to South American waters as a part of Commodore Shubrick's expedition to demand an apology and retribution for the death of 's helmsman. That sailor had been killed by fire from Paraguayan batteries upon his side-wheel steamer as she explored the Paraná River and its tributaries.
Following the resolution of the dispute between the United States and Paraguay through diplomacy backed by a highly visible display of American seapower, Supply operated off the coast of Africa, along the Atlantic coast of the United States, and in the Gulf of Mexico.
Civil War service
Supply arrived at Pensacola, Florida, on December 7, 1860, just a month and a day after Abraham Lincoln was elected President of the United States, precipitating the secession crisis. Just over a week later, entered the navy yard at that port to have her hull scraped. That screw steamer was short of officers due to the resignation of Southerners, so Read was detached from Supply and assigned to the new arrival. In her he helped to prevent Fort Pickens from falling into Confederate hands. However, while doing so, he became ill and was sent home to recuperate.
Command of the USS New London
Ready for duty again, Read took command of the newly acquired when she was commissioned at New York on October 29, 1861. Assigned to the Gulf Squadron, his screw steamer was stationed in Mississippi Sound where she joined screw gunboat in taking the lumber-laden schooner Olive shortly before midnight on November 21, 1861.
In ensuing months, New London took over 30 prizes. Her success was so remarkable that Flag Officer David Farragut felt that he must hold New London in his new command even though she had been assigned to the eastern group when the Navy divided its force in the gulf into two squadrons. "...Lieutenant Read's having made her such a terror to the Confederates in this quarter", he explained, "...that justice to the service required me to keep her...." She was, he maintained, "...absolutely necessary to command the inland passage...."
Read and his ship were ever ready to face up to any challenge which confronted them. When he found "...two rebel steamers ... at Pass Christian..." on March 25, 1862, New London headed straight for and and drove them off to the protection of Southern shore batteries after a two-hour engagement.
Read was promoted to lieutenant commander on July 16, 1862, and on April 18, 1863, he led a boat expedition which landed near the lighthouse at Sabine Pass. It was attacked by a large force of Confederate troops who had been hiding behind the light keeper's house. All but one member of Read's crew were wounded as they raced back to their boat and rowed to New London. Read himself suffered a serious gunshot wound of the eye. Yet, despite his painful injury, he remained on duty until New London returned to New Orleans, Louisiana, late in May for repairs.
While work on New London was still in progress Read was detached from her on June 22 and ordered to relieve Captain Melancton Smith in command of . Six days later his new ship headed up the Mississippi River to defend Donaldsonville, Louisiana, which was then being threatened by Southern troops. As its beleaguered riparian fortresses at Vicksburg, Mississippi, and Port Hudson were about to slip from its grasp, the Confederacy was struggling desperately to maintain some hold on the river.
New London spent the ensuing days patrolling the Mississippi between Donaldsonville and New Orleans. On the morning of July 7, 1863, Southern forces opened fire on the ship with artillery and musketry when she was about ten miles below Donaldsonville. A shell smashed through the bulwarks on her port quarter wounding Read in his abdomen and his right knee. He was taken to a hospital at Baton Rouge, Louisiana, where he died on the evening of the next day.
Farragut and the other officers of the squadron were lavish in praise of their fallen comrade. The admiral said that Read had "...perhaps done as much fighting as any man in this war.... The very mention of his name", Farragut maintained, "was a source of terror to the rebels." On another occasion, the Admiral said, "I know nothing of him prejudicial as a man, but I do know that no Navy can boast a better officer and I deem him a great loss both to the Navy and to his country."
Legacies
The destroyers and were named for him.
See also
Notes
References
Charles Elmer Rice A history of the Hanna family: Being a genealogy of the descendants of Thomas Hanna and Elizabeth (Henderson) Hanna, who emigrated to America in 1763, Damascus, Ohio: A. Pim & Son, printers, 1905
1821 births
1863 deaths
United States Navy officers
Union Navy officers
People from Urbana, Ohio
People of Ohio in the American Civil War
Union military personnel killed in the American Civil War | [
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229502 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Amap%C3%A1 | Amapá | Amapá () is a state located in the northern region of Brazil. It is the second least populous state and the eighteenth largest by area. Located in the far northern part of the country, Amapá is bordered clockwise by French Guiana to the north, the Atlantic Ocean to the east, Pará to the south and west, and Suriname to the northwest. The capital and largest city is Macapá. The state has 0.4% of the Brazilian population and is responsible for only 0.22% of the Brazilian GDP.
In the colonial period the region was called Portuguese Guiana and was part of Portugal's State of Brazil. Later, the region was distinguished from the other Guianas. Amapá was once part of Pará, but became a separate territory in 1943, and a state in 1990.
The dominant feature of the region, and 90 percent of its total area, is the Amazon Rainforest. Unexplored forests occupy 70 percent of Amapá, and Tumucumaque Mountains National Park, established in 2002, is the largest tropical forest park in the world. The estuary of the River Oiapoque is the northernmost point of coastal Brazil.
History
During the colonial era from 1637 to 1654 the Amapá region was merged into the Captaincy of Pará, this was the Captaincy of Cabo de Norte. In the early colonial period the Amapá region was a rich source of lumber, resins, annatto, vegetable oils, and salted fish, all of which were exported to Europe. The French established sugarcane plantations in this period.
With the discovery of mineral deposits the Amapá region was invaded by the English and Dutch, who were ultimately repelled by the Portuguese. The Treaty of Utrecht in 1713 established the boundaries between the colony of Brazil and French Guiana, but these were not respected by the French. A fort was constructed at São José de Macapá, in present-day Macapá, as a base of Portuguese power in the region. In the 18th century, France retook control of the area. This international dispute continued until 1900.
With the discovery of gold and the increasing value of rubber on the international market during the 19th century, outsider population increased in Amapá and the territorial dispute with France was brought to a head. French settlers established the State of Counani (1886–1891). The gold rush however brought in Brazilian interests who gained control of the territory, which led to clashes with the French. The dispute was sent for arbitration and on 1 December 1900, the Arbitration Commission of Geneva awarded possession of the territory to Brazil. It was incorporated into the state of Pará, with the joint name of Araguari (named for the river of the same name). It became the federal territory of Amapá in 1943.
The discovery of rich manganese deposits in Serra do Navio in 1945 revolutionized the local economy. Manganese remains the largest source of revenue in the state. Amapá did not achieve statehood until 5 October 1988, at the time of the promulgation of the new Brazilian Constitution.
Geography
The State of Amapá possesses the lowest rate of loss of its original vegetation for any Brazilian state, estimated at only 2%. Most of the Amapá territory is covered with rainforest, while the remaining areas are covered with savannah and plains. On the Amapá coast, almost intact beaches mix with swamps, creating the largest representation of this biome in Brazil. This mixture of salt and fresh water is perfect for the food chain reproduction for several animal species. Pollution, however, is now a chronic problem in the state of Amapá. Mercury, which is used in the extraction of gold, is widely found in water sources and sewage systems in the population centers of Amapá.
Nature
To protect the natural resources of the state, there are, as of 2016, 12 protected areas and five indigenous territories covering , or 72% of the state. The Amapá Biodiversity Corridor has been established in 2003 to provide integrated management for conservation area. The most important protected areas are the Tumucumaque Mountains National Park located in west of the state, and the Cabo Orange National Park located near the coast. The Tumucumaque Mountains National Park is the world's largest tropical forest national park. The Cabo Orange National Park contains flooded grasslands and mangrove forests which are important fish nurseries.
Climate
Most of Amapá has a Tropical monsoon climate, a tropical climate with a short dry season and heavy rainfall for the majority of the year. In the Köppen climate classification, it is classified under the letters Am. Tropical rainforest is the natural vegetation, and also provides the other climate type located in the state.
Demographics
According to the IBGE of 2010, there were 668,689 people residing in the state, with a population density of 4.3/km². The population of Amapá is highly urbanized, with 93.7% of the population residing primarily in Macapá and Santana. Population growth: 5.7% (1991–2000); Houses: 144,000 (2006).
During the 2010 census, 65% identified as Pardo (multiracial), 24% as White Brazilians, 8.7% as Black Brazilians and 1.1% as Indigenous. The remaining 1.2% are Asians and undeclared.
The majority of the residents of Amapá live in poverty. According to the Fundação Getulio Vargas (FGV) 36.56% of the population live on only R$79 per month, which the foundation considers below a decent standard of living.
Municipalities
Indigenous population
The Amerindians tribes in Amapá are located in the north near the Oiapoque River, and in the east in the Wayampi Indigenous Territory. All the indigenous territories in Amapá have been demarcated. The tribes living in Amapá are the Galibi do Oiapoque, the Karipuna do Amapá, the Palikur, the Wayampi and the Galibi Marwono.
The region around the Amazon River used to support a large population of Amerindians during the pre-Columbian era. The policy of the Portuguese monarchy was to engage in war in order to clear them from the land. The Cabanagem Revolt in the 1830s, resulted in the final dispersal of the Amerindians along the Amazon.
Economy
The service sector is the largest component of GDP at 87.6%, followed by the industrial sector at 7.8%. Agriculture represents 4.6% of GDP (2004). Amapá exports: wood 75.5%, ores 18.7%, heart of palm 5.5% (2002). The state, which has 0.4% of the Brazilian population, is responsible for only 0.22% of the Brazilian GDP.
Education
Portuguese is the official national language, and thus the primary language taught in schools. French is the second language taught in every school due to the proximity of French Guiana. A creole language called Lanc-Patuá is spoken among some of the people.
Educational institutions
Universidade Federal do Amapá (Unifap) (Federal University of Amapá)
Universidade Estadual do Amapá (UEAP) (Amapá State University)
Instituto Federal de Educação, Ciência e Tecnologia do Amapá (IFAP) (Amapá Federal Institute of Education, Science and Technology)
Centro de Ensino Superior do Amapá (Ceap)
Instituto de Ensino Superior do Amapá (Iesap)
Instituto Macapaense de Ensino Superior (IMMES)
Faculdade Seama (Seama College)
Transport
International Airport
The main airport of the state is Macapá International Airport. On 12 April 2019 a new terminal was opened replacing an older facility. Following its closure, the old terminal was demolished to make room for an enlarged apron which was completed by 2020.
Highways
There are two federal highways in Amapá: BR-156 connects Laranjal do Jari, Macapá and Oiapoque. The highway is connected to the road network of French Guiana via the Oyapock River Bridge. BR-210 connects Macapá with Serra do Navio. It is supposed to be extended all the way to the border with Colombia in Amazonas, however as of 2021, it ends in the Wayampi Indigenous Territory. An important state road is the AP-010 which connects Macapá with Santana and Mazagão Velho.
There are no road connections to other Brazilian states. In Laranjal do Jari there is a ferry to Monte Dourado in Pará. In Port Santana, there is a ferry to Belém, Pará.
Ports and harbours
There is a small port in Macapá, however it is not suitable for cargo traffic. The main harbour is the Port of Santana which is also used for international cargo.
Flag
The flag was adopted by Decree No. 8 of 23 April 1984. The blue represents the sky over Amapá and justice, the green represents the native rainforest, and the yellow represents the Union and its natural resources. The black stands for the deceased who worked for the state, and the white for the will of the state to live in peace and stability. The symbol on the hoist-side represents the Fortress of São José, out of which the state capital grew.
Before 1984, the state had a red-white-red flag, based on the flag of Pará, and similar to the flag of Peru.
See also
Brazil
Calçoene - Amapá town, site of pre-colonial observatory
References
External links
Official Website
States of Brazil
1988 establishments in Brazil
States and territories established in 1988
The Guianas | [
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229504 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Douglas%20Fairbanks%20Jr. | Douglas Fairbanks Jr. | Douglas Elton Fairbanks Jr., (December 9, 1909 – May 7, 2000) was an American actor, producer and decorated naval officer of World War II. He is best known for starring in such films as The Prisoner of Zenda (1937), Gunga Din (1939) and The Corsican Brothers (1941). He was the son of actor Douglas Fairbanks and was once married to Joan Crawford.
Early life
Douglas Elton Fairbanks Jr. was born in New York City; he was the only child of actor Douglas Fairbanks and his first wife, Anna Beth Sully, the daughter of wealthy industrialist Daniel J. Sully. Fairbanks' father was one of cinema's first icons, noted for such swashbuckling adventure films as The Mark of Zorro, Robin Hood and The Thief of Bagdad. Fairbanks had small roles in his father's films American Aristocracy (1916) and The Three Musketeers (1921).
His parents divorced when he was nine years old, and both remarried. He lived with his mother in New York, California, Paris and London.
Fairbanks began his education at the Hollywood School for Boys, an exclusive school in Los Angeles. After his mother and stepfather moved to New York, he attended the Bovee School, a private grammar school for boys. While attending Bovee, he was also enrolled in an after school drill academy called Knickerbocker Greys, which he attended for a year while assigned to the drum corps. After moving back to California, he attended Harvard Military School, followed by studies at the Polytechnic School in Pasadena. After his mother and he moved to France, Fairbanks attended Lycée Janson-de-Sailly.
Film career
Stephen Steps Out and Paramount
Largely on the basis of his father's name, in May 1923 Fairbanks Jr. was given a contract with Paramount Pictures at age 13, at $1,000 a week for three years. He was signed by Jesse L. Lasky who said the junior Fairbanks "is the typical American boy at his best" and said it was likely he would be featured in a film about Tom Sawyer.
"I do not think it is the right thing for the boy to do", said his father. "I want to see him continue his education. He is only 13 years old." The young actor arrived in Hollywood in June 1923 and was mobbed.
Tom Sawyer was not made. Instead Fairbanks Jr. appeared in Stephen Steps Out (1923). The film was not a hit.
Paramount and he parted ways by mutual consent and Doug went to Paris to resume his studies. A year later he returned to the studio, hired at what Fairbanks called "starvation wages" also having him work as a camera assistant.
"I was anxious to build my career as an actor slowly and painstakingly", he said. "I don't want to be a young blond leading man with an aquiline nose and shiny white teeth."
Paramount gave him supporting roles in The Air Mail (1925) and Wild Horse Mesa (1925).
Stella Dallas and Young Woodley
Sam Goldwyn borrowed him to play the juvenile in Stella Dallas (1925), which wound up being his first box office success.
He had supporting roles in Paramount's The American Venus (1926), and Padlocked (1926).
At Warner Bros., Fairbanks was in Broken Hearts of Hollywood (1926), then, at Metropolitan Pictures, he was in Man Bait (1927).
At MGM he was in Edmund Goulding's Women Love Diamonds (1927) and for Alfred E. Green at Fox he was in Is Zat So? (1927). He supported Will Rogers in A Texas Steer (1927).
In 1927 Fairbanks made his stage debut in Young Woodley based on a book by John Van Druten. Fairbanks Jr received excellent reviews and the production was a success – the play did much to improve his reputation in Hollywood. A regular audience member was Joan Crawford with whom Fairbanks would become romantically involved.
He also appeared in a stage production of Saturday's Children.
Early leading-man roles
Fairbanks' second lead role was in Dead Man's Curve (1928) for FBO. He was Helene Chadwick's leading man in Modern Mothers (1928) at Columbia and he starred in The Toilers (1928) for Tiffany.
Fairbanks starred in another for Columbia, The Power of the Press (1928), directed by Frank Capra.
He went back to supporting roles for The Barker (1928) at First National, his first "talkie" and A Woman of Affairs (1928) at MGM with Greta Garbo and John Gilbert.
Fairbanks had another starring role at FBO with The Jazz Age (1929) and received top billing over Loretta Young in Fast Life (1929) at Warner Bros.
He appeared in MGM's Our Modern Maidens (1929) opposite Crawford.
First National and Warner Bros.
First National gave Fairbanks a starring role in The Careless Age (1929) and he was reunited with Young in The Forward Pass (1929). He was one of many names in The Show of Shows (1929). In September 1929 he returned to the stage in a production of The Youngest.
Victor Halperin cast Fairbanks in the lead of Party Girl (1929) then back at First National he did a third with Young, Loose Ankles (1930).
In 1930, Fairbanks Jr. went to Warner Bros. to test for the second lead in Moby Dick (1930). Although he did not win the part, head of production Darryl F. Zanuck was impressed with Douglas's screen test, and cast him in an important role in The Dawn Patrol directed by Howard Hawks.
Universal borrowed him to have the lead role in Little Accident (1930) and at Warners he was in the lead in The Sin Flood (1930). He supported Leslie Howard in the prestigious Outward Bound (1930) and was Billie Dove's leading man in One Night at Susie's (1930).
Little Caesar
Fairbanks had a role supporting Edward G. Robinson in Little Caesar (1931), filmed in August 1930. "We knew it was going to be good when we were making it but not that it would become a classic", he later said.
The movie was a big hit, and Warner Bros. offered Fairbanks Jr. a contract with cast and script approval – a condition which, Fairbanks Jr. says, was only offered to one other actor at the studio, Richard Barthelmess.
"By sheer accident, I had four successes in a row in the early '30s, and although I was still in my 20s, I demanded and received approval of cast, story and director. I don't know how I got away with it, but I did!"
Because he spoke French he was put in L'aviateur (1931). Back in Hollywood he was in Chances (1931) and I Like Your Nerve (1931) with Young.
In June 1931 he starred in another play The Man in Possession which he also produced along with Sid Grauman. Fairbanks said he wanted to stay away from costume adventures which were associated with his father.
He starred in two for Alfred E Green, Gentleman for a Day (1932) with Joan Blondell and It's Tough to Be Famous (1932). He starred in a film shot in French, L'athlète incomplet (1932).
He starred in Love Is a Racket (1932) for William Wellman and Scarlet Dawn (1932) for William Dieterle. Fairbanks did another with Green, Parachute Jumper (1933), which gave an early co-starring role to Bette Davis.
Fairbanks starred again with Young in The Life of Jimmy Dolan (1933) and did The Narrow Corner (1933) with Green.
RKO borrowed Fairbanks to support Katharine Hepburn in Morning Glory (1933), a big success.
Fairbanks was reunited with Howard in Captured! (1933).
In 1934, Warner asked all its stars to take a 50 percent pay cut because of the Depression. Fairbanks Jr. refused and was fired from the studio. He received a job offer from Britain and spent the next few years there, taking a residence in London's Park Lane.
Britain and Criterion films
Fairbanks went to Britain to star in Alex Korda's The Rise of Catherine the Great (1934) playing Grand Duke Peter opposite Elisabeth Bergner.
"Hollywood was getting to be a grind", he said at the time. "They had me doing five and six pictures a year. Some of them looked all right on paper but they had the habit of slipping down into programmer class. Only once in three years would I get a part that I cared about. I kept going up and down the ladder and not getting any place. There was nothing stable about my career in Hollywood."
He intended to return to Hollywood to appear in Design for Living, but became ill and was replaced by Gary Cooper. He did ultimately return to Hollywood for Success at Any Price (1934) at RKO, then returned to London for Mimi (1935). The latter starred Gertrude Lawrence, who became romantically involved with Fairbanks Jr. He announced he would make Zorro Rides Again with his father.
Fairbanks fell ill during the 1936 flu epidemic.
Fairbanks set up his own film production company, Criterion Films, where the board members included Paul Czinner. Among Criterion's films were Man of the Moment (1935), The Amateur Gentleman (1936), Accused (1936), and Jump for Glory (1937). He announced Lancelot but did not make it.
Return to Hollywood and focus on action roles
Fairbanks Jr. returned to Hollywood when David O. Selznick offered him the role of Rupert of Hentzau in The Prisoner of Zenda (1937). He had been reluctant to accept the role but his father urged him to do it, saying it was "actor proof". The movie was a big success.
In December 1937 he signed a non-exclusive contract with RKO to make two films a year for five years, at $75,000 a film.
RKO used him as Irene Dunne's leading man in Joy of Living (1938). At Universal he was Danielle Darrieux's co star in The Rage of Paris (1938) and Ginger Rogers's in RKO's Having Wonderful Time (1938).
Selznick used him again in The Young in Heart (1938) with Janet Gaynor.
Fairbanks then had his biggest-ever hit with RKO's Gunga Din (1939), alongside Cary Grant and Victor McLaglen.
Fairbanks Jr. began to work increasingly in action/adventure films: The Sun Never Sets (1939) at Universal; Rulers of the Sea (1939) at Paramount; Green Hell (1940) for James Whale at Universal, a flop; and Safari (1940) at Paramount.
He had a change of pace when he starred in and co-produced Angels Over Broadway (1940), written and directed by Ben Hecht at Columbia.
His last film before enlisting was The Corsican Brothers (1941), a swashbuckler made as a tribute to Fairbanks' father. Fairbanks did not have faith in the film while it was being filmed ("I thought we were cutting corners") but it was a huge success.
World War II
Fairbanks was commissioned as a reserve officer in the United States Navy when the United States entered World War II and was assigned to Lord Mountbatten's Commando staff in the United Kingdom.
In 1941, President Franklin D. Roosevelt appointed him special envoy to South America. Fairbanks served on the cruiser during the disastrous Convoy PQ 17 operation.
Lieutenant Fairbanks was subsequently transferred to Virginia Beach where he came under the command of Admiral H. Kent Hewitt, who was preparing U.S. naval forces for the invasion of North Africa. Fairbanks convinced Hewitt of the advantages of a military deception unit, then repeated the proposal at Hewitt's behest to Admiral Ernest King, Chief of Naval Operations. King thereupon issued a secret letter on March 5, 1943 charging the Vice Chief of Naval Operations with the recruitment of 180 officers and 300 enlisted men for the Beach Jumper program.
The Beach Jumpers' mission would simulate amphibious landings with a very limited force. Operating dozens of kilometers from the actual landing beaches and utilizing their deception equipment, the Beach Jumpers would lure the enemy into believing that theirs was the principal landing.
United States Navy Beach Jumpers saw their initial action in Operation Husky, the invasion of Sicily. For the remainder of the war, the Beach Jumpers conducted their hazardous, shallow-water operations throughout the Mediterranean.
For his planning the diversion-deception operations and his part in the amphibious assault on Southern France, Lieutenant Commander Fairbanks was awarded the United States Navy's Legion of Merit with bronze V (for valor), the Italian War Cross for Military Valor, the French Légion d'honneur and the Croix de Guerre with Palm, and the British Distinguished Service Cross.
Fairbanks was also awarded the Silver Star for valor displayed while serving on PT boats and in 1942 made an Officer of the National Order of the Southern Cross, conferred by the Brazilian government.
Among his other exploits was the sinking of the corvette UJ-6083 (formerly the Regia Marina Capriolo) while in command of a mixed division of American PT boats and British s plus assorted other small craft. Fairbanks commanded from .
Fairbanks stayed in the US Naval Reserve after the war and ultimately retired as a captain in 1954.
Post-war years
Hollywood
Fairbanks returned to Hollywood at the conclusion of World War II. He spent two years finding a comeback vehicle and picked Sinbad the Sailor (1947), which was not a big hit.
He followed it with The Exile (1947), another swashbuckler, which Fairbanks wrote and produced; it was directed by Max Ophüls. The film was the first of three independent films Fairbanks was to produce – the others being a big screen version of Terry and the Pirates, and a film called Happy Go Lucky. It was another box office disappointment.
He thought his career would be revived by That Lady in Ermine with Betty Grable but director Ernst Lubitsch died during production and was replaced by Otto Preminger; the resulting film was not a success and Fairbanks Jr believes this cost his career momentum.
Fairbanks tried another swashbuckler for his own company, The Fighting O'Flynn (1949).
British career
As a confirmed Anglophile, Fairbanks spent much time in the United Kingdom, where he was well known in the highest social circles. He was made an Honorary Knight Commander of the Order of the British Empire (KBE) in 1949 and moved there in the early 1950s.
Fairbanks starred in the British thriller State Secret (1950) written and directed by Sidney Gilliat and a comedy for Val Guest, Mr Drake's Duck (1951)
Between 1954 and 1956 he also made a number of half-hour programs at one of the smaller Elstree film studios as part of a syndicated anthology series for television called Douglas Fairbanks Presents.
During the 1950s, Fairbanks appeared as himself on episodes of a number of American television shows, such as Your Show of Shows, The Ford Show, The Steve Allen Plymouth Show and What's My Line?.
He co-produced the films The Silken Affair (1957) and Chase a Crooked Shadow (1958).
In 1961, he was a guest at the wedding of Katharine Worsley to Prince Edward, Duke of Kent.
He guest starred on shows such as Route 66, The DuPont Show of the Week, The United States Steel Hour, The Red Skelton Hour, Dr. Kildare, and ABC Stage 67. He played King Richard in a TV musical The Legend of Robin Hood (1968).
Later career
On stage, Fairbanks toured in My Fair Lady in 1968, and in The Pleasure of His Company several times, including tours in the U.S. in 1970–72 and the 1977 Australian production with Stanley Holloway, David Langton, Carole Ray and Christine Amore.
He appeared in some TV movies and TV series, including The Crooked Hearts (1972), The Hostage Tower (1980), and The Love Boat.
His last feature film was Ghost Story (1981). His last TV roles were in the mini series Strong Medicine (1987) and the TV series B.L. Stryker.
He was the subject of This Is Your Life in 1989 when he was surprised by Michael Aspel in the foyer of Thames Television's Teddington Studios.
Fairbanks was also involved in several successful business ventures. These included manufacturing ball point pens, real estate development, management of copyrighted theatrical works, and film production.
Personal life
His first notable relationship was with the actress Joan Crawford, whom he began to date seriously during the filming of Our Modern Maidens. Fairbanks and Crawford married on June 3, 1929, at St. Malachy in New York City. Fairbanks was only 19; Crawford was 4 years older. Their witnesses were his mother, Beth Sully, and actor Jack Whiting, who got married themselves a few weeks later.
Fairbanks and Crawford travelled to Britain on a delayed honeymoon, where he was entertained by Noël Coward, Gertrude Lawrence, Beatrice Lillie, and Prince George, Duke of Kent. He became active in both society and politics, but Crawford was far more interested in her career and had an affair with Clark Gable. In his first autobiography he would later admit that he was also unfaithful during that period and that he unsuccessfully pursued Katharine Hepburn during the filming of Morning Glory. The couple divorced in 1933, but the divorce would not become final for another year.
Despite their divorce, Fairbanks was quick to defend Crawford when her adopted daughter Christina Crawford published Mommie Dearest, a scathing biography of Crawford's personal life. He firmly stated "The Joan Crawford that I've heard about in Mommie Dearest is not the Joan Crawford I knew back then." In his autobiography, he stated that he never saw a hint of any significant anger outbursts from Crawford during their marriage and that she was more likely to sulk or argue than become angry.
On April 22, 1939, Fairbanks married Mary Lee Hartford (née Mary Lee Epling), a former wife of Huntington Hartford, the A&P supermarket heir. He remained devoted to her until her death in 1988. They had three daughters: Daphne, Victoria and Melissa, as well as eight grandchildren and 10 great-grandchildren.
The College of Arms in London granted Fairbanks a coat of arms symbolizing the U.S. and Britain united across the blue Atlantic Ocean by a silken knot of friendship.
In 1982, Fairbanks was awarded the German Federal Cross of Merit for his contribution to the relief of the needy in occupied Germany.
It has been claimed that Douglas Fairbanks Jr. was the naked man in the incriminating photos used as evidence in the divorce trial of Margaret Campbell, Duchess of Argyll in 1963. However, in 2013, Lady Colin Campbell, Margaret Campbell's stepdaughter-in-law, revealed that the man in the photo was actually Bill Lyons, sales director of Pan American Airlines.
Fairbanks was also named in connection with the Profumo Scandal.
Fairbanks was a friend of Laurence Olivier and was among the contributors to a documentary by The South Bank Show titled Laurence Olivier: A Life. He was also a close friend of Sir Rex Harrison and was a presenter at Harrison's New York City memorial service.
He wrote his autobiography The Salad Days in 1988. In addition, Fairbanks wrote a chronicle of his experiences during the Second World War, A Hell of a War published in 1993. Beyond his two volumes of autobiography, Fairbanks collaborated with Richard Schickel on the illustrated survey of Fairbanks Sr. and Jr. called The Fairbanks Album (1975) and Jeffrey Vance with a critical study/biography of Fairbanks Sr. ultimately published as Douglas Fairbanks (2008).
On May 30, 1991, Fairbanks married Vera Lee Shelton, a merchandiser for QVC Network Inc.
Death and legacy
On the morning of May 7, 2000, Fairbanks died at the age of 90 of a heart attack and was interred at the Hollywood Forever Cemetery in Hollywood, California, in the same tomb as his father.
Fairbanks has three stars on the Hollywood Walk of Fame: one for motion pictures at 6318 Hollywood Boulevard, one for television at 6665 Hollywood Boulevard and one for radio at 6710 Hollywood Boulevard. In 1969 he was inducted into the Hall of Fame of the International Best Dressed List.
The moving image collection of Douglas Fairbanks Jr. is held at the Academy Film Archive and includes over 90 reels of home movies.
Estate
Fairbanks's personal belongings were auctioned September 13, 2011, by Doyle New York, surpassing estimated proceeds by netting over a half-million dollars.
Filmography
Radio appearances
Awards and honors
Silver Star
Legion of Merit
American Defense Service Medal with "A" device
American Campaign Medal
European-African-Middle Eastern Campaign Medal
World War II Victory Medal
Naval Reserve Medal
Knight Commander of the Order of the British Empire, 1949 (KBE, United Kingdom)
Knight of the Order of St John (KStJ, United Kingdom)
Knight of the Legion of Honor (France)
Officer of the Order of the Southern Cross (Brazil)
Distinguished Service Cross (United Kingdom)
Croix de Guerre, 1939–1945 with bronze palm (France)
War Cross for Military Valor (Italy)
Federal Cross of Merit, Commander's Cross (West Germany)
Navy Expert Pistol Shot Medal
References
Sources
Further reading
External links
Douglas Fairbanks Jr. and the Beach Jumpers 9:55 video
1909 births
2000 deaths
20th-century American male actors
Actors awarded knighthoods
American male child actors
American male film actors
American male radio actors
United States Navy personnel of World War II
American male silent film actors
American people of German-Jewish descent
Burials at Hollywood Forever Cemetery
American heraldists
Honorary Knights Commander of the Order of the British Empire
Recipients of the Legion of Honour
Recipients of the War Cross for Military Valor
Commanders Crosses of the Order of Merit of the Federal Republic of Germany
Male actors from New York City
Recipients of the Distinguished Service Cross (United Kingdom)
Recipients of the Croix de Guerre 1939–1945 (France)
Recipients of the Legion of Merit
Recipients of the Silver Star
Collegiate School (New York) alumni
United States Navy captains
American expatriates in the United Kingdom
Paramount Pictures contract players
Warner Bros. contract players | [
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229505 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stepchild%20%28disambiguation%29 | Stepchild (disambiguation) | A stepchild is the daughter or son of one's spouse but not of oneself
Stepchild may also refer to:
Stepchild (film), a 1947 American drama film
"Stepchild", a song written by Bob Dylan as "Am I Your Stepchild?" (1978), sung by Solomon Burke on his 2002 album Don't Give Up on Me and by Jerry Lee Lewis on Rock & Roll Time 2014
"Stepchild", a single by Billie Jo Spears from her 1969 album Miss Sincerity, see Billie Jo Spears discography | [
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229507 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geist%20und%20Seele%20wird%20verwirret%2C%20BWV%2035 | Geist und Seele wird verwirret, BWV 35 | (Spirit and soul become confused), 35, is a church cantata by Johann Sebastian Bach. He composed the solo cantata for alto voice in Leipzig for the twelfth Sunday after Trinity and first performed it on 8 September 1726.
Bach composed the cantata in his fourth year as Thomaskantor (musical director) in Leipzig. The text is based on the day's prescribed reading from the Gospel of Mark, the healing of a deaf mute man. The librettist is Georg Christian Lehms, whose poetry Bach had used already in Weimar as the basis for solo cantatas. The text quotes ideas from the gospel and derives from these the analogy that as the tongue of the deaf mute man was opened, the believer should be open to admire God's miraculous deeds. The cantatas for this Sunday have a positive character, which Bach stressed in earlier works for the occasion by including trumpets in the score. In this work, he uses instead an obbligato solo organ in several movements.
The cantata is structured in seven movements in two parts, to be performed before and after the sermon. Both parts are opened by an instrumental sinfonia with solo organ, probably derived from concerto music composed earlier in Weimar or Köthen. The alto singer performs a sequence of alternating arias and recitatives, accompanied in all three arias by the organ as an equal partner. The Baroque instrumental ensemble is formed by two oboes, taille, strings and basso continuo. The alto part is demanding and was probably written with a specific singer in mind, as with the two other solo cantatas composed in the same period.
History and words
Bach composed the cantata in his fourth year as in Leipzig for the Twelfth Sunday after Trinity. It is regarded as part of his third cantata cycle.
The prescribed readings for the Sunday were from the Second Epistle to the Corinthians, the ministry of the Spirit (), and from the Gospel of Mark, the healing of a deaf mute man (). The cantata text was written by Georg Christian Lehms and published in (1711). The text connects the healing of the deaf man to the thoughts of the believer who is left deaf and mute in awe looking at the healing of Jesus and God's creation. The text of the second aria is almost a quote of the gospel's last verse.
Because of the requirements that "new music" be composed as often as possible, Bach seldom chose older poems for his cantatas; consequently, the conductor Craig Smith has suggested that parts of this work may have been composed earlier than the first recorded Leipzig performance. Bach had already composed his first solo cantata on a text by Lehms, , composed during his tenure in Weimar, also for an alto soloist.
The cantata is one of three Bach cantatas written in Leipzig in 1726 in which an alto is the only vocal soloist, the others being , and . It seems likely that Bach had a capable alto singer at his disposal during this period.
Bach had earlier composed two other cantatas for the twelfth Sunday after Trinity, in his first year in Leipzig Lobe den Herrn, meine Seele, BWV 69a, first performed on 15 August 1723, and in his third year Lobe den Herren, den mächtigen König der Ehren, BWV 137, first performed on 19 August 1725, as an added part of his cycle of chorale cantatas. Both works focus on praise (Lob) and use an orchestra including festive trumpets.
Furthermore, the work has two large concerto movements for organ and orchestra, probably from a lost concerto for keyboard, oboe or violin, perhaps indicating that the cantata was composed for a seasonal choral absentia at Thomaskirche. The first nine bars of the opening sinfonia are practically identical to the fragment BWV 1059.
Bach led the first performance on 8 September 1726, and probably played the organ part himself.
Structure and scoring
Bach structured the cantata in two parts, four movements to be performed before the sermon, three after the sermon. Both parts begin with a sinfonia. Bach scored the cantata for an alto soloist and a Baroque instrumental ensemble of two oboes (Ob), taille (Ot), obbligato solo organ (Org), two violins (Vl), viola (Va), and basso continuo (Bc).
In the following table of the movements, the scoring follows the Neue Bach-Ausgabe. The keys and time signatures are taken from Alfred Dürr, using the symbol for common time (4/4). The instruments are shown separately for winds, strings, and organ and continuo.
Music
John Eliot Gardiner, who conducted this work on the twelfth Sunday after Trinity in St. Jakob, Köthen as part of the Bach Cantata Pilgrimage with the Monteverdi Choir in 2000, calls the occasion "one of the most cheerful programmes of the whole Trinity season", leading Bach to compose "celebratory pieces", two with trumpets and timpani, and finally this one with an obbligato organ. In an expanded two-part structure, the organ is both an instrumental soloist in the two sinfonias and a partner for the singer in all three arias. The musicologist Laurence Dreyfus distinguished Bach's use of the organ as "sacred icon" versus "galant conversationalist", writing on Bach's "assimilation of the secular solo concerto into his church cantatas and his adjustment of the normal concerto principle, that of soloist-versus-orchestra, through subtle shifts in role playing, the instrument now posing as a soloist, now retreating into the background."
1
The opening allegro sinfonia incorporates concerto techniques, suggesting an origin in a pre-existing concerto. The organ performs both the solo melody and the continuo line, punctuated by quasi-cadenza passages and interspersed ten-measure ritornellos. The musicologist Klaus Hofmann notes that in the movement in Italian style, the theme is "subjected to intensive thematic working-out in the dialogue between solo instrument and orchestra".
2
The first aria in da capo form, "" (Spirit and soul become confused), is characterized by a broken ritornello and a sense of confusion and uncertainty. The rhythm is siciliano, a frequent feature in slow concerto movements by Bach and others. Hofmann concludes from many corrections in Bach's autograph that the aria is a new composition. He sees the "agility of the organ part which does not follow the siciliano pattern" as an image of the "confusion" mentioned in the text.
3
A secco recitative, "" (I am amazed), expresses awe at the creation, rendered in the first person which according to Mincham underlines the cantata's "personal and individual emphasis". Beginning in a major mode which contrasts with the preceding aria, it turns to "the solemnity of the minor mode".
4
An aria with obbligato organ, "" (God has made everything well), is the first movement in a major mode, expressing pleasure with God's creation. It has a dominating two-part ritornello. Hofmann observes that the organ, this time the only partner of the voice, is "rich in coloratura" and has a theme, "heard throughout the movement, sometimes in the manner of an ostinato, sometimes freely developed; in its figuration and motoric drive it is stylized just like Bach’s writing for the violoncello piccolo". Gardiner notes that not only the tessitura but also "characteristic string-crossing patterns" are reminiscent of violoncello piccolo use.
5
Part 2 begins with another sinfonia, this time in binary form. Hofmann describes it as "an engaging perpetuum mobile introduced by the keyboard". It may be based on the final movement of a concerto. The organ interacts with the orchestra without a prelude, which is unusual in Bach's concertos, but not without precedent, such as the harpsichord concerto in F major, BWV 1057
6
Another secco recitative, "" (Ah, powerful God, let me [think upon this continually]), is a prayer for the ability to always reflect on the miracle of creation. It quotes Jesus saying "Hephata" (Be opened) to the deaf mute man, and turns it to "the believer's heart would open up and his tongue would be loosened so that he might perceive and praise the divine miracles".
7
The cantata concludes with an aria with the complete orchestra, "" (I wish to live with God alone). It expresses the wish to dwell with God forever in a minuet of positive character. The movement again uses a two-part ritornello. When contrasting aspects of life on earth are mentioned, such as "jammerreichen Schmerzensjoch" (sorrowful yoke of pain) and "martervollen Leben" (tormented life), the music darkens to minor keys. The organ supplies triplet figures, which the voice also uses to express "ein fröhliches Halleluja" (a joyful hallelujah).
Recordings
The table is based on the listing on the Bach Cantatas website. Ensembles playing period instruments in historically informed performance are marked by a green background.
{| class="wikitable plainrowheaders"
|-
! scope="col" | Title
! scope="col" | Conductor / Ensemble
! scope="col" | Soloists
! scope="col" | Label
! scope="col" | Year
! scope="col" |
|-
References
External links
Geist und Seele wird verwirret, BWV 35: performance by the Netherlands Bach Society (video and background information)
Church cantatas by Johann Sebastian Bach
1726 compositions | [
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229509 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Amazonas%20%28Brazilian%20state%29 | Amazonas (Brazilian state) | Amazonas () is a state of Brazil, located in the North Region in the northwestern corner of the country. It is the largest Brazilian state by area and the 9th largest country subdivision in the world, and the largest in South America, being greater than the areas of Uruguay, Paraguay, and Chile combined. Mostly located in the Southern Hemisphere, it is the third largest country subdivision in the Southern Hemisphere after the Australian states of Western Australia and Queensland. Entirely in the Western Hemisphere it is the fourth largest in the Western Hemisphere after Greenland, Nunavut and Alaska. It would be the sixteenth largest country in land area, slightly larger than Mongolia. Neighbouring states are (from the north clockwise) Roraima, Pará, Mato Grosso, Rondônia, and Acre. It also borders the nations of Peru, Colombia and Venezuela. This includes the Departments of Amazonas, Vaupés and Guainía in Colombia, as well as the Amazonas state in Venezuela, and the Loreto Region in Peru.
Amazonas is named after the Amazon River, and was formerly part of the Spanish Empire's Viceroyalty of Peru, a region called Spanish Guyana. It was settled by the Portuguese moving northwest from Brazil in the early 18th century and incorporated into the Portuguese empire after the Treaty of Madrid in 1750. It became a state under the First Brazilian Republic in 1889.
Most of the state is tropical jungle; cities are clustered along navigable waterways and are accessible only by boat or plane. The capital and largest city is Manaus, a modern city of 2.1 million inhabitants in the middle of the jungle on the Amazon River, 1,500 km upstream from the Atlantic Ocean. Nearly half the state's population lives in the city; the other large cities, Parintins, Manacapuru, Itacoatiara, Tefé, and Coari are also along the Amazon River in the eastern half of the state.
Etymology
The name was originally given to the Amazon River that runs through the state by the Spaniard Francisco de Orellana in 1541. Claiming to have come across a warlike tribe of Indians, with whom he fought, he likened them to the Amazons of Greek mythology, giving them the same name of Río de las Amazonas.
History
Administrative evolution
Rise of the rainforest
At one time the Amazon River flowed westward, perhaps as part of a proto-Congo (Zaïre) river system from the interior of present-day Africa when the continents were joined as part of western Gondwana. Fifteen million years ago, the Andes were formed by the collision of the South American Plate with the Nazca Plate (eastern Pacific oceanic) plate. The rise of the Andes and the linkage of the Brazilian and Guyana bedrock shields, blocked the river and caused the Amazon to become a vast inland sea. Gradually this inland sea became a massive swampy, freshwater lake and the marine inhabitants adapted to life in freshwater. For example, over 20 species of stingray, most closely related to those found in the Pacific Ocean, can be found today in the fresh waters of the Amazon.
About ten million years ago, waters worked through the sandstone to the west and the Amazon began to flow eastward. At this time the Amazon rainforest was born. During the Ice Age, sea levels dropped and the great Amazon lake rapidly drained and became a river. Three million years later, the ocean level receded enough to expose the Central American isthmus and allow mass migration of mammal species between the Americas.
The Ice Ages caused tropical rainforest around the world to retreat. Although debated, it is believed that much of the Amazon reverted to savanna and montane forest. Savanna divided patches of rainforest into "islands" and separated existing species for periods long enough to allow genetic differentiation (a similar rainforest retreat took place in Africa. Delta core samples suggest that even the mighty Congo watershed was void of rainforest at this time). When the ice ages ended, the forest was again joined, and the species that were once one, had diverged significantly enough to be designated as separate species, adding to the tremendous diversity of the region. About 6,000 years ago, sea levels rose about 130 meters, once again causing the river to be inundated like a long, giant freshwater lake.
Natives
The pre-Columbian Amazonas was inhabited by seminomadic peoples whose livelihood mixed occasional agriculture with a fishing and hunter-gatherer lifestyle. Because of Christopher Columbus' misunderstanding of the continent at which he had arrived, the native population were and are denominated "índios" by the Portuguese. Approximately two thousand Indian tribes lived in the region in the sixteenth century, perhaps amounting to some millions of people, but phenomena such as disease and assimilation to Brazilian culture caused their numbers to fall to approximately three hundred thousand, and two hundred tribes, by the end of the twentieth century. Certain uncontacted tribes still exist in the region.
Political dominations
In the colonial time, the territory which today belongs to the State of Amazonas, was a combination of treaties, expeditions, evangelism and military occupations. Scarce but recorded claims and indigenous uprisings in the region, were initially made by the Spanish Empire through the Treaty of Tordesillas and after the Portuguese Empire by the First Treaty of San Ildefonso. The State also includes territory from failed attempts at colonization by the European powers, such as England and the Dutch empire.
The first Spanish expedition was by Francisco de Orellana in conjunction with Catholic priest Gaspar de Carvajal, who documented the expedition. He reported a conflict against indigenous women which led to the current name of the river, and then to the current name of the region and the state (Amazonas in English: Amazons). The second Spanish expedition was by Pedro de Ursúa, intending to prove the previous expedition, but resulted in the Spanish Kingdom dropping the attempt to colonize the region.
After the unification of the Iberian kingdoms, Portugal launched an expedition on the river [but in reverse from Francisco de Orellana, at the mouth of the river to the site of the present-day city of Quito, capital of Ecuador], with the intention of attaching Spanish lands (comprising the current territory of the Brazilian Amazon) to the Portuguese Kingdom. After the dissolution of the Iberian Union, Portuguese and Spanish possessions in the region were undefined, resulting in internal conflicts in the region between Portugal and Spain. The Portuguese Crown later asserted the principle of uti possidetis, with respect to the region. This was the first assertion of the principle from Roman law of uti possidetis, ita possideatis, (Latin, "who has possession, has dominion"), analogous to English common law "Squatters rights". Due account may have been taken of John Locke's labour theory of property.
Conflicting issues arose between what was granted by law in the Treaty of Tordesillas (1494), and the subsequent reality of colonial expansion: the Spanish, eastward from the Pacific coastal plains (though restrained by the Andes), and the Portuguese, westward (aided by the waterways and lowlands of the mighty Amazon). The Treaty of Madrid (13 January 1750) – that determined the border between the Spanish possessions and southern Portuguese Brazil – had first enunciated the principle that new states, at the time of their creation shall have dominion over the lands that were settled as colonies. It implicitly opened the door to claims by prior possession in the vast lands of the north.
After the independence of Brazil in 1822, the current borders of the Amazonas State were still undefined – at that time being with Gran Colombia. The internal conflicts within that neighbour country resulted in the emergence of Colombia, Ecuador, Venezuela and Panama. Brazil signed the Treaty Vásquez Cobo–Martins (1908) (with those countries) finally entitling those possessions in the north to Brazil. One region is marked by the geodesic line Apóporis-Tabatinga; and the other is the municipal area of São Gabriel da Cachoeira, on the Brazil-Colombia border.
Spanish conquistadors and Jesuits
By the Treaty of Tordesillas (1494), the whole Amazon basin was in the area of the Spanish Crown. The mouth of a great river was explored by Spanish conquistador Vicente Yáñez Pinzón, who reached it in February 1500, with his cousin Diego de Lepe. He called the river Río Santa María de la Mar Dulce (River of Saint Mary of the Sweet Sea) on account of the large freshwater estuary extending into the sea at its mouth.
In 1541, Spanish conquistadores Gonzalo Pizarro and Francisco de Orellana, from Quito, Ecuador, crossed the Andes Mountains and explored the course of the river to the Atlantic Ocean. The indigenous people called this river the Conoris. The myth of women warriors on the river has spread in the accounts and books, without any popular scope, still making those regions to receive names of warriors of Greek mythology, the Amazons — among them the largest river in the region that became known as the Amazon River. Early publications, as was the style of the day, called the river after its European explorer, the Orellana.
Also in the 16th century, there were the expeditions of conquistadores Pedro de Ursúa and Lope de Aguirre in search of the legendary El Dorado, the Lost City of Gold (1559–1561)
Spanish Jesuit missions were the first settlements upstream on the Amazon. As many as 30 missions were founded in Amazon territory, seven in Brazil, between 1638 and 1727. The municipality of Silves on an island of Lake Saracá is one of the oldest in the Amazon, originating in a Mercedarian Indian mission founded in 1663. By the early 18th century, they were destroyed by the Portuguese, depopulated by smallpox, or their indigenous residents taken away as slaves by Portuguese Bandeirantes. A few were taken over by Portuguese Carmelites. The destruction of the missions was the end of Spanish claims in western Amazonia. Only one is a populated place today, San Pablo, now the municipality of São Paulo de Olivença.
English, Dutch and French outposts
Starting about 1580, without effective occupation, English, Dutch, French (and even some Irish) searching for so-called Drogas do Sertão (spices of the backlands) had established some outposts upstream of the mouth of the Amazon.
Portuguese usurpation
From at least the time of the Tordesillas Treaty in 1494 until the Treaty of Madrid in 1750, the region of the upper Amazon was part of the Spanish Viceroyalty of Peru (Viceroyalty of New Granada after 1717). Everything north of the Amazon (Solimões) and west of the Nhamundá River (Yamundá, in Spanish), an affluent of the left bank of the Amazon that forms the boundary of Amazonas with Pará, was known as Spanish Guyana.
Portuguese expansion westward and northward of the Torsedillas Line began from the frontier of the northernmost captaincy of Maranhão with the expulsion of the French from São Luis in 1615, and the founding of Belém at the mouth of the Amazon in 1616. Exploration and colonization thence followed the waterway upstream.
There are accounts of Portuguese Carmelite missionaries active in the Solimões area, upstream of the Rio Negro, as early as the 1620s, but permanent settlements weren't established for another 80 years, so the records are nebulous.
The first documented Portuguese foray into upper Amazonia was the expedition of Portuguese explorer and military officer Pedro Teixeira, who followed the great river from the Atlantic Ocean to Quito, Ecuador with 70 soldiers and 1,200 Indians in forty-seven great canoes (1637–1639). He returned by the same route, arriving back in Belem in 1639. According to the Portuguese, Pedro Teixeira placed a possession marker at the upper Japurá River in 1639. Soon after that the Portuguese bandeirante António Raposo Tavares, whose bandeira, leaving the captaincy of São Vicente travelling overland, reached the Andes, and following the Amazon River, returned to Belém, visiting a total of about , between 1648 and 1651.
Tropical jungle is hostile and impenetrable as well as European settlements were exclusively along the waterways. Portuguese expansion generally was east to west, and from the main channel, the Solimões, north and south along the tributaries. The character of the settlements was of three kinds: defense and occupation (fortes), economic (feitorias), and evangelical (missões). The first permanent Portuguese settlements in the region were Itacoatiara 176 km east of Manaus, founded in 1655 by Portuguese Jesuit Padre António Vieira as Mission of Aroaquis on the island of Aibi near the mouth of Lake Arauató, followed by São Gabriel, founded in 1668 as by Franciscan Friar Teodózio [or Teodósio] da Veiga and Captain Pedro da Costa Favela on the Rio Negro, near the mouth of the Rio Aruím. In 1761, a fort was built on the location, and the settlement became the town of São Gabriel da Cachoeira. The first missionary aldea of the Portuguese in the Negro was that known as Santo Elias dos Tarumas (originally aldeia of Nossa Senhora da Conceição, and later called Airão), dating from 1692.
the capital Manaus, was founded in 1669 as the Fort of São José do Rio Negro (later called Lugar da Barra do Rio Negro or "place on the shore of Rio Negro") on the confluence of the Rio Negro and Solimões Rivers.
The Royal Charter of 1693 divided Amazonia among the Jesuits, Carmelites, Capuchines and Franciscans: the Jesuits restricted their activities to the south bank of the Amazon upstream to the mouth of the Madeira; the north shore of the Amazon as far as the Trombetas fell to the Franciscans, to the mouth of the Rio Negro to the Mercedarians, and the Negro itself and the Solimoes to the Carmelites.
The Portuguese Carmelites got a later start than the Spanish Jesuits, but their impact was more durable. Between 1697 and 1757, they established eight missions on the Solimões and nine on the Rio Negro. In addition, there were a few Portuguese Jesuit missions in the Solimões. In 1731, Portuguese Jesuits received orders from the Governor Luiz de Vasconcellos Lobo to establish two aldeias above the mouth of the Rio Negro, one on the right bank of the Orellana Solimões, between the eastern mouth of the Javari and the Carmelite aldeia of São Pedro; the other at the western mouth of the great river Japurá. This was the beginning of what came to be called the Jesuit–Carmelite War.
Antidote to settlement was disease: fierce smallpox epidemics in 1661, 1695, 1724, and 1743/49 left the region nearly depopulated. A Carmelite Friar had notable success with the method of variolation in 1729, but the technique was not propagated. The Jenner cowpox vaccine was not introduced in Brazil until 1808. Variolation was prohibited in 1840, and vaccination was mandated in 1854. But epidemics got worse until finally petering out around the turn of the century.
Within the project of occupying the Amazon hinterland, was formed the royal captaincy of São José do Rio Negro subordinate to Para, in Mar. 1755, with headquarters in the village of Mariuá, (now Barcelos).
The borders of Brazil
The boundary between the Portuguese and Spanish domination of the Amazon was eventually fixed at the Rio Javari (river that rises on the border between Amazonas state, Brazil, and Loreto department, Peru) by the Treaty of Madrid in 1750.
By the mid-18th century, the effective boundary between the two empires, the Spanish Viceroyalty of Peru and Portuguese Brazil, had shifted to the area of the confluence of the Rio Negro and Amazon Rivers, in upper Amazonia.
While the Treaty of Madrid in 1750 implicitly recognized the principle of uti possiditis, it did not actually specify the northern borders of the country. At that time, the border of contention between Spanish and Portuguese domains was in the upper Solimões, at the junction of the Rio Negro. In the upper Salomoes, Spanish missionary influence was being displaced, and the Viceroy was indifferent to colonization, but Portuguese settlements were not yet established.
Part of the northern boundary between Brazil and what was then British Guyana, was set by the Spanish Boundary-line Commission of Yturriaga and Solano (1757–1763). After two indecisive wars between Portuguese and Spanish colonial forces 1761–1763 and 1776–1777, the border between the Spanish and Portuguese possessions, the Viceroyalty of Peru (and successor states) and Grão-Pará region of Brazil, was set between 1781 and 1791 by negotiation.
Age of rebellion
In 1821, Grão-Pará and Rio Negro provinces became the unified Grão-Pará. The following year, Brazil proclaimed its independence and Grão-Pará became the Province of Pará of state of Brazil.
At the time of the independence in Brazil in 1822, residents of the village proclaimed themselves independent, establishing a provisional government.
When Emperor Pedro I declared independence from Portugal, in 1822, he had to fight also the provinces of Grão-Pará and Maranhão. In 1823, a ship commanded by British officer John Pascoe Grenfell arrived at the port of Belém, to combat rebels. Only in August 1824 did the new governor swear loyalty to the Brazilian Emperor.
The Province of Pará, including the comarca of Rio Negro, the upper Amazon region, was incorporated into the Empire of Brazil in 1824.
A revolt in 1832 demanded the autonomy of the Amazonas region as a separate province of Pará. The rebellion was suppressed, but the Amazons were able to send a representative to the Imperial Court, Friar José dos Santos Inocentes, who got up the creation of the District of the Upper Amazon. During Cabanagem in 1835–40, the Amazon remained loyal to the imperial government and not joined the revolt.
As a sort of reward for loyalty, the Province of Amazonas was officially created by Emperor Pedro II in 1850.
Rubber and economic exploitation
From the mid-19th century, the territory began to receive migrants from the northeast seeking a better life. Attracted by the rubber boom, they settled in important Amazonian cities such as Manaus, Tabatinga, Parintins, Itacoatiara and Barcelos, the first capital of Amazonas.
The state had an era of splendor in the 1890s, at the peak of the rubber boom. However, the economic gains were largely the result of great human suffering: untold thousands of enslaved Amerindian seringueiros (rubber tappers) died through disease and overwork.
Manaus, which already boasted as the capital administrative of the State, experienced a great population growth and the economic advancement, resulting mainly from exports of raw materials until then exclusively from Amazon Region. With the wealth generated by the production and export of natural rubber (Hevea brasiliensis), the amazonian capital received large works such as the port of Manaus, the Amazonas Opera House, Palace of Justice, Reservoir of Mocó, the first network of electric energy and public transport services as trams. Vista as a reference, your headquarters became a symbol of prosperity and civilization for the Amazonas State, being the center of important artistic and cultural events. Bloomed so trade in luxury products and superfluous, with men and women from all over the world parading its streets and avenues, at purchase of the so-called "black gold", as was dubbed the natural rubber, to resell big profits in the main capitals of Europe and in the United States from 1910, difficult times began, due to the strong competition of natural rubber planted in rubber plantations the Asian continent, to European and American markets with superior advantages, which ultimately enact bankruptcy of Amazonian economy.
By the late 19th century, the Brazilian rubber monopoly was slowly dying, as British and Dutch plantations in South-East Asia were producing cheaper, superior quality rubber, and by 1900 the Amazonas state had fallen into serious economic decline.
Free Economic Zone
Free trade zone of Manaus (also called Manaus Industrial Pole or Industrial Pole of the Brazilian Amazon) was an economic development project implemented by Act number 3 173 of 3 June 1957, that reframed, enlarged and established tax incentives for deployment of an industrial, commercial and agricultural pole in a physical area of 10 000 km2, with headquarters in the city of Manaus. Despite the adoption in 1957, that project has only been in fact deployed, by Decree-Law number 288 of 28 February 1967.
The project was implemented by the Brazilian military government, at first, the benefits of this project was extended to the Western Amazon, formed by the States of Amazonas, Acre, Rondônia and Roraima. On August 20, 2008, the free trade area of Macapá, which was included in the Council of Manaus by Free Zone Superintendence (Suframa) and thus, the Amapá received the same benefit given for other Amazonian Brazilian States. The creation of the Manaus free trade zone aimed at promoting the occupation of this region population and raise the level of security to maintain your integrity in addition, brake deforestation in the region and recoup the preservation and sustainability of biodiversity present in the state. In its years of existence, the story of the Manaus Free Trade Zone is divided into four phases: the first, from 1967 to 1975, characterized the reference in the country's industrial policy for the import substitution of final goods and formation of the internal market; the second, from 1975 to 1990, was characterized by the adoption of measures promoting the domestic industry inputs, especially in the State of São Paulo (largest consumer at the time); the third, in 1991 and 1996, came into force on new Industrial policy and foreign trade, marked by the opening of the Brazilian economy, reducing the import tax for the rest of the country and emphasis on quality and productivity, with the implementation of the Brazilian policy quality and productivity (PBPQ in Portuguese) and Industrial competitiveness program; and the fourth and last, of the 1996–2002, marks its adaptation to a globalized economy scenarios and the adjustments demanded by the effects of the Real plan, as the movement of privatization and deregulation.
Geography
Characterized by being the largest of the States of Brazil, with an area of . Amazonas has most of its land occupied by forest reserves and water. The access to the region is mainly made by waterway or by plane. It is located in the North of Brazil, bordering the States of Mato Grosso, Rondônia, and Acre to the South; Pará and Roraima, in the North East beyond the republics of Peru, Colombia and Venezuela to the Southwest and Northwest respectively. Most of its territory is in the time zone UTC−4 (with 4 hours unless the Greenwich mean time (GMT), and 1 hour less in relation to GMT). Thirteen municipalities in the West of the State are in the time zone UTC−5; it is one of the States of Brazil that contains two time zones in its territory. Amazonas is split by the Amazon river, the largest river by volume of water in the world. In the state, the river has several tributaries: Negro, Madeira, Purus, Japurá, Juruá, Içá or Putumayo and many other confluent. Most rivers are navigable for large ships.
Climate
The average temperature varies very little by season, between , the rainfall varies from 50 to 250 mm per month, averaging 2100 mm per year.
Most of the state is in the tropical rainforest climate zone, a type of tropical climate in which there is no dry season—all months have mean precipitation values of at least 60 mm. Its latitude is within five degrees of the equator—which is dominated by the Intertropical Convergence Zone. The equatorial climate is denoted Af in the Köppen climate classification.
Relief
The relief of the state is relatively low, since in the region, 85% does not surpass of altitude. The highest points of the state are the Pico da Neblina, with an approximate height of , followed by Pico Phelps or Pico 31 of March of , located in the border between Venezuela and Brazil, both mountains are in the municipality of Santa Isabel do Rio Negro and ironically, are the highest in Brazil.
Vegetation
Amazonas is almost entirely covered by the Amazon Rainforest, 98% according to officials, and it is divided into three types of habitat, viz:
igapos – permanently flooded land, roots of vegetation always submerged
varzeas – higher than igapos, land is only submerged when rivers are at their highest during the wet season
low plateau – higher still, never submerged
The Amazon represents over half of the planet's remaining rainforests and comprises the largest and most species-rich tract of tropical rainforest in the world. Wet tropical forests are the most species-rich biome, and tropical forests in the Americas are consistently more species-rich than the wet forests in Africa and Asia. As the largest tract of tropical rainforest in the Americas, the Amazonian rainforests have unparalleled biodiversity. More than of all species in the world live in the Amazon Rainforest. and species are discovered on an almost daily basis.
The largest biodiversity of the planet is present across the State of Amazonas, generating great surprise in its visitors.
Demographics
This population represents 1.9% of the population in Brazil.
The chief commercial cities are Barcelos, Benjamin Constant, Eirunepe, Itacoatiara, Lábrea, Manacapuru, Manicoré, Parintins, and Tefé.
The state achieved a very great population growth in the early 20th century, due to the golden period of rubber, and after installation of the Industrial Pole of Manaus, in the 1960s. The state still maintains population rates above the national average. In the 1950s the state had a population growth of 3.6% per year, while Brazil has maintained a growth of 3.2%. In the period between the years 1991 and 2000, Amazon grew by 2.7% per annum while the national average remained at 1.6%. For 2018, the estimate is 4,080,611 inhabitants.
The composition of Amazonian population by gender shows that for every 100 female residents of the state there are 96 men; this small imbalance between the sexes is because women have a life expectancy of eight years higher than that of men. However, the migration to the state is mostly male.
The capital, Manaus is the largest city in the northern region, with about 2,145,444 inhabitants. 52% of the state's population lives in the city.
Amazonas is the second largest precinct in northern Brazil, with 2,428,098 voters, according to the Superior Electoral Court.
Urbanization: 77.6% (2006); Population growth: 3.3% (1991–2000); Houses: 819,000 (2006).
The last PNAD (National Research for Sample of Domiciles) census revealed the following numbers: Pardo (Multiracial) people (68.98%), White people (21.21%), Indigenous people (4.80%), Black people (4.09%), and Asian people (0.91%).
According to a 2013 genetic study, the ancestry of the inhabitants of Manaus is 45.9% European, 37.8% Native American and 16.3% African.
Largest cities
Statistics
Vehicles: 651,536 (March/2007);
Mobile phones: 4.4 million (April/2007)
Telephones: 998 thousand (April/2007)
Cities: 62 (2007).
Religion
Economy
The industrial sector is the largest component of GDP at 69.9%, followed by the service sector at 23.93% (2012). Agriculture represents 3.6% of GDP (2004). Amazonas exports: mobile phones 48.7%, others electronics 19.5%, motorcycles 7.7% (2002).
Share of the Brazilian economy: 1.5% (IBGE: 2015).
Amazonas economy was once reliant almost entirely upon rubber; today it has wide and varied industries, including the farming of cassava, oranges, and other agricultural products.
Recently the Brazilian government is pursuing the development of industries whose main focus will be the exporting of consumer goods. Due to its geographical proximity to the markets in the northern hemisphere and Amazon countries, like Venezuela, they believe this move will have a great economic impact not only in the north region of Brazil but in the entire country.
Over the last decades, a system of federal investments and tax incentives have turned the surrounding region into a major industrial center (the Free Economic Zone of Manaus). The mobile phone and game console companies Flextronics, LG and Sony run manufacturing plants in Manaus. Other major electronics and motorcycle manufacturers such as Samsung Electronics, Honda and Yamaha have plants as well.
Tourism
Tourism is now focused on ecotourism, centered in the cities of Barcelos, Manaus, Parintins, Presidente Figueredo, and Sao Gabriel da Cachoeira.
Ecotourism
Amazon Rainforest.
Amazon River
Meeting of the Waters (Rio Negro river and Solimões river, in Brazilian Portuguese the river Solimões is the local name of an extension of the Amazon River).
Rio Negro
Anavilhanas Archipelago - The world's largest fresh water archipelago of river islands, Anavilhanas is located on the Rio Negro in the Brazilian Amazon - 100 km upstream from Manaus.
Lago Janauari Ecological Park
Pico da Neblina National Park, Pico 31 de Março (Pico Phelps in Venezuela).
State Park Ecological Serra do Acará.
State Reserve Ecological of Nhamundá.
Amazon Jungle Hikes & Canopy Tours
Adolfo Ducke Forest Reserve
Mamirauá Sustainable Development Reserve
Jaú National Park
Abufari Biological Reserve
Pompadour fish.
Cardinal tetra
Pterophyllum scalare (freshwater angelfish).
Açutuba Beach
Tupe Beach
Heritage and culture sites
City of Manaus (Rio Negro Palace, Amazon Theater, Justice Palace, Pied Tamarin Ecological Reserves, Municipal Park of Mindú, CIGS Zoo, and Police Museum)
City of Parintins (folklore festival occurs in June each year, including the carnival, which occurs in February)
City of Sao Gabriel da Cachoeira (culture of indigenous tribes: Baniwa, Yanomami, and Tukano, the hill of the Six Lakes and Pico da Neblina, the highest mountain in Brazil)
Ponta Negra Beach
Presidente Figueiredo (natural waterfalls)
Balbina Lake (piranha fishing and other Amazonian fish)
The Science Grove
Boi-Bumbas of Parintins Festival
Adolpho Lisboa Municipal Market
Education
Portuguese is the official national language, and thus the primary language taught in schools. But English and Spanish are part of the official high school curriculum.
Nheengatu, an indigenous Tupian language, has also official status in the municipality of São Gabriel da Cachoeira and has a few thousand speakers in that region.
Educational institutions
Federal University of Amazonas (UFAM) (Portuguese: Universidade Federal do Amazonas);
University of the State of Amazonas (UEA) (Portuguese: Universidade do Estado do Amazonas);
Federal Institute of Amazonas (IFAM) (Portuguese: Instituto Federal do Amazonas).
National Institute of Amazonian Research (Portuguese: Instituto Nacional de Pesquisas da Amazônia).
Private Universities
Paulista University (Unip-AM) (Universidade Paulista).
University Nilton Lins.
Lutheran University of Brazil (Universidade Luterana do Brasil (ULBRA)).
University Center of Amazon Higher Education (Portuguese: Centro Universitário de Educação Superior de Amazonas (CIESA)).
Instituto de Ensino Superior Materdei.
University Literatus (Uni-Cel).
Metropolitan College (FAMETRO) (Portuguese: Faculdade Metropolitana).
Amazon Baptist Graduate School (ESBAM) (Portuguese: Escola Superior Batista do Amazonas).
Laureate International University Uninorte (Laureate Uninorte).
DeVry Martha Falcao.
Unilasalle.
Culture
The state also holds one of the greatest folkloric festivals of the country: Parintins Folklore Festival, which combines music, dance and all the cultural roots of the state, and the Amazonas Opera Festival.
Main theaters of the Amazonas
Amazon Theatre (The most famous)
Manauara Theater
Chaminé Theater
LaSalle Theater
Cultural Center Peoples of Amazonian
Main museums of the Amazonas
MUSA - Amazonia Museum
Indians Museum (Museu do Índio)
Casa Eduardo Ribeiro Museum
Paço da Liberdade Museum
Museum of Natural Sciences
Caucho Museum or Seringal Museum (Official name: Museu do Seringal)
Tiradentes Museum Manaus
Malls in Amazonas
Manauara Mall Center
Amazonas Mall Center
ViaNorte Mall
Ponta Negra Mall
Millennium Mall
Samauma Park and Mall Center
Cidade Leste Mall
Grande Circular Mall
UAI São José Mall
Parintins Mall
Infrastructure
International airport
Eduardo Gomes International Airport(MAO) in Manaus employs roughly 3,300 people, among employees of Infraero, public agencies, concession holders, airlines and auxiliary services. The airport has two passenger terminals, one for scheduled flights and the other for regional aviation. It also has three cargo terminals: Terminal I was opened in 1976, Terminal II in 1980 and Terminal III in 2004. Eduardo Gomes International Airport is Brazil's third largest in freight movement, handling the import and export demand from the Manaus Industrial Complex.
Highways
BR-174, BR-210, BR-230, BR-307, BR-317, BR-319, BR-411, BR-413.
Sports
Manaus was one of the host cities of the 2014 FIFA World Cup, for which Brazil was the host nation.
There are other small soccer stadiums in the Amazonas, they are:
Stadium Carlos Zamith
Stadium Roberto Simonsen
Stadium of Colina
Stadium Gilberto Mestrinho
Stadium Tupy Cantahede
Stadium Floro de Mendonça
Stadium Francisco Garcia
Among other stadiums in the Amazonas
The Amazonia Arena is the largest stadium in the Amazonas, it was built to host some matches of the FIFA World Cup of 2014 and to host some football matches of the 2016 Summer Olympics.
See also
Amazônia Legal
Amazonas, Venezuela
Amazonas Department, in Colombia
Amazonas Region, in Peru
Further reading
Jackson, Joe (2008) The Thief at the End of the World: Rubber, Power, and the Seeds of Empire
Levy, Buddy (2011) River of Darkness: Francisco Orellana's Legendary Voyage of Death and Discovery Down the Amazon. Bantam
Heaton, H.C., ed.(2007) The Discovery of the Amazon
March, K. and Passman, K. (1993) The Amazon Myth and Latin America in Haase & Meyer, eds., European Images of the Americas and the Classical Tradition. De Gruyter
Notes
References
Amazon The Flooded Forest by Michael Goulding 1990
External links
Official Website
Indigenous language of Pirahans
Indigenous language of Tikunas
Amazon Opera House
States of Brazil
1850 establishments in Brazil
States and territories established in 1850 | [
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229513 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cear%C3%A1 | Ceará | Ceará (, pronounced locally as or ) is one of the 27 states of Brazil, located in the northeastern part of the country, on the Atlantic coast. It is the eighth-largest Brazilian State by population and the 17th by area. It is also one of the main tourist destinations in Brazil. The state capital is the city of Fortaleza, the country's fourth most populous city. The state has 4,3% of the Brazilian population and produces only 2,1% of the Brazilian GDP.
Literally, the name Ceará means "sings the jandaia". According to José de Alencar, one of the most important writers of Brazil and an authority in Tupi Guaraní, Ceará means turquoise or green waters.
The state is best known for its extensive coastline, with of sand. There are also mountains and valleys producing tropical fruits. To the south, on the border of Paraíba, Pernambuco and Piauí, is the National Forest of Araripe.
Geography
Ceará has an area of . It is bounded on the north by the Atlantic Ocean, on the east by the states of Rio Grande do Norte and Paraíba, on the south by Pernambuco state, and on the west by Piauí.
Ceará lies partly upon the northeast slope of the Brazilian Highlands, and partly upon the sandy coastal plain. Its surface is a succession of great terraces, facing north and northeast, formed by the denudation of the ancient sandstone plateau which once covered this part of the continent; the terraces are seamed by watercourses, and their valleys are broken by hills and ranges of highlands. The latter are the remains of the ancient plateau, capped with horizontal strata of sandstone, with a uniform altitude of . The flat top of such a range is called a chapada or taboleira, and its width in places is from . The boundary line with Piauí follows one of these ranges, the Serra de Ibiapaba, which unites with another range on the southern boundary of the state, known as the Serra do Araripe. Another range, or escarpment, crosses the state from east to west, but is broken into two principal divisions, each having several local names. These ranges are not continuous, the breaking down of the ancient plateau having been irregular and uneven.
The rivers of the state are small and, with one or two exceptions, become completely dry in the dry season. The largest is the Jaguaribe, which flows entirely across the state in a northeast direction.
Ceará has a varied environment, with mangroves, caatinga, jungle, scrubland and tropical forest. The higher ranges intercept considerable moisture from the prevailing trade winds, and their flanks and valleys are covered with a tropical forest which is typical of the region, gathering species from tropical forests, caatinga and cerrado. The less elevated areas of the plateaus are either thinly wooded or open campo. Most of the region at the lower altitudes is characterized by scrubby forests called caatingas, which is an endemic Brazilian vegetation. The sandy, coastal plain, with a width of , is nearly bare of vegetation, although the coast has many enclaves of restingas (coastal forests) and mangroves.
The soil is, in general, thin and porous and does not retain moisture; consequently, the long dry season turns the country into a barren desert, relieved only by vegetation along the riverways and mountain ranges, and by the hardy, widely distributed Carnauba Palm (Copernicia cerifera), which in places forms groves of considerable extent. Some areas in the higher ranges of Serra da Ibiapaba, Serra do Araripe and others are more appropriate for agriculture, as their soil and vegetation are less affected by the dry seasons.
The beaches of the state is a major tourist attraction. Ceará has several famous beaches such as Canoa Quebrada, Jericoacoara, Morro Branco, Taíba and Flexeiras. The beaches are divided into two groups (in relation to the capital Fortaleza): Sunset Coast (Costa do Sol poente) and Sunrise Coast (Costa do Sol nascente).
Ceará lies in one of the few regions of the country that experiences earthquakes. In 1980 an earthquake measuring 5.8 on the Richter scale struck near Quixeramobim in the center of the state, rattling the city of Fortaleza but causing no injuries.
Climate
The climate of Ceará is hot almost all year. The temperature in the state varies from . The coast is hot and humid, tempered by the cool trade winds; in the more elevated, semi-arid regions it is very hot and dry (often above , but seldom above ), although the nights are cool. In the higher ranges (Serra da Ibiapaba, Chapada do Araripe and several smaller highlands) the temperatures are cooler and vary from about . The record minimum temperature registered in Ceará was , recorded in Jardim, a small city in Chapada do Araripe.
