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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/N.%20T.%20Rama%20Rao
N. T. Rama Rao
Nandamuri Taraka Rama Rao (28 May 1923 – 18 January 1996), popularly known as NTR, was an Indian actor, filmmaker and politician who served as Chief Minister of Andhra Pradesh for seven years over three terms. He starred in over 300 films, predominantly in Telugu cinema, and was referred to as Viswa Vikhyatha Nata Sarwa Bhouma ( World's famous emperor of acting). Rao received three National Film Awards for co-producing Thodu Dongalu (1954) and Seetharama Kalyanam (1960) under National Art Theater, Madras, and for directing Varakatnam (1970). He has received the erstwhile Rashtrapati Awards for his performance in the Raju Peda (1954) and the Lava Kusa (1963). He garnered the Nandi Award for Best Actor for Kodalu Diddina Kapuram in 1970, and the Inaugural Filmfare Award for Best Actor – Telugu in 1972 for Badi Panthulu. Rao made his debut as an actor in a Telugu social film Mana Desam, directed by L. V. Prasad in 1949. He gained popularity in the 1950s when he became well known for his portrayals of Hindu deities, especially Krishna, Karna and Rama, roles which have made him a "messiah of the masses". He later became known for portraying antagonistic characters and Robin Hood-esque hero characters in films. He is one of the most prominent figures in the history of Telugu cinema. He was voted "Greatest Indian Actor of All Time" in a CNN-IBN national poll conducted in 2013 on the occasion of the Centenary of Indian Cinema. He starred in such films as Patala Bhairavi (1951), which premiered at the first India International Film Festival, held in Mumbai on 24 January 1952, Malliswari (1951), premiered at Asia Pacific Film Festival, the enduring classics Mayabazar (1957) and Nartanasala (1963), featured at an Afro-Asian film festival that was held in Jakarta, Indonesia. All the four films were included in CNN-IBN's list of "Hundred greatest Indian films of all time". He co-produced Ummadi Kutumbam, nominated by Film Federation of India as one of its entries to the 1968 Moscow Film Festival. Besides Telugu, he has also acted in a few Tamil films. Widely recognised for his portrayal of mythological characters, Rao was one of the leading method actors of Indian cinema, He was awarded the Padma Shri by the Government of India in 1968, recognizing his contribution to Indian cinema. After his career in films, Rao entered politics. He founded the Telugu Desam Party (TDP) in 1982 and served three tumultuous terms as Chief Minister of Andhra Pradesh between 1983 and 1995. He was known as an advocate of Andhra Pradesh's distinct cultural identity, distinguishing it from the erstwhile Madras State with which it was often associated. At the national level, he was instrumental in the formation of the National Front, a coalition of non-Congress parties which governed India from 1989 until 1990. Early life Nandamuri Taraka Rama Rao was born on 28 May 1923 in Nimmakuru, a small village in Gudivada taluk of Krishna district, which was a part of the erstwhile Madras Presidency of British India. He was born to a farming couple, Nandamuri Lakshmayya Chowdary and Nandamuri Venkata Ramamma, but was given in adoption to his paternal uncle because his uncle and aunt were childless. He attended school at first in his village, and later in Vijayawada. After his matriculation in 1940, he studied at SRR & CVR College in Vijayawada and at the Andhra Christian College in Guntur. In 1947, he joined the Madras Service Commission as a sub-registrar at Prathipadu of Guntur district, a much-coveted job that he nevertheless quit within three weeks to devote himself to acting. He developed a baritone singing voice as a young man. Film career Rama Rao started his film career with a walk-on role as a policeman in Mana Desam (1949). Following this, he appeared in Palletoori Pilla, directed by B. A. Subba Rao. His first mythological film was in 1957, where he portrayed the Hindu god Krishna in the blockbuster film Maya Bazaar. He played Krishna in 17 films, including some landmark films such as Sri Krishnarjuna Yudham (1962), the Tamil film Karnan (1964) and Daana Veera Soora Karna (1977). He was also known for his portrayal of the god Rama, essaying that role in films such as Lava Kusha (1963) and Shri Ramanjaneya Yuddham (1974) to name a few. He has also portrayed other characters from the Ramayana, such as Ravana in Bhookailas (1958) and Seetharama Kalyanam (1961) among others. He portrayed the god Vishnu in films such as Sri Venkateswara Mahatyam (1960) among others and the god Shiva in Dakshayagnam (1962). He has also enacted the roles of Mahabharata characters, such as Bheeshma, Arjuna, Karna and Duryodhana. Later in his career, he stopped playing a prince in his commercial films and began to play roles of a poor yet heroic young man fighting against the existing system. These films appealed to the sentiments of the common man. Some of these films are Devudu Chesina Manushulu (1973), Adavi Ramudu (1977), Driver Ramudu (1979), Vetagadu (1979), Sardar Papa Rayudu (1980), Kondaveeti Simham (1981), Justice Chowdary (1982) and Bobbili Puli (1982). He also portrayed fantasy roles, his notable film in that genre being Yamagola (1977). His film Lava Kusa, in which he starred as Rama, collected 10 million rupees in 1963. He directed and acted in the hagiographical film Shrimad Virat Veerabrahmendra Swami Charitra (1984). He also acted in films such as Brahmasri Viswamitra (1991) and Major Chandrakanth (1993). His last film was Srinatha Kavi Sarvabhowmudu, a biopic on the Telugu poet Srinatha, which released in 1993. In the later half of his career, Rao became a screenwriter. Despite having no formal training in scriptwriting, he authored several screenplays for his own movies as well as for other producers. He also produced many of his films as well as other actor's films through his film production house National Art Theater Private Limited, Madras and later Ramakrishna Studios, Hyderabad. He actively campaigned for the construction of a large number of cinemas through this production house. He was influential in designing and implementing a financial system that funded the production and distribution of movies. He was so dedicated to his profession that he would often learn new things in order to portray a particular character on-screen perfectly and realistically. At the age of 40, he learnt dance from the renowned Kuchipudi dancer Vempati Chinna Satyam for his role in the film Nartanasala (1963). Political career Naadendla Bhaskara Rao,a veteran politician joined Telugu Desam Party (TDP) founded by Rama Rao, on 29 March 1982 in Hyderabad. He said that this decision was based on a historic need to rid Andhra Pradesh of the corrupt and inept rule of the Indian National Congress, which had governed the state since its formation in 1956 and whose leadership had changed the Chief Minister five times in five years. First term as Chief Minister, 1983 In the elections, the TDP allied with the Sanjaya Vichara Manch party and decided to field educated candidates who had a good name in the society and were not indulging in corruption, which was an innovative political concept at the time. Rao himself decided to contest from two assembly constituencies, Gudivada and Tirupati. He used many innovative ways of campaigning, such as being the first politician in India to use rath yatras for campaigning. However, it was MGR who had started the open top van campaigning for elections, as it was felt that he can address the roadshows as an alternative to the mammoth meetings, which involves large amount of money as well as manpower. For this, he used a modified Chevrolet van which was given the name of Chaitanya Ratham. In this, Rao travelled across the state of Andhra Pradesh, crisscrossing all the districts. With his son Nandamuri Harikrishna, also a film actor, driving the van, Rao notched up over 75,000 kilometres during his campaign, a distinctive sight with the van's yellow party flags and banners and Rao sitting on top of the vehicle hailing the crowds. He campaigned for restoring the dignity of the Telugu people and advocated forming a closer bond between the government and the common people, going into the elections with the slogan, Telugu Vari Atma Gauravam (lit. Telugu people's self-respect). In the 1983 Andhra Pradesh Legislative Assembly election, TDP won by an absolute majority winning 202 out of the 294 seats in the state assembly, with Rao himself winning both the seats he contested. Their alliance with the Sanjaya Vichara Manch fetched 202 seats. Rao was sworn in as the 10th and the first non-Congress Chief Minister of the state on 9 January 1983 with ten cabinet ministers and five ministers of State. Loss of power, 1984 On 15 August 1984, Rao was removed from office by the then Governor of Andhra Pradesh Thakur Ram Lal, while Rao was in the US to undergo open heart surgery. His finance minister, Nadendla Bhaskara Rao, a former Congressman who was the chief architect of the TDP during its inception, was made the Chief Minister by the Governor Thakur Ram Lal. Bhaskar Rao purportedly had the support of majority of the TDP MLAs which was never the case. Return to power, 1984 Rama Rao returned to India immediately after his surgery, disputed the claims by Bhaskara Rao and demonstrated his strength by bringing all the MLAs supporting him, which was a majority in the 294 member assembly, to the Raj Bhavan (Governor's Office). Ramlal did not relent, as a result of which Rama Rao relaunched his Chaitanya Ratham campaign, this time campaigning for the restoration of democracy by mobilizing the support of people and various anti-Congress political parties in the country including the Janata Party (JP), the Bharatiya Janata Party (BJP), the Left Front, the Dravida Munnetra Kazhagam (DMK), and the National Conference (NC). During the one-month crisis, the MLAs supporting Rama Rao were secured in a secret place to avoid horse-trading. This was achieved with the support of Ramakrishna Hegde, Chief Minister of Karnataka. Ramakrishna Hegde moved all the TDP MLAs to a Budget Hotel, Das Prakash, in Mysuru (Mysore). As Congress (I) was known for poaching MLAs regularly and was felt necessitated. This was the first time in Indian Politics that MLAs were secured at a safe place from poaching. Also, due to mobilization of several political parties and the people and due to press, the Prime Minister Indira Gandhi unwillingly removed Governor Ramlal and appointed a Congress veteran, Shankar Dayal Sharma, as the governor of Andhra Pradesh to pave the way for restoring Rao. Campaigning in Tamil Nadu, 1984 In 1984, when the then Chief Minister of Tamil Nadu and fellow actor M. G. Ramachandran (MGR) was unable to campaign in the state elections due to his being hospitalised in the USA. Rao, who was a close friend of MGR and R.M.Veerappan who was handling the party affairs, campaigned for the All India Anna Dravida Munnetra Kazhagam (AIADMK), despite the fact that party was an ally of the Congress at the time. As leader of the National Front, he campaigned extensively for the constituent parties when they faced elections, again using his Chaitanya Ratham campaigning concept. General elections, 1984 A month later, Indira Gandhi was assassinated and was succeeded as prime minister by her son, Rajiv Gandhi. In the ensuing national elections to the Lok Sabha, the Congress, riding on the sympathy wave caused by Gandhi's assassination, won convincingly all over the country except in Andhra Pradesh where the TDP secured a landslide victory. TDP became the first regional party to serve as the main opposition party in the Lok Sabha. Second term as Chief Minister, 1985 Meanwhile, in the state, Rao recommended dissolution of the Assembly and called for fresh elections the following year in the state to ensure that the people had a fresh choice to elect their representatives. The TDP again won with a massive majority in those elections, with Rao winning from 3 seats; Hindupur, Nalgonda and Gudivada, thus marking the beginning of his second term as Chief Minister. Senior Leaders of the Congress in the state including former Chief Ministers Kasu Brahmananda Reddy and Kotla Vijaya Bhaskara Reddy lost in their constituencies of Narasaraopet and Kurnool respectively to the TDP. Rao completed his five-year term as Chief Minister. Leader of opposition, 1989 In the December 1989 assembly elections however, he was voted out of power due to a wave of anti-incumbency sweeping the state as a result of which the Congress returned to power. Rao himself lost from Kalwakurthy by a narrow margin to the Congress, but retained the Hindupur assembly seat. During this time, he suffered a mild stroke, as a result of which he was unable to campaign, which, according to some political analysts and TDP supporters, was the reason for the TDP's loss. National politics, 1989 During 1989, he established himself in national politics, forming a coalition of non-Congress parties opposed to the Congress known as the National Front. It included parties, besides the TDP, such as the Janata Dal, the DMK, the Asom Gana Parishad (AGP) and the Indian Congress (Socialist). This alliance governed India between 1989 and 1990 with support from the Left Front and the BJP. Meanwhile, Rao assumed the position as the Leader of Opposition in the state. His National Front government at the centre led by V. P. Singh was at the forefront of social justice by implementing the provisions in the Mandal Commission for providing 27% reservation for Other Backward Classes (OBC's). Third term as Chief Minister, 1994 Rao returned to power for a third and final time in the