The year is divided into a rainy and dry season, the rains beginning in January to March and lasting until June. The dry season, July to December, is sometimes broken by slight showers in September and October, but these are of slight importance. Sometimes the rains fail altogether, and then a drought (seca) ensues, causing famine and pestilence throughout the entire region. The most destructive droughts recorded in the 18th and 19th centuries were those of 1711, 1723, 1777–1778, 1790, 1825, 1844–1845, and 1877–1880, the last-mentioned (known by local people as a Grande Seca, "the Great Drought") destroying nearly all the livestock in the state, and causing the death through starvation and pestilence of nearly half a million people, or over half the population. Because of the constant risk of droughts, many dams (called açudes) have been built throughout Ceará, the largest of them the Açude Castanhão. Because of the dams, the Jaguaribe River no longer dries up completely.
History
The territory of Ceará was originally inhabited by different Indian peoples, such as the Tabajara, Potyguara, Anacés, Kariri, Inhamum, Jucá, Kanindé, Tremembé, Paicaú and others, who had commercial relations with various European people, including the French, before the Portuguese decided to include the area in Brazil.
The first Portuguese plan for settling in Ceará dated from 1534, but the first attempts to settle the territory failed, and the earliest Portuguese settlement was made near the mouth of the Ceará River in 1603, by Pero Coelho de Sousa. He established the fort of São Tiago, but one year later he and his family abandoned Ceará because of a period of drought, a natural phenomenon that periodically afflicts the province, which the Portuguese settlers were ill-equipped to endure.
Portugal wanted to form a military base in Ceará to support the Portuguese operations in the war against the French. The first attempt with Pero Coelho de Sousa, in 1603, was not successful, and the French continued operating from Maranhão and Ibiapaba, where they had established a base in 1590. The Indians and French formed political and military alliances. In 1607, two Jesuits, Francisco Pinto and Pereira Figueira, arrived in Ceará with a mission to spy in the area of Ibiapaba. In October, that year Franciso Pinto was killed by the Indians and Pereira Filgueira returned with more information about the area and the French and Indian alliance.
In 1612, the French were successfully expelled from Ceará and Maranhão by a military expedition under the command of Portuguese Martim Soares Moreno. In the same year he constructed the fortress of São Sebastião on the same site as São Tiago, and one year later he left Ceará for Portugal. It was only in 1618 that Martim Soares Moreno returned to Ceará, and it is from this time that the Portuguese presence dates. This was restricted at first to the area of the Ceará River: Martim Soares Moreno made an alliance with the Indians of the Potiguara tribe. In 1631, he left Ceará to help the Portuguese against the Dutch in Pernambuco and the fort of São Sebastião lost its importance.
At this time, what is today Brazil was hotly disputed by the Dutch and the Portuguese. The area was invaded twice by the Dutch, in 1637 and in 1649. In 1637, the Dutch and the Indians took the Fort of São Sebastião and dominated Ceará. The Dutch expanded their presence in Ceará and made alliances with different Indian tribes. In 1639, Georg Marcgrave made an expedition in Ceará, but in 1644 the Indians attacked the Dutch Governor of Ceará, Gideon Morris, the Dutch soldiers were killed, and São Sebastião was destroyed.
There were no Europeans in the region between 1644 and 1649, but in 1649, before negotiations with the different Indian tribes, Matias Beck arrived in Ceará to explore silver mines of Maranguape. Good-quality silver was not found however. In this period the Dutch built another fort, by the banks of river Pajeú, and named it Fort Schoonenborch after one of their commanders. In 1654, the Dutch were expelled from Brazil; the Portuguese took Schoonenborch, changed its name to Fortaleza de Nossa Senhora de Assunção (The Fortress of Our Lady of the Assumption), and the different Indian tribes that had made alliance with the Dutch had to flee from Portuguese persecution.
In 1661, the Netherlands formally ceded their Brazilian territories to the Portuguese crown, ending conflict in the region. Ceará became a dependency of Pernambuco in 1680; this relationship lasted until 1799, when the Captaincy of Ceará was made independent.
The fight for Brazilian independence in 1822 was fierce in Ceará, with the area being a rebel stronghold that incurred vicious retribution from loyalists. The captaincy became a province in 1822 under Dom Pedro I. A revolution followed in 1824, the president of the province was deposed fifteen days after his arrival, and a republic was proclaimed. Internal dissensions immediately broke out, the new president was assassinated, and after a brief reign of terror the province resumed its allegiance to the empire.
Ceará became the first province of Brazil to abolish slavery, on March 25, 1884, more than four years before the 1888 national law of abolition, passed by Princess Isabel.
The reign of Dom Pedro II (see Empire of Brazil) saw great advances in infrastructure in Ceará, with the commerce increasing by a large amount, and with gas lighting becoming almost ubiquitous.
The state of Ceará became a bishopric of the Roman Catholic Church in 1853, the bishop residing at Fortaleza.
Two railway lines running inland from the coast (the Baturité line from Fortaleza to Senador Pompeu, , and the Sobral line from the port of Camocim to Ipu, 134 miles), were built by the national government after the drought of 1877–1878 to give work to the starving refugees, and were later operated under leases. Dams were also built for irrigation purposes.
The population numbered 805,687 in 1890, and 849,127 in 1900. In 1900, approximately five-sixths of the population lived on estates, owned no property, paid no taxes, and derived few benefits from the social and political institutions about them. Education was then confined almost exclusively to the upper classes, from which came some of the most prominent men in Brazilian politics and literature.
In the early 20th century the sandy zone along the coast was nearly barren, but the more elevated region behind the coast with broken surfaces and sandy soil produced fruit and most tropical products when conditions were favourable. The natural vegetable production was important, and included manigoba or Ceará rubber, carnahuba wax and fibre, cashew wine and ipecacuanha. The principal agricultural products were cotton, coffee, sugar, manioc and tropical fruits. The production of cotton increased largely with the development of cotton manufacture in Brazil.
The higher plateau was devoted almost exclusively to cattle raising, once the principal industry of the state, although recurring droughts created an obstacle to its profitable development. The state exported considerable amounts of cattle, hides and skins.
Since 1960, the Orós Dam, comparable in size to the Aswan Dam has supplied Ceará with much of its water, and in 1995 construction began on the enormous Castanhão Dam, completed in 2003, which is able to hold 6.5 km³ of water.
Politics and government
Ceará is governed by the Governor of Ceará, currently Camilo Santana since 2015, and the Legislative Assembly of Ceará.
Demographics
According to the IBGE of 2008, there were 8,472,000 people residing in the state. The population density was 55.2 inhabitants/km2.
Urbanization: 76.4% (2006); Population growth: 1.7% (1991–2000); Houses: 2,181,000 (2006).
The last PNAD (National Research for Sample of Domiciles) census revealed the following numbers: 5,370,000 Brown (Multiracial) people (63.39%), 2,800,000 White people (33.05%), 257,000 Black people (3.03%), 28,000 Asian people (0.33%), 12,000 Amerindian people (0.14%).
Largest cities
Religion
Religion is very important in the culture of Ceará, being an extremely important factor in the construction of the identity of the people. Catholicism is the hegemony religion in Ceará and is the Christian confession that left most marks in Ceara's culture. It was the only one recognized by the government until 1883, when the Presbyterian Church of Fortaleza was founded in the state capital. Roman Catholicism in Ceará presents several influences of indigenous beliefs. A large portion of traditional Christian manifestations in Ceará are strongly influenced by religious syncretism.
Throughout the 20th century, several churches were installed in the State and at the end of that century there was a considerable increase in people from other religions. However, Ceará is still the third Brazilian state with the highest proportion of Roman Catholics, 78.8% of the population, according to data from 2010 census. Evangelicals are 14.6%, Spiritists, 0.6%, members of other religions, 2.0%, and those without religion, 4.0%.
Statistics
Vehicles: 1,084,991 (March/2007);
Mobile phones: 3.5 million (April/2007); Telephones: 908 thousand (April/2007); Cities: 184 (2007).
Economy
The service sector is the largest component of GDP at 56.7%, followed by the industrial sector at 37.9%. Agriculture represents 5.4% of GDP (2004). Ceará exports: leather footwear 20.3%, crustaceans 17.6%, woven of cotton 16.9%, cashew 14.7%, leather 13.1%, fruits, juices and honey 5.4% (2002). It is one of only three Brazilian states which together produce the world's entire supply of carnauba wax.
Share of the Brazilian economy: 2,04% (2010).
According to the data from IPECE and IBGE, the GDP growth of the State of Ceará in 2014 was of 4.36%, while Brazil's overall GDP grew only 0.1% in the same year.
Traditionally an agriculture-based state, Ceará began an industrialisation program under the military regime (1964–1985), and the industrial sector continues to expand annually. In 1999, industry accounted for 39.3% of the state's GDP. Tourism also plays a large role in Ceará's economy, with the state's many waterfalls, beaches and rainforests. On average, Fortaleza alone receives half a million tourists annually.
In agriculture, the state stands out in the production of cashew nuts, coconut, papaya, melon and beans.
The production of cashew in Brazil is carried out almost exclusively in the Northeast. The area occupied by cashew trees in Brazil in 2017 was estimated at 505,500 ha; of this total, 99.5% is located in the Northeast. The main producers in this region are Ceará (61.6% of the national area), Rio Grande do Norte and Piauí. However, Brazil, which in 2011 was the fifth largest world producer of cashew nuts, in 2016, fell to 14th position, with 1.5% of the total volume of nuts produced in the world. Vietnam, Nigeria, India and Côte d'Ivoire were the world's largest cashew nut producers in 2016, with 70.6% of global production. In recent years, there has been increased competition with some African countries, where government programs have driven the expansion of culture and processing capacity. It is estimated that at 295 thousand tons per year the installed capacity for processing cashew nuts in the Northeast, however, the Region only managed to produce around a quarter of that quantity. Among the main world producers, Brazil has the lowest productivity. Several factors are pointed out as the cause of the low productivity and the fall in the Brazilian production of cashew nuts. One reason is that most orchards are in a phase of natural decline in production. In addition, the giant cashew trees, which are the majority in the Region, are exploited in an almost extractive manner, with low use of technology.
In 2017, the Northeast Region was the largest producer of coconut in the country, with 74.0% of national production. Bahia produced 351 million fruits, Sergipe, 234 million, and Ceará 187 million. However, the sector has been suffering strong competition and losing market to Indonesia, the Philippines and India, the world's largest producers, who even export coconut water to Brazil. In addition to climatic problems, the low productivity of coconut palms in the Northeast Region is the result of factors related to the variety of coconut harvested and the technological level used in coastal regions. In these areas, the semi-extractive cultivation system still prevails, with low fertility and without the adoption of cultural management practices. The three states that have the largest production, Bahia, Sergipe and Ceará, present a yield three times lower than that of Pernambuco, which is in 5th place in the national production. This is because most of the coconut trees in these three states are located in coastal areas and cultivated in semi-extractivist systems.
In 2018, the South Region was the main producer of beans with 26.4% of the total, followed by the Midwest (25.4%), Southeast Region (25.1%), Northeast (20.6%) and North (2.5%). The largest producers in the Northeast were Ceará and Bahia.
In cassava production, Brazil produced a total of 17.6 million tons in 2018. Maranhão was the 7th largest producer in the country, with 681 thousand tons. Ceará was 9th, with 622 thousand tons. In total, the northeast produced 3,5 million tons.
Rio Grande do Norte is the largest producer of melon in the country. In 2017 it produced 354 thousand tons. The Northeast region accounted for 95.8% of the country's production in 2007. In addition to Rio Grande do Norte, which in 2005 produced 45.4% of the country's total, the other 3 largest in the country were Ceará, Bahia and Pernambuco.
In the production of papaya, in 2018 Bahia was the 2nd largest producer state in Brazil, almost equaling with Espírito Santo. Ceará was in 3rd place and Rio Grande do Norte in 4th place.
In the production of banana, in 2018 Ceará was the 8th largest national producer, with 408 thousand tons.
The state stands out nationally in raising goats and sheep. In 2016, Ceará had the fourth largest herd of goats in the country, with 1.13 million heads. The state occupied the same position in the herd of sheep, with 2.31 million animals.
Ceará's cattle herd is small compared to other states in Brazil. In 2019, it had 2.4 million heads. Milk production was 705 million liters this year.
In 2017, the Northeast was the largest shrimp producer in the country. National production was 41 thousand tons. Rio Grande do Norte (37.7%) and Ceará (28.9%) were the largest producers. Aracati, in Ceara, was the municipality with the highest participation.
About industry, Ceará had in 2017 an industrial GDP of R$ 22.2 billion, equivalent to 1.9% of the national industry. It employs 296,734 workers in the industry. The main industrial sectors are: Construction (26.2%), Industrial Public Utility Services, such as Electricity and Water (22.5%), Food (11.0%), Leather and footwear (10.5%) and Clothing (5.5%). These 5 sectors concentrate 75.7% of the state's industry.
The main sectors of the Ceará industry are clothing, food, metallurgy, textiles, chemicals and footwear. Most of the industries are installed in the Metropolitan Region of Fortaleza, where the Industrial District of Maracanaú is located. In São Gonçalo do Amarante, a steel mill is installed, Companhia Siderúrgica do Pecém, which in 2018 produced 2.9 million tons of crude steel, of the 35.4 million produced in the country.
Some of the large companies in Ceará with national reach are: Aço Cearense (steel), Companhia de Alimentos do Nordeste (food), Grendene (footwear), Café Santa Clara (coffee), Grande Moinho Cearense (mill), Edson Queiroz Group (business conglomerate, works with gas, mineral water, household appliances, communications, education, among others), Naval Industry of Ceará, J. Macêdo, M. Dias Branco (food company that manufactures, markets and distributes cookies, pasta, cakes, snacks, wheat flour, margarine and vegetable fats) and Ypióca.
The state is generally poor. According to 2013 data, 396,370 people live in slums in Fortaleza. Fortaleza has the 2nd largest population in a slum among cities in the Northeast. 31.6% of residents have income per capita up to half the minimum wage. The state's productivity is small.
Education
There are more than 53 higher education institutions in the state of Ceará
Higher education institutions
Universidade da Integração Internacional da Lusofonia Afro-Brasileira (UNILAB) (University of International Integration of the Afro-Brazilian Lusophony)
Universidade Federal do Ceará (UFC) (Federal University of Ceará);
Universidade Estadual do Ceará (UECE) (State University of Ceará);
Universidade Federal do Cariri (UFCA);
(FA7);
(IFCE);
(UNIFOR) (University of Fortaleza);
(Uva) (University of Acaraú Valley);
(URCA) (Regional University of Cariri);
Instituto Teológico Jeová Rafá
Tourism and recreation
Fortaleza's international airport (Pinto Martins airport) is served by international flights from North and Central America as well as Europe.
The beach of Cumbuco, located in the municipality of Caucaia (neighbour to Fortaleza), is considered one of the best places in the world for the practicing of kitesurfing.
Jericoacoara National Park is a windswept region, with local fisherman mixing it with travellers keen to get off the beaten track – and provides a local relaxed atmosphere, incredible forro dancing and music and Capoeira with famous kite and windsurfing adventures, sand buggy tours to the stunning Lagoa Azul nearby, and interesting opportunities available including following the shamans path into the experiences of Ayahuasca – often viewed as one of the most effective tools of enlightenment.
Main tourist attractions
Guaramiranga Mountains
Canoa Quebrada Beach (in Aracati)
Morro Branco
Praia Do Futuro
Jericoacoara Beach (profiled on E! Network's Wild On! series in 2000)
Infrastructure
International airport
The Pinto Martins International Airport is situated in Fortaleza. The passenger terminal is air conditioned and has four levels. The basement level has parking for 1,000 cars as well as automatic teller machines and a stop for regular city buses.
The ground level has 31 check-in counters, airline offices, car rental agencies, special tourist information, a juvenile court bureau to facilitate travel of minors, a National Civil Aviation Agency (ANAC) office, information counter, passenger arrival area and access to two taxi stops.
The second level contains shops, a food court and domestic and international boarding lounges. The top floor has a beer garden and panoramic deck overlooking the maneuvering apron with a view of the Fortaleza skyline. The apron is 152,857 square meters and can accommodate 14 aircraft at once in pre-established positions ("boxes").
The scheduled airlines operating out of Fortaleza are Cabo Verde Airlines, TAP, Delta Air Lines, Gol, TAM, Webjet, OceanAir and TAF. The airport also frequently receives domestic and international charter flights. The passenger terminal, opened in 1998, was designed to have a useful life of 50 years. The former terminal, called the General Aviation Terminal, is now used for general aviation and the fire brigade. The control tower is located alongside.
Construction of a cargo terminal is the next big step planned by Infraero. The new terminal will have roughly eight thousand square meters, boosting the cargo storage and handling capacity fourfold. Plans then call for the new terminal to be integrated with highway and railroad links.
Highways
Highways in Ceará include:
BR-020
BR-116
BR-122
BR-222
BR-226
BR-230
BR-304
BR-402
BR-403
BR-404
CE-004
CE-040
CE-060
Ports
The Port of Fortaleza is located in the inlet of the Mucuripe and is a man-made port, including an oil platform. The quay stretches 1,054 meters. There are 6,000 square meters of warehouses and more than 100,000 square meters of dock for containers. There are still two wheat mills, interconnected to the railway system by an extensive maneuvering dock.
The Port of Pecem is the other big port facility in the state, located in the municipality of São Gonçalo do Amarante, about 60 kilometers from Fortaleza.
Sports
Fortaleza provides visitors and residents with various sport activities. The most popular sport there, as well as in the remainder of Brazil, is football. The Championship of Ceará has its main games in Fortaleza. There are several football clubs, such as Ceará SC, Fortaleza EC and Ferroviário AC. Strong winds make the Praia do Futuro an excellent place for nautical sports, and Fortaleza hosts world competitions of surfing, windsurfing and kitesurfing. Fortaleza has produced high-level athletes in combat sports, as evidenced by several Fortalezans' success in mixed martial arts.
Fortaleza was one of the host cities of the 2014 FIFA World Cup.
Flag
The state flag of Ceará, is one of the national symbols. The background is identical to the Brazil flag, with the real difference in its coat of arms; has a polonium shield, which represents the strength and endurance of the state and the protective function. However, it is not only that, but also reveals the geography, fauna and flora, the example is the coast, the backlands, birds, the carnaúbas. It also has anthropological and cultural elements, such as the Mucuripe Lighthouse, the Golden Fortress, which shows not only the militarized past but also the people; the rafts, a kind of boat used by fishermen. Represents the four elements
See also
Jericoacoara
Canoa Quebrada
Cumbuco
Evolutionist Liberal Party of Ceará
Sertão
Northeast Region of Brazil
João Inácio Júnior
References
External links
States of Brazil
Former Portuguese colonies
1799 establishments in the Portuguese Empire | [
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229514 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mato%20Grosso | Mato Grosso | Mato Grosso ( – lit. "Thick Bush") is one of the states of Brazil, the third largest by area, located in the Central-West region. The state has 1.66% of the Brazilian population and is responsible for 1.9% of the Brazilian GDP.
Neighboring states (from west clockwise) are: Rondônia, Amazonas, Pará, Tocantins, Goiás and Mato Grosso do Sul. The state is roughly 82.2% of the size of its southwest neighbor, the nation of Bolivia. A state with a flat landscape that alternates between vast chapadas and plain areas, Mato Grosso contains three main ecosystems: the Cerrado, the Pantanal and the Amazon rainforest. Open pasture vegetation covers 40% of the state.
The Chapada dos Guimarães National Park, with caves, grottoes, tracks, and waterfalls, is one of its tourist attractions. In the north is the biodiverse Amazonian forest, which originally covered half of the state. Much of this has been disrupted and cleared for logging, agricultural purposes and pastures. The Xingu Indigenous Park and the Araguaia River are in Mato Grosso. Farther south, the Pantanal, the world's largest wetland, is the habitat for nearly one thousand species of animals and many aquatic birds.
Geography
The terrain of Mato Grosso is varied and includes cliffs, canyons, and waterfalls. It is home to the Chapada dos Guimarães National Park, a unique environment of sandstone mountains that have eroded into amazingly varied terrain.
The biologically rich Pantanal, one of the world's largest wetland/prairie ecosystems, is also located within this state. Much environmental degradation has occurred to the Pantanal since the late 20th century because of development, and efforts to contain or slow it have had limited success. The Pantanal has a habitat similar to that of the Everglades in Florida in the United States, although the Pantanal is on a much larger scale.
History
The Bororo Indians live in the Mato Grosso area. As late as 1880, soldiers patrolled lands on the outskirts of Cuiabá, Mato Grosso's capital and largest city, to protect settlers from Bororo raids.
By the end of the 19th century, although severely reduced by disease and by warfare with explorers, slave traders, prospectors, settlers, and other indigenous groups, as many as five to 10 thousand Bororo continued to occupy central and eastern Mato Grosso, as well as western Goiás. The southwestern part of this state was ceded by Brazil to Bolivia in exchange for the then-Bolivian territory of Acre, according to the Treaty of Petrópolis in 1903.
This historically remote area attracted expeditions of exploration in the early 20th century that sought to find lost civilizations. A notable example was British Captain Percy Fawcett's expedition to find the Lost City of Z which he believed existed in the jungles of Brazil. Certain proponents of the Hollow Earth hypothesis speculated that the region had sites of access to the interior of the earth and its settlements.
In 1977, the state was split into two halves, and the neighboring state of Mato Grosso do Sul was created from the other part of its territory.
Demographics
Mato Grosso had a high rate of population growth in the 20th century due to timber, ranching and agricultural development. The state as a whole has one of the lowest population densities of any Brazilian state. According to the Brazilian Institute of Geography and Statistics (IBGE), 3,441,998 people resided in the state as of 2018. The population density was 3.8 inhabitants/km2.
Urbanization: 76.6% (2006)
Population growth: 2.4% (1991–2000)
Houses: 836,000 (2006)
Ethnically, the state includes a relatively high proportion of caboclos (persons of mixed European and Indian ancestry), as do other areas of interior Brazil. The last PNAD (National Research for Sample of Domiciles) census revealed the following numbers: 1,532,000 Brown (Mixed) people (50.92%); 1,179,000 White people (39.16%); 239,000 Black people (7.93%); 41,000 Amerindian people (1.37%); and 14,000 Asian people (0.45%).
Largest cities
Economy
Agriculture is the largest component of the state's GDP at 40.8%, followed by the service sector at 40.2%. The industrial sector represents 19% of the GDP (2004). Mato Grosso's major exports include soybeans (83%), wood (5.6%), meats (4.8%), and cotton (3.3%) (2002).
The state's share of the Brazilian economy is 1.8% (2014).
In 2020, Mato Grosso was the leader in the national grain production, with 28.0%. It's the largest producer of soy in Brazil, with 26.9% of the total produced in 2020 (33.0 million tons); the largest producer of maize in the country; the largest producer of cotton in Brazil, with around 65% of national production (1.8 out of the 2.8 million tons harvested in the country).; the sixth largest producer of sugarcane in the country, 16 million tons harvested in the 2019/20 harvest.; and the third largest producer of beans, with 10.5% of Brazilian production. In sunflowers, the state was the largest national producer in 2019, with 60,000 tons. In cassava production, Brazil produced a total of 17.6 million tons in 2018. Mato Grosso produced 287,000 tons at this year.
In 2019, the cattle herd from Mato Grosso reached the mark of 30 million cattle, the largest cattle herd in the country, representing almost 14% of national production alone. In 2018, Mato Grosso was the fifth largest pork producer in the country, with a herd of around 2.5 million animals.
In 2017, Mato Grosso had 1.15% of the national mineral participation (fifth place in the country). Mato Grosso had production of gold (8.3 tons at a value of R$1 billion) and tin (536 tons at a value of R$16 million). In addition, in gemstones, the state is the second largest national producer of diamond, having extracted 49,000 carats in the year 2017. The city of Juína is the main one in this activity in the state. The state also has a small production of sapphire and jasper.
Mato Grosso had an industrial GDP of R$17.0 billion in 2017, equivalent to 1.4% of the national industry. It employs 141,121 workers in the industry. The main industrial sectors are: Construction (32.0%), Food (27.9%), Industrial Services of Public Utility, such as Electricity and Water (18.6%), Beverages (4.5%) and Oil Products Oil and Biofuels (3.9%). These five sectors concentrate 86.9% of the state's industry.
Statistics
Vehicles: 1,614,797 (January 2015)
Mobile phones: 4,500,000 (January 2015)
Telephones: 527,000 (April 2007)
Cities: 141 (2007)
Education
Portuguese is the official national language and the primary language taught in schools. English and Spanish are also taught as part of the official high school curriculum.
More than 58 universities are located in the state of Mato Grosso.
Cuiabá is home to the following universities:
Federal University of Mato Grosso (UFMT);
Mato Grosso State University (Unemat);
(Unic).
Rondonópolis also has the , formerly a part of UFMT until 2018.
Culture
The local culture is very rich due to the influences of and encounters with various cultures, such as indigenous peoples, colonial Spanish and other European settlers, Africans enslaved and transported there in the Atlantic slave trade, originally by the Portuguese, and other Europeans; and immigrants and settlers since the late 19th century. Two long periods of isolation also contributed to its development along different lines than the coastal areas of Brazil. Recent immigration has brought many urban influences to the state. Cuiabá has a rich cuisine influenced by natives. They have maintained traditional dances, craftwork and music.
Dance and music were traditionally connected to the worship of Catholic saints and their festivals, Saint Benedict (the city's patron saint) being one of the favorites.
Carnival
The four-day period before Lent leading up to Ash Wednesday, known as Carnival, is well celebrated. As with every state in Brazil, Mato Grosso celebrates this holiday in a typical fashion—including parades, music, and dance—with wide participation.
Flag
The state flag has similar colors to the flag of Brazil, with blue symbolizing the sky, green the vegetation, and white standing for peace. The star is yellow to symbolize the gold which attracted the first settlers. The flag was adopted by Decree No. 2 of January 31, 1890, just a few days after the adoption of the national flag. The Mato Grosso state flag was abolished by Law No. 1.046 of October 8, 1929, but reinstated by article 140 of the Constitution of the State of Mato Grosso on July 11, 1947.
Tourism and recreation
Alta Floresta
Fishing in the Teles Pires, São Benedito and Azul rivers is productive practically all year long.
With more than 570 species of catalogued birds and new species being discovered every year, the region of Alta Floresta, Cristalino and the Azul River Basin receives constant visits from ornithologists and bird watchers.
Chapada dos Guimarães
The largest sandstone cavern in Brazil, Aroe Jari, extends nearly , and several prehistoric inscriptions can be found inside.
North Pantanal
The Pantanal's backbone is the Paraguay River, which cuts through the region from north to south. The Miranda, Aquidauna, Taquari, and Cuiabá rivers flow into the Paraguay River. From October to April, the high waters reveal outsized lakes, bays, river branches, and outlets.
The Transpantaneira Highway connects the town of Poconé to Jofre Port, along the Cuiabá River bank. It is a dirt road with 126 wooden bridges, and extends for . On the way, it is possible to observe wild animals, especially alligators, capybaras, and birds, among other wild animals.
SESC's Private Natural Heritage Reserve (RPPN) increases by one-third the total area of this preserved ecosystem in Mato Grosso.
Over 160 different species of birds have been observed in the Pantanal, and still many species in the area have not yet been identified.
Águas Quentes State Park
The Águas Quentes State Park, the first protected area in Mato Grosso, is known for the healing powers of its thermal waters.
Lagoa Azul State Park
The Gruta da Lagoa Azul State Park (Portuguese: Parque Estadual Gruta da Lagoa Azul) is a state park in the municipality of Nobres, Mato Grosso, with an area of . Its primary attraction is a limestone cave with a pool of blue water and unusual cave formations. These have suffered from vandalism, causing the cave to be closed until measures to protect it could be implemented.
The blue lagoon cave holds a pool of blue water formed from underground water of the Saloba River.
The main entrance is filled in part by the water.
The hall contains columns over in size and in diameter.
There may be archaeological remains in the cave.
The park has several other limestone caves.
It is covered with deciduous forests, and is home to howler monkeys, tapirs, jaguars, and macaws.
Infrastructure
Airports
Marechal Rondon International Airport, located from the city center of Cuiabá, in the suburb of Várzea Grande, started receiving international flights in 1996. It now serves more than half a million passengers a year.
The runway at Marechal Rondon was opened to traffic in 1956. In February 1975, Infraero took over the airport's administration and began various upgrades to meet the needs of the airport complex.
Railways
The connects Mato Grosso with the state of São Paulo and sea ports. Rumo Logística only operates freight trains on the line, which runs as far inland as Rondonópolis. An extension northward to Cuiabá and Lucas do Rio Verde is planned as of 2021.
It crosses the large Rollemberg–Vuolo Bridge over the Paraná River when passing into Mato Grosso do Sul.
Highways
BR-070
BR-173
BR-174
BR-158
BR-163
BR-197
BR-242
BR-252
BR-364
MT-100
MT-358
Sports
Cuiabá was one of 12 cities chosen to host the games of the 2014 FIFA World Cup, which took place in Brazil.
See also
Pantanal jaguar
References
External links
Official website of Mato Grosso
States of Brazil | [
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229518 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Noel%20Godfrey%20Chavasse | Noel Godfrey Chavasse | Captain Noel Godfrey Chavasse, (9 November 1884 – 4 August 1917) was a British medical doctor, Olympic athlete, and British Army officer from the Chavasse family. He is one of only three people to be awarded a Victoria Cross twice.
The Battle of Guillemont saw acts of heroism by Chavasse, the only man to be awarded the Victoria Cross twice during the First World War. In 1916, he was hit by shell splinters while rescuing men in no-man's land. It is said he got as close as 25 yards to the German line, where he found three men and continued throughout the night under a constant rain of sniper bullets and bombing. He performed similar heroics in the early stages of the offensive at Passchendaele in August 1917 to gain a second VC and become the most highly decorated British officer of the First World War. Although operated upon, he was to die of his wounds two days later in 1917.
Childhood
Noel Godfrey Chavasse was the younger of identical twin boys born to the Rev. Francis Chavasse (later Bishop of Liverpool and founder of St Peter's College, Oxford) and Edith Jane Chavasse (née Maude) on 9 November 1884 at 36 New Inn Hall Street, Oxford. Christopher Maude was born 20 minutes before his brother. In all, there were seven children born to the Chavasse family, in age order: Dorothea, Christopher, Noel, Edith, Mary, Francis and Aidan. The twins were so small and weak at birth that their baptism was delayed until 29 December 1884 and both were very ill with typhoid in their first year of life.
Chavasse was educated at Magdalen College School in Cowley Place, Oxford, where a blue plaque was dedicated to him in 2005, Liverpool College and Trinity College, Oxford. The family grew up in Oxford until, on 3 March 1900, Francis Chavasse was offered the Anglican Bishopric of Liverpool. The move was not without regrets as Liverpool during this time was one of the busiest seaports in the Empire and also had a great deal of religious turmoil in progress. The family moved to the Bishop's Palace at 19 Abercromby Square, Liverpool. Noel and Christopher went to school at Liverpool College where they excelled at sports from the start. Their academic progress was initially rather slower but as they grew older, both did well until in 1904, both were admitted to Trinity College, Oxford.
University and early professional career
In 1907, Noel graduated with First-class honours but Christopher failed, leading to a nervous breakdown. Both of them stayed at Oxford, Noel to study medicine and Christopher to retake his exams. During their time at Trinity, both men had not neglected their sports, rugby union being a favourite of theirs. In 1908, both twins represented Great Britain in the Olympic Games in the 400 metres. Noel finished third in his heat while Christopher finished second, but only the heat winners progressed to the semi-finals.
In January 1909, Noel joined the Oxford University Officers' Training Corps Medical Unit. By the following May, he was promoted to lance-sergeant. Noel finished his studies at Oxford in July 1909 and returned to Liverpool to continue his studies under such eminent teachers as Sir Robert Jones, who went on to become a leading authority in orthopaedic surgery.
On returning to Liverpool, Chavasse resumed his connection with the Grafton Street Industrial School, an institution for homeless boys in Liverpool. In the autumn, he went to London to sit his examination for Fellowship of the Royal College of Surgeons. He failed, apparently because of ill health. When he sat the examination again in May 1910, he passed it with ease. Christopher, in the meantime, was well into his studies for the ministry under his father's guiding hand. Noel progressed through his studies, having studied pathology and bacteriology. As part of his course, he was obliged to undertake a hospital "placement". He found a position at the Rotunda Hospital in Dublin. Whilst Chavasse liked Dublin, his first experience of coming into contact with Roman Catholic clergy disturbed him.
In January 1912, Chavasse passed his final medical examination, and was awarded the university's premier medical prize, the Derby Exhibition, in March that year. On 22 July 1912, he registered as a doctor with the General Medical Council. His first placement was at the Royal Southern Hospital in Liverpool, initially until 31 March 1913, and then for a further six months. He then became house surgeon to Robert Jones, his former tutor.
Military career and decorations
In early 1913, after discussions with some of his fellow doctors, Chavasse applied for and was accepted by the Royal Army Medical Corps (RAMC); he was commissioned as a lieutenant on 2 June. Thanks to one of his mentors, Dr McAlistair, who was then Surgeon-Captain of the 10th Battalion of the King's (Liverpool Regiment), the Liverpool Scottish, he was attached to the battalion as Surgeon-Lieutenant. The 10th Kings had been a Territorial battalion since the Haldane Reforms in 1909. Chavasse joined the battalion on 2 June 1913 and was welcomed by Lieutenant-Colonel W. Nicholl, the commanding officer. As an officer in a Territorial unit, Chavasse now had to attend to both his civilian and military duties.
During the First World War, Chavasse was a captain with the Royal Army Medical Corps, British Army attached to the 1/10th (Scottish) Battalion of the King's (Liverpool Regiment), part of the 55th (West Lancashire) Division.
Chavasse was awarded the Military Cross for gallantry at Hooge, Belgium in June 1915, although the award was not gazetted until 14 January 1916. He was promoted captain on 1 April 1915; on 30 November 1915 that year he was Mentioned in Despatches.
Victoria Cross
Chavasse was first awarded the VC for his actions on 9 August 1916, at Guillemont, France when he attended to the wounded all day under heavy fire. The full
citation was published on 24 October 1916 and read:
Bar to Victoria Cross
Chavasse's second award was made during the period 31 July to 2 August 1917, at Wieltje, Belgium; the full citation was published on 14 September 1917 and read:
Chavasse died of his wounds in Brandhoek and is buried at Brandhoek New Military Cemetery, Vlamertinge. His military headstone carries, uniquely, a representation of two Victoria Crosses.
Chavasse was the only man to be awarded both a Victoria Cross and Bar in the First World War, and one of only three men ever to have achieved this distinction.
Personal life
At the time of his death, Chavasse was engaged to one of his cousins, Frances Gladys Ryland Chavasse (1893–1962), daughter of his uncle Sir Thomas Frederick Chavasse (1854–1913) of Bromsgrove, a surgeon. Noel's engagement is mentioned on a plaque at the Chavasse family grave at Bromsgrove. Gladys Chavasse was mentioned in despatches 1945 at Monte Cassino, Italy, and killed in 1962 in an accident in France while crossing the road.
Noel's nephew was named in his honour and served as an aide to Bernard Montgomery, as well as being awarded the Military Cross in the Second World War.
Commemoration
Chavasse is believed to be commemorated by more war memorials in the UK than any other individual. Sixteen have currently been recorded by the UK National Inventory of War Memorials.
Chavasse's medals, which had been left by his family to St Peter's College, Oxford (which had been founded by his father and his brother Christopher was its first Master), were purchased in 2009 by Lord Ashcroft for around £1.5 million, a world record price. The medals, along with others, are displayed in the Lord Ashcroft Gallery at the Imperial War Museum.
Chavasse Park in Liverpool city centre was named in honour of the Chavasse family; Francis (2nd Bishop of Liverpool) and his twin sons Christopher Maude Chavasse (an Olympic athlete and later Bishop of Rochester), and Noel Godfrey Chavasse.
A hospital ward is named after him at the Walton Centre in Liverpool.
There are two World War One Victoria Cross paving stones (each depicting a pair of crosses) dedicated to Chavasse in Oxford: one outside St Peter's College and one near Magdalen College School.
A bronze memorial (the 'Liverpool Heroes Memorial') commemorating Chavasse and another fifteen Liverpool-born Victoria Cross recipients has been erected at Abercromby Square in Liverpool, sculpted by Tom Murphy.
In 2017, Noel Chavasse was featured on a £5 coin (issued in silver and gold) in a six-coin set commemorating the Centenary of the First World War produced by the Royal Mint.
See also
Arthur Martin-Leake
Charles Upham
List of Olympians killed in World War I
References
Further reading
Bebbington, David. (2014). Mister Brownrigg's Boys: Magdalen College School and The Great War. London: [Pen and Sword Books]. .
Clayton, Ann. (1992). Chavasse: Double VC. London: Leo Cooper.
Gummer, Selwyn. (1963). The Chavasse Twins: A Biography of Christopher M. Chavasse, Bishop of Rochester, and Noel G. Chavasse
Murphy, James. (2008). Liverpool VCs. Barnsley, England: Pen and Sword Books.
External links
Commonwealth War Graves database
Captain Noel Godfrey Chavasse, VC and Bar, MC, RAMC. (1884–1917)
UK National Inventory of War Memorials
Chavasse's blue plaque on his school
1884 births
1917 deaths
People from Oxford
British Army personnel of World War I
British World War I recipients of the Victoria Cross
Royal Army Medical Corps officers
King's Regiment (Liverpool)
British military personnel killed in World War I
Athletes (track and field) at the 1908 Summer Olympics
Olympic athletes of Great Britain
British male sprinters
People educated at Magdalen College School, Oxford
People educated at Liverpool College
Alumni of Trinity College, Oxford
British Army recipients of the Victoria Cross
Military personnel from Oxfordshire
English male sprinters
Noel
Alumni of the University of Liverpool
Burials at Brandhoek New Military Commonwealth War Graves Commission Cemetery | [
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229519 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/UNESCO%20Goodwill%20Ambassador | UNESCO Goodwill Ambassador | UNESCO Goodwill Ambassador is an official postnominal honorific title, title of authority, legal status and job description assigned to those goodwill ambassadors and advocates who are designated by the United Nations. UNESCO goodwill ambassadors are celebrity and expert advocates of UNESCO (not diplomatic ambassadors) who use their talent or fame to spread the UNESCO ideals, especially attracting media attention. Other specialized categories of advocates include UNESCO Artist for Peace, UNESCO Champion for Sport and UNESCO Special Envoy.
Current UNESCO goodwill ambassadors
The following is a list of UNESCO goodwill ambassadors along with the projects and activities they support:
Former Ambassadors
See also
Goodwill Ambassador
FAO Goodwill Ambassador
UNDP Goodwill Ambassador
UNHCR Goodwill Ambassador
UNODC Goodwill Ambassador
UNFPA Goodwill Ambassador
UN Women Goodwill Ambassador
UNIDO Goodwill Ambassador
UNICEF Goodwill Ambassador
WFP Goodwill Ambassador
WHO Goodwill Ambassador
References
External links
UNESCO Goodwill Ambassadors
UNESCO
Goodwill ambassador programmes
United Nations goodwill ambassadors | [
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229520 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mato%20Grosso%20do%20Sul | Mato Grosso do Sul | Mato Grosso do Sul () is one of the Midwestern states of Brazil. Neighboring Brazilian states are (from north clockwise) Mato Grosso, Goiás, Minas Gerais, São Paulo and Paraná. It also borders the countries of Paraguay, to the southwest, and Bolivia, to the west. The economy of the state is largely based on agriculture and cattle-raising. Crossed in the south by the Tropic of Capricorn, Mato Grosso do Sul generally has a warm, sometimes hot, and humid climate, and is crossed by numerous tributaries of the Paraná River. The state has 1.3% of the Brazilian population and is responsible for 1.5% of the Brazilian GDP.
The state is also known for its natural environment, and is a destination for domestic and international tourism. The Pantanal lowlands cover 12 municipalities and presents a variety of flora and fauna, with forests, natural sand banks, savannahs, open pasture, fields and bushes. The city Bonito, in the mountain of Bodoquena, has prehistoric caves, natural rivers, waterfalls, swimming pools and the Blue Lake cave.
The name Mato Grosso do Sul is Portuguese for "Southern Thick Bush"; the name is inherited from its northern neighbour state of Mato Grosso, of which it was part until the 1970s. It is not uncommon for people to mistakenly refer to Mato Grosso do Sul as simply "Mato Grosso". Other names that were proposed, at the time of the split and afterwards, include "Pantanal" (a reference to its best known geographical feature) and "Maracaju" (a reference to the Maracaju Mountain Range that crosses the state from north to south).
Geography
Climate
Mato Grosso do Sul has humid subtropical and tropical climates. The average annual rainfall is 1471.1 mm. January is the warmest month, with mean maximum of 34 °C (93.2 °F) and minimum of 24 °C (75.2 °F) and more rain; July experiences the coldest temperatures, with mean maximum of 25 °C (77 °F) and minimum of -2,0 °C (28 °F) and sun.
Vegetation
The "cerrado" landscape is characterized by extensive savanna formations crossed by gallery forests and stream valleys. Cerrado includes various types of vegetation. Humid fields and "buriti" palm paths are found where the water table is near the surface. Alpine pastures occur at higher altitudes and mesophytic forests on more fertile soils. The "cerrado" trees have characteristic twisted trunks covered by a thick bark, and leaves which are usually broad and rigid. Many herbaceous plants have extensive roots to store water and nutrients. The plant's thick bark and roots serve as adaptations for the periodic fires which sweep the cerrado landscape. The adaptations protect the plants from destruction and make them capable of sprouting again after the fire.
The state is located in western Brazil, in a region mostly occupied by the inland marshes of the Pantanal. The highest elevation is the 1,065 m high Morro Grande.
History
The first peoples or indigenous peoples of Mato Grosso do Sul, particularly occupying the Nhande Ru Marangatu tropical rainforested area, are the Guarani-Kaiowá, first contacted by non-indigenous peoples in the 1800s.
In October 11, 1977, the state was created by dividing the state of Mato Grosso. Its status as a state went into full effect two years later on January 1, 1979. The new state also incorporated the former territory of Ponta Porã and the northern part of the former territory of Iguaçu.
Demographics
According to the IBGE of 2008, there were 2,372,000 people residing in the state. The population density was 6.4 inhabitants/km2.
Urbanization: 84.7% (2006); Population growth: 1.7% (1991–2000); Houses: 689,000 (2006)
The last PNAD (National Research for Sample of Domiciles) census revealed the following numbers: 1,157,000 White people (51.78%), 1,056,000 Brown (Multiracial) people (44.51%), 122,000 Black people (5.15%), 20,000 Amerindian people (0.84%), 15,000 Asian people (0.64%).
In the Cerrado areas, mostly in the south, central and east, there is a predominance of Southern Brazilian farmers of Spanish, German, Portuguese, Italian and Slavic descent.
According to an autosomal DNA study from 2008, the ancestral composition of Mato Grosso do Sul is 73,60% European, 13,90% African and 12,40% Native American. Additionally, according to a different 2013 DNA study, the ancestral composition of Mato Grosso do Sul is: 58.8% European, 25.9% Amerindian and 15.3% African ancestries, respectively.
Largest cities
Economy
The service sector is the largest component of GDP at 46.1%, followed by the industrial sector at 22.7%. Agriculture represents 31.2%, of GDP (2004). Mato Grosso do Sul exports: soybean 34.9%, pork and chicken 20.9%, beef 13.7%, ores 8%, leather 7.4%, timber 5.1% (2002).
Share of the Brazilian economy: 1% (2005).
According to data from 2020, if Mato Grosso do Sul were a country, it would be the world's fifth largest producer of oilseeds. In 2020, Mato Grosso do Sul was the 5th biggest grain producer in the country, with 7.9%. In soy, produced 10.5 million tons in 2020, one of the largest producing states in Brazil, around 5th place. It's the 4th largest producer of sugarcane, with around 49 million tons harvested in the 2019/20 harvest. In 2019, Mato Grosso do Sul was also one of the largest producer of maize in the country with 10,1 million tons. In cassava production, Brazil produced a total of 17.6 million tons in 2018. Mato Grosso do Sul was the 6th largest producer in the country, with 721 thousand tons.
The state has the 4th largest cattle herd in Brazil, with a total of 21.4 million head of cattle. The state is a major exporter of beef, but also poultry and pork. In poultry farming, the state had, in 2017, a flock of 22 million birds. In pork, in 2019, Mato Grosso do Sul slaughtered more than 2 million animals. The state occupies the 7th Brazilian position in pig farming, moving towards becoming the 4th largest Brazilian producer in the coming years.
In 2017, Mato Grosso do Sul had 0.71% of the national mineral participation (6th place in the country). Mato Grosso do Sul had production of iron (3.1 million tons at a value of R$ 324 million) and manganese (648 thousand tons at a value of R$ 299 million).
Mato Grosso do Sul had an industrial GDP of R $ 19.1 billion in 2017, equivalent to 1.6% of the national industry. It employs 122,162 workers in the industry. The main industrial sectors are: Public Utility Industrial Services, such as Electricity and Water (23.2%), Construction (20.8%), Food (15.8%), Pulp and Paper (15.1%) and Petroleum Derivatives and Biofuels (12.5%). These 5 sectors concentrate 87.4% of the state's industry.
In the city of Três Lagoas, the production of paper and cellulose is considerable. Mato Grosso do Sul recorded growth above the national average in the production of cellulose, reached the mark of 1 million hectares of planted eucalyptus, expanded its industrial park in the sector and consolidated itself as the largest exporter of the product in the country in the first quarter of 2020. Between 2010 and 2018, production in the south of Mato Grosso increased by 308%, reaching 17 million cubic meters of round wood for paper and cellulose in 2018. In 2019, Mato Grosso do Sul reached the leadership of exports in the product in the country, with 9.7 million tons traded: 22.20% of the total Brazilian pulp exports that year.
Miscellaneous facts
Vehicles: 835,259 (June 2009);
Mobile phones: 2.407 million (July/2009); Telephones: 471,000 (April 2007); Cities: 78 (2007)
Education
There are more than 44 universities in whole state of Mato Grosso do Sul.
Educational institutions
Universidade Federal de Mato Grosso do Sul (UFMS) (Federal University of Mato Grosso do Sul)
Universidade Estadual de Mato Grosso do Sul (Uems) (State University of Mato Grosso do Sul)
Universidade Federal da Grande Dourados (UFGD) (Federal University of Dourados Region)
Universidade Católica Dom Bosco (UCDB) (Dom Bosco Catholic University)
Universidade para o Desenvolvimento do Estado e da Região do Pantanal (Uniderp) (University for the Development of the State and Region of the Pantanal)
Culture
Campo Grande Film Festival
It's a film festival held annually in the months of January and February and has been arranged since 2004. It focuses on the independent cinema presenting Brazilian films and foreign films as well. It also presents regional films and short films. As of 2011 the festival is suspended.
Bonito's Winter Festival
"Festival de Inverno de Bonito" (Bonito Winter Festival) is held every year for a week during July or August, with music performances and ecological videos, theatre, folklore and fine arts exhibitions.
Pantanal Micareta
Aquidauana's biggest event is the Pantanal Micareta, which attracts thousands of tourists to Dr. Sabino Avenue, annually.
Tourism and recreation
Bonito
Concentrations of lime in the soil around the area where Bonito is located is responsible for the transparency of the waters and for the existence of a wide variety of geological formations. Local activities include diving in caverns, observing the underwater fauna and walking along trails in the forest. Places like Gruta Lago Azul (Blue Lake Cave) and the Fazenda Estancia Mimosa, Aquario Natural (Natural Aquarium), and the rivers Sucuri, Prata, and Formoso, are popular.
South Pantanal
The Pantanal is an ecological destination in the heart of Brazil. It is the largest flooded lowland on the planet and the third largest environmental reserve in the world. It is home to one of the richest ecosystems ever found to date, with periodically flooded seasonal forests. It displays the largest concentration of neo-tropical fauna, including several endangered species – mammals, reptiles and fish – and it also serves as habitat for a variety of native birds, as well as those migrating from other areas in the Americas. The Pantanal is one of the best places in Brazil for flora and fauna observation and for fishing – permitted only between March and October – due to its abundance of animals. It has a total area of 230,000 square kilometres, covering 12 townships in the States of Mato Grosso and Mato Grosso do Sul. To the North, there are the Paracis, Azul and Roncador mountains. To the East, the Maracaju Mountain Range. To the South, the Dodoquena Mountain Range. And, to the West, the Paraguayan and Bolivian swamps. The Pantanal is so diverse that researchers subdivided it in sub-regions. Each "Pantanal" – North and South – has its own natural features, activities and ideal period for visitation.
Infrastructure
International Airports
Campo Grande - The operation of Campo Grande International Airport is shared with the Campo Grande Air Base. The airport has two runways. Construction of the main runway, made of concrete, began in 1950 and was finished in 1953. The passenger terminal was concluded in 1964, and in 1967 concrete aprons were built for both military and civilian aircraft. As commercial aviation demand grew, it became necessary to widen the civil aircraft apron, which was completed 12 years after its construction. The airport has been administered by Infraero since 1975.
Corumbá - Corumbá International Airport, located just 3 km (1.86 mi) from the city center, was opened on September 21, 1960, the city's anniversary. Built on a land plot of 290 hectares and at an elevation of 140 meters above sea, it has an asphalt runway measuring 1660 x 30 meters, with one of its thresholds reinforced with concrete for an additional 60 meters. Corumbá International Airport has been administered by Infraero since February 1975.
Ponta Porã - Ponta Porã International Airport is also administered by Infraero.
Other airports
Dourados Regional Airport
Bonito Airport
Highways
BR-060;
BR-158;
BR-163;
BR-463;
BR-267;
BR-262;
BR-359;
BR-454;
BR-419;
BR-487.
Flag
Mato Grosso do Sul's flag was designed by Mauro Michael Munhoz. A white stripe divides an upper left green corner from a bottom right blue space with a yellow star. White symbolizes hope, green is an allusion to the state's rich flora, blue represents its vast sky, while the yellow star adds balance, force and serenity. The star on the flag is Alphard, the brightest star in the constellation Hydra.
See also
Brazil
Pantanal jaguar
References
External links
Official Website
Tourism Website
States of Brazil
States and territories established in 1979 | [
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229521 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Par%C3%A1 | Pará | Pará is a State of Brazil, located in northern Brazil and traversed by the lower Amazon River. It borders the Brazilian states of Amapá, Maranhão, Tocantins, Mato Grosso, Amazonas and Roraima. To the northwest are the borders of Guyana and Suriname, to the northeast of Pará is the Atlantic Ocean. The capital and largest city is Belém, which is located at the mouth of the Amazon. The state, which is home to 4.1% of the Brazilian population, is responsible for just 2.2% of the Brazilian GDP.
Pará is the most populous state of the North Region, with a population of over 8.6 million, being the ninth-most populous state in Brazil. It is the second-largest state of Brazil in area, at , second only to Amazonas upriver. Its most famous icons are the Amazon River and the Amazon Rainforest. Pará produces rubber (extracted from natural rubber tree groves), cassava, açaí, pineapple, cocoa, black pepper, coconut, banana, tropical hardwoods such as mahogany, and minerals such as iron ore and bauxite. A new commodity crop is soy, cultivated in the region of Santarém.
Every October, Belém receives tens of thousands of tourists for the year's most important religious celebration: the procession of the Círio de Nazaré. Another important attraction of the capital is the Marajó-style ceramics, based on the extinct Marajoara culture, which developed on an island in the Amazon River.
Etymology
The state's name is a toponym of the Tupi word pará – literally "sea", but sometimes used to refer to large rivers. The state was named after the river of the same name, the Pará River, one of the tributaries of the Amazon River.
History
In 1500, the Spanish navigator Vicente Yáñez Pinzón was the first European to navigate the mouth of the Amazon River. On 26 August 1542, the Spaniard Francisco de Orellana reached the mouth of the Amazon River, waterway by river from Quito, Ecuador. On 28 October 1637, the Portuguese Pedro Teixeira left Belém and went to Quito: during the expedition, he placed a landmark in the confluence of the Napo and Aguarico, in the current border between Ecuador and Peru, to Portugal, and later to Brazil, getting the possession of most of the Amazon, including all of the current territory of Pará.
Prior to European Arrival
Archaeologists divide the ancient inhabitants of prehistory Brazil into groups according to their way of life and tools: hunter-gatherers of the coast and farmers. These groups were subsequently named by European settlers as "Indians". There are archaeological records proving the human presence in Brazil and the region of Santarém since 3000 BC.
Marajó people lived in farmers' huts or houses 3,500 years ago. These people knew ceramics, dyes, natural medicinal compounds; practiced slash-and-burn (to clear the land); and planted cassava. Their culture remains in Marajoara pottery, which has peculiar size and decoration. The period from 500 to 1300 was the height of the Marajoara culture.
Formation of Grão-Pará and Maranhão
The region of the Amazon valley, by the Treaty of Tordesillas (1494), was in possession of the Spanish Crown, the Portuguese expeditionaries, with the purpose of consolidating the region as Portuguese territory, founded the Fort of the Nativity (Forte do Presépio) in 1616, in Santa Maria de Belém do Grão-Pará (Saint Mary of Bethlehem of the Great Pará). The building was the first of the model on Amazon and the most significant in the Amazon territory until 1660. Despite the construction of fort, the occupation of territory was marked by early Dutch and English incursions in search of spices, hence the need of the Portuguese to fortify the area.
In the 17th century, the region, integrated into the captaincy of Maranhão, was prosperous with crops and livestock. In 1616 the captaincy of Grão-Pará was created, belonging to the Portuguese colonial state of Maranhão. In the same year the state of Grão-Pará and Maranhão transferred capital to Belém, forming and attaching the captaincy of Rio Negro in 1755 by creating the State of Grão-Pará and Rio Negro.
In 1751, with the expansion to the west, the colonial state of Grão-Pará, which besides the captaincy of Grão Pará would host the captaincy of São José do Rio Negro (today the State of Amazonas).
In 1823, the Pará decided to join the independent Brazil, which had been separated during the colonial period, reporting directly to Lisbon. However, political infighting continued. The most important of them, the Cabanagem (1835), decreed the independence of the province of Pará. This was, along with the revolution Farroupilha, Rio Grande do Sul, the only to lift the regency period when the power was taken. Cabanagem was the only revolt led by the popular strata.
Cabanagem
Cabanagem, a popular and social revolt during the Empire of Brazil, in the Amazon region, was influenced by the French Revolution. It was mainly due to extreme poverty, hunger and disease that devastated the Amazon at the beginning of the period, in the former province of Grão-Pará, which included the current Amazonian states of Pará, Amazonas, Amapá, Roraima and Rondônia. The revolt spread from 1835 until January 1840, due to the process of independence of Brazil (1822), which did not occur immediately in the province due to political irrelevance to which the region was relegated by Prince Regent Pedro I. After independence, the strong Portuguese influence remained stable, giving political irrelevance in this province to the Brazilian central government.
Indians, blacks, and mestizos (mostly poor class members), all named cabanos (cabins), teamed against the Regent Government and rebelled, to increase the importance of the region in Brazil's central government addressing the issue of poverty as one of the reasons. All lived in mud huts (hence the name of the revolt). At the bottom of the rebellion, there was a mobilization of the Brazilian Empire against the reactionary forces of the province of Grão-Pará in expelling the insurgents who wanted to keep the region as a Portuguese colony or territory independent. Many of the local leaders, who resented the lack of political participation in decisions of the centralizer of the Brazil government, contributed to the climate of dissatisfaction against the provincial government.
Rubber cycle and mineral extraction
After the revolt, the local economy grew rapidly during the 19th century and early 20th century by exploitation of rubber, the latex, by extracting it. At this period the Amazon experienced two distinct economic cycles with the exploitation of the same raw material.
The intendant Antônio Lemos was the main character of the urban transformation that Belém experienced, which came to be known as Paris n’America (Paris in the America), as a reference to the influence of the urbanization that Paris had experienced at the time, which served as the inspiration for Antônio Lemos.
During this period, for example, the city center was heavily lined with mango trees transported from India and development inspired by the model of Paris. With the decline of the two cycles of rubber (1870–1920 and 1940–1945), came a distressing economic stagnation, which stopped in the 1960s and 1970s, with the development of agricultural activities in the south of the state. From the decade of 1960s, but mainly in the 1970s, growth was accelerating with the exploitation of minerals mainly in the southeastern region of the state, as with iron extraction in the Serra dos Carajás and the Serra Pelada gold.
Geography
Climate
A tropical rainforest climate is a type of tropical climate in which there is no dry season — all months have mean precipitation values of at least . It is usually found at latitudes within five degrees of the equator — which are dominated by the Intertropical Convergence Zone. The equatorial climate is denoted Af in the Köppen climate classification.
Vegetation
The Amazon represents over half of the planet's remaining rainforests and comprises the largest and most species-rich tracts of tropical rainforest in the world. Wet tropical forests are the most species-rich biome, and tropical forests in the Americas are consistently more species rich than the wet forests in Africa and Asia. As the largest tract of tropical rainforest in the Americas, the Amazonian rainforests have unparalleled biodiversity. More than one-third of all species in the world live in the Amazon rainforest The largest biodiversity of the planet is present across the state of Pará.Large tracts of Pará state suffer from illegal deforestation and land occupation, mostly due to cattle ranching and soya farming. There have been conflicts between government, indigenous tribes, the Caboclos who are mixed-race peasants of the area, and ranchers over land rights. The situation is unlikely to be resolved soon, particularly due to the demand for beef from Europe and soya from China.
The controversial Belo Monte Dam is a proposed hydroelectric dam complex to be built on the Xingu River; opponents believe that it threatens the habitat of a relatively undisturbed area of Pará's rainforest, and would endanger several endemic fish species. It also is likely to attract further development and migration to the state, to the detriment of the state's rainforest.
Political subdivisions
The largest cities by population (2016) are:
Belém 1,446,042
Ananindeua 510,834
Santarém, Pará 294,447
Marabá, Pará 272,172
Parauapebas 196,259
Castanhal 192,571
Abaetetuba 151,934
Cameta 132,515
Marituba 125,435
Braganca 122,881
Tucurui 122,580
Barcarena 121,074
Altamira, Pará 111,938
Paragominas 108,547
Itaituba 98,485
Demographics
According to the IBGE of 2007, there were 7,136,000 people residing in the state. The population density was . Urbanization: 75.2% (2006); Population growth: 2.5% (1991–2000); Houses: 1,754,000 (2006).
The last PNAD (National Research for Sample of Domiciles) census revealed the following numbers: 4,988,000 Brown (Multiracial) people (69.9%), 1,641,000 White people (23.0%), 470,000 Black people (6.6%), 35,000 Asian or Amerindian people (0.5%).
Ethnic groups
The majority of the population is mixed, due to the large indigenous population and, to a lesser amount, those with African ancestry. In the last IBGE census (2010), 817,000 Brazilians classified themselves as indigenous, about 0.26% percent of the country's population.
Pará has attracted numerous Portuguese, Spanish, and Japanese immigrants. They have told their stories in a permanent space, the "Room Vicente Salles" of the "Memorial of the People", in Belém. The Portuguese colonists were followed by Spaniards fleeing wars and social unrest due to political disputes in the Iberian Peninsula. The Japanese have become established in agrarian communities, settling in towns such as Tomé-Açu.
Portuguese explorers and missionaries settled in the state in the 17th century. In January 1616, the Portuguese captain, Francisco Caldeira Castelo Branco began the occupation of the land, founding the Fort of the Nativity, nucleus of the future state capital. Portuguese religious missions were used to establish settlements between here and the Fort St. Louis of Maranhão. Most settlers sailed up the Amazon River as travel overland was extremely arduous. The Portuguese were the first to arrive in Pará, leaving contributions ranging from cuisine to architecture.
The first Japanese immigrants who settled in the Amazon left the Port of Kobe in Japan, on July 24, 1926, and reached the city of Tomé-Açu, on 22 September of that year, with stops in Rio de Janeiro and Belém.
The Japanese introduced crops such as jute and black pepper in the 1930s; jute was so successful that it drove a boom in the regional economy. In the 1970s, Japanese farmers introduced cultivation of Hawaiian papaya and melon, for which there is international demand. The third largest ethnic Japanese community in Brazil is in Pará, with about 13,000 inhabitants (surpassed only by settlements in the states of São Paulo and Paraná). They live mainly in the cities of Tomé-Açu, Santa Izabel do Pará, and Castanhal.
Italian immigrants in Pará came predominantly from the south of Italy, originating in Calabria, Campania and Basilicata. It was a time of a wave of emigration. They were all settlers and devoted to trade. The first Italian trade was recorded in 1888 in Santarém. The immigrants planted family roots in Belém, Breves, Abaetetuba, Óbidos, Oriximiná, Santarém and Alenquer. The presence in western Pará was so pronounced that the Consulate of Italy established an office in Óbidos, which is the largest city populated by Italians in the state. The consulate was in Recife, Pernambuco.
In Belém, the Italians worked in commercial and retail services. They were important during the beginning of the industrialization of the state capital (1895). According to the 1920 census, about 1,000 Italians lived in Pará. At the end of World War II, another wave of Italian immigrants arrived after the persecution of Japanese, Italians, and Germans. Similar to French immigrants, this wave of Italians did not remain in Pará.
Lebanese immigrants arrived in Pará in the mid-19th century, at the time of the rubber boom, and through 1914. There were between 15,000 and 25,000 Syrian-Lebanese immigrants, of whom one-third went to Acre. In Pará, the Lebanese settled in Belem, and in the cities of Cametá, Marabá, Altamira, Breves, Monte Alegre, Alenquer, Santarém, Óbidos, Soure, Maracanã, Abaetetuba, among others.
The first French immigrants arrived in Brazil in the second half of the 19th century, settling in the colony of Benevides, the metropolitan region of Belém do Pará. The French were attracted to the region because of the rubber boom, eventually settling in Belém, which became known as Paris N'América.
Largest cities
Economy
The service sector is the largest component of GDP at 40.9%, followed by the industrial sector at 36.3%. Agriculture represents 22.8% of GDP (2004). Pará exports iron ore 31.1%, aluminium 22.2%, wood 13.5%, ores of aluminium 8.3%, others ores 7.9% (2002), representing 1.8% of the Brazilian economy (2005).
The mining sector represents 14% of the gross domestic product (GDP) of the state, originated mainly from the extraction of iron, bauxite, manganese, limestone and tin, as well as gold, until recently extracted from one of the largest mines of recent history: Serra Pelada. The economy of Pará is based also on the extraction of vegetation, on agriculture and cattle raising. Thanks to the rich soil and the important hydrographic basin – boats are the main means of transport in the region. Guaraná, a tree from which a powder is produced and used as a stimulant, and annatto seeds, a fruit used for cooking, as a sunscreen and for dye extraction. Marajó – the biggest fluvial-maritime island in the world, with an area of . Its territory has one of the largest mining areas in the country, in the Carajás Mountains, a mining province where the Ferro Carajás Project is based, from Companhia Vale do Rio Doce. The complex produced 296 million metric tons of iron ore in 2007, exporting the product to many countries, among them Japan, Germany, Italy, France and Spain.
Pará is the largest producer of cassava, açaí, pineapple and cocoa of Brazil and is among the largest in Brazil in the production of black pepper (2nd place), coconut (3rd place) and banana (6th place).
In cassava production, Brazil produced a total of 17.6 million tons in 2018. Pará was the largest producer in the country, with 3.8 million tons.
In 2019, Pará produced 95% of açaí in Brazil. The state traded more than 1.2 million tons of the fruit, worth more than US$1.5 billion, about 3% of the state's GDP.
In 2018, Pará was the largest Brazilian producer of pineapple, with 426 million fruits harvested on almost 19 thousand hectares. In 2017, Brazil was the 3rd largest producer in the world (close to 1.5 billion fruits harvested on approximately 60 thousand hectares). It is the fifth most cultivated fruit in the country. The southeast of Pará has 85% of the state production: the cities of Floresta do Araguaia (76.45%), Conceição do Araguaia (8.42%) and Salvaterra (3.12%) led the ranking this year. Floresta do Araguaia also has the largest concentrated fruit juice industry in Brazil, exporting to European Union, United States and Mercosur.
Pará is also one of the largest Brazilian producers of coconut. In 2019, it was the 3rd largest producer in the country, with 191.8 million fruits harvested, second only to Bahia and Ceará.
Pará is the 2nd largest Brazilian producer of black pepper, with 34 thousand tons harvested in 2018.
The Brazil nut has always been one of the main products of extraction in Northern Brazil, with collection on the forest floor. However, in recent decades, the commercial cultivation of Brazil nut was created. There are already properties with more than 1 million chestnut trees for large-scale production. The annual production averages in Brazil varied between 20 thousand and 40 thousand tons per year in 2016.
In the production of cocoa, Pará has been competing with Bahia for the leadership of Brazilian production. In 2017 Pará obtained the leadership for the first time. In 2019, people from Pará harvested 135 thousand tons of cocoa, and Bahians harvested 130 thousand tons. Bahia's cocoa area is practically three times larger than that of Pará, but Pará's productivity is practically three times greater. Some factors that explain this are: the crops in Bahia are more extractivist, and those in Pará have a more modern and commercial style, in addition to paraenses using more productive and resistant seeds, and their region providing resistance to Witch's broom.
In 2018, Pará occupied the 6th national position in the banana production.
In 2018, Pará had the 5th largest cattle herd in Brazil, with 20.6 million head of cattle. The city of São Félix do Xingu is the largest in the country, with 2.2 million animals. Marabá is the 6th largest city in the country in numbers, with 1 million animals. In the ranking of the 20 main herds, Pará has seven names. Part of this is due to the fact that the municipalities of Pará have gigantic territory.
In 2017, in the iron ore sector, Pará was the 2nd largest national producer, with 169 million tons (of the 450 million produced by the country), at a value of R$ 25.5 billion. In copper, Pará produced almost 980 thousand tons (of the 1.28 million tons in Brazil), at a value of R$ 6.5 billion. In aluminum (bauxite), Pará carried out almost all Brazilian production (34.5 of 36.7 million tons) at a value of R$ 3 billion. In manganese, Pará produced a large part of Brazilian production (2.3 of 3.4 million tons) at a value of R$ 1 billion. In gold, Pará was the 3rd largest Brazilian producer, with 20 tons at a value of R$ 940 million. In nickel, Goiás and Pará are the only two producers in the country, with Pará being the 2nd in production, having obtained 90 thousand tons at a value of R$ 750 million. In tin, Pará the 3rd largest producer (4.4 thousand tons, at a value of R$ 114 million). Pará had 42.93% of the value of commercialized mineral production in Brazil, with almost R$ 38 billion.
Due to the proximity of the iron ore mines, Siderúrgica Norte Brasil (Sinobras) was created in Marabá. In 2018, the company produced 345 thousand tons of crude steel, of the 35.4 million produced in the country.
Pará had in 2017 an industrial GDP of R$ 43,8 billion, equivalent to 3.7% of the national industry. It employs 164,989 workers in the industry. The main industrial sectors are: Extraction of metallic minerals (46,9%), Industrial Public Utility Services, such as Electricity and Water (23.4%), Construction (14.8%), Metallurgy (4.3%) and Food (4.3%). These 5 sectors concentrate 93.7% of the state's industry.
Education
Portuguese is the official national language, and thus the primary language taught in schools. English and Spanish are part of the official high school curriculum.
Educational institutions
Universidade Federal do Pará (UFPA) (Federal University of Pará);
Universidade Federal do Oeste do Pará (UFOPA) (Federal University of Western Pará);
Universidade Federal do Sul e Sudeste do Pará (UNIFESSPA) (Federal University of Southern and Southeastern Pará)
Universidade Federal Rural da Amazonia (UFRA) (Federal Rural University of Amazonia);
Universidade do Estado do Pará (UEPA) (Pará State University);
Universidade da Amazônia (UNAMA) (University of Amazon);
Instituto Federal do Pará (IFPA) (Federal Institute of Pará);
Centro Universitário do Pará (CESUPA) (University Center of Pará);
Culture
Theatre
Theatre of Peace
Experimental Waldemar Henrique theatre
Gabriel Hermes theatre
Theatre of SESC
Theatre of Emílio Goeldi Museum
Margarida Schiwazzapa theatre
Maria Sylvia Nunes theatre
Gasômetro station theatre
Círio de Nazaré
The biggest festival in the state of Pará happens in Belém, Círio de Nazaré (Nazareth Taper). This event is known to be the biggest religious event of the Western Hemisphere. The procession starts on the second Sunday of October and pays homage to Our Lady of Nazareth, patron saint of the state. Organised since 1793, at present it gathers around 2.3 million of followers, who go on a procession through the city to the Nazaré Basilica, where her image is worshiped.
Indigenous communities
In addition to its natural wealth, the state of Pará also shelters a valuable cultural treasure — about 40 indigenous groups, scattered through an area of over . Of these, more than eight million have been delimited by FUNAI (National Foundation of Indians), ensuring security and preservation of that space. Among the biggest indigenous communities there are the Andira Marau, Munduruku, and Kayapó.
Infrastructure
Airports
Belém International Airport (BEL) is 10 km from the center of Belém. Currently it serves demand of 2.7 million passengers a year, in a constructed area of .
Traditionally called Val-de-Cães Airport, it is responsible for increasing tourism in the region, as well as for the outflow of products and attracting new investments.
Port
The Port of Belém has restaurants, art galleries, a small brewery, ice-cream shops, artisan stands, regional food kiosks, coffee houses, a space for fairs and events, a theatre for 400 spectators, and a touristic harbour.
Sports
Belém provides visitors and residents with sport activities.
The Mangueirão stadium architectural project is from August 1969. In 2002, 24 years after its inauguration, Mangueirão was reinaugurated as an Olympic stadium of Pará. The visiting capacity of the stadium is at around 45,000.
Stadiums
Olympic stadium of Pará
Evandro Almeida stadium
Jader Barbalho stadium
Leônidas Castro stadium
and many others
Flag
The white stripe in the Flag of Pará represents the zodiac, the Equator and the Amazon River. The blue star is Spica in the constellation Virgo, which is also depicted on the Flag of Brazil representing the state. The two red areas symbolize the blood of the Cabanos in a revolt which happened at the end of the 19th century.
See also
Belo Monte Dam
Deforestation of the Amazon Rainforest
Deforestation in Brazil
References
External links
Official website
Brazilian Tourism Portal
Portal Paraense
States of Brazil
States and territories established in 1772
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229523 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Para%C3%ADba | Paraíba | Paraíba (Tupi: pa'ra a'íba: "bad for navigation"; ) is a state of Brazil. It is located in the Brazilian Northeast, and it is bordered by Rio Grande do Norte to the north, Ceará to the west, Pernambuco to the south and the Atlantic Ocean to the east. Paraíba is the third most densely populated state of the Northeast; João Pessoa, the sea-bordered state capital, and Campina Grande, in the interior, rank among the fifteen-largest municipalities in the Northeast of Brazil. The state is home to 1.9% of the Brazilian population and produces 0.9% of the Brazilian GDP.
Paraíba is most populated along the Atlantic coast, which extends as far as Ponta do Seixas, the easternmost point of the Americas. The state is a tourist and industrial hotspot; it is known for its cultural heritage, amenable climate and geographical features, ranging from the seaside beaches to the Borborema Plateau. It is named after the Paraíba river.
Some of the most notable Brazilian writers and poets are from Paraíba like Augusto dos Anjos, José Américo de Almeida, José Lins do Rego, Ariano Suassuna and Pedro Américo, the last being also known for his historical paintings.
History
In the mid-16th century, settlers from Spain and Portugal, Olinda and Itamaracá founded Filipéia de Nossa Senhora das Neves (today João Pessoa) at the mouth of the Paraíba do Norte River.
The area soon proved perfect for sugar production, with the French, the Dutch and the Portuguese all constantly fighting to control the Paraíba region to grow the lucrative sugarcane in. The fortress of Santa Catarina, near João Pessoa, was built to protect the city from the Dutch, who soon became a threat to Portuguese supremacy in Brazil.
Geology
In late 1989 a team led by gemstone prospector Heitor Dimas Barbosa uncovered in a small mountain range what some consider to be the finest tourmaline crystals ever found. A trace of copper gives the tourmalines a vivid turquoise color that had never been seen before in the gems, and is sometimes referred to as "neon".
The "neon" paraiba tourmaline, a vivid blue and blue green, has also been found in other deposits close to the Batalha mine of Barbosa, and also in the neighboring state of Rio Grande do Norte. The bright colors of this tourmaline are due to the presence of copper. Around 2000, a similar copper-containing tourmaline was found in Nigeria, although the colors are not as intense. Around 2005, crystals of copper-containing tourmaline were found in Mozambique.
Initially, the nomenclature for this tourmaline was "Paraíba tourmaline". Note the capitalization and the accent on the "i". In 2006, the LMHC (Laboratory Manual Harmonization Committee) agreed that "paraiba" should refer to a variety of tourmaline, and not indicate a geographic origin. Note "paraiba" is not capitalized, and does not have an accent on the "i". For more information on paraiba tourmaline, see article on tourmaline. The term "paraiba tourmaline" may now refer to gems found in Brazil, Nigeria, and Mozambique that contain copper and have the characteristic blue-green color.
Demographics
According to the IBGE census , there were 3,766,528 people residing in the state, with a population density of 66.7 inhabitants/km2.