December 1994 state assembly elections with his party in alliance with the Left Front. This alliance won 269 seats in the 294 seat Assembly, with the TDP alone winning 226. The Congress, which once again had multiple Chief Ministers in the state during its five-year rule between 1989 and 1994, won only 26 seats. Rao contested again from Hindupur and won the seat for the third consecutive time, achieving a rare hat-trick of wins from the same assembly constituency. He also won from another assembly constituency, Tekkali. Chandra Babu Naidu led a revolt in the party against Rao, showing his 2nd wife Lakshmi Parvathi's interference in the administration as a reason and that led to his becoming the CM on 1 September 1995 replacing Rao. Personal life In May 1943, at the age of 20, while still pursuing his Intermediate, Rao married Basava Rama Tarakam, the daughter of his maternal uncle. The couple had eight sons and four daughters. His eldest son, Nandamuri Ramakrishna Sr., died in 1962, soon after Rao completed shooting of the film Irugu Porugu. Rao founded the film studios Ramakrishna Studios in Nacharam in his memory. His third son, Nandamuri Saikrishna, who was a theatre owner, died in 2004 following diabetic complications. His fourth son, Nandamuri Harikrishna, who died in a car accident on 29 August 2018, was a child actor-turned-politician elected to the Rajya Sabha, representing the TDP. Harikrishna's sons Nandamuri Kalyan Ram and N. T. Rama Rao Jr. are also actors in the Telugu film industry (Tollywood). His sixth son, Nandamuri Balakrishna is one of the leading actors in Tollywood from the mid-1980s. He also started his career as a child artist. Balakrishna has contested 2014 assembly elections as a TDP candidate. He won the Hindupur Assembly Constituency. His seventh son, Nandamuri Ramakrishna Jr. is a film producer. Rao's second daughter, Daggubati Purandeswari has represented the Indian National Congress in the Lok Sabha and was a Union Minister. She shifted her allegiance to the Bharatiya Janata Party. Basava Tarakam died of cancer in 1985. In her memory, Rao established the Basavatarakam Indo-American Cancer Hospital in Hyderabad in 1986. In 1993, he married Lakshmi Parvathi, a Telugu writer. She was the author of his two-volume biography of Rao, published in 2004. The first volume, Eduruleni Manishi () deals from his childhood to his entry into films. The second volume, Telugu Tejam () deals with his political career. Awards and honors Civilian honours Other honours Filmfare Awards South Nandi Awards National Film Awards Rashtrapati Awards Legacy The NTR National Award is a national award in honour of Rao. It was instituted in 1996 by the Government of Andhra Pradesh to recognise notable film personalities for their lifetime achievements and contributions to the Indian film industry. The NTR National Literary Award was instituted by the NTR Vignan Trust, as an annual award to recognise people for their lifetime achievements and contributions to Indian literature. Dr. N.T.R. University of Health Sciences, Vijayawada was established as University of Health Sciences by the Government of Andhra Pradesh and was inaugurated on 9 April by N. T. Rama Rao, the then Chief Minister of Andhra Pradesh in the city of Vijayawada, Andhra Pradesh, India. It started functioning on 1 November 1986. After the death of Rama Rao, it was decided to rename the university after him, and this was carried out on 2 February 1998. The university celebrated its silver jubilee from 1–3 November 2011. His life and acting career, and later life and political career, are showcased in the films N.T.R: Kathanayakudu and N.T.R: Mahanayakudu, respectively, with his son Nandamuri Balakrishna playing the title character. His later life after his wife Nandamuri Basavatarakam's death and his marriage with Lakshmi Parvathi is showcased in Ram Gopal Varma's film Lakshmi's NTR with P. Vijay Kumar playing the his role. Legislative career As Assembly member Death Rao died of a heart attack on 18 January 1996 at his residence in Hyderabad, aged 72. He was cremated and his ashes were immersed at Srirangapatna by his second wife Lakshmi Parvathi, eight years later, in May 2004. See also List of chief ministers of Andhra Pradesh Government of Andhra Pradesh Elections in Andhra Pradesh Politics of Andhra Pradesh Maverick Messiah, a 2021 book about Rao References External links Article on NTR in BBC Telugu |- |- 1923 births 1996 deaths Andhra University alumni Telugu film directors Chief Ministers of Andhra Pradesh V. P. Singh administration People from Krishna district Telugu male actors Filmfare Awards South winners Recipients of the Rashtrapati Award 20th-century Indian male actors Indian actor-politicians Telugu Desam Party politicians Indian socialists Indian political party founders Telugu Desam Party Chief ministers from Telugu Desam Party Leaders of the Opposition in the Andhra Pradesh Legislative Assembly Recipients of the Padma Shri in arts Film directors from Andhra Pradesh 20th-century Indian film directors
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wall%20Doxey
Wall Doxey
Wall Doxey (August 8, 1892March 2, 1962) was an American politician from Holly Springs, Mississippi. He served as a Democrat from Mississippi's 2nd congressional district in the United States House of Representatives from 1929 to 1941. After the death of U.S. Senator Pat Harrison, Doxey won a special election to his seat, and served in the United States Senate from 1941 until 1943. He was defeated in the 1942 Democratic primary by James Eastland. Throughout his political career, Doxey represented a district with a black-majority population, whose political affiliation in the nineteenth century had been with the Republican Party. But, African Americans were effectively excluded from the political system from 1890 to the late 1960s by Mississippi's constitution and restrictions affecting voter registration. Doxey was the only United States Senator to serve also as the Senate Sergeant at Arms. He was appointed to this position after losing his Senate seat, serving from February 1, 1943, to January 3, 1947. Wall Doxey State Park, a state park in Mississippi, is named after him. References External links "Wall Doxey", Senate Biography 1892 births 1962 deaths Sergeants at Arms of the United States Senate Members of the United States House of Representatives from Mississippi United States senators from Mississippi Mississippi Democrats Democratic Party United States senators Democratic Party members of the United States House of Representatives 20th-century American politicians People from Holly Springs, Mississippi Burials at Hillcrest Cemetery
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Giant%20%28disambiguation%29
Giant (disambiguation)