Other numbers include: Urbanization rate: 75.4% (2010), Population growth: 0.8% (1991–2000) and Houses: 987,000 (2006).
The 2010 census also revealed the following figures relating ethnicity: 1,986,619 Brown (Multiracial) people (52.7%), 1,499,253 White (39.8%), 212,968 Black (5.7%) and 67,636 (1.8%) people of Amerindian and Asian ancestry.
Among people of mixed ancestry the White, Amerindian and African altogether combination is the most prevalent one, followed by caboclo, mulato and zambo.
Largest cities
Religion
According to the 2010 census, the population of Paraíba is made up of Roman Catholics (76.958%), Protestants (15.16%), Spiritists (0.615%), Jehovah's Witnesses (0.467%), Brazilian Apostolic Catholics (0.219 %), Mormons (0.113%), Orthodox Christians (0.052%), Candomblecists (0.035%), Umbanda (0.029%), Esoteric (0.023%), Jewish (0.017%), Eastern religious (0.014%), indigenous traditions ( 0.010%), spiritualists (0.004%), Islamic (0.002%), Hindus (0.002%) and Afro-Brazilian religious (0.001%), in addition to other religiosities. There were also those without religion (5.661%), including atheists (0.106%) and agnostics (0.046%); people with indeterminate religion and/or multiple belonging (0.154%); those who did not know (0.154%) and did not declare (0.016%).
Statistics
Vehicles: 432,337 (March/2007);
Mobile phones: 1.5 million (April/2007)
Fixed line telephones: 431 thousand (April/2007)
Cities: 223 (2007).
Economy
The service sector is the largest component of GDP at 56.5%, followed by the industrial sector at 33.1%. Agriculture represents 10.4%, of GDP (2004). Paraíba exports: woven of cotton 36.3%, footweares 20.1%, sugar and alcohol 10.8%, fish and crustacean 9.7%, sisal 7%, cotton 6.6% (2002).
Share of the Brazilian economy: 0.8% (2004).
The Paraíba economy is largely based upon the making of shoes and other leather products, the raising of cattle for beef, and sugarcane, corn. Though historically sugarcane has dominated the Paraíba agricultural sector, pineapple, corn, and beans cultivation are also widespread. The other important economical sector in the state is tourism, especially the state urban and unspoilt beaches, ecotourism and festivals such as "carnaval" and "São João."
Education
Portuguese is the official and only language spoken in the state and thus the primary language taught in schools. Minor dialectal differences regarding other Brazilian varieties are mainly phonological (Northeastern accent).
English and Spanish are part of the official high school curriculum.
Educational institutions
Universidade Federal da Paraíba (UFPB) (Federal University of Paraíba);
Universidade Federal de Campina Grande (UFCG) (Federal University of Campina Grande)
Universidade Estadual da Paraíba (UEPB) (State University of Paraíba);
UNIPÊ (Centro Universitário de João Pessoa);
Instituto de Educação Superior da Paraíba (IESP);
Faculdade Maurício de Nassau (FMN) (Maurício de Nassau College);
Instituto Federal de Educação Tecnológica (IFPB) (Federal Institute of Technology of Paraiba);
and many others.
Culture
Festa Junina (Saint John Festival)
Festa Junina was introduced to Northeastern Brazil by the Portuguese for whom St John's day (also celebrated as Midsummer Day in several European countries), on the 24th of June, is one of the oldest celebrations of the year. Differently, of course, from what happens on the European Midsummer Day, the festivities in Brazil do not take place during the summer solstice but during the winter solstice. The festivities traditionally begin after the 12th of June, on the eve of St Anthony's day, and last until the 29th, which is Saint Peter's day. During these fifteen days, there are bonfires, fireworks, and folk dancing in the streets (step names are in French, which shows the mutual influences between court life and peasant culture in the 17th, 18th, and 19th-century Europe). Once exclusively a rural festival, today in Brazil, it is largely a city festival during which people joyfully and theatrically mimic peasant stereotypes and clichés in a spirit of jokes and good times. Typical refreshments and dishes are served. Like during Carnival, these festivities involve costume-wearing (in this case, peasant costumes), dancing, heavy drinking, and visual spectacles (fireworks display and folk dancing), such as what happens on Midsummer and St John's Day in Europe, and bonfires are a central part of these festivities in Brazil.
Carnival
The four-day period before Lent leading up to Ash Wednesday is carnival time in Brazil. Rich and poor alike forget their cares as they party in the streets.
Infrastructure
International Airport
Located in the municipality of Bayeux, from downtown João Pessoa, Presidente Castro Pinto International Airport is currently undergoing expansion and remodeling work, which will raise the terminal's annual capacity to 860 thousand passengers.
The airport is well located in relation to obstacles because it covers an area roughly above sea level and is sufficiently distant from urban areas or large real estate developments.
The surrounding area is sparsely populated, with large open spaces. The existing developments are industrial with some small weekend country houses. There is no rough terrain or tall buildings nearby creating obstacles for takeoffs and landings.
The airport also is blessed with excellent climatic conditions for air operations. Moreover, within its approach radius there are no obstacles that can hinder or create risk for local air traffic. Named for a past president (former name for governors) of Paraíba, Castro Pinto, the airport operates round the clock.
The current passenger terminal, built in an area of , has two levels, gardens and ample vehicle parking. It has all the expected amenities: arrival and departure lounges, a main concourse, check-in counters, baggage storage lockers, airline counters, snack bar/restaurant, tourist information booth, car rental agencies, taxi service and private parking.
National Airport
Located in the interior of the state of Paraíba, in the city of Campina Grande, João Suassuna Airport was remodeled in 2003, receiving a new terminal with capacity of 250 thousand passengers a year.
The old building was demolished and on the site a new facility was built holding nine shops, the main concourse, arrival and departure lounges, VIP lounge, bathrooms, mezzanine and a diaper-changing area.
The terminal area was increased to . The boarding area has and the parking lot has spaces for 180 cars.
This expansion benefited the city both economically and from the standpoint of tourism. With the possibility for new flights, the air cargo movement will be able to grow, along with the number of tourists coming to attend the city's São João Festival.
A panel measuring in the front of the building carries a poem by the Paraíban writer Ariano Suassuna, in homage to his father, for whom the airport is named. Three more artworks are on permanent display in the passenger terminal.
Highways
The BR-101 also the BR-230 are found in paraiba. Several other roads also cross the state composing the complex net which is present all across the country.
Flag
The word nego is Portuguese for "I deny" or "I refuse", referring to the protests that erupted in the 1920s in Paraíba, supported by state governor João Pessoa Cavalcânti de Albuquerque, to the appointment of Júlio Prestes as the President of Brazil. João Pessoa joined the alliance for the overthrow of the federal government, which successfully conducted Getúlio Vargas to the Presidency. The rebellion events eventually led to the murder of João Pessoa, although there is debate regarding the reasons of the murder, if personal, political or both.
According to the official government site of the state of Paraíba, the red stands for the blood due to the assassination of João Pessoa; the black represents the mourning following the assassination.
Sports
In football, the main teams in the state are: Botafogo from João Pessoa, Campinense and Treze, both from Campina Grande.
Main towns
João Pessoa, state capital
Campina Grande
Patos
Santa Rita
Sousa
Guarabira
Areia
Araruna
Cajazeiras
See also
Brazil
Ingá Stone (Undeciphered petroglyph in Ingá municipality)
References
Important Figures and Celebrities
Paraíba is home to some of the most noted Brazilian poets and writers such as Augusto dos Anjos (1884–1908), José Américo de Almeida (1887–1980), José Lins do Rego (1901–1957) and Pedro Américo (1843–1905) (mostly known for his historical paintings).
External links
Official Website
List of cities in Brazil (all cities and municipalities)
States of Brazil | [
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229525 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pernambuco | Pernambuco | Pernambuco () is a state of Brazil, located in the Northeast region of the country. With an estimated population of 9.6 million people as of 2020, it is the seventh-most populous state of Brazil, the sixth-most densely populated and the 19th-largest in area among federative units of the country. Its capital and largest city, Recife, is one of the most important economic and urban hubs in the country. Based on 2019 estimates, the Recife Metropolitan Region is seventh-most populous in the country, and the second-largest in northeastern Brazil. In 2015, the state had 4.6% of the national population and produced 2.8% of the national gross domestic product (GDP).
The contemporary state inherits its name from the Captaincy of Pernambuco, established in 1534. The region was originally inhabited by Tupi-Guarani-speaking peoples. European colonization began in the 16th century, under mostly Portuguese rule interrupted by a brief period of Dutch rule, followed by Brazilian independence in 1822. Large numbers of slaves were brought from Africa during the colonial era to cultivate sugarcane, and a significant portion of the state's population has some amount of African ancestry.
The state has rich cultural traditions thanks to its varied history and peoples. Brazilian Carnivals in Recife and the historic colonial capital of Olinda are renowned: the Galo da Madrugada parade in Recife has held world records for its size.
Historically a center of sugarcane cultivation due to the favorable climate, the state has a modern economy dominated by the services sector today, though large amounts of sugarcane are still grown. The coming of democracy in 1985 has brought the state progress and challenges in turn: while economic and health indicators have improved, inequality remains high.
Etymology
The origins of the name Pernambuco are debated, though most hypotheses derive the name from the now-extinct Tupi language.
Some scholars claim that the name comes from the combining of the Tupi words para'nã, meaning "great river" or "sea" and buka, meaning "hole". Thus, pernambuco would mean "hole in the sea", possibly referring to the Canal de Santa Cruz on the Island of Itamaracá, north of Olinda, or to an opening in the reefs between Olinda and Recife. According to others, pernambuco was the name of brazilwood in local indigenous languages at the time of first contact, as the tree is found widely in the forests of the future state. A third hypothesis also derives from a Tupi word, paranãbuku, meaning "long river", a possible reference to the Capibaribe River, since primitive maps mark such a "Pernambuco river" north of Cabo de Santo Agostinho, south of Recife.
Another hypothesis, suggested by the academic Jacques Ribemboim, asserts the origins of the name from the Portuguese language. The Canal de Santa Cruz in Recife, at the beginning of the 16th century, was known as Boca de Fernão (named after the explorer Fernão de Noronha). The Indians may have pronounced Fernão as Pernao and reversed the order of the words, giving Pernão Boca or Pernambuka, leading to the contemporary name of Pernambuco.
The state also has some nicknames, such as Lion of the North, Land of Frevo and Maracatu and Blessed Land.
Geography
Pernambuco comprises a comparatively narrow coastal zone, a high inland plateau, and an intermediate zone formed by the terraces and slopes between the two.
Its surface is much broken by the remains of the ancient plateau which has been worn down by erosion, leaving escarpments and ranges of flat-topped mountains, called chapadas, capped in places by horizontal layers of sandstone. Ranges of these chapadas form the boundary lines with three states–the Serra dos Irmãos and Serra Vermelha with Piauí, the Serra do Araripe with Ceará, and the Serra dos Cariris Velhos with Paraíba.
Regions
The coastal area is fertile, and was formerly covered by the humid Pernambuco coastal forests, the northern extension of the Atlantic Forests (Mata Atlântica) of eastern Brazil. It is now occupied by extensive sugar cane plantations. It has a hot, humid climate, relieved to some extent by the south-east trade winds.
The middle zone, called the agreste region, has a drier climate and lighter vegetation, including the semi-deciduous Pernambuco interior forests, where many trees lose their leaves in the dry season.
The inland region, called the sertão is high, stony, and dry, and frequently devastated by prolonged droughts (secas). The climate is characterized by hot days and cool nights. There are two clearly defined seasons, a rainy season from March to June, and a dry season for the remaining months. The interior of the state is covered mostly by the dry thorny scrub vegetation called caatinga. The Rio São Francisco is the main water source for this area.
The climate is more mild in the countryside of the state because of the Borborema Plateau ("Planalto da Borborema", popularly known as "Serra das Russas" or "Russians' Mountain"). Some towns are located more than 1000 meters above sea level, and temperatures there can descend to 10 °C (50 °F) and even 5 °C (41 °F) in some cities (i.e., Triunfo) during the winter.
The volcanic archipelago of Fernando de Noronha in the Atlantic Ocean, 535 km northeast of Recife, has been part of Pernambuco since 1988.
Hydrology
The rivers of the state include a number of small plateau streams flowing southward to the São Francisco River, and several large streams in the eastern part flowing eastward to the Atlantic. The former are the Moxotó, Ema, Pajeú, Terra Nova, Brigida, Boa Vista and Pontai, and are dry channels the greater part of the year.
The largest of the coastal rivers are the Goiana River, which is formed by the confluence of the Tracunhaem and Capibaribe-mirim, and drains a rich agricultural region in the north-east part of the state; the Capibaribe, which has its source in the Serra de Jacarara and flows eastward to the Atlantic at Recife with a course of nearly ; the Ipojuca, which rises in the Serra de Aldeia Velha and reaches the coast south of Recife; the Serinhaen; and the Uná. A large tributary of the Uná, the Rio Jacuhipe, forms part of the boundary line with Alagoas.
History
Prehistory
Prior to discovery and colonization by Portugal, Pernambuco was inhabited by numerous tribes of Tupi-Guarani speaking indigenous peoples. The Tupi peoples were a largely hunter-gatherer culture living in long houses who cultivated some indigenous crops, most notably manioc (Manihot esculenta), but lacked any metallic tools. Many elements of the Tupi culture were a shock to Europeans: among these, they bathed frequently, they eschewed wealth accumulation, practiced nudity, and warred frequently, primarily to capture enemies for communal, ritual cannibalism.
European contact
Modern day Pernambuco includes the islands of Fernando de Noronha, which precedes mainland Pernambuco's history since the islands were granted to Fernão de Laronha by King Manoel in 1502.
Pernambuco was initially valued as a source of Brazilwood (Caesalpinia echinata) used in Europe for dyes. These Amerindians were eager to harvest and exchange brazilwood for axes, fishhooks and other goods offered by Europeans. The Portuguese crown granted a license to Fernão de Laronha in 1502. After the expiration of the license the trade in brazilwood was a driver of the exploration of Brazil. Brazilwood was highly valued and other European nations, particularly the French, soon sent ships to exploit this new dye wood. The French under Bertrand d'Ornesan tried to establish a French trading post at Pernambuco in 1531. This fort was located at the border of Pernambuco and Itamaricá to the North. The Portuguese King responded by dispatching an armada under the command of Pero Lopes de Sousa. Pero Lopes defeated the French, destroyed their fort and built a new fort.
Portuguese settlement
Shortly after the success in dislodging the French from Pernambuco's northern border with Itamaricá the Portuguese began to settle Brazil. King John III of Portugal created the Hereditary Captaincies in 1534, Pernambuco was granted to Duarte Coelho, who arrived in Nova Lusitânia (or "New Lusitania") in 1535. Duarte directed military actions against the French-allied Caetés Indians and upon their defeat in 1537 established a settlement at the site of a former Marin Indian village, henceforth known as Olinda, as well as another village at Igarassu. Under his leadership sugar soon replaced Brazilwood as Pernambuco's most profitable export. Due to the cultivation of sugar and cotton, Pernambuco was one of the few prosperous captaincies (the other notable one being São Vicente).
Slavery
In addition to requiring a lot of capital investment, refining sugar in the 16th century also required a vast amount of labor. Brazilian Indians were very useful to the Portuguese; both free Indians and enslaved Indians performed many useful services for the Portuguese settlers. This included helping with building Engenhos. However, Brazilian Indian culture was not well suited to the operation of sugar engenhos. Indian culture was not oriented to wealth accumulation. Stuart Schwartz expressed it, "Once a man had enough to eat and a few new tools and weapons, why should he want or work for more."
While the sugar industry relied at first on the labor of indigenous peoples, especially the Tupis and Tapuyas, high mortality and economic growth led to the importation of enslaved Africans from the late 17th century onward. Some of these slaves escaped the sugar-producing coastal regions and formed independent inland communities called mocambos, including Palmares.
Dutch conquest
In 1630, Pernambuco, as well as many Portuguese possessions in Brazil, was occupied by the Dutch until 1654. The occupation was strongly resisted and the Dutch conquest was only partially successful, it was finally repelled by the Spaniards. In the interim, thousands of the enslaved Africans had fled to Palmares, and soon the mocambos there had grown into two significant states. The Dutch Republic, which allowed sugar production to remain in Portuguese hands, regarded suppression of Palmares as important, but was unsuccessful in this. Johan Maurits van Nassau-Siegen, count of Nassau, was appointed as ruler of the Nieuw Holland (Dutch colonization enterprise in Brazil).
In the 17th century, the Netherlands was experiencing a surge of freedom and progress, and wanted to expand their colonies in the American continent. An expression of this new economy was the Dutch West India Company, (modeled after the Dutch East India company which had influence throughout the world and controlled much of the trade between East and West). A Board of nineteen members appointed Prince Johan Maurits, Count of Nassau, Governor of Pernambuco. It was an auspicious choice for Northeast, because he was a lover of the arts with a deep interest in the New World. In 1637 he opened his government guidelines quite different from those of the Portuguese colonists, declaring "Freedom of Religion and Trade". His entourage contained traders, artists, planners, German and Dutch citizens. He was accompanied by six painters, including Frans Post and Albert Eckhout. Nassau also created an environment of Dutch religious tolerance, new to Portuguese America and irritating to his Calvinist associates. Nassau made efforts to reduce the sugar production monoculture by encouraging the cultivation of other crops, particularly foodstuffs.
Jewish immigration
Under Dutch rule, Jewish culture developed in Recife. Many Jews, having fled the Inquisition in Iberia, sought refuge in the Netherlands. The Jewish community established themselves in Dutch Brazil and would later migrate elsewhere in the Americas. There are records that in 1636 a synagogue was being built in the city. A Jewish scholar from Amsterdam, Isaac Aboab da Fonseca, arrived in Recife in 1642, becoming the first rabbi on Brazilian soil and on the continent. In 1643, three years after the Portuguese regained the crown in the metropolis, Father António Vieira – frowned upon, persecuted by the Inquisition and admirer of Aboab – recommended the King of Portugal occupy the capital of the New Christian and Jewish immigrants to help the depressed Portuguese finances
Portuguese reconquest
The Portuguese reconquered Recife in 1654 and Olinda regained its status of political center. However, Recife remained the commercial /port city. Nowadays, it is credited that many inhabitants of Pernambuco's agreste region have some Dutch ancestry.
If the Dutch were gone, however, the threat of the now unified quilombo of Palmares remained. In spite of a treaty negotiated in 1678 with its ruler Ganga Zumba, a war between the two remained. Zumbi who became ruler following the peace treaty and later repudiated it, fought the Portuguese government until 1694 when soldiers brought from the south eventually defeated him.
Three centuries of the sugar cycle
Throughout the remainder of the 17th century on to the 20th century much of life in Pernambuco was dominated by the patterns established by monoculture, latifundia, and slavery (until 1888). Sugar and cotton were grown on large plantations and rural society was largely divided into landowning elites and the impoverished poor. In addition, Pernambuco, except for a narrow coastland, is subject to periodic droughts. The boom and bust economy throughout this period is often exemplified as the "sugar cycle" when the international market for sugar is good, the economy booms, when the market is bad, it is hard times for all and particularly for the impoverished. Sugar has always been the principal example of the boom or bust cycle, but there has, from time to time been a similar cycle in cotton. Cotton was profitable during the U.S. War of Independence, the War of 1812, and the U.S. Civil War. Each time the bust in Pernambuco came when U.S. growers resumed their exports.
17th-century class conflict
A sugar mill engenho requires a large investment both to build and to operate. Much of the time the money is borrowed. Although there were other sources, one source that was a particular irritant to mill owners were the merchants of Recife. In 1710 this irritant resulted in the Mascate War. This conflict set the mascates from Recife against the establishment planters of Olinda It was led by the Senhores de Engenho (owners of the sugar mills). It is an example of the continuing tensions between the senhores de engenho (the landed elites) in colonial Brazil and the merchants of Recife. The “War” (there was considerable shooting but little loss of life) has elements of class struggle. Olinda had, before the Dutch, always been the municipal seat. Recife, once merely a port facility for Olinda, had formerly consisted of a few modest dwellings, warehouses, and businesses catering to ships and seamen, but under the Dutch had been developed into a thriving center of commerce populated by wealthy, more recently arrived merchants to whom most of the landed aristocracy of Pernambuco were heavily indebted. After several excesses the king issued a new set of instructions to the governor. In 1715 the crown dispatched a new governor and the residents of Pernambuco finally felt the troubles were ended, though many families of the colony's elites were ruined.
18th century: mining eclipses sugar
The discovery of gold in Minas Gerais late in the Seventeenth Century and the discovery of diamond displaced agriculture. In fact, for all the disruption caused by "gold fever" throughout the mining boom the value of sugar exports always exceeded the value of any other export. Nevertheless, among many other disruptions, gold shifted the focus South. Pernambuco, Bahia, and the entire Northeast were eclipsed by the South of Brazil and that shift in focus has never been reversed.
19th century: a province, then a state
Pernambuco's response to the nationhood of Brazil seems to have been rebellion. Pernambuco was the site of some of the most important rebellions and insurrections in Brazilian history, especially in the 19th century. See Also Rebellions and revolutions in Brazil, Pernambucan Revolt, Cabanada, April Revolt (Pernambuco) At one point Pernambuco led much of the Northeast region in a very short-lived independent Confederation of the Equator.
The end of slavery and the beginning of the republic
In 1888, under the influence of increasingly urban society, and with the advocacy of intellectuals such as Pernambucan politician Joaquim Nabuco, slavery was abolished. However, freedom for the slaves did little or nothing to improve life for the underclass. Economic downturns were used to cut wages, children were paid almost nothing, and violence ruled. In those days before antibiotics there were major epidemics, fourteen between 1849 and 1920.
20th century
The twentieth century did bring better communication and transportation which would slowly allow development. But for the poor employed in the sugar industry, as late as the 1960s infant mortality in this labor segment was nearly half of live births. Politically, the century was dominated by two periods of dictatorship, ruled by Getulio Vargas for most of the period from 1930 to 1954. and the military dictatorship from 1964 to 1985
Post-dictatorship progress
Since the end of military rule, there is still an underemployed and under-fed underclass. However, quality of life has improved along with industrial development. Pernambuco has also become a major tourist destination. Statistics from the turn of the millennium show a sharp and continuing improvement. According to estimates from the Global Burden of Disease Study, the infant mortality rate declined 6.2 percent annually between 1990 and 2015: from 90.4 infant deaths per 1000 live births in 1990, to 13.4 deaths/1000 live births in 2015. The homicide rate in Recife, still higher than the average for Brazil, declined by about 6% per annum during the period from 2000 to 2012.
Income inequality remains a problem; in 2000, the state had a Gini coefficient of 0.59, with wealth and resources being concentrated at the top.
Demographics
Population
According to the Brazilian Institute of Geography and Statistics (IBGE), at the last census in 2010 there were 8,745,000 people residing in the state. In 2020, an estimated 9,616,621 people lived in the state. The population is concentrated along the coast in the Recife Metropolitan Region.
Urbanization: 77% (2006); Population growth: 1.2% (1991–2000); Houses: 2,348,000 (2006).
Religion
The majority of the state's inhabitants are Catholic; while more than 86% of the state is Christian.
In 2010, 5,834,601 inhabitants identified as Roman Catholic (65.95%), 1,788,973 as Evangelical (20.34%): of these, 1,102,485 were Pentecostal (12.53%), and 376,880 were Evangelical Protestant (4.28%) and 309,608 other Evangelical (3.52%). 123,798 inhabitants identified as spiritists (1.41%), 43,726 as Jehovah's Witnesses (0.50%), 26,526 as Brazilian Apostolic Catholics (0.30%) and 6,678 as Eastern Orthodox(0.08%).
914,954 had no religion (10.40%): of these, 10,284 identified as atheists (0.12%) and 5,638 as agnostics (0.06%). 80,591 followed all other religions not listed above (0.90%), and 9,805 did not know or did not declare (0.12%).
The former Latin Catholic Territorial Prelature of Pernambuco became the Metropolitan Archdiocese of Olinda & Recife, with these suffragan dioceses in its ecclesiastical province (all in Pernambuco) : Diocese of Afogados da Ingazeira, Diocese of Caruaru, Diocese of Floresta, Diocese of Garanhuns, Diocese of Nazaré, Diocese of Palmares, Diocese of Pesqueira, Diocese of Petrolina and Diocese of Salgueiro.
Racial/Ethnic composition
The results of the National Household Sample Survey (PNAD) conducted in 2008 led to the following estimates of race or skin color: 4,799,000 Brown (Multiracial) people (54.87%), 3,307,000 White people (37.81%), 561,000 Black people (6.42%), 41,000 Indigenous people (0.47%) and 31,000 Asian people (0.36%).
Due to the legacy of slavery and the sugarcane plantations, it has been observed that those of mixed African and Portuguese ancestry are more common on the coast, while Mamelucos (those of mixed Amerindian and Portuguese ancestry) are more common in the interior Sertão region.
According to a genetic study from 2013, Pernambucans have 56.8% European, 27.9% African and 15.3% Amerindian ancestries.
Largest cities
Economy
The service sector is the largest component of GDP at 73.2%, followed by the industrial sector at 21.6%. Agribusiness represents 5.2% of GDP (2006). Pernambuco exports: sugar 35.6%, fruit and juice 12.6%, fish and crustacean 12.3%, electric products 11.1%, chemicals 7.1%, woven 5.6% (2002).
According with IBGE, in 2007 Pernambuco has 2.34% share of the Brazilian economy and 17.9% share of the Northeast region economy. It's the 10th largest economy of the whole country. The GDP for the state was R$104,394,000,000 (2011), and the per capita income was R$11,776.
The economy is based on agriculture (sugarcane, manioc), livestock farming and creations, as well as industry (shipbuilding, automotive, chemical, metallurgical, electronic, textile, alimentary). In the period of October 2005 to October 2006, the industrial growth of the state was the second biggest in Brazil – 6.3%, more than double the national average in the same period (2.3%). Another segment that deserves to be highlighted is mineral extraction. The pole gesseiro of Araripina is the supplier from 95% of the plaster consumed in Brazil. The pole of data processing of the Recife, Digital Port, despite having started in 2000, is one of the five biggest in Brazil. It employs around three thousand persons, and has 3.5% the GDP of the state.
Livestock
According with IBGE 2007, Pernambuco has the 2nd largest livestock portfolio in the Northeast region and the 8th of Brazil.
Agriculture
S – Seasonal; P – Permanent agriculture; + – Thousands units
Ethanol
Pernambuco State has the 5th highest sugarcane Brazilian production. Brazil is the second largest producer of alcohol fuel in the world, typically fermenting ethanol from sugarcane and sugar beets. The country produces a total of 18 billion liters annually, of which 3.5 billion are exported, 2 billion of them to the US. Alcohol-fueled cars started in the Brazilian market in 1978 and became quite popular because of heavy subsidy, but in the 80s prices rose and gasoline regained the leading market share.
But from 2004 on, alcohol rapidly increased its market share once again because of new technologies involving hybrid fuel car engines called "Flex" by all major car manufacturers (Volkswagen, General Motors, Ford, Peugeot, Honda, Citroën, Fiat, etc.). "Flex" engines work with gasoline, alcohol or any mixture of both fuels. As of February 2007, approximately 80% of new vehicles sold in Brazil are hybrid fuel powered. Because of the Brazilian lead in production and technology, many countries became very interested in importing alcohol fuel and adopting the "Flex" vehicle concept. On 7 March 2007, US president George W. Bush visited the city of São Paulo to sign agreements with Brazilian president Lula on importing alcohol and its technology as an alternative fuel.
Government and politics
The state government is divided into three branches, like all Brazilian states. All the branches are located in capital of Recife.
Executive: the Governor, currently Paulo Câmara of the Brazilian Socialist Party, is responsible for administration. The vice-governor, currently Luciana Santos of the Communist Party of Brazil is first in line of succession to the governorship, but otherwise has few responsibilities.
Legislative: the Legislative Assembly of Pernambuco, a unicameral body with 49 state deputies. It meets in the Palácio Joaquim Nabuco.
Judicial: the (Tribunal de Justiça de Pernambuco), with 52 justices.
The governor and deputies are elected to four year terms in Brazilian general elections, with the most recent being held in 2018.
Local government
The 185 municipalities that make up the state have similar structures, though they lack the judicial branch. Each municipality has a chief executive, analogous to mayor, called a Prefeito/Prefeita, while the legislative branch is called the Câmara Municipal.
Municipal officials also serve four year terms, with the most recent being held in 2020.
Fernando de Noronha is a sui generis "State District" (distrito estadual), governed directly by a Pernambuco state administrator.
Federal representation
At the federal level, Pernambuco is represented by 25 deputies in the Chamber of Deputies, and three senators in the Federal Senate.
Education
Portuguese is the official national language, and thus the primary language taught in schools. But English and Spanish are part of the official high school curriculum.
Higher education
Pernambuco is served by many higher education institutions, concentrated in Recife. Most universities and colleges were founded in the 19th and 20th century, and some are known nationally.
The oldest is the Faculdade de Direito do Recife (), founded on 11 August 1827 in the then-state capital of Olinda, one of the first higher education institutes in Brazil. Castro Alves and Joaquim Nabuco, two important Brazilian historical figures are among its alumni.
Many institutions are composed of several autonomous campuses serving the entire state, however Recife remains undeniably the center of education.
Important institutions include:
Headquartered in Recife:
The Federal University of Pernambuco (Universidade Federal de Pernambuco, UFPE) , which now contains the historical College of Law of Recife, public, federally-funded
The Catholic University of Pernambuco, (Universidade Católica de Pernambuco, Unicap), private, non-profit,
The University of Pernambuco (Universidade de Pernambuco, UPE), public, funded by Pernambuco state
The Federal Rural University of Pernambuco (Universidade Federal Rural de Pernambuco, UFRPE), public, federally-funded
The Federal Institute of Pernambuco (Instituto Federal de Educação, Ciência e Tecnologia de Pernambuco, IFPE), public, federally-funded
Located elsewhere in the state:
The Federal University of Vale do São Francisco (Universidade Federal do Vale do São Francisco, UNIVASF), in Petrolina, public, federally-funded
The (Universidade Federal do Agreste de Pernambuco, UFAPE), in Garanhuns, public, federally-funded
Festivals
Carnival
The four-day period before Lent leading up to Ash Wednesday is carnival time in Brazil. Rich and poor alike forget their cares as they party in the streets. Pernambuco has large Carnaval celebrations, including the frevo, typical Pernambuco music. Another carnaval music style from Pernambuco is maracatu.
The cities of Recife and Olinda hold the most authentic and democratic carnaval celebrations in Brazil. The largest carnaval parade in all of Brazil is Galo da Madrugada, which takes place in downtown Recife in the Saturday of carnaval. Another event is the Noite dos Tambores Silenciosos.
Recife's joyous Carnaval is nationally known, attracting thousands of people every year. The party starts a week before the official date, with electric trios “shaking” the Boa Viagem district.
On Friday, people take to the streets to enjoy themselves to the sound of frevo and to dance with maracatu, ciranda, caboclinhos, afoxé, reggae and manguebeat (cultural movement created in Recife during the 1990s) groups. There are still many other entertainment centres around the city, featuring local and national artists.
One of the highlights is Saturday when more than one million people follow the Galo da Madrugada group. From Sunday to Monday, there is the Night of the Silent Drums, on the Pátio do Terço, where Maracatus honor slaves that died in prisons.
Saint John's Day
Festa Junina was introduced to Northeastern Brazil by the Portuguese, for whom Saint John's day (also celebrated as Midsummer Day in several European countries), on 24 June, is one of the oldest and most popular celebrations of the year. Differently, of course, from what happens on the European Midsummer Day, the festivities in Brazil do not take place during the summer solstice, but during the tropical winter solstice. The festivities traditionally begin after 12 June, on the eve of Saint Anthony's day, and last until the 29th, which is Saint Peter's day. During these fifteen days, there are bonfires, fireworks, and folk dancing in the streets. Once exclusively a rural festival, today, in Brazil, it is largely a city festival during which people joyfully and theatrically mimic peasant stereotypes and clichés in a spirit of jokes and good times. Typical refreshments and dishes are served, including canjica and pamonha. Like during Carnival, these festivities involve costume-wearing (in this case, peasant costumes), dancing, heavy drinking, and visual spectacles (fireworks display and folk dancing). Like what happens on Midsummer and Saint John's Day in Europe, bonfires are a central part of these festivities in Brazil.
Saint John's Day is celebrated throughout Pernambuco. Nonetheless, the festivities in Caruaru are by far the largest in the state. Saint John's festivals in Gravatá and Carpina are also popular.
Winter Festival
In the hilly areas of the interior – mainly in areas with a micro-climate of altitude – temperatures that can reach 8 °C in the winter. Every winter, when the weather is milder, tourists from neighboring states and other parts of Pernambuco visit cities such as Garanhuns, Gravatá, Triunfo Taquaritinga do Norte and Brejo da Madre de Deus.
The city of Garanhuns holds an annual Winter Festival, in the month of July. The main attractions are concerts, dances, rural tourism, culinary and the relatively low temperatures for a tropical climate.
Infrastructure
Airports
Recife/Guararapes–Gilberto Freyre International Airport has been open since July 2004 and has 52 thousand square meters of area. The largest airport in the North and Northeast regions, Guararapes had its capacity expanded from 5 million to 11 million passengers a year. Now there are 64 check-in counters, versus the former terminal's 24. The shopping and leisure area was also totally remodeled, within the “Aeroshopping” concept, which transforms an airport into a center for business and retail. The commercial spaces will be occupied in steps and the final total will be 142 shops. Since 2000, Recife has had the longest runway in the Northeast, at 3,305 meters. Its extension permits operations with jumbo jets, such as the Boeing , able to fly nonstop to anywhere in South and Central America, Africa and parts of Europe, the United States and Canada.
Pernambuco is also served by the Petrolina International Airport, which is responsible for the delivery of fresh fruit from the São Francisco valley to Europe and the USA. The cargo terminal operates with 6 large coolers with 17000 boxes capacity each plus 2 coolers tunnels. This airports also has daily direct connections between this region (which includes 53 municipalities from the states such as Pernambuco, Piaui and Bahia) to major capitals as Recife and Salvador. Like the Recife airport, it is administered by the Brazilian Federal Agency (Infraero).
Other locally administered airports within the state are the Fernando de Noronha Airport and the Caruaru airports. Fernando de Noronhha has daily flights between the islands with Recife and Natal, and the second airport connects the textile industry region of Caruaru with São Paulo and local cities.
Ports
Suape port. Suape serves ships cargo 365 days a year without any restrictions in regards to tidal schedules. To assist in the docking operation of the ships, the port offers a monitoring system and laser ship docking system that enables effective, secure control and upholds the same technical standards as the most important ports across the globe. The port moves over 8.4 million tons of cargo a year (has increased 7 times since 1992). The liquid granary (petroleum by-products, chemical products, alcohols, vegetable oils, etc.) constitutes more than 80% of the movement. The port can serve ships of up to 170,000 tpb and operational draft of 14.50 m. With of backport, the internal and external ports offer the necessary conditions for serving large ships. The access canal has 5,000m of extension, 300m in width and 16.5m in length.
Suape has started in the 21st century to be Pernambuco's motive power toward development. Huge national and international investments are being attracted by its logistic qualities, of which, until 2010, more than US$10 billion are expected.
Recife Port handles cruises and cargo. National and international cruises are made in this port, mainly of those connecting Fernando de Noronha islands with Brazil, Caribbean islands and South America. The Brazilian and foreign tourists who come to Recife on a cruise ship will use a new Passengers Terminal (2009) with stores, food court and information kiosks. Also, will have an increase in depth from 8.4 m to 11.5 meters deep, what originates will no longer be necessary to do transfer between large and small ships as before.
There are two access channels to the Port, both of natural characteristics. The main one, South Channel, has 260 m of width and of extension approximately, with a depth of 10.5 m. The other, denominated North Channel, has little width, about of length, and a depth of 6.5 m, and it is used only by small size vessels. Handles an average of 2.2 million tons of cargo annually, and the main loads are sugar, wheat, corn, barley, malt, fertilizers, clinker and kelp.
Railways
Freight trains are operated by , formerly the Companhia Ferroviária do Nordeste (CFN), and mainly hauls iron ore, petroleum, and cement. The company won a 30-year concession following the privatization of the RFFSA in 1997, and also serves neighboring states of Ceará and Piauí. The network is built to metre gauge, and is long.
The Recife Metro, opened in 1985, has five lines and is operated by the federally-controlled Compania Brasileira de Trens Urbanos (CBTU).
Roads
Tourism and recreation
The Pernambuco coastline is 187 km long. There are about of beaches, including at Porto de Galinhas, Carneiros and Calhetas.
Fernando de Noronha, an isolated group of 21 volcanic islands approximately 540 km from Recife. The main islands are the visible parts of a range of submerged mountains, islets and rocks. The Archipelago of Fernando de Noronha hosts ecological sites ideal for exuberant marine animal life, due to its geographic location far from the continent and well within the path of the Southern Equatorial Currents, as well as the nature of its climate.
Porto de Galinhas. It features warm clear water pools scattered around its coral reefs, estuaries, mangroves, coconut trees and a number of other samples of abundant nature richness make Porto de Galinhas a place not to be missed or forgotten.
Boa Viagem. Located in the privileged southern Recife metropolitan area, Boa Viagem is the most important and frequented beach in town. It is protected by a long reef wall and has an extensive coastline.
Itamaracá island. Separated from the mainland by the Canal Santa Cruz, it has several highly frequented beaches. Among them are Forte Orange, Praia do Sossego and Pontal da Ilha. The island houses the Marine Manatee Preservation Center.
Maracaípe, a beach with big waves which hosts a phase of the Brazilian Surf Tournament. Highly frequented by surfers and neighbor to Porto de Galinhas, Maracaípe.
Tamandaré. Small waves and fine sand can be found there.
Calhetas, a small bay of difficult access. Searched for by many for diving.
Coroa do Avião, a small island in the middle of the Jaguaribe River delta, which can be reached only by boat or raft, from Recife or Itamaracá.
Main cities
Sports
Football was introduced to Pernambuco in 1902, when English and Dutch sailors disembarked in Recife and played a game of football in the beach. The novelty awoke the interest of the people of Pernambuco, that soon adhered to the game. Recife provides visitors and residents with various sport activities; the city has the largest football teams of the state of Pernambuco. There are several football clubs based in Recife, such as Sport, Santa Cruz, and Náutico.
According to the Brazilian Football Confederation in 2008, the Pernambuco Football Federation was ranked sixth nationwide, behind São Paulo, Rio de Janeiro, Rio Grande do Sul, Minas Gerais and Paraná; and first in the Northeast region. The Pernambuco Football Federation organizes the Campeonato Pernambucano state championship and the state cup. The first edition of the Campeonato Pernambucano was played in 1915, and was won by Sport Club Flamengo, a club since defunct. In 2011 twelve clubs competed, which was won by Santa Cruz.
In 2012 the state was represented in the highest national level of football (Brazilian Série A) by Náutico and Sport. Also, it was represented in (Série C) by Santa Cruz and Salgueiro and in (Série D) by Central.
Recife was one of the 12 Brazilian cities that hosted the 2014 FIFA World Cup.
Gallery
References
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229528 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Delta%20operator | Delta operator | In mathematics, a delta operator is a shift-equivariant linear operator on the vector space of polynomials in a variable over a field that reduces degrees by one.
To say that is shift-equivariant means that if , then
In other words, if is a "shift" of , then is also a shift of , and has the same "shifting vector" .
To say that an operator reduces degree by one means that if is a polynomial of degree , then is either a polynomial of degree , or, in case , is 0.
Sometimes a delta operator is defined to be a shift-equivariant linear transformation on polynomials in that maps to a nonzero constant. Seemingly weaker than the definition given above, this latter characterization can be shown to be equivalent to the stated definition when has characteristic zero, since shift-equivariance is a fairly strong condition.
Examples
The forward difference operator
is a delta operator.
Differentiation with respect to x, written as D, is also a delta operator.
Any operator of the form
(where Dn(ƒ) = ƒ(n) is the nth derivative) with is a delta operator. It can be shown that all delta operators can be written in this form. For example, the difference operator given above can be expanded as
The generalized derivative of time scale calculus which unifies the forward difference operator with the derivative of standard calculus is a delta operator.
In computer science and cybernetics, the term "discrete-time delta operator" (δ) is generally taken to mean a difference operator
the Euler approximation of the usual derivative with a discrete sample time . The delta-formulation obtains a significant number of numerical advantages compared to the shift-operator at fast sampling.
Basic polynomials
Every delta operator has a unique sequence of "basic polynomials", a polynomial sequence defined by three conditions:
Such a sequence of basic polynomials is always of binomial type, and it can be shown that no other sequences of binomial type exist. If the first two conditions above are dropped, then the third condition says this polynomial sequence is a Sheffer sequence—a more general concept.
See also
Pincherle derivative
Shift operator
Umbral calculus
References
External links
Linear algebra
Polynomials
Finite differences | [
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229536 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Piau%C3%AD | Piauí | Piaui (, ) is one of the states of Brazil, located in the country's Northeast Region. The state has 1.6% of the Brazilian population and produces 0.7% of the Brazilian GDP.
Piaui has the shortest coastline of any coastal Brazilian state at 66 km (41 mi), and the capital, Teresina, is the only state capital in the northeast to be located inland. The reason for this is, unlike the rest of the area, Piaui was first colonised inland and slowly expanded towards the ocean, rather than the other way around. In the southeast of the state, the National Park of Serra da Capivara is a UNESCO World Heritage Site. The park has more than 400 archaeological sites and the largest concentration of rock paintings in the world, in a landscape dominated by canyons and caatinga.
History
The state has many notable archaeological sites, including Serra de Capivara National Park and Sete Cidades National Park, which are rich in remains of prehistoric Paleo-Indian and sedentary-based Indigenous Brazilian complex cultures.
Early settlers in the region included Domingos Jorge Velho, from São Paulo state, who brought the first herds of cattle to the area; and Domingos Afonso Mafrense, from Portugal, who founded what is today Oeiras.
In the 17th century, many impoverished noblemen and Jesuit priests, as well as black and Amerindian slaves, settled there. The first large-scale cattle farming also arrived with these settlers. Large estate owners seeking new pastures for their livestock arrived from neighbouring states such as Bahia and Maranhão.
At the beginning of the 20th century, the principal industry of the state was stock raising, which dates from the first settlement in 1674 by Domingos Afonso Mafrense, who established a number of cattle ranges. A secondary industry was the raising of goats, which were able to stand neglect and a scanty food supply. Agricultural products were cotton, sugar and tobacco. Forest products included rubber, carnauba wax and dyewoods. Exports included hides, skins, rubber, wax, tobacco and cotton.
Teresina was the first Brazilian city to be planned. In 1852, an architect designed it, after being inspired by a chessboard. Situated at the confluence of the Parnaíba and Poti Rivers, Teresina was (and still is) known as the Green City because of the countless mango trees that line the city's streets.
Geography
Piauí is bounded on the west by Maranhão, on the east by Ceará and Pernambuco on the south by Bahia. It has a short Atlantic coastline on the north.
The Parnaíba River forms the boundary with Maranhão throughout its entire length; the state lies almost entirely within the basin of the Parnaíba and its tributaries. Part of the state on the Atlantic coast and along the lower Parnaíba is low, swampy, and historically malarial. South of this the country rises gradually to a plateau with open campos. This plateau region is watered by numerous tributaries of the Parnaíba, chief of which are, from south to north: the Poti, which has its source in the state of Ceará; the Longa; the Canindé and its tributary the Piauí, which is navigable for boats of one-meter draft up to Nova Iorque, a few miles above the mouth of the Gurguéia River. The river valleys are separated by flat-topped plateaus called chapadas, including the Serra Uruçui, which lies between the Uruçui-Preto and the Gurguéia, the Serra da Capivara National Park, which lies between the Gurguéia and the Piauí, and the Chapada das Mangabeiras, which forms the southwestern boundary of the state, separating the upper basin of the Parnaíba from that of the Tocantins.
Ecoregions
The sandy soils along the Atlantic coast are home to the Northeastern Brazil restingas, low evergreen forests adapted to the nutrient-poor conditions. The lower basin of the Parnaíba is home to the Maranhão Babaçu forests, which extend westward into Maranhão. This ecoregion is dominated by stands of the Babaçu palm.
The eastern portion of the state is dominated by the dry Caatingas shrublands, which extend across much of northeastern Brazil. The Cerrado savannas extend across the southwestern portion of the state, in the basins of the upper Parnaíba and Gurguéia rivers. Enclaves of Atlantic dry forests lie in basin of the Gurguéia, forming a transition between the Cerrado and Caatinga. Serra da Capivara National Park is located in the Caatinga of the south-central part of the state, and protects numerous caves with ancient cave paintings.
Climate
The climate is hot and humid in the lowlands and along the lower Parnaíba, but in the uplands it is dry with high day-time temperatures and cool nights.
Demographics
According to the IBGE of 2008, there were 3,164,000 people residing in the state. The population density was 12.1 inhabitants/km2.
Urbanization: 60.7% (2006); Population growth: 1.1% (1991–2000); Houses: 791,000 (2006).
The last PNAD (National Research for Sample of Domiciles) census revealed the following numbers: 2,272,000 Brown (Multiracial) people (71.80%), 739,000 White people (23.36%), 145,000 Black people (4.60%), 41,000 Amerindian people (0.47%), 5,000 Asian people (0.17%), 2,000 Amerindian people (0.05%).
Largest cities
Religion
The population of Piauí is mostly Christian. According to the IBGE, it is the state with the lowest proportion of Protestants, and the highest proportion of Catholics in the country. There is a great diversity of religious manifestations in Piauí, expressing the multicultural identity of the Piaui people. According to a survey conducted via an app developed by the Municipality of Teresina, there are more than 800 adherents of Afro-Brazilian religions in the capital. Considering that there are 800 thousand inhabitants in the municipality, there is practically one adherent for every thousand inhabitants. In addition to Christianity and other monotheistic religions, Piauí also has followers of polytheistic spiritualities, such as Piaganismo, who is considered the first neo-pagan religion created in Brazil.
Economy
Piaui is one of the poorest states of Brazil. The service sector is the largest component of GDP at 60.1%, followed by the industrial sector at 27.3%. Agriculture represents 12.6% of GDP (2004). Piauí exports include essential oils 19.5%, soybeans 17.1%, woven cotton 15.1%, cashews 12.6%, crustaceans 12.4%, and leather 8.3% (2002).
Grupo Claudino is the largest industrial company with headquarters in the state. They have annual sales of around R$700 million.
Transfers from the Federal government are estimated to represent around a third of state GDP.
The state government has been involved in a number of initiatives to develop aspects of the state's economy. 10,000-18,000 hectares of land worth a reported R$50 million was given to Brasil Biodiesel, a green energy company. The company suffered a number of setbacks and in 2009 said it was selling the land. A second biodiesel company, Piauí Ecodiesel Ltda, is reported to be receiving up to R$81.1 million of investment.
The state has offered substantial tax benefits to agro-industrial companies. Bunge, Cargill and Algar now grow soy in the state. Suzano is to grow eucalyptus for pulp. These projects have been criticised by state environmental activists.
According to research commissioned by SETUR, the state tourism authority, over one million tourists would visit Piaui in 2010. Estimates based on by CEPRO, the state statistics agency, suggest the actual figure is likely to fractional of this figure. The construction of an international airport at São Raimundo Nonato (Aeroporto Internacional Serra da Capivara) was criticised on the grounds that it could not function as an international airport because the runway was too short and because ANAC (the Federal aviation authority) was not involved in monitoring the project, so were unable to certify it as safe for international flights.
There is some mining in the state, including South America's only opal mines at Pedro Segundo. Diamonds are mined by Gema do Piauí Mineração Ltda (Gemapi) and processed in the neighbouring state of Pernambuco in a joint-venture with Gitanjali Group (India). The state has significant deposits of nickel and iron ore. João Carlos Cavalcanti, a mining entrepreneur, and GME4 own the rights to the 800 million tonne PI4 iron ore deposit. A new railway bisecting the state may make this deposit economically viable.
Share of the Brazilian economy: 0.5% (2004).
Education
Portuguese is the official national language, and thus the primary language taught in schools, but English and Spanish are part of the official high school curriculum.
Educational institutions
Educational institutions in Piauí include:
Universidade Federal do Piauí (UFPI) (Federal University of Piauí)
Universidade Federal do Vale do São Francisco (UNIVASF)
Universidade Estadual do Piauí (Uespi) (State University of Piauí)
Instituto Federal do Piauí (IFPI)
Faculdade Santo Agostinho
Centro de Ensino Superior do Vale do Parnaíba (Cesvale)
Instituto de Ciências Jurídicas e Sociais Professor Camillo Filho
Faculdade de Saúde, Ciências Humanas e Tecnológicas do Piauí
Faculdade Integral Differencial (Facid)
Culture
Festa Junina (Saint John Festival)
Festa Junina is a cultural festival inspired by Portuguese traditions, in which St John's day, on the June 24, is one of the oldest and most popular celebrations of the year. Unlike the European Midsummer's Day, the festivities in Brazil do not take place at the summer solstice but during the southern hemisphere's winter solstice. The festivities traditionally begin after the 12th of June, on the eve of St Anthony's day, and last until the 29th, which is St Peter's day. During these fifteen days, there are bonfires, fireworks, and folk dancing in the streets (step names are in French, which shows the mutual influences between court life and peasant culture in the 17th, 18th, and 19th-century Europe). Once exclusively a rural festival, today in Brazil it is largely a city festival during which people mimic peasant stereotypes and clichés and consume typical refreshments and dishes. As in Carnival, these festivities involve costumes (in this case, peasant garb), dancing, heavy drinking, and visual spectacles (fireworks display and folk dancing). As on Midsummer and St John's Day in Europe, bonfires are a central part of the festivities.
Carnival
The four-day period before Lent leading up to Ash Wednesday is carnival time in Brazil.
Infrastructure
National Airport
Teresina/Senador Petrônio Portella Airport is located four kilometers () from downtown Teresina. Opened in 1967, it has been administered by Infraero since 1975. There are no international flights to this airport.
Highways
BR-020
BR-135
BR-222
BR-226
BR-230
BR-235
BR-316
BR-324
BR-330
BR-343
BR-402
BR-404
BR-407
Flag
The flag of Piaui was unveiled on 24 July 1922. The blue canton and a star represents the state itself and the green and yellow bars represent Piauí's union with Brazil. In 2005 the words "13 DE MARÇO DE 1823" were added below the star to commemorate the date of the Battle of Jenipapo, an engagement in Brazil's war of independence.
Cities
Cities in Piaui include:
Teresina
Parnaíba
Picos
Oeiras
Avelino Lopes
Curimata
References
External links
Official Website
Piaui Tourism Website
States of Brazil | [
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229539 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/St.%20Croix%20River%20%28Wisconsin%E2%80%93Minnesota%29 | St. Croix River (Wisconsin–Minnesota) | The St. Croix River () is a tributary of the Mississippi River, approximately 169 miles (272 km) long, in the U.S. states of Wisconsin and Minnesota. The lower 125 miles (201 km) of the river form the border between Wisconsin and Minnesota. The river is a National Scenic Riverway under the protection of the National Park Service. A hydroelectric plant at St. Croix Falls supplies power to the Minneapolis–St. Paul metropolitan area.
Geography and hydrography
The St. Croix River rises in the northwestern corner of Wisconsin, out of Upper St. Croix Lake in Douglas County, near Solon Springs, approximately south of Lake Superior. It flows south to Gordon, then southwest. It is joined by the Namekagon River in northern Burnett County, where it becomes significantly wider. A few miles downstream the St. Croix meets the boundary between Minnesota and Wisconsin, which it demarcates for another until its confluence with the Mississippi River.
Other major tributaries include the Kettle River, Snake River, and Sunrise River joining from the west, and the Apple River, Willow River, and Kinnickinnic River joining from the east. Just below Stillwater, Minnesota the river widens into Lake St. Croix, and eventually joins the Mississippi River at Prescott, Wisconsin, approximately southeast of St. Paul, Minnesota.
Conservation efforts
The St. Croix River was one of the original eight rivers to have significant portions placed under protection by the National Wild and Scenic Rivers Act of 1968. The upper reaches of the river in Wisconsin below the St. Croix Flowage, downstream from its source, as well as the Namekagon River, are protected as the St. Croix National Scenic Riverway. The free-flowing nature of the river is interrupted only by a hydroelectric dam operated by the Northern States Power Company at St. Croix Falls, Wisconsin.
The lower below the dam, including both sides of the river along the Minnesota-Wisconsin border, were protected as part of the Lower St. Croix National Scenic Riverway. This area includes the Dalles of the St. Croix River, a scenic gorge located near Interstate Park, south of St. Croix Falls, Wisconsin.
Although the addition of an interstate bridge connected to MN Highway 36 was objected to by residents, nearby communities, conservation groups, and the National Park Service, construction of the bridge was authorized by amending the Wild and Scenic Rivers Act of 1968. Light and noise pollution are concerns of those opposed to the bridge, who cites the original act that kept such activity to the south along the Interstate 94 corridor. The St. Croix Crossing bridge was ultimately completed in August 2017.
The St. Croix River Association (SCRA) is a watershed-wide non-profit advocating for conservation throughout the watershed. Founded in 1911 as an all-volunteer citizens group, it has evolved into a staffed, mature nonprofit organization and official "friends group" of the St. Croix National Scenic Riverway. Its mission is to protect, restore, and celebrate the St. Croix River and its watershed.
Naming
Father Louis Hennepin wrote in 1683, from information probably provided by Daniel Greysolon, Sieur du Lhut: "There is another River which falls ... into the Meschasipi ... We named it The River of the Grave, or Mausoleum because the Savages buried there one of their Men ... who was bitten by a Rattlesnake." In the original French, this is translated as "Rivière Tombeaux".
Jean-Baptiste-Louis Franquelin's 1688 map recorded a "Fort St. Croix" on the upper reaches of the river. The name "Rivière de Sainte-Croix" was applied to the river sometime in 1688 or 1689, and this more auspicious name supplanted Father Hennepin's earlier designation.
On (1718) by Guillaume Delisle and on A Map of North America (1768) by John Blair, the St. Croix River—more specifically what was then known as the east branch of the St. Croix River (known today as the Namekagon River)—is shown as the Ouasisacadeba, a French representation of the Dakota name for the St. Croix River. On the 1778 Mitchell Map, the river is simply titled "Ouadeba", which represents the Dakota watpá meaning "river".
The upper portion of the river—originally called the north branch of the St. Croix River—was known to the Ojibwa as Manoominikeshiinh-ziibi (Ricing-Rail River). Downstream of its confluence with the Namekagon, the Ojibwa renamed the river as Gichi-ziibi (Big River) or Okijii-ziibi (Pipestem River)
At the time of the European settlement of the valley, Dakota and Ojibwe were engaged in a long and deadly war with each other. Consequently, the portion of the river below the confluence with Trade River is called Jiibayaatig-ziibi (Grave-marker River) in the Ojibwe language, reinforcing the earlier "Rivière Tombeaux" name in their language.
On Map of the Territories of Michigan and Ouisconsin (1830) by John Farmer, the St. Croix River is shown as the "Chippewa River". However, by 1843, Joseph Nicollet's Hydrographical Basin of the Upper Mississippi River reinforced the name provided by Franquelin's 1688 map.
History
The river is the result of geologic forces going back 1.1 billion years. At that time, the Mid-Continent Rift rendered the middle of North America apart, creating a volcanic zone. The lava spewed forth cooled into hard basalt. That basalt is what today creates the dramatic cliffs around the Interstate State Parks. About 500 million years ago, a shallow sea covered the area, laying down layers of sand and minerals that make up much of the sandstone bluffs now seen along the river. In the last 20,000 years, glaciers have scraped the landscape and released torrents of meltwater, which carved the St. Croix River's course.
The river has been home to people for thousands of years. A bison kill site in May Township, Washington County, Minnesota is believed to be about 4,000 years old. An Oneota village from about 1200 A.D. has been studied by archaeologists.
At the time of European arrival in the region, the river valley and the surrounding area was occupied by the semi-nomadic Ojibwe, Dakota and nine other American Indian tribes. The Indians lived mainly on wild rice, fish, and game. By the 18th century, the Ojibwe and Dakota were the two primary tribes that inhabited the area, until around 1745, when the Dakota have driven out from the St. Croix Valley as a result of the Battle of Kathio.
Fur trade
The first Europeans to arrive in the area were Sieur du Lhut and his men in the fall and winter of 1679–1680. For the next eighty years, the area was primarily under French influence, and the fur trade grew throughout the first half of the 18th century, with beaver pelts as the prize trade good. French trade in the upper valley was dominated by the Ojibwe and tied to Lake Superior traders, whereas in the lower valley the Dakota assisted in trading with merchants based out of St. Louis downstream. After the end of the French and Indian War in 1763, British traders entered the area and grew in numbers and influence with the help of the powerful North West Company.
Logging
The 1837 Treaty of St. Peters with the Ojibwe was signed at St. Peters (now Mendota) which ceded to the United States government a vast tract of land in what today is north central Wisconsin and central Minnesota, roughly bounded by the Prairie du Chien Line in the south, Mississippi River in the west, St. Croix and Chippewa River watersheds in the north, and a 25-mile parallel east of the Wisconsin River in the east. This opened the region to logging. The river was important to the transportation of lumber downstream, from the areas where it was being cut to the sawmills that processed it. During the 1840s, important sawmills were located at St. Croix Falls and Marine on St. Croix, but as the 1850s progressed Stillwater became the primary lumber destination. During this time the population of Stillwater boomed, several additional sawmills were opened, and the town saw an influx of capital, primarily from lumber companies based downriver in St. Louis, Missouri.
In 1856 construction began on a booming site two miles north of Stillwater, which was used to store and sort the lumber floating downstream and remained in operation for over fifty years. The St. Croix Boom Site is now a wayside rest and National Historic Landmark along Minnesota State Highway 95.
The vast white pine forests in the upper valley provided the forest products that built the towns along with Lake St. Croix, Minneapolis , and St. Paul; the St. Croix along with the forest reserves in the river valleys of the nearby Red Cedar, Chippewa, and Rum provided supplies for the building of Winona, Minnesota, Davenport, Iowa, Rock Island, Illinois, and St. Louis.
The lumber industry continued to grow throughout the latter half of the 19th century, with progressively larger spring drives and consequent dangers to navigation on the river above Stillwater. Logs were frequently caught in log jams at the narrow Dalles of the St. Croix River, and in 1883 the blockade was so severe it took almost two months before the flow of logs was re-established. The 1886 jam, described as the "jammedest jam", required the use of steamboats and dynamite to clear. At its peak in 1890, logging in the St. Croix River valley produced of lumber and logs. The lumber industry continued until the last major log drive in 1912 marked the end of the rich white pine forests of the area.
It was along the banks of the St. Croix, in the milltown of Stillwater, that the state of Minnesota was first proposed in 1848.
Cities and towns
Bridge crossings
Significant bridge crossings of the St. Croix River are listed below, ordered from source to mouth.
Scott Bridge in Douglas County, Wisconsin.
County Road T bridge in Douglas County, Wisconsin.
C.C.C. Bridge in Burnett County, Wisconsin.
Wisconsin State Highway 35 bridge near Danbury, Wisconsin.
Minnesota State Highway 48 to Wisconsin State Highway 77 bridge near Danbury, Wisconsin.
Minnesota State Highway 70 to Wisconsin State Highway 70 bridge near Grantsburg, Wisconsin.
U.S. Highway 8 bridge between Taylors Falls, Minnesota and St. Croix Falls, Wisconsin.
Minnesota State Highway 243 bridge at Osceola, Wisconsin.
Soo Line High Bridge north of Stillwater, Minnesota. This private, rail-only bridge is long and above the river. It roughly marks the northern limit of zebra mussel infestation in the St. Croix.
The Stillwater lift bridge, built 1931, between Stillwater, Minnesota and Houlton, Wisconsin.
St. Croix Crossing bridge near Stillwater, Minnesota and Houlton, Wisconsin.
Union Pacific Railroad swing bridge at Hudson, Wisconsin
Interstate 94 bridge at Hudson, Wisconsin.
Prescott Drawbridge (U.S. Highway 10) at Prescott, Wisconsin.
BNSF Railway lift bridge at Prescott, Wisconsin.
Commerce and recreation
The St. Croix is a popular recreational river. Common uses include boating, fishing, camping and canoeing. Highways along both sides of the river offer scenic drives punctuated by small towns offering restaurants, shopping (especially antiques, books and gifts), bed and breakfasts, historical tours and other common tourist activities.
Public lands along the St. Croix River include:
Governor Knowles State Forest (Wisconsin)
Saint Croix State Forest (Minnesota)
Saint Croix State Park (Minnesota)
Chengwatana State Forest (Minnesota)
Wild River State Park (Minnesota)
Interstate Park (Minnesota and Wisconsin)
William O'Brien State Park (Minnesota)
Afton State Park (Minnesota)
St. Croix Boom Site (Minnesota)
Further reading
Dunn, James Taylor. The St. Croix: Midwest Border River. (New York: Holt, Rinehart and Winston, 1965, 309 pp.
McMahon, Eileen M., and Theodore J. Karamanski. North Woods River: The St. Croix River in Upper Midwest History. (Madison: University of Wisconsin Press, 2009. xii, 338 pp.
See also
List of rivers of Minnesota
List of longest streams of Minnesota
List of rivers of Wisconsin
References
External links
Saint Croix National Scenic River (National Park Service)
Detailed River Maps (National Park Service)
St. Croix River Association
Rivers of Minnesota
Rivers of Wisconsin
Tributaries of the Mississippi River
Wild and Scenic Rivers of the United States
Borders of Wisconsin
Borders of Minnesota
Rivers of Douglas County, Wisconsin
Rivers of Burnett County, Wisconsin
Rivers of Polk County, Wisconsin
Rivers of Chisago County, Minnesota
Rivers of Washington County, Minnesota
Rivers of St. Croix County, Wisconsin
Rivers of Pierce County, Wisconsin | [
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] |
229543 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rio%20Grande%20do%20Norte | Rio Grande do Norte | Rio Grande do Norte (, , ; "Great Northern River", in reference to the mouth of the Potengi River) is one of the states of Brazil, located in the northeastern region of the country, occupying the northeasternmost tip of the South American continent. Because of its geographic position, Rio Grande do Norte has a strategic importance. The capital and largest city is Natal. It is the land of the folklorist Luís da Câmara Cascudo. Its 410 km (254 mi) of sand, much sun, coconut palms and lagoons are responsible for the fame of beaches. Rocas Atoll, the only such feature in the Atlantic Ocean, is part of the state. The main economic activity is tourism, followed by the extraction of petroleum (the second largest producer in the country), agriculture, fruit growing and extraction of minerals, including considerable production of seasalt, among other economic activities.
The state is famous for having many popular attractions such as the Cashew of Pirangi (the world's largest cashew tree), the dunes and the dromedaries of Genipabu, the famous beaches of Ponta Negra, Maracajaú and Pipa's paradise, the Carnatal the largest off-season carnival in Brazil, the Forte dos Reis Magos is a sixteenth-century fortress, the hills and mountains of Martins, the Natal Dunes State Park the second largest urban park in the country, and several other attractions. The state is also closest to the archipelago of Fernando de Noronha. The state has 1,7% of the brazilian population and produces only 1% of the Brazilian GDP.
In 2000-17 the murder rate rose by 655%. In 2017, Rio Grande do Norte was the state with the highest murder rate in Brazil: 63.9 per 100,000.
Geography
Rio Grande do Norte is dominated by its coastline. The state is famed for its beaches and sand dunes, and the air is, according to NASA, the second-cleanest in the world after Antarctica.
Two climates predominate: humid tropical, in the oriental littoral, and semi-arid, in the remaining (most part) of the State (including the North coast).
The rainforest which once covered most of Brazil's coast had its northern end in the south of Rio Grande do Norte; the area north of Natal, the capital, is under dunes, a kind of formation associated with semi-arid climate. The semi-arid climate is characterized not only by the low level but also the irregularity of rainfall; some years can go by with no or very little rain; most of the interior of the State is part of the Polygon of Droughts (an area which receives special attention from the federal government). There are also many mangroves in the state, and the interior is dominated by rainforest. Rocas Atoll in the Atlantic Ocean, 260 km Northeast of Natal, also belongs to the state of Rio Grande do Norte. It is contained in the fully protected Atol das Rocas Biological Reserve.
History
The first European to reach the region may have been the Spaniard Alonso de Ojeda in 1499. The northeastern tip of South America, Cape São Roque, to the north of Natal, was first officially visited by European navigators in 1501, in the 1501–1502 Portuguese expedition led by Amerigo Vespucci, who named the spot after the saint of the day. The Vespucci expedition also named the Potengi (Tupi for "River of Shrimps") river, whose considerably large mouth contrasted with the nearby bodies of water, "Rio Grande" (Portuguese for "Great River"), after which the Captaincy, Province, and State were named. For decades thereafter, no permanent European settlement was established in the area, inhabited by the Potiguar tribe.
In the 16th century (between 1535 and 1598), it was explored by French pirates in search for brazilwood. In 1598, the Portuguese built the Forte dos Reis Magos and, in the following year, founded the city of Natal. Rasing cattle and sugarcane plantation lifted the local development and economy.
In 1633, the area became a battleground between the expansionist Portuguese, seeking to take more land for their Brazilian territories, and the Dutch, who gained a foothold in South America.
After a short period of peace and prosperity in Olinda and Recife, the sugar prices went down in the market of Amsterdam and the region entered into a serious economic crisis. The economic problems led the Portuguese settlers and native Brazilians to revolt against the Dutch in what is known today as the massacres of Cunhaú and Uruaçu.
The religious confrontations (the Portuguese-Brazilian Catholicism and the Dutch Calvinism), Portugal's restoration of the throne in 1640 and the reconquest of Maranhão in 1643, lead the Portuguese-Brazilians to undertake the 1645 uprising, led by André Vidal de Negreiros and João Fernandes Vieira. The governor of Bahia promised new Portuguese troops, but most of the rebels were Africans and Amerindians. In 1654, the Dutch were finally cast out.
During World War II, Rio Grande do Norte was used as an Allied airbase from which to launch air raids on German-occupied North Africa.
In 1964, Latin America's first space launch site was constructed in Rio Grande do Norte; Barreira do Inferno (Hell's Barrier), which was often referred to as the "Brazilian NASA".
Demographics
The Brazilian Institute of Geography and Statistics estimates that the population of Rio Grande do Norte was 3,168,133 on 1 December 2010, a 14.3% increase since the 2000 census. Multiracial people make up 52.48% of the total population. The second largest group composed by white people was 41.15% of the total population, following by black people (5.24%), Asian people (1.04%) and indigenous people
0.08%.
77,916 Migrants arrived in the state between 2000 and 2010, while 71,287 people left the state between 2000 and 2010.
Largest cities
Economy
The service sector is the largest component of GDP at 50.2%, followed by the industrial sector at 44.2%. Agriculture represents 5.6% of GDP (2004). Rio Grande do Norte exports: fish and crustacean 30.5%, fruits 19.3%, woven of cotton 12.3%, petroleum 10.8%, cashew 8.5%, sugar 5.3%, chocolate 3.9%, sea salt 3.7% (2002).
Share of the Brazilian economy: 0.9% (2004).
Historically, Rio Grande do Norte has relied upon sugar and cattle for its livelihood. However, since the 1980s, the state government has realised that tourism is a lucrative industry, and more money is being poured into the construction of tourist resorts, and restoring colonial buildings in major cities.
Fruit is also grown in Rio Grande do Norte, with the state supplying 70% of Brazil's melons, and the state is famed for its mango and cashew fields. The world's largest cashew tree is located in the state; it has a circumference of 500 metres and occupies an area of 7,300 cm2, making it 70 times the size of average cashew trees. Rio Grande do Norte is also one of three Brazilian states that together produce the world's entire supply of carnauba wax.
Education
Portuguese is the official national language, and thus the primary language taught in schools. But English and Spanish are part of the official high school curriculum.
Educational institutions
Universidade Federal do Rio Grande do Norte (UFRN) (Federal University of Rio Grande do Norte);
Universidade Estadual do Rio Grande do Norte (UERN) (State University of Rio Grande do Norte);
Universidade Potiguar (UnP) (Potiguar University);
Universidade Federal Rural do Semi-Árido (Ufersa) (Rural Federal University of Semi-Arid);
Instituto Federal do Rio Grande do Norte (IFRN) (Federal Institute of Rio Grande do Norte);
and many others.
Culture
Saint John's Day
Festa Junina was introduced to Northeastern Brazil by the Portuguese for whom St John's day (also celebrated as Midsummer Day in several European countries), on 24 June, is one of the oldest and most popular celebrations of the year. Differently, of course, from what happens on the European Midsummer Day, the festivities in Brazil do not take place during the summer solstice but during the tropical winter solstice. The festivities traditionally begin after 12 June, on the eve of St Anthony's day, and last until the 29th, which is Saint Peter's day. During these fifteen days, there are bonfires, fireworks, and folk dancing in the streets. Once exclusively a rural festival, today in Brazil it is largely an urban festival during which people joyfully and theatrically mimic peasant stereotypes and clichés in a spirit of jokes and good times. Typical refreshments and dishes are served. Similar to during Carnival, these festivities involve costume-wearing (in this case, peasant costumes), dancing, heavy drinking, and visual spectacles (fireworks display and folk dancing). Like what happens on Midsummer and St John's Day in Europe, bonfires are a central part of these festivities in Brazil.
Infrastructure
According to research by Fundação Dom Cabral, Rio Grande do Norte is the state with the second-best infrastructure in the Northeast Region and ninth in the country.
International Airport
Augusto Severo Airport has ceased to be Greater Natal International Airport since summer 2014. The new airport, situated outside the city, is in São Gonçalo do Amarante.
Located virtually at sea level (169 ft), with favorable weather and geographic conditions, Augusto Severo International Airport in Parnamirim is 18 kilometers from Natal (RN). It takes its name from Augusto Severo de Albuquerque Maranhão, a native son of that state who died in an accident in France in 1902. The airport has a total area of 11.3 thousand square meters and capacity for 1.2 million passengers a year. The installations and passenger terminals are air conditioned with equipment that can put out 630 tons of cooled air. With an area of 5.5 million square meters, the airport complex operates with 16,482 square meters of passenger and cargo terminals and administrative and maintenance installations. There are 6,224 meters of runways and 61.5 square meters of apron space, providing connections from the greater Natal region to the main centers of the world.
The airport is the only one in the Northeast Region to receive charter flights from Scandinavia.
Highways
BR-101;
BR-104;
BR-110;
BR-226;
BR-304;
BR-405;
BR-406;
BR-427;
RN-117;
RN-401.
Port
The Port of Natal is specialized in cold storage cargo such as fruit, fish and shrimp, among others. It has its own customs facilities and is connected to Europe by direct navigation lines, mainly to the ports of Vigo, Rotterdam and Sheerness.
Sports
Natal, the capital of the state, was one of 12 cities to host games of the 2014 FIFA World Cup held in Brazil.
The three main football clubs in Natal are ABC, Alecrim and América Futebol Clube. ABC and America are the biggest rivals, and their match is often referred as Clássico Rei (King Classic).
The state is one of the member states of the World Sports Alliance.
Flag
The flag of Rio Grande do Norte was adopted on 3 December 1957. It is based on a design by Luís da Câmara Cascudo. In the middle of the flag is the coat of arms of the state, which was adopted on 1 July 1909. It shows a sailing boat at the coast in the middle, representing the fishing and salt industries. Above it is a bar which shows two flowers on the sides and two cotton bolls in the center. To the sides of the shield are a coconut palm to the right and a carnauba palm to the left, connected by two branches of sugar cane. The star above represents the state as part of Brazil.
Notes
References
External links
Official
Official website
Nominuto.com Newspaper
Tourism
Travel guide
Travel Report
Information, maps and accommodation
States of Brazil
Former Portuguese colonies | [
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229551 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Phan%20Thi%20Kim%20Phuc | Phan Thi Kim Phuc | Phan Thị Kim Phúc (; born April 6, 1963), referred to informally as the Napalm girl, is a South Vietnamese-born Canadian woman best known as the nine-year-old child depicted in the Pulitzer Prize-winning photograph taken at Trảng Bàng during the Vietnam War on June 8, 1972. The well-known photo, by AP photographer Nick Ut, shows her at nine years of age running naked on a road after being severely burned on her back by a South Vietnamese napalm attack.
Biography
Early life during the Vietnam War
Phan Thi Kim Phúc and her family were residents of the village of Trảng Bàng in South Vietnam. On June 8, 1972, South Vietnamese planes dropped a napalm bomb on Trảng Bàng, which had been attacked and occupied by North Vietnamese forces. Kim Phúc joined a group of civilians and South Vietnamese soldiers who were fleeing from the Caodai Temple to the safety of South Vietnamese-held positions. The Republic of Vietnam Air Force pilot mistook the group for enemy soldiers and diverted to attack. The bombing killed two of Kim Phúc's cousins and two other villagers. Kim Phúc received third degree burns after her clothing was burned by the fire. Associated Press photographer Nick Ut's photograph of Kim Phúc running naked amid other fleeing villagers, South Vietnamese soldiers, and press photographers became one of the most haunting images of the Vietnam War. In an interview many years later, she recalled she was yelling, Nóng quá, nóng quá ("too hot, too hot") in the picture. The New York Times editors were at first hesitant to consider the photo for publication because of the nudity, but eventually approved it. A cropped version of the photo—with the press photographers to the right removed—was featured on the front page of The New York Times the next day. It later earned a Pulitzer Prize and was chosen as the World Press Photo of the Year for 1973.