A giant is a being of human appearance, sometimes of prodigious size and strength, common in folklore. Giant(s) or The Giant(s) may also refer to: Mythology and religion Giants (Greek mythology) Giants (Norse mythology) Giants (Welsh folklore) Giants (esotericism) Nephilim, a Hebrew term loosely translated as giants in some Bibles Arts and entertainment Fictional characters Giant (Dungeons & Dragons), a type of fictional character Giants (Marvel Comics), a fictional race of people Lily Duncan, also known as "Princess Giant", from the television series Mona the Vampire Judge Giant, two fictional characters in the Judge Dredd comic strip The Giant (Twin Peaks), an inhabitant of The Black Lodge in the 1990s television series Films The Giant (1938 film), a black-and-white Japanese film Giant (1956 film), a film adaptation of Ferber's novel directed by George Stevens Giant (2009 film), a Uruguayan film The Giants (2011 film), a Belgium film The Giant (2016 film), a Swedish film Giant (2017 film), a Basque-language Spanish film The Giant (2019 film), a French-American film Games Giants: Citizen Kabuto, a 2000 third-person shooter game Skylanders: Giants, a 2012 beat-em-up game Literature and periodicals Giant (magazine), an American urban music magazine Giant, a 1952 novel by Edna Ferber "giANTS", a 1979 short story by Edward Bryant Giants (series), a science fiction series by James P. Hogan Music Albums Giant (Buddy Holly album), 1969 Giant (Herman Düne album) or the title song, 2006 Giant (The Woodentops album), 1986 Giants (Andreya Triana album) or the title song, 2015 Giants (Chicane album) or the title song, 2010 Giants (Dizzy Gillespie album), 1971 Giants (Evan Craft album) or the title song, 2012 Giants (The Stranglers album) or the title song, 2012 Giants, by Daniel Powter, 2018 The Giant (Ahab album) or the title song, 2012 The Giant (Dizzy Gillespie album), 1973 The Giants (album), by Oscar Peterson, Joe Pass, and Ray Brown, 1974 Songs "Giant" (Calvin Harris and Rag'n'Bone Man song), 2019 "Giant", by Banks & Steelz from Anything But Words, 2016 "Giant", by Gentle Giant from Gentle Giant, 1970 "Giant", by the Matthew Good Band from Beautiful Midnight, 1999 "Giant", by Song Yuqi from A Page, 2021 "Giant", by Stan Rogers from Fogarty's Cove, 1977 "Giant", by from Soul Mining, 1983 "Giant", by Vampire Weekend from Contra, 2010 "Giants" (Bear Hands song), 2013 "Giants" (Dermot Kennedy song), 2020 "Giants" (Lights song), 2017 "Giants" (Take That song), 2017 "Giants", by Imagine Dragons from Mercury – Act 1, 2021 "Giants", by Josh Osho, 2012 "Giants", by One Ok Rock from Eye of the Storm, 2019 "Giants", by Scale the Summit from Carving Desert Canyons, 2009 "Giants", by Sponge from Rotting Piñata, 1994 "Giants", by True Damage, a virtual hip-hop group featuring Becky G, 2019 Other uses in music Giant (band), an American rock band Giant (musical), a 2009 musical adaptation of Ferber's novel The Giant (opera), a c. 1900 opera by Sergei Prokofiev Giant Records (disambiguation) Television Giant (TV series), a 2010 South Korean historical drama series The Giants (TV series), a 1978 Hong Kong drama series The Giants, an unproduced 1960s Doctor Who television serial "Giant" (Halt and Catch Fire), a 2014 episode "Giants" (Zoboomafoo), a 1999 episode "The Giant", an episode of The Mighty Hercules Astronomy Gas giant, a type of planet Giant star, a type of star Brands and enterprises Giant Bicycles, bicycle maker GIANT Company Software, internet security developer Giant Food (disambiguation) Giant Hypermarket, a retail chain in Southeast Asia Grenoble Innovation for Advanced New Technologies (GIANT), an innovation campus in Polygone Scientifique in Grenoble, France People Paulo da Silva (born 1980), Paraguayan football player nicknamed "Giant" André the Giant (1946–1993), French wrestler and actor Giant Baba, ring name of Japanese professional wrestler Shohei Baba (1938–1999) Giant González, ring name of Argentine professional wrestler Jorge González (1966–2010) Giant Haystacks (1947–1998), ring name of English professional wrestler Martin Austin Ruane (1946–1998) Giant Silva, ring name of Brazilian basketball player, mixed martial arts fighter, and wrestler Paulo César da Silva (born 1963) The Giant (wrestler) (born 1972), ring name of American wrestler Paul Wight Places Giant, Richmond, California, a former unincorporated community Giant Forest, Sequoia National Park, California Giant Geyser, Yellowstone National Park Giant Mountain, New York Giant Springs, near Great Falls, Montana Sports Teams Asia Delhi Giants, a team in the unsanctioned Indian Cricket League Lotte Giants, a South Korean baseball team Yomiuri Giants, a Japanese baseball team Australia Gold Coast-Tweed Giants, a rugby league team Goldfields Giants, a State Basketball League team Greater Western Sydney Giants, an Australian Football League team nicknamed the "Giants" Europe Antwerp Giants, a Belgian basketball club Bayer Giants Leverkusen, a German basketball club Belfast Giants, an Irish EIHL ice hockey team Dortmund Giants, an American football club from Dortmund, Germany Giants Bolzano, an American football club competing in the Italian Football League Huddersfield Giants, an English rugby league team competing in Super League Manchester Giants, a British Basketball League team North America Jacksonville Giants, a minor league basketball team Fort McMurray Giants, a baseball team in the Western Canadian Baseball League New York Giants (disambiguation), in various sports and eras New York Giants, a National Football League team San Francisco Giants, a Major League Baseball team Arizona League Giants, their AZL minor league affiliate San Jose Giants, their High-A minor league affiliate Vancouver Giants, a Western Hockey League team Negro league baseball Bacharach Giants, Atlantic City, New Jersey Chicago Giants Chicago Columbia Giants Chicago Union Giants Chicago American Giants Cleveland Giants Cuban Giants, Trenton, New Jersey Harrisburg Giants Illinois Giants Leland Giants, Chicago, Illinois Lincoln Giants, New York City Page Fence Giants, Adrian, Michigan Philadelphia Giants St. Louis Giants Other uses in sports Giant (gymnastics), an artistic gymnastics skill Giants Gaming, a Spanish/European eSports team Other uses GIANT AntiSpyware, a software application Giant Center, an arena in Hershey, Pennsylvania Giant Mine, a gold mine in the Northwest Territories, Canada See also Eddie Carmel (1936–1972), Israeli-born entertainer known as "The Jewish Giant" and "The Happy Giant" Project Riese (German for "giant"), the code name for a construction project of Nazi Germany (1943–45) Giant Rock, Mohave Desert, California, United States Geant (disambiguation) Atlas Air, airline with callsign "Giant"
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pat%20Harrison
Pat Harrison
Byron Patton "Pat" Harrison (August 29, 1881June 22, 1941) was a Mississippi politician who served as a Democrat in the United States House of Representatives from 1911 to 1919 and in the United States Senate from 1919 until his death. Early life and education Pat Harrison was born at Crystal Springs, Mississippi. His father was a Confederate veteran of the Civil War and died in 1885. As a child, Harrison sold newspapers to supplement his family's income. After graduating as class valedictorian from Crystal Springs High School in 1899, he attended a summer term at the University of Mississippi before transferring to Louisiana State University at Baton Rouge on a baseball scholarship. He dropped out after two years due to a lack of funds but was brought on to pitch for the Pickens, Mississippi, semi-professional baseball team in the 'Old Tomato League' summer circuit. After his stint in semi-professional baseball, Harrison moved to Leakesville, Mississippi. He taught and later became principal of the local high school. While supporting himself as an educator, Harrison studied law. He passed the Mississippi State Bar and opened a law practice in 1902. Legal and political career In 1906, Harrison was elected district attorney to the Second Judicial District, and in 1908, moved to Gulfport, Mississippi. He served as district attorney until being elected to the U.S. House of Representatives in 1910. The 1910 election introduced Harrison as a skilled orator and witty debater, a reputation he maintained throughout his political career. Newspaper editor Clayton Rand described his longtime friend's oratory style as "an eloquence that flowed like a babbling brook through a field of flowers." Political career After four years as district attorney on the Mississippi Gulf Coast, Harrison won a seat in the U.S. House of Representatives in 1911 and was re-elected three times. One of the youngest members of the House, Harrison made his mark as an effective debater against Republican tariff and tax policies and soon became a favored aide to Democratic President Woodrow Wilson. In particular, Harrison supported Wilson's New Freedom policies and those concerning Mexico and Germany at the onset of America's involvement in World War I. In 1918, he ran against incumbent U.S. Senator James K. Vardaman, an enemy of President Wilson. In return for Harrison's past support, President Wilson personally endorsed him for Senator. Already popular among his constituents, Harrison emphasized his differences with Vardaman and won over a majority of Mississippi voters, who were effectively limited to white Democrats, following the state legislature's disenfranchisement of most black voters by a new constitution and discriminatory practices dating from 1890. After winning Vardaman's Senate seat in 1918, Harrison was re-elected for another three terms, as Mississippi was a one-party state dominated by Democrats. He ran unopposed in 1930 for his third term in the U.S. Senate. A supporter and former law partner of Theodore G. Bilbo, Stewart C. "Sweep Clean" Broom surprisingly aided Harrison's 1936 reelection campaign by giving a well-received speech encouraging "Bilbo folks" to save Bilbo "from his own blunder." Despite having received past help from Harrison, Bilbo actively supported Martin Sennett Conner for Harrison's Senate seat, presumably as a self-serving political maneuver. As chairman of the powerful Senate Finance Committee, Harrison was one of the three or four key people behind the creation of the Social Security system in 1935. He also promoted low tariffs and reciprocal trade agreements. When the Senate majority leader's job opened up in 1937, Harrison was expected to win the position, but nose counts put him in a near tie with Kentucky's Alben Barkley. Harrison's campaign manager asked Bilbo, the junior member from Mississippi, to consider voting for his fellow Mississippian. Bilbo, a race-baiting Democratic demagogue whose base was among tenant farmers, hated the upper-class Harrison, who represented the rich planters. The rivalry between the two had deepened over years of disagreement over aspects of the New Deal and how federal money should be distributed throughout Mississippi. Bilbo said he would vote for Harrison only if he were personally asked. Harrison replied, "Tell the son of a bitch I wouldn't speak to him even if it meant the presidency of the United States." Despite Harrison's support for Roosevelt and his policies, shortly before the vote, the president wrote a letter of support for Barkley. When the ballots were in, Pat Harrison lost by one vote, 37-to-38. Harrison served on the Senate Finance Committee and was chairman of that body from 1933 to 1941 (Seventy-third through Seventy-seventh Congresses), and served as President pro tempore of the Senate during the Seventy-seventh Congress, in 1941 until his death that year. He was also a supporter of the Conservative coalition. Political reputation Harrison was a highly effective politician and a brilliant orator. He listened to his district and provided information, services, and patronage. Due to his ability to maneuver through the political landscape and because he was well-liked by many of his fellow politicians, Harrison became rather influential in both legislation and political endorsement. In 1928, he supported New York Governor Al Smith for President and campaigned for him across the South, where there was opposition and superstition among Democrats because Smith was Catholic. Harrison became known as the "Gadfly of the Senate" due to his oratory rebuking Republican policies. At the 1932 Democratic convention, he swung the Mississippi delegation to Franklin D. Roosevelt on the crucial third ballot and became welcome at the White House. Bibliography Coker, William S. "Pat Harrison - Strategy for Victory". Journal of Mississippi History 1966 28(4): 267-285. Coker, William Sidney. "Pat Harrison: the Formative Years." Journal of Mississippi History 1963 25(4): 251-278. Davis, Polly. "Court Reform and Alben W. Barkley's Election as Majority Leader". Southern Quarterly 1976 15(1): 15-31. Edmonson, Ben G. "Pat Harrison and Mississippi in the Presidential Elections of 1924 and 1928". Journal of Mississippi History 1971 33(4): 333-350. Grant, Philip A., Jr. "Editorial Reaction to the Harrison-Barkley Senate Leadership Contest, 1937". Journal of Mississippi History 1974 36(2): 127-141. Grant, Philip A., Jr. "The Mississippi Congressional Delegation and the Formation of the Conservative Coalition, 1937-1940". Journal of Mississippi History 1988 50(1): 21-28. Finley, Keith M. Delaying the Dream: Southern Senators and the Fight Against Civil Rights, 1938-1965 (Baton Rouge, LSU Press, 2008). Lord, Lewis. U. S. News & World Report, June 17, 1996, p. 12. Swain, Martha H. Pat Harrison: The New Deal Years (Jackson, Miss., 1978), the standard biography Swain, Martha. "Pat Harrison and the Social Security Act of 1935". Southern Quarterly 1976 15(1): 1-14. Swain, Martha H. "The Lion and the Fox: the Relationship of President Franklin D. Roosevelt and Senator Pat Harrison". Journal of Mississippi History 1976 38(4): 333-359. Thomas, Phyllis H. "The Role of Mississippi in the Presidential Election of 1916," Southern Quarterly, 1966 4(2): 207-226. See also List of United States Congress members who died in office (1900–49) References External links The Pat Harrison Collection (MUM00222) and Pat Harrison portraits can be found at the University of Mississippi in the Archives and Special Collections |- |- |- |- |- 1881 births 1941 deaths 20th-century American politicians Democratic Party members of the United States House of Representatives Democratic Party United States senators Members of the United States House of Representatives from Mississippi Mississippi Democrats People from Crystal Springs, Mississippi Presidents pro tempore of the United States Senate Candidates in the 1924 United States presidential election United States senators from Mississippi People from Leakesville, Mississippi
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The%20Lord%20of%20the%20Rings%20Roleplaying%20Game
The Lord of the Rings Roleplaying Game
The Lord of the Rings Roleplaying Game, released by Decipher Inc. in 2002, is a role-playing game set in the Middle-earth of J. R. R. Tolkien's fiction. The game is set in the years between The Hobbit and The Fellowship of the Ring, but may be run at any time from the First to Fourth Age and contains many examples of how to do so. Sourcebooks cover the events of The Lord of the Rings and Peter Jackson's film trilogy adaptation. The system for LOTR is called CODA, and involves rolling two six-sided dice to resolve actions. In 2003, LOTR won the Origins Award for Best Roleplaying Game 2002. The game is the second licensed role-playing game for the setting, the prior game being Middle-earth Role Playing from Iron Crown Enterprises. A third role-playing game set in Middle-earth is currently being published (since 2011) by Cubicle 7 under the title The One Ring Roleplaying Game. Races The character races available in the Lord of the Rings Roleplaying Game are: Dwarves (Khazad): Short, stocky bearded folk, strong and hardy, able to endure pain, fatigue and suffering better than other races. Upon reaching maturity they appear old in a fashion that belies their hardiness. They often live in subterranean kingdoms, and have a great love of craftworks, especially things made of gold, silver, and mithril. Elves (Eldar): The oldest and wisest of races of Middle-earth, they are immortal, noble, and fair. Their kind have far clearer sight and perception than Men, and they're nimble. They are naturally aware of many things that are hidden from the Younger Children. They are divided into a number of particular kinds, primarily based on their course through Elven history. The Noldor or High Elves are those that heeded the call of the Valar and traveled across the sea, most of them later rebelling and following Fëanor back to Middle-earth in pursuit of the Silmarils. They are wise in Lore and Smithcraft, and created many Rings of Power. The Sindar or Grey Elves are those that heard the call, but stopped and chose to stay in Beleriand. These are the more numerous kind of elf in the Third Age, and have great love of, and talent with, music and song. The Silvan Elves or Wood Elves are those that ceased their journey to the West before crossing the Misty Mountains. During the Third age, they live in woodland realms such as Lothlórien or caverns in the mountains of Mirkwood. They have facility with wilderness skills. Hobbits: The signature race of Tolkien, these diminutive people are a distant relation to men. They are good-natured, hospitable and easy going folk, two to four feet in height with hair covered feet. There are three major strains of Hobbits: Fallohides, taller, slimmer, fairer, and more uncommon than their fellows, they often have more facility with language, song, and craft, and have an unusual adventurous streak. Harfoots are the most numerous kind, and tend to be shorter and browner than others. They are nimble with crafts, more friendly with Dwarves, and tend to stick to the custom of living in holes and tunnels. The Stoors are broader and sturdier and most numerous in Buckland. These are the only Hobbits who know anything about boating, swimming and fishing. Men: The most familiar character race, these still come in several varieties available for player characters. Dúnedain are descendants of the Númenóreans, themselves descendant of Elros Tar-Minyatur, twin brother of Elrond Halfelven. The Men of Twilight, including the Rohirrim, the Beornings, Dunlendings and the majority of Gondorians (due to centuries of interbreeding), are men who did not go to Númenor but remained in Middle-earth. These are typical Men. The Men of Darkness are the Easterlings, the Haradrim (Southrons), and Variags of Khand, most of whom have lived under the sway of Sauron. They are shorter, broader, darker of hair and eye, and duskier. Finally, there are Wild Men, who are short and squat and live rudely in the wild, though they carry their own nobility and powers. These include the Drúedain (Woses) who live in the forest of Anórien and the Lossoth (Snowmen of Forochel) who live in the Northern Waste. Classes The character classes available in the Lord of the Rings Roleplaying Adventure Game are: Barbarian: A warrior of the wilds who may lack some of the refined skills and weapons of other fighting men, but who make up for it with woodcraftiness and ferocity. Ghân-buri-Ghân and his people the Drúedain belong to this order, as well as many Dunlendings and easterlings Craftsman: A person skilled in the arts of making, able to craft items both useful and wondrous, or who serves others in some ordinary capacity. Sam Gamgee, Barliman Butterbur, many Dwarves, and the Noldorin jewelsmiths, such as Fëanor, are all craftsmen. Lore-master: One wise in the lore of Middle-earth and who, though not a true caster of spells, can use some minor or subtle magics. Denethor, Elrond, Celeborn, and many Elves are lore-masters. Magician: One who works magic and casts spells based on learned lore and wisdom but who is not nearly as powerful as a wizard. Galadriel is a good example of a magician, as is Melian the Maia, Queen of Doriath and the consort of the elven King Elu Thingol from The Silmarillion. Mariner: A sailor, one who knows how to work and helm ships great and small over the wide seas and on the Great River. Coastal Gondorians and the Corsairs of Umbar count many mariners among their number. Minstrel: A singer of songs, teller of tales, and a chronicler of brave and noble deeds. With his words and music, he can inspire others. An example is King Theoden's minstrel, Gleowine who wrote the funeral song which the Riders of Rohan sang around Theoden's mound. Tom Bombadil, a mysterious character not only known for his love