After snapping the photograph, Ut took Kim Phúc and the other injured children to Barsky Hospital in Saigon, where it was determined that her burns were so severe that she probably would not survive. After a 14-month hospital stay and 17 surgical procedures including skin transplantations, she was able to return home. A number of the early operations were performed by Finnish plastic surgeon Aarne Rintala. It was only after treatment at a renowned special clinic in Ludwigshafen, West Germany, in 1982, that Kim Phúc was able to properly move again.
Ut continued to visit Kim Phúc until he was evacuated during the fall of Saigon, and they now speak almost weekly via telephone.
Audio tapes of President Richard Nixon, in conversation with his chief of staff, H. R. Haldeman in 1972, reveal that Nixon mused, "I'm wondering if that was fixed", after seeing the photograph. After the release of this tape, Ut commented, "Even though it has become one of the most memorable images of the twentieth century, President Nixon once doubted the authenticity of my photograph when he saw it in the papers on 12 June 1972... The picture for me and unquestionably for many others could not have been more real. The photo was as authentic as the Vietnam War itself. The horror of the Vietnam War recorded by me did not have to be fixed. That terrified little girl is still alive today and has become an eloquent testimony to the authenticity of that photo. That moment thirty years ago will be one Kim Phúc and I will never forget. It has ultimately changed both our lives."
Less publicized is the film, shot by British television cameraman Alan Downes for the British ITN news service and his Vietnamese counterpart Le Phuc Dinh who was working for the American television network NBC, which shows the events just before and after the photograph was taken (see image on right). In the top-left frame, a man stands and appears to take photographs as a passing airplane drops bombs. A group of children, Kim Phúc among them, run away in fear. After a few seconds, she encounters the reporters dressed in military fatigues, including Christopher Wain who gave her water (top-right frame) and poured some over her burns. As she turns sideways, the severity of the burns on her arm and back can be seen (bottom-left frame). A crying woman, Kim Phúc's grandmother, Tao, runs in the opposite direction holding her badly burned grandchild, 3-year-old Danh, Kim Phúc's cousin, who died of his injuries (bottom-right frame). Sections of the film shot were included in Hearts and Minds (1974), the Academy Award-winning documentary about the Vietnam War directed by Peter Davis.
Adult life
Phúc was removed from her university as a young adult studying medicine and used as a propaganda symbol by the communist government of Vietnam. Due to constant pain she considered suicide but in 1982 she found a New Testament in a library that led her to become a Christian. Her faith enabled her to forgive. In 1986, she was granted permission to continue her studies in Cuba. Prime Minister of Vietnam Phạm Văn Đồng became her friend and patron. After arriving in Cuba, she met Bui Huy Toan, another Vietnamese student and her future fiancé. In 1992, Phúc and Toan married. On the way to their honeymoon in Moscow, they left the plane during a refuelling stop in Gander, Newfoundland, and asked for political asylum in Canada, which was granted. The couple now live in Ajax, Ontario, near Toronto, and have two children. In 1996, Phúc met the surgeons who had saved her life. The following year, she became a Canadian citizen. In 2015, it was reported that she was receiving laser treatment at a hospital in Miami, Florida, to reduce the scarring on her left arm and back, which was provided free of charge.
In 1997 she established the first Kim Phúc Foundation in the U.S., with the aim of providing medical and psychological assistance to child victims of war. Later, other foundations were set up, with the same name, under an umbrella organization, Kim Phúc Foundation International.
In 2004, Phúc spoke at the University of Connecticut about her life and experience, learning how to be "strong in the face of pain" and how compassion and love helped her heal.
On December 28, 2009, National Public Radio broadcast her spoken essay, "The Long Road to Forgiveness," for the "This I Believe" series. In May 2010, Phúc was reunited by the BBC with ITN correspondent Christopher Wain, who helped to save her life. On May 18, 2010, Phúc appeared on the BBC Radio 4 programme Its My Story. In the programme, Phúc related how she was involved through her foundation in the efforts to secure medical treatment in Canada for Ali Abbas, who had lost both arms in a rocket attack on Baghdad during the invasion of Iraq in 2003.
On February 11, 2019 Kim Phúc was awarded the 2019 Dresden Peace Prize in recognition of her work with UNESCO and as an activist for peace.
Recognition
In 1996, Kim Phúc gave a speech at the United States Vietnam Veterans Memorial on Veterans Day. In her speech, she said that one cannot change the past, but everyone can work together for a peaceful future. John Plummer, a Vietnam veteran, who said he took part in coordinating the air strike with the Republic of Vietnam Air Force (though Plummer's entire chain of command and declassified documents indicate otherwise) met with Phúc briefly and was publicly forgiven. Plummer later admitted to The Baltimore Sun he had lied, saying he was "caught up in the emotion at the Vietnam Veterans Memorial on the day Phuc spoke". Canadian filmmaker, Shelley Saywell, made a documentary about their meeting.
On November 10, 1994, Kim Phúc was named a UNESCO Goodwill Ambassador. Her biography, The Girl in the Picture, was written by Denise Chong and published in 1999. In 2003, Belgian composer Eric Geurts wrote "The Girl in the Picture," dedicated to Kim Phúc. It was released on Flying Snowman Records, with all profits going to the Kim Phúc Foundation. It was released again in 2021 as part of Eric's album "Leave a Mark". On October 22, 2004, Kim Phúc was made a member of the Order of Ontario, and received an honorary Doctorate of Law from York University for her work to support child victims of war around the world. On October 27, 2005, she was awarded an honorary degree in Law from Queen's University in Kingston, Ontario. On June 2, 2011, she was awarded the honorary degree of Doctor of Laws from the University of Lethbridge. On May 19, 2016, she was awarded a Doctor of Civil Law, Honoris Causa by Saint Mary's University (Halifax).
Retrospective works
The Girl in the Picture: The Kim Phúc Story, the Photograph and the Vietnam War by Denise Chong, is a 1999 biographical and historical book tracing the life story of Kim Phúc. Chong's historical coverage emphasizes the life, especially the school and family life, of Kim Phúc from before the attack, through convalescence, and into the present time. The book deals primarily with Vietnamese and American relationships during the Vietnam War, while examining themes of war, racism, immigration, political turmoil, repression, poverty, and international relationships through the lens of family and particularly through the eyes and everyday lives of women. Kim Phúc and her mother, Nu, provide the lens through which readers of The Girl in the Picture experience war, strife, and the development of communism in Vietnam. Like Chong's first book, The Girl in the Picture was shortlisted for the Governor General's Literary Award for non fiction.
In a December 21, 2017, article for The Wall Street Journal, Kim Phúc wrote that the trauma she suffered in the napalm strike still requires treatment, but that the psychological trauma was greater: "But even worse than the physical pain was the emotional and spiritual pain." This led directly to her conversion to Christianity, which she credits with healing the psychological trauma of living over forty years being known to the world as "Napalm Girl". "My faith in Jesus Christ is what has enabled me to forgive those who had wronged me," she wrote, "no matter how severe those wrongs were."
See also
Execution of Nguyễn Văn Lém – Another iconic image from the Vietnam War
Thich Quang Duc – Vietnamese monk whose self-immolation was photographed
Censorship by Facebook § Image censorship – Facebook censored the picture of the running Kim Phúc
References
Further reading
.
External links
Kim Phuc Foundation
UNESCO: Kim Phúc Phan Thi
(including 2003 photo)
Archival Video: Napalm Girl Phan Thị Kim Phúc
Joe McNally (2010). "Phan Thị Kim Phúc, 1995 (photograph)". joemcnally.com.
1963 births
1972 in Vietnam
Children in war
Converts to Christianity
Living people
Members of the Order of Ontario
People from Ajax, Ontario
People from Tây Ninh Province
University of Havana alumni
Vietnam War casualties
Vietnamese evangelicals
Vietnamese defectors
Vietnamese emigrants to Canada
Vietnamese people of the Vietnam War
Canadian evangelicals
Naturalized citizens of Canada
Vietnam War photographs
People notable for being the subject of a specific photograph
Photographs of children in war
Black-and-white photographs
1972 works
1972 in art
UNESCO Goodwill Ambassadors
1970s photographs
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229552 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rond%C3%B4nia | Rondônia | Rondônia () is one of the 26 states of Brazil, located in the northern subdivision of the country (central-western part). To the west is a short border with the state of Acre, to the north is the state of Amazonas, in the east is Mato Grosso, and in the south and southwest is Bolivia. Rondônia has a population of 1,755,000 as of 2014. It is the fifth least populated state. Its capital and largest city is Porto Velho. The state was named after Cândido Rondon, who explored the north of the country during the 1910s. The state, which is home to 0.8% of the Brazilian population, is responsible for 0.6% of the Brazilian GDP.
Geography
Rondonia was originally home to over 200,000 km2 of rainforest, but has become one of the most deforested places in the Amazon. By 2003 around 70,000 km2 of rainforest had been cleared.
The area around the Guaporé River is part of the Beni savanna ecoregion.
The Samuel Dam is located in the state, on the Jamari River.
History
Demographics
According to the IBGE of 2008, there were 1,519,000 people residing in the state. The population density was 6.6 inhabitants/km2.
Urbanization: 66.8% (2004); Population growth: 2.2% (1991-2000); Houses: 430,747 (2005).
The last PNAD (National Research for Sample of Domiciles) census revealed the following numbers: 832,000 Brown (Multiracial) people (54.81%), 546,000 White people (35.95%), 115,000 Black people (7.56%), 16,000 Asian people (1.08%), 8,000 Amerindian people (0.53%).
Economy
The economy of the state of Rondônia has, as main activities, agriculture, livestock, food industry and vegetal and mineral extraction. In 2016, the state's GDP reached R$ 39.451 billion. Its export basket is mainly composed of frozen beef (43.43%), soy (32.77%), raw tin (7.08%), sawn wood (2.36%) and edible giblets (2.02%).
Beginning in the 1970s, the state attracted farmers from the south-central part of the country, stimulated by the federal government's colonization projects and the availability of cheap and fertile land. The development of agricultural activities has transformed the area into one of the main agricultural frontiers in the country and one of the most prosperous and productive regions in northern Brazil. The state stands out in the production of coffee (largest producer in the North and 5th largest in Brazil), cocoa (2nd largest producer in the North and 3rd largest in Brazil), beans (2nd largest producer in the North), maize (2nd largest producer in the North region), soybean (3rd largest producer in the North region), rice (3rd largest producer in the North region) and cassava (4th largest producer in the North region). Despite the large volume of production and the small territory by the region's standards (7 times smaller than Amazonas and 6 times smaller than Pará), Rondônia still has more than 60% of its territory fully preserved.
In coffee production, Rondônia was, in 2019, the 5th largest producer in the country, being the 2nd largest producer of Coffea canephora, getting a total of 2.3 million bags of 60 kg of coffee (near 138 thousand tons) this year.
In soy, in the 2019 Brazilian harvest, Rondônia harvested 1.2 million tons, 3rd in the North Region.
In 2019, the state produced 805 thousand tons of maize, second largest production in the northern region, losing only to Tocantins.
In cassava production, Brazil produced a total of 17.6 million tons in 2018. Rondônia was the 11th largest producer in the country, with 583 thousand tons.
In 2018, Rondônia produced 124 thousand tons of rice.
In the production of cocoa, Pará has been competing with Bahia for the leadership of Brazilian production. In 2019, Pará harvested 135 thousand tons of cocoa, and Bahians harvested 130 thousand tons. Rondônia is the 3rd largest cocoa producer in the country, with 18 thousand tons harvested in 2017.
In 2017, the state had a cattle herd of 14,098,031 head of cattle (73,37% for beef and the rest for dairy), second largest herd in the North, second only to Pará, being the 6th largest in the country, 5th in meat exports and 8th in milk production. The state's milk production in 2018 was around 800 million liters, the largest producer in the North.
In 2017, Rondônia had 0.62% of the national mineral participation (8th place in the country). Rondônia had production of tin (10,9 thousand tons at a value of R$ 333 million), gold (1 ton at a value of R$ 125 million), niobium (in the form of columbita-tantalita) (3.5 thousand tons at R$ 24 million), and zinc in gross form (26 thousand tons at R$ 27 million) In addition, in gemstones, the state has some production of garnet.
In industry, Rondônia had an industrial GDP of R$ 8.2 billion in 2017, equivalent to 0.7% of the national industry. It employs 49,944 workers in the industry. The main industrial sectors are: Industrial Services of Public Utility, such as Electricity and Water (54.4%), Construction (19.2%), Food (17.6%), Wood (1.8%) and Non-metallic minerals (1.2%). These 5 sectors concentrate 94.2% of the state's industry.
Indigenous peoples
there were 21 Indigenous Territories in Rondônia, with two more in process of being demarcated. The largest of these, the Uru-Eu-Wau-Wau Indigenous Territory, covers over 1.8 million hectares. Another, the Rio Omerê Indigenous Territory, is home to the Kanoê and Akuntsu people. Both tribes were the victims of massacres by cattle ranchers in the 1970s and 1980s and currently number just four and five individuals respectively.
Over 20 indigenous languages are spoken in Rondônia. Below is a list of indigenous languages spoken in the state:
Transport
Governador Jorge Teixeira de Oliveira International Airport is located in the state capital of Porto Velho.
References
External links
Official Website
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229553 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hooke%27s%20law | Hooke's law | Hooke's law is a law of physics that states that the force () needed to extend or compress a spring by some distance () scales linearly with respect to that distance—that is, where is a constant factor characteristic of the spring (i.e., its stiffness), and is small compared to the total possible deformation of the spring. The law is named after 17th-century British physicist Robert Hooke. He first stated the law in 1676 as a Latin anagram. He published the solution of his anagram in 1678 as: ut tensio, sic vis ("as the extension, so the force" or "the extension is proportional to the force"). Hooke states in the 1678 work that he was aware of the law since 1660.
Hooke's equation holds (to some extent) in many other situations where an elastic body is deformed, such as wind blowing on a tall building, and a musician plucking a string of a guitar. An elastic body or material for which this equation can be assumed is said to be linear-elastic or Hookean.
Hooke's law is only a first-order linear approximation to the real response of springs and other elastic bodies to applied forces. It must eventually fail once the forces exceed some limit, since no material can be compressed beyond a certain minimum size, or stretched beyond a maximum size, without some permanent deformation or change of state. Many materials will noticeably deviate from Hooke's law well before those elastic limits are reached.
On the other hand, Hooke's law is an accurate approximation for most solid bodies, as long as the forces and deformations are small enough. For this reason, Hooke's law is extensively used in all branches of science and engineering, and is the foundation of many disciplines such as seismology, molecular mechanics and acoustics. It is also the fundamental principle behind the spring scale, the manometer, the galvanometer, and the balance wheel of the mechanical clock.
The modern theory of elasticity generalizes Hooke's law to say that the strain (deformation) of an elastic object or material is proportional to the stress applied to it. However, since general stresses and strains may have multiple independent components, the "proportionality factor" may no longer be just a single real number, but rather a linear map (a tensor) that can be represented by a matrix of real numbers.
In this general form, Hooke's law makes it possible to deduce the relation between strain and stress for complex objects in terms of intrinsic properties of the materials it is made of. For example, one can deduce that a homogeneous rod with uniform cross section will behave like a simple spring when stretched, with a stiffness directly proportional to its cross-section area and inversely proportional to its length.
Formal definition
For linear springs
Consider a simple helical spring that has one end attached to some fixed object, while the free end is being pulled by a force whose magnitude is . Suppose that the spring has reached a state of equilibrium, where its length is not changing anymore. Let be the amount by which the free end of the spring was displaced from its "relaxed" position (when it is not being stretched). Hooke's law states that
or, equivalently,
where is a positive real number, characteristic of the spring. Moreover, the same formula holds when the spring is compressed, with and both negative in that case. According to this formula, the graph of the applied force as a function of the displacement will be a straight line passing through the origin, whose slope is .
Hooke's law for a spring is sometimes, but rarely, stated under the convention that is the restoring force exerted by the spring on whatever is pulling its free end. In that case, the equation becomes
since the direction of the restoring force is opposite to that of the displacement.
General "scalar" springs
Hooke's spring law usually applies to any elastic object, of arbitrary complexity, as long as both the deformation and the stress can be expressed by a single number that can be both positive and negative.
For example, when a block of rubber attached to two parallel plates is deformed by shearing, rather than stretching or compression, the shearing force and the sideways displacement of the plates obey Hooke's law (for small enough deformations).
Hooke's law also applies when a straight steel bar or concrete beam (like the one used in buildings), supported at both ends, is bent by a weight placed at some intermediate point. The displacement in this case is the deviation of the beam, measured in the transversal direction, relative to its unloaded shape.
The law also applies when a stretched steel wire is twisted by pulling on a lever attached to one end. In this case the stress can be taken as the force applied to the lever, and as the distance traveled by it along its circular path. Or, equivalently, one can let be the torque applied by the lever to the end of the wire, and be the angle by which that end turns. In either case is proportional to (although the constant is different in each case.)
Vector formulation
In the case of a helical spring that is stretched or compressed along its axis, the applied (or restoring) force and the resulting elongation or compression have the same direction (which is the direction of said axis). Therefore, if and are defined as vectors, Hooke's equation still holds and says that the force vector is the elongation vector multiplied by a fixed scalar.
General tensor form
Some elastic bodies will deform in one direction when subjected to a force with a different direction. One example is a horizontal wood beam with non-square rectangular cross section that is bent by a transverse load that is neither vertical nor horizontal. In such cases, the magnitude of the displacement will be proportional to the magnitude of the force , as long as the direction of the latter remains the same (and its value is not too large); so the scalar version of Hooke's law will hold. However, the force and displacement vectors will not be scalar multiples of each other, since they have different directions. Moreover, the ratio between their magnitudes will depend on the direction of the vector .
Yet, in such cases there is often a fixed linear relation between the force and deformation vectors, as long as they are small enough. Namely, there is a function from vectors to vectors, such that , and for any real numbers , and any displacement vectors , . Such a function is called a (second-order) tensor.
With respect to an arbitrary Cartesian coordinate system, the force and displacement vectors can be represented by 3 × 1 matrices of real numbers. Then the tensor connecting them can be represented by a 3 × 3 matrix of real coefficients, that, when multiplied by the displacement vector, gives the force vector:
That is,
for . Therefore, Hooke's law can be said to hold also when and are vectors with variable directions, except that the stiffness of the object is a tensor , rather than a single real number .
Hooke's law for continuous media
The stresses and strains of the material inside a continuous elastic material (such as a block of rubber, the wall of a boiler, or a steel bar) are connected by a linear relationship that is mathematically similar to Hooke's spring law, and is often referred to by that name.
However, the strain state in a solid medium around some point cannot be described by a single vector. The same parcel of material, no matter how small, can be compressed, stretched, and sheared at the same time, along different directions. Likewise, the stresses in that parcel can be at once pushing, pulling, and shearing.
In order to capture this complexity, the relevant state of the medium around a point must be represented by two-second-order tensors, the strain tensor (in lieu of the displacement ) and the stress tensor (replacing the restoring force ). The analogue of Hooke's spring law for continuous media is then
where is a fourth-order tensor (that is, a linear map between second-order tensors) usually called the stiffness tensor or elasticity tensor. One may also write it as
where the tensor , called the compliance tensor, represents the inverse of said linear map.
In a Cartesian coordinate system, the stress and strain tensors can be represented by 3 × 3 matrices
Being a linear mapping between the nine numbers and the nine numbers , the stiffness tensor is represented by a matrix of 3 × 3 × 3 × 3 = 81 real numbers . Hooke's law then says that
where .
All three tensors generally vary from point to point inside the medium, and may vary with time as well. The strain tensor merely specifies the displacement of the medium particles in the neighborhood of the point, while the stress tensor specifies the forces that neighboring parcels of the medium are exerting on each other. Therefore, they are independent of the composition and physical state of the material. The stiffness tensor , on the other hand, is a property of the material, and often depends on physical state variables such as temperature, pressure, and microstructure.
Due to the inherent symmetries of , , and , only 21 elastic coefficients of the latter are independent. This number can be further reduced by the symmetry of the material: 9 for an orthorhombic crystal, 5 for an hexagonal structure, and 3 for a cubic symmetry. For isotropic media (which have the same physical properties in any direction), can be reduced to only two independent numbers, the bulk modulus and the shear modulus , that quantify the material's resistance to changes in volume and to shearing deformations, respectively.
Analogous laws
Since Hooke's law is a simple proportionality between two quantities, its formulas and consequences are mathematically similar to those of many other physical laws, such as those describing the motion of fluids, or the polarization of a dielectric by an electric field.
In particular, the tensor equation relating elastic stresses to strains is entirely similar to the equation relating the viscous stress tensor and the strain rate tensor in flows of viscous fluids; although the former pertains to static stresses (related to amount of deformation) while the latter pertains to dynamical stresses (related to the rate of deformation).
Units of measurement
In SI units, displacements are measured in meters (m), and forces in newtons (N or kg·m/s2). Therefore, the spring constant , and each element of the tensor , is measured in newtons per meter (N/m), or kilograms per second squared (kg/s2).
For continuous media, each element of the stress tensor is a force divided by an area; it is therefore measured in units of pressure, namely pascals (Pa, or N/m2, or kg/(m·s2). The elements of the strain tensor are dimensionless (displacements divided by distances). Therefore, the entries of are also expressed in units of pressure.
General application to elastic materials
Objects that quickly regain their original shape after being deformed by a force, with the molecules or atoms of their material returning to the initial state of stable equilibrium, often obey Hooke's law.
Hooke's law only holds for some materials under certain loading conditions. Steel exhibits linear-elastic behavior in most engineering applications; Hooke's law is valid for it throughout its elastic range (i.e., for stresses below the yield strength). For some other materials, such as aluminium, Hooke's law is only valid for a portion of the elastic range. For these materials a proportional limit stress is defined, below which the errors associated with the linear approximation are negligible.
Rubber is generally regarded as a "non-Hookean" material because its elasticity is stress dependent and sensitive to temperature and loading rate.
Generalizations of Hooke's law for the case of large deformations is provided by models of neo-Hookean solids and Mooney–Rivlin solids.
Derived formulae
Tensional stress of a uniform bar
A rod of any elastic material may be viewed as a linear spring. The rod has length and cross-sectional area . Its tensile stress is linearly proportional to its fractional extension or strain by the modulus of elasticity :
.
The modulus of elasticity may often be considered constant. In turn,
(that is, the fractional change in length), and since
it follows that:
The change in length may be expressed as
Spring energy
The potential energy stored in a spring is given by
which comes from adding up the energy it takes to incrementally compress the spring. That is, the integral of force over displacement. Since the external force has the same general direction as the displacement, the potential energy of a spring is always non-negative.
This potential can be visualized as a parabola on the -plane such that . As the spring is stretched in the positive -direction, the potential energy increases parabolically (the same thing happens as the spring is compressed). Since the change in potential energy changes at a constant rate:
Note that the change in the change in is constant even when the displacement and acceleration are zero.
Relaxed force constants (generalized compliance constants)
Relaxed force constants (the inverse of generalized compliance constants) are uniquely defined for molecular systems, in contradistinction to the usual "rigid" force constants, and thus their use allows meaningful correlations to be made between force fields calculated for reactants, transition states, and products of a chemical reaction. Just as the potential energy can be written as a quadratic form in the internal coordinates, so it can also be written in terms of generalized forces. The resulting coefficients are termed compliance constants. A direct method exists for calculating the compliance constant for any internal coordinate of a molecule, without the need to do the normal mode analysis. The suitability of relaxed force constants (inverse compliance constants) as covalent bond strength descriptors was demonstrated as early as 1980. Recently, the suitability as non-covalent bond strength descriptors was demonstrated too.
Harmonic oscillator
A mass attached to the end of a spring is a classic example of a harmonic oscillator. By pulling slightly on the mass and then releasing it, the system will be set in sinusoidal oscillating motion about the equilibrium position. To the extent that the spring obeys Hooke's law, and that one can neglect friction and the mass of the spring, the amplitude of the oscillation will remain constant; and its frequency will be independent of its amplitude, determined only by the mass and the stiffness of the spring:
This phenomenon made possible the construction of accurate mechanical clocks and watches that could be carried on ships and people's pockets.
Rotation in gravity-free space
If the mass were attached to a spring with force constant and rotating in free space, the spring tension () would supply the required centripetal force ():
Since and , then:
Given that , this leads to the same frequency equation as above:
Linear elasticity theory for continuous media
Isotropic materials
Isotropic materials are characterized by properties which are independent of direction in space. Physical equations involving isotropic materials must therefore be independent of the coordinate system chosen to represent them. The strain tensor is a symmetric tensor. Since the trace of any tensor is independent of any coordinate system, the most complete coordinate-free decomposition of a symmetric tensor is to represent it as the sum of a constant tensor and a traceless symmetric tensor. Thus in index notation:
where is the Kronecker delta. In direct tensor notation:
where is the second-order identity tensor.
The first term on the right is the constant tensor, also known as the volumetric strain tensor, and the second term is the traceless symmetric tensor, also known as the deviatoric strain tensor or shear tensor.
The most general form of Hooke's law for isotropic materials may now be written as a linear combination of these two tensors:
where is the bulk modulus and is the shear modulus.
Using the relationships between the elastic moduli, these equations may also be expressed in various other ways. A common form of Hooke's law for isotropic materials, expressed in direct tensor notation, is
where and are the Lamé constants, is the second-rank identity tensor, and I is the symmetric part of the fourth-rank identity tensor. In index notation:
The inverse relationship is
Therefore, the compliance tensor in the relation s is
In terms of Young's modulus and Poisson's ratio, Hooke's law for isotropic materials can then be expressed as
This is the form in which the strain is expressed in terms of the stress tensor in engineering. The expression in expanded form is
where is Young's modulus and is Poisson's ratio. (See 3-D elasticity).
{| class="toccolours collapsible collapsed" width="60%" style="text-align:left"
!Derivation of Hooke's law in three dimensions
|-
|The three-dimensional form of Hooke's law can be derived using Poisson's ratio and the one-dimensional form of Hooke's law as follows.
Consider the strain and stress relation as a superposition of two effects: stretching in direction of the load (1) and shrinking (caused by the load) in perpendicular directions (2 and 3),
where is Poisson's ratio and is Young's modulus.
We get similar equations to the loads in directions 2 and 3,
and
Summing the three cases together () we get
or by adding and subtracting one
and further we get by solving
Calculating the sum
and substituting it to the equation solved for gives
where and are the Lamé parameters.
Similar treatment of directions 2 and 3 gives the Hooke's law in three dimensions.
|}
In matrix form, Hooke's law for isotropic materials can be written as
where is the engineering shear strain. The inverse relation may be written as
which can be simplified thanks to the Lamé constants :
In vector notation this becomes
where is the identity tensor.
Plane stress
Under plane stress conditions, . In that case Hooke's law takes the form
In vector notation this becomes
The inverse relation is usually written in the reduced form
Plane strain
Under plane strain conditions, . In this case Hooke's law takes the form
Anisotropic materials
The symmetry of the Cauchy stress tensor () and the generalized Hooke's laws () implies that . Similarly, the symmetry of the infinitesimal strain tensor implies that . These symmetries are called the minor symmetries of the stiffness tensor c. This reduces the number of elastic constants from 81 to 36.
If in addition, since the displacement gradient and the Cauchy stress are work conjugate, the stress–strain relation can be derived from a strain energy density functional (), then
The arbitrariness of the order of differentiation implies that . These are called the major symmetries of the stiffness tensor. This reduces the number of elastic constants from 36 to 21. The major and minor symmetries indicate that the stiffness tensor has only 21 independent components.
Matrix representation (stiffness tensor)
It is often useful to express the anisotropic form of Hooke's law in matrix notation, also called Voigt notation. To do this we take advantage of the symmetry of the stress and strain tensors and express them as six-dimensional vectors in an orthonormal coordinate system () as
Then the stiffness tensor (c) can be expressed as
and Hooke's law is written as
Similarly the compliance tensor (s) can be written as
Change of coordinate system
If a linear elastic material is rotated from a reference configuration to another, then the material is symmetric with respect to the rotation if the components of the stiffness tensor in the rotated configuration are related to the components in the reference configuration by the relation
where are the components of an orthogonal rotation matrix . The same relation also holds for inversions.
In matrix notation, if the transformed basis (rotated or inverted) is related to the reference basis by
then
In addition, if the material is symmetric with respect to the transformation then
Orthotropic materials
Orthotropic materials have three orthogonal planes of symmetry. If the basis vectors () are normals to the planes of symmetry then the coordinate transformation relations imply that
The inverse of this relation is commonly written as
where
is the Young's modulus along axis
is the shear modulus in direction on the plane whose normal is in direction
is the Poisson's ratio that corresponds to a contraction in direction when an extension is applied in direction .
Under plane stress conditions, , Hooke's law for an orthotropic material takes the form
The inverse relation is
The transposed form of the above stiffness matrix is also often used.
Transversely isotropic materials
A transversely isotropic material is symmetric with respect to a rotation about an axis of symmetry. For such a material, if is the axis of symmetry, Hooke's law can be expressed as
More frequently, the axis is taken to be the axis of symmetry and the inverse Hooke's law is written as
Universal elastic anisotropy index
To grasp the degree of anisotropy of any class, a universal elastic anisotropy index (AU) was formulated. It replaces the Zener ratio, which is suited for cubic crystals.
Thermodynamic basis
Linear deformations of elastic materials can be approximated as adiabatic. Under these conditions and for quasistatic processes the first law of thermodynamics for a deformed body can be expressed as
where is the increase in internal energy and is the work done by external forces. The work can be split into two terms
where is the work done by surface forces while is the work done by body forces. If is a variation of the displacement field in the body, then the two external work terms can be expressed as
where is the surface traction vector, is the body force vector, represents the body and represents its surface. Using the relation between the Cauchy stress and the surface traction, (where is the unit outward normal to ), we have
Converting the surface integral into a volume integral via the divergence theorem gives
Using the symmetry of the Cauchy stress and the identity
we have the following
From the definition of strain and from the equations of equilibrium we have
Hence we can write
and therefore the variation in the internal energy density is given by
An elastic material is defined as one in which the total internal energy is equal to the potential energy of the internal forces (also called the elastic strain energy). Therefore, the internal energy density is a function of the strains, and the variation of the internal energy can be expressed as
Since the variation of strain is arbitrary, the stress–strain relation of an elastic material is given by
For a linear elastic material, the quantity is a linear function of , and can therefore be expressed as
where c is a fourth-rank tensor of material constants, also called the stiffness tensor. We can see why c must be a fourth-rank tensor by noting that, for a linear elastic material,
In index notation
The right-hand side constant requires four indices and is a fourth-rank quantity. We can also see that this quantity must be a tensor because it is a linear transformation that takes the strain tensor to the stress tensor. We can also show that the constant obeys the tensor transformation rules for fourth-rank tensors.
See also
Acoustoelastic effect
Elastic potential energy
Laws of science
List of scientific laws named after people
Quadratic form
Series and parallel springs
Spring system
Simple harmonic motion of a mass on a spring
Sine wave
Solid mechanics
Spring pendulum
Notes
References
Walter Lewin explains Hooke's law. From
A test of Hooke's law. From
External links
JavaScript Applet demonstrating Springs and Hooke's law
JavaScript Applet demonstrating Spring Force
1660 in science
Springs (mechanical)
Elasticity (physics)
Solid mechanics
Structural analysis | [
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229555 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sergipe | Sergipe | Sergipe (), officially State of Sergipe, is a state of Brazil. Located in the Northeast Region along the Atlantic coast of the country, Sergipe is the smallest state in Brazil by geographical area at (8,459 sq mi), larger only than the Federal District. Sergipe borders Bahia to the south and west and Alagoas to the north. Aracaju is the capital and the largest city in the state. The state has 1.1% of the Brazilian population and produces only 0.6% of the Brazilian GDP.
Geography
As with most of the states in northeastern Brazil, inland Sergipe is almost entirely savanna (caatinga), and its coastline is characterized by mangroves, swamps and sandy beaches. A small strip of tropical rainforest runs down the coast.
The São Francisco River forms its northern boundary, and the drainage of the northern part of the state is northward and eastward to that river. The southern half of the state slopes eastward and is drained directly into the Atlantic through a number of small rivers, the largest of which are the Irapiranga (whose source in the state of Bahia is called Vaza Barris), the Real and the Cotinguiba. These streams are navigable for short distances, but are obstructed by sandbars at their mouths; because of these, there are no good ports on the coast. The surface of the state resembles, in part, that of Bahia, with a zone of forested lands near the coast and beyond this forested zone lies a higher zone of rough open country, called agreste. There is a sandy belt along the coast, and the western frontier is slightly mountainous. The land in between is very fertile, especially in the forested region where rainfall is abundant. Further inland, the year is divided into wet and dry seasons with occasional prolonged droughts. These are pastoral areas, and the lower fertile lands are cultivated.
The capital of the state is Aracaju (pop. 479 767 in 2003), on the lower course or estuary of the Cotinguiba River, near the coast. The sandbar at the entrance to this river is exceptionally dangerous, and the port is frequented only by coasting vessels of light draught. The city is found on a sandy plain, and there are sand dunes within the city limits. In 1911, the main public buildings included a large plain church with unfinished twin towers, the government palace, the legislative halls, a public school and public hospital.
The other principal towns are Estância - pop. 62,218 (in 2005) on the Rio Real river in the southern part of the state and a center for the manufacturing of cotton-based textiles, cigars, cigarettes and soap as well as an active trade center; Laranjeiras - pop. 26,452 (in 2005), located in a highly productive sugar-growing district north of the capital; Capela - pop. 27,403 (in 2005); Simão Dias - pop. 39,706 (in 2005); Lagarto - pop. 90,345 (in 2005); São Cristóvão, formerly Sergipe d'el-Rey - pop. 75,353 (in 2005), which was also the old colonial capital near the mouth of the Irapiranga; and Maruim - pop. 15,937 (in 2005).
See also List of municipalities in Sergipe (SE), Brazil.
History
São Cristóvão was the site of the first Portuguese settlement, in 1591, at Sergipe D'El-Rey, which is today Sergipe (the name Sergipe is actually a Tupi word, meaning "river of the crab"), and later became the state's capital for a while.
As with other states in the northeast, Sergipe was invaded numerous times by the Dutch, and frequently raided by French buccaneers. During the 17th century, the state was known throughout the Americas for its king-wood, a prized commodity that was the primary attraction during the buccaneer raids, and probably a factor in Dutch military expeditions. From 1641 to 1645, the territory belonged to Dutch-controlled Brazil (New Holland). The Dutch built a fort (the first one in the region) between the rivers São Francisco and Sergipe. In 1645, the Portuguese regained control. By the 18th century, the Portuguese military had driven off the pirates permanently.
In 1855, under the administration of provincial president Inácio Joaquim Barbosa, the capital was moved to Aracaju.
In the 1930s, Sergipe became notorious for its outlaws, including Virgolino Ferreira da Silva, better known as Lampião, the "King of Bandits", who terrorized the state for almost a decade until his beheading by the Brazilian police in 1938. His head was later displayed on a pole in a village square.
Demographics
According to the IBGE of 2008, there were 2,030,000 people residing in the state. The population density was 91.3 inhabitants/km2.
Urbanization: 82.2% (2006); Population growth: 2% (1991–2000); Houses: 569,000 (2006).
The last PNAD (National Research for Sample of Domiciles) census revealed the following numbers: 1,240,000 Brown (Multiracial) people (61.08%), 634,000 White people (31.21%), 146,000 Black people (7.22%), 6,000 Amerindian people (0.28%), 4,000 Asian people (0.21%).
Largest cities
Religion
According to the 2010 demographic census, of the total population of the state, there were 1 579 480 Catholics, 243 330 Protestants Evangelicals, 22 266 Spiritists, 14 755 Jehovah's Witnesses, 6 500 other Christian groups, 5 394 Brazilian Catholic Apostolic Church, 4 371 Umbanda and Candomblecist, 2,326 Mormons, 709 Eastern Orthodox Christians, 509 Buddhists, 501 Spiritualists, 493 Esoteric, 435 belonging to indigenous traditions, 433 new Eastern religious, 184 Jewish and 22 Islamic. There were still 177 620 people without religion, 5 005 with indeterminate (ill-defined) religion or multiple membership, 3 240 did not know and 405 did not declare.
Economy
The industrial sector is the largest component of GDP at 53.9%, followed by the service sector at 39.1%. Agriculture represents 7% of GDP (2004). Sergipe exports include: orange juice 66.1%, urea 20.8%, leather and footwear 4.6%, woven goods 2.3%, other types of juices 2% (2002).
Sergipe's share of the Brazilian economy: 0.7% (2004).
Sergipe's economy is focused around the production of sugarcane (more than 2 million tons produced in 2018, for the manufacture of sugar and ethanol), coconut (2nd largest producer in Brazil in 2017, with 234 million fruits), orange (6th largest producer in Brazil in 2018, with 354 thousand tons) and cassava (153 thousand tons produced in 2018). A small-scale leather and textile industry also exists.
Sergipe had in 2017 an industrial GDP of R$7 billion, equivalent to 0.6% of the national industry. It employs 67,231 workers in the industry. The main industrial sectors are: Construction (33.1%), Industrial Public Utility Services, such as Electricity and Water (29.0%), Food (9.9%), Non-metallic minerals (2.8%) and Chemicals (2.2%). These 5 sectors concentrate 77.0% of the state's industry.
The Brazilian federal government is also encouraging the development of a fledgling petroleum and natural gas industry.
Notable residents
Cleovansóstenes de Aguiar (1926–2018): doctor, politician, Mayor of Aracaju (1971-1975) and founder of Sergipe Academy of Medicine;
Albano do Prado Pimentel Franco (1940): entrepreneur, lawyer, politician, Governor (1995 - 2002), Senator (1983 - 1994) and Federal Deputy (2007 - 2010);
Carlos Ayres Britto (1942): judge, poet, President of Brazil's Supreme Court and of the National Justice Council (2012);
Jackson Barreto (1944): lawyer, politician, Vice-Governor (2011–present), Mayor of Aracaju (1986-88 / 1993-94) and Federal Deputy (2003 - 2011);
Otaviano Canuto (1956): Economist, Professor of Economics University of São Paulo USP.
Vladimir Souza Carvalho (1950–present): historian, judge, writer, Desembargador of the Regional Federal Court (5th Region)
Edvaldo Nogueira (1961): politician, Mayor of Aracaju (2006 - 2012)
Josué Modesto dos Passos Subrinho (1956): Economist, Professor of Economics Federal University of Sergipe
Sílvio Romero (1851–1914), literary critic and essayist;
Tobias Barreto (1839–1899), was a notorious Brazilian poet, philosopher, jurist and literary critic;
Clodoaldo Tavares de Santana (1949), ex-footballer who played for Brazil;
José Martins Ribeiro Nunes (Zé Peixe) (1927-2012), Legendary figure who drove the boats through the river by swimming;
Diego Costa (1988), footballer who played for Chelsea F.C.;
João Batista Nunes de Oliveira (1954), ex-footballer of Clube de Regatas Flamengo where won the Libertadores, Mundial of clubs at 1981 and many others championships.
Education
Portuguese is the official national language, and thus the primary language taught in schools, but English and Spanish are part of the official high school curriculum.
Educational institutions
Universidade Federal de Sergipe (UFS);
Instituto Federal de Educação, Ciência e Tecnologia (IFS);
Universidade Tiradentes (Unit);
Faculdade Pio Décimo (FPD);
Faculdade Estácio de Sergipe (ESTÁCIO);
Faculdade de Administração e Negócios de Sergipe (FANESE);
Faculdade Amadeus (FAMA);
Faculdade São Luis de França (FSLF);
Faculdade Sergipana (FASER);
Faculdade de Aracaju (FACAR);
Faculdade Serigy (UNIRB);
Faculdade Jardins (FAJAR);
Faculdade Maurício de Nassau (UNINASSAU);
Infrastructure
National Airport
Aracaju International Airport was inaugurated on October 30, 1952 with a runway only 1200 meters in length; the airport did not have an access road until 1958, so after construction of one operating efficiency increased. In 1961 the runway was extended to 1500 meters and a passenger terminal was built in 1962. In February 1975 control of the airport was handed over to Infraero.
Highways
BR-101 and BR-235.
Sports
The state has many professional association football teams, like Club Sportivo Sergipe, Associação Desportiva Confiança from the town of Aracaju and Associação Olímpica de Itabaiana from the town of Itabaiana. Lagarto Futebol Clube is another important club in Sergipe, it's from Lagarto, city where Diego Costa was born.
Tourism and recreation
São Cristóvão
São Cristóvão is the fourth oldest town in the country, and was Sergipe's state capital until 1855. It is located some from the current capital Aracaju.
As a planned urban settlement, the town contains churches and religious ensembles dating back to the colonial period. Most of these monuments are concentrated around the São Francisco Square.
In 1939, São Cristóvão was designated as a National Treasure by the Instituto do Patrimônio Histórico e Artístico Nacional — IPHAN (the Brazilian National Historical and Artistical Heritage Institute). More recently, in 2010, São Francisco Square in the Town of São Cristóvão became a UNESCO World Heritage Site.
Xingó Canyon
Includes fascinating landscape, rock formations, crystal-clear waters, ecological trails, Caatinga Theme Park, exuberant vegetation and diversified fauna and flora. The Xingó Canyon is located in Canindé do São Francisco, on the banks of the lengthy and well-known São Francisco river. It is the world's fifth most navigable river. The river is formed in a valley reaching up to 170 m deep, being 65 km long and at certain locations between 50 and 300 m wide. The water volume of the canyon is about 3.8 billion m3.
To navigate between the rocks of this gigantic cliff, embedded in the middle of Sergipe's Alto Sertão, is an unforgettable experience. There are imposing valleys forming a 50 m-high canyon, surrounding a lake that, in certain points, reaches a depth of 190 m. Nests of herons and river islands complete the spectacle. The rocks guard traces of the area's first inhabitants who lived there more than 8,000 years ago.
There is also evidence of Lampião's stay there, with his gang of outlaws in more modern times. The Angico trail, in Poço Redondo, leads to a cavern by the same name, where Lampião, Maria Bonita and nine other outlaws lost their lives. Located in the town of Canindé do São Francisco, from Aracaju, Xingó Canyon is one of the most famous rock formations in the area, embellishing the landscape of the dry Northeastern backwoods. It is hot all year round, but strong winds blowing from December to January keep temperatures at a very comfortable level. Between May and August, it rains frequently.
Sergipe Beaches
Sergipe has an extensive coastline where it is very attractive for tourists from Brazil and the world. The clear and greenish waters, with white sand attract attention. The capital Aracaju also stands out for Praia de Atalaia which is considered the beach with the best beach sidewalk in Brazil. Outside the capital, the coast of Sergipe is highly valued for its distinctive aspect: Praia do Saco (municipality of Estância), a beach located in the south of the state was considered one of the 100 best beaches in the world by the French magazine Les Voyageurs. In it the tourist is faced with sand dunes and an extensive coastal strip that has the peculiarity of Sergipe; Praia da Costa (Barra dos Coqueiros), the Delta of the São Francisco River (Brejo Grande), Praia de Pirambu (Pirambu), are other beaches that enhance the state's tourism.
The river beaches, such as the Croa do Goré sandbar and Ilha dos Namorados, which are tourist attractions reached by Catamaran on the Vaza Barris River in Aracaju, can also be highlighted.
Flag
The stars on the flag of Sergipe represent the number of river estuaries in the state, and the green and yellow stripes represent Sergipe's union with the rest of Brazil. It was designed by José Rodrigues Bastos Coelho, a businessman who felt that Brazilian ships should carry flags to identify their state of origin. It was officially adopted on October 19, 1920.
In 1937, dictator Getúlio Vargas abolished all state flags and symbols, but they were allowed again in 1946. In 1951, when the Sergipe legislature began to consider restoring the state flag, it decided to change the number of stars, so that there would be one for every municipality in the state. In 1952, this new design was scrapped and replaced by the original 5-star design.
References
External links
Official Website (Agência Sergipe de Notícias - Governo de Sergipe)
History of Colonial Sergipe
States of Brazil
1820s establishments in Brazil
States and territories established in 1820 | [
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229560 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pierre%20Loti | Pierre Loti | Pierre Loti (; pseudonym of Louis Marie-Julien Viaud ; 14 January 1850 – 10 June 1923) was a French naval officer and novelist, known for his exotic novels and short stories.
Biography
Born to a Protestant family, Loti's education began in his birthplace, Rochefort, Charente-Maritime. At age 17 he entered the naval school in Brest and studied at Le Borda. He gradually rose in his profession, attaining the rank of captain in 1906. In January 1910 he went on the reserve list. He was in the habit of claiming that he never read books, saying to the Académie française on the day of his introduction (7 April 1892), "Loti ne sait pas lire" ("Loti doesn't know how to read"), but testimony from friends proves otherwise, as does his library, much of which is preserved in his house in Rochefort. In 1876 fellow naval officers persuaded him to turn into a novel passages in his diary dealing with some curious experiences in Istanbul. The result was the anonymously published Aziyadé (1879), part romance, part autobiography, like the work of his admirer, Marcel Proust, after him.
Loti proceeded to the South Seas as part of his naval training, living in Papeete, Tahiti for two months in 1872, where he "went native". Several years later he published the Polynesian idyll originally titled Rarahu (1880), which was reprinted as Le Mariage de Loti, the first book to introduce him to the wider public. His narrator explains that the name Loti was bestowed on him by the natives, after his mispronunciation of "roti" (a red flower). The book inspired the 1883 opera Lakmé by Léo Delibes. Loti Bain, a shallow pool at the base of the Fautaua Falls, is named for Loti.
This was followed by Le Roman d'un spahi (1881), a record of the melancholy adventures of a soldier in Senegal. In 1882, Loti issued a collection of four shorter pieces, three stories and a travel piece, under the general title of Fleurs d'ennui (Flowers of Boredom).
In 1883 Loti achieved a wider public spotlight. First, he published the critically acclaimed Mon Frère Yves (My Brother Yves), a novel describing the life of a French naval officer (Pierre Loti), and a Breton sailor (Yves Kermadec, inspired by Loti companion Pierre le Cor), described by Edmund Gosse as "one of his most characteristic productions". Second, while serving in Tonkin (northern Vietnam) as a naval officer aboard the ironclad Atalante, Loti published three articles in the newspaper Le Figaro in September and October 1883 about atrocities that occurred during the Battle of Thuận An (20 August 1883), an attack by the French on the Vietnamese coastal defenses of Hue. He was threatened with suspension from the service for this indiscretion, thus gaining wider public notoriety. In 1884 his friend Émile Pouvillon dedicated his novel L'Innocent to Loti.
In 1886 Loti published a novel of life among the Breton fisherfolk, called Pêcheur d'Islande (An Iceland Fisherman), which Edmund Gosse characterized as "the most popular and finest of all his writings." It shows Loti adapting some of the Impressionist techniques of contemporary painters, especially Monet, to prose, and is a classic of French literature. In 1887 he brought out a volume "of extraordinary merit, which has not received the attention it deserves", Propos d'exil, a series of short studies of exotic places, in his characteristic semi-autobiographic style. Madame Chrysanthème, a novel of Japanese manners that is a precursor to Madama Butterfly and Miss Saigon (a combination of narrative and travelog) was published the same year.
In 1890 Loti published Au Maroc, the record of a journey to Fez in company with a French embassy, and Le Roman d'un enfant (The Story of a Child), a somewhat fictionalized recollection of Loti's childhood that would greatly influence Marcel Proust. A collection of "strangely confidential and sentimental reminiscences", called Le Livre de la pitié et de la mort (The Book of Pity and Death) was published in 1891.
Loti was aboard ship at the port of Algiers when news reached him of his election, on 21 May 1891, to the Académie française. In 1892 he published Fantôme d'orient, a short novel derived from a subsequent trip to Constantinople, less a continuation of Aziyadé than a commentary on it. He described a visit to the Holy Land in three volumes, The Desert, Jerusalem, and Galilee, (1895–1896), and wrote a novel, Ramuntcho (1897), a story of contraband runners in the Basque province. In 1898 he collected his later essays as Figures et Choses qui passaient (Passing Figures and Things).
In 1899 and 1900 Loti visited British India, with the view of describing what he saw; the result appeared in 1903 in L'Inde (sans les anglais) (India (without the English)). During the autumn of 1900 he went to China as part of the international expedition sent to combat the Boxer Rebellion. He described what he saw there after the siege of Peking in Les Derniers Jours de Pékin (The Last Days of Peking, 1902).
Loti's later publications include: La Troisième jeunesse de Mme Prune (The Third Youth of Mrs. Plum, 1905), which resulted from a return visit to Japan and once again hovers between narrative and travelog; Les Désenchantées (The Unawakened, 1906); La Mort de Philae (The Death of Philae, 1908), recounting a trip to Egypt; Judith Renaudin (produced at the Théâtre Antoine, 1898), a five-act historical play that Loti presented as based on an episode in his family history; and, in collaboration with Emile Vedel, a translation of William Shakespeare's King Lear, produced at the Théâtre Antoine in 1904. Les Désenchantées, which concerned women of the Turkish harem, was based like many of Loti's books, on fact. It has, however, become clear that Loti was in fact the victim of a hoax by three prosperous Turkish women.
In 1912 Loti mounted a production of The Daughter of Heaven, written several years earlier in collaboration with Judith Gautier for Sarah Bernhardt, at the Century Theatre in New York City.
He died in 1923 in Hendaye and was interred on the island of Oléron with a state funeral.
Loti was an inveterate collector and his marriage into wealth helped him support this habit. His house in Rochefort, a remarkable reworking of two adjacent bourgeois row houses, is preserved as a museum. One elaborately tiled room is an Orientalist fantasia of a mosque, including a small fountain and five ceremoniously draped coffins containing desiccated bodies. Another room evokes a medieval banqueting hall. Loti's own bedroom is rather like a monk's cell, but mixes Christian and Muslim religious artifacts. The courtyard described in The Story of a Child, with the fountain built for him by his older brother, is still there. There is also a museum in Istanbul named after him located on a hill where Loti used to spend his free time during his sojourn in Turkey.
Works
Contemporary critic Edmund Gosse gave the following assessment of his work:
Bibliography
Aziyadé (1879)
Le Mariage de Loti (originally titled Rarahu (1880)
Le Roman d'un spahi (1881)
Fleurs d'ennui (1882)
Mon Frère Yves (1883) (English translation My Brother Yves)
Les Trois Dames de la Kasbah (1884), which first appeared as part of Fleurs d'Ennui.
Pêcheur d'Islande (1886) (English translation An Iceland Fisherman)
Madame Chrysanthème (1887)
Propos d'Exil (1887)
Japoneries d'Automne (1889)
Au Maroc (1890)
Le Roman d'un enfant (1890)
Le Livre de la pitié et de la mort (1891)
Fantôme d'Orient (1892)
L'Exilée (1893)
Matelot (1893)
Le Désert (1895)
Jérusalem (1895)
La Galilée (1895)
Ramuntcho (1897)
Figures et choses qui passaient (1898)
Judith Renaudin (1898)
Reflets sur la sombre route (1899)
Les Derniers Jours de Pékin (1902)
L'Inde (sans les Anglais) (1903)
Vers Ispahan (1904)
La Troisième Jeunesse de Madame Prune (1905)
Les Désenchantées (1906)
La Mort de Philae (1909)
Le Château de la Belle au Bois dormant (1910)
Un Pèlerin d'Angkor (1912)
Turquie Agonisante (1913). An English translation, Turkey in Agony, was published in the same year.
La Hyène enragée (1916)
Quelques aspects du vertige Mondial (1917)
L'Horreur allemande (1918)
Les massacres d'Arménie (1918)
Prime Jeunesse (1919)
La Mort de notre chère France en Orient (1920)
Suprêmes Visions d'Orient (1921), written with the help of his son Samuel Viaud
Un Jeune Officier pauvre (1923, posthumous)
Lettres à Juliette Adam (1924, posthumous)
Journal intime (1878–1885), 2 vol (private diary, 1925–1929, posthumous)
Correspondence inédite (unpublished correspondence from 1865 to 1904, 1929, posthumous)
Filmography
Le Roman d'un spahi, directed by Henri Pouctal (1914, based on the novel Le Roman d'un spahi)
Pêcheur d'Islande, directed by Henri Pouctal (1915, short film, based on the novel Pêcheur d'Islande)
Ramuntcho, directed by Jacques de Baroncelli (1919, short film, based on the novel Ramuntcho)
, directed by Jacques de Baroncelli (1924, based on the novel Pêcheur d'Islande)
, directed by (1934, based on the novel Pêcheur d'Islande)
, directed by Michel Bernheim (1936, based on the novel Le Roman d'un spahi)
Ramuntcho, directed by René Barberis (1938, based on the novel Ramuntcho)
The Marriage of Ramuntcho, directed by Max de Vaucorbeil (1947, based on the novel Ramuntcho)
Ramuntcho, directed by Pierre Schoendoerffer (1959, based on the novel Ramuntcho)
, directed by Pierre Schoendoerffer (1959, based on the novel Pêcheur d'Islande)
References
Sources
Berrong, Richard M. (2013). Putting Monet and Rembrandt into Words: Pierre Loti's Recreation and Theorization of Claude Monet's Impressionism and Rembrandt's Landscapes in Literature. Chapel Hill: North Carolina Studies in Romance Language and Literature. vol 301.
Lesley Blanch (UK:1982, US:1983). Pierre Loti: Portrait of an Escapist. US: / UK: – paperback re-print as Pierre Loti: Travels with the Legendary Romantic (2004)
Edmund B. D'Auvergne (2002). Pierre Loti: The Romance of a Great Writer. Kessinger Publishing. (paper), (hardcover).
Ömer Koç, 'The Cruel Hoaxing of Pierre Loti' Cornucopia, Issue 3, 1992
External links
Official
Official site of Maison Pierre Loti, house museum in Rochefort, in French.
Sources
Commentary
René Doumic. Contemporary French Novelists. New York, Boston : T. Y. Crowell & company. 1899. Biography and critical summary of Loti. From Internet Archive.
Edmund Gosse. French Profiles. New York : Dodd, Mead and company. 1905. Collected reviews of Loti's works, by literary critic Edmund Gosse. From Internet Archive.
Albert Leon Guerard. Five Masters of French Romance: Anatole France, Pierre Loti, Paul Bourget, Maurice Barrès, Romain Rolland. London T. Fisher Unwin. 1916. Biography and literary survey of major works. From Internet Archive.
Frank Harris. Contemporary portraits. Second series. New York. 1919. Personal recollections of Loti. From Internet Archive.
Henry James, ed. Impressions. Westminster : A. Constable and Co. 1898. Introduction by Henry James about Loti's life and works. From Internet Archive.
Winifred (Stephens) Whale. French Novelists of To-day. London : John Lane; New York, John Lane company. 1908; see chapter "Pierre Loti", biography and literary survey. From Internet Archive.
Easter Island Foundation sells an English translation of Loti's account of his visit to Easter Island, along with those of Eugène Eyraud, Hippolyte Roussel and Alphonse Pinart, under the title Early Visitors to Easter Island 1864–1877.
Pierre Lotis' Madame Chrysanthème
1850 births
1923 deaths
People from Rochefort, Charente-Maritime
19th-century French novelists
20th-century French novelists
French travel writers
French Navy officers
École Navale alumni
Grand Croix of the Légion d'honneur
Members of the Académie Française
Lycée Henri-IV alumni
French male essayists
French male novelists
French male short story writers
19th-century French short story writers
19th-century French male writers
20th-century French short story writers
19th-century French essayists
20th-century French essayists
20th-century French male writers
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229562 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/First%20Servile%20War | First Servile War | The First Servile War of 135–132 BC was a slave rebellion against the Roman Republic, which took place in Sicily. The revolt started in 135 when Eunus, a slave from Syria who claimed to be a prophet, captured the city of Enna in the middle of the island with 400 fellow slaves. Soon after, Cleon, a Cilician slave, stormed the city of Agrigentum on the southern coast, slaughtered the population, then joined Eunus' army and became his military commander. Eunus even proclaimed himself king, under the name of Antiochus, after the Seleucid emperors of his native Syria.
The former slaves then moved to the eastern coast and took control of Catana and Tauromenium. Their exploit triggered several minor revolts in Italy and as far as Delos in the Aegean Sea. Eunus and Cleon were able to repel several Roman attempts to quell the rebellion until an army commanded by consul P. Rupilius arrived in Sicily in 134 and besieged the cities controlled by the slaves. The revolt ended in 132 with the fall of Enna and Tauromenium.
Origins
Following the final expulsion of the Carthaginians during the Second Punic War, there were great changes in land ownership in Sicily. Speculators from Italy rushed onto the island, buying up large tracts of land at low prices, or occupied estates which had belonged to Sicilians of the Carthaginian party. These were forfeited to Rome after the execution or flight of their owners.
The newly arrived Roman Sicilians exploited their slaves more brutally than their predecessors. According to Diodorus Siculus, politically influential slave-owners, often Roman equites, did not provide enough food and clothing for their slaves. The Roman conquest of Macedonia, in which thousands of the conquered were sold into slavery, the slave-dealing of the Cretan and Cilician pirates whose activity was practically unchecked at this time, as well as the oppression of corrupt Roman provincial governors, who were known to organize man-hunts after lower-class country provincials (to be sold as slaves)—all contributed to a constant supply of new slaves at very cheap price, which made it more profitable for their masters to wear them out by unremitting labor, harshness, exposure and malnutrition, to be cheaply replaced, than to take proper care for their nourishment, health, and accommodation. Accordingly, the plantation system which took shape in Sicily led to thousands of slaves dying every year of toil in the fields from dawn to dusk with chains around their legs, and being locked up in suffocating subterranean pits by night. For food, the slaves had to turn to banditry to survive. The Roman Senate failed to take measures to curb this dangerous tendency, which converted one of the most beautiful and fertile provinces of the Republic into a horrible den of misery, brigandage, atrocity and death.
Servile War
In 135 BC, the plantation slaves in Sicily finally rose in revolt, having as their head a certain Eunus of Syrian origin, who, as a conjurer and self-proclaimed prophet, had long foretold that he would be king. Recognizing his talents, his plantation master used to employ him as an entertainer at symposia, where he would perform sleight-of-hand magic tricks that included breathing fire. During the performance he kept up a patter—thought humorous by his listeners—saying that Sicilian society would experience a role-reversal, in which his aristocratic audience would be killed or enslaved, and he would become king. To those who gave him tips, Eunus promised that they would be spared once he came into his kingdom. During the revolt, he spared the lives of at least some of those individuals.
The spark which would end up starting the revolt came when a group of slaves, who were suffering under the severe cruelty of their owner Damophilus, sought out Eunus for advice on what to do about their situation. Declaring that his prophecy was now to be fulfilled, Eunus organized about 400 slaves into a band and stormed the prominent city of Enna located in the interior of the island and the home of Damophilus. The unprepared town was captured and savagely sacked by the insurgents, who executed every inhabitant but the iron-forgers, who were chained to their smithies and put to manufacturing arms for their captors. Damophilus was butchered after being insultingly paraded through the local theater, abjectly begging for his life while his wife was tortured to death by her servants. Their daughter, who had once attempted to alleviate the suffering of her family's slaves, was spared by the mob and given an honorable escort which was to deliver her to the Roman garrison at Catana.
After the capture of Enna, the revolt quickly spread. Achaeus, a Greek slave, was named commander-in-chief by Eunus, who simultaneously proclaimed himself king Antiochus, of Syria. A group of 5,000 slaves on the south side of the island under Cleon rose up and captured Agrigentum, after which they joined Eunus and his forces. The numbers of the slave army swelled rapidly from 10,000 to 70,000 by the lowest estimate (Livy and Orosius following him), or as many as 200,000 according to Diodorus Siculus, including men and women, possibly counting children as well.
The Praetor Lucius Hypsaeus marched with a body of Sicilian militia to quash the revolt but the slaves routed his army. They then defeated three other praetors in succession and occupied almost the whole island by the end of the year. In 134 the Roman Senate sent Flaccus, the consul for the year, to put an end to the revolt. However, his campaign, the details of which are few and obscure, seems to have ended without a conclusive result. A year later, in 133 the new consul Lucius Calpurnius Piso was given the same task as Flaccus but this time the effort actually gave results. He recaptured Messana and put 8,000 surrendered slaves to death before laying siege to the important town of Tauromenium on the north-east coast, although he was unable to take it. The revolt was finally snuffed out in its entirety the following year by Publius Rupilius. He also laid siege to Tauromenium and captured it with relative ease thanks to the help of traitors from within the slave army defending the town. All the prisoners taken when the town fell were first tortured and then thrown from a cliff. Next he marched on Enna, which had become the center of the entire revolt, where one of the slave leaders, Cleon, had taken refuge. Cleon in turn died of wounds sustained during a desperate sally out of the gates to try to break the Roman siege lines. Enna fell not long after, again helped by traitors inside the walls. The remnants of the slave army on the rest of the island were quickly stamped out, with around 20,000 prisoners being crucified by Rupilius in retribution.
As for Eunus, little is known about his actual participation in the war. Only his enemies left accounts of him, and they gave credit for his victories to his general Cleon. But Eunus must have been a man of considerable ability to have maintained his leadership position throughout the war and to have commanded the services of those said to have been his superiors. Eunus was captured after Tauromenium fell and was found hiding in a pit. He was taken to the city of Morgantina to await punishment, but he died of disease before he could be judged.
The war lasted from 135 until 132 BC. It was the first of three large-scale slave revolts against the Roman Republic; the last and the most famous was led by Spartacus.
References
18. Peter Green, "The First Sicilian Slave War", Past & Present, nr. 20 (1961): 10–29.
Sources
T. Corey Brennan, "The commanders in the First Sicilian Slave War", Rivista di Filologia e Istruzione Classica, 1993, n°121, pp. 153–184.
Oliver D. Hoover, Handbook of Coins of Sicily (including Lipara), Civic, Royal, Siculo-Punic, and Romano-Sicilian Issues, Sixth to First Centuries BC [The Handbook of Greek Coinage Series, Volume 2], Lancaster/London, Classical Numismatic Group, 2012.
E. S. G. Robinson, “Antiochus, King of the Slaves”, The Numismatic Chronicle and Journal of the Royal Numismatic Society, vol. 20, 1920, pp. 175–176.
Mommsen, Theodor, The History of Rome, Collins & Saunders edition, Meridin Books, 1958.
Arnold, History of Rome, Vol. III. pp. 317–318, London edition.
Shaw, Brent (2001). Spartacus and the Slave Wars: a brief history with documents. pp. 79–106.(at google books)
David Engels, Ein syrisches Sizilien? Seleukidische Aspekte des Ersten Sizilischen Sklavenkriegs und der Herrschaft des Eunus-Antiochos, in: Polifemo 11, 2011, p. 233–251.
.01
Servile War 01
130s BC conflicts
Servile War 01
Servile War 01
Roman Republican civil wars | [
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229565 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Niter%C3%B3i | Niterói | Niterói (, ) is a municipality of the state of Rio de Janeiro in the southeast region of Brazil. It lies across Guanabara Bay facing the city of Rio de Janeiro and forms part of the Rio de Janeiro Metropolitan Area. It was the state capital, as marked by its golden mural crown, from 1834 to 1894 and again from 1903 to 1975. It has an estimated population of 515,317 inhabitants (2020) and an area of , making it the fifth most populous city in the state. It has the highest Human Development Index of the state and the seventh highest among Brazil's municipalities in 2010. Individually, it is the second municipality with the highest average monthly household income per capita in Brazil and appears in 13th place among the municipalities of the country according to social indicators related to education. The city has the nicknames of Nikiti, Nicki City and the Smile City (Cidade Sorriso).
Studies by the Getulio Vargas Foundation in June 2011 classified Niterói as the richest city of Brazil, with 55.7% of the population included in class A. Considering the classes A and B, Niterói also appears in the first place, with 85.9% of the population in these classes. According to data from the 2010 IBGE, Niterói's nominal gross domestic product was 11.2 billion reais, being the fifth municipality with the highest gross domestic product of the state. The city is the second largest formal employer in the State of Rio de Janeiro, although it occupies the 5th place in terms of the number of inhabitants. The city is one of the main financial, commercial and industrial centers of the State of Rio de Janeiro, being the 12th among the 100 best Brazilian cities to do business.
Niterói was founded on 22 November 1573 by the Tupi Amerindian chief Araribóia, who later was forcibly converted to Roman Catholicism and given the Christian name of Martim Afonso, after the Portuguese explorer Martim Afonso de Sousa, making it the only Brazilian city to have been founded by a non-Christian, non-assimilated Brazilian Amerindian.
The municipality contains part of the Serra da Tiririca State Park, created in 1991.
Toponym
The word "Niterói" comes from Tupi and means "water that hides". Originally spelled Nictheroy or "Nitheroy"), it was the indigenous name of the port of the city of Rio de Janeiro around 1554. In 1834, the old indigenous toponym "Niterói" was adopted, until then called "Vila Real da Praia Grande", when it became the capital of the province of Rio de Janeiro. There are several explanations for the meaning of the term in Tupi:
"Water that hides";
"winding port";
"True cold river", by the junction of the terms Y (river), Eté (True) and ro'y (cold).
History
France Antarctique
In the year 1555, French navigator Nicolas Durand de Villegaignon allied himself with the Tupinambas Indians who dominated the Guanabara Bay and instituted a French colony in the region, France Antarctique. The region was avoided by the Portuguese because of the hostility of the Tupinamba. The region developed under the command of Villegaignon, who planned to build a city in the region. After a while, Calvinists who had immigrated from France to the colony returned to France, where they accused Villegaignon of prejudice against Protestants and of maladministration. The French navigator had to return to France to explain himself.
Following the absence of the French leader, the Portuguese crown began noticing that the bay of Rio de Janeiro would make a strategic scale for the Atlantic route of ships from Portugal to its colonies in Africa and Asia, as well an important advanced bridgehead for the defense of South Brazil. Fortresses were built and an alliance was formed with nearby native Tupi-Guaraní tribes to defend the settlement against other European invaders. Then, in 1560, the Portuguese leader Mem de Sá attacked and destroyed the French fort that was located in Guanabara Bay, Coligny Fort, without, however, being able to definitively expel the French from the region. Estácio de Sá, Mem de Sá's nephew, who would continue to command the war, enlisted the help of the head of the Temiminos Indians, Araribóia, who accepted the governor's request to help the Portuguese expel the French from the Guanabara Bay, in the hope to regain the mother island.
With the end of the war in 1567, Estácio de Sá invoked Arariboia and the Temininós Indians to occupy the right side of the entrance to the Guanabara Bay, opposite the city of São Sebastião do Rio de Janeiro founded by Estácio in 1565, as previously requested by Araribóia a tract of land. Thus, the entrance to the bay would be fully protected from intrusion. The place to be occupied by Arariboia was known as "Banda D'Além" (the land beyond), in the eastern side of the bay, from River Marui to the Red Barriers between Gragoata and Boa Viagem beaches. This area corresponded to what is nowadays the northwestern part of the municipality of Niterói, which includes the central and northern zones of its urban area. There, in the "Land Beyond", Araribóia founded the Town of Saint Lawrence of the Indians (in Portuguese, Vila de São Lourenço dos Índios), the embryo for the future city of Niterói, a Tupi name that means "Hidden Waters".
Imperial era
The village was visited by the King of Brazil, John VI, in 1816, who also decreed its emancipation from Rio de Janeiro on 10 May 1819 and gave the new-created municipality a new name, Vila Real da Praia Grande (Royal Town of Great Beach).
In 1834, the city of Rio de Janeiro, capital of the newly established Empire of Brazil, was detached from the rest of Rio de Janeiro Province; Vila Real da Praia Grande was then chosen as the new capital of that province, while the city of Rio de Janeiro itself was converted into a neutral municipality, following the Ato Adicional. Niterói served the function of capital till the year of 1975 – except for the period between 1894 and 1903 when it was temporarily transferred to the city of Petrópolis.
Vila Real da Praia Grande was officially renamed Nictheroy (Tupi for "hidden waters") on 6 March 1835. This old spelling persisted until the mid-20th century, when the current spelling–Niterói–was adopted. The capital condition has brought a number of urban developments such as the steam boat, public lighting to whale oil, water supply and new means of transport to connect the city to the interior of the province. Nine years later, the Emperor Pedro II granted the city of Niterói the title of Imperial City. The appointment was given to the most important cities, giving them some autonomy and regional power.
At the end of the 19th century, around 1885, some tram systems were founded, which allowed the expansion of the city to Icaraí, Ponta d'Areia and Itaipu districts.
Republican era
In 1890, the Brazilian provinces began being called states and the neutral municipality (Rio de Janeiro city) had its status changed to Federal District (or simply DF, the Brazilian acronym for Distrito Federal).
The monarchist navy revolt in 1893 damaged productive activities and forced the transfer of the capital's headquarters to Petrópolis. In 1903, Niterói returned to be the capital of the state of Rio de Janeiro. This brought about a new impulse to modernize the city with the construction of squares, decks, parks, waterway station and sewage network, as well as widening of the streets and main avenues.
A circus fire in the city killed 323 people on 17 December 1961; the fire was later found to have been deliberately set by disgruntled circus employees. It is one of the worst tragedies in Brazilian history and the most fatal in the annals of world circus show history.
Following the transference of Brazil's capital to Brasília in 1960, the city of Rio de Janeiro became a city-state named Guanabara. This state was merged with Rio de Janeiro State in 1975; since then, Niterói lost its condition of the state's capital in favor of the city of Rio de Janeiro.
On 8 April 2010; the mudslide triggered due to heavy rainfall cost at least 200 lives. At least 11,000 people were forced to flee homes due to further mudslides.
Geography
Niterói has an area of 129,375 square kilometers located between the Guanabara Bay (west), the Atlantic Ocean (south), Maricá (east) and São Gonçalo (north).
There are a number of beaches in the area, including Praia de Fora and Praia do Imbuí, with their historical values; Piratininga Beach, Camboinhas Beach, Itaipu Beach and Itacoatiara Beach, the most visited; Praia do Sossego, Praia Adam and Eve and Prainha. It has two saltwater lagoons: Piratininga and Itaipu. The first is linked to the second by means of the Camboatá Canal, opened by the National Department of Sanitation Works in 1946. The Itaipu Lagoon, in turn, connects to the sea through the Itaipu Canal, which was built in 1979
The relief consists of crystalline terrains, divided into massifs and coastal hills. The massifs predominate in the south and form the mountains of Malheiro, Calaboca and Tiririca, where is the Stone of the Elephant, the highest point of the municipality, 412m high.
The coastal plains are composed of sediments, obviously located near the sea. The most extensive area covers the entire area of Piratininga and Itaipu lagoons.
Climate
Niterói has a tropical climate, specifically a tropical monsoon climate, with warm to hot temperatures year round as well as relatively frequent rainfall.
Politics
In Niterói, executive power is represented by the mayor and cabinet of secretaries, in accordance with the model proposed by the Federal Constitution. The Organic Law of the Municipality and the current Master Plan, however, prescribe that the public administration should give the population effective tools to exercise participatory democracy. Thus, the city is divided into regional secretariats (although it has already been divided into regional administrations), each headed by a secretary appointed by the mayor.
The legislative power is constituted to the Municipality of Niterói (CMN), composed of 21 elected councilors for mandates of four years (in compliance with the provisions of Article 29 of the Federal Constitution, which governs a minimum and maximum number for municipalities according to with number of inhabitants). It is up to the house to draft and vote fundamental laws to the administration and to the Executive, especially the participative budget (Budgetary Guidelines Law).
The current mayor of Niterói is Axel Grael of the Democratic Labour Party, who was elected in 2020 amidst the ongoing coronavirus pandemic in Brazil; he was ex-mayor Rodrigo Neves's deputy for the 2012-2016 term and Secretary of Planning during the 2017-2020 term.
Economy
Niteroi is one most important financial and commercial centers in Rio de Janeiro State, like a modern city, with modern buildings and several shopping malls. Its economy is centered on its trading and commerce services, like real-estate corporations, graphic design, web design and publicity.
It also hosts industries of food (especially seafood), clothes, candles, and marine objects.
The city is located 25 minutes away from Rio de Janeiro's downtown region. Niterói boasts the title of fourth richest city in the state, and the third in Rio de Janeiro City Metropolitan Area.
The Niterói Contemporary Art Museum, the city's main landmark, was designed by the famous Brazilian modernist architect Oscar Niemeyer. The landscape of the central urban area of the city is dominated by the Niterói Tower, a tall cylindrical office building belonging to the Niterói Shopping Mall.
Growth
By the time of its emancipation, the urban area of Niteroi corresponded to its central zone and São Domingos only. The south zone – Icarai, Santa Rosa, Vital Brazil – began to be urbanized in 1841, when the Santa Rosa farm was divided into estates, while Jurujuba evolved from an old fishermen colony. São Francisco and Charitas, sites named after the Catholic Church built in honor to Saint Francis by the Jurujuba cove, remained sparsely populated till about 1940. As for the northern zone of Niteroi, its urbanization began in the late 19th century, when a tramway was inaugurated, allowing the expansion of the city to north and northeast, as well boosting the urban growth of the neighbouring municipality of São Gonçalo.
The realm of Itaipu – a former vast zone of farming lands and forests east of Niteroi – was annexed to the municipality in 1943. It has lost its countryside traits and its urban population has grown fast since the late 1960s.
In the early 20th century, Niteroi started its industrialization boom.
Demographics
Niteroi is distant from Rio de Janeiro City, to which it is linked by the Rio-Niterói bridge and two ferry-boat services. According to the 2010 Brazilian Census, the city has a population of 487,320 people, making it the fifth most populous city in the state of Rio de Janeiro and the 39th most populous in the country. At the 2010 Census, the population of Niterói grew 9.3% from 2000 to 2010, meaning Niterói had the lowest city population growth in the state of Rio de Janeiro in this period.
The quality of life of the municipality of Niteroi is considered one of the best (third place) among 5,600 other Brazilian municipalities, according to UN indexes (2000 est.).
The population in Niteroi in 2010 was 487,327, down from the 698,582 in 1950, but with an increase compared to 2000, of 9%. According to the Census in 2010, whites were 73.6%, multiracial 19.1%, black 4%. Non-Brazilians of any race were 1% of population, down from the 36% in 1950. Niterói is a town with a high quality of life and a centre of agglomerate made up by rich families. In 2010, "Class A" people were 32% (the highest index in Brazil, while 14.8% were in the poverty line, less than cities like Detroit, Miami, Cleveland and Philadelphia. Homes in the "Ghetto type" were 27% (Favelas 6%), less than Rio de Janeiro (37.5% "Ghetto type" with 11% made up Favelas).
Religion
In the city of Niterói there are several manifest religious doctrines. According to the 2010 census, of the total population of Niterói, there were 258,391 Roman Catholic (53%), 97,759 evangelicals (35%) and 34,484 Spiritists (11%).
According to the division of the Catholic Church in Brazil, Niterói belongs to the Regional Episcopal Council East I of the National Conference of Bishops of Brazil, and the archiepiscopal seat is in the city of Niterói. The Archdiocese of Niterói comprises 14 municipalities of the region of the capital and the interior of the State of Rio de Janeiro, forming in total 73 parishes and 1 quasi-parish divided into 6 vicariates. There is also the Jewish community integrated to the Israeli Federation of Rio de Janeiro, it also has the most different Protestant creeds, as well as the practice of Buddhism, messianism, Afro-Brazilian religions and others.
Education
Niteroi is the seat of the Fluminense Federal University, one of the most important research centers in Brazil. It does have other colleges such as ISE La Salle and Cândido Mendes University.
Catholic schools, mainly La Salle Institute and São Vicente de Paulo, are the most traditional elementary and high schools of the city. Other important schools are PH, Marília Matoso, Pedro II, Gay Lussac, Instituto Abel, Colégio Nossa Senhora Das Mercês, the Salesian High School, ETE – Henrique Lage (a.k.a. Faetec), Oswaldo Cruz Institute and Escola Canadense de Niterói.
Niterói has the highest Human Development Index (HDI) and best level of literacy in the State of Rio de Janeiro.
Transportation
Bus
The urban bus service is the only means of public transportation in the city of Niterói. There are just under fifty active lines, all operated by private companies. Most municipal bus lines have an end point in the center of Niterói (at the João Goulart Bus Terminal), or they pass through the center of Niterói.
Ferry
The sea crossing between Niterói and the city of Rio de Janeiro is made by two routes, both having as destination the Praça XV Station. The stations, in Niterói, are located in Araribóia Square, in the Center and in the Charitas neighborhood. The crossing between Praça Araribóia and Praça 15 de Novembro is done by large boats, with capacity for up to 2,000 passengers, in a journey that lasts about twenty minutes.
Since 2006, the boats have been gradually replaced by large catamarans with a lower capacity (up to 1,200 passengers), but with a shorter crossing time of between 12 and 15 minutes. The crossing between the station of Charitas and that of the Praça 15 de Novembro× is done by small catamarans, being this service considered selective transport.
Train
There was a railway extension for passenger transportation, 33 km long, connecting Niterói to the municipality of Itaboraí, passing through São Gonçalo. Until its deactivation in 2007 the extension was operated by the state-owned company Central. In the end, there were only two daily trips, one in each direction, using an obsolete train of the 1950s. The line is now deactivated and in several sections, the tracks have been removed by the municipalities of São Gonçalo and Niterói. Since in the future there is the proposal to use the bed of this branch for the implementation of part of the projected Line 3 of the Rio Metro between Niterói and Itaboraí.
Culture
Niterói is one of the largest historical and cultural centers in Brazil. Its culture is characterized by fishing villages (Jurujuba), forts, museums and futuristic monuments, such as the Museum of Contemporary Art, the symbol of the municipality, built by the modernist architect Oscar Niemeyer and the Popular Theater of Niterói. The social culture is based on a very hospitable population, which resulted in the nickname of Niterói: "city-smile".
The architecture of Niterói is characterized by a contrast between the past and the present. Historic buildings, such as the Niterói State Library, the Justice Palace, the Niterói Post Office Building, the Municipal Theater of Niterói, the Cantareira Station, the Ingá Palace, the Solar do Jambeiro and the Niterói City Hall stand side by side to the side with works of futuristic bond, like, for example, the Museum of Contemporary Art, Square Juscelino Kubitschek. the Popular Theater of Niterói and the rest of the Niemeyer Way. Also known to have the best scout group in Brazil, the 4th GEMAR-Gaviões do Mar.
The Catholic churches also express a lot of niteroiense culture. The São Lourenço dos Índios Church, the foundation of the municipality, the Church of São Sebastião de Itaipu, Nossa Senhora da Boa Viagem, the Church of Saint Peter the Fisherman, the Cathedral of Saint John the Baptist and the Basilica of Our Lady Help of Christians embellish the streets with their baroque, classic and colonial architectures.
Sports
In the sport, besides being hometown of stars like Leonardo, Edmundo and Gérson, the city is also homeland of the Canto do Rio Foot-Ball Club, founded in 1913 and that was the only club outside the city of Rio de Janeiro to participate in Carioca Championship in the 1940s. The club also had its anthem composed by Lamartine Babo, composer of the anthems for the eleven participants of the Rio de Janeiro championship of 1941 due to a radio campaign. The city is not represented in the elite of national football and 1964.
Other football clubs in the city are the Fonseca Athletic Club, which recently announced its return to professional football and Rio Cricket and Athletic Association, which participated in the first championship in Rio, becoming third and having the championship set in its stadium. Rio Cricket also participated in the (possibly) first rivalry of Rio de Janeiro's football, with Paissandu Atlético Clube, a club in the city of Rio de Janeiro, which was founded by Rio Cricket founders and has a Rio de Janeiro football title.
The city also has the Caio Martins Stadium, located in the Santa Rosa neighborhood and has for years been the home of Canto do Rio and more recently Botafogo in the 2000s. In 2007, the stadium's gymnasium was the stage of the final of the Feminine Superleague of Volleyball, that finished with victory of the team of Rio de Janeiro. Nowadays, the stadium is used for training of Botafogo and in games marked by the FFERJ. Mostly, in championships of inferior divisions.
Administrative divisions
From 1943 to the late 1970s, the county of Niteroi comprised two districts only: the district of Niteroi (original area) and the district of Itaipu (acquired in 1943), which barely had an urban continuity or even proper road links to each other and were considered apart areas. The fractioning of Itaipu's farms into real estates as well its boom after the building of the Rio-Niterói's bridge demanded a better integration between the two sides of the county which led to the improving of the roads and urban facilities and a reformation on the make up of Niteroi's administrative division. The county was reorganised into five districts. In the early 1990s, the administrative division of Niterói was altered once again, being the county now divided into twelve administrative, further subdivided into 48 neighborhoods:
Barreto: Barreto, Ilha da Conceição, Santana
Centro: Bairro de Fátima, Centro, Ponta d´Areia, São Lourenço
Engenhoca: Engenhoca, Tenente Jardim
Fonseca: Fonseca
Icaraí: Icaraí, Vital Brazil
Ingá: Boa Viagem, Gragoatá, Ingá, Morro do Estado, São Domingos
Pendotiba: Badu, Cantagalo, Ititioca, Largo da Batalha, Maceió, Maria Paula, Matapaca, Sapê
Praias Oceânicas: Cafubá, Camboinhas, Engenho do Mato, Itacoatiara, Itaipu, Jacaré, Piratininga
Santa Bárbara: Baldeador, Caramujo, Maria Paula, Santa Bárbara
Santa Rosa: Cubango, Pé Pequeno, Santa Rosa, Viçoso Jardim, Viradouro
São Francisco: Cachoeiras, Charitas, Jurujuba, São Francisco
Rio do Ouro: Muriqui, Rio do Ouro, Várzea das Moças, Vila Progresso
Notable people
Patricia Acioli – judge
Alex Rodrigo Dias da Costa – footballer
André Marques – TV show host, entertainer
Arthur Maia – musician (bass player)
Bruno Beltrão – choreographer
Baby Consuelo – singer
Benjamin Constant – politician
Bonde Das Maravilhas – funk carioca dancers
Daniel Lins Cortês – footballer
Edmundo – footballer
Fernanda Keller – triathlete, iron-man winner
Gérson – footballer
Leonardo – Paris Saint-Germain F.C. Manager.
Leila Diniz – actress
Marcello Antony – actor
Marcelo Ferreira – athlete (sailing), Olympic medallist
Marcia Haydée – Ballerina, choreographer and ballet director
Matheus Fernandes – singer
Murilo Benício – actor
Perla Haney-Jardine – actress
Raica Oliveira – model
Ricardo Arona – fighter
Sérgio Mendes – musician, songwriter
Torben Grael, Lars Grael and Martine Grael – athletes (sailing), Olympic medallists
Paulo Gustavo – actor
Jô Bilac – Playwright
Rafael dos Anjos – MMA fighter, former UFC lightweight champion
Gallery
References
External links
History of the city of Niterói
Niterói Tourism Official Web Site
A guide to the city of Niterói
Satellite picture by Google Maps
Niterói on WikiMapia
Gymnastic formation squadron of Niteroi, Nov. 2009
Amo Niterói
Parque da Cidade - Paragliding take off ramp.
Municipalities in Rio de Janeiro (state)
Guanabara Bay
Populated coastal places in Rio de Janeiro (state)
Populated places established in 1573
1573 establishments in Brazil
1573 establishments in the Portuguese Empire | [
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229575 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Michel%20Ney | Michel Ney | Michel Ney (), 1st Duke of Elchingen, 1st Prince of the Moskva (10 January 1769 – 7 December 1815), popularly known as Marshal Ney, was a French military commander and Marshal of the Empire who fought in the French Revolutionary Wars and the Napoleonic Wars. He was one of the original 18 Marshals of the Empire created by Napoleon I. He was known as Le Rougeaud (red-faced or ruddy) by his men and Napoleon characterized him as le Brave des Braves (the Bravest of the Brave), a real paladin in the field, a braggart without judgment and decision in the workroom and after all is said, a Don Quixote.
Early life
Ney was born in the town of Sarrelouis, in the French province of the Three Bishoprics, along the French–German border. He was the second son of Pierre Ney (1738–1826), a master cooper and veteran of the Seven Years' War, and his wife Marguerite Greiveldinger. He was the paternal grandson of Matthias Ney (1700–1780) and wife Margarethe Becker (d. 1767), and the maternal grandson of Valentin and wife Margaretha Ding.
His hometown at the time of his birth comprised a French enclave in the predominantly German region of Saarland, and Ney grew up bilingual, due to his German roots. He was educated at the Collège des Augustins in Sarrelouis until 1782, when he began working as a clerk in a local notary's office, and in 1784 was employed in mines and forges.
Military career
French Revolutionary Wars
Life as a civil servant did not suit Ney, and he enlisted in the Colonel-General Hussar Regiment in 1787. Under the Bourbon monarchy, entry to the officer corps of the French Army was restricted to those with four quarterings of nobility (i.e., two generations of aristocratic birth). However, Ney rapidly rose through the non-commissioned officer ranks.
Following the French Revolution, Ney continued to serve in what was now the French Revolutionary Army, in the Army of the North. In September 1792 he saw action at the Battle of Valmy and in October was commissioned as an officer under the Republic. As an officer he participated in the Battle of Neerwinden in 1793 and was wounded at the Siege of Mainz, also in 1793. in June 1794, he was transferred to Army of Sambre-et-Meuse.
Ney was promoted to brigadier general in August 1796, and commanded cavalry on the German fronts. On 17 April 1797, during the Battle of Neuwied, Ney led a cavalry charge against Austrian lancers trying to seize French cannons. The lancers were beaten back, but Ney’s cavalry were counter-attacked by heavy cavalry. During the mêlée, Ney was thrown from his horse and captured in the vicinity of the municipality of Dierdorf; on 8 May he was exchanged for an Austrian general. Following the capture of Mannheim, Ney was promoted to géneral de division on 28 March 1799. Later in 1799, Ney commanded cavalry in the armies of Switzerland and the Danube. At Winterthur, Ney received wounds in the thigh and wrist. After recovering he fought at Hohenlinden under General Jean Victor Marie Moreau in December 1800. From September 1802, Ney commanded French troops in Switzerland and performed diplomatic duties.
Napoleonic Wars
On 19 May 1804, Ney received his marshal's baton, emblematic of his status as a Marshal of the Empire, the Napoleonic era's equivalent of Marshal of France. In the 1805 campaign, Ney took command of the VI Corps of the Grande Armée and was praised for his conduct at Elchingen. In November 1805, Ney invaded Tyrol, capturing Innsbruck from Archduke John. In the 1806 campaign, Ney fought at Jena and then occupied Erfurt. Later in the campaign, Ney successfully besieged Magdeburg. In the 1807 campaign, Ney arrived with reinforcements in time to save Napoleon from defeat at Eylau, although the battle ended in a draw. Later in the campaign, Ney fought at Güttstadt and commanded the right wing at Friedland. On 6June 1808, Ney was made Duke of Elchingen. In August 1808, he was sent to Spain in command of the VI Corps and saw action in a number of minor engagements. In 1809, he skirmished with an Anglo-Portuguese force under Sir Robert Wilson at Puerto de Baños. In 1810, Ney joined Marshal André Masséna in the invasion of Portugal, where he captured Ciudad Rodrigo and Almeida, and saw further action on the River Côa, and at Bussaco. During the retreat from the Torres Vedras, Ney engaged Wellington's forces in a series of rearguard actions (Pombal, Redinha, Casal Novo, and Foz de Arouce) through which he managed to delay the pursuing Coalition forces long enough to allow the main French force to retreat intact. He was ultimately removed from his command for insubordination.
Russia to Fontainebleau
Ney was given command of the III Corps of the Grande Armée during the invasion of Russia in 1812. At Smolensk, Ney was wounded in the neck but recovered enough to later fight in the central sector at Borodino. During the retreat from Moscow, Ney commanded the rearguard (and was accidentally known as "the last Frenchman on Russian soil" because of it). After being cut off from the main army during the Battle of Krasnoi, Ney managed to escape in a heavy fog over the Dnieper River, but not without heavy losses, and to rejoin it in Orsha, which delighted Napoleon. For this action Ney was given the nickname "the bravest of the brave" by the emperor. Ney fought at the Berezina and helped hold the vital bridge at Kovno (modern-day Kaunas), where legend portrays Ney as the last of the invaders to cross the bridge and exit Russia. On 25 March 1813, Ney was given the title of Prince of the Moskva. During the 1813 campaign, Ney fought at Weissenfels, was wounded at Lützen, and commanded the left wing at Bautzen. Ney later fought at Dennewitz and Leipzig, where he was again wounded. In the 1814 campaign in France, Ney fought various battles and commanded various units. At Fontainebleau, Ney became the spokesperson for the marshals' revolt on 4 April 1814, demanding Napoleon's abdication. Ney informed Napoleon that the army would not march on Paris; Napoleon responded, "the army will obey me!" to which Ney answered, "the army will obey its chiefs".
When Paris fell and the Bourbons reclaimed the throne, Ney, who had pressured Napoleon to accept his first abdication and exile, was promoted, lauded, and made a Peer of France by the newly enthroned King Louis XVIII. Although Ney had pledged his allegiance to the restored monarchy, the Bourbon court looked down on him because he was a commoner by birth.
Hundred Days
When he heard of Napoleon's return to France, Ney, determined to keep France at peace and to show his loyalty to Louis XVIII, organized a force to stop Napoleon's march on Paris. Ney also pledged to bring Napoleon back alive in an iron cage. Napoleon, aware of Ney's plans, sent him a letter which said, in part, "I shall receive you as I did after the Battle of the Moskowa." Despite Ney’s promise to the king, he joined Napoleon at Auxerre on 18 March 1815.
On 15 June 1815, Napoleon appointed Ney as commander of the left wing of the Army of the North. On 16 June, Napoleon's forces split up into two wings to fight two separate battles simultaneously. Ney attacked the Duke of Wellington at Quatre Bras (and received criticism for attacking slowly) while Napoleon attacked Marshal Blücher's Prussians at Ligny. Although Ney was criticized for not capturing Quatre Bras early, there is still debate as to what time Napoleon actually ordered Ney to capture the town. At Ligny, Napoleon ordered General Jean-Baptiste d'Erlon to move his corps (on Napoleon's left and Ney's right at the time) to the Prussians' rear in order to cut off their line of retreat. D'Erlon began to move into position, but suddenly stopped and began moving away, much to the surprise and horror of Napoleon. The reason for the sudden change in movement is that Ney had ordered d'Erlon to come to his aid at Quatre Bras. Without d'Erlon's corps blocking the Prussians' line of retreat, the French victory at Ligny was not complete, and the Prussians were not routed.
At Waterloo on 18 June, Ney again commanded the left wing of the army. At around 3:30 p.m., Ney ordered a mass cavalry charge against the Anglo-Allied lines. Ney's cavalry overran the enemy cannons but found the infantry formed in cavalry-proof square formations. Ney, without infantry or artillery support, failed to break the squares. The action earned Ney criticism, and some argue that it led to Napoleon's defeat at Waterloo. Debate continues as to the responsibility for the cavalry charge and why it went unsupported. Ney's cavalry also failed to spike the enemy cannons (driving iron spikes into the firing holes) while they were under French control (during the cavalry attack, the crews of the cannon retreated into the squares for protection, and then re-manned their pieces as the cavalry withdrew). Ney's cavalry carried the equipment needed to spike cannons, and spiking the cannons would probably have made them useless for the rest of the battle. The loss of a large number of cannon would have weakened the army and could have caused the Anglo-Allied Army to withdraw from the battle. Ney was seen during one of the charges beating his sword against the side of a British cannon in furious frustration. During the battle, he had five horses killed under him, and at the end of the day, Ney led one of the last infantry charges, shouting to his men: "Come and see how a marshal of France meets his death!" It was as though Ney was seeking death, but death did not want him, as many observers reported.
Execution
When Napoleon was defeated, dethroned, and exiled for the second time in the summer of 1815, Ney was arrested on 3 August 1815. After a court-martial decided in November that it did not have jurisdiction, he was tried on 4 December 1815 for treason by the Chamber of Peers. In order to save Ney's life, his lawyer André Dupin declared that Ney was now Prussian and could not be judged by a French court for treason as Ney's hometown of Sarrelouis had been annexed by Prussia according to the Treaty of Paris of 1815. Ney ruined his lawyer's effort by interrupting him and stating: "Je suis Français et je resterai Français!" (I am French and I will remain French!). When the Peers were called to give their verdict, a hundred and thirty-seven voted for the death penalty, seventeen for deportation, and five abstained. Only a single vote, that of the Duc de Broglie, was for acquittal. On 6 December 1815, Ney was condemned, and on 7 December 1815 he was executed by firing squad in Paris near the Luxembourg Gardens. He refused to wear a blindfold and was allowed the right to give the order to fire, reportedly saying:
Ney's execution deeply divided the French public. It was an example intended for Napoleon's other marshals and generals, many of whom were eventually exonerated by the Bourbon monarchy. Ney was buried in Paris at Père Lachaise Cemetery.
Alleged survival
Records in Charleston, South Carolina, indicate the arrival of a "Peter Stewart Ney" the year following Ney's execution. Ney's father was named Peter, and his mother's maiden name was Stewart. "Peter Ney" served as a school teacher in Rowan County, North Carolina until his death on 15 November 1846. Supposedly, upon hearing of the death of Napoleon in 1821, "Peter Ney" slashed his own throat with a knife, nearly killing himself. Upon his death, his last words were "I am Ney of France". His body was exhumed twice, in 1887 and 1936, but both times no conclusive proof emerged.
However, there is evidence contradicting this legend, the main being that the execution of Ney is well documented and verified. One researcher also claims evidence exists that Peter Stewart Ney was one Peter McNee, born in 1788 in Stirlingshire, Scotland.
Family
Ney married Aglaé Louise (Paris, 24 March 1782 – Paris, 1 July 1854), daughter of Pierre César Auguié (1738–1815) and Adélaïde Henriette Genet (1758–1794, sister of Henriette Campan and Citizen Genêt), at Thiverval-Grignon on 5 August 1802. they had four sons:
Joseph Napoléon, 2nd Prince de la Moskowa (Paris, 8 May 1803 – Saint-Germain-en-Laye, 25 July 1857). He married Albine Laffitte (Paris, 12 May 1805 – Paris, 18 July 1881) in Paris on 26 January 1828. Albine was the daughter of Jacques Laffitte, Governor of the Bank of France. They had two children, whose male blood line ended.
Joseph also had an illegitimate son who was married and died childless.
Michel Louis Félix, recognized as 2nd Duc d'Elchingen in 1826 (born 24 August 1804 in Paris – died 14 July 1854 at Gallipoli, during the Crimean War). He married Marie-Joséphine (Lubersac (20 December 1801 – Versailles, 1 July 1889), daughter of Joseph Souham, in Paris on 19 January 1833.
Eugène Michel (Paris, 12 July 1806 – Paris, 25 October 1845). He died unmarried.
Edgar Napoléon Henry, recognized as 3rd Prince de la Moskowa 1857 (Paris, 12 April 1812 – Paris, 4 October 1882). He married Clotilde de La Rochelambert (Saint-Cloud, 29 July 1829 – Paris, 1884) in Paris on 16 January 1869. Their marriage was childless and the title of Prince de la Moskowa then reverted to Michel's descendants.
In literature
Ney is a character in Leo Tolstoy's epic novel War and Peace. See List of War and Peace characters.
Ney is mentioned and/or appears in several of Sir Arthur Conan Doyle's Brigadier Gerard stories, including Brigadier Gerard at Waterloo (1903).
Ney's patriotism, his intelligence, and his courage during the Battle of Waterloo was extensively mentioned and praised by Victor Hugo in his novel Les Misérables.
Ney appears as a minor character in two volumes of Bernard Cornwell's Richard Sharpe series, Sharpe's Siege and Sharpe's Revenge
In film and television
Ney has been portrayed by (among others):
Carl de Vogt in the 1929 film Waterloo.
Aleksandr Stepanov in the 1944 Russian film Kutuzov.
Dan O'Herlihy in the 1970 film Waterloo.
John Baker in the 1972 British series War and Peace.
Colin Bean in the episode "A Soldier's Farewell" of the British sitcom Dad's Army.
Alain Doutey in the miniseries Napoléon.
Jordi Martínez in the episode "El ministerio del tiempo" of the Spanish television series El ministerio del tiempo.
John Burton in the 1938 film Bravest of the Brave.
See also
, a British warship named after Ney
Notes
References
Further reading
Dawson, Paul L. Marshal Ney at Quatre Bras: New Perspectives on the Opening Battle of the Waterloo Campaign (Pen and Sword, 2017).
1769 births
1815 deaths
People from Saarlouis
Dukes of Elchingen
Princes de la Moskowa
French people of German descent
Members of the Chamber of Peers of the Bourbon Restoration
Marshals of the First French Empire
Commanders in the French Imperial Guard
Cavalry commanders
Grand Croix of the Légion d'honneur
Grand Crosses of the Order of Christ (Portugal)
Names inscribed under the Arc de Triomphe
People executed by the Bourbon dynasty of the Kingdom of France
People executed for treason against France
People executed by France by firing squad
Executed French people
Executed military leaders
Executed people from Saarland
Burials at Père Lachaise Cemetery | [
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229582 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/La%20Haye%20Sainte | La Haye Sainte | La Haye Sainte (named either after Jesus Christ's crown of thorns or a bramble hedge round a field nearby) is a walled farmhouse compound at the foot of an escarpment on the Charleroi-Brussels road in Belgium. It has changed very little since it played a crucial part in the Battle of Waterloo on 18 June 1815.
La Haye Sainte was defended by about 400 German troops during the Battle of Waterloo. They were hopelessly outnumbered by attacking French troops but held out until the late afternoon when they retired because their ammunition had run out. If Napoleon Bonaparte's army had captured La Haye Sainte earlier in the day, almost certainly he would have broken through the allied centre and defeated the Duke of Wellington's army.
The capture of La Haye Sainte in the early evening then gave the French the advantage of a defensible position from which to launch a potentially decisive attack on the Allied centre. However Napoleon was too late - by this time Blücher and the Prussian army had arrived on the battlefield and the outnumbered French army was defeated.
Strategic importance
The road leads from La Belle Alliance, where Napoleon had his headquarters on the morning of the battle, through where the centre of the French front line was located, to a crossroads on the ridge which is at the top of the escarpment and then on to Brussels. The Duke of Wellington placed the majority of his forces on either side of the Brussels road behind the ridge on the Brussels side. This kept most of his forces out of sight of the French artillery.
During the night from the 17th to the 18th, the main door to the courtyard of the farm was used as firewood by the occupying troops. Therefore, when the King's German Legion (KGL) was stationed in the farm at the morning of the battle they had to hastily fortify La Haye Sainte.
The troops were the 2nd Light Battalion KGL commanded by Major Georg Baring, and part of the 1st Light Battalion KGL. During the battle, they were supported by the 1/2 Nassau Regiment and the light company of the 5th Line Battalion KGL. The majority of these troops were armed with the Baker rifle with grooved barrels, as opposed to the normal Brown Bess musket of the British Army. The French troops also used muskets which were quicker to load than the Baker rifle but the latter was more accurate and had about twice the range of a musket.
Both Napoleon and Wellington made crucial mistakes about La Haye Sainte as it was fought over and around during most of the day. Napoleon failed to allocate enough forces to take the farm earlier in the day while Wellington only realized the strategic value of the position when it was almost too late.
French attacks
At 13:00, the French Grand Battery of heavy artillery opened fire before d'Erlon's Corps (54th and 55th Ligne) marched forward in columns. The French managed to surround La Haye Sainte and despite taking heavy casualties from the garrison, they attacked the centre left of Wellington's line. As the centre began to give way and La Haye Sainte became vulnerable, Picton's division was sent to plug the gap. As the French were beaten back from La Haye Sainte, the heavy cavalry brigades under Somerset and Ponsonby attacked. This action relieved the pressure on the fortress farm.
At 15:00, Napoleon ordered Marshal Ney to capture La Haye Sainte. While Ney was engaged in the glorious but futile 8,000-man cavalry attack, unsupported by infantry or cannon, on Allied squares on the Brussels side of the ridge, he failed to take La Haye Sainte.
At 17:30, Napoleon re-issued orders for Ney to take La Haye Sainte. The French had worked up close to the buildings by this time.
French capture and final assault
At 18:00 Marshal Ney, heavily supported by artillery and some cavalry, took personal command of an infantry regiment (13th Legere) and a company of engineers and captured La Haye Sainte with a furious assault. "The light battalion of the German Legion, which occupied it, had expended all its ammunition" and had to retreat.
Allied forces were unable to counterattack immediately as they were in squares over the ridge. The French brought up guns to fire from its cover. Riflemen of the 1/95 in the "sand pit" to the east of the farm picked off all the gunners, so the guns were ineffective.
At 19:00, thanks to the French garrison in La Haye Sainte, the Imperial Guard was able to climb the escarpment and attack the Allies on the Brussels side of the ridge. This final attack was beaten back and became a rout around 20:10 as the French forces realised that with the arrival of the Prussians from the east, they were beaten. During the French retreat, La Haye Sainte was recaptured by the Allies, some time before 21:00, when Blücher met Wellington at La Belle Alliance.
Modern La Haye Sainte
Today, La Haye Sainte is privately owned as a family home. On the walls are memorials to the KGL and the French. Opposite the house is a monument for the officers and the soldiers of the KGL.
See also
List of Waterloo Battlefield locations
Notes
References
Further reading
Houses in Belgium
King's German Legion
Buildings and structures in Walloon Brabant
Waterloo Battlefield locations | [
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229583 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Amapa | Amapa | Amapa may refer to:
Amapá, one of the states of Brazil
Amapá (municipality), a municipality in that Brazilian state
Amapa, Nayarit, a town in the Mexican state of Nayarit
Amapa morada, common name for the tree Handroanthus impetiginosus, in the family Bignoniaceae, which ranges from northern Mexico to Argentina
Amapa, common name for the tree Parahancornia fasciculata, in the family Apocynaceae, from the Amazon rainforest | [
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229590 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Leicester%20Square%20tube%20station | Leicester Square tube station | Leicester Square is a London Underground station in Theatreland and Chinatown, in the West End of London. It is located on Charing Cross Road, a short distance to the east of Leicester Square itself.
The station is on the Charing Cross branch of the Northern line between Charing Cross and Tottenham Court Road, and the Piccadilly line, between Piccadilly Circus and Covent Garden. It is in Travelcard Zone 1.
History
On early Tube plans, the station was listed as Cranbourn Street, but the present name was used by the Great Northern, Piccadilly and Brompton Railway when the station opened on 15 December 1906.
Like other stations on the original sections of the Piccadilly and Northern lines, the station was originally constructed with lifts providing access to the platforms. The increase in passenger numbers in the 1920s as the Northern line was extended north (to Edgware) and south (to Morden) and the expected further increase from the 1930s extensions of the Piccadilly line led to the reconstruction of the station below ground in the early 1930s. New station entrances were constructed to a new sub-surface ticket hall. As with the similar sub-surface ticket hall previously built at Piccadilly Circus, this was excavated partially under the roadway. From there banks of escalators were provided down to both sets of platforms. The redundant lifts were removed but the lift shaft remains in use as a ventilation shaft hidden behind a small door on the first landing of the Cranbourn Street entrance stairs. The redeveloped station opened in 1935.
The escalators down to the Piccadilly line (the longest in the world when opened in 1935) were the longest on the entire Underground network, being 54 m (177 ft) in length, until the rebuilding and reopening of Angel in 1992, which overtook Leicester Square with its 60 m (197 ft) escalators.
Offices above the red terracotta station building on the east side of Charing Cross Road were once occupied by the Northern line management staff but now have other functions in addition to the Northern line management, with Piccadilly line management and support functions on the first floor including a training centre. The building, known as Transad House, was occupied in its early years by the publishers of the Wisden Cricketers' Almanack and an image of cricket stumps appears above a doorway.
On all four platforms, film sprockets are painted down the entire length and on the top and bottom of the display area (blue on the Piccadilly line platforms, and black on the Northern line platforms), in reference to the four premiere cinemas in Leicester Square.
Connections
London Buses routes 24, 29 and 176 and night routes N5, N20, N29 and N279 serve the station
See also
Leslie Green – architect of original station building
Charles Holden – (1875–1960) architect of new ticket hall and entrances
References
External links
Northern line stations
Piccadilly line stations
Tube stations in the City of Westminster
Former Great Northern, Piccadilly and Brompton Railway stations
Railway stations in Great Britain opened in 1906
Former Charing Cross, Euston and Hampstead Railway stations
Railway stations in Great Britain opened in 1907
Charles Holden railway stations
Leicester Square
Leslie Green railway stations
Charing Cross Road
London Underground Night Tube stations
Railway stations located underground in the United Kingdom
1906 establishments in England | [
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229592 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cajeme | Cajeme | Cajeme is one of the 72 municipalities of the northwestern state of Sonora, Mexico. It is named after Cajemé, a Yaqui leader. The municipality has an area of 3,312.05 km2 (1,278.79 sq mi) and with a population of 433,050 inhabitants as of 2015.
History
Yaqui tribes settled in the region at approximately 1100 and in 1533 had the first contact with the Spanish conquistadors, when Diego de Guzmán arrived at the Yaqui region. The Yaquis defeated the Spanish army. In the 17th century Jesuit missionaries visited the zone to evangelize the Yaqui natives in 1617. In 1619, one of the missionaries, Martín Burgencio founded the villa of Buenavista and later the villa of Cumuripa. In 1715 El Realito was founded, which is located in the northern region of the current municipio). In the 19th century agriculture developed at the villas of Cumuripa, Buenavista and Cócorit.
Buenavista was the site for the military base of San Carlos de Buenavista during the Spanish colony. It was considered the capital of the Villa de Salvación since 1820 and in the second half of the 19th century it was considered part of the Guaymas district, as well as part of the Yaqui pueblos.
The first inhabitants of Ciudad Obregón established at the Plano Oriente neighborhood when irrigation systems by the Richardson company started functioning in 1910. The train Sudpacífico established a station they called Cajeme. Cajeme then was a part of the municipio of Cócorit until it became the capital of the municipio on November 29, 1927. On July 28, 1928, Ciudad Obregón was declared as name for the town previously known as Cajeme and that it would become the capital of the municipio of Cajeme. Previously Cócorit had been dependent on the district of Buenavista during the independent period. According to a law from 1828 for the indigenous governments it was established as a capital of one of their government divisions. On December 26, 1930 it was annexed to the Cajeme municipality.
Important towns
Ciudad Obregón
Cócorit
Esperanza
Marte R. Gómez (Tobarito)
Providencia
Pueblo Yaqui
Government
Municipal presidents
See also
Municipalities of Sonora
Cajemé- Yaqui Leader, born 1837, died 1887.
References
Sources
Link to tables of population data from Census of 2005 INEGI: Instituto Nacional de Estadística, Geografía e Informática
Sonora Enciclopedia de los Municipios de México
External links
Sitio Oficial de Cajeme Official website
History of Cajeme at the site of the tourism office of the state of Sonora.
History of Cajeme at the official site of the municipio.
Noticias, fotos, videos, clasificados, empresas y eventos en Ciudad Obregón
OCV Ciudad Obregón Official Convention and Visitors Bureau]
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229593 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The%20Sound%20and%20the%20Fury | The Sound and the Fury | The Sound and the Fury is a novel by the American author William Faulkner. It employs several narrative styles, including stream of consciousness. Published in 1929, The Sound and the Fury was Faulkner's fourth novel, and was not immediately successful. In 1931, however, when Faulkner's sixth novel, Sanctuary, was published—a sensationalist story, which Faulkner later said was written only for money—The Sound and the Fury also became commercially successful, and Faulkner began to receive critical attention.
In 1998, the Modern Library ranked The Sound and the Fury sixth on its list of the 100 best English-language novels of the 20th century.
Overview
The Sound and the Fury is set in Jefferson, Mississippi, in the first third of the 20th century. The novel centers on the Compson family, former Southern aristocrats who are struggling to deal with the dissolution of their family and its reputation. Over the course of the 30 years or so related in the novel, the family falls into financial ruin, loses its religious faith and the respect of the town of Jefferson, and many of them die tragically.
The novel is separated into four narratives. The first, reflecting events occurring and consequent thoughts and memories on April 7, 1928, is written in the voice and from the perspective of Benjamin "Benjy" Compson, an intellectually disabled 33-year-old man. Benjy's section is characterized by a disjointed narrative style with frequent chronological leaps.
The second section, taking place on June 2, 1910, focuses on Quentin Compson, Benjy's older brother, and the events leading up to Quentin's suicide. This section is written in the stream-of-consciousness style and also contains frequent chronological leaps.
In the third section, set a day before the first on April 6, 1928, Faulkner writes from the point of view of Jason, Quentin's cynical younger brother.
In the fourth section, set a day after the first on April 8, 1928, Faulkner introduces a third-person omniscient point of view. This last section primarily focuses on Dilsey, one of the Compsons' black servants, and her relations with Jason and "Miss" Quentin Compson (daughter of Quentin's sister Caddy), as Dilsey contemplates the thoughts and deeds of everyone in the Compson family.
In 1945, Faulkner wrote a "Compson Appendix" to be included with future printings of The Sound and the Fury. It contains a 30-page history of the Compson family from 1699 to 1945.
Plot
Part 1: April 7, 1928
The first section of the novel is narrated by Benjamin "Benjy" Compson, a source of shame to the family due to his diminished mental capacity; the only characters who show genuine care for him are Caddy, his older sister, and Dilsey, a matronly servant. His narrative voice is characterized predominantly by its nonlinearity: spanning the period 1898–1928, Benjy's narrative is a series of non-chronological events presented in a stream of consciousness. The presence of italics in Benjy's section indicates significant shifts in the narrative. Originally Faulkner conceived the use of different colors of ink to signify chronological breaks. This nonlinearity makes the style of this section particularly challenging, but Benjy's style develops a cadence that, while not chronologically coherent, provides unbiased insight into many characters' true motivations. Moreover, Benjy's caretaker changes to indicate the time period: Luster in the present, T.P. in Benjy's teenage years, and Versh during Benjy's infancy and childhood.
In this section we see Benjy's three passions: fire, the golf course on land that used to belong to the Compson family, and his sister Caddy. But by 1928 Caddy has been banished from the Compson home after her husband divorced her because her child was not his, and the family has had to sell pasture to a local golf club to finance Quentin's Harvard education. In the opening scene, Benjy, accompanied by Luster, a servant boy, watches golfers on the nearby golf course as he waits to hear them call "caddie"—the name of his favorite sibling. When one of them calls for his golf caddie, Benjy's mind embarks on a whirlwind course of memories of his sister, Caddy, focusing on one critical scene. In 1898 when their grandmother died, the four Compson children were forced to play outside during the funeral. In order to see what was going on inside, Caddy climbed a tree in the yard, and while looking inside, her brothers—Quentin, Jason and Benjy—looked up and noticed that her underwear was muddy. This is Benjy's first memory, and he associates Caddy with trees throughout the rest of his arc, often saying that she smells like trees. Other crucial memories in this section are Benjy's change of name (from Maury, after his uncle) in 1900 upon the discovery of his disability; the marriage and divorce of Caddy (1910), and Benjy's castration, resulting from an attack on a girl that is alluded to briefly within this chapter when a gate is left unlatched and Benjy is out unsupervised.
Part 2: June 2, 1910
Quentin, the most intelligent of the Compson children, gives the novel's best example of Faulkner's narrative technique. We see him as a freshman at Harvard, wandering the streets of Cambridge, contemplating death, and remembering his family's estrangement from his sister Caddy. Like the first section, its narrative is not strictly linear, though the two interweaving threads, of Quentin at Harvard on the one hand, and of his memories on the other, are clearly discernible.
Quentin's main obsession is Caddy's virginity and purity. He is obsessed with Southern ideals of chivalry and is strongly protective of women, especially his sister. When Caddy engages in sexual promiscuity, Quentin is horrified. He turns to his father for help and counsel, but the pragmatic Mr. Compson tells him that virginity is invented by men and should not be taken seriously. He also tells Quentin that time will heal all. Quentin spends much of his time trying to prove his father wrong, but is unable to do so. Shortly before Quentin leaves for Harvard in the fall of 1909, Caddy becomes pregnant by a lover she is unable to identify, perhaps Dalton Ames, whom Quentin confronts. The two fight, with Quentin losing disgracefully and Caddy vowing, for Quentin's sake, never to speak to Dalton again. Quentin tells his father that they have committed incest, but his father knows that he is lying: "and he did you try to make her do it and i i was afraid to i was afraid she might and then it wouldn't do any good" (112). Quentin's idea of incest is shaped by the idea that, if they "could just have done something so dreadful that they would have fled hell except us" (51), he could protect his sister by joining her in whatever punishment she might have to endure. In his mind, he feels a need to take responsibility for Caddy's sin.
Pregnant and alone, Caddy then marries Herbert Head, whom Quentin finds repulsive, but Caddy is resolute: she must marry before the birth of her child. Herbert finds out that the child is not his, and sends Caddy and her new daughter away in shame. Quentin's wanderings through Harvard (as he cuts classes) follow the pattern of his heartbreak over losing Caddy.
For instance, he meets a small Italian immigrant girl who speaks no English. Significantly, he calls her "sister" and spends much of the day trying to communicate with her, and to care for her by finding her home, to no avail. He thinks sadly of the downfall and squalor of the South after the American Civil War. Tormented by his conflicting thoughts and emotions, Quentin commits suicide by drowning.
Part 3: April 6, 1928
The third section is narrated by Jason, the third child and his mother Caroline's favorite. It takes place the day before Benjy's section, on Good Friday. Of the three brothers' sections, Jason's is the most straightforward, reflecting his single-minded desire for material wealth. This desire is made evident by his (bad) investments in cotton, which symbolize the financial decline of the South.
By 1928, Jason is the economic foundation of the family after his father's death. He supports his mother, Benjy, and Miss Quentin (daughter of Caddy, the second child), as well as the family's servants. His role makes him bitter and cynical, with little of the passionate sensitivity that we see in his older brother and sister. He goes so far as to blackmail Caddy into making him Miss Quentin's sole guardian, then uses that role to steal the support payments that Caddy sends for her daughter.
This is the first section that is narrated in a linear fashion. It follows the course of Good Friday, a day in which Jason decides to leave work to search for Miss Quentin, who has run away again, seemingly in pursuit of mischief. Here we see most immediately the conflict between the two predominant traits of the Compson family, which Caroline attributes to the difference between her blood and her husband's: on the one hand, Miss Quentin's recklessness and passion, inherited from her grandfather and, ultimately, the Compson side; on the other, Jason's ruthless cynicism, drawn from his mother's side. This section also gives us the clearest image of domestic life in the Compson household, which for Jason and the servants means the care of the hypochondriac Caroline and of Benjy.
Part 4: April 8, 1928
April 8, 1928, is Easter Sunday. This section, the only one without a single first-person narrator, focuses on Dilsey, the powerful matriarch of the black family servants. She, in contrast to the declining Compsons, draws a great deal of strength from her faith, standing as a proud figure amid a dying family.
On this Easter Sunday, Dilsey takes her family and Benjy to the "colored" church. Through her we sense the consequences of the decadence and depravity in which the Compsons have lived for decades. Dilsey is mistreated and abused, but nevertheless remains loyal. She, with the help of her grandson Luster, cares for Benjy, as she takes him to church and tries to bring him to salvation. The preacher's sermon inspires her to weep for the Compson family, reminding her that she's seen the family through its destruction, which she is now witnessing.
Meanwhile, the tension between Jason and Miss Quentin reaches its inevitable conclusion. The family discovers that Miss Quentin has run away in the middle of the night with a carnival worker, having found the hidden collection of cash in Jason's closet and taken both her money (the support from Caddy, which Jason had stolen) and her money-obsessed uncle's life savings. Jason calls the police and tells them that his money has been stolen, but since it would mean admitting embezzling Quentin's money he doesn't press the issue. He therefore sets off once again to find her on his own, but loses her trail in nearby Mottson, and gives her up as gone for good.
After church, Dilsey allows her grandson Luster to drive Benjy in the family's decrepit horse and carriage to the graveyard. Luster, disregarding Benjy's set routine, drives the wrong way around a monument. Benjy's hysterical sobbing and violent outburst can only be quieted by Jason, who understands how best to placate his brother. Jason slaps Luster, turns the carriage around, and, in an attempt to quiet Benjy, hits Benjy, breaking his flower stalk, while screaming "Shut up!" After Jason gets off the carriage and Luster heads home, Benjy suddenly becomes silent. Luster turns around to look at Benjy and sees Benjy holding his drooping flower. Benjy's eyes are "empty and blue and serene again."
Appendix: Compson: 1699–1945
In 1945, Faulkner wrote an appendix to the novel to be published in the then-forthcoming anthology The Portable Faulkner, edited by Malcolm Cowley. At Faulkner's behest, however, subsequent printings of The Sound and the Fury frequently contain the appendix at the end of the book; it is sometimes referred to as the fifth part. Having been written sixteen years after The Sound and the Fury, the appendix presents some textual differences from the novel, but serves to clarify the novel's opaque story.
The appendix is presented as a complete history of the Compson family lineage, beginning with the arrival of their ancestor Quentin Maclachlan in America in 1779 and continuing through 1945, including events that transpired after the novel (which takes place in 1928). In particular, the appendix reveals that Caroline Compson died in 1933, upon which Jason had Benjy committed to the state asylum, fired the black servants, sold the last of the Compson land, and moved into an apartment above his farming supply store. It is also revealed that Jason had himself declared Benjy's legal guardian many years ago, without their mother's knowledge, and used this status to have Benjy castrated.
The appendix also reveals the fate of Caddy, last seen in the novel when her daughter Quentin is still a baby. After marrying and divorcing a second time, Caddy moved to Paris, where she lived at the time of the German occupation. In 1943, the librarian of Yoknapatawpha County discovered a magazine photograph of Caddy in the company of a German staff general and attempted separately to recruit both Jason and Dilsey to save her; Jason, at first acknowledging that the photo was of his sister, denied that it was she after realizing the librarian wanted his help, while Dilsey pretended to be unable to see the picture at all. The librarian later realizes that while Jason remains cold and unsympathetic towards Caddy, Dilsey simply understands that Caddy neither wants nor needs to be saved from the Germans, because nothing else remains for her.
The appendix concludes with an accounting for the black family who worked as servants to the Compsons. Unlike the entries for the Compsons themselves, which are lengthy, detailed, and told with an omniscient narrative perspective, the servants' entries are simple and succinct. Dilsey's entry, the final in the appendix, consists of two words: "They endured."
Characters
Jason Compson III – father of the Compson family, a lawyer who attended the University of the South: a pessimist and alcoholic, with cynical opinions that torment his son, Quentin. He also narrates several chapters of Absalom, Absalom!
Caroline Bascomb Compson – wife of Jason Compson III: a self-absorbed neurotic who has never shown affection for any of her children except Jason, whom she seems to like only because he takes after her side of the family. In her old age she has become an abusive hypochondriac.
Quentin Compson III – the oldest Compson child: passionate and neurotic, he commits suicide as the tragic culmination of the damaging influence of his father's pessimistic philosophy and his inability to cope with his sister's sexual promiscuity. He is also a character in Absalom, Absalom! The bridge over the Charles River, where he commits suicide in the novel, bears a plaque to commemorate the character's life and death.
Candace "Caddy" Compson – the second Compson child, strong-willed yet caring. Benjy's only real caregiver and Quentin's best friend. According to Faulkner, Caddy is the true hero of the novel. Caddy never develops a voice; rather, her brothers' emotions towards her provide the development of her character.
Jason Compson IV – the bitter, openly racist third child who is troubled by monetary debt and sexual frustration. He works at a farming goods store owned by a man named Earl and becomes head of the household in 1912. Has been embezzling Miss Quentin's support payments for years.
Benjamin (nicknamed Benjy, born Maury) Compson – the mentally disabled fourth child, who is a constant source of shame and grief for his family, especially his mother, who insisted on his name change to Benjamin. Caddy is the only family member who shows any genuine love towards him. Luster, albeit begrudgingly, shows concern for him occasionally, but usually out of obligation. Has an almost animal-like "sixth sense" about people, as he was able to tell that Caddy had lost her virginity just from her smell. The model for Benjy's character may have had its beginning in the 1925 New Orleans Times Picayune sketch by Faulkner entitled "The Kingdom of God".
Dilsey Gibson – the matriarch of the servant family, which includes her own three children — Versh, Frony, and T.P. — and her grandchild Luster (Frony's son); they serve as Benjamin's caretakers throughout his life. An observer of the Compson family's decline.
Miss Quentin Compson – daughter of Caddy who goes to live with the Compsons when Herbert divorces Caddy. She is wild and promiscuous, and eventually runs away from home. Often referred to as "Quentin II" or "Miss Quentin" by readers to distinguish her from her uncle, for whom she was named.
Style and structure
The four parts of the novel relate many of the same episodes, each from a different point of view and therefore with emphasis on different themes and events. This interweaving and nonlinear structure makes any true synopsis of the novel difficult, especially since the narrators are all unreliable in their own way, making their accounts not necessarily trustworthy at all times. Also in this novel, Faulkner uses italics to indicate points in each section where the narrative is moving into a significant moment in the past. The use of these italics can be confusing, however, as time shifts are not always marked by the use of italics, and periods of different time in each section do not necessarily stay in italics for the duration of the flashback. Thus, these time shifts can often be jarring and confusing, and require particularly close reading.
Title
When Faulkner began writing the story that would develop into The Sound and the Fury, it "was tentatively titled ‘Twilight,’ [and] narrated by a fourth Compson child," but as the story progressed into a larger work, he renamed it, drawing its title from Macbeth's famous soliloquy from act 5, scene 5 of William Shakespeare's Macbeth:
Tomorrow and tomorrow and tomorrow,
Creeps in this petty pace from day to day
To the last syllable of recorded time,
And all our yesterdays have lighted fools
The way to dusty death. Out, out, brief candle!
Life's but a walking shadow, a poor player
That struts and frets his hour upon the stage
And then is heard no more: it is a tale
Told by an idiot, full of sound and fury,
Signifying nothing.
Immediately obvious is the notion of a "tale told by an idiot," in this case Benjy, whose view of the Compsons' story opens the novel. The idea can be extended also to Quentin and Jason, whose narratives display their own varieties of idiocy. More to the point, the novel recounts "the way to dusty death" of a traditional upper-class Southern family. The last line is, perhaps, the most meaningful: Faulkner said in his Nobel Prize in Literature acceptance speech that people must write about things that come from the heart, "universal truths." Otherwise, they signify nothing.
Reception
Upon publication the influential critic Clifton Fadiman dismissed the novel, arguing in The Nation that "the theme and the characters are trivial, unworthy of the enormous and complex craftsmanship expended on them." But The Sound and the Fury ultimately went on to achieve a prominent place among the greatest of American novels, playing a role in William Faulkner's receiving the 1949 Nobel Prize in Literature.
It is nearly unanimously considered a masterpiece by literary critics and scholars, but its unconventional narrative style frequently alienates new readers. Although the vocabulary is generally basic, the stream-of-consciousness technique, which attempts to transcribe the thoughts of the narrators directly, with frequent switches in time and setting and with loose sentence structure and grammar, has made it a quintessentially difficult modernist work.
Literary significance
The Sound and the Fury is a widely influential work of literature. Faulkner has been praised for his ability to recreate the thought process of the human mind. In addition, it is viewed as an essential development in the stream-of-consciousness literary technique. In 1998, the Modern Library ranked The Sound and the Fury sixth on its list of the 100 best English-language novels of the 20th century.
Adaptations
A film adaptation was released in 1959 directed by Martin Ritt and starring Yul Brynner, Joanne Woodward, Margaret Leighton, Stuart Whitman, Ethel Waters, Jack Warden, and Albert Dekker. The movie bears little resemblance to the novel.
Another adaptation, The Sound and the Fury (2014), was directed by James Franco and starred Franco as Benjy Compson, Jacob Loeb as Quentin Compson, Joey King as Miss Quentin, Tim Blake Nelson as Mr. Compson, Loretta Devine as Dilsey, Ahna O'Reilly as Caddy Compson, Scott Haze as Jason Compson, Kylen Davis as Luster, Seth Rogen as a Telegraph Operator, Danny McBride as a Sheriff, and Logan Marshall-Green as Dalton Ames. It made its premiere at the 71st Venice International Film Festival, where it screened out-of-competition.
Limited edition
In 2012, The Folio Society released an edition, limited to 1,480 copies, of The Sound and the Fury. This edition is the first to use colored ink to represent different time sequences for the first section of the novel. This limited edition is also sold with a special commentary volume edited by Faulkner scholars Stephen Ross and Noel Polk. According to The Folio Society, "We can never know if this [edition] is exactly what Faulkner would have envisaged, but the result justifies his belief that coloured inks would allow readers to follow the strands of the novel more easily, without compromising the ‘thought-transference’ for which he argued so passionately."
See also
Le Monde 100 Books of the Century
Notes
Further reading
Bleikasten, André. The Ink of Melancholy: Faulkner's Novels from The Sound and the Fury to Light in August. Bloomington: Indiana UP, 1990.
Bleikasten, André. The Most Splendid Failure: Faulkner's The Sound and the Fury. Bloomington: Indiana UP, 1976.
Brooks, Cleanth. William Faulkner: The Yoknapatawpha Country. New Haven: Yale UP, 1963.
Cowan, Michael H., ed. Twentieth century interpretations of The sound and the fury: a collection of critical essays. Englewood Cliffs, N.J.: Prentice-Hall, 1968.
Davis, Thadious M. Faulkner's "Negro": Art and the Southern Context. Baton Rouge: Louisiana State UP, 1983.
Gunn, Giles. "Faulkner's Heterodoxy: Faith and Family in The Sound and the Fury". Faulkner and Religion: Faulkner and Yoknapatawpha, 1989. Ed. Doreen Fowler and Ann J. Abadie. Jackson: UP of Mississippi, 1991. 44–64.
Hagood, Taylor, ed. (2014). The Sound and the Fury, by William Faulkner. Critical Insights. Ipswich, MA: Salem Press.
Howe, Irving. William Faulkner: A Critical Study. 3d ed. Chicago: U of Chicago P, 1975.
Kartiganer, Donald M. The Fragile Thread: The Meaning of Form in Faulkner's Novels. Amherst: University of Massachusetts Press, 1979.
Marshall, Alexander J., III. "The Dream Deferred: William Faulkner's Metaphysics of Absence". Faulkner and Religion: Faulkner and Yoknapatawpha, 1989. Ed. Doreen Fowler and Ann J. Abadie. Jackson: UP of Mississippi, 1991. 177–192.
Matthews, John T. The Play of Faulkner's Language. Ithaca, NY: Cornell UP, 1982.
Matthews, John T. The Sound and the Fury: Faulkner and the Lost Cause. Boston: Twayne, 1991.
Polk, Noel. "Trying Not to Say: A Primer on the Language of The Sound and the Fury". New Essays on The Sound and the Fury. Ed. Noel Polk. Cambridge: Cambridge UP, 1993. 139–175.
Ross, Stephen M. Fiction's Inexhaustible Voice: Speech and Writing in Faulkner. Athens: U of Georgia P, 1989.
Ross, Stephen M., and Noel Polk. Reading Faulkner: "The Sound and the Fury". Jackson: UP of Mississippi, 1996.
Sundquist, Eric J. Faulkner: The House Divided. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins UP, 1983.
Urgo, Joseph R. "A Note on Reverend Shegog's Sermon in Faulkner's The Sound and the Fury". NMAL: Notes on Modern American Literature 8.1 (1984): item 4.
Vickery, Olga W. The Novels of William Faulkner: A Critical Interpretation. Baton Rouge: Louisiana State UP, 1964.
External links
The Sound and the Fury at Digital Yoknapatawpha
Hypertext edition of The Sound and the Fury
The Sound and the Fury: A Study Guide
A comprehensive guide to Faulkner, including chronologically organized breakdowns of Benjy and Quentin's sections.
The Sound and the Fury study guide, teaching guide, themes, quotes
William Faulkner quotes
Book Drum illustrated profile of The Sound and the Fury
1929 American novels
American novels adapted into films
Fiction with unreliable narrators
Modernist novels
Novels by William Faulkner
Novels set in Mississippi
Southern Gothic novels
Suicide in fiction
Jonathan Cape books
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229596 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/SIMM | SIMM | A SIMM (single in-line memory module) is a type of memory module containing random-access memory used in computers from the early 1980s to the early 2000s. It differs from a dual in-line memory module (DIMM), the most predominant form of memory module since the late 1990s, in that the contacts on a SIMM are redundant on both sides of the module. SIMMs were standardised under the JEDEC JESD-21C standard.
Most early PC motherboards (8088-based PCs, XTs, and early ATs) used socketed DIP chips for DRAM. As computer memory capacities grew, memory modules were used to save motherboard space and ease memory expansion. Instead of plugging in eight or nine single DIP chips, only one additional memory module was needed to increase the memory of the computer.
History
SIMMs were invented in 1982 by James J. Parker at Zenith Microcircuits and the first Zenith Microcircuits customer was Wang Laboratories. Wang Laboratories tried to patent it and were granted a patent in April 1987. That patent was later voided when Wang Laboratories sued multiple companies for infringement and it was then publicized that they were the prior invention of Parker at Zenith Microcircuits (the Elk Grove Village, Illinois subsidiary of Zenith Electronics Corporation). The lawsuit was then dropped and the patent was vacated. The original memory modules were built upon ceramic substrates with 64K Hitachi "flip chip" parts and had pins, i.e. single in-line package (SIP) packaging. There was an 8-bit part and a 9-bit part both at 64K. The pins were the costliest part of the assembly process and Zenith Microcircuits, in conjunction with Wang and Amp, soon developed an easy insertion, pinless connector. Later the modules were built on ceramic substrates with Fujitsu plastic J-lead chips and still later, they were made on standard PCB material. SIMMs using pins are usually called SIP or SIPP memory modules to distinguish them from the more common modules using edge connectors.
The first variant of SIMMs has 30 pins and provides 8 bits of data (plus a 9th error-detection bit in parity SIMMs). They were used in AT-compatible (286-based, e.g., Wang APC), 386-based, 486-based, Macintosh Plus, Macintosh II, Quadra, Atari STE microcomputers, Wang VS minicomputers and Roland electronic samplers.
The second variant of SIMMs has 72 pins and provides 32 bits of data (36 bits in parity and ECC versions). These appeared first in the early 1990s in later models of the IBM PS/2, and later in systems based on the 486, Pentium, Pentium Pro, early Pentium II, and contemporary/competing chips of other brands. By the mid-90s, 72-pin SIMMs had replaced 30-pin SIMMs in new-build computers, and were starting to themselves be replaced by DIMMs.
Non-IBM PC computers such as UNIX workstations may use proprietary non-standard SIMMs. The Macintosh IIfx uses proprietary non-standard SIMMs with 64 pins.
DRAM technologies used in SIMMs include FPM (Fast Page Mode memory, used in all 30-pin and early 72-pin modules), and the higher-performance EDO DRAM (used in later 72-pin modules).
Due to the differing data bus widths of the memory modules and some processors, sometimes several modules must be installed in identical pairs or in identical groups of four to fill a memory bank. The rule of thumb is a 286, 386SX, 68000 or low-end 68020 / 68030 (e.g. Atari Falcon, Mac LC) system (using a 16 bit wide data bus) would require two 30-pin SIMMs for a memory bank. On 386DX, 486, and full-spec 68020 through 68060 (e.g. Atari TT, Amiga 4000, Mac II) systems (32 bit data bus), either four 30-pin SIMMs or one 72-pin SIMM are required for one memory bank. On Pentium systems (data bus width of 64 bits), two 72-pin SIMMs are required. However, some Pentium systems have support for a "half bank mode", in which the data bus would be shortened to only 32 bits to allow operation of a single SIMM. Conversely, some 386 and 486 systems use what is known as "memory interleaving", which requires twice as many SIMMs and effectively doubles the bandwidth.
The earliest SIMM sockets were conventional push-type sockets. These were soon replaced by ZIF sockets in which the SIMM was inserted at an angle, then tilted into an upright position. To remove one, the two metal or plastic clips at each end must be pulled to the side, then the SIMM must be tilted back and pulled out (low-profile sockets reversed this convention somewhat, like SODIMMs - the modules are inserted at a "high" angle, then pushed down to become more flush with the motherboard). The earlier sockets used plastic retainer clips which were found to break, so steel clips replaced them.
Some SIMMs support presence detect (PD). Connections are made to some of the pins that encode the capacity and speed of the SIMM, so that compatible equipment can detect the properties of the SIMM. PD SIMMs can be used in equipment which does not support PD; the information is ignored. Standard SIMMs can easily be converted to support PD by fitting jumpers, if the SIMMs have solder pads to do so, or by soldering wires on.
30-pin SIMMs
Standard sizes: 256 KB, 1 MB, 4 MB, 16 MB
30-pin SIMMS have 12 address lines, which can provide a total of 24 address bits. With an 8 bit data width, this leads to an absolute maximum capacity of 16 MB for both parity and non-parity modules (the additional redundancy bit chip usually does not contribute to the usable capacity).
* Pins 26, 28 and 29 are not connected on non-parity SIMMs.
72-pin SIMMs
Standard sizes: 1 MB, 2 MB, 4 MB, 8 MB, 16 MB, 32 MB, 64 MB, 128 MB (the standard also defines 3.3 V modules with additional address lines and up to 2 GB)
With 12 address lines, which can provide a total of 24 address bits, two ranks of chips, and 32 bit data output, the absolute maximum capacity is 227 = 128 MB.
* Pins 35, 36, 37 and 38 are not connected on non-parity SIMMs.
†/RAS1 and /RAS3 are only used on two-rank SIMMS: 2, 8, 32, and 128 MB.
# These lines are only defined on 3.3V modules.
x Presence Detect signals are detailed in JEDEC Standard.
Proprietary SIMMs
GVP 64-pin
Several CPU cards from Great Valley Products for the Commodore Amiga used special 64-pin SIMMs (32 bits wide, 1, 4 or 16 MB, 60 ns).
Apple 64-pin
Dual-ported 64-pin SIMMs were used in Apple Macintosh IIfx computers to allow overlapping read/write cycles (1, 4, 8, 16 MB, 80 ns).
HP LaserJet
72-pin SIMMs with non-standard Presence Detect (PD) connections.
See also
Dual in-line package (DIP)
Single in-line package (SIP)
Zig-zag in-line package (ZIP)
Dual in-line memory module (DIMM)
References
External links
General SIMM Installation Guide
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229603 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Background%20process | Background process | A background process is a computer process that runs behind the scenes (i.e., in the background) and without user intervention. Typical tasks for these processes include logging, system monitoring, scheduling, and user notification. The background process usually is a child process created by a control process for processing a computing task. After creation, the child process will run on its own, performing the task independent of the control process, freeing the control process of performing that task.
On a Windows system, a background process is either a computer program that does not create a user interface, or a Windows service. The former are started just as any other program is started, e.g., via Start menu. Windows services, on the other hand, are started by Service Control Manager. In Windows Vista and later, they are run in a separate session. There is no limit to how much a system service or background process can use system resources. Indeed, in the Windows Server family of Microsoft operating systems, background processes are expected to be the principal consumers of system resources.
On a Unix or Unix-like system, a background process or job can be further identified as one whose process group ID differs from its terminal group ID (TGID). (The TGID of a process is the process ID of the process group leader that opened the terminal, which is typically the login shell. The TGID identifies the control terminal of the process group.) This type of process is unable to receive keyboard signals from its parent terminal, and typically will not send output to that terminal. This more technical definition does not distinguish between whether or not the process can receive user intervention. Although background processes are typically used for purposes needing few resources, any process can be run in the background, and such a process will behave like any other process, with the exceptions given above.
Windows services
In Windows NT family of operating systems, a Windows service is a dedicated background process. A Windows service must conform to the interface rules and protocols of the Service Control Manager, the component responsible for managing Windows services.
Windows services can be configured to start when the operating system starts, and to run in the background as long as Windows runs. Alternatively, they can be started manually or by an event. Windows NT operating systems include numerous services which run in context of three user accounts: System, Network Service and Local Service. These Windows components are often associated with Host Process for Windows Services: svchost.exe. Since Windows services operate in the context of their own dedicated user accounts, they can operate when a user is not logged on.
Before Windows Vista, services installed as "interactive services" could interact with Windows desktop and show a graphical user interface. With Windows Vista, however, interactive services became deprecated and ceased operating properly, as a result of Windows Service Hardening.
The three principal means of managing Windows services are:
Services snap-in for Microsoft Management Console
sc.exe
Windows PowerShell
Daemon
A daemon is a type of background process designed to run continually in the background, waiting for event(s) to occur or condition(s) to be met. These processes typically use minimal system resources and perform tasks which require little to no input from the user. When launched with the daemon function, daemons are disassociated from their parent terminal.
Launch and resumption on Unix
From a Unix command line, a background process can be launched using the "&" operator. The bg utility can resume a suspended job (sending SIGCONT), running it in the background. Using the fg utility will also reconnect standard input its parent terminal, bringing it into the foreground. The jobs utility will list all processes associated with the current terminal and can be used to bring background processes into the foreground.
When a login session ends, via explicit logout or network disconnection, all processes, including background processes, will by default be terminated, to prevent them from becoming orphan processes. Concretely, when the user exits the launching shell process, as part of shutdown it sends a hangup signal (SIGHUP) to all its jobs, to terminate all the processes in the corresponding process group. To have processes continue to run, one can either not end the session, or end the session without terminating the processes. A terminal multiplexer can be used to leave a session running but detach a virtual terminal from it, leaving processes running as child processes of the session; the user can then reattach session later. Or, termination can be prevented by either starting the process via the nohup command (telling the process to ignore SIGHUP), or by subsequently running disown with the job id, which either removes the job from the job list entirely, or simply prevents SIGHUP from being sent. In the latter case when the session ends, the child processes are not terminated, either because they are not sent SIGHUP or because they ignore it, and thus become orphan processes, which are then adopted by the init process (the kernel sets the init process as their parent), and they continue running without a session, now called daemons.
Example
In this example running on Unix, the sleep utility was launched into the background. Afterward, the ps tool was run in the foreground, where it output the below text. Both were launched from the shell.
PID TT STAT TIME COMMAND
54659 10 S 0:00.06 su (zsh)
54703 10 IN 0:00.00 - sleep 1000
54852 10 R+ 0:00.00 - ps -U botty -axd
Smartphones
Many newer versions of smartphone and PDA operating systems now include the ability to start background processes. Due to hardware limits, background processes on mobile operating systems are often restricted to certain tasks or consumption levels. On Android, CPU use for background processes is bounded at 5 - 10%. Third-party applications on Apple's iOS are limited to a subset of functions while running in the background. On both iOS and Android, background processes can be killed by the system if they are using too much memory.
See also
Batch processing
Computer multitasking
Process group
References
Process (computing) | [
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] |
229605 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yaqui | Yaqui | The Yaqui, Hiaki, or Yoeme, are a Uto-Aztecan-speaking Indigenous people of Mexico in the valley of the Río Yaqui in the Mexican state of Sonora and the Southwestern United States. They also have communities in Chihuahua and Durango.
The Pascua Yaqui Tribe, based in Tucson, Arizona, is the only federally recognized Yaqui tribe in the United States. Yaqui people live elsewhere in the United States, especially California, Arizona and Nevada.
Overview
Many Yaqui in Mexico live on reserved land in the state of Sonora. Others formed neighborhoods (colonias or colonies) in various cities. In the city of Hermosillo, colonies such as El Coloso, La Matanza, and Sarmiento are known as Yaqui districts; Yaqui residents there continue the culture and traditions of the Yaqui Nation.
In the late 1960s, several Yaqui in Arizona, among them Anselmo Valencia Tori and Fernando Escalante, started development of a tract of land about 8 km to the west of the Yaqui community of Hu'upa, calling it New Pascua (in Spanish, Pascua Nuevo). This community has a population (estimated in 2006) of about 4,000; most of the middle-aged population of New Pascua speaks English, Spanish, and a moderate amount of Yaqui. Many older people speak the Yaqui language fluently, and a growing number of youth are learning the Yaqui language in addition to English and Spanish.
In Guadalupe, Arizona, established in 1904 and incorporated in 1975, more than 44 percent of the population is Native American, and many are trilingual in Yaqui, English and Spanish. A Yaqui neighborhood, Penjamo, is located in South Scottsdale, Arizona.
More than 13,000 Yaqui are citizens of the Pascua Yaqui Tribe, which is based in Tucson. The Texas Band of Yaqui Indians, a state-recognized Tribe under Resolution SR#989 sponsored by state Sen. Charles Perry, consists of descendants of a band of Mountain Yaqui "who entered the State of Texas in the years of 1870–1875 under the leadership of Ya'ut (leader) Ave'lino Covajori Valenzuela Urquides". The Texas Band of the Yaqui Tribe, population 900-plus, is petitioning for federal recognition.
Language
The Yaqui language belongs to the Uto-Aztecan language family. Yaqui speak a Cahitan language, a group of about 10 mutually-intelligible languages formerly spoken in much of the states of Sonora and Sinaloa. Most of the Cahitan languages are extinct; only the Yaqui and Mayo still speak their language. About 15,000 Yaqui speakers live in Mexico and 1,000 in the US, mostly Arizona.
The Yaqui call themselves Hiaki or Yoeme, the Yaqui word for person (yoemem or yo'emem meaning "people"). The Yaqui call their homeland Hiakim, from which some say the name "Yaqui" is derived. They may also describe themselves as Hiaki Nation or Pascua Hiaki, meaning "The Easter People", as most had converted to Catholicism under Jesuit influence in colonial Mexico. Many folk etymologies account for how the Yoeme came to be known as the "Yaqui".
Yaqui is a tonal language, with a tonal accent on either the first or the second syllable of the word. The syllables which follow the tone are all high; see Pitch-accent language#Yaqui.
History
1530s–1820s: Conquistadors and missionaries
When the Spanish first came into contact with the Yaqui in 1533, the Yaqui occupied a territory along the lower course of the Yaqui River. They were estimated to number 30,000 people living in 80 villages in an area about 60 miles (100 km) long and 15 miles (25 km) wide. Some Yaqui lived near the mouth of the river and lived off of the resources of the sea. Most lived in agricultural communities, growing beans, maize, and squash on land inundated by the river every year. Others lived in the deserts and mountains and depended upon hunting and gathering.
Captain Diego de Guzmán, leader of an expedition to explore lands north of the Spanish settlements, encountered the Yaqui in 1533. A large number of Yaqui warriors confronted the Spaniards on a level plain. Their leader, an old man, drew a line in the dirt and told the Spanish not to cross it. He denied the Spanish request for food. A battle ensued. The Spanish claimed victory, although they retreated. Thus began 40 years of struggle, often armed, by the Yaqui to protect their culture and lands.
In 1565, Francisco de Ibarra attempted, but failed, to establish a Spanish settlement in Yaqui territory. What probably saved the Yaqui from an early invasion by the Spaniards was the lack of silver and other precious metals in their territory. In 1608, the Yaqui and 2,000 indigenous allies, mostly Mayo, were victorious over the Spanish in two battles. A peace agreement in 1610 brought gifts from the Spanish and, in 1617, an invitation by the Yaquis for the Jesuit missionaries to stay and teach them.
The Yaqui lived in a mutually advantageous relationship with the Jesuits for 120 years. Most of them converted to Christianity while retaining many traditional beliefs. The Jesuit rule over the Yaqui was stern but the Yaqui retained their land and their unity as a people. The Jesuits introduced wheat, cattle, and horses.
The Yaqui prospered and the missionaries were allowed to extend their activities further north. The Jesuit success was facilitated by the fact that the nearest Spanish settlement was 100 miles away and the Yaqui were able to avoid interaction with Spanish settlers, soldiers and miners. Important, too, was that epidemics of European diseases that destroyed many Indigenous populations appear not to have seriously impacted the Yaqui. The reputation of the Yaqui as warriors, plus the protection afforded by the Jesuits, perhaps shielded the Yaqui from Spanish slavers. The Jesuits persuaded the Yaqui to settle into eight towns: Bácum, Benem, Cócorit, Huirivis, Pótam, Rahum, Tórim, and Vícam.
However, by the 1730s, Spanish settlers and miners were encroaching on Yaqui land and the Spanish colonial government began to alter the arms-length relationship. This created unrest among the Yaqui and led to a brief but bloody Yaqui and Mayo revolt in 1740. One thousand Spanish and 5,000 Native Americans were killed and the animosity lingered. The missions declined and the prosperity of the earlier years was never regained. The Jesuits were expelled from Mexico in 1767 and the Franciscan priests who replaced them never gained the confidence of the Yaqui.
An uneasy peace between the Spaniards and the Yaqui endured for many years after the revolt, with the Yaqui maintaining their tight-knit organization and most of their independence from Spanish and, after 1821, Mexican rule.
1820s–1920s: Yaqui Wars and enslavement
During Mexico's struggle for independence from Spain in the early 19th century, the Yaqui showed that they still considered themselves independent and self-governing. After Mexico won its independence, the Yaqui refused to pay taxes to the new government. A Yaqui revolt in 1825 was led by Juan Banderas. Banderas wished to unite the Mayo, Opata, Pima, and Yaqui into a state that would be autonomous, or independent of Mexico. The combined indigenous forces drove the Mexicans out of their territories, but Banderas was eventually defeated and executed in 1833. This led to a succession of revolts as the Yaqui resisted the Mexican government's attempts to gain control of the Yaqui and their lands.
The Yaqui supported the French during the brief reign of Maximilian I of Mexico in the 1860s. Under the leadership of Jose Maria Leyva, known as Cajemé, the Yaqui continued the struggle to maintain their independence until 1887, when Cajeme was caught and executed. The war featured a succession of brutalities by the Mexican authorities, including a massacre in 1868, in which the Army burned 150 Yaqui to death inside a church.
The Yaqui were impoverished by a new series of wars as the Mexican government adopted a policy of confiscation and distribution of Yaqui lands. Many displaced Yaquis joined the ranks of warrior bands, who remained in the mountains carrying on a guerrilla campaign against the Mexican Army.
During the 34-year rule of Mexican dictator Porfirio Diaz, the government repeatedly provoked the Yaqui remaining in Sonora to rebellion in order to seize their land for exploitation by investors for both mining and agricultural use. Many Yaqui were sold at 60 pesos a head to the owners of sugar cane plantations in Oaxaca and the tobacco planters of the Valle Nacional, while thousands more were sold to the henequen plantation owners of the Yucatán.
By 1908, at least 5,000 Yaqui had been sold into slavery. At Valle Nacional, the enslaved Yaquis were worked until they died. While there were occasional escapes, the escapees were far from home and, without support or assistance, most died of hunger while begging for food on the road out of the valley toward Córdoba.
At Guaymas, thousands more Yaquis were put on boats and shipped to San Blas, where they were forced to walk more than 200 miles to San Marcos and its train station. Many women and children could not withstand the three-week journey over the mountains, and their bodies were left by the side of the road. The Mexican government established large concentration camps at San Marcos, where the remaining Yaqui families were broken up and segregated. Individuals were then sold into slavery inside the station and packed into train cars which took them to Veracruz, where they were embarked yet again for the port town of Progreso in the Yucatán. There they were transported to their final destination, the nearby henequen plantations.
On the plantations, the Yaquis were forced to work in the tropical climate of the area from dawn to dusk. Yaqui women were allowed to marry only non-native Chinese workers. Given little food, the workers were beaten if they failed to cut and trim at least 2,000 henequen leaves per day, after which they were then locked up every night. Most of the Yaqui men, women and children sent for slave labor on the plantations died there, with two-thirds of the arrivals dying within a year.
During this time, Yaqui resistance continued. By the early 1900s, after "extermination, military occupation, and colonization" had failed to halt Yaqui resistance to Mexican rule, many Yaquis assumed the identities of other Tribes and merged with the Mexican population of Sonora in cities and on haciendas. Others left Mexico for the United States, establishing enclaves in southern Texas, New Mexico, Arizona, and California.
Many Yaqui living in southern Arizona regularly returned to Sonora after working and earning money in the U.S., often for the purpose of smuggling firearms and ammunition to those Yaqui still fighting the Mexican government. Skirmishes continued until 1927, when the last major battle between the Mexican Army and the Yaqui was fought at Cerro del Gallo Mountain. By employing heavy artillery, machine guns, and planes of the Mexican Air Force to shell, bomb, and strafe Yaqui villages, Mexican authorities eventually prevailed.
The objective of the Yaqui and their frequent allies, the Mayo people, remained the same during almost 400 years of interaction with the Jesuits and the Spanish and Mexican governments: independent local government and management of their own lands.
1920s–1930s: Cárdenas and Yaqui independence
In 1917, General Lázaro Cárdenas of the Constitutionalist army defeated the Yaqui. But in 1937, as president of the republic, he reserved 500,000 hectares of ancestral lands on the north bank of the Yaqui River, ordered the construction of a dam to provide irrigation water to the Yaqui, and provided advanced agricultural equipment and water pumps. Thus, the Yaqui continued to maintain a degree of independence from Mexican rule.
In 1939, the Yaqui produced 3,500 tons of wheat, 500 tons of maize, and 750 tons of beans; whereas, in 1935, they had produced only 250 tons of wheat and no maize or beans.
According to the official government report on the sexenio (six-year term) of Cárdenas, the section of the Department of Indigenous Affairs (which Cárdenas established as a cabinet level post in 1936) stated the Yaqui population was 10,000; 3,000 were children younger than 5.
Today, the Mexican municipality of Cajemé is named after the fallen Yaqui leader.
Lifestyle
In the past, the Yaqui subsisted on agriculture, growing beans, corn and squash (like many of the Indigenous peoples of the region). The Yaqui who lived in the Río Yaqui region and in coastal areas of Sonora and Sinaloa fished as well as farmed. The Yaqui also made cotton products. The Yaqui have always been skillful warriors. The Yaqui Indians have been historically described as quite tall in stature.
Traditionally, a Yaqui house consisted of three rectangular sections: the bedroom, the kitchen, and a living room, called the "portal". Floors would be made of wooden supports, walls of woven reeds, and the roof of reeds coated with thick layers of mud for insulation. Branches might be used in living room construction for air circulation; a large part of the day was spent here, especially during the hot months. A home would also have a patio. Since the time of the adoption of Christianity, many Yaquis have a wooden cross placed in front of the house, and special attention is made to its placement and condition during Waresma (Lent).
Yaqui cosmology and religion
The Yaqui conception of the world is considerably different from that of their European-Mexican and European-American neighbors. For example, many Yoemem believe that the universe is composed of overlapping yet distinct worlds or places, called aniam. Nine or more different aniam are recognized: sea ania: flower world, yo ania: enchanted world, tenku ania: a dream world, tuka ania: night world, huya ania: wilderness world, nao ania: corncob world, kawi ania: mountain world, vawe ania: world under the water, teeka ania: world from the sky up through the universe. Each of these worlds has its own distinct qualities, as well as forces, and Yoeme relate deer dancing with three of them, since the deer emerges from yo ania, an enchanted home, into the wilderness world, huya ania, and dances in the flower world, sea ania, which can be accessed through the deer dance. Much Yaqui ritual is centered upon perfecting these worlds and eliminating the harm that has been done to them, especially by people. Many Yaqui have combined such ideas with their practice of Catholicism, and believe that the existence of the world depends on their annual performance of the Lenten and Easter rituals.
The Yaqui religion, which is a syncretic religion of old Yaqui beliefs and practices, and the Christian teachings of Jesuit missionaries, relies upon song, music, prayer, and dancing, all performed by designated members of the community. They have woven numerous Roman Catholic traditions into the old ways and vice versa. For instance, the Yaqui deer song (maso bwikam) accompanies the deer dance, which is performed by a pascola (Easter, from the Spanish pascua) dancer, also known as a "deer dancer". Pascolas perform at religio-social functions many times of the year, but especially during Lent and Easter. The Yaqui deer song ritual is in many ways similar to the deer song rituals of neighboring Uto-Aztecan people, such as the Mayo. The Yaqui deer song is more central to the cultus of its people and is strongly tied into Roman Catholic beliefs and practices. There are various societies among the Yaqui people who play a significant role in the performance of Yaqui ceremonies, including:
The Prayer Leaders,
Kiyohteis (Female Church Assistants),
Vanteareaom (Female Flag Bearers),
Anheiltom (Angels),
Kohtumvre Ya’ura (Fariseo Society),
Kantoras (female singers),
officios (Pahko’ola and Deer Dance societies),
Wiko Yau’ra society, and
Matachinim (Matachin Society dancers).
Flowers are very important in the Yaqui culture. According to Yaqui teachings, flowers sprang up from the drops of blood that were shed at the Crucifixion. Flowers are viewed as the manifestation of souls. Occasionally Yaqui men may greet a close male friend with the phrase Haisa sewa? ("How is the flower?").
Yaqui in the United States
As a result of the wars between Mexico and the Yaqui, many fled to the United States. Most settled in urban barrios, including Barrio Libre and Pascua in Tucson, and Guadalupe and Scottsdale in the Phoenix area. Yaquis built homes of scrap lumber, railroad ties, and other materials, eking out an existence while taking great pains to continue the Easter Lenten ceremonies so important to community life. They found work as migrant farm laborers and in other rural occupations.
In the early 1960s, Yaqui spiritual leader Anselmo Valencia Tori approached University of Arizona anthropologist Edward Holland Spicer, an authority on the Yaqui, and asked for assistance in helping the Yaqui people. Spicer, Muriel Thayer Painter and others created the Pascua Yaqui Association. U.S. Representative Morris Udall agreed to aid the Yaquis in securing a land base. In 1964, the U.S. government granted the Yaqui 817,000 m of land southwest of Tucson, Arizona. It was held in trust for the people. Under Valencia and Raymond Ybarra, the Pascua Yaqui Association developed homes and other infrastructure at the site.
Realizing the difficulties of developing the community (known as New Pascua) without the benefit of federal Tribal status, Ybarra and Valencia met with U.S. Senator Dennis DeConcini (D-Ariz.) in the early months of 1977 to urge him to introduce legislation to provide complete federal recognition of the Yaqui people living on the land conveyed to the Pascua Yaqui Association by the United States through the Act of October 8, 1964 (78 Stat. 1197).
Senator DeConcini introduced a federal recognition bill, S.1633 on June 7, 1977. After extensive hearings and consideration, it was passed by the Senate on April 5, 1978, and became public law, PL 95-375, on September 18, 1978. The law established a government-to-government relationship between the United States and the Pascua Yaqui Tribe, and gave reservation status to Pascua Yaqui lands. The Pascua Yaqui Tribe was the last Tribe recognized prior to the BIA Federal Acknowledgement Process established in 1978.
In 2008, the Pascua Yaqui Tribe counted 11,324 voting members.
Notable Yaqui people
Loretta Lucero Alvarez (1892–1996), a Pascua Yaqui midwife from the 1920s until the 1970s in Tucson, Arizona
Mario Martinez (Pascua Yaqui), painter living in New York
Marcos A. Moreno (Pascua Yaqui), public health advocate, medical research scholar and the first member from the Pascua Yaqui Reservation to graduate from an Ivy League University. Recipient of the national Morris K. and Stewart L. Udall Foundation award for research in medicine and public health work with under-served communities.
Marty Perez (Yaqui/Mission Indian), second baseman and shortstop in the 1960s and 1970s for the California Angels, Atlanta Braves, San Francisco Giants and Oakland A's. His Yaqui ancestors were from Altar, Oquitoa and Magdalena de Kino, Sonora. His sister, Patricia Martinez, served on the Kern County Human Relations Commission 1997–2001 and was a member of the Delano Joint Union High School District Board of Directors 2000–04.
Anselmo Valencia Tori (Pascua Yaqui), spiritual leader and tribal elder. Led the Tribe through its fight to gain federal recognition from Congress in 1978.
See also
Yaqui Uprising
Battle of Bear Valley
Don Juan Matus, an alleged Yaqui sorcerer, described in the Carlos Castaneda book series
Aqua Prieta Pipeline
The Teachings of Don Juan, a book about an alleged Yaqui sorcerer
References
Bibliography
Folsom, Raphael Brewster: The Yaquis and the Empire: Violence, Spanish Imperial Power, and the Native Resilience in Colonial Mexico. Yale University Press, New Haven 2014, . (Contents)
Miller, Mark E. "The Yaquis Become 'American' Indians." The Journal of Arizona History (1994).
Miller, Mark E. Forgotten Tribes: Unrecognized Indians and the Federal Acknowledgment Process (chapter on the Yaquis). (2004)
Sheridan, T.E. 1988. Where the Dove Calls: The Political Ecology of a Peasant Corporate Community in Northwestern Mexico. Tucson: University of Arizona Press.
American Indian & Indigenous Studies Program
External links
Escuela Autónoma para la formación artística de la Tribu Yaqui, Vícam, Sonora
The Official Website of the Pascua Yaqui Government, Arizona
The Unofficial Website of Yoemem/Yaquis in Mexico
Pascua Yaqui Tribe Charitable Organization
Vachiam eecha Yaqui cuadernos,
Vachiam eecha non-flash version,
Hector O. Valencia's War Record
Dario N. Mellado (Fine Art & Illustration).
Richard Demers, Fernando Escalante, and Eloise Jelinek, "Prominence in Yaqui Words". International Journal of American Linguistics, Vol. 65, No. 1 (Jan., 1999), pp. 40–55 (on JSTOR), on the tones in Yaqui.
Native American tribes in Arizona
Indigenous peoples in Mexico
Indigenous peoples of Aridoamerica
Native American genocide | [
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229606 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stanis%C5%82aw%20Szukalski | Stanisław Szukalski | Stanisław Szukalski (13 December 1893 – 19 May 1987) was a Polish sculptor and painter who became a part of the Chicago Renaissance. Szukalski's art exhibits influence from ancient cultures such as Egyptian, Slavic, and Aztec combined with elements of art nouveau, from the various currents of early 20th century European modernism - cubism, expressionism, futurism and pre-Columbian art. During the 1920s, he was hailed as Poland's "greatest living artist". The style of his art was called "Bent Classicism".
He also developed the pseudoscientific-historical theory of Zermatism, positing that all human culture was derived from post-deluge Easter Island and that humankind was locked in an eternal struggle with the Sons of Yeti ("Yetinsyny"), the offspring of Yeti and humans.
Life
Between Poland and Chicago
Szukalski was born in Warta, Congress Poland and was raised in Gidle. He arrived at New York with his mother, Konstancja, and sister, Alfreda, on June 27, 1907; they then went to Chicago to join his father, Dyonizy Szukalski, a blacksmith. A child prodigy in sculpture, he enrolled at age 13 at the Art Institute of Chicago. A year later, Sculptor Antoni Popiel persuaded Szukalski's parents to send him back to Poland, to enroll at Kraków's Academy of Fine Arts in 1910. There he studied sculpture under Konstanty Laszczka for three years. He returned to Chicago in 1913.
Back in the U.S., Szukalski joined the arts scene in Chicago, becoming a vital part of the "Chicago Renaissance." In November 1914, he exhibited seven of his sculptures at the Annual Exhibition of American Oil Paintings and Sculpture in the Art Institute's galleries. He had two solo exhibitions at the Art Institute, in 1916 and 1917, as well as one at the progressive Arts Club in 1919; he also exhibited regularly in the juried annuals at the Art Institute. In 1922, he married Helen Walker, the artist daughter of Dr. Samuel J. Walker, a prominent member of Chicago society.
Mickiewicz monument in Vilnius
The first design proposed for a monument of Adam Mickiewicz (a Polish poet, dramatist and political activist) to be built in the city of Vilnius, was promoted by Zbigniew Pronaszko of Vilnius University (then, Stefan Batory University in the Second Polish Republic). However, in May 1925, a contest was declared for the design of the monument. The period for submitting designs was extended a number of times, with 67 designs ultimately submitted. The jury consisted of Vilnius's municipal authorities and representatives of the arts scene, with General Lucjan Żeligowski at the helm.
Szukalski won first prize in the contest. His design for the monument showed Mickiewicz, naked, lying upon a sacrificial altar. The sculpture was to be situated on a large pedestal in the shape of an Aztec pyramid. A White Eagle, Poland's national symbol, was perched at the figure's side, where it symbolically drank blood from the poet's wound.
Szukalski's design was highly divisive among Poland's intelligentsia, leadership, and art critics, as well as ordinary individuals. The polarized atmosphere led the monument committee to arrange for a new contest, this time limited to concepts by artists who were invited to participate. The winner was Henryk Kuna, whose proposal was then chosen to be built. However, due to a number of problems involving financing as well as a suitable location, the monument's construction dragged on. With the outbreak of World War II and the incorporation of Vilnius into Lithuania, the project was abandoned.
European travels
In 1925 Szukalski participated in the International Exhibition of Modern and Decorative Arts in Paris, where he won numerous awards. However, his success was criticized by the Polish press because Szukalski, representing Poland in the exhibition, did not even live in that country. On June 20, 1926, in Paris, Helen Walker Szukalski gave birth to Szukalski's only child, a daughter, Elżbieta Kalina (Kalinka) Szukalski.
After traveling in Europe from 1926 to 1928, Szukalski went to Kraków, Poland, where he had a retrospective exhibition in 1929. In 1929 he was a founder of an artistic movement called Tribe of the Horned Heart (Szczep Rogate Serce), centered on Polish artists who sought inspiration in the pagan or pre-Christian history of Poland.
In 1929, Szukalski published Projects in Design: Sculpture and Architecture, containing drawings that ranged from highly detailed ornamental architectural elements -fireplaces, doorways, and windows - to idealized city plans, bridges, tombstones and monuments befitting the heroes of Poland. In 1932, he and Helen divorced.
Ben Hecht, who had met Szukalski in 1914, described Szukalski in his 1954 autobiography, A Child of the Century, "For twenty years my friend ... experienced disasters which would have killed off a dozen businessmen. Sickness, poverty and hunger yipped everlasting at his heels. ... during his struggles he heard only the catcalls of critics and the voices of derision. Yet when I saw him in 1934, I saw a man who had feasted on power and whose eyes smiled with triumph."
In September 1934, in Hollywood, Szukalski married Joan Lee Donovan (b. 1910), who had been his daughter's kindergarten teacher in Chicago. The wedding was at the home of screenwriter Wallace Smith, who was the best man.
Return to Poland
In 1936, Szukalski returned to Poland, supported financially by the Minister of the Treasury. He completed several sculptures, most notably the monument of Bolesław Chrobry, and decorated the façade of the Silesian Museum in Katowice, as well a local government building in that city. Poland declared Szukalski the country's greatest living artist. The government gave him a studio, the largest in Warsaw, and proclaimed it the Szukalski National Museum. It contained many of his intricate paintings and massive sculptures, notable for their dramatic mythological imagery; Szukalski had brought much of his lifetime work with him to Poland.
During the siege of Warsaw by the German army in September 1939, Szukalski was hurt in the initial bombing attack on Warsaw, which destroyed much of his studio. With two suitcases, Szukalski and his wife took refuge in the US embassy, since both were American citizens. By early November they were among about 100 Americans remaining in Warsaw. The two eventually escaped from Poland and were able to make their way back to the United States.
Szukalski had come to Poland with all his unsold works, encouraged by the prospect of building a museum devoted to his art; he left almost all of his work in Poland. Most of what had not been lost in the bombing attacks was destroyed by the occupying Germans.
California
In 1940, Szukalski and his wife settled in Los Angeles. Szukalski did odd jobs in film studios, designing scenery; occasionally sculpted; and did drawings. There he became friends with the family of George DiCaprio, Leonardo DiCaprio's father.
During the last years of his 75-year-long career Szukalski's major projects as a sculptor were Prometheus (1943), designed for Paris in homage to the French partisans; the Rooster of Gaul (1960), a gigantic and complex structure that he wanted the U.S. to give France to reciprocate for the Statue of Liberty; Katyn (1979), a monument to commemorate the death of more than 20,000 Polish officers and intellectuals killed by the Soviets during World War II; and a monument intended for the city of Venice (1982), featuring the Polish pope John Paul II. None of these projects went much further than Szukalski's immediate friends.
In 1971, Glenn Bray, a publisher who had previously specialized in the work of Mad Magazine artist Basil Wolverton, befriended Szukalski, and introduced many of his friends to Szukalski. Bray published a book of Szukalski's art and philosophy, A Trough Full of Pearls / Behold! The Protong, in 1980, and a second volume of his art, Inner Portraits, in 1982. Those books led others, including George Di Caprio, to contact Szukalski; Di Caprio immediately became a close friend of Szukalski and his wife.
Szukalski's second wife, Joan, died in 1980. Following Szukalski's death in 1987, a group of his admirers spread his ashes on Easter Island, in the rock quarry of Rano Raraku.
Zermatism & Protong
Beginning in 1940, Szukalski devoted most of his time to examining the mysteries of prehistoric ancient history of mankind, the formation and shaping of languages, faiths, customs, arts, and migration of peoples. He tried to unravel the origin of geographical names, gods, and symbols that have survived in various forms in various cultures. Through his research in these subjects, Szukalski claimed to have discovered Polish origins for various ancient places and people, in a language called Protong. According to Szukalski, Protong could be seen in phenomena ranging from the apparent Polish origins of Babylon to Jesus's Polish identity. The culmination of this work was a massive book called "Protong" (in Polish, "Macimowa"), its writing continued uninterruptedly for over 40 years. He wrote a manuscript of 42 volumes, totaling more than 25,000 pages, and including 14,000 illustrations. The volumes covered a variety of issues; his pen drawings of artifacts, which he considered "witnesses", were done to confirm his theories.
Zermatism, Szukalski's concept of world history, postulated that all human culture derived from post-deluge Easter Islanders who settled in Zermatt (hence the name) and that in all human languages one could find traces of the original, ancient mother-tongue of mankind (one with archaic Polish origins). In his view, humanity was locked in an eternal struggle with the Sons of Yeti ("Yetinsyny"), the offspring of Yeti and humans, who had enslaved humanity from time immemorial. He claimed that the figures of the god Pan on Greek vases depict creatures that actually existed, the product of Yeti apes raping human women. Szukalski used his considerable artistic talents to illustrate his theories, which, despite their lack of scientific merit, have gained a cult following largely on their aesthetic value.
Artistic legacy
Bray and his wife Lena Zwalve maintain Szukalski's estate and the great bulk of his existing art under the name "Archives Szukalski." In 1990, they published The Lost Tune: Early Works (1913-1930), a collection of photographs taken by Szukalski of his own work in that period.
Among Szukalski's admirers are Leonardo DiCaprio, who sponsored a retrospective exhibition entitled "Struggle" at the Laguna Art Museum in 2000; the Church of the SubGenius, which incorporates the Yetinsyny elements of Zermatism; Rick Griffin, Richard Sharpe Shaver, Robert Williams, H. R. Giger the band Tool and Ernst Fuchs, who said "Szukalski was the Michelangelo of the 20th century. And probably also of an age to come."
Szukalski's works are on permanent display at the Polish Museum of America in Chicago. None of his work in Warsaw survived the destruction during WWII. In addition to the Laguna retrospective, notable exhibitions of his work include "The Self-Born" at Varnish Fine Art, San Francisco, in 2005, and "Mantong and Protong," where Szukalski is paired with another unorthodox theorist of earth history, Richard Sharpe Shaver, at Pasadena City College in 2009.
In 2018, Leonardo DiCaprio produced a documentary entitled Struggle: The Life and Lost Art of Szukalski, which was released on Netflix as of December 21, 2018.
References
Further reading
Gambon, Blanche. “Stanislaw Szukalski: Painter, Sculptor, Architect, Philosopher.” The New American: A Monthly Digest of Polish-American Life and Culture, Chicago, September, 1935; Vol II, No. 10
External links
Szukalski.com – official website (English)
Polishness as Religion: The Mystical Delirium of a Nationalist Artist by Mikołaj Gliński at Culture.pl
Stanislav Szukalski: Reminiscences, Mukul Dey Archives
1893 births
1987 deaths
20th-century Polish painters
20th-century male artists
Polish sculptors
Polish male sculptors
Artists from Chicago
Pseudohistorians
Polish-American culture in Chicago
Polish emigrants to the United States
20th-century sculptors
Polish male painters | [
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229607 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/La%20Belle%20Alliance | La Belle Alliance | La Belle Alliance is an inn situated a few miles south of Brussels in Belgium, chiefly remembered for its significance in the aftermath of the Battle of Waterloo (18 June 1815).
There are two plaques on the building: one is "In memory of the French Medical Corps who attended the wounded with devotion on 18 June 1815"; and the other commemorates the meeting of the two victorious field marshals at the end of the Battle of Waterloo.
Contemporary use
The building is currently used on Friday and Saturday evenings as a night club.
Battle of Waterloo
After the Battle of Waterloo, at around 21:00, Prince Blücher and the Duke of Wellington met close to the inn signifying the end of the fighting. There is a large mural within the Palace of Westminster painted by Daniel Maclise in 1861 that depicts the meeting taking place at La Belle Alliance.
Blücher, the Prussian commander, suggested that the battle be remembered as la Belle Alliance, to commemorate the European Seventh Coalition of Britain, Russia, Prussia, the Netherlands, Sweden, Austria, Spain, Portugal, Sardinia, and a number of German States which had all joined the coalition to defeat the French Emperor. Wellington, who had chosen the field and commanded an allied army which had fought the French all day, instead recommended Waterloo, the village just north of the battlefield, where he himself had spent the previous night. Nevertheless, in 1815 the Rondell plaza in Berlin was renamed Belle-Alliance-Platz to commemorate the victory. There is a single La Belle Alliance Square in the UK, in Ramsgate, Kent.
Name
According to J.B. Romberg who published an account of the locations around Brussels in 1820, originally La Belle Alliance consisted of three houses, one of which was a tavern, that now bears the name, and two adjacent houses. Some time before the Battle of Waterloo, the publican of the tavern died, and his widow married the occupier of Trimotion, the farm-house opposite; but losing him in a short time afterwards, she consoled herself by taking for her third husband a peasant who lived a house close by (now known as Decoster's house); but here again death interrupted her happiness, when she once more embraced the married state it was to marry the new landlord tavern; from which time it obtained the title it now bears.
See also
List of Waterloo Battlefield locations
Notes
References
External links
— historical images of La Belle Alliance
Buildings and structures in Walloon Brabant
Waterloo Battlefield locations | [
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229612 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The%20World%20at%20War | The World at War | The World at War is a British 26-episode documentary television series chronicling the events of the Second World War. It was at the time of its completion in 1973, at a cost of £900,000 (), the most expensive factual series ever made. It was produced by Jeremy Isaacs, narrated by Laurence Olivier and included music composed by Carl Davis. The book, The World at War, published the same year, was written by Mark Arnold-Forster to accompany the TV series.
The World at War attracted widespread acclaim and is now regarded as a landmark in British television history. Among many other aspects, the series focused on a portrayal of the experience of the conflict: of how life and death throughout the war years affected soldiers, sailors and airmen, civilians, concentration camp inmates and other victims of the war.
Overview
Jeremy Isaacs had been inspired to look at the production of a long form documentary series about the Second World War following the BBC's broadcast of its series The Great War in 1964. However, the BBC series, which had been produced in collaboration with the Imperial War Museum, featured a mix of contemporary film footage from the period, and film recreations, which caused a souring of relations between the BBC and the Imperial War Museum. As a consequence, Isaacs was determined to have his programme be as authentic as possible.
The World at War was commissioned by Thames Television in 1969. At that time, the government had halved the levy it took on television advertising revenue, with the proviso that the money the independent television companies saved had to be reinvested in programming. Thames had a pot of money available from this tax break, which Isaacs persuaded them to use on his Second World War documentary. The series eventually took four years to produce at a cost of £900,000 (). At the time this was a record for a British television series. It was first shown in 1973 on ITV.
The series featured interviews with major members of the Allied and Axis campaigns, including eyewitness accounts from civilians, enlisted men, officers and politicians. Among these were Sir Max Aitken, Joseph Lawton Collins, Mark Clark, Jock Colville, Karl Dönitz, James "Jimmy" Doolittle, Lawrence Durrell, Lord Eden of Avon, Mitsuo Fuchida, Adolf Galland, Minoru Genda, W. Averell Harriman, Sir Arthur Harris, Alger Hiss, Brian Horrocks, Traudl Junge, Toshikazu Kase, Curtis LeMay, Vera Lynn, Hasso von Manteuffel, Bill Mauldin, John J. McCloy, Lord Mountbatten of Burma, J. B. Priestley, Saburo Sakai, Albert Speer, James Stewart, Charles Sweeney, Paul Tibbets, Walter Warlimont, Takeo Yoshikawa, and historian Stephen Ambrose.
In the programme The Making of "The World at War", included in the DVD set, Jeremy Isaacs explains that priority was given to interviews with surviving aides and assistants rather than recognised figures. The most difficult person to locate and persuade to be interviewed was Heinrich Himmler's adjutant Karl Wolff. During the interview he admitted to witnessing a large-scale execution in Himmler's presence. Isaacs later expressed satisfaction with the content of the series, noting that if it had been unclassified knowledge at the time of production, he would have added references to British codebreaking efforts.
In a list of the 100 Greatest British Television Programmes compiled by the British Film Institute during 2000, voted for by industry professionals, The World at War ranked 19th, the highest-placed documentary on the list.
Episodes
The series has 26 episodes. Producer Jeremy Isaacs asked Noble Frankland, then director of the Imperial War Museum, to list fifteen main campaigns of the war and devoted one episode to each. The remaining eleven episodes are devoted to other matters, such as the rise of the Third Reich, home life in Britain and Germany, the experience of occupation in the Netherlands, and the Nazis' use of genocide. Episode 1 begins with a cold open describing the massacre at the French village of Oradour-sur-Glane by the Waffen SS. The same event is referenced again at the end of Episode 26, while the "Dona nobis pacem" (Latin for "Grant us peace") from the Missa Sancti Nicolai, composed by Joseph Haydn, can be heard. The series ends with Laurence Olivier saying "Remember".
Broadcast history
The series was originally transmitted on the ITV network in the United Kingdom between 31 October 1973 and 8 May 1974, and has subsequently been shown around the world. It was first shown in the US in syndication on various stations in 1974. WOR in New York aired the series in the mid-1970s, although episodes were edited both for graphic content and to include sufficient commercial breaks. PBS station WNET in New York broadcast the series unedited and in its entirety in 1982 as did WGBH in the late 1980s. The Danish channel DR1 first broadcast the series from August 1976 to February 1977 and it was repeated on DR2 in December 2006 and January 2007. The History Channel in Japan began screening the series in its entirety in April 2007. It repeated the entire series again in August 2011. The Military History Channel in the UK broadcast the series over the weekend of 14 and 15 November 2009. The Military Channel (now American Heroes Channel) in the United States aired the series in January 2010, and has shown it regularly since. BBC Two in the UK transmitted a repeat run of the series starting on 5 September 1994 at teatime. In 2011, the British channel Yesterday started a showing of the series and it has been shown continuously since. The series was shown in full on SABC in South Africa in 1976, one of the first documentary series broadcast after the launch of the first television service in South Africa in January 1976.
The series was shown in Australia in 1979 and has been shown on various TV stations at various times since then. It has also been shown on Australia's Pay TV Provider Foxtel in the early 2000s and a number of times since.
Each episode was 52 minutes excluding commercials; as was customary for ITV documentary series at the time, it was originally screened with only one central break. The episode "Genocide (1941–1945)" was screened uninterrupted.
Additional episodes
Some footage and interviews which were not used in the original series were later made into additional hour or half-hour documentaries narrated by Eric Porter. These were released as a bonus to the VHS version and are included in the DVD set of the series, first released in 2001.
"The Making of the Series: The World at War"
"Secretary to Hitler – Traudl Junge"
"From War to Peace – Professor Stephen Ambrose"
"Warrior – Reflections of Men at War"
"Hitler's Germany: The People's Community (1933–1939)"
"Hitler's Germany: Total War (1939–1945)"
"The Two Deaths of Adolf Hitler"
"The Final Solution: Part One"
"The Final Solution: Part Two"
"Making of the Series – A 30th Anniversary Retrospective"
"Experiences of War"
"Restoring the World at War"
Home media history
The series was released in various territories on VHS video as well as on 13 Laservision long-play videodiscs by Video Garant Amsterdam.
In 2001–2005, DVD box sets were released in the UK and US. In 2010, the series was digitally restored and re-released on DVD and Blu-ray. In the latter case the image is cropped from its original 1.33:1 aspect ratio down to 1.78:1, to better fit modern widescreen televisions. The restored series was re-released on DVD and Blu-ray in its original aspect ratio in the United Kingdom on 31 October 2016.
From 2004 to 2005, A&E Home Entertainment, under licence from Thames, talkbackTHAMES and FremantleMedia International released all 26 episodes of the series on Region 1 DVD, uncut, uncensored and remastered.
Books
The original book The World at War, which accompanied the series, was written by Mark Arnold-Forster in 1973. In October 2007, Ebury Press published The World at War, a new book by Richard Holmes, an oral history of the Second World War drawn from the interviews conducted for the TV series. The programme's producers shot hundreds of hours of interviews, but only a fraction of that recorded material was used for the final version of the series. A selection of the rest of this material was published in this book, which included interviews with Albert Speer, Karl Wolff (Himmler's adjutant), Traudl Junge (Hitler's secretary), James Stewart (USAAF bomber pilot and Hollywood star), Anthony Eden, John Colville (Private Secretary to Winston Churchill), Averell Harriman (US Ambassador to the Soviet Union) and Arthur "Bomber" Harris (Head of RAF Bomber Command).
See also
All Our Yesterdays – a Granada TV series covering some of this period.
Apocalypse: The Second World War (2009) – an RTBF documentary on the Second World War
BBC History of World War II (1989–2005)
Cold War (1998) CNN TV production also produced by Jeremy Isaacs
The Great War (1964) – BBC TV production
The Secret War (1977) – a BBC TV series on the technological advances of the Second World War
The Unknown War (1978) – an American documentary television series, produced with Soviet cooperation after the release of The World at War, the latter of which the Soviet government felt paid insufficient attention to their part in World War II
World War One (1964) – CBS Production
References
External links
1973 British television series debuts
1974 British television series endings
1970s British documentary television series
British military television series
Documentary television series about aviation
Documentary television series about World War II
English-language television shows
ITV documentaries
Television shows produced by Thames Television
Television series by Fremantle (company)
Japan in non-Japanese culture | [
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229619 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Effusion | Effusion | In physics and chemistry, effusion is the process in which a gas escapes from a container through a hole of diameter considerably smaller than the mean free path of the molecules. Such a hole is often described as a pinhole and the escape of the gas is due to the pressure difference between the container and the exterior. Under these conditions, essentially all molecules which arrive at the hole continue and pass through the hole, since collisions between molecules in the region of the hole are negligible. Conversely, when the diameter is larger than the mean free path of the gas, flow obeys the Sampson flow law.
In medical terminology, an effusion refers to accumulation of fluid in an anatomic space, usually without loculation. Specific examples include subdural, mastoid, pericardial and pleural effusions.
Etymology
The word effusion derives from the Latin word, effundo, which means "shed, pour forth, pour out, utter, lavish, waste."
Effusion into vacuum
Effusion from an equilibrated container into outside vacuum can be calculated based on kinetic theory.
If a small area on the container is punched to become a small hole, the effusive flow rate will be
where is the molar mass, is the Avogadro constant, and is the gas constant.
The average velocity of effused particles is
Combined with the effusive flow rate, the recoil/thrust force on the system itself is
An example is the recoil force on a balloon with a small hole flying in vacuum.
Measures of flow rate
According to the kinetic theory of gases, the kinetic energy for a gas at a temperature is
where is the mass of one molecule, is the root-mean-square speed of the molecules, and is the Boltzmann constant. The average molecular speed can be calculated from the Maxwell speed distribution
as (or, equivalently, ). The rate at which a gas of molar mass effuses (typically expressed as the number of molecules passing through the hole per second) is then
Here is the gas pressure difference across the barrier, is the area of the hole, is the Avogadro constant, is the gas constant and is the absolute temperature. Assuming the pressure difference between the two sides of the barrier is much smaller than , the average absolute pressure in the system (i.e. ), it is possible to express effusion flow as a volumetric flow rate as follows:
or
where is the volumetric flow rate of the gas, is the average pressure on either side of the orifice, and is the hole diameter.
Effect of molecular weight
At constant pressure and temperature, the root-mean-square speed and therefore the effusion rate are inversely proportional to the square root of the molecular weight. Gases with a lower molecular weight effuse more rapidly than gases with a higher molecular weight, so that the number of lighter molecules passing through the hole per unit time is greater.
Graham's law
Scottish chemist Thomas Graham (1805–1869) found experimentally that the rate of effusion of a gas is inversely proportional to the square root of the mass of its particles. In other words, the ratio of the rates of effusion of two gases at the same temperature and pressure is given by the inverse ratio of the square roots of the masses of the gas particles.
where and represent the molar masses of the gases.
This equation is known as Graham's law of effusion.
The effusion rate for a gas depends directly on the average velocity of its particles. Thus, the faster the gas particles are moving, the more likely they are to pass through the effusion orifice.
Knudsen effusion cell
The Knudsen effusion cell is used to measure the vapor pressures of a solid with very low vapor pressure. Such a solid forms a vapor at low pressure by sublimation. The vapor slowly effuses through a pinhole, and the loss of mass is proportional to the vapor pressure and can be used to determine this pressure. The heat of sublimation can also be determined by measuring the vapor pressure as a function of temperature, using the Clausius–Clapeyron relation.
References
Physical chemistry
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229623 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List%20of%20animal%20names | List of animal names | In the English language, animals have different names depending on whether they are male, female, young, domesticated, or in groups.
The best-known source of many English words used for collective groupings of animals is The Book of Saint Albans, an essay on hunting published in 1486 and attributed to Juliana Berners. Most terms used here may be found in common dictionaries and general information web sites.
Generic terms
The terms in this table apply to many or all taxons in a particular biological family, class, or clade.
Terms by species or taxon
Usage of collective nouns
Merriam-Webster writes that most terms of venery fell out of use in the 16th century, including a "murder" for crows. It goes on to say that some of the terms in The Book of Saint Albans were "rather fanciful", explaining that the book extended collective nouns to people of specific professions, such as a "poverty" of pipers. It concludes that for lexicographers, many of these don't satisfy criteria for entry by being "used consistently in running prose" without meriting explanation. Some terms that were listed as commonly used were "herd", "flock", "school", and "swarm".
Writing for Audubon, Nicholas Lund says that many such terms are not used in actuality. When he interviewed scientists who specialize in studying specific animals, they had not heard of these terms, such as a "bask" of crocodiles or "wisdom" of wombats, being applied in their fields. Lund noted that the common plural nouns for animals were "flock" for birds and "herd" for cows, conceding that for certain animals in small groups, there was currency in usage such as a "pod" of whales or "gaggle" of geese.
See also
Animal epithet
Lists of animals
List of animal sounds
wikt:Appendix:Animals, a similar list on English Wiktionary
Notes
References
Further reading
Peter Gray, "The encyclopedia of the biological sciences", 1970
Names
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229624 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bosco | Bosco | Bosco may refer to:
People
Given name Bosco
Bosco (drag queen) (born 1993), Drag Queen
Bosco Lin Chi-nan (born 1943), Taiwanese bishop
Bosco Frontán (born 1984), Uruguayan soccer player
Bosco Hogan (born 1949), Irish actor
Bosco Lowe (born 1943), American car race driver
Bosco Mann (born 1974), American record producer
Bosco McDermott (born 1936), Irish former sportsperson
Bosco Ntaganda (born 1973), Congolese warlord
Bosco Pérez-Pla (born 1987), Spanish field hockey player
Bosco Puthur (born 1946), Syro-Malabar Catholic bishop
Bosco Saraiva (born 1959), Brazilian politician
Bosco da Silva (born 1937), Hong Kong field hockey player
Bosco Sodi (born 1970), Mexican artist
Bosco Tjan (1966-2016), Chinese-American psychologist and neuroscientist
Bosco Wong (born 1980), Hong Kong actor
Middle name Bosco
Jean Bosco Mwenda (1930–1990), Congolese guitarist
João Bosco de Freitas Chaves (born 1964), Brazilian footballer
John Bosco Manat Chuabsamai (1935-2011), Thai priest
Juan Bosco Maino Canales (disappeared 1976), Chilean political activist
Surname Bosco
Douglas H. Bosco (born 1946), American politician
Giacinto Bosco (1905–1997), Italian jurist, academic and politician
Giovanni Bartolomeo Bosco (1793–1863), Italian magician
Henri Bosco (1888–1976), French writer
João Bosco (born 1946), Brazilian musician
John Bosco (1815–1888), aka Don Bosco, Italian priest and founder of the Salesian Society
Philip Bosco (1930–2018), American actor
Robbie Bosco, American football quarterback for Brigham Young University
Sacro Bosco (c. 1195-c. 1256), English monk and astronomer
Yuri Bosco (1930–2019), Russian sculptor
Places
Italy
Bosco (Albanella), a civil parish of the municipality of Albanella (SA), Campania
Bosco (Rovito), a civil parish of the municipality of Rovito (CS), Calabria
Bosco (San Giovanni a Piro), a civil parish of the municipality of San Giovanni a Piro (SA), Campania
Bosco Chiesanuova, a municipality of the Province of Verona, Veneto
Bosco Marengo, a municipality of the Province of Alessandria, Piedmont
Boscoreale, a municipality of the Province of Naples, Campania
Boscotrecase, a municipality of the Province of Naples, Campania
Castelnuovo Don Bosco, a municipality of the Province of Asti, Piedmont
San Giorgio in Bosco, a municipality of the Province of Padua, Veneto
Sommariva del Bosco, a municipality of the Province of Cuneo, Piedmont
Switzerland
Bosco/Gurin, a municipality of the Canton Ticino
United States
Bosco, Kentucky
Bosco, Louisiana
Arts, entertainment, and media
Artists and performers
Bosco (drag queen), performing name of Christopher Constantino, a drag performer from Seattle and contestant on season 14 of RuPaul's Drag Race
Fictional characters
Sgt. Bosco "B.A." Baracus, a The A-Team character
Maurice 'Bosco' Boscorelli, a Third Watch character
Agent Sam Bosco, a The Mentalist character
Sergeant Bosco, a Bob's Burgers character
Television
Bosco (TV series), a 1970s-1980s Irish programme
Bosco Adventure, an anime television series
Other uses
Bosco (grape)
Bosco Chocolate Syrup
Bosco the dog, a dog elected honorary mayor of Sunol, California
BOSCO-Uganda, a non-profit internet connectivity organization
, a Russian sportswear brand
See also
Bosko (disambiguation)
Don Bosco School (disambiguation) | [
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229634 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Operation%20Ivy | Operation Ivy | Operation Ivy was the eighth series of American nuclear tests, coming after Tumbler-Snapper and before Upshot–Knothole. The two explosions were staged in late 1952 at Enewetak Atoll in the Pacific Proving Ground in the Marshall Islands.
Background
The Operation Ivy test series was the first to involve a hydrogen bomb rather than an atomic bomb, further to the order of President Harry S. Truman made on January 31 1950 that the US should continue research into all forms of nuclear weapons. The bombs were prepared by the US Atomic Energy Commission and Defense Department aboard naval vessels, and were capable of being detonated remotely from the control ship Estes..
Tests
Mike
The first Ivy shot, codenamed Mike, was the first successful full-scale test of a multi-megaton thermonuclear weapon ("hydrogen bomb") using the Teller-Ulam design. Unlike later thermonuclear weapons, Mike used deuterium as its fusion fuel, maintained as a liquid by an expensive and cumbersome cryogenic system. The bomb was launched on November 1 1952 and detonated on Elugelab Island yielding 10.4 megatons, almost 500 times the yield of the bomb dropped on Nagasaki, resulting in the total vaporization of the island. Eight megatons of the yield was from fast fission of the uranium tamper, creating massive amounts of radioactive fallout. The detonation left an underwater crater 6,240 ft (1.9 km) wide and 164 ft (50 m) deep where Elugelab Island had been. Following this successful test, the Mike design was weaponized as the EC-16, but it was quickly abandoned for solid-fueled designs after the success of the Castle Bravo shot.
The outcome of the test was reported to incoming president Eisenhower by Atomic Energy Commission Chairman, Gordon Dean, as follows: “The island of Elugelab is missing!”
Sampling mission
Four USAF F-84G Thunderjets equipped with filters were flown through the mushroom cloud's stem to collect radiochemical samples for analysis. "Red Flight" Leader Virgil Meroney of the nascent 1211th Test Squadron flew into the stem of the explosion first. In five minutes, he had gathered all the samples he could, and exited. Jimmy Priestly Robinson, age 28, a captain with the 561st Fighter-Day Squadron, was lost near the end of his mission. After re-emerging from the cloud, both he and his wingman, pilot Captain Bob Hagan, encountered difficulties picking up rendezvous and runway navigational beacons due to "electromagnetic after effects" of the detonation. Robinson hit an area of severe turbulence, spinning out and barely retaining consciousness. He regained control of his plane at 20,000 feet, but the electromagnetic storm had disrupted his instruments. In rain and poor visibility, without working instruments, Hagan and Robinson were unable to find the KB-29 tanker aircraft to refuel. By the time they were successful in finding the signal, they were dangerously low on fuel, and before reaching the runway on Enewetak, both had depleted their reserves. While Hagan was able to glide and made an extraordinary successful dead-stick landing on the runway, Robinson was instead too far out to follow the same path and therefore attempted to land on water. Robinson's jet crashed and sank 3.5 miles short of the island. Robinson's plane flipped and his body was never found. Approximately a year after his disappearance, Robinson was awarded a posthumous Distinguished Flying Cross for his service. In 2002, a memorial stone at Virginia’s Arlington National Cemetery was erected.
As a result of the collection of samples from the explosion by U.S. Air Force pilots, scientists found traces of the isotopes plutonium-246 and plutonium-244, and confirmed the existence of the predicted but undiscovered elements einsteinium and fermium.
King
The second test, King, fired the highest-yield (500 kilotons) nuclear fission (A-bomb) weapon to date using only nuclear fission (no fusion nor fusion boosting). This test used an unretarded free-fall bomb from a B-36 bomber. The bomber suffered minor heat and blast damage and safely returned to base. This "Super Oralloy Bomb" was intended as a backup to the earlier "Mike" test, if the fusion weapon had failed. King yielded 540 kilotons, 25 times more powerful than the Fat Man weapon.
Summary
References
External links
Curtiss Atomic Marines
Operation Ivy
Analysis of Radiation Exposure for Navy Personnel at Operation Ivy
formerly classified
formerly unclassified, for civil defense
Explosions in 1952
Ivy
1952 in the United States
1952 in Oceania
1952 in military history | [
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229639 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Funny%20Cide | Funny Cide | Funny Cide (foaled April 20, 2000) is a champion American Thoroughbred racehorse who won the 2003 Kentucky Derby and Preakness Stakes. He is the first New York-bred horse to win the Kentucky Derby. He was an immensely popular horse and remains a fan favorite in retirement at the Kentucky Horse Park.
Background
Funny Cide was bred at WinStar Farm in Versailles, Kentucky, but was foaled at the McMahon of Saratoga Thoroughbred Farm, owned by Joe and Anne McMahon in Saratoga Springs, New York. His sire is Distorted Humor, who was then an unproven sire at WinStar, struggling to attract good mares. Belle's Good Cide, an Oklahoma-bred granddaughter of Seattle Slew, was already at the farm, and was therefore bred to him. She was then shipped to New York so her foal would be eligible for New York-bred races.
Funny Cide was part of Distorted Humor's first American crop when his stud fee was $12,500, dropping down the next year to $10,000. Due to the success of Funny Cide and the rest of his first crop, Distorted Humor's fee then rose to $20,000 in 2003. It would eventually go as high as $300,000 in 2008 for a live foal. The fee has since dropped, and in 2018 was $50,000.
Funny Cide was consigned to the August 2001 Fasig-Tipton Saratoga preferred yearling auction, where he was inspected by Tony Everard, a "pinhooker" looking for young, undeveloped horses to train and resell in a few months at a profit. Everard liked what he saw, even though the colt was a ridgling with one undescended testicle, and purchased the colt for $22,000. Everard then took the colt to his New Episode Training Center in Ocala, Florida, and made the decision to geld the colt. "With ridglings, it's better to go ahead and geld them early," he would later say. "My experience is once they start training around turns they are moving faster and getting pinched and it hurts them."
Barclay Tagg
Barclay Tagg purchased the gelding for $75,000 in a private transaction in March, 2002 for Sackatoga Stable.
Once a steeplechase jockey, Tagg (who grew up in Abington, Pennsylvania and won his first race in 1972 at Liberty Bell Park) was a journeyman who had been on the racing scene for over 30 years. The victory by Funny Cide made Tagg the first trainer to win the Derby in his first attempt since Neil Drysdale saddled Fusaichi Pegasus to win the 2000 Derby.
Ray Paulick of The Blood-Horse said of Tagg, "He has some characteristics uncannily like hall-of-famer "Silent" Tom Smith, the trainer of Seabiscuit. He takes care of his horse, doesn't rush into anything or run him when he shouldn't. I like that about Tagg. Like Tom Smith, he's his own man and will put the horse first. I wish we had more trainers out there like him."
Sackatoga Stable
Sackatoga Stable was formed by ten friends from Sacket's Harbor, a small town in upstate New York, who purchased their first horse by contributing $5,000 each. The managing partner was Jackson Knowlton, a health care consultant. They coined the name Sackatoga by combining their origins in Sacket's Harbor and Saratoga. Knowlton said, "We joined up with Barclay Tagg [in 1999] and he was able to locate a couple of nice horses for us. We claimed Bail Money for $40,000. She won three races and $130,000 for us before she was claimed for $62,500. So that really helped make things easier — we were playing with the house's money when we bought Funny Cide for $75,000."
Racing career
2002: two-year-old season
The chestnut gelding, ridden by jockey José A. Santos, made his two-year-old racing debut at Belmont Park on September 8, 2002. Running away from the New York field under a hand ride, he easily won the six-furlong race by lengths. Three weeks later, Funny Cide won his first seven-furlong stakes race, the Bertram F. Bongard Stakes, under another hand ride, this time by 8 lengths. In the Bongard, his Beyer Speed Figure was 103: no two-year-old in the country had run faster.
His third winning effort as a two-year-old was his first mile race, the Sleepy Hollow Stakes (also at Belmont Park). Under a hard hold by Santos, he was for the first time challenged for the lead (by Spite the Devil). Despite being bumped several times, Funny Cide won by a neck. Santos believed he had found his Derby horse.
Funny Cide was named the Champion 2-year-old New-York bred for 2002, though little attention was paid to him nationally. He was not included on the Experimental Free Handicap, which was led by the champion 2-year-old Vindication.
2003: three-year-old season
Funny Cide began his three-year-old campaign on January 18, 2003, in the -mile Holy Bull Stakes at Gulfstream Park. Breaking from post position 13, he hit the gate and raced wide for the entire trip, eventually finishing fifth behind Offlee Wild. He then shipped to Fair Grounds for the Louisiana Derby on March 9, where he faced Peace Rules, Kafwain, and Badge of Silver. Staying close to the pace, he rallied in the stretch, dropped back, and then came on again along the rail. Finishing third after Peace Rules, he was moved up to second place after the disqualification of Kafwain.
On April 12, he entered the Wood Memorial at Aqueduct as the second betting choice. Empire Maker, conditioned by Hall of Fame trainer Bobby Frankel and ridden by Jerry Bailey, was the odds-on favorite after an impressive win in the Florida Derby. Funny Cide was bumped at the start then moved up to challenge New York Hero on the lead. Empire Maker raced in third, then took the lead as they entered the stretch. Funny Cide fought back gamely, losing by only length. Funny Cide earned a Beyer Speed Figure of 110 for the Wood.
Kentucky Derby
Empire Maker was the favorite for the Derby despite suffering a bruised right front hoof that caused him to miss a few days of training: his odds did drift up though from 6–5 on the morning-line to a more lukewarm 5–2. Peace Rules, also trained by Frankel, was the second choice at 6-1 while Funny Cide was sixth choice at 13–1. Bumped again at the start, Funny Cide tracked the early pace set by Peace Rules, and moved to the lead heading into the stretch. Empire Maker then started closing fast but Funny Cide was able to hold on by lengths. "I hit him and he kept digging and digging and he did it," said Santos. "It was New York pride." Funny Cide's time of 2:01.19 was the tenth fastest time in Kentucky Derby history.
Preakness Stakes
Blood-Horse magazine's Steven Haskin wrote: "Pimlico stakes coordinator David Rollinson had to go out and recruit Preakness Stakes horses when it looked like only six or seven were going to run. All was calm that first week after the Derby. Then, Empire Maker was officially declared out, leaving only six confirmed starters. Then Midway Road came in. Then all hell broke loose when the Miami Herald's bogus story and photo of Santos cheating in the Derby appeared. Empire Maker suddenly jumped back in, his Triple Crown hopes alive once again. Hours later, when the inferno began to subside, he was back out. Then Peace Rules officially came in. Sometime, in between all that, Champali scratched after colicking. Then Kissin Saint and Alysweep came in. Then Indian Express came out. Then Rollinson popped a couple of Advil and braced for week two." Week two was like week one, now including the in and outs and ins of New York Hero, Ten Cents A Shine, Foufa's Warrior, and During. Haskin said, "All this confusion could have been avoided if all involved had known how Funny Cide was going to run in the Preakness."
Shipped in at the last moment by Tagg and stabled in Mary Eppler's barn to keep him calm and out from under the press, this time Funny Cide was the betting favorite. On a cold, wet day in May, he broke from post position nine (only Layminister in 1910 and Canonero II in 1971 won from the ninth post) and was the runaway winner of the 2003 Preakness Stakes at Baltimore's Pimlico Race Course. His time was 1:55:61 and he took the race by lengths, the second-largest margin in Preakness history.
"I couldn't find my horse, so I was watching Funny Cide," said Bob Baffert, trainer of Senor Swinger, who finished fifth. "It was fun watching and listening to the crowd respond to Funny Cide as he drew off like that."
Funny Cide earned a Beyer Speed Figure of 114. He was only the third New York-bred to win the Preakness. The other two were Jacobus in 1883 and Margrave in 1896 when the Preakness was run at Gravesend Race Track in Coney Island, New York.
Belmont Stakes
With a Triple Crown on the line, Funny Cide and his connections were the center of attention in the weeks leading up to the 2003 Belmont Stakes. Funny Cide posted several fast works: too fast some worried. Then it rained all day before the Belmont Stakes, the most grueling of the three Triple Crown races and a quarter mile longer than the Kentucky Derby. Regardless, New Yorkers came to the track in near record numbers, hoping to see the New York-bred make history. Funny Cide broke well and rushed to the early lead, but wasted energy struggling against Santos's efforts to set a sensible pace down the backstretch. As they rounded the final turn, Empire Maker ranged up on the outside and gradually pulled clear. Funny Cide tried to respond but eventually tired, finishing third. The horses who beat him, Empire Maker and Ten Most Wanted, were both fresher horses, having skipped the Preakness Stakes.
Frankel had said before the race that if everyone hated him after the Belmont Stakes, then he had done his job. Robin Smullen, Tagg's assistant and companion, had predicted that win, lose or draw, Funny Cide would remain everyone's favorite horse. Both Frankel and Smullen proved to be correct.
Later that year, Island Fashion, trained by Tagg, won the Alabama Stakes. Her victory denied a $2 million Triple Tiara bonus to the owners of Spoken Fur, trained by Frankel.
Funny Cide became the 17th horse to take the Derby and Preakness and then lose the Belmont. Tagg wondered if the sloppy track may have played a role in the loss, despite training over it nearly every day regardless of weather. "I just feel bad for all the people who came out," Tagg said. "We were beaten by a good horse. I don't know what else to say. I am being honest. It is horse racing."
Later three-year-old season
Funny Cide was given a two-month break, then returned on August 3 in the Haskell Invitational at Monmouth Park where he finished third to Peace Rules. His next target was supposed to be the Travers Stakes at Saratoga in a face-off against Empire Maker, but both horses became ill and missed the race. In Funny Cide's case it was a respiratory condition, although Tagg didn't know whether the gelding had a lung infection or allergies. During a routine gallop, he started making noise so a veterinarian examined his lungs and found them full of mucus. Funny Cide may have been suffering from the same ailment when he finished third in the Haskell: he showed mucus after that race, as well as an elevated temperature.
Funny Cide missed most of the fall racing season but recovered in time to enter the Breeders' Cup Classic, held that year at Santa Anita Park on October 25. Facing an excellent field, he raced wide just off the pace before fading on the final turn, finishing ninth behind Pleasantly Perfect. Tagg would say later that Funny Cide didn't like the heat.
Funny Cide won the Eclipse Award for 3 Year Old Male of the Year, the first New York-bred to do so. (Saratoga Dew was named American Champion Three-Year-Old Filly of 1992). The voters had to weigh Empire Maker's two wins in their three head-to-head races, versus the brilliance of Funny Cide's two Classic wins. As Andrew Beyer put it: "[Funny Cide] performed honorably throughout the series, while stimulating widespread public interest in the sport. Is he less worthy of a title than a rival who won one race, had an excuse in one and skipped one?" Ultimately, Funny Cide prevailed by 150 votes to 92.
2004: four-year-old season
On January 10, 2004, Funny Cide returned to the track with a win in allowance company at Gulfstream Park, followed by third-place finishes in the Donn Handicap and New Orleans Handicap. In April, he won the Excelsior Breeders' Cup Handicap at Aqueduct, digging in down the stretch to beat Evening Attire by half a length. His next start was in the 1-mile Metropolitan Handicap where he finished fifth.
In June 2004, the New York Turf Writer's Association honoured Funny Cide with its Presidents' Award as the first New York-bred to win the Kentucky Derby and for how his Triple Crown bid captivated the nation. Jose Santos received the Red Smith "Good Guy" Award for his "grace under pressure" when dealing with a false accusation concerning his ride in the Kentucky Derby.
Funny Cide next started in the Massachusetts Handicap on July 3, 2004, earning a 110 Beyer Speed Figure. The finish was a three-way photo at the wire between runner-up Funny Cide, the winner Offlee Wild, and The Lady's Groom. He next ran in the Suburban Handicap, finishing third in another close finish behind old foe Peace Rules. Funny Cide then ran second behind Evening Attire in the Saratoga Breeders' Cup Handicap before a near record crowd of 70,175.
Coming into the Jockey Club Gold Cup, Funny Cide had only two wins in eight starts for the year, but was still co-favorite at 3–1 with Love of Money. The two battled for the lead for the first mile, then Funny Cide fell back as Newfoundland moved to the lead with Love of Money, and The Cliff's Edge came closing on the outside. Funny Cide appeared to be struggling, but fought back and began to gradually wear down Newfoundland, finally winning by three-quarters of a length. "I thought he was done," Tagg said. "Maybe he wanted to take a breather, I don't know... I was about ready to get sick then, but he came back running. He always does that. He never gives up. He always comes back running, even in some of his worst races." The Cliff's Edge was third and Evening Attire fourth, as Love of Money dropped out of contention. In the winner's circle, Funny Cide appeared exhausted by the effort. In the Gold Cup, he earned a 112 Beyer.
Funny Cide's last race of the year was a tenth-place finish in the Breeders' Cup Classic, held that year at Lone Star Park.
2005-2007: four to six-year-old season
Since the middle of his three-year-old campaign, Funny Cide was beset with respiratory problems, perhaps aggravated by racing in the heat at the 2003 Breeders' Cup Classic at Santa Anita when a major forest fire raged nearby. Tagg would call him "fractious", later saying, "He had a lot of good qualities about him, but he was pretty difficult to train." During his five-year-old season he had back problems, undiagnosed until he had raced out of the money in the Pimlico Special, Brooklyn Handicap and Suburban Handicap. Tagg decided to rest Funny Cide for the last half of the season.
Funny Cide returned to the track on January 7, 2006, in the six-furlong Gulfstream Park Handicap, finishing a disappointing seventh. On February 2, 2006, he finished second in a one-mile allowance race at Gulfstream, finishing behind Sir Greeley but ahead of odds-on favorite Sun King, winner of the Pennsylvania and Tampa Bay Derbies. Funny Cide's jockey for the race, Edgar Prado, said, "This was not his best distance but he was trying the whole way. He galloped out real strong. I think he's back, hopefully."
On April 1, he again finished second, this time in the Excelsior Breeders' Cup Handicap at Aqueduct. "He ran a fantastic race", new jockey Richard Migliore said. "Blood and guts all the way to the wire. He's a fantastic racehorse. I wasn't looking for the lead, but my horse was keen and I didn't want to get into a fight with him. When he got alone, he idled better and when company joined him, he fought on again. It was a very game performance."
On April 30, Funny Cide broke his losing streak by taking the Kings Point Handicap for state-breds at Aqueduct. Funny Cide took the early lead but dropped into second coming into the stretch. Migliore hit him with the stick, which Funny Cide resented. "I turned my stick over and hit him with it before he was ready," said Migliore. "I kind of took him out of his game. My little bit of worry almost cost us. I should have been more confident." He followed this with a third-place finish in the William Donald Schaefer Handicap at Pimlico.
On July 1, Funny Cide led all the way to win the Grade III $200,800, -mile Dominion Day Stakes at Woodbine Racetrack in Toronto, Canada. The race attracted many who had come just to see Funny Cide; they crowded the walking ring when he entered the paddock and gave him an ovation during the post parade. His 1½-length win over a strong field brought the crowd to its feet. Funny Cide broke from the inside post and set a fast pace, then held off challenges from Cryptograph, who finished third and Nolan's Cat, who finished second. "I kind of figured we'd be on the lead," said Migliore. "I knew I had horse. When the challenge came, he met it. He likes to fight. As long as he can see them, they weren't going to beat him."Funny Cide was the first Derby winner to win at Woodbine since Secretariat took the Canadian International Stakes in 1973. He was also the first Kentucky Derby winner to win a graded stakes race at the age of six. He was also one of only two Kentucky Derby winners in 46 years to race at the age of six. (The other was Gato Del Sol, the 1982 winner.)
Funny Cide, foaled in Saratoga Springs, next ran in the Grade I Woodward Stakes at Saratoga on September 2, 2006. The field contained Sun King, the favorite after finishing second in the Whitney, the 2005 Travers winner Flower Alley, and Suave, who won the 2005 Saratoga Breeders' Cup Handicap. But Funny Cide was the star: the New York Thoroughbred Breeders gave out 10,000 Funny Cide posters to his fans. Unfortunately, Funny Cide was not up to the task and faded after chasing the pace while running wide, finishing eighth.
Funny Cide finished 2006 with two losses in the Brooklyn Breeders Cup Handicap and the Empire Cup Handicap. He was given some time off, then returned on April 29, 2007, in the Kings Point Handicap. He chased the pace three-wide but had no rally in the stretch and finished third. In the Wagon Limit Stakes for New York-breds, he went to the early lead but tired and again finished third.
On July 4, 2007, lured to Finger Lakes Race Track by an extra $50,000 added to the purse, Funny Cide took the $100,000 Wadsworth Memorial Handicap by three lengths under Alan Garcia, breaking his six-race winless streak. The track, which could accommodate 2,000 patrons in the clubhouse and another 4,000 in the grandstand, had an attendance of well over 11,000 people, its second-largest crowd since 1962. Funny Cide was only the second winner of a Triple Crown race to run at Finger Lakes in its 46-year history.
Retirement
On July 13, 2007, Funny Cide's retirement was announced. "We decided that after the great fun and excitement of watching Funny Cide win the Wadsworth Memorial at Finger Lakes at the age of 7, it would be a good note on which to retire the horse," Tagg said. Jack Knowlton, managing partner for Sackatoga Stable, agreed that Funny Cide's future career would be at the track with Tagg. He became a stable pony in the mornings, accompanying younger horses in their training. "He'll still be doing what he's done the past five years, but he just won't be racing in the afternoon," Knowlton said.
NYRA (the New York Racing Association) held a "Funny Cide Retirement Party" at Saratoga on August 10, 2007.
On December 5, 2008, Funny Cide took up residence at the Kentucky Horse Park alongside Cigar, Da Hoss, and other champions. His work as Barclay Tagg's stable pony had begun to give him some discomfort. Shortly after Cigar's death in October 2014, Funny Cide was given his stall and paddock.
In August 2012, Funny Cide visited Saratoga's racetrack along with the retired jockey Richard Migliore and the trainer Nick Zito in a seminar for prospective racehorse owners. While there, he was a guest of Old Friends farm at Cabin Creek in Greenfield Center.
Funny Cide has made several other racetrack appearances during retirement, most notably in August 2015 when he shipped to Saratoga with American Pharoah. "He and (American Pharoah) were on the same flight with a pony (Smokey) of AP's, and it was just really neat to have a Triple Crown winner and a near-Triple Crown winner (together)," Knowlton said. "It was fun. I'd love for the pony to talk so we knew what those guys were talking about. "Knowlton said, "People still adore him. They remember him and they love him. I have people all the time when I'm around racetracks (ask me), 'How's Funny Cide doing?' They don't know my name, but they know Funny Cide and they know I'm associated with him. I'm kind of the human side of Funny Cide."
Honors
Funny Cide is a two-time "New York–bred Horse of the Year". He retired with 11 wins from 38 starts with six second-place finishes and eight thirds and earnings of $3,529,412. Funny Cide had the highest earnings of any New York-bred racehorse in history. Saratoga Race Course honored him with a stakes race for older New York-breds, the Funny Cide Stakes.
In April 2010, the New York Thoroughbred Breeders voted Funny Cide the New York-bred horse of the decade.
In August, 2012, a statue of Funny Cide was unveiled in Saratoga Springs. On his saddle blanket is the number 6, his post position at Churchill Downs on the day he won the Kentucky Derby.
Race record
Pedigree
In popular culture
In 2006, Funny Cide appears in a children's book that tells about his life story and biography called, A Horse Named Funny Cide, which is written by The Funny Cide Team, and illustrated by Barry Moser.****
References
Jenkins, Sally, Funny Cide: How a Horse, a Trainer, a Jockey, and a Bunch of High School Buddies Took on the Sheiks and Bluebloods... and Won. New York: G.P. Putnam's Sons, 2004.
External links
Funny Cide's official website
Distorted Humor - stallion register
Funny Cide Kentucky Derby page
Funny Cide heads the New York bred Millionaire's Club
2000 racehorse births
Racehorses bred in New York (state)
Racehorses trained in the United States
Eclipse Award winners
Kentucky Derby winners
Preakness Stakes winners
American Grade 1 Stakes winners
Horse monuments
Thoroughbred family 6-d | [
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229643 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Molality | Molality | Molality is a measure of the number of moles of solute in a solution corresponding to 1 kg or 1000 g of solvent. This contrasts with the definition of molarity which is based on a specified volume of solution.
A commonly used unit for molality in chemistry is mol/kg. A solution of concentration 1 mol/kg is also sometimes denoted as 1 molal. The unit mol/kg requires that molar mass be expressed in kg/mol, instead of the usual g/mol or kg/kmol.
Definition
The molality (b), of a solution is defined as the amount of substance (in moles) of solute, nsolute, divided by the mass (in kg) of the solvent, msolvent:
In the case of solutions with more than one solvent, molality can be defined for the mixed solvent considered as a pure pseudo-solvent. Instead of mole solute per kilogram solvent as in the binary case, units are defined as mole solute per kilogram mixed solvent.
Origin
The term molality is formed in analogy to molarity which is the molar concentration of a solution. The earliest known use of the intensive property molality and of its adjectival unit, the now-deprecated molal, appears to have been published by G. N. Lewis and M. Randall in the 1923 publication of Thermodynamics and the Free Energies of Chemical Substances. Though the two terms are subject to being confused with one another, the molality and molarity of a dilute aqueous solution are nearly the same, as one kilogram of water (solvent) occupies the volume of 1 liter at room temperature and a small amount of solute has little effect on the volume.
Unit
The SI unit for molality is moles per kilogram of solvent.
A solution with a molality of 3 mol/kg is often described as "3 molal", "3 m" or "3 m". However, following the SI system of units, the National Institute of Standards and Technology, the United States authority on measurement, considers the term "molal" and the unit symbol "m" to be obsolete, and suggests mol/kg or a related unit of the SI. This recommendation has not been universally implemented in academia yet.
Usage considerations
Advantages
The primary advantage of using molality as a measure of concentration is that molality only depends on the masses of solute and solvent, which are unaffected by variations in temperature and pressure. In contrast, solutions prepared volumetrically (e.g. molar concentration or mass concentration) are likely to change as temperature and pressure change. In many applications, this is a significant advantage because the mass, or the amount, of a substance is often more important than its volume (e.g. in a limiting reagent problem).
Another advantage of molality is the fact that the molality of one solute in a solution is independent of the presence or absence of other solutes.
Problem areas
Unlike all the other compositional properties listed in "Relation" section (below), molality depends on the choice of the substance to be called “solvent” in an arbitrary mixture. If there is only one pure liquid substance in a mixture, the choice is clear, but not all solutions are this clear-cut: in an alcohol–water solution, either one could be called the solvent; in an alloy, or solid solution, there is no clear choice and all constituents may be treated alike. In such situations, mass or mole fraction is the preferred compositional specification.
Relation to other compositional quantities
In what follows, the solvent may be given the same treatment as the other constituents of the solution, such that the molality of the solvent of an n-solute solution, say b0, is found to be nothing more than the reciprocal of its molar mass, M0 (expressed as kg/mol):
For the solutes the expression of molalities is similar:
The expressions linking molalities to mass fractions and mass concentrations contain the molar masses of the solutes Mi:
Similarly the equalities below are obtained from the definitions of the molalities and of the other compositional quantities.
The mole fraction of solvent can be obtained from the definition by dividing the numerator and denominator to the amount of solvent n0:
Then the sum of ratios of the other mole amounts to the amount of solvent is substituted with expressions from below containing molalities:
giving the result
Mass fraction
The conversions to and from the mass fraction, w1, of the solute in a single-solute solution are
where b1 is the molality and M1 is the molar mass of the solute.
More generally, for an n-solute/one-solvent solution, letting bi and wi be, respectively, the molality and mass fraction of the i-th solute,
where Mi is the molar mass of the ith solute, and w0 is the mass fraction of the solvent, which is expressible both as a function of the molalities as well as a function of the other mass fractions,
Substitution gives:
Mole fraction
The conversions to and from the mole fraction, x1 mole fraction of the solute in a single-solute solution are
where M0 is the molar mass of the solvent.
More generally, for an n-solute/one-solvent solution, letting xi be the mole fraction of the ith solute,
where x0 is the mole fraction of the solvent, expressible both as a function of the molalities as well as a function of the other mole fractions:
Substitution gives:
Molar concentration (molarity)
The conversions to and from the molar concentration, c1, for one-solute solutions are
where ρ is the mass density of the solution, b1 is the molality, and M1 is the molar mass (in kg/mol) of the solute.
For solutions with n solutes, the conversions are
where the molar concentration of the solvent c0 is expressible both as a function of the molalities as well as a function of the other molarities:
Substitution gives:
Mass concentration
The conversions to and from the mass concentration, ρsolute, of a single-solute solution are
or
where ρ is the mass density of the solution, b1 is the molality, and M1 is the molar mass of the solute.
For the general n-solute solution, the mass concentration of the ith solute, ρi, is related to its molality, bi, as follows:
where the mass concentration of the solvent, ρ0, is expressible both as a function of the molalities as well as a function of the other mass concentrations:
Substitution gives:
Equal ratios
Alternatively, one may use just the last two equations given for the compositional property of the solvent in each of the preceding sections, together with the relationships given below, to derive the remainder of properties in that set:
where i and j are subscripts representing all the constituents, the n solutes plus the solvent.
Example of conversion
An acid mixture consists of 0.76, 0.04, and 0.20 mass fractions of 70% HNO3, 49% HF, and H2O, where the percentages refer to mass fractions of the bottled acids carrying a balance of H2O. The first step is determining the mass fractions of the constituents:
The approximate molar masses in kg/mol are
First derive the molality of the solvent, in mol/kg,
and use that to derive all the others by use of the equal ratios:
Actually, bH2O cancels out, because it is not needed. In this case, there is a more direct equation: we use it to derive the molality of HF:
The mole fractions may be derived from this result:
Osmolality
Osmolality is a variation of molality that takes into account only solutes that contribute to a solution's osmotic pressure. It is measured in osmoles of the solute per kilogram of water. This unit is frequently used in medical laboratory results in place of osmolarity, because it can be measured simply by depression of the freezing point of a solution, or cryoscopy (see also: osmostat and colligative properties).
Relation to apparent (molar) properties
Molality appears in the expression of the apparent (molar) volume of a solute as a function of the molality b of that solute (and density of the solution and solvent):
For multicomponent systems the relation is slightly modified by the sum of molalities of solutes. Also a total molality and a mean apparent molar volume can be defined for the solutes together and also a mean molar mass of the solutes as if they were a single solute. In this case the first equality from above is modified with the mean molar mass M of the pseudosolute instead of the molar mass of the single solute:
,
, yi,j being ratios involving molalities of solutes i,j and the total molality bT.
The sum of products molalities - apparent molar volumes of solutes in their binary solutions equals the product between the sum of molalities of solutes and apparent molar volume in ternary or multicomponent solution.
,
Relation to apparent molar properties and activity coefficients
For concentrated ionic solutions the activity coefficient of the electrolyte is split into electric and statistical components.
The statistical part includes molality b, hydration index number h, the number of ions from the dissociation and the ratio ra between the apparent molar volume of the electrolyte and the molar volume of water.
Concentrated solution statistical part of the activity coefficient is:
,
Molalities of a ternary or multicomponent solution
The molalities of solutes b1, b2 in a ternary solution obtained by mixing two binary aqueous solutions with different solutes (say a sugar and a salt or two different salts) are different than the initial molalities of the solutes bii in their binary solutions.
The content of solvent in mass fractions w01 and w02 from each solution of masses ms1 and ms2 to be mixed as a function of initial molalities is calculated. Then the amount (mol) of solute from each binary solution is divided by the sum of masses of water after mixing:
Mass fractions of each solute in the initial solutions w11 and w22
are expressed as a function of the initial molalities b11, b22 :
These expressions of mass fractions are substituted in the final molalitaties.
The results for a ternary solution can be extended to a multicomponent solution (with more than two solutes).
From the molalities of the binary solutions
The molalities of the solutes in a ternary solution can be expressed also from molalities in the binary solutions and their masses:
The binary solution molalities are:
The masses of the solutes determined from the molalities of the solutes and the masses of water can be substituted in the expressions of the masses of solutions:
Similarly for the mass of the second solution:
From here one can obtain the masses of water to be summed in the denominator of the molalitities of the solutes in the ternary solutions.
Thus the ternary molalities are:
See also
Molarity
References
Chemical properties
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229649 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Monge%20array | Monge array | In mathematics applied to computer science, Monge arrays, or Monge matrices, are mathematical objects named for their discoverer, the French mathematician Gaspard Monge.
An m-by-n matrix is said to be a Monge array if, for all such that
one obtains
So for any two rows and two columns of a Monge array (a 2 × 2 sub-matrix) the four elements at the intersection points have the property that the sum of the upper-left and lower right elements (across the main diagonal) is less than or equal to the sum of the lower-left and upper-right elements (across the antidiagonal).
This matrix is a Monge array:
For example, take the intersection of rows 2 and 4 with columns 1 and 5.
The four elements are:
17 + 7 = 24
23 + 11 = 34
The sum of the upper-left and lower right elements is less than or equal to the sum of the lower-left and upper-right elements.
Properties
The above definition is equivalent to the statement
A matrix is a Monge array if and only if for all and .
Any subarray produced by selecting certain rows and columns from an original Monge array will itself be a Monge array.
Any linear combination with non-negative coefficients of Monge arrays is itself a Monge array.
One interesting property of Monge arrays is that if you mark with a circle the leftmost minimum of each row, you will discover that your circles march downward to the right; that is to say, if , then for all . Symmetrically, if you mark the uppermost minimum of each column, your circles will march rightwards and downwards. The row and column maxima march in the opposite direction: upwards to the right and downwards to the left.
The notion of weak Monge arrays has been proposed; a weak Monge array is a square n-by-n matrix which satisfies the Monge property only for all .
Every Monge array is totally monotone, meaning that its row minima occur in a nondecreasing sequence of columns, and that the same property is true for every subarray. This property allows the row minima to be found quickly by using the SMAWK algorithm.
Monge matrix is just another name for submodular function of two discrete variables. Precisely, A is a Monge matrix if and only if A[i,j] is a submodular function of variables i,j.
Applications
A square Monge matrix which is also symmetric about its main diagonal is called a Supnick matrix (after Fred Supnick); this kind of matrix has applications to the traveling salesman problem (namely, that the problem admits of easy solutions when the distance matrix can be written as a Supnick matrix). Any linear combination of Supnick matrices is itself a Supnick matrix.
References
Theoretical computer science | [
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229651 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Finnish%20mythology | Finnish mythology | Finnish mythology is a commonly applied description of the folklore of Finnish paganism, of which a modern revival is practiced by a small percentage of the Finnish people. It has many features shared with Estonian and other Finnic mythologies, but also shares some similarities with neighbouring Baltic, Slavic and, to a lesser extent, Norse mythologies.
Finnish mythology survived within an oral tradition of mythical poem-singing and folklore well into the 19th century.
Of the animals, the most sacred was the bear, whose real name was never uttered out loud, lest his kind be unfavorable to the hunting. The bear ("karhu" in Finnish) was seen as the embodiment of the forefathers, and for this reason it was called by many circumlocutions: mesikämmen ("mead-paw"), otso ("browed one"), kontio ("dweller of the land"), metsän kultaomena ("the golden apple of the forest") but not a god.
Study of Finnish mythological and religious history
The first historical mention of Finnish folk religion was by the bishop and Lutheran reformer Mikael Agricola (1510–1555) in the preface to his 1551 Finnish translation of the Psalms. Agricola supplied a list of purported deities of the Häme (in Swedish, Tavastia) and Karjala (Karelia), twelve deities in each region, with their supposed functions briefly set out in verse form. (Some commentators state that only eleven deities were listed for Häme, not counting Agricola's mention of Piru, the Devil.) Due to the lists, Agricola is considered to be the father of the study of Finnish religious history and mythology. Later scholars and students commonly quoted Agricola's lists as a historical source; only in the late eighteenth century did scholars begin to critically evaluate the "gods" in Agricola's lists and the information he presented about them, determining with further research that most of the figures in his lists were not gods, but local guardian spirits, figures from folk mythology or explanatory legends, cultural heroes, Christian saints under alternative names, and, in one case, a harvest-time festival.
Cristfried Ganander's Mythologia Fennica, published in 1789, was the first truly scholarly foray into Finnish mythology. In the 19th century, research into Finnish folklore intensified. Scholars like Elias Lönnrot, J.F. Cajan, M.A. Castrén, and D.E.D. Europaeus travelled around Finland writing down folk poetry sung by runo (poem) singers, many of whom were tietäjät (traditional ritual specialists). The genres they collected included material like the synnyt, which give mythical accounts of the origins of many natural phenomena. From this material Lönnrot edited the Kalevala as well as the Kanteletar. The wealth of folk poetry collected in the 19th century often deals with pre-Christian pagan themes, and has allowed scholars to study Finnish mythology in more detail.
The origins and the structure of the world
The world was believed to have been formed out of a bird's egg or eggs. The species of the bird and the number of eggs varies between different stories. In the Kalevala the bird is a pochard that lays seven eggs (six of gold and one of iron); examples from other stories include a swallow, a loon and a mythical giant eagle, kokko. The sky was believed to be the upper cover of the egg; alternately it was seen as a tent, which was supported by a column at the north pole, below the north star.
The movement of the stars was explained to be caused by the sky-dome's rotation around the North Star and itself. A great whirl was caused at the north pole by the rotation of a column of sky. Through this whirl souls could go to the outside of the world to the land of dead, Tuonela.
Earth was believed to be flat. At the edges of Earth was Lintukoto, "the home of the birds", a warm region in which birds lived during the winter. The Milky Way is called Linnunrata, "the path of the birds", because the birds were believed to move along it to Lintukoto and back. In Modern Finnish usage, the word lintukoto means an imaginary happy, warm and peaceful paradise-like place.
Birds also had other significance. Birds brought a human's soul to the body at the moment of birth, and took it away at the moment of death. In some areas, it was necessary to have a wooden bird-figure nearby to prevent the soul from escaping during sleep. This Sielulintu, "the soul-bird", protected the soul from being lost in the paths of dreams.
Waterfowl are very common in tales, and also in stone paintings and carvings, indicating their great significance in the beliefs of ancient Finns.
Tuonela, the land of the dead
Tuonela was the land of dead. It was an underground home or city for all the dead people, not only the good or the bad ones. It was a dark and lifeless place, where everybody slept forever. Still a brave shaman could travel to Tuonela in trance to ask for the forefathers' guidance. To travel to Tuonela, the soul had to cross the dark river of Tuonela. If the shaman had a proper reason, then a boat would come to take them over. Many times a shaman's soul had to trick the guards of Tuonela into believing that they were actually dead.
Ukko, the God of sky and thunder
Ukko ("old man") was a god of the sky, weather, and the crops. The Finnish word for thunder, "ukkonen" (little Ukko) or "ukonilma" (Ukko's weather), is derived from his name. In the Kalevala he is also called "ylijumala" (overgod, Supreme God), as he is the god of things of the sky. He makes all his appearances in myths solely by natural effects when invoked.
Ukko's origins are probably in Baltic Perkons and the older Finnish sky god Ilmarinen. While Ukko took Ilmarinen's position as the Sky God, Ilmarinen's destiny was to turn into a smith-hero, or the god of the rock. In the epic poetry of the Kalevala, Ilmarinen is credited with forging the stars on the dome of the sky and the magic mill of plenty, the Sampo.
Ukko's weapon was a hammer, axe or sword, by which he struck lightning. While Ukko and his wife Akka ("old woman") mated, there was a thunderstorm. He created thunderstorms also by driving with his chariot in clouds. The original weapon of Ukko was probably the boat-shaped stone-axe of battle axe culture. Ukko's hammer, the Vasara (means merely "hammer"), probably meant originally the same thing as the boat-shaped stone axe. When stone tools were abandoned in the metal ages, the origins of stone-weapons became a mystery. They were believed to be weapons of Ukko, stone-heads of striking lightnings. Shamans collected and held stone-axes because they were believed to hold many powers to heal and to damage.
The viper with the saw-figure on its skin has been seen as a symbol of thunder.
Heroes, gods and spirits
Ahti (or Ahto), god of the depths, giver of fish.
Ajatar (sometimes Ajattara), an evil forest spirit.
Akka ("old lady"), female spirit, feminine counterpart of "Ukko".
Äkräs, the god of fertility and the protector of plants, especially the turnip.
Antero Vipunen, deceased giant, protector of deep knowledge and magic.
Hiisi, demon, originally meaning a sacred grove, later a mean goblin.
Iku-Turso, a malevolent sea monster; probably same as Tursas.
Ilmarinen, the great smith, maker of heaven. Designed the Sampo mill of fortune. Originally a male spirit of air.
Ilmatar, female spirit of air; the daughter of primeval substance of creative spirit. Mother of Väinämöinen in Kalevala.
Jumala, a generic name for a major deity. Originally the name given by the Finns to the sky, the sky-god, and the supreme god. Later taivas and Ukko were used as the names for the sky and the sky-god. The word means god and was later used for the Christian God. The origin of the word is unknown – some possible explanations are derivation from Jomali, the supreme deity of the Permians and origination from the Estonian word jume.
Kalevanpoika (son/man of Kaleva), a giant hero who can cut down forests and mow down huge meadows, identical with Estonian national epic hero Kalevipoeg.
Kave, ancient god of sky, later the deity of the lunar cycle. Father of Väinämöinen. Also Kaleva.
Kullervo, tragic antihero. Model for Túrin Turambar in Tolkien's Silmarillion.
Kuu, goddess of the Moon.
Lemminkäinen (Ahti Saarelainen, Kaukomieli), a brash hero.
Lempo, originally a fertility spirit, became synonymous with demon in the Christian era.
Lalli, Finn who slew St. Henry of Uppsala on the ice of Lake Köyliö, according to a legend.
Louhi, the matriarch of Pohjola, hostess of the Underworld.
Loviatar, the blind daughter of Tuoni and the mother of Nine diseases.
Luonnotar, spirit of nature, feminine creator.
Menninkäinen, a fairy spirit, gnome, leprechaun of some sort.
Metsänväki, spirit of forest, forest creature.
Mielikki, wife of Tapio, the goddess of the forest.
Nyyrikki, the god of hunting, son of Tapio.
Näkki, the fearsome spirit of pools, wells and bridges (A spiteful and beautiful womanlike creature with woman's body and fish's behind who flatters men into water in Estonian mythology). Same as Nix.
Otso, the spirit of bear (one of many circumlocutory epithets).
Pekko (or Pellon Pekko), the god of crops, especially barley and brewing.
Perkele, the Devil. Originally a god of thunder, Perkele was demonized with the introduction of the Christian religion. Related to Baltic Perkunas and Norse Thor.
Pellervo (or Sampsa Pellervoinen), the god of harvest.
Pihatonttu, tutelary of the yard.
Piru, spirit, demon. Probably later loan word related to "spirit".
Päivätär, the goddess of day.
Rahko, the Karelian god of time; Rahko tars the moon describes the phases of the moon.
Surma, the personification of a violent death.
Saunatonttu, tutelary of the sauna.
Tapio, the god of the forest.
Tellervo, the goddess of the forest, daughter of Tapio and Mielikki.
Tonttu, generally benign tutelary. Originally, a patron of cultivated land, keeper of lot.
Tuonetar, name referring to both the mistress and the daughter of Tuoni.
Tuoni, the personification of Death.
Tursas, the Tavastian god of war. May be the same as the Norse Tyr and the Germanic Tîwaz.
Tuulikki, daughter of Tapio and Mielikki, goddess of animals.
Ukko ("old man") the god of the sky and thunder, related to Thor (Estonian Taara).
Vellamo, the wife of Ahti, goddess of the sea, lakes and storms. A current image of Vellamo can be seen on the coat of arms of Päijät-häme.
Vedenemo ("mother of waters") the Karelian Goddess of water of the Karelia region resembles a mermaid, with the body of a fish and the torso and head of a human woman. Like a Greek siren, she sings and seduces humans into the murky depths. Fishermen used to offer their first catch to appease Vedenemo, and spotting her was regarded as an extremely bad omen.
Väinämöinen, the old and wise man, who possessed a potent, magical voice. Also related to Estonian Vanemuine. The central character in Finnish folklore and he is the main character in the Kalevala.
Places
Kyöpelinvuori (Raatikko); where women who die as virgins go, and later a place where witches meet at Easter.
Tuonela; (also Manala, Pohjola) abode of the dead, Underworld.
Väinölä (also known as the Land of Kalevala)
Pohjola
Aarnivalkea, an eternal flame marking the spot of buried treasure
Lintukoto, a mythical place where migratory birds were believed to live in wintertime, the word is used as a metaphor for a happy place in Finnish.
Animals
Brown bear; the bear was considered the most sacred of animals in Finnish mythology, only referred to by euphemisms (see taboo and noa-name). The killing of a bear was followed by a great feast in honour of the bear (peijaiset), where a substantial part of the celebrations consisted of convincing the bear's spirit that it had died accidentally and hadn't been murdered. Afterwards, the bear's skull was hung high upon a pine tree so its spirit could re-enter the heavens. Kalevala on the bear.
Swan of Tuonela; (Tuonelan joutsen).
Elk of Hiisi; (Hiiden hirvi).
Artifacts
The Sampo, a magical artifact that brought good fortune to its holder. According to Lönnrot's interpretation in the Kalevala, it was a mill that made flour, salt, and gold out of thin air.
Väinämöinen's magic kantele which he made from the jaws of a huge pike and a young lady's hair.
Väinämöinen's great sword, which shines like the sun and is extraordinarily sharp.
See also
Estonian mythology
Finnish Paganism
Notes
References
Honko, Lauri, Senni Timonen, Michael Branch, and Keith Bosley. (1994). The Great Bear: A Thematic Anthology of Oral Poetry in the Finno-Ugrian Languages. New York: Oxford University Press. Originally published 1993 by the Finnish Literature Society.
Holmberg, Uno. (1964). Finno-Ugric, Siberian. The Mythology of All Races, Vol. IV (ed. by John Arnott MacCullough). New York: Cooper Square Publishers, 1964. Originally published 1927 by Marshall Jones, Boston.
Pentikäinen, Juha Y. (1999). Kalevala Mythology, expanded ed. Translated by Ritva Poom. Bloomington: Indiana University Press.
Kuusi, Matti, Keith Bosley, and Michael Branch. (1977). Finnish Folk Poetry: Epic. Helsinki: Finnish Literature Society.
Pentikäinen, Juha. (2002). "Kalevala: the Finnish national epic" ThisisFINLAND
Talve, Ilmar. (1997). Finnish Folk Culture. Studia Fennica, Ethnologica 4. Translated by Susan Sinisalo. Helsinki: Finnish Literature Society.
Virtanen, Leea and Dubois, Thomas. (2000). Finnish Folklore. Studia Fennica, Folklorista 9. Translated by Thomas Dubois. Helsinki: Finnish Literature Society in association with University of Washington Press, Seattle, WA.
Further reading
Valk, Ülo (2000), “Ex Ovo Omnia: Where Does the Balto-Finnic Cosmogony Originate? The Etiology of an Etiology”, Oral Tradition 15: 145-158.
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229652 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lenovo%20System%20x | Lenovo System x | System x is a line of x86 servers produced by IBM – and later by Lenovo – as a sub-brand of IBM's System brand, alongside IBM Power Systems, IBM System z and IBM System Storage. In addition, IBM System x was the main component of the IBM System Cluster 1350 solution.
In January 2014, IBM announced the sale of its x86 server business to Lenovo for $2.3 billion, in a sale completed October 1, 2014.
History
Starting out with the PS/2 Server, then the IBM PC Server, rebranded Netfinity, then eServer xSeries and finally System x, these servers are distinguished by being based on off-the-shelf x86 CPUs; IBM positioned them as their "low end" or "entry" offering compared to their POWER and Mainframe products.
Previously IBM servers based on AMD Opteron CPUs did not share the xSeries brand; instead they fell directly under the eServer umbrella. However, later AMD Opteron-based servers did fall under the System x brand.
Predecessors
IBM PS/2 Server
IBM PS/2 Server 85 (Type 9585), 1992
IBM PS/2 Server 95 (Types 8595, 9595, 9595A), 1990–1992
IBM PS/2 Server 195, 1993
IBM PS/2 Server 295, 1992
IBM PC Server
PC Server range
IBM PC Server 300, 1994
IBM PC Server 310 (PCI/ISA), 1996
IBM PC Server 315 (PCI/ISA), 1996
IBM PC Server 320 (PCI/EISA), 1996
IBM PC Server 325 (PCI/EISA), 1996
IBM PC Server 330 (PCI/EISA), 1997
IBM PC Server 500 (MCA), 1994
IBM PC Server 520 (PCI/EISA or PCI/MCA), 1995-1996
IBM PC Server 704 (PCI/EISA), 1996
IBM PC Server 720 (PCI/MCA), 1995-1996
Numbering scheme
300 range for high-volume, entry level servers
500 range for midrange
700 range for high-end.
IBM Netfinity
1998–2001 server line; Not to be confused with a software IBM product with a similar name, NetFinity (notice the capital F).
Netfinity range
IBM Netfinity 1000
IBM Netfinity 3000, 3500
IBM Netfinity 4000R, 4500R
IBM Netfinity 5000, 5100, 5500, 5500-M10, 5500-M20, 5600
IBM Netfinity 6000R
IBM Netfinity 7000, 7000-M10, 7100, 7600
IBM Netfinity 8500R
Numbering scheme
The numbering scheme started off similar to that of the IBM PC Servers, but additional ranges were added, like the entry-level 1000 model later on. Models ending with an R, are rack-mount.
KVM cabling scheme
Some Netfinity servers used IBM's C2T cabling scheme for Keyboard/Video/Mouse.
IBM eServer
IBM eServer range
IBM eServer was a marketing effort to put all of the diverse IBM server platforms under one header. The AS/400 became the IBM eServer iSeries, the RS/6000 became the IBM eServer pSeries, the S/390 mainframe became the IBM eServer zSeries and the Intel processor based IBM Netfinity servers became the IBM eServer xSeries.
A few exceptions were however made
IBM eServer 325, 326, 326m
IBM eServer BladeCenter, BladeCenter T, BladeCenter H, BladeCenter HT
Numbering scheme
For marketing reasons the AMD processor based e325, e326 and e326m and the BladeCenter which supports non-Intel processor products were not branded xSeries, but were instead placed directly under the eServer brand. The xSeries brand was limited to only Intel-based server products.
From a numbering perspective the AMD servers did fit into the xSeries range, under the similar x335 and x336 Intel processor products. These numbers were not re-used in the xSeries range to prevent confusion.
IBM eServer xSeries
While most servers used Intel x86 (IA32) processors, the x380, x382, x450 and x455 used the Intel Itanium (IA64) processor.
xSeries range
IBM eServer xSeries 100, 130, 135, 150
IBM eServer xSeries 200, 205, 206, 206m, 220, 225, 226, 230, 232, 235, 236, 240, 250, 255, 260
IBM eServer xSeries 300, 305, 306, 306m, 330, 335, 336, 340, 342, 345, 346, 350, 360, 365, 366, 370, 380, 382
IBM eServer xSeries 440, 445, 450, 455, 460
Numbering scheme
100 series are entry-level tower servers
200 series are tower servers
300 series are rack-mount servers
400 series are rack-mount scalable servers
KVM cabling scheme
Many xSeries servers used IBM's C2T cabling scheme for Keyboard/Video/Mouse.
System x
IBM System x range
IBM System x3105, x3100, x3100 M3, x3100 M4, x3100 M5
IBM System x3200, x3200 M2, x3200 M3, x3250, x3250 M2, x3250 M3, x3250 M4, x3250 M5, x3250 M6
IBM System x3300 M3, x3300 M4
IBM System x3350
IBM System x3400, x3400 M2, x3400 M3, x3450, x3455
IBM System x3500, x3500 M2, x3500 M3, x3500 M4
IBM System x3530 M3, x3530 M4
IBM System x3550, x3550 M2, x3550 M3, x3550 M4, x3550 M5
IBM System x3620 M3
IBM System x3630 M3, x3630 M4
IBM System x3650, x3650T, x3655, x3650 M2, x3650 M3, x3650 M4, x3650 M4 HD, x3650 M4 BD, 3650 M5
IBM System x3690 X5
IBM System x3750 M4
IBM System x3755, x3755 M3
IBM System x3800, x3850, x3850 M2, x3850 X5, x3850 X6
IBM System x3950, x3950 M2, x3950 X5, x3950 X6
Lenovo System x range
These systems are effectively the same as the previous IBM branded models, but with a Lenovo badge.
Lenovo System x3100 M5
Lenovo System x3250 M5, x3250 M6
Lenovo System x3500 M5
Lenovo System x3550 M4, x3550 M5
Lenovo System x3650 M4, x3650 M5
Lenovo System x3850 X6
Lenovo System x3950 X6
Lenovo NextScale
Lenovo FlexSystem
Lenovo also had its own ThinkServer family of Intel servers. This family is technically less advanced than System x. At the time of this writing, System x is being discontinued and replaced by the Lenovo ThinkSystem family of Intel servers.
Enterprise eX5 architecture
Enterprise X4 architecture
Numbering scheme
2nd digit increments to show capability
3rd digit is a 0 for tower models, and 5 for rack-mount
4th digit is a 0 for Intel processors, and 5 for AMD Opteron.
Models with a T at the end are meant for Telco purposes.
IBM iDataPlex
IBM System x iDataPlex, introduced in 2008, was used by many TOP500 supercomputers (as part of IBM Intelligent Cluster), including SuperMUC, Yellowstone and Stampede. Other smaller installations included SciNet Consortium's General Purpose Cluster
It is an unusual form-factor in that you have two columns of 19" rack servers side-by-side in a single rack. This rack, unlike traditional racks, however was very shallow which is where the space saving came from for large installations. As such it only supports specially designed shallow servers. It was typically deployed in combination with a Rear Door Heat Exchanger (RDHx) to cool the exhaust heat with water.
It was replaced with IBM NeXtScale in 2014.
Components
iDataPlex could be ordered as preconfigured rack tower (System x iDataPlex Rack with optional Rack management appliance), or as independent nodes.
Rack
iDataPlex 100U rack — compact dual rack ((1200x600mm footprint — instead of standard 1280x1050 (2x 42U rack))
Chassis
System x iDataPlex 2U Flex chassis
System x iDataPlex 3U Flex chassis — same as 2U with another coolers and additional storage.
Chassis also compatible with standard racks (with another rails).
Nodes
1U blade servers.
System x iDataPlex dx320 — 20??
System x iDataPlex dx340 — 20??
System x iDataPlex dx360 M1 — 2008,
System x iDataPlex dx360 M2 — 2009,
System x iDataPlex dx360 M3 — 201?,
System x iDataPlex dx360 M4 — 2013,
See also
List of IBM products
iDataCool — watercooled version of iDataPlex
References
System x
Divested IBM products
System x | [
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229653 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fielding%20L.%20Wright | Fielding L. Wright | Fielding Lewis Wright (May 16, 1895May 4, 1956) was an American politician who served as the 19th Lieutenant Governor and 49th and 50th Governor of Mississippi. During the 1948 presidential election he served as the vice presidential nominee of the States' Rights Democratic Party (Dixiecrats) alongside presidential nominee Strom Thurmond. During his political career he fought to maintain racial segregation, fought with President Harry S. Truman over civil rights legislation, and held other racist views.
Wright grew up in Rolling Fork, Mississippi, where he was educated and later attended Gardner–Webb University and the University of Alabama. During World War I he was sent to France as a captain. He served in the 149th Machine Gun Battalion and the 105th Engineer Combat Battalion before being honorably discharged in 1919. Following his service in the United States Army he joined the Mississippi National Guard.
After entering politics in the 1920s he was elected to the state legislature where he served in the late 1920s and through the 1930s. Following the death of Speaker Horace Stansel he rose to the Speakership of the state House of Representatives. After a brief absence from politics he was elected as Mississippi's Lieutenant Governor and served until he ascended to the governorship following the death of Thomas L. Bailey on November 2, 1946. During his gubernatorial tenure he made efforts to maintain racial segregation and supported Senator Theodore G. Bilbo, a member of the Ku Klux Klan and segregationist, in his attempt to maintain his seat in the United States Senate.
Wright was elected to a term in his own right in the 1947 election. In his inaugural address he voiced opposition to Truman's support of civil rights and called for Southern Democrats to leave the Democratic Party. He served as a leader of the States' Rights Democratic Party, declining offers to run for the presidential nomination, although he later accepted the vice-presidential nomination. In the presidential election Thurmond and Wright won multiple Southern states, but failed to prevent Truman from winning the presidential election. Wright completed his gubernatorial term on January 22, 1952, and retired from public service. He unsuccessfully sought the Democratic nomination in the 1955 Mississippi gubernatorial election, and died on May 4, 1956.
Early life and education
Fielding Lewis Wright was born on May 16, 1895, in Rolling Fork, Mississippi, to Frances Foote Clements and Henry James Wright and was named after his uncle Colonel Fielding Lewis. In 1901, he entered elementary school and graduated in 1911, as a member of the school's second graduating class. Wright attended Gardner–Webb University and the University of Alabama, graduating with a law degree and was later admitted to the legal bar in September 1916. On July 16, 1917, he married Nan Kelly, with whom he had two children.
Military
In April 1918, Wright enlisted into the United States Army and was given the rank of private at Camp Shelby. He served as a member of the 149th Machine Gun Battalion inside the 38th Infantry Division. He later served as the commander of the 105th Engineer Combat Battalion. During World War I he participated in the battles of Belleau Wood and Château-Thierry before being honorably discharged on August 31, 1919. After leaving the army he organized a unit of the Mississippi National Guard in Rolling Fork and was selected to serve as its first captain where he would lead the unit through the Great Mississippi Flood of 1927.
Career
Local politics
During the 1920s Wright served two terms on the Rolling Fork Board of Alderman. In 1927, he was elected to represent the Twentieth district in the state senate and served until 1932. In 1930, he was appointed to serve as the assistant director of the state tax commission to aid in the enforcement and administration of the tax laws.
Mississippi House of Representatives
In 1932, Wright was elected to the state House of Representatives and served until 1940. In 1932, he was appointed to serve as the chairman of the House Committee on Highways and Highway Financing. In 1936, he was appointed to serve as the chairman of the House Rules Committee and was also appointed onto the Levees committee and the Joint Committee on Executive Contingent Fund. On March 19, 1936, he introduced a resolution proposing an state constitutional amendment that would allow for the election of highway commission members starting in the 1938 elections, but the resolution failed.
Speaker of the House
In February 1936, Speaker Horace Stansel requested for Wright to be designated as the acting Speaker of the House and the request was accepted. On April 4, Stansel died from a heart attack while Wright was still serving as the acting Speaker and Wright participated in the planning of Stansel's funeral.
From June 23 to 27, 1936, Governor Hugh L. White was outside of Mississippi to attend the Democratic national convention causing Lieutenant Governor Jacob Buehler Snider to become the acting governor. When Snider left the state Senator John Culkin, President pro tempore, was elevated to acting governor. If Culkin had left the state the Speaker of the House would have become the acting governor, but Wright was not eligible as he was in an acting role. However, Culkin did not leave the state which prevented a constitutional crisis over the succession of acting governor.
On September 14, 1936, he was nominated by Pearl Stansel and the House of Representatives voted by acclamation, as he faced no opposition despite statements made by John Armstrong and Ira L. Morgan about being interested in running, to formally appoint Wright as the Speaker of the House.
After being appointed to the speakership Wright appointed Hilton Waits to replace him as the chairman of the House Rules committee and appointed R. E. Lee to replace him as the chairman of the Highways and Highway Financing House committee. Waits resigned shortly after being appointed as chairman of the House Rules Committee and Joe Owen was selected by Wright to replace him. Wright would continue to serve as Speaker of the House until 1940.
On March 24, 1938, the House of Representatives voted twenty-one to nineteen in favor of drafting articles of impeachment against Land Commissioner R. D. Moore. Wright appointed a five-man committee of Walter Sillers, John T. Armstrong, Gerald Chatham, Guy B. Mitchell, and Sam Lumpkin to draft the articles of impeachment. Moore criticized the committee as being "stacked" against his favor by Wright.
Interlude
Although it was speculated that Wright would run in the lieutenant gubernatorial election in 1939, he announced on July 19, 1938, that he would not seek another term in the House of Representatives and would not seek election to another office.
After leaving the state house he started working for the law firm of John Brunini and Sons in Rolling Fork. In 1942, he represented the Union Producing company at a House Ways and Means committee to argue for Mississippi to place flat taxes on oil producers rather than multiple severance and sales taxes. After the United States entered World War II Wright attempted to rejoin the army, but was rejected due to his poor eyesight.
Lieutenant gubernatorial
On November 19, 1942, Wright met with friends in Jackson, Mississippi, and stated that he would be a candidate in the lieutenant gubernatorial election. In January 1943, he formally announced his candidacy for the Democratic nomination for the lieutenant gubernatorial election. Walter D. Davis, a former member of the state House of Representatives and attorney in the Department of War, was appointed to serve as his campaign manager.
In the initial primary he won with a plurality of the vote ahead of Paul Spearman and Charles G. Hamilton, who were eliminated, and John Lumpkin, who would continue onto the runoff primary. Wright defeated Lumpkin in the runoff with 155,265 to 108,661 votes winning the Democratic nomination. In the general election he and gubernatorial nominee Thomas L. Bailey faced no opposition.
The state House and Senate passed a resolution allowing for Wright to be inaugurated one day before Bailey and Wright was inaugurated as the Lieutenant Governor of Mississippi on January 17, 1944. On March 21, 1944, he gave his first tie breaking vote, in which he voted in favor, when the state Senate voted nineteen in favor to nineteen against on a bill authorizing chancery clerks to use photostat machines in recording records. In April 1944, Wright became acting governor when Governor Bailey went to Kansas City to attend the Methodist general conference as one of Mississippi's two delegates.
In 1946, he attempted to call another session of the state legislature to have the state's election laws changed to prevent black voters from participating in the 1947 primaries. In June 1946, he refused to authorize the extradition of George Johnson, a black man facing charges of child abandonment, back to California and refused to commute the death sentence of James Leo Williams, a 25 year old black man convicted for murder, while serving as acting governor. On August 1, 1946, he was made aware of plans by the Department of Justice to investigate the activities of the Ku Klux Klan in Mississippi. Wright claimed that he did not know of any activities conducted by the Ku Klux Klan and that the organization had not existed in the state since 1923.
Gubernatorial
First term
On October 30, 1946, Governor Bailey suffered a stroke and was in poor health for the next four days until he died from a spinal tumor on November 2. Wright was supposed to leave the state for a physical checkup, but remained in Mississippi due to Bailey's poor health and succeed him following his death to fulfill the remainder of his term as the 49th Governor. On November 7, he was formally inaugurated by Chief Justice Sydney M. Smith without a ceremony.
The United States Senate, controlled by a Republican majority, refused to seat Senator Theodore G. Bilbo at the request of Senator Glen H. Taylor. Wright threatened to appoint Bilbo to serve as an interim Senator if he was not allowed to be seated, for which the Harrison County affiliate of the Bilbo Campaign Committee passed a resolution praising Wright. The issue was resolved when it was proposed that Bilbo's credentials remain on the table while he returned home to Mississippi to seek medical treatment for oral cancer. When Bilbo died on August 21, 1947, Wright stated that "He was a long and faithful servant of the state. He was an outstanding official whose loss will be felt by Mississippi."
On May 20, the Amalgamated Association of Street Car, Electric Railway and Motor Coarch Employees of America, affiliated with the American Federation of Labor, organized a walkout and strike to improve the wages of bus drivers working for Southern Trailways, the Mississippi affiliate of the Trailways Transportation System. On September 28, a man driving a carnival truck attempted to crash into two Trailway buses and later another driver attempted to crash a bus off a highway near Winona. On October 1, Wright threatened to place members of the Mississippi National Guard onboard every bus with orders to shoot to protect the buses. In November, the Mississippi Bureau of Investigation was formed as a temporarily state police force to prevent further violence during the strike, although it was criticized as similar to the Gestapo and the Veterans of Foreign Wars post in Hattiesburg passed a resolution calling it fascist, Wright successfully transformed it into a permanent police force.
1947 election
On January 25, 1947, Wright announced his intention to seek election to a term in his own right in the 1947 Mississippi gubernatorial election. Paul B. Johnson Jr., the son of former governor and representative Paul B. Johnson Sr., later announced his intention to challenge Wright in the Democratic primary. On June 12, he formally launched his campaign at a campaign rally in Rolling Fork where he showed his twenty-point platform which included support for veteran benefits, road improvements, sales tax exemptions, and stopping outside influence on Mississippi.
On August 5, he won the Democratic primary with over 55% of the popular vote and later received a letter of congratulations from Johnson, who had placed second in the primary. Wright's first ballot victory was the second time in Mississippi history that the Democratic gubernatorial nominee won without a runoff being needed, with Theodore G. Bilbo's 1915 victory being the first. In the general election he defeated former Nebraskan Governor George L. Sheldon, who ran on the ballot as an Independent Republican and who had stated that he had only expected to receive a few thousand votes against Wright.
Second term
On January 20, 1948, Wright was inaugurated as the 50th Governor of Mississippi by Chief Justice Sydney M. Smith. In his inaugural address he called for Southern Democrats to abandon the Democratic Party due to the Fair Employment Practice Committee, and anti-poll tax, anti-lynching, and pro-civil rights measures. He also criticized President Harry S. Truman for his committee on civil rights and support for other "anti-southern" legislation.
His speech and call for Southern Democrats to leave the party was praised by Senator James Eastland and Representatives John Bell Williams and Jamie Whitten who stated that they had been ignored by the party's leadership and should not allow the region's racial beliefs to be undermined. However, Senators Allen J. Ellender and Claude Pepper, Representative William Madison Whittington, Governor Benjamin Travis Laney, and Alabama Democratic Chairman Gessner T. McCorvey criticized him stating that they should remain in the party to reform it from the inside. On January 21, the state house and senate approved resolutions supporting threats to leave the party if more "anti-southern" legislation was passed.
In April, the state legislature passed the first workers' compensation bill in Mississippi history and it was later signed into law by Wright. Secretary of Labor Lewis B. Schwellenbach praised the passage of the bill as Mississippi was the last of the then forty-eight states to pass a workers' compensation bill.
On July 8, Lycurgus Spinks, who had run in the 1947 Democratic gubernatorial primary and was an Imperial Emperor of the United Klans of America, filed a $50,000 lawsuit against Wright claiming that Wright, W.W. Wright, and George Godwin had convinced John L. Dagget to cancel a contract he had with Spinks. On January 11, 1949, Spinks' lawsuit was dismissed by Judge Sidney Carr Mize of the Southern District Court of Mississippi, but Spinks refiled his lawsuit. On June 29, Spinks removed Wright from his lawsuit, but continued his lawsuit against W. W. Wright and George Godwin.
On September 7, Wright declared a state of emergency as Mississippi had suffered its second highest number of polio cases in its history during 1949.
In 1951, Wright had the execution of Willie McGee, a black man, carried out. McGee's execution was included in a petition by the Civil Rights Congress to the United Nations as an example of genocide being committed against black people in the United States.
Segregation
In February 1948, a "State-wide Mass Meeting of Negro citizens" organized in Jackson, Mississippi, and called for a biracial committee to oversee the educational improvement project that was started in 1946, but Wright declined their request.
Due to federal threats to force the integration of schools Wright reorganized Mississippi's public education system in an attempt to maintain racial segregation. Education funding towards black schools was increased, but still remained inferior to the funding given to white-only schools. In 1951, he opposed attempts by the NAACP to admit black students into white-only colleges and stated that he would "insist on (racial) segregation regardless of the costs or consequences." At the Southern Governors Conference Wright stated that "regardless of what others may say, we in Mississippi are determined that the segregated educational system shall be maintained."
1948 presidential election
Democratic
Wright's inaugural address calling for Southerners to abandon the Democratic Party was supported by Senator James Eastland, who was later invited to speak before the state legislature. On January 29, 1948, Senator Eastland gave a speech to a joint session of the Mississippi state legislature where he called for the Solid South to withhold its 127 electoral votes from the Democratic presidential nominee so that "a Southern man would emerge as president of the United States".
In February, Wright attended the Southern Governors' Association conference with plans to introduce a resolution calling for the creation of a new Southern party. However, Georgia Governor Melvin E. Thompson gave Wright a copy of a statement condemning his call although Wright stated that he would still introduce his resolution. Alabama Governor Jim Folsom, Maryland Governor William Preston Lane Jr., and Florida Governor Millard Caldwell also criticized Wright while South Carolina Governor Strom Thurmond and Texas Governor Beauford H. Jester declined to comment. When he proposed his resolution it was rejected by the eight other governors present and a different resolution calling for a committee to study the effects of recently proposed civil rights legislation was accepted. Although Wright's resolution was unsuccessful another resolution proposed by Thurmond calling for the Truman administration to stop attacking white supremacy or the Southern Democrats would leave the party.
After his failure at the Southern Governors' Association conference Wright went to Little Rock, Arkansas to meet with political leaders. While there almost four hundred Arkansas political leaders voted unanimously in favor of a resolution supporting Wright and in Virginia Governor William M. Tuck called for the state legislature to prevent Truman from appearing on the ballot. On March 13, another Southern governor meeting was held where a resolution against civil rights and the party's leadership was supported by the governors of South Carolina, Texas, Arkansas, Mississippi, Georgia, Virginia, and Florida while the governors of North Carolina and Louisiana were not at the meeting and the governor of Maryland voted "present".
The Anti-Truman Democratic Club of Florida, which controlled twenty-eight of Florida's delegates to the national convention, formed a presidential draft movement supporting Wright. The organization also passed a resolution where it would support South Carolina Governor Strom Thurmond or Arkansas Governor Benjamin Travis Laney if Wright did not run for the presidency. After being informed of the movement Wright stated that he was not interested in running for president. Former Alabama Governor Frank M. Dixon attempted to start another draft movement for Wright, but Wright declined to run for president again.
On May 10, the States' Rights Democrats conference was held in Jackson, Mississippi, with Wright serving as temporary chairman. The conference was attended by around 2,500 people and a resolution calling for a separate national convention in Birmingham was passed.
On May 25, Wright was elected to serve as one of Sharkey County's eight delegates to Mississippi's state Democratic convention. On June 23, he was selected to serve as one of the delegates to the national convention.
Dixiecrat
Wright and former Governor Hugh L. White led the twenty-two member Mississippi delegation to the Democratic National Convention. At the national convention he and the Mississippi delegation supported Governor Laney for the presidential nomination. An attempt was made by Charles Hamilton to prevent the seating of the Mississippi delegation due to its pledge to leave the party if Truman was nominated or if the platform was pro-civil rights. However, the Credentials Committee voted fifteen to eleven in favor of seating Wright's delegation.
On July 14, he led the Mississippi delegation in a walkout of the convention to protest the adoption of a pro-civil rights plank into the party's platform. On July 17, the Conference of States' Rights Democrats in Birmingham, Alabama suggested him as a candidate for the vice presidential nomination of the breakaway States' Rights Democratic Party and he later accepted the nomination on August 11.
During the election Wright, a supporter of racial segregation, stated that “if any of you [African Americans] have become so deluded as to want to enter our white schools, patronize our hotels and cafes, enjoy social equality with the whites, then true kindness and sympathy requires me to advise you to make your homes in some other state.”
In the general election he and South Carolina Governor Strom Thurmond won the popular and electoral votes of the states of Louisiana, Mississippi, Alabama, and South Carolina, and received one faithless electoral vote from Tennessee. Although the party won multiple states it was unsuccessful in its goal of preventing Truman from winning the election as he still managed to defeat Republican nominee Thomas E. Dewey without the unanimous support of the Solid South.
The failure to spoil the election against Truman was credited to the Dixiecrats being a third party within the United States' two-party system, the Republicans' campaign against Truman in which Dewey did not criticize Truman for his administration's scandals, the Progressive presidential nominee Henry A. Wallace focusing on an idealistic foreign policy, remaining support of the New Deal, labor issues voters against the Taft–Hartley Act, and farm issue voters.
In 1950, Truman invited every governor from the South to a luncheon, except for Wright and Thurmond, as Truman stated that invitations were given to Democrats only.
Later life
In 1952, Wright was selected to serve as Mississippi's national committeeman to the Democratic National Committee for a four-year term. During the 1952 presidential election he supported the Democratic presidential ticket of Governor Adlai Stevenson II and Senator John Sparkman and stated that he would not support the Republican presidential ticket of General Dwight D. Eisenhower and Senator Richard Nixon.
On October 2, 1954, Wright announced that he would seek the Democratic nomination for governor and he selected Gordon Roach, an attorney who had served as Pike County attorney, as his campaign manager. On May 5, 1955, he formally launched his campaign at his home in Rolling Fork with around 3,500 people in attendance. During the election he attended a meeting in Canton, Mississippi, organized by the pro-segregation Citizens' Councils where he and four other gubernatorial candidates voiced their support for racial segregation in education. In the initial Democratic primary Wright placed third behind James P. Coleman and Paul B. Johnson Jr. preventing him from participating in the primary runoff.
Death and legacy
On May 4, 1956, Wright suffered a heart attack and died forty minutes later at his home in Jackson, Mississippi. Following his death, his son Fielding Wright Jr. was selected to succeed him as the president of the United Cerebral Palsy of Mississippi, Incorporated, a cerebral palsy humanitarian organization. His funeral was held on May 6, and was attended by Senator Strom Thurmond, state senator R. M. Kennedy, Mississippi Governor James P. Coleman, Mississippi Lieutenant Governor Carroll Gartin, and Mississippi Secretary of State Heber Ladner. Thurmond stated that his death was "a tremendous loss to the South and to the nation."
On November 17, 1960, a section of Highway 61 inside Mississippi was designated as the Fielding L. Wright Memorial Highway. An art center at the Delta State University and a science complex in the Mississippi Valley State University were named after him.
In 1990, former Arkansas Governor Sid McMath stated that Wright and Thurmond's nominations were "a racist thing" as "they were against Truman because of his attitude toward race and fair employment and these other things that finally became a matter of course later on, this social legislation."
Electoral history
See also
Curtis LeMay – vice-presidential nominee of the American Independent Party in 1968
Herman Talmadge – selected vice-presidential nominee of a faithless elector in 1956
Thomas H. Werdel – vice-presidential nominee of multiple third parties in 1956
References
External links
Mississippi History Now, publication of the Mississippi History Society
Mississippi Code of 1972, Fielding L. Wright Health Fund Established
Federal Register of Electoral College Votes, 1948 Election
The Dixiecrat Revolt & The End Of The Solid South, University of North Carolina Press
|-
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1895 births
1956 deaths
1948 United States vice-presidential candidates
American Methodists
United States Army personnel of World War I
American people of English descent
American people of Welsh descent
American segregationists
American white supremacists
Democratic Party state governors of the United States
Governors of Mississippi
Lewis family
Lieutenant Governors of Mississippi
Members of the Mississippi House of Representatives
Mississippi Democrats
Mississippi Dixiecrats
Mississippi state senators
People from Rolling Fork, Mississippi
Speakers of the Mississippi House of Representatives
University of Alabama alumni
Webb School (Bell Buckle, Tennessee) alumni
Candidates in the 1948 United States presidential election
United States Army soldiers | [
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229654 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hugh%20L.%20White | Hugh L. White | Hugh Lawson White (August 19, 1881September 20, 1965) was an American politician from Mississippi and a member of the Democratic Party. He served two non-consecutive terms as Governor of Mississippi (1936–1940, 1952–1956).
Biography
White was born near McComb and attended the University of Mississippi where he was a member of St. Anthony Hall.
White was a wealthy industrialist and had been mayor of Columbia when he was first elected to the governorship, serving from 1926 until 1936. In 1936 he established the Balance Agriculture With Industry (BAWI) program that sought to develop an industrial base that matched the state's agricultural base. Under BAWI, advertising and incentives were deployed in hopes of enticing industries to locate to the state. Local governments could issue bonds to construct factories that could be leased to companies (which were also offered tax breaks).
After leaving office due to term limits, White was a delegate representing Mississippi at the 1948 Democratic National Convention. When Mayor of Minneapolis Hubert Humphrey urged the Democratic Party to "get out of the shadow of states' rights and walk forthrightly into the bright sunshine of human rights", White and the other delegates from Mississippi and Alabama walked out of the convention. White and these delegates formed the Dixiecrat Party, nominating Strom Thurmond for President.
In 1951, White won a second term, during which the issue of school segregation was a main issue. During the 1940s and early 1950s, federal courts made a series of decisions that indicated that the notion of "separate but equal" schools would soon be declared unconstitutional. Governor White and the state legislature prepared for that possibility by creating plans that sought to improve black schools. Among the proposals were increasing black teacher salaries to match white teachers' and building black schools on par with white schools. White called one hundred of the state's black leaders to a meeting at the capital to ask for their support of the plan. Much to his surprise, they overwhelmingly rejected his "voluntary" segregation plan and instead stated that they wanted only an integrated school system. In 1954, the U.S. Supreme Court made the famous Brown v. Board of Education decision that declared the practice of "separate but equal" to be unconstitutional. On August 28, 1955, towards the end of White's term as governor, the infamous lynching of Emmett Till took place. Three months earlier, an African American minister, George W. Lee, had been shot and killed in Mississippi as well. When the story of Till's death broke, White decried the violence against Till and promised a full investigation of his murder.
Tributes
Hugh White State Park, a Mississippi state park, is named for him. The Keys Hill Historic District, Broad Street, Columbia, was added to the National Register of Historic Places, including White's former home, the Hugh Lawson White Mansion, for its association with him.
References
External links
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1881 births
1965 deaths
20th-century American politicians
American Presbyterians
Democratic Party state governors of the United States
Governors of Mississippi
Mississippi Democrats
People from Columbia, Mississippi
People from Pike County, Mississippi
University of Mississippi alumni
Mississippi Dixiecrats
American segregationists
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229655 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anselm%20J.%20McLaurin | Anselm J. McLaurin | Anselm Joseph McLaurin (March 26, 1848December 22, 1909) was the 34th Governor of Mississippi, serving from 1896 to 1900.
Life and career
McLaurin was born on March 26, 1848, in Brandon, Mississippi, the son of Ellen Caroline (Tullus) and Lauchlin McLaurin III. He married Laura Elvira Rauch and had a daughter, Stella May McLaurin. The Scottish Gaelic form of the name is Mac Labhruinn, which means son of Labhran or son of Laurence.
He became district attorney at age 21 and was described as "one of the foremost lawyers in the State". He participated in the convention for the writing of the Mississippi Constitution in 1890 and was described as a free-coinage man. A Democrat, as were most whites in the South through the mid-twentieth century, McLaurin was elected by the state legislature to the U.S. Senate, serving from 1894 to 1895.
He was the first Governor of Mississippi to be elected under the Mississippi Constitution of 1890, which disenfranchised most blacks by raising barriers to voter registration. These changes essentially ended the competitiveness of the Republican Party in the state, as well as severely weakening the Populist Party. The last Confederate veteran elected as governor, McLaurin won the 1895 election, defeating Populist Frank Burkitt. He served from 1896 to 1900.
At Hazlehurst in 1898 the Governor explained in a speech that one of the causes of the depleted state treasury was inadequate taxation of the railroad corporations.
In October 1898 McLaurin traveled by train to Forest, Mississippi, after white rioting in nearby Harperville. Blacks had resisted the arrest of one of their community, killing one white man. A mob of whites quickly gathered, killing nine blacks by the next day. The county sheriff and a posse arrested some blacks, while the white mob continued to kill blacks on sight. The New Orleans Picayune said that 11 black men were killed and one white. The sheriff took several black men under armed guard to Meridian, Mississippi, to protect them from the white mobs in Forest.
McLaurin returned to the US Senate in 1901 after being elected by the state legislature to that seat in 1900; he was re-elected January 19, 1904.
He died of heart disease at age 61 on December 22, 1909, at his home in Brandon, Mississippi. He was sitting in a rocking chair in front of his fireplace.
Legacy
A great-great-grandson of McLaurin was actor and comedian Robin Williams, who was given McLaurin as his middle name.
See also
List of United States Congress members who died in office (1900–49)
References
External links
Anselm J. McLaurin, late a senator from Mississippi, Memorial addresses delivered in the House of Representatives and Senate frontispiece 1911
1848 births
1909 deaths
American people of Scottish descent
Confederate States Army soldiers
District attorneys in Mississippi
Governors of Mississippi
Democratic Party United States senators
Mississippi Democrats
United States senators from Mississippi
People from Brandon, Mississippi
Democratic Party state governors of the United States
Robin Williams | [
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229656 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Santiago%20Calatrava | Santiago Calatrava | Santiago Calatrava Valls (born 29 July 1951) is a Spanish architect, structural engineer, sculptor and painter, particularly known for his bridges supported by single leaning pylons, and his railway stations, stadiums, and museums, whose sculptural forms often resemble living organisms. His best-known works include the Olympic Sports Complex of Athens, the Milwaukee Art Museum, the Turning Torso tower in Malmö, Sweden, the World Trade Center Transportation Hub in New York City, the Auditorio de Tenerife in Santa Cruz de Tenerife, the Margaret Hunt Hill Bridge in Dallas, Texas, and his largest project, the City of Arts and Sciences and Opera House in his birthplace, Valencia. His architectural firm has offices in New York City, Doha, and Zürich.
Early life
Calatrava was born on 28 July 1951, in Benimàmet, an old municipality now part of Valencia, Spain. His Calatrava surname was an old aristocratic one from medieval times, and was once associated with an order of knights in Spain. He had his primary and secondary schooling in Valencia, and, beginning in 1957, studied drawing and painting at the School of Applied Art. In 1964, as the regime of General Francisco Franco relaxed and Spain became more open to the rest of Europe, he went to France as an exchange student. In 1968, after completing secondary school, he went to study at the Ecole des Beaux Arts in Paris, but he arrived in the midst of student uprisings and turmoil in Paris, and returned home. Back in Valencia, discovered a book about the architecture of Le Corbusier, which persuaded him that he could be both an artist and an architect. He enrolled in the Higher School of Architecture at the Polytechnic University of Valencia. He received his diploma as an architect and then did higher studies in urbanism. At the University he completed independent projects with fellow students, publishing two books on the vernacular architecture of Valencia and Ibiza.
In 1975 he enrolled in the Swiss Federal Institute of Technology in Zürich, Switzerland for a second degree in civil engineering. In 1981 he was awarded a doctorate in the department of architecture, after completing his thesis on "The Pliability of three-dimensional structures." Speaking of this period, Calatrava told biographer Philip Jodildo (AKA Nick Fendt, Jet):"The desire to start all over at zero was very strong in me. I was determined to put to one side all that I had learned in architecture school, and to learn to draw and think like an engineer. I was fascinated by the concept of gravity and convinced that it was necessary to begin work with simple forms." Calatrava explained that he was particularly influenced by the work of the early 20th century Swiss engineer Robert Maillart (1872–1940), which taught him that, "with an adequate combination of force and mass, you can create emotion."
First projects and international attention
As soon as Calatrava completed his doctorate in 1981, he opened his own office in Zurich. He designed an exposition hall, a factory, a library, and 2 bridges, but none were built, Finally in 1983, he began to receive commissions for industrial and transportation structures of increasingly greater size; he designed and built the Entrepôt Jakem, a warehouse in Münchwilen, Thurgau, Switzerland, another warehouse in Coesfeld-Lette, Germany, an addition to the main post office in Lucerne, Switzerland; a bus shelter in Saint-Gall, Switzerland (1983–85) the roof of a school in Wohlen, Switzerland (1983–88), and then some major projects; a new hall for the railway station in Lucerne (1983–89) and then an entire train station, the Zürich Stadelhofen railway station in Switzerland (1983–1990). The train station has several of the features that became signatures of his work; straight lines and right angles are rare. The railroad platforms curve, the supporting columns lean, the concrete walls of the modernistic cavern beneath the tracks are everywhere pierced with teardrop shaped skylights, and tilting glass panels provide light and shelter without enclosing the platforms.
In 1984–87, he built his first bridge, the Bac de Roda Bridge in Barcelona, Spain, which for the first time brought him international notice. The bridge, designed for cyclists and pedestrians, connects two parts of the city by crossing a wasteland of railway tracks. It is long, with twin arches which lean at an angle of thirty degrees; a feature which quickly became the stylistic signature of Calatrava. The upper portion of the bridge, composed of steel arches and cables, is light and airy, like a network of lace, anchored to the massive concrete supports and granite pillars below.
His next bridge, the Puente del Alamillo (1987–1992), in Seville, Spain, was even more spectacular and cemented his reputation. Built as part of the 1992 Expo 92, it is long, crossing the Meandro San Jeronimo River. Its main feature is a single pylon high, leaning to 58 degrees, the same angle as the Great Pyramid of Giza in Egypt. The weight of the concrete of the pylon is sufficient to hold up the bridge with just thirteen pairs of cables, eliminating the need for any cables behind it.
Projects of the 1990s
At the beginning of the 1990s, Calatrava built several remarkable railway stations and bridges, but broadened his portfolio by designing a wider range of structures, including a Canadian shopping center, a new passenger terminal for Bilbao airport, and his first building in the United States, the new structure of the Milwaukee Art Museum. In 1992 he completed one of his most picturesque and sculptural works, the Montjuïc Communications Tower in Barcelona (1989–92), a -high graceful concrete spire designed for the site of the 1992 Olympics. The concrete pylon leans backwards, and seems to grasp the vertical broadcast antennas. Its form suggests an athlete about to throw a javelin. The circular building at the base of the tower, which contains the broadcast equipment, is clad in white bricks and is equipped with metal resembling an eye which opens and closes. The building has a particularly Catalan touch, borrowed from the park benches of Park Güell of Antonio Gaudi: a decoration of colorful ceramics tiles. The square next to it is laid out like a giant sundial, on which the tower casts its shadow. In 1992 he also finished his first North American project, the Allen Lambert Galleria in Toronto, Ontario, Canada. The interior of the shopping mall is covered by a glass roof supported by columns like gigantic trees, a modern version of the Belle Epoque Les Halles market in Paris.
Gare de Lyon Saint-Exupéry (1989–1994) and the Eastern Train Station in Lisbon (1992–98)
Two years later, in 1994, he completed another notable train station, the Gare de Lyon Saint-Exupéry (1989–1994) at the Lyon airport in Satolas. This building was designed to be both a functional link between the airport and train station, the terminal for the high-speed TGV trains, and a symbol of the Rhone-Alps Region. The station is covered by a giant shell of steel and glass, , suspended at a maximum height of , and weighing . It is connected with the airport terminal by a long glass and concrete bridge. The glass and steel sides and skylights of the terminal from the inside resemble a modernistic cathedral; the glass panels at the top are intended to suggest flight. From the outside, the station has been said to resemble a prehistoric animal, while the glass-and-steel bridge has been compared to a bird or a manta ray.
The Gare do Oriente, or eastern train station, was constructed for the 1998 Lisbon World Exposition, and is located in a former industrial area. It was designed to bridge the wasteland which separated the residential area of the city from the Tagus River. Similar to the galleria he designed in Toronto, but on a grander scale, the interior of the station features a forest of white columns like gigantic trees that support the glass roof, , which covers the eight tracks. The station complex also includes a shopping center, and transport links by tram and metro to the center of the city. With its multiple arches and curves, the structure appears to be moving and ready to take off.
Bilbao Airport (1990–2000)
One of his last projects in the 20th century was the Bilbao Airport in Spain, notable both for its unusual control tower, high – made of concrete clad with aluminum, which widens as it grows taller, and which resembles a statue holding its hands in front of it – and for terminal buildings, where the white concrete structures are united with aluminum forms. The terminal buildings themselves lift upwards and seem to be trying to take off, giving them the airport the popular nickname of "The Dove".
Museums, concert halls and skyscrapers (2000–2010)
Following 2000, Calatrava completed a new addition to the Milwaukee Art Museum, a concert hall in Tenerife in the Canary Islands, a twisting skyscraper in Malmö, Sweden, and a City of Arts and Sciences in Valencia, Spain. in Sweden, and a wooden castle-like winery in Spain, all in astonishing forms and all seemingly in motion.
Milwaukee Art Museum (1994–2001)
The Quadracci Pavilion of the Milwaukee Art Museum (1994–2001) was Calatrava's first building in the United States, and his first museum. It displayed the technical innovations and forms he had first used in his railway stations and airports, but with more freedom of form and architectural theatrics. It is an addition to an existing building, constructed by Eero Saarinen in 1957 next to Lake Michigan, with a later addition in 1975 by David Kahler. The purpose of the new pavilion, as defined by the museum board, was to give the museum a new entrance, and especially "to redefine the identity of the museum with a strong image." Calatrava's design was selected after a competition entered by seventy-seven architects. Calatrava's solution was a glass and steel entry hall high with a moveable sun screen roof, composed two large wings made up of twenty-six smaller wings, from in length. The sunscreen, weighing , can be hoisted up by a single pylon, like an enormous bird's wing, or lowered when the wind from the lake is stronger than . The interior of the structure has a conference hall, exposition space, shops, and a restaurant overlooking the lake. He also designed a suspension footbridge between the center of the city and edge of the lake.
Bodegas Ysios winery (1998–2001)
The Bodegas Ysios winery in Laguardia, Spain (1998–2001) was designed as a symbol of the Rioja wines made by that winery. Built on a sloping site surrounded by vineyards, the long building has an aluminum roof and a facade covered with laminated wood panels, alternating between convex and concave, with a roofline that ripples like a series of waves.
Auditorio de Tenerife (1991–2003)
The Auditorio de Tenerife, Tenerife, in the Canary Islands, is a concert hall with 1558 seats and a smaller chamber music hall of 428 seats. With a curving concrete cupola high, crowned by a curving roof like a breaking wave, it dominates the city square and old town below. The shell is covered with ceramic tiles and the pavement and most of the floors are made of the local basalt stone. The unusual sculptural form of the building gives it a completely different appearance depending upon from where it is viewed.
Turning Torso (1999–2004)
The Turning Torso in Malmö, Sweden, was Calatrava's first skyscraper, and was the first twisting skyscraper, a form which later appeared in other cities around the world from Shanghai to Moscow. The building was originally conceived by the architect as a sculpture of "seven cubes stacked on a steel support creating a spiral structure resembling a twisting spinal column." The tower is high, and twists a full ninety degrees from the base to the top. Each of the nine cubes cube is like a separate five-story building; each floor contains from one to five apartments. The support holding the structure together is the column of elevators and escalators which communicate between the cubes. A system of discreet cross beams on the exterior frame manage the torsion of the twisting building. In 2016 it was the tallest building in Scandinavia.
Athens Olympic Sports Complex (2001–2004)
For the 2004 Olympic Games in Athens, Greece, Calatrava won the commission to cover the existing stadium with a new roof, to make a similar roof for the velodrome, and additionally to build four entrance gateways, a monumental sculpture to symbolize the games, and other architectural features to give harmony and variety to the complex. The roof for the stadium, in the form of bent "leaves" of laminated glass, is designed to reflect 90 percent of the sunlight. The roof covers , and is supported by double-tied arches of tubular steel, with a span of and a height of . It is long and high, suspended by cables from two parabolic arches. The Velodrome has a white cap supported by two concrete arches high, weighing , from which the glass and steel roof is suspended. Calatrava also designed an enormous parabolic arch at the entrance and the Wall of Nations, a mobile sculpture of tubular steel which moves in a wavelike patterns.
City of Arts and Sciences and Opera House in Valencia (1991–2006)
The largest group of buildings by Calatrava is found in his birthplace, Valencia, Spain, and was built in over a decade. It includes the City of Arts and Sciences (1991–2000) and the opera house (1996–2006), all constructed on a plot of 35 hectares between a highway and a river on the east side of the city. The planetarium, like a half-sunken globe, is placed in the center, next to a large artificial lake, in which it seems to be sinking. The dome is covered by a metal screen which opens and closes, and the entrance of the dome opens like a human eye. On one side is the science museum, behind a line of leaning columns, and on the other is the newest structure, the massive shell of the opera house, described by Calatrava as a "monumental sculpture", which gives the impression of being continually in motion.
Liège-Guillemins railway station (2009)
The Liège-Guillemins railway station for high-speed trains in Liège, Belgium is covered with a lace-like roof of glass and steel long and high, covering the nine tracks and five platforms. The transparent roof seems to eliminate the distinction between indoors and outdoors.
Recent major projects (2011–)
Oviedo Conference Center (2000–2011)
The conference center and exposition hall in the Spanish city of Oviedo combines two office buildings and a hotel, covered with horizontal bands of glass and steel and perched upon curving concrete pylons, with elliptical conference center, which includes a main theater, exposition hall and seminar rooms. The Center include another signature feature of Calatrava's work; a moveable sunscreen that folds and unfolds. The ceiling of the concert hall is an ascending series of arcs, which echo the curving rows of seats.
Margaret Hunt Hill Bridge (2007–2012) and Peace Bridge (2008–2012)
Calatrava constructed a series of extraordinary bridges, the type of structure which originally brought him global attention, for cities around the world that wanted a symbol of modernity and daring. Among the largest and dramatic are three bridges over the Trinity River in Dallas, Texas. The first of these was the Margaret Hunt Hill Bridge, opened for traffic in March 2012. The bridge, carrying six lanes of traffic, is long, with the appearance of being suspended from an arc-shaped tubular steel pylon forty stories or high by fifty-eight cables, ranging in length from . In form, the bridge resembles one of three bridges constructed in 2005–2005 on the Autostrada A1 in Reggio Emilia, Italy. Work on the second bridge, the Margaret McDermott Bridge, began in 2011.
The Peace Bridge in Calgary, Canada, built between 2008 and 2012, is a completely different bridge in purpose, scale and design. Built across the Bow River, and designed for pedestrians and cyclists, it is a glass and stew-wrapped tube long. It appears extraordinary long for a bridge with no towers or pylons to hold it up. Calatrava described the form in his own particular engineering vocabulary as "defined by a helicoidal movement, with an ovoid cross section, with two clearly materialized tangental lanes expressing an internal architectural volume."
Florida Polytechnic University (2009–2014)
The project for the new Florida Polytechnic University in Lakeland, Florida (2009–2014) gave Calatrava the opportunity to design an entire campus in a unified style. The site covers of land which once contained phosphorus mines, many of which have been filled with water creating small lakes.Calatrava's plan combined several small lakes into a central lake, which serves as a setting for the central structure, the Innovation, Science and Technology (IST) building. The eye-shaped central building has an area of 200,000 square feet on two floors, and contains all the classrooms, faculty offices laboratories and public spaces until the other buildings are completed. The building has several signature Calatrava features, including an extendable sun scene on the roof, which entirely changes the appearance of the building when deployed, and whose form changes gradually as the sun moves. The terraces of the building are covered by a curving pergola, or screen, of steel, which reduces the direct sunlight by thirty percent. Inside, the corridors and central courtyard are lit by the central skylight. Plans for the building call for the installation of of solar panels on the sunscreen to provide energy for the building. The library of the university is also distinctive; it does not have a single book; all the collection is digitized.
The structure has been called by some journalists a response to the criticism of the high price and technical flaws of some of Calatrava's earlier buildings. The review in Archiecture magazine, the journal of the American Institute of Architects, reported: "The building is full of handsome and even some very impressive spaces, but none of the singularly breathtaking ones that have made Calatrava, despite his price tag, so attractive to clients looking for marketing splash to go with their museum wing or train station. It reflects serious attention to detail and the bottom line; this is the work of an architect actively trying to prove, or at least re-emphasize, his bona fides."
Museum of Tomorrow, Rio de Janeiro (2010–2015)
The Museum of Tomorrow in Rio de Janeiro, Brazil, which opened in December 2015, is part of the redevelopment of the waterfront of Rio de Janeiro, and opened in time for the 2016 Summer Olympics in that city. The building is sited on a plaza next to the harbor, and surrounded by reflecting pools. The building is cantilevered over the plaza, and toward the sea. and gives the impression that it is floating on the water. Calatrava wrote, "The idea is that the building feels ethereal, almost floating on the sea, like a ship, a bird or a plant." The roof is equipped with moveable screens that adjust to the movements of the sun. The interior design is what Calatrava calls "archetypal" and simplified, to allow for exhibits in a greater variety of forms and sizes. The museum also includes a number of ecological features; water from the sea is used to regulate the temperature inside the building, and to refill the surrounding reflecting pools. The Guardian described it as "an other-worldly edifice that looks like a cross between a solar-powered dinosaur and a giant air conditioning unit", and declared "it must already rank as one of the world's most extraordinary buildings."
WTC Hub, New York City (2003–2016)
Calatrava designed the WTC Transportation Hub in New York City at the rebuilt World Trade Center at the site of the September 11 attacks in 2001. The new station connects the regional trains of the new PATH with the subway and other local transportation, and also has a large retail mall, replacing commercial space destroyed in the attack. The above-ground "oculus" of the station, made of glass and steel, is oval-shaped, and is long and high. According to Calatrava, it resembles "a bird flying from the hands of a child". The "Wings" of the above-ground structure were originally designed to move upward to a maximum height of to form a double screen high, but this feature had to be dropped to meet new security standards. The main hall of the station is underground, and the tracks of the PATH system on another level below. The underground station was originally designed so that its roof would open entirely in good weather, but this feature also had to be dropped due to its cost and space limitations.
The WTC Hub has been controversial because of its cost (4 billion dollars, twice the original estimate, and the most expensive railway station ever built) and its delays (seven years on 3 March 2016, seven years behind schedule). More than $1 billion of its cost went to administrative expenses and the decision to build around the 1 train of the New York City Subway. Michael Kimmelman, the architecture critic of the New York Times, praised the soaring upward view inside the Oculus, but condemned the building's cost, "scale, monotony of materials and color, preening formalism and disregard for the gritty urban fabric."
Controversy and criticism
After years of praise and commendation, in 2013 some of Calatrava's projects began to draw criticism on the grounds of their cost, delays, and functional problems. Many of these criticisms were packaged together in an article by Suzanne Daley in the New York Times on 13 September 2013, entitled "Santiago Calatrava collects critics as well as fans."
Daley wrote: "...in numerous interviews, other architects, academics and builders say that Mr. Calatrava is amassing an unusually long list of projects marred by cost overruns, delays and litigation. It is hard to find a Calatrava project that has not been significantly over budget. And complaints abound that he is indifferent to the needs of his clients. In 2013 a Dutch councillor in Haarlemmermeer, near Amsterdam, urged his colleagues to take legal action because the three bridges the architect designed for the town cost twice the budgeted amount and then millions more in upkeep since they opened in 2004."
Much of the criticism focused on the City of Arts and Sciences in Valencia, originally budgeted for about $405 million. Ignacio Blanco, the leader of a small opposition party in Valencia, blamed Calatrava of spending nearly three times the original budget, and accused the region of paying him approximately $127 million for his work, though the complex was originally lacking elevators for the disabled, and the opera house had 150 seats with obstructed views. In 2013 Calatrava sued his critic for defamation, and won.
Some of the problems with Calatrava's projects have been caused by an excess of innovation and insufficient testing. The glass tiles on the floor of his bridge in Bilbao became slippery in the rain, causing an increased number of claims for injuries and forcing the installation of a black anti-slip carpet on the decking, which blocked the view of the river through the walkway. The metal arches he put over some landscaped gardens sometimes overheated in the sunshine, baking the vines that were supposed to grow on them. The aluminum and wood covering of a winery in Spain leaked water, interfering with the winemaking and requiring extensive repairs. The ceramic tiles on the surface of the opera house in Valencia, placed as a tribute to Antonio Gaudi, buckled in the heat because concrete and ceramics expand and contract at different rates when temperatures change. Calatrava was sued for the cost of repairs on the bridge in Venice and has been condemned in court.
WTC Hub
Much of the criticism focused on Calatrava's WTC Hub, which was completed in 2016 for a cost of $4 billion, twice what was expected and seven years behind schedule. Calatrava was paid a fee of 80 million dollars. Some of the additional cost and delay was due to additions and modifications to the original plan by the project owners, the Port Authority of New York and New Jersey, rather than the architect. Calatrava's original entry pavilion was scaled back for security reasons and the mechanism for opening the roof to the gallery below was eliminated because of budget and space restraints.
Even before it opened the station was a target of criticism: the New York Post described the station in 2014 as it was being built as "a self-indulgent monstrosity" and "a hideous waste of public money". Michael Kimmelman, architecture critic for The New York Times, referred to the structure as "a kitsch stegosaurus". New York magazine referred to it in 2015 as it neared completion as a "Glorious Boondoggle". The New York Post editorial board also described the station when it opened in 2016 as the "world's most obscenely overpriced commuter rail station – and possibly its ugliest", comparing the Oculus to a "giant gray-white space insect".
The Hub also had its defenders. Jimmy Stamp of The Guardian wrote: "I despised the new World Trade Center transportation hub before I even saw it. It’s $2bn over budget, has suffered from construction problems and design compromises, it’s seven years late and still incomplete, and its architect, Santiago Calatrava, has left a trail of lawsuits and angry clients around the world....But when I was standing on the marble floors in its enormous, gleaming central concourse two stories below street level, staring up at a clear blue sky between bone-white ribs vaulting 160ft over my head, I, like Jonah in the whale, repented – at least for the moment....We deserve grand expressions of our artistic and technological capabilities. We deserve public spaces that inspire. The Oculus is deeply flawed, but I appreciate its aspiration and grandeur.... The Oculus presents a more optimistic vision, one based less on present realities and more on future possibilities. Less Blade Runner, more Star Trek. By the time we get to that future, whichever one it may be, the delays and the cost and the controversies will be forgotten, but we will be left with a luminous great hall in the heart of downtown New York."
Style and influences
Calatrava has never described himself as a follower of any particular school or movement of architecture. Critics have claimed that a number of influences can be seen in his work. In the journal of the American Institute of Architects, Christopher Hawthorne wrote about his design for Florida Polytechnic University, which he called "an example of Calatrava's architectural approach and creative sensibility distilled, for better and worse, to its essence. There are all the usual influences on view—the Eero Saarinen forms rendered in the Richard Meier, FAIA, palette—and they are remarkably legible and easy to parse here." Some other critics see his work as a continuation of expressionism. Asked about critics who classified him into different schools, Calatrava responded, "Architectural critics have not yet passed from a state of perplexity about my work."
Calatrava himself observed that he was particularly influenced by the work of engineers such as the Swiss Robert Maillart (1872–1940), whose work inspired him to seek simple forms which could create an emotional response. Calatrava defined his objective this way in 2016 in a book about his work: "My major interest is the introduction of a new formal vocabulary, composed of forms adapted to our time."
Calatrava, a sculptor, has also spoken frequently about the connection between sculpture and architecture in his work. "In sculpture, I have often used spheres, cubes and other simple forms often connected with my knowledge of engineering." He noted that his Turning Torso building had originally been conceived as a work of sculpture, and he praised the liberties taken by Frank Gehry and Frank Stella in creating sculptural art, but he also noted the differences. In 1997 he wrote that "architecture and sculpture are two rivers in which the same water flows. Think of sculpture as a pure plastic art while architecture is a plastic art which is submitted to function, taking into consideration the human scale." Calatrava also noted the influence of the sculptor Auguste Rodin, citing Rodin's words in his 1914 book Cathedrals of France: "The sculptor only achieves the greatness of expression in concentrating his attention on harmonic contrasts of light and shadow, exactly as an architect does."
Movement is also an important element in the architecture of Calatrava. He noted that many 20th century sculptors, such as Alexander Calder, made sculptures that moved. He wrote his own university thesis on "The Flexibility of three-dimensional structures," and described how objects, by moving, could shift from three dimensions to two and even to one. Moving elements which folded and expanded became an important element of almost all of his projects. "Architecture itself moves", he told a biographer, "and, with a little chance, becomes a magnificent ruin".
Artworks
Calatrava is also a sculptor and painter. Some of his architectural works, most notably the Turning Torso in Malmö, Sweden, were originally works of sculpture. In 2006, the Metropolitan Museum of Art in New York City held a special one-man exhibition of Calatrava's drawings, sculpture, and architectural models, entitled Santiago Calatrava: Sculpture Into Architecture.
In 2012, the Hermitage Museum in St. Petersburg held an exhibition of his work and this was followed up by an exhibition at the Vatican Museum in Rome. Eight of his sculptures were displayed along Park Avenue in New York City in the spring of 2015, between 52nd and 55th Streets.
Notable works
Completed
1983–84, Jakem Steel Warehouse, Munchwilen, Switzerland
1983–85, Ernsting Warehouse, Coesfeld, Germany
1983–88, Wohlen High School, Wohlen, Switzerland
1983–90, Stadelhofen Railway Station, Zürich, Switzerland
1983–89, Hall of Lucerne railway station, Lucerne, Switzerland
1984–87, Bac de Roda Bridge, Barcelona, Spain
1984–88, Barenmatte Community Center, Suhr, Switzerland,
1986–87, Tabourettli Theater, Basel, Switzerland,
1986-88, 9 De Octubre Bridge, Valencia ,Spain
1987–92, Allen Lambert Galleria (in Brookfield Place), Toronto, Ontario, Canada,
1987-96, Buchen Housing Estate, Würenlingen ,Switzerland
1989-98, Emergency Services Centre, St.Gallen ,Switzerland
1989–94, Lyon-Saint-Exupéry TGV Station, Lyon, France
1989-91, La Devesa Footbridge,Ripoll,Spain
1989-95, Puerto Bridge,Ondarroa,Spain
1989-96, Bohl Bus and Tram stop, St.Gallen ,Switzerland
1991–95, Alameda Bridge and Metro Station, Valencia, Spain
1991-96, Oberbaum Bridge Renovation, Berlin,Germany
1992, Puente del Alamillo, Seville, Spain
1992, Lusitania Bridge, Mérida, Spain
1992, Montjuic Communications Tower at the Olympic Ring, Barcelona, Spain
1992, World's Fair, Kuwaiti Pavilion, Seville, Spain
1994, Mimico Creek Bridge, Humber Bay Park, Toronto, Ontario
1994, Kronprinzenbrücke, Berlin, Germany
1994–1997, Campo Volantin Footbridge, Bilbao, Spain
1992–95, Llonja de Sant Jordi, Alcoy (Alicante), Spain
1995, Trinity Bridge, footbridge over River Irwell in Manchester and Salford, Greater Manchester, England
1996–2009, Ciutat de les Arts i les Ciències, Valencia, Spain
1996, Centro Internacional de Ferias y Congresos de Tenerife, Santa Cruz de Tenerife, Tenerife, Canary island, Spain
1996-2000, Pont de l'Europe, Orléans ,France
1997, Pfalzkeller Gallery, St.Gallen ,Switzerland
1998, Gare do Oriente, Lisbon, Portugal
1999, New York Times Capsule, U.S.A.
1999, Puente del Hospital, Murcia, Spain
2000, New terminal at Bilbao Airport, Bilbao, Spain
2001, Milwaukee Art Museum, Milwaukee, Wisconsin, US
2001, Puente de la Mujer, in the Puerto Madero barrio of Buenos Aires, Argentina
2001, Bodegas Ysios, Laguardia, Spain
2002, Wave, in Dallas, Texas at the Southern Methodist University Meadows Museum
2003, James Joyce Bridge, bridge over River Liffey, Dublin, Ireland
2003, Auditorio de Tenerife, the architect's first performing arts facility, Santa Cruz de Tenerife, Spain
2004, redesign of Athens Olympic Sports Complex, Athens, Greece
2004, Katehaki Footbridge, Athens ,Greece
2004, Sundial Bridge at Turtle Bay, Redding, California, US
2004, Three bridges (called Harp, Cittern and Lute) spanning the main canal of the Haarlemmermeer, Netherlands
2004, University of Zurich, "Bibliothekseinbau" library remodelling, Zürich, Switzerland
2005, The bridge connecting the Avnat shopping mall and the Rabin Medical Center (Beilinson) in Petah Tikva, Israel
2005, Turning Torso, Malmö, Sweden
2007, Three bridges on the A1 Motorway and Milan–Bologna high-speed railway, Reggio Emilia, Italy
2008, Chords Bridge at the entrance to Jerusalem, a light rail bridge, Israel
2008, Ponte della Costituzione footbridge from Piazzale Roma over the Grand Canal, Venice, Italy
2008–2009, Technion Obelisk, monument on the Technion campus in Haifa, Israel
2009, Liège-Guillemins railway station in Liège, Belgium
2009, Samuel Beckett Bridge, bridge over River Liffey, Dublin, Ireland
2009, Caja Madrid Obelisk, Madrid, Spain
2011, Palacio de Congresos de Oviedo, Oviedo, Asturias, Spain, [Spanish wiki: :es:Palacio de Congresos de Oviedo
2011, Palacio de Exposiciones y Congresos, Oviedo, Spain
2012, Margaret Hunt Hill Bridge, Dallas, Texas, US
2012, Peace Bridge, Calgary, Alberta, Canada
2013, Medio Padana Station on the Milan–Bologna high-speed railway, Reggio Emilia, Italy
2014, Florida Polytechnic University, Lakeland, Florida, US
2015, Museu do Amanhã, Rio de Janeiro, Brazil
2016, World Trade Center Transportation Hub, New York City
2018, Crati River Bridge, Cosenza, Italy
2021, Margaret McDermott Bridge, Dallas, Texas, U.S.
2021, UAE Pavilion at EXPO 2020, Dubai, UAE
Under construction/proposed
In Europe
City of Sport, University of Rome Tor Vergata, Italy
New railway station in Mons, Belgium
Peninsula Place, Greenwich, London (1 billion dollar project for three towers and a footbridge)
In the Middle East
Sharq Crossing, Doha, Qatar: project for three bridges and two tunnels (postponed until after 2022)
Dubai Creek Tower, Dubai, UAE (ground broken, scheduled for completion in 2025; in competition for world's tallest structure)
In North America
St. Nicholas Greek Orthodox Church, New York City (stalled, originally scheduled to open in 2017)
Recognition
Calatrava has received numerous awards for his design and engineering work. In 1988, he was awarded with the Fazlur Khan International Fellowship by the SOM Foundation. In 1990, he received the "Médaille d'Argent de la Recherche et de la Technique", in Paris. In 1992 he received the prestigious Gold Medal of the Institution of Structural Engineers. In 1993, the Museum of Modern Art in New York held a major exhibition of his work called "Structure and Expression". In 1998 he was elected to become a member of "Les Arts et Lettres", in Paris. In 2005 he received the Gold Medal from the American Institute of Architects (AIA).
In 2005, Calatrava was awarded the Eugene McDermott Award by the Council for the Arts of MIT.
He is also a Senior Fellow of the Design Futures Council.
Calatrava has received a total of twenty-two honorary degrees in recognition of his work. In 2013, Calatrava was awarded an honorary doctorate from Georgia Institute of Technology, an award that has only been given to a small number of people.
Honorary degrees
Other honours
2011: On 10 December, Calatrava was appointed a member of the Pontifical Council for Culture for a five-year renewable term by Pope Benedict XVI.
2004: Calatrava received the Golden Plate Award of the American Academy of Achievement presented by Awards Council member Quincy Jones during the International Achievement Summit in Chicago.
2004: James Parks Morton Interfaith Award
Personal life
Calatrava resides in Zurich and New York City. Two of Calatrava's sons have completed advanced degrees in Engineering from the Fu Foundation School of Engineering and Applied Science at Columbia University in New York City. His other son obtained a law degree from Columbia University.
References
Bibliography
Further reading
External links
Maps:
Calatrava's projects on the map
Map of Santiago Calatrava Architecture
Profiles:
Great Buildings On-Line: Santiago Calatrava
Extended profile of the architect in the NYRB, December 2006
The New Yorker, 31 October 2005, "The Sculptor"
The Guardian, 17 January 2006, "The Gaudí Effect"
Pictures and profile at Specifier
CNN interview with Santiago Calatrava
1951 births
21st-century Spanish architects
Futurist architects
Skyscraper architects
Bridge engineers
Columbia School of Engineering and Applied Science alumni
ETH Zurich alumni
High-tech architecture
IStructE Gold Medal winners
Living people
Members of the Pontifical Council for Culture
Organic architecture
People from Valencia
Technical University of Valencia alumni
Members of the Académie d'architecture
Officiers of the Ordre des Arts et des Lettres
Grand Officers of the Order of Merit (Portugal)
Spanish engineers
Structural engineers
Architects from the Valencian Community
Engineers from the Valencian Community
Recipients of the AIA Gold Medal | [
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229658 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dennis%20Murphree | Dennis Murphree | Dennis Herron Murphree (January 6, 1886February 9, 1949) was an American politician. He served three separate terms as Lieutenant Governor of Mississippi and two as Governor of Mississippi.
Biography
He was born on January 6, 1886, the son of Thomas F. Murphree and Callie (Cooper) Murphree. He was a member of the Mississippi House of Representatives from 1911 to 1923. In March 1927, he became Governor of Mississippi after the death of incumbent Henry L. Whitfield and served for about ten months until Theodore G. Bilbo, who defeated Murphree in the Democratic Party primary by 10,000 votes, was sworn into office in January 1928. Defeat has been attributed in part to his having prevented a lynching in Jackson (he mobilized the National Guard and threw up a barbed-wire barricade around the jail). With the death of Gov. Paul B. Johnson Sr. in December 1943, Murphree finished out the three weeks left in Johnson's term, serving until the swearing in of Thomas L. Bailey in January 1944.
Dennis Murphree conceived the idea of the Know Mississippi Better train in 1925, in response to Governor Whitfield's wish to create an exposition of Mississippi to the rest of the country. The train was very successful, and continued to tour on an annual basis until at least 1937. The train visited forty-seven other states, Canada, and Mexico and showcased the state's industry, entertainment and commerce sectors.
References
External links
Dennis Murphree's grave at Find-A-Grave
Profile at National Governors Association website
The Story of the "Know Mississippi Better" Train
1886 births
1949 deaths
People from Calhoun County, Mississippi
Mississippi Democrats
Governors of Mississippi
Lieutenant Governors of Mississippi
Members of the Mississippi House of Representatives
American male journalists
Democratic Party state governors of the United States
Journalists from Mississippi
20th-century American politicians | [
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229659 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Larry%20Burns%20%28General%20Motors%29 | Larry Burns (General Motors) | Lawrence D. Burns is the former corporate vice president of Research and Development for General Motors. Burns oversaw GM's advanced technology, innovation programs, and corporate strategy. He was a member of GM's Automotive Strategy Board and Automotive Product Board. Within GM, he personally championed vehicle electrification, “connected” vehicles, fuel cells, bio-fuels, advanced batteries, autonomous driving, and a series of innovative concept vehicles. He has been a leading advocate for design and technology innovation focused on the total customer experience and the application of operations research before his retirement in 2009. . He is the author of Autonomy: The Quest to Build the Driverless Car—And How It Will Reshape Our World and a co-author of Reinventing the Automobile: Personal Urban Mobility for the 21st Century.
Burns was invited to speak at the 2005 TED Conference.
In 2011, Burns was elected a member of the National Academy of Engineering for leadership and technical contributions to automotive technologies.
Burns advises organizations on the future of mobility, logistics, manufacturing, energy and innovation. His clients include Waymo (previously Google Self-Driving Cars), Peloton Technology and Kitson & Partners.
References
External links
General Motors
TED Talks: Larry Burns on the future of cars (TED2005)
Living people
Year of birth missing (living people)
American businesspeople
University of Michigan faculty
University of Michigan alumni | [
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229661 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pseudophilosophy | Pseudophilosophy | Pseudophilosophy is a term applied to a philosophical idea or system which does not meet an expected set of philosophical standards. There is no universally accepted set of standards, but there are similarities and some common ground.
Definitions
According to Christopher Heumann, an 18th-century scholar, pseudo-philosophy has six characteristics:
A preference for useless speculation
It appeals merely to human authority
It appeals to tradition instead of reason
It syncretises philosophy with superstition
It has a preference for obscure and enigmatic language and symbolism
It is immoral
According to Michael Oakeshott, pseudo-philosophy "is theorizing that proceeds partly within and partly outside a given mode of inquiry."
Josef Pieper noted that there cannot be a closed system of philosophy, and that any philosophy that claims to have discovered a "cosmic formula" is a pseudo-philosophy. In this he follows Kant, who rejected the postulation of a "highest principle" from which to develop transcendental idealism, calling this pseudo-philosophy and mysticism.
Nicholas Rescher, in The Oxford Companion to Philosophy, described pseudo-philosophy as "deliberations that masquerade as philosophical but are inept, incompetent, deficient in intellectual seriousness, and reflective of an insufficient commitment to the pursuit of truth." Rescher adds that the term is particularly appropriate when applied to "those who use the resources of reason to substantiate the claim that rationality is unachievable in matters of inquiry."
History
The term "pseudo-philosophy" appears to have been coined by Jane Austen.
Ernest Newman, an English music critic and musicologist, who aimed at intellectual objectivity in his style of criticism, in contrast to the more subjective approach of other critics, published in 1897 Pseudo-Philosophy at the End of the Nineteenth Century, a critique of imprecise and subjective writing.
According to Josef Pieper, for Pythagoras, Plato and Aristotle philosophy is the human search "oriented toward wisdom such as God possesses". It suggests that philosophy includes, in its essence, an orientation toward theology. Pieper notes:
Usage
The term is almost always used pejoratively and is often contentious, due to differing criteria for demarcating pseudophilosophy (see also: Demarcation problem).
Romanticism
According to physicist and philosopher of science Mario Bunge,
For Kant, intellectual knowledge is discursive knowledge, not intuitive knowledge. According to Kant, intuition is limited to the realm of senses, while knowledge is "essentially realised in the acts of researching, relating, comparing, differentiating, inferring, proving". Kant criticised Romantic philosophy, which is based on feeling and intuition, and not on "philosophical work":
Kant called Romantic philosophy pseudo-philosophy, "in which one is entitled not to work, but only to heed and enjoy the oracle in oneself in order to take complete possession of that wisdom toward which philosophy aims".
Mysticism
Mysticism has a long history. In the Age of Enlightenment mysticism had fallen into disrepute. Kant called mysticism pseudophilosophy. In the 19th century, with the rise of Romanticism, interest in mysticism was renewed. Rationalists and Lutherans wrote histories of mysticism to reject its claims, but there was a widespread interest in spiritualism and related phenomena.
Interest in Eckhart's works was revived in the early nineteenth century, especially by German Romantics and Idealist philosophers. Since the 1960s debate has been going on in Germany whether Eckhart should be called a "mystic". The philosopher Karl Albert had already argued that Eckhart had to be placed in the tradition of philosophical mysticism of Parmenides, Plato, Plotinus, Porphyry, Proclus and other neo-Platonistic thinkers. Heribert Fischer argued in the 1960s that Eckhart was a mediaeval theologian.
German Idealism
Arthur Schopenhauer wrote the following about Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel:
A hundred and fifty years after Schopenhauer's death, physicist and philosopher of science Mario Bunge recommended "avoiding the pseudo-subtleties of Hegelian dialectics", and wrote of "Hegel's disastrous legacy": "It is true that Marx and Engels criticized Hegel's idealism, but they did not repudiate his cult of nonsense and his rejection of all modern science from Newton on." Bunge noted,
Continental philosophy
Soccio notes that analytically inclined philosophers tend to dismiss Heidegger's philosophy as pseudophilosophy. According to Christensen, Heidegger himself called the philosophy of Husserl scheinphilosophy.
Scientism
Dietrich von Hildebrand used the term to critique the central place modern science is occupying in western society:
Objectivism
Journalist Jonathan Chait used the term to criticize the work of Ayn Rand in "Ayn Rand's Pseudo-Philosophy", an article in The New Republic, in which he wrote, "She was a true amateur who insisted on seeing herself as the greatest human being who ever lived because she was almost completely unfamiliar with the entire philosophical canon." Physicist and philosopher of science Mario Bunge classified Rand as a "mercenary", among those who "seek to defend or propagate a doctrine rather than an analyzing ideas or searching for new truths", while science writer and skeptic Michael Shermer claimed that "it becomes clear that Objectivism was (and is) a cult, as are many other, non-religious groups". The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy said of Rand, "For all her popularity, however, only a few professional philosophers have taken her work seriously."
Other uses
The term has been used against many different targets, including:
To criticise dogmatism in general, "which is dissolved when philosophy incorporates the scientific method"
To criticise any philosophy in general which does not meet the criteria of analytical or positivistic philosophy
To criticise specific philosophical schools, traditions and systems:
Platonism as "dogmatic metaphysics"
Scholasticism and Medieval philosophy
Romantic philosophy, which is based on feeling and intuition, not on discursive thought, "giving up rationality"
To criticise some forms of idealism:
German idealism, especially Hegel
Continental philosophy
Positivistic philosophy
To label entire specific political worldviews as illogical:
Marxism
Nazism
Ayn Rand's Objectivism
To criticise several (pseudo)sciences:
Social Darwinism
Psychoanalysis
To criticise some theistic worldviews:
Catholicism
Mysticism
Modern spirituality and esotericism
See also
Externism
Flipism
Non-philosophy
Obscurantism
Pataphysics
Sophism
Notes
References
Sources
External links
Ernest Newman, Pseudo-philosophy at the end of the nineteenth century. Vol. 1. An irrationalist trio: Kidd - Drummond - Balfour
Criticism
Pejorative terms
Philosophy and culture
Pseudo-scholarship
Deception | [
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229663 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PortAventura%20World | PortAventura World | PortAventura World is an entertainment resort in Salou and Vila-seca, Tarragona, on the Costa Daurada in Catalonia, Spain. It was built around the PortAventura Park theme park, which attracts around 3.5 million visitors per year, making it the most visited theme park in Spain and the sixth most visited theme park in Europe. The resort includes a second theme park, Ferrari Land, since 2017 and also includes PortAventura Caribe Aquatic Park, five hotels, a convention centre and a RV park. It is the biggest resort in the south of Europe which attracts around 5 million visitors per year. It has Reus Airport within 15 minutes of it and Barcelona Airport within an hour. There is a train station for PortAventura which has connections to Barcelona and Tarragona.
History
When Port Aventura opened in 1995 in Salou, Tussauds Group owned 40,01% of the park while La Caixa had 33,19%, Anheuser-Busch had 19,9% and FECSA had 6,7%. In 1998 the majority of Tussauds Group's shares in the park were sold to Universal and the park was rebranded as 'Universal's Port Aventura', which made it the first Universal Studios Theme Park in Europe.
In 2002, a water park (Costa Caribe) and two hotels (Hotel PortAventura and Hotel El Paso) were constructed, and the resort was further rebranded as 'Universal Mediterranea'. In 2004, NBCUniversal (Universal Studios' parent) sold all interest in PortAventura. It is owned and operated by La Caixa banking group's investment vehicle Criteria, but as of 2005 the Universal name has been dropped from the branding, and the resort was once again named 'PortAventura' (the space in the name is deliberately left out for trademark reasons). In 2009, the resort hosted 3,310,000 visitors.
In December 2013 private equity firm KKR picked up 49.9% stake in PortAventura from Investindustrial that still owned 50.1%. In 2016 the resort was renamed as 'PortAventura World Parks & Resort'. The second theme park, Ferrari Land, was inaugurated on 7 April 2017. PortAventura Dream Village, an exclusive vacation for guests with additional needs, opened in 2017.
PortAventura Park
The park features five theme areas based on civilizations (Mediterrània, Far West, México, China and Polynesia), and one theme area based on Sesame Street. Mediterrània is the main entrance area of the park.
Main rides
Furius Baco, an Intamin Accelerator Coaster with winged seating, which opened in June 2007. It has a top speed of 83.9 mph (135 km/h).
Stampida, a dueling wooden roller coaster.
Tomahawk, a junior version of Stampida and which runs parallel to it.
Silver River Flume, a traditional log flume.
Grand Canyon Rapids, a whitewater river rapids ride along the Grand Canyon.
Hurakan Condor, an Intamin drop tower ride. This ride is one of the tallest in the world at 330 ft.
El Diablo – Tren de la Mina, an Arrow Dynamics mine train roller coaster. The top speed of the coaster is around 60 km/h.
Dragon Khan, with 8 inversions this formerly held the record as having more inversions than any other roller coaster. It also held the world record for the tallest vertical loop on any roller-coaster. The ride built by Bolliger & Mabillard was one of the two roller coasters that Port Aventura had when it opened. It consistently ranks among the world's best roller coasters in polls.
Shambhala, this B&M hypercoaster beat three European records as it was the fastest (134 km/h) and tallest roller coaster in Europe. It is 76 m tall and had longest drop in Europe at 78 m (2 m underground).
Angkor, a large splash battle themed in the Angkor ruins that opened in 2014.
Tutuki Splash, a Shoot the Chute themed along an erupting volcano.
Tami Tami, a roller coaster for children.
Street Mission, an interactive Sesame Street dark ride.
Ferrari Land
InvestIndustrial and Ferrari signed a deal to build a new area themed to the Italian sports car brand in the PortAventura resort covering 60,000 m2, including new rides, restaurants, shops and car racing simulators. Ferrari Land is the resort's second theme park, separate from PortAventura Park. Its entrance is adjacent to PortAventura Park's main entrance. The Mediterranean theme is common to both entrances, as Ferrari Land is inspired by Italy, including recreations of Venice's Piazza San Marco and Rome's Colosseum. The main ride of Ferrari Land is a 112 m tall vertical accelerator coaster that surpassed Shambhala as the tallest coaster in Europe and is also the fastest coaster in Europe. The park was opened on 7 April 2017, after an investment of more than €100 million. Ferrari Land opened a kids area in 2018.
Ferrari Land is the second amusement centre themed to Ferrari in the world, after Ferrari World Abu Dhabi.
Partial list of rides and attractions
Roller coasters
Flat rides
Water rides
Amusement rides using motion pictures
PortAventura Caribe Aquatic Park
PortAventura Caribe Aquatic Park is a water park which is adjacent to PortAventura Park. It has an area of 50,000 m2, which includes 16 attractions and slides, as well as over 8,500 m2 of water-covered surface area. It is themed to the Caribbean, with beaches, palm trees, and Latin and reggae music, and it also includes shops and restaurants.
The park has been closed due to the coronavirus outbreak and currently is remaining closed throughout 2020.
Rides
King Khajuna – Europe's tallest free fall slide of 31 metres and 55 degree descent by ProSlide. Opened in 2013.
Ciclón Tropical – MultiBUMP slide by ProSlide. Opened in 2013.
Rapid Race – Pro racer opened in 2013 by ProSlide.
The Mambo and Limbo – Two corkscrew water slide by ProSlide. Opened in 2002.
El Tifón – Two typhoon Water Slide by ProSlide. Opened in 2002.
El Río Loco – Lazy River. Opened in 2002.
El Torrente – A 4-passenger tube by ProSlide. Opened in 2002.
Barracudas – A pair of 2 Passenger tube sails through tunnels and spins at full speed by ProSlide. Opened in 2002.
Kids rides
Zona Indoor with Junior Slides – Indoor play area including pool and slides by WhiteWater West. Opened in 2002.
La Laguna de Woody – Woody Woodpecker-themed play area by WhiteWater West. Opened in 2002.
Resort hotels
The resort features six themed hotels:
PortAventura Hotel PortAventura: Mediterranean theme (4*)
PortAventura Hotel Caribe: Caribbean theme (4*)
PortAventura Hotel El Paso: Mexican theme (4*)
PortAventura Hotel Gold River (including 'The Callaghan's') : Western theme (4*)
PortAventura Hotel Colorado Creek: Rustic Western theme (4*)
PortAventura Hotel Mansión de Lucy: Victorian-style Western theme (5*)
Hotel Ferrari: Ferrari theme (5*) (future)
Seasonal events
During seasonal events like summer nights, Halloween (September–November) and Christmas (November–January), PortAventura Park opens seasonal walkaround rides or shows, including the mazes: [REC], Horror in Penitence, La Selva del Miedo and the nighttime Halloween show Horror en el Lago.
See also
Incidents at European amusement parks
References
External links
– Official English site | [
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229665 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Forest%20of%20Dean | Forest of Dean | The Forest of Dean (Welsh: Fforest y Ddena) is a geographical, historical and cultural region in the western part of the county of Gloucestershire, England. It forms a roughly triangular plateau bounded by the River Wye to the west and northwest, Herefordshire to the north, the River Severn to the south, and the City of Gloucester to the east.
The area is characterised by more than of mixed woodland, one of the surviving ancient woodlands in England. A large area was reserved for royal hunting before 1066, and remained as the second largest crown forest in England, after the New Forest. Although the name is used loosely to refer to the part of Gloucestershire between the Severn and Wye, the Forest of Dean proper has covered a much smaller area since the Middle Ages. In 1327, it was defined to cover only the royal demesne and parts of parishes within the hundred of St Briavels, and after 1668 comprised the royal demesne only. The Forest proper is within the civil parishes of West Dean, Lydbrook, Cinderford, Ruspidge, and Drybrook, together with a strip of land in the parish of English Bicknor.
Traditionally the main sources of work have been forestry – including charcoal production – iron working and coal mining. Archaeological studies have dated the earliest use of coal to Roman times for domestic heating and industrial processes such as the preparation of iron ore.
The area gives its name to the local government district, Forest of Dean, and a parliamentary constituency, both of which cover wider areas than the historic Forest. The administrative centre of the local authority is Coleford, one of the main towns in the historic Forest area, together with Cinderford and Lydney.
Toponym
The origin of the name is unknown. The prevalence of Welsh place names in the area suggests a possible corruption of din (meaning "hillfort"). However, similar or identical elements from Old English exist throughout England. In Welsh, Forest of Dean is Fforest y Ddena.
Gerald of Wales, writing in the 12th century, refers to the area as Danubia which may translate as "land of Danes" following the Viking settlements in that era. It is possible that an original name Dene developed from this.
History
Prehistory
The area was inhabited in Mesolithic times, and there are also remains of later megalithic monuments, including the Longstone near Staunton and the Broadstone at Wibdon, Stroat. Barrows have been identified at Tidenham and Blakeney. Bronze Age field systems have been identified at Welshbury Hill near Littledean, and there are Iron Age hill forts at Symonds Yat and Welshbury. There is archaeological evidence of early trading by sea, probably through Lydney. Before Roman times, the area may have been occupied by the British Dobunni tribe, although few of their coins have been found in the area and control may have been contested with the neighbouring Silures.
Roman Britain
The area was occupied by the Romans in around AD 50. They were attracted by its natural resources which included iron ore, ochre and charcoal. The coal mining industry was probably established on a small scale in Roman times. The area was governed from the Roman town of Ariconium at Weston under Penyard near Ross-on-Wye, and a road was built from there to a river crossing at Newnham on Severn and port at Lydney. The "Dean Road", still visible at Soudley, is believed to be a mediaeval rebuilding of the Roman road, and would have been an important route to transport iron ore and finished metal products. During Roman times there were Roman villas at Blakeney, Woolaston and elsewhere, and towards the end of the Roman period, around AD 370, a major Roman temple complex dedicated to the god Nodens was completed at Lydney. The central parts of the woodlands in the forest are believed to have been protected for hunting since Roman times.
Medieval
The area's history is obscure for several centuries in Sub-Roman Britain although at different times it may have been part of the Welsh kingdoms of Gwent and Ergyng, and the Beachley and Lancaut peninsulas east of the Lower Wye remained in Welsh control at least until the 8th century. Around 790 the Saxon King Offa of Mercia built his dyke high above the Wye, to mark the boundary with the Welsh. The Forest of Dean then came under the control of the diocese of Hereford. Throughout the next few centuries Vikings conducted raids up the Severn, but by the 11th century, the kingdom of Wessex had established civil government. The core of the forest was used by the late Anglo-Saxon kings, and after 1066 the Normans, as their personal hunting ground. The area was kept stocked with deer and wild boar and became important for timber, charcoal, iron ore and limestone.
The Hundred of St Briavels was established in the 12th century, at the same time as many Norman laws concerning the Forest of Dean were put in place. St Briavels Castle became the Forest's administrative and judicial centre. Verderers were appointed to act for the king and protect his royal rights, and local people were given some common rights. Flaxley Abbey was built and given rights and privileges. In 1296, miners from the Hundred of St Briavels supported King Edward I at the siege of Berwick-on-Tweed in the Scottish Wars of Independence by undermining the then Scottish town's defences in the first step of his campaign to seize Scotland from John Balliol. As a result, the king granted free mining rights within the forest to the miners and their descendants; the rights continue to the present day. Miners at that time were mainly involved in iron ore mining—although the presence of coal was well known, and limited amounts had been recovered in Roman times. Coal was not used for ironmaking with the methods of smelting then in use. Later the freeminer rights were used mainly for coal mining. The activities of the miners were regulated by the Court of Mine Law. This, and other forms of self-governance, coupled with the Forest's geographic isolation between the rivers Severn and Wye, has given rise to a strong sense of cultural identity in those from the area, who are collectively known as "Foresters". The ancient rights were put on the statute books in the Dean Forest (Mines) Act 1838, the only public act to affect private individuals. Residents of the hundred over 18 can graze sheep in the Forest in accordance with an agreement between Forestry England and the Commoners Association.
In October 2010 a woman won the right to be classified as a Freeminer. Elaine Morman, an employee at Clearwell Caves in the Forest, who had worked as a miner of ochre for a number of years, raised a claim of sexual discrimination against the Forestry Commission. After Mark Harper MP raised the matter in the House of Commons, the Forestry Commission reversed its position and agreed to register her.
Early modern period
The forest was used exclusively as a royal hunting ground for the Tudors, and subsequently a source of food for the royal court. Its rich deposits of iron ore led to its becoming a major source of iron. The forest's timber was particularly fine, and was regarded as the best material for building ships.
In the 17th century, as a result of King Charles I's decision to rule without Parliament, he sought to raise finances through grants of royal forest lands. of the Forest of Dean was disafforested in the 1620s, causing a series of riots in 1631–32; this was part of enclosure riots across the South West commonly known as the Western Rising. In 1639 were disafforested, with going to manorial lords and freeholders in compensation. were to go to the Crown, and be sold on to Sir John Winter. Riots ensued in 1641. Winter's claim to the lands was voided by Parliament in March 1642, in part because he had failed to pay. His assets were sequestrated for supporting the Crown during the Civil War. The Protectorate tried to enclose a third of the forest in 1657, leaving two thirds to the Commoners. Although a relatively generous settlement, it caused resistance in April and May 1659, when fences of new enclosures were broken and cattle brought in to graze. Royalists including Edward Massey attempted to bring the discontented to the side of Charles II.
After the restoration Sir John Winter successfully reasserted his right to the Forest of Dean. However forest law was reestablished by Act of Parliament in 1668. In 1672 the King's ironworks were closed to reduce pressure on the forest from mining. The Speech House, between Coleford and Cinderford, was built in 1682 to host the Court of Mine Law and "Court of the Speech", a sort of parliament for the Verderers and Free Miners managing the forest, game, and mineral resources. The Gaveller and his deputy were responsible for leasing gales – areas allocated for mining – on behalf of the Crown. The Speech House has been used as an inn and hotel since the 19th century.
Georgian unrest
During the 18th century, squatters established roughly-built hamlets around the fringes of the Crown forest demesne. By about 1800, these settlements were well established at Berry Hill and Parkend.
The Forest of Dean, with its huge iron ore reserves and ready supply of timber, had been of national importance in the production of iron, using charcoal, for hundreds of years. Despite the abundance of coal, it was not used to produce coke for smelting, and local ironmasters were reluctant to invest in new technology, but in the last decade of the 18th century coke-fired furnaces at Cinderford, Whitecliff and Parkend Ironworks were built almost simultaneously.
In 1808 Parliament passed the Dean Forest (Timber) Act, which included the provision to enclose of woodland. This enclosure was carried out between 1814 and 1816.
There were bread riots in 1795 and in 1801. Ordinary Foresters were already poverty-stricken, and their plight had grown worse. They were denied access to the enclosed areas and unable to hunt or remove timber. In particular, they lost their ancient grazing and mining rights.
As unrest grew, a populist leader named Warren James emerged in the riots against the enclosures. Attempts to peaceably resolve the matter failed, and on 8 June 1831, James, leading more than 100 Foresters, demolished the enclosure at Park Hill, between Parkend and Bream. Around 50 unarmed Crown Officers were powerless to intervene. On the Friday, a party of 50 soldiers arrived from Monmouth, but by now the number of Foresters had grown to around 2,000 and the soldiers returned to barracks. Over the next few days more troops arrived from around the country. The Foresters' resistance crumbled and most of those arrested elected to rebuild the enclosures, rather than be charged with rioting. James was sentenced to death but his sentence was later commuted to transportation. He was sent to Van Diemen's Land (Tasmania) in October 1831, only to be pardoned five years later, although he never returned home.
Conservatives were disliked in the Forest of Dean; on polling day in 1874, there was a riot in the market town of Cinderford in which the Conservative party headquarters and nearby houses were ransacked and damaged.
"Who killed the bears?"
On 26 April 1889, four Frenchmen and their two bears were making their way to Ruardean, having performed in Cinderford. They were attacked by an angry mob, enraged by claims that the bears had killed a child and injured a woman. The bears were killed and the Frenchmen badly beaten.
It soon became clear that the bears had not attacked anyone. Police proceedings followed and a week later 13 colliers and labourers appeared before magistrates at Littledean, charged with ill-treating and killing the bears and assaulting the Frenchmen. All but two were found guilty on one or more charges, with another convicted a week later. A total of £85 () was paid in fines. A subscription was also launched which generously compensated the Frenchmen.
The term "Who killed the bears?" existed for many years as an insult, directed particularly towards the people of Ruardean – despite the fact that all those convicted were from Cinderford.
A fictional version of the incident was used by Dennis Potter for his TV play A Beast With Two Backs.
Rise and fall of industrialisation
Exploitation of the Forest of Dean Coalfield developed rapidly in the early 19th century with increased demand from local ironworks, and when some of the earliest tramroads in the UK were built here to transport coal to local ports the area was transformed by the growth of mining and the production of iron and steel.
In 1818–19 David Mushet built Darkhill Ironworks, where he experimented with iron and steel making. In 1845, his youngest son, Robert Forester Mushet, took over its management. He perfected the Bessemer Process by solving the quality problems which beset the process. In a second key advance in metallurgy he invented Mushet steel (R.M.S.) in 1868. It was the first true tool steel and the first air-hardening steel. It revolutionised the design of machine tools and the progress of industrial metalworking, and was the forerunner of High speed steel. The remains of Darkhill are preserved as an Industrial Archaeological Site of International Importance and are open to the public.
Cinderford was laid out as a planned town in the mid-19th century, but the characteristic form of settlement remained the sprawling hamlets of haphazardly placed cottages. Characteristics shared with other British coalfields, such as a devotion to sport, the central role of miners' clubs, and the formation of brass bands, created a distinct community identity.
In the late 19th and early 20th centuries, the Forest was a complex industrial region with deep coal mines, iron mines, iron and tinplate works, foundries, quarries and stone-dressing works, wood distillation works producing chemicals, a network of railways, and numerous tramroads. The tradition of independence in the area resulted in a great number of smaller and not necessarily economically successful mines. In 1904 the Gaveller oversaw a period of amalgamation of collieries which allowed deeper mines to be sunk. During the early 20th century, annual output from the coalfield rarely fell below 1 million tons.
In 1945 half of the male working population worked in the coal industry but after the Second World War increased pumping costs and other factors made the coalfield less economic. The last commercial iron mine closed in 1946 followed in 1965 by the closure of the last large colliery, Northern United. There are still small private mines in operation, worked by freeminers and Hopewell Colliery is open to the public.
With the decline of the mines, the area has undergone a period of significant change, ameliorated to some extent by a shift to high technology, with companies establishing themselves in the area, attracted by grants and a willing workforce.
Visitor destination
Many mines have now been reclaimed by the forest and the area is characterised by picturesque scenery punctuated by remnants of the industrial age and small towns. There remains a number of industrial areas but the focus has been to capitalise on the scenery and to create jobs from tourist attractions and the leisure sector. Significant numbers of residents work outside the area, commuting to Gloucester, Cheltenham, Bristol, Newport and Cardiff.
Natural history
Geology
The Forest of Dean is formed of a raised basin of palaeozoic rocks folded in the Variscan Orogeny, similar to the South Wales coalfield to the west. Underlain by great thicknesses of the Old Red Sandstone, the basin is filled with Carboniferous limestones, sandstones and coal measures, all of which have contributed to the industrial history of the region. Its highest point is Ruardean Hill ().
Ecology
The forest is composed of deciduous and evergreen trees. Predominant is oak, both pedunculate and sessile. Beech is common and sweet chestnut has grown here for many centuries. The forest is home to foxgloves and other wild flowers. Conifers include some Weymouth pine from 1781, Norway spruce, Douglas fir and larch. The deer are predominantly fallow deer and have been present since the second world war and number around 300 (there were no deer from about 1855 when they were removed in accordance with an Act of Parliament). A number of fallow deer in the central area are melanistic. Small numbers of roe deer and muntjac deer have spread in from the east.
The Forest is home to wild boar; the exact number is unknown but exceeds a hundred. They were illegally re-introduced to the Forest in 2006. A population in the Ross-on-Wye area on the northern edge of the forest escaped from a wild boar farm around 1999 and are believed to be of pure Eastern European origin; in a second introduction, a domestic herd was dumped near Staunton in 2004, but are not pure bred wild boar – attempts to locate the source of the illegal dumps have been unsuccessful. The boar can now be found in many parts of the Forest.
Locally there are mixed feelings about the presence of boar. Problems have included ploughing up gardens and picnic areas, attacking dogs and panicking horses, road traffic accidents, and ripping open rubbish bags. The local authority undertook a public consultation and have recommended to the Verderers that control is necessary. Under its international obligations the UK government is obliged to consider the reintroduction of species made extinct through the activities of man, the wild boar included.
The Forest of Dean is known for its woodland birds; pied flycatchers, redstarts, wood warblers, Lesser Spotted Woodpecker, Nightjars and Hawfinches can be seen at RSPB Nagshead and other parts of the forest. The mixed forest supports Britain's best concentration of goshawks which were introduced by falconers, and a viewing site at New Fancy is manned during February and March. Peregrine falcons can be seen from the viewpoint at Symonds Yat rock. Mandarin ducks, which nest in the trees, and reed warblers can be seen at Cannop Ponds and Cannop Brook, running from the ponds through Parkend, is famed for its dippers.
Butterflies of note are the small pearl-bordered fritillary, wood white and white admiral. Gorsty Knoll is famed for its glowworms and Woorgreens Lake for its dragonflies.
The Forest of Dean is also a stronghold for Britain's only venomous snake the European Adder, although its population is now believed to be in dramatic decline.
Geography
The lists below include towns, villages and places of interest which are within or adjoining the historic Forest; they do not include places which are located outside that area, but which are within the larger District Council area.
Towns and villages
Alvington
Aylburton
Awre
Berry Hill
Blaize Bailey
Blakeney
Bream
Brierley
Broadwell
Cinderford
Clearwell
Coleford
Coalway
Drybrook
Dymock
Edge End
Ellwood
English Bicknor
Gorsty Knoll
Harrow Hill
Hewelsfield
Hartpury
Huntley
Joys Green
Littledean
Little London
Longhope
Lydbrook
Milkwall
Mitcheldean
Newland
Newnham
Parkend
Pillowell
Ruardean
Ruardean Hill
Ruardean Woodside
Ruspidge
Soudley
Sling
St Briavels
Staunton
Steam Mills
The Pludds
Westbury
Whitecroft
Woolaston
Yorkley
Places of interest
Beechenhurst
Bixslade
Blaize Bailey View Point
Cannop Cycle Centre
Cannop Ponds
Clearwell Caves
Cyril Hart Arboretum
Darkhill Ironworks
Dean Forest Railway
Dean Heritage Centre
Great Western Railway Museum
Go Ape
Laymoor Quag
Littledean Jail
Lydney Harbour
Mallards Pike Lake
New Fancy
Parkend Ironworks
Parkend Railway Station
Perrygrove Railway
Puzzlewood
RSPB Nagshead
Sculpture Trail
Soudley Ponds
Speech House
Symond's Yat
Wenchford Picnic Site
Whitecliff Ironworks
Woorgreens Lake and Marsh
Transport
Roads
The A40 runs along the northern and northeastern edges of the Forest of Dean. The road provides the Forest with a direct connection to Ross-on-Wye and the M50 in Herefordshire. Westbound, the road runs towards Monmouth and South Wales. To the East, the road links the Forest directly to Gloucester, the M5, Cheltenham and Oxford. North of the Forest, the road is managed by Highways England.
To the southeast of the Forest, the A48 links the region to Chepstow, the M4 and Newport, or Gloucester. This route passes around the Lydney area and follows the course of the River Severn.
Other key routes include:
the A4136 – Huntley to Monmouth, via Mitcheldean and Coleford
the A4151 – Westbury-on-Severn to Mitcheldean via Cinderford
Nitrogen Dioxide (NO2) levels, measured using roadside diffusion tubes, are generally well below the UK national target for clean air, set at 40 μg/m³ (micrograms per cubic metre). In 2017, no roadside monitoring site in the Forest of Dean District failed to meet the UK objective. The most polluted site measured was on Lydney High Street, with a 2017 average NO2 concentration of 36.9 μg/m³.
Railways
The Forest of Dean once boasted a developed railway network, much of which evolved from plateways built in the early 19th century to facilitate freight traffic to and from mineral workings in the Forest. Many of these lines were part of the Severn & Wye Railway, which ran from the River Severn at Lydney to Cinderford, with branch lines to Lydbrook, where it connected with the Ross & Monmouth Railway, and Coleford, where it linked to the Wye Valley Railway via a line known as the Coleford Railway. The Forest of Dean Railway also ran towards Cinderford and its nearby collieries, branching from the South Wales Railway at Bullo Pill. The less successful Forest of Dean Central Railway attempted to compete with the other lines for coal traffic but was rendered obsolete by the opening of the Mineral Loop, a new line opened by the Severn & Wye to connect a number of pitheads. Most of these railways now cease to exist, with most of the railways in the Forest abandoned by 1968. A section of the Dean Forest Railway between Lydney Junction and Norchard is now a heritage railway.
The Gloucester-Newport line continues to carry passengers. Lydney railway station serves the Forest of Dean, with 0.196 million passenger entries and exits in 2017–18. The station is served by trains operated by Transport for Wales, linking the Forest directly to Cheltenham and Gloucester to the north, and Chepstow, Newport, Cardiff and onward destinations in South Wales. CrossCountry runs limited services to the station, linking the Forest to Birmingham New Street and onward destinations in the Midlands.
Notable people
Wayne Barnes (born 1979), international rugby union referee, lived in Bream, and played for Bream RFC.
John Berger (1926–2017), English novelist. Berger's sociological writings include A Fortunate Man: The Story of a Country Doctor (1967); the book is set in the Forest of Dean.
Rt Rev Stuart Blanch (1918–1994), Archbishop of York, was born at Viney Hill, Blakeney.
Jane Couch (born 1968), winner of five women's World Boxing titles, lives in Lydney.
Members of the band EMF are from Cinderford.
Winifred Foley (1914–2009), author, who wrote about her childhood in the forest, was born in Brierley.
Sir Arthur Hulin Gosling FRSE (1901–1982) Director General of the Forestry Commission born and raised in Forest of Dean
Dr Cyril Hart OBE (1913–2009), Verderer of the Forest of Dean, Author, Forestry Expert and Historian, born in the Forest and lived in Coleford.
F.W. Harvey (1888–1957), a poet known particularly for his works during World War I, lived in Yorkley and practised as a solicitor in Lydney.
Emma Hatton (born 1983), west end musical theatre star, Wicked, Evita, We Will Rock You, born in Coleford.
Edna Healey (1918–2010), author and wife of Denis Healey (1917–2015), was born in the Forest and lived in Coleford.
James (1844–1921) and William Horlick (1846–1936), the inventors of malted milk powder who gave their name to Horlicks, were born in Ruardean.
Herbert Howells (1892–1983), composer known for his Anglican church music, born in Lydney.
Steve James (cricketer) (born 1967), former England / Glamorgan batsman and now Sports journalist for the Telegraph was born in Lydney and played both cricket and rugby for the town.
Warren James (1792–1841), a miners' leader who led the Free Miners to action against the Crown, was born on the edge of Parkend.
John McAfee (1945–2021), computer programmer, businessman and political activist, was born in a US Army base in Cinderford.
Joe Meek (1929–1967), record producer and composer of 'Telstar' was born in Newent in 1929.
David Mushet (1772–1847), Scottish metallurgist who pioneered techniques for iron production, lived in Coleford from 1810 to 1844.
Robert Forester Mushet (1811–1891), who discovered a way to perfect the Bessemer Process, and who produced the first commercial steel alloys, was born in Coleford.
Valerie Grosvenor Myer (1935–2007), novelist and literary historian, born & lived for 21 years in Lower Soudley.
Dennis Potter, author and playwright who frequently used the region as a setting in his work, was born near Coleford.
Shoo Rayner (born 1956), children's book author, illustrator, and YouTube personality.
J. K. Rowling (born 1965), author of the Harry Potter series, lived on the southern edge of the Forest at Tutshill from 1974 to 1983. She sets several crucial chapters of her final Harry Potter book in this forest.
Johannes Urzidil (1896–1970), the Prague born Bohemian German writer in exile lived with his wife, the poet Gertrude Urzidil, from 1939 till 1941 in Viney Hill and wrote in stories and essays about the Forest of Dean and the people living there.
Dick Whittington ( 1354–1423), also known as Richard Whittington and who later became Lord Mayor of the City of London, was born in Pauntley, now part of the Forest of Dean district.
Jimmy Young (1921–2016), a BBC Radio 1 and BBC Radio 2 DJ was born in Cinderford.
In the media
Heavy metal band Black Sabbath rented Clearwell Castle in 1973 to write and record their fifth album, Sabbath Bloody Sabbath. The band rehearsed in the castle dungeon for inspiration. In 1978, the members of Led Zeppelin reconvened at the castle after a period apart, and began writing and rehearsing what became their In Through the Out Door album.
In 1998 the area was covered in the national news, for it was going through a bad heroin epidemic and several young people fatally overdosed within a short period of time.
The novel Harry Potter and the Deathly Hallows contains a chapter that is set in the Forest of Dean. It also appears in the first of two films of the same name. Series author J. K. Rowling has stated in interviews that the character Rubeus Hagrid was born in the region.
The autobiography of WWII veteran Colin Hall Dropped In It includes a chapter on his struggle to provide for a new wife and son in the undeveloped Forest of Dean in the late 1940s.
The BBC and ITV have filmed television series in and around the forest. The early 1980s science-fiction drama Blake's 7 used several locations; an episode of the Steven Moffat revival of Doctor Who has also filmed in the area. More recently, scenes from the BBC drama series Merlin were shot in the Forest. In the first series of ITV sci-fi thriller Primeval, the forest features prominently as several prehistoric creatures escape into the world through an anomaly deep in the forest and it is also where the wife of main character Nick Cutter had disappeared into.
The BBC nature programme Springwatch filmed the wild boar in 2009.
Parts of Dennis Potter's Pennies from Heaven (1978) take place, and were filmed, in the Forest of Dean, as do the childhood scenes from his The Singing Detective. His autobiographical play Blue Remembered Hills is set in the Forest of Dean.
In January 2011, 3000 protesters gathered at a rally organised by Hands off our Forest, to protest against the UK Government's proposed sale of public forests.
In July 2014, scenes from Star Wars: The Force Awakens were filmed in Puzzlewood.
In 1967, John Berger's sociological work A Fortunate Man was set in the Forest of Dean. A film of the same name was filmed in the Forest of Dean in 1972.
See also
Hands off our Forest (HOOF)
Forest of Dean Coalfield
Blue Remembered Hills
References
External links
Forest of Dean District Council website
Official Forest of Dean visitor information website
The Forester local newspaper
Royal Forest of Dean College website
English royal forests
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229666 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Taxila | Taxila | Taxila (from Pāli Brahmi: , , Sanskrit: , , , meaning 'cloven rock' in Sanskrit) is a significant archaeological site in the modern city of the same name in Punjab, Pakistan. It lies about northwest of Islamabad and Rawalpindi, and southwest of Haripur, Khyber Pakhtunkhwa, just off the famous Grand Trunk Road.
Taxila was an important city of Ancient India, situated at the pivotal junction of the Indian subcontinent and Central Asia, on the eastern shore of the Indus river. Its origins go back to c. 600 BCE. Some ruins at Taxila date to the time of the Achaemenid Empire in the 6th century BCE, followed successively by the Mauryan Empire, Indo-Greek, Indo-Scythian, and Kushan Empire periods.
Owing to its strategic location, Taxila has changed hands many times over the centuries, with many empires vying for its control. When the great ancient trade routes connecting these regions ceased to be important, the city sank into insignificance and was finally destroyed by the nomadic Hunas in the 5th century. The renowned archaeologist Sir Alexander Cunningham rediscovered the ruins of Taxila in the mid-19th century. In 1980, Taxila was declared a UNESCO World Heritage Site. In 2006 it was ranked as the top tourist destination in Pakistan by The Guardian newspaper.
By some accounts, the University of Ancient Taxila was considered to be one of the earliest universities in the world. Others do not consider it a university in the modern sense, in that the teachers living there may not have had official membership of particular colleges, and there did not seem to have existed purpose-built lecture halls and residential quarters in Taxila, in contrast to the later Nalanda university in eastern India.
In a 2010 report, Global Heritage Fund identified Taxila as one of 12 worldwide sites most "On the verge" of irreparable loss and damage, citing insufficient management, development pressure, looting, and war and conflict as primary threats. However, significant preservation efforts have been carried out since then by the government which have resulted in the site being declared as "well-preserved" by different international publications. Because of the extensive preservation efforts and upkeep, the site is a popular tourist spot, attracting up to one million tourists every year.
Etymology
Taxila was known in Pali as , and in Sanskrit as (, ; '(City of) hewn stone'). The Greeks pared the city's name down to Taxila which became the name that the Europeans were familiar with since the time of Alexander the Great.
Takshashila can also alternately be translated to 'Rock of Taksha' in reference to the Ramayana which states that the city was named in honour of Bharata's son and first ruler, Taksha. According to another derivation, Takshashila is related to Takshaka (Sanskrit for "carpenter") and is an alternate name for the Nāga, a non-Indo-Iranian people of ancient India.
Faxian, who had visited the city, had given its name's meaning as 'cut-off head'. With the help of a Jataka, he had interpreted it to be the place where Buddha in his previous birth as Pusa or Chandaprabha cut off his head to feed a hungry lion. This tradition still persists with the area in front of Sirkap (also meaning 'cut-off head') was known in the 19th century as Babur Khana ('House of Tiger'), which alludes to the place where Buddha offered his head. In addition, a hill range to south of Taxila Valley is called Margala ('cut off throat').
In traditional sources
In Vedic texts such as the Shatapatha Brahmana, it is mentioned that the Vedic philosopher Uddalaka Aruni (c. 7th century BCE) had travelled to the region of Gandhara. In later Buddhist texts, the Jatakas, it is specified that Taxila was the city where Aruni and his son Shvetaketu each had received their education.
One of the earliest mentions of Taxila is in Pāṇini's , a Sanskrit grammar treatise dated to the 5th to 4th centuries BCE.
Much of the Hindu epic, the Mahabharata, is a conversation between Vaishampayana (a pupil of the sage, Vyasa) and King Janamejaya. It is traditionally believed that the story was first recited by Vaishampayana at the behest of Vyasa during the snake sacrifice performed by Janamejaya at Takshashila. The audience also included Ugrashravas, an itinerant bard, who would later recite the story to a group of priests at an ashram in the Naimisha Forest from where the story was further disseminated. The Kuru Kingdom's heir, Parikshit (grandson of Arjuna) is said to have been enthroned at Takshashila.
The Ramayana describes Takshashila as a magnificent city famed for its wealth which was founded by Bharata, the younger brother of Rama. Bharata, who also founded nearby Pushkalavati, installed his two sons, Taksha and Pushkala, as the rulers of the two cities.
In the Buddhist Jatakas, Taxila is described as the capital of the kingdom of Gandhara and a great centre of learning with world-famous teachers. The Takkasila Jataka, more commonly known as the Telapatta Jataka, tells the tale of a prince of Benares who is told that he would become the king of Takkasila if he could reach the city within seven days without falling prey to the yakshinis who waylaid travellers in the forest. According to the Dipavamsa, one of Taxila's early kings was a Kshatriya named Dipankara who was succeeded by twelve sons and grandsons. , mentioned in the Avadanakalpalata, is another king associated with the city.
In the Jain tradition, it is said that Rishabha, the first of the Tirthankaras, visited Taxila millions of years ago. His footprints were subsequently consecrated by Bahubali who erected a throne and a dharmachakra ('wheel of the law') over them several miles in height and circumference.
History
Early settlement
The region around Taxila was settled by the neolithic era, with some ruins at Taxila dating to 3360 BCE. Ruins dating from the Early Harappan period around 2900 BCE have also been discovered in the Taxila area, though the area was eventually abandoned after the collapse of the Indus Valley Civilisation.
The earliest settled occupation in Taxila Valley was found at Sarai Khola, located 2 km to the south-west of Taxila Museum, where three radiocarbon dates from Period I suggest the site was first occupied between the late 4th and early 3rd millennium BCE, with deposits of polished stone celts, chert blades and a distinctive type of highly burnished pottery that shows clear signs of the use of woven baskets in the manufacturing process and the application of a slurry to the exterior surface. Periods IA and II at Sarai Khola seem to show continuity from Period I, with the appearance of red burnished wares. However, Kot Diji-style wares were found in greater numbers, and the Kot Diji-style forms show signs of having been wheel-thrown, marking a clear technological change from the Period I material. Seven radiocarbon dates were also taken from the earlier and later Period II/Kot Diji, and seem to show this phase dates from the mid-late 3rd to early 2nd millennium BCE.
Later on, the first major settlement at Taxila, in Hathial mound, was established around 1000 BCE. By 900 BCE, the city was already involved in regional commerce, as discovered pottery shards reveal trading ties between the city and Puṣkalāvatī.
Later, Taxila was inhabited at Bhir Mound, dated to some time around the period 800-525 BCE with these early layers bearing grooved red burnished ware.
Achaemenid
Archaeological excavations show that the city may have grown significantly during the rule of the Persian Achaemenid Empire in the 6th century BCE. In 516 BCE, Darius I embarked on a campaign to conquer Central Asia, Ariana and Bactria, before marching onto what is now Afghanistan and northern Pakistan. Emperor Darius spent the winter of 516-515 BCE in the Gandhara region surrounding Taxila, and prepared to conquer the Indus Valley, which he did in 515 BCE, after which he appointed Scylax of Caryanda to explore the Indian Ocean from the mouth of the Indus to the Suez. Darius then returned to Persia via the Bolan Pass. The region continued under Achaemenid suzerainty under the reign of Xerxes I, and continued under Achaemenid rule for over a century.
Taxila was sometimes ruled as part of the Gandhara kingdom (whose capital was Pushkalavati), particularly after the Achaemenid period, but Taxila sometimes formed its own independent district or city-state.
Hellenistic
During his invasion of the Indus Valley, Alexander the Great was able to gain control of Taxila () in 326 BCE without a battle, as the city was surrendered by its ruler, king Omphis (Āmbhi). Greek historians accompanying Alexander described Taxila as "wealthy, prosperous, and well governed". Arrian writes that Alexander was welcomed by the citizens of the city, and he offered sacrifices and celebrated a gymnastic and equestrian contest there.
Mauryan
By 317 BCE, the Greek satraps left by Alexander were driven out, and Taxila came under the control of Chandragupta Maurya, who turned Taxila into a regional capital. His advisor, Kautilya/Chanakya, was said to have taught at Taxila's university. Under the reign of Ashoka, Chandragupta's grandson, the city was made a great seat of Buddhist learning, though the city was home to a minor rebellion during this time.
Taxila was founded in a strategic location along the ancient "Royal Highway" that connected the Mauryan capital at Pataliputra in Bihar, with ancient Peshawar, Puṣkalāvatī, and onwards towards Central Asia via Kashmir, Bactria, and Kāpiśa. Taxila thus changed hands many times over the centuries, with many empires vying for its control.
Indo-Greek
In the 2nd century BCE, Taxila was annexed by the Indo-Greek kingdom of Bactria. Indo-Greeks built a new capital, Sirkap, on the opposite bank of the river from Taxila. During this new period of Bactrian Greek rule, several dynasties (like Antialcidas) likely ruled from the city as their capital. During lulls in Greek rule, the city managed profitably on its own, to independently control several local trade guilds, who also minted most of the city's autonomous coinage. In about the 1st century BCE or 1st century CE, an Indo-Scythian king named Azilises had three mints, one of which was at Taxila, and struck coins with obverse legends in Greek and Kharoṣṭhī.
The last Greek king of Taxila was overthrown by the Indo-Scythian chief Maues around 90 BCE. Gondophares, founder of the Indo-Parthian Kingdom, conquered Taxila around 20 BCE, and made Taxila his capital. According to early Christian legend, Thomas the Apostle visited Gondophares IV around 46 CE, possibly at Taxila given that city was Gondophares' capital city. After 5 AD, the Muslim ruler Muhamad Tuglak tried to destroy it.
Kushan
Around the year 50 CE, the Greek Neopythagorean philosopher Apollonius of Tyana allegedly visited Taxila, which was described by his biographer, Philostratus, writing some 200 years later, as a fortified city laid out on a symmetrical plan, similar in size to Nineveh. Modern archaeology confirms this description. Inscriptions dating to 76 CE demonstrate that the city had come under Kushan rule by that time, after the city was captured from the Parthians by Kujula Kadphises, founder of the Kushan Empire. The great Kushan ruler Kanishka later founded Sirsukh, the most recent of the ancient settlements at Taxila.
Gupta
In the mid-fourth century CE, the Gupta Empire occupied the territories in Eastern Gandhara, establishing a Kumaratya's post at Taxila. The city became well known for its trade links, including silk, sandalwood, horses, cotton, silverware, pearls, and spices. It is during this time that the city heavily features in classical Indian literature – both as a centre of culture as well as a militarised border city.
Taxila's university remained in existence during the travels of Chinese pilgrim Faxian, who visited Taxila around 400 CE. He wrote that Taxila's name translated as "the Severed Head", and was the site of a story in the life of Buddha "where he gave his head to a man".
Decline
The Kidarites, vassals of the Hephthalite Empire are known to have invaded Taxila in c. 450 CE. Though repelled by the Gupta Emperor Skandagupta, the city would not recover- probably on account of the strong Hunnic presence in the area, breakdown of trade as well as the three-way war between Persia, the Kidarite State, and the Huns in Western Gandhara.
The White Huns and Alchon Huns swept over Gandhāra and Punjab around 470 CE, causing widespread devastation and destruction of Taxila's famous Buddhist monasteries and stupas, a blow from which the city would never recover. From 500 CE to 540 CE, the city languished after falling under the control of the Hunnic Empire ruled by Mihirakula. A patron of Hindu Shaivism, Mihirakula presided over some destruction of Buddhist sites and monasteries across northwestern regions of the Indian subcontinent.
Xuanzang visited India between 629 and 645 CE. Taxila which was desolate and half-ruined was visited by him in 630 CE, and found most of its sangharamas still ruined and desolate. Only a few monks remained there. He adds that the kingdom had become a dependency of Kashmir with the local leaders fighting amongst themselves for power. He noted that it had some time previously been a subject of Kapisa. By the ninth century, it became a dependency of the Kabul Shahis. The Turki Shahi dynasty of Kabul was replaced by the Hindu Shahi dynasty which was overthrown by Mahmud of Ghazni with the defeat of Trilochanpala.
Al-Usaifan's king during the reign of Al-Mu'tasim is said to have converted to Islam by Al-Biladhuri and abandoned his old faith due to the death of his son despite having priests of a temple pray for his recovery. Said to be located between Kashmir, Multan and Kabul, al-Usaifan is identified with kingdom of Taxila by some authors.
Centre of learning
By some accounts, Taxila was considered to be one of the earliest (or the earliest) universities in the world. Others do not consider it a university in the modern sense, in that the teachers living there may not have had official membership of particular colleges, and there did not seem to have existed purpose-built lecture halls and residential quarters in Taxila, in contrast to the later Nalanda university in eastern India.
Taxila became a noted centre of learning (including the religious teachings of Buddhism) at least several centuries BCE, and continued to attract students from around the old world until the destruction of the city in the 5th century. It has been suggested that at its height, Taxila exerted a sort of "intellectual suzerainty" over other centres of learning in India and its primary concern was not with elementary, but higher education. Generally, a student entered Taxila at the age of sixteen. The ancient and the most revered scriptures, and the Eighteen Silpas or Arts, which included skills such as archery, hunting, and elephant lore, were taught, in addition to its law school, medical school, and school of military science. Students came to Taxila from far-off places such as Kashi, Kosala and Magadha, in spite of the long and arduous journey they had to undergo, on account of the excellence of the learned teachers there, all recognised as authorities on their respective subjects.
Notable students and teachers
Taxila had great influence on Hindu culture and the Sanskrit language. It is perhaps best known for its association with Chanakya, also known as Kautilya, the strategist who guided Chandragupta Maurya and assisted in the founding of the Mauryan empire. Chanakya's Arthashastra (The knowledge of Economics) is said to have been composed in Taxila. The Ayurvedic healer Charaka also studied at Taxila. He also started teaching at Taxila in the later period. Pāṇini, the grammarian who codified the rules that would define Classical Sanskrit, has also been part of the community at Taxila.
The institution is significant in Buddhist tradition since it is believed that the Mahāyāna branch of Buddhism took shape there. Jīvaka, the court physician of the Magadha emperor Bimbisara who once cured the Buddha, and the Buddhism-supporting ruler of Kosala, Prasenajit, are some important personalities mentioned in Pali texts who studied at Taxila.
No external authorities like kings or local leaders subjected the scholastic activities at Taxila to their control. Each teacher formed his own institution, enjoying complete autonomy in work, teaching as many students as he liked and teaching subjects he liked without conforming to any centralised syllabus. Study terminated when the teacher was satisfied with the student's level of achievement. In general, specialisation in a subject took around eight years, though this could be lengthened or shortened in accordance with the intellectual abilities and dedication of the student in question. In most cases the "schools" were located within the teachers' private houses, and at times students were advised to quit their studies if they were unable to fit into the social, intellectual and moral atmosphere there.
Knowledge was considered too sacred to be bartered for money, and hence any stipulation that fees ought to be paid was vigorously condemned. Financial support came from the society at large, as well as from rich merchants and wealthy parents. Though the number of students studying under a single Guru sometimes numbered in the hundreds, teachers did not deny education even if the student was poor; free boarding and lodging was provided, and students had to do manual work in the household. Paying students, such as princes, were taught during the day, while non-paying ones were taught at night. Gurudakshina was usually expected at the completion of a student's studies, but it was essentially a mere token of respect and gratitude - many times being nothing more than a turban, a pair of sandals, or an umbrella. In cases of poor students being unable to afford even that, they could approach the king, who would then step in and provide something. Not providing a poor student a means to supply his Guru's Dakshina was considered the greatest slur on a King's reputation.
Examinations were treated as superfluous, and not considered part of the requirements to complete one's studies. The process of teaching was critical and thorough- unless one unit was mastered completely, the student was not allowed to proceed to the next. No convocations were held upon completion, and no written "degrees" were awarded, since it was believed that knowledge was its own reward. Using knowledge for earning a living or for any selfish end was considered sacrilegious.
Students arriving at Taxila usually had completed their primary education at home (until the age of eight), and their secondary education in the Ashrams (between the ages of eight and twelve), and therefore came to Taxila chiefly to reach the ends of knowledge in specific disciplines.
Ruins
The sites of a number of important cities noted in ancient Indian texts were identified by scholars early in the 19th century. The lost city of Taxila, however, was not identified until later, in 1863-64. Its identification was made difficult partly due to errors in the distances recorded by Pliny in his Naturalis Historia which pointed to a location somewhere on the Haro river, two days march from the Indus. Alexander Cunningham, the founder and the first director-general of the Archaeological Survey of India, noticed that this position did not agree with the descriptions provided in the itineraries of Chinese pilgrims and in particular, that of Xuanzang, the 7th-century Buddhist monk. Unlike Pliny, these sources noted that the journey to Taxila from the Indus took three days and not two. Cunningham's subsequent explorations in 1863–64 of a site at Shah-dheri convinced him that his hypothesis was correct.
Taxila's archaeological sites lie near modern Taxila about northwest of the city of Rawalpindi. The sites were first excavated by John Marshall, who worked at Taxila over a period of twenty years from 1913.
The vast archaeological site includes neolithic remains dating to 3360 BCE, and Early Harappan remains dating to 2900–2600 BCE at Sarai Kala. Taxila, however, is most famous for ruins of several settlements, the earliest dating from around 1000 BCE. It is also known for its collection of Buddhist religious monuments, including the Dharmarajika stupa, the Jaulian monastery, and the Mohra Muradu monastery.
The main ruins of Taxila include four major cities, each belonging to a distinct time period, at three different sites. The earliest settlement at Taxila is found in the Hathial section, which yielded pottery shards that date from as early as the late 2nd millennium BCE to the 6th century BCE. The Bhir Mound ruins at the site date from the 6th century BCE, and are adjacent to Hathial. The ruins of Sirkap date to the 2nd century BCE, and were built by the region's Greco-Bactrian kings who ruled in the region following Alexander the Great's invasion of the region in 326 BCE. The third and most recent settlement is that of Sirsukh, which was built by rulers of the Kushan empire, who ruled from nearby Purushapura (modern Peshawar).
World Heritage Site
Taxila was designated a UNESCO World Heritage Site in 1980 in particular for the ruins of the four settlement sites which "reveal the pattern of urban evolution on the Indian subcontinent through more than five centuries". The serial site includes a number of monuments and other historical places of note in the area besides the four settlements at Bhir, Saraikala, Sirkap, and Sirsukh. They number 18 in all:
In a 2010 report, Global Heritage Fund identified Taxila as one of 12 worldwide sites most "on the Verge" of irreparable loss and damage, citing insufficient management, development pressure, looting, and war and conflict as primary threats. In 2017, it was announced that Thailand would assist in conservation efforts at Taxila, as well as at Buddhist sites in the Swat Valley.
Gallery
See also
Taxila (satrapy)
Harappa
Notes
References
External links
Explore Taxila with Google Earth on Global Heritage Network
Guide to Historic Taxila by Ahmad Hasan Dani in 10 chapters
"Taxila", by Jona Lendering
Map of Gandhara archaeological sites, from the Huntington Collection, Ohio State University (large file)
Taxila: An Ancient Indian University by S. Srikanta Sastri
John Marshall, A guide to Taxila (1918) on Archive.org
Telapatta Jataka also known as the Takkasila Jataka
Taxila Tehsil
Locations in Hindu mythology
Archaeological sites in Pakistan
World Heritage Sites in Pakistan
Ancient Greek archaeological sites in Pakistan
Buddhism in Pakistan
Gandhara
History of Pakistan
Former populated places in Pakistan
Ancient universities of the Indian subcontinent
Buddhist sites in Pakistan
Indo-Parthian Kingdom
Buddhist universities and colleges | [
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229667 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Symonds%20Yat | Symonds Yat | Symonds Yat is a village in the Wye Valley and a popular tourist destination, straddling the River Wye in the English county of Herefordshire, close to the Gloucestershire border. It is within a few miles of Monmouthshire and the Welsh border.
The two settlements either side of the river are known as Symonds Yat (West) and Symonds Yat (East) and are linked by a footbridge and passenger ferries. Nearby is Symonds Yat Rock. The Seven Sisters Rocks are an outcrop of rocks forming cliffs above the Wye at Symonds Yat.
Toponym
The first recorded use of Symonds Yat in connection with the area is in a Patent Roll of 1256, where the place appears as Symundesyate and Symondesyate. This may contain the Old English personal name Sigemund or a very early surname deriving from it. Yat represents the Old English word geat (pronounced "yat"), meaning 'gate' and describing the gorge. Although a popular local belief, it is not true that the addition of Symonds was made in the 17th century in reference to Robert Symonds of Sugwas and Evesfield, High Sheriff of Herefordshire in 1685, who was indeed a member of the family who owned the lands from Wormelow near Hereford to the border regions in which surround the Yat. The area is also shown as Symons Yate on maps in 1665, Symons Yat in 1717 and Symmonds Gate in 1830.
History
Bones from hyenas, sabre-toothed cats and a mammoth have been found in and around the caves of the Wye valley. Human habitation can be traced back to 12,000 years ago with findings of their tools and clothes.
In the Iron Age the forts on the Great Doward and Yat Rock provided secure, defensible settlements for the local residents. During Roman times these forts became focal points in the region and the importance of the iron here and in the Forest of Dean made this a valuable prize for the conquerors. Offa's Dyke, built in the 8th century to separate England and Wales, runs close to Symonds Yat.
The Yat Gorge was mined for iron ore and remains of a smelting works are located down stream of the Symonds Yat Rapids. The ironworks at New Weir date from the 1590s and were operated by the White family until 1753, when George White leased the site to John Partridge, an ironmonger from Ross on Wye. Partridge combined the ironworks at New Weir with his forge at Lydbrook which smelted pig iron from his furnace at Bishopswood. The works closed when the lease ran out in 1798 and the adjacent weir and lock buildings were demolished and the lock filled in 1814.
The Old Court Hotel in Symonds Yat (West), which was built in the 16th century, was the ancestral home of the Gwillim family and was home to John Graves Simcoe, who was governor and one of the founding fathers of Upper Canada.
The ferry at Symonds Yat has always played a huge part in the life here. In 1800 there were 25 hand ferries between Ross and Chepstow just like those outside Ye Old Ferrie Inn and the Saracen's Head today. They were introduced in Roman times to link the forts of the Doward and the Yat and have served military, civilian, tourist and horse traffic over the years.
Symonds Yat originally encompassed all the lands south of Huntsham curve on both sides of Symonds Yat Rock and would have included the area around Coldwell Rocks. The name Symonds Yat used to refer to quite a large area of land and the hamlet of Symonds Yat (East), consisting of the Saracen's Head Inn, the Fish House, Lockkeepers Cottage and one or two cottages on the hillside, was specifically called New Weir and is seen on maps as such up until 1955.
In April 2009 Herefordshire Archaeology excavated New Weir Iron Works at Symonds Yat (West) to establish how the iron works functioned between the start of smelting in and the decline of the works in the 1800s. It was found that the works included a 'slitting mill', for making wire nails and a rolling mill powered by water wheels.
Symonds Yat (East)
Symonds Yat (East) is on the eastern side of the river. It has three hotels, WyeDean Canoe and Activity Centre and the Saracens Head Inn (with accommodation). A steep footpath leads from the village up to Symonds Yat Rock. Another footpath and a cycleway, constructed on a former railway line, runs on the eastern bank to Monmouth.
Symonds Yat (West)
Symonds Yat (West) is on the western side of the river and has a large caravan and camping site. Visitor attractions include the "Amazing Hedge Puzzle" maze built in 1977 to commemorate the Silver Jubilee of Queen Elizabeth II, and the Wye Valley Butterfly Zoo.
River crossings
Two hand ("pull") cable ferries enable foot passengers to cross the river, powered by ferrymen who pull the ferry across the river using an overhead cable. The only connection by road is upstream over Huntsham bridge; this is a five-mile trip. One ferry is operated by the Saracens Head Inn and the other by the Ye Old Ferrie Inn.
A suspension bridge was built over the river by the Forestry Commission using local oak timbers in 1957. Linking Symonds Yat (East) to the Biblins camp site, the bridge was fully refurbished in 1997 and rotten timbers and the two support towers were replaced. Although it is designed to take up to 30 people, it has signs requesting that no more than 6 cross at a time.
Geographical features
Symonds Yat Rock
Symonds Yat Rock overlooks a spectacular gorge through which the River Wye snakes. This rock is a good viewpoint from which to watch raptors: a pair of peregrine falcons that nest annually within sight of the rock can be watched through telescopes set up by the RSPB. Buzzards, goshawks and hobbies are also regularly seen and it is sometimes possible to see migrant raptors such as ospreys and European honey buzzards.
Seven Sisters Rocks
The Seven Sisters Rocks are an outcrop of rocks forming cliffs above the Wye, between Symonds Yat and Monmouth.
Local activities
Tourist activities include boat trips, a maze, stand-up paddle boarding (from Ye Old Ferrie Inn), an oriental garden, and a number of country pubs and guest houses.
Symonds Yat Rapids are a grade 2 man-made feature at Symonds Yat used by canoeists and kayakers for whitewater training and playboating.
There is extensive and popular rock climbing on the cliff faces of Carboniferous limestone, with long single pitches at all grades.
Railways
Symonds Yat station, on the east side of the river, was on the Ross and Monmouth Railway that ran from Ross-on-Wye to Monmouth Troy between 1873 and 1959 through the Wye Valley. A trace of this remains at Symonds Yat Tunnel.
Media
A scene from the 1993 film Shadowlands was filmed at Symonds Yat Rock, with the view of the Wye Valley in the background, but it was meant to be another location within the plot of the film.
Symonds Yat featured on the 2005 TV programme Seven Natural Wonders as one of the wonders of the West Country.
Symonds Yat Rock was used as a location for some episodes of Series 5 of the BBC television drama Merlin.
Symonds Yat was used as a location for some of the shots filmed in Harry Potter and the Deathly Hallows – Part 1
The Saracens Head Inn in the hamlet of Symonds Yat (East) was featured in Escape to the Country on BBC One in 2014.
A chalet in Symonds Yat (East) featured as the family home for main character Otis in the 2019 Netflix Original series Sex Education.
Gallery
References
External links
BBC archive film of Symonds Yat from 1985
Symonds Yat in 2010 (Video)
The Gwillim Simcoe family story
Symonds Yat Rock Forestry England webpage
Villages in Herefordshire
Villages in Gloucestershire
Forest of Dean
River Wye
Chain ferries in the United Kingdom | [
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