of song and dance, could likely be considered a member of this order. Noble: A person who, due to birth, wealth, accomplishment, or the like, is regarded as of high rank in society, entitled to deference and respect from other folk. Characters such as Aragorn, Galadriel, Denethor and his sons, Elrond and his daughter Arwen, the Rohirrim Royal Family, and even Frodo belong, at least in part, to this order. Rogue: A person who lives and works with his wits and deft hands, often at questionable or outlawed pursuits. He may be a spy for the Enemy, a professional treasure seeker, or simply one who prefers subtlety and guile to warfare and bloodshed. Bilbo, during his brief adventure with Thorin and company, became a member of this order. Gríma Wormtongue is also a rogue, as are the thugs hired by Saruman who raided the Hobbit Shire. Warrior: People, such as guardsmen, soldiers, and archers, who are trained to fight with weapons. This is the most common order depicted in The Lord of the Rings, and it may likely be so in most chronicles as well. It includes Aragorn, Boromir, Éomer, Éowyn, most Rohirrim, Beregond, Prince Imrahil, and eventually, Merry and Pippin. Publications Printed publications The following printed publications have been released by Decipher for this roleplaying game. Digital sourcebooks Isengard Paths of the Wise. The Guide to Magicians and Loremasters Digital adventures The following adventures were available for free download on the website of Decipher. Moria Adventures over the Edge of the Wild Errata Decipher published a PDF version of corrections to the Core Rulebook and several sourcebooks. The PDF includes some errors that were not corrected in the first and second printings of the book. Unofficial Digital Supplements Due to some criticism of the game by the gaming community for its lack of balance, especially during character creation, some digital supplements have been created, which can be found on the Ambarquenta website. These supplements are unofficial and are not published by Decipher. Current status In 2011, a new role-playing game set in Middle-earth, The One Ring, was published by Cubicle 7. Reviews Pyramid References External links Fantasy role-playing games Origins Award winners Role-playing games based on Middle-earth Decipher, Inc. games Role-playing games introduced in 2002
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Domination
Domination
Domination or dominant may refer to: Society World domination, which is mainly a conspiracy theory Colonialism in which one group (usually a nation) invades another region for material gain or to eliminate competition Chauvinism in which a person or group consider themselves to be superior, and thus entitled to use force to dominate others Sexual dominance involving individuals in a subset of BDSM behaviour Hierarchy Patriarchy Music Dominant (music), a diatonic scale step and diatonic function in tonal music theory Dominant seventh chord, a four-note chord consisting of a major triad and a minor seventh Domination (Cannonball Adderley album), 1965 Domination (Domino album), 2004 Domination (Morbid Angel album), 1995 Domination (Morifade album), 2004 "Domination", a song by Band-Maid from World Domination "Domination", a song by Pantera from Cowboys from Hell "Domination", a song by Symphony X from Paradise Lost "Domination", a song by Way Out West from Way Out West "Domination", a song by Within the Ruins from Black Heart Games Domination (chess), where a chess piece with wide movement cannot avoid capture Domination (video game), a turn-based computer game Domination (poker), a way of rating a poker hand Domination, also known as Focus, a 1964 game designed by Sid Sackson Domination (role-playing game), a tabletop role-playing game DomiNations, a 2015 mobile strategy game Science Dominant wind, winds that blow predominantly from a single general direction over a particular point on the Earth's surface Dominance (linguistics), a relationship between syntactic nodes Biology Dominance (genetics), one allele is expressed over a second allele at the same locus Footedness, the natural preference of one's left or right foot Handedness, a better performance or preference for use of a hand Ocular dominance, the tendency to prefer visual input from one eye to the other Dominance (ecology), the degree to which a taxon is more numerous than its competitors in an ecological community Mathematics Dominating decision rule, in decision theory Domination number, in graph theory Dominant maps, in rational mapping Other uses Domination (angel), in Christian angelology Dominant CZ, a Czech Czech company The Domination, a dystopian alternate history series by S. M. Stirling Dominance and submission, in an erotic episode or lifestyle See also Britney: Domination, a 2019 Las Vegas residency concert by Britney Spears Dominance (disambiguation) Dominator (disambiguation) Male dominance (disambiguation)
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/First%20Indochina%20War
First Indochina War
The First Indochina War (generally known as the Indochina War in France, and as the Anti-French Resistance War in Vietnam) began in French Indochina on December 19, 1946, and lasted until July 20, 1954. Fighting between French forces and their Việt Minh opponents in the south dated from September 1945. The conflict pitted a range of forces, including the French Union's French Far East Expeditionary Corps, led by the government of France and supported by the former emperor Bảo Đại's Vietnamese National Army against the People's Army of Vietnam and Việt Minh (part of the Communist Party), led by Võ Nguyên Giáp and Hồ Chí Minh. Most of the fighting took place in Tonkin in northern Vietnam, although the conflict engulfed the entire country and also extended into the neighboring French Indochina protectorates of Laos and Cambodia. At the Potsdam Conference in July 1945, the Combined Chiefs of Staff decided that Indochina south of latitude 16° north was to be included in the Southeast Asia Command under British Admiral Mountbatten. The Japanese forces located south of that line surrendered to him and those to the north surrendered to Generalissimo Chiang Kai-shek. In September 1945, Chinese forces entered Tonkin, and a small British task force landed at city of Saigon (Cochinchina's capital). The Chinese accepted one Vietnamese government under Hồ Chí Minh, then in power in Hanoi (Tonkin's capital). The British refused to do likewise in Saigon, and deferred to the French there from the outset, against the ostensible support of the Việt Minh authorities by American OSS representatives. On V-J Day, September 2, Hồ Chí Minh had proclaimed in Hanoi the establishment of the Democratic Republic of Vietnam (DRV). The DRV ruled as the only civil government in all of Vietnam for a period of about 20 days, after the abdication of Emperor Bảo Đại, who had governed under the Japanese rule. On 23 September 1945, with the knowledge of the British commander in Saigon, French forces overthrew the local DRV government, and declared French authority restored in Cochinchina. Guerrilla warfare began around Saigon immediately, but the French gradually retook control of the South and North of Indochina. Hồ Chí Minh agreed to negotiate the future status of Vietnam, but the talks, held in France, failed to produce a solution. After over one year of latent conflict, all-out war broke out in December 1946 between French and Việt Minh forces as Hồ Chí Minh and his government went underground. The French tried to stabilize Indochina by reorganizing it as a Federation of Associated States. In 1949, they put former Emperor Bảo Đại back in power, as the ruler of a newly established State of Vietnam. The first few years of the war involved a low-level rural insurgency against the French. In 1949 the conflict turned into a conventional war between two armies equipped with modern weapons supplied by the United States, China and the Soviet Union. French Union forces included colonial troops from their former empire - Moroccan, Algerian, and Tunisian Arabs/Berbers; Laotian, Cambodian and Vietnamese ethnic minorities; Black Africans - and French professional troops, European volunteers, and units of the Foreign Legion. The use of metropolitan recruits was forbidden by the government to prevent the war from becoming even more unpopular at home. It was called the "dirty war" (la sale guerre) by leftists in France. The strategy of pushing the Việt Minh into attacking well-defended bases in remote parts of the country at the end of their logistical trails was validated at the Battle of Nà Sản even though the base was relatively weak because of a lack of concrete and steel. French efforts were made more difficult due to the limited usefulness of armored tanks in a jungle environment, lack of strong air forces for air cover and carpet bombing, and use of foreign recruits from other French colonies (mainly from Algeria, Morocco and even Vietnam). Võ Nguyên Giáp, however, used efficient and novel tactics of direct fire artillery, convoy ambushes and massed anti-aircraft guns to impede land and air supply deliveries together with a strategy based on recruiting a sizable regular army facilitated by wide popular support, a guerrilla warfare doctrine and instruction developed in China, and the use of simple and reliable war material provided by the Soviet Union. This combination proved fatal for the bases' defenses, culminating in a decisive French defeat at the Battle of Dien Bien Phu. At the International Geneva Conference on July 21, 1954, the new socialist French government and the Việt Minh made an agreement which effectively gave the Việt Minh control of North Vietnam above the 17th parallel. The south continued under Bảo Đại. The agreement was denounced by the State of Vietnam and by the United States. A year later, Bảo Đại would be deposed by his prime minister, Ngô Đình Diệm, creating the Republic of Vietnam (South Vietnam). Soon an insurgency, backed by the north, developed against Diệm's government. The conflict gradually escalated into the Vietnam War (1955–1975). Background Vietnam was absorbed into French Indochina in stages between 1858 and 1887. Vietnamese nationalism grew until World War II, providing a break in French control. Early Vietnamese resistance centered on the intellectual Phan Bội Châu. Châu looked to Japan, which had modernized and was one of the few Asian nations to successfully resist European colonization. With Prince Cường Để, Châu started the two organizations in Japan, the Duy Tân hội (Modernistic Association) and Vietnam Cong Hien Hoi. Due to French pressure, Japan deported Phan Bội Châu to China. Witnessing Sun Yat-sen's Xinhai Revolution, Châu was inspired to commence the Viet Nam Quang Phục Hội movement in Guangzhou. From 1914 to 1917, he was imprisoned by Yuan Shikai's counterrevolutionary government. In 1925, he was captured by French agents in Shanghai and spirited to Vietnam. Due to his popularity, Châu was spared from execution and placed under house arrest until his death in 1940. In September 1940, shortly after Phan Bội Châu's death, the Empire of Japan launched its invasion of French Indochina, mirroring its ally Germany's conquest of metropolitan France. Keeping the French colonial administration, the Japanese ruled from behind the scenes in a parallel of Vichy France. As far as Vietnamese nationalists were concerned, this was a double-puppet government. Emperor Bảo Đại collaborated with the Japanese, just as he had with the French, ensuring his lifestyle could continue. From October 1940 to May 1941, during the Franco-Thai War, the Vichy French in Indochina defended their colony in a border conflict in which the forces of Thailand invaded while the Japanese sat on the sidelines. Thai military successes were limited to the Cambodian border area, and in January 1941 Vichy France's modern naval forces soundly defeated the inferior Thai naval forces in the Battle of Ko Chang. The war ended in May, with the French agreeing to minor territorial revisions which restored formerly Thai areas to Thailand. In 1941, Hồ Chí Minh, seeing communist revolution as the path to freedom, returned to Vietnam and formed the Viet Nam Doc Lap Dong Minh Hoi (League for the Independence of Vietnam), better known as the Việt Minh. Ho created the Việt Minh as an umbrella organization for all the nationalist resistance movements, de-emphasizing his communist social revolutionary background. During the Vietnamese famine of 1945, Hồ Chí Minh blamed ruthless Japanese exploitation and poor weather for up to two million Vietnamese deaths. The Việt Minh arranged a relief effort in the north, winning wide support there as a result. In March 1945, Japan launched the Second French Indochina Campaign to oust the Vichy French and formally installed Emperor Bảo Đại as head of the nominally "independent" Vietnam. The Japanese arrested and imprisoned most of the French officials and military officers remaining in the country. American President Franklin D. Roosevelt and General Joseph Stilwell privately made it clear that France was not to reacquire French Indochina after the war was over. Roosevelt suggested that Chiang Kai-shek place Indochina under Chinese rule; Chiang Kai-shek supposedly replied: "Under no circumstances!" Following Roosevelt's death in April 1945, U.S. resistance to French rule weakened. After the surrender of Japan An armistice was signed between Japan and the United States on August 20, 1945. The Provisional Government of the French Republic wanted to restore its colonial rule in French Indochina as the final step of the Liberation of France. On August 22, 1945, OSS agents Archimedes Patti and Carleton B. Swift Jr. arrived in Hanoi on a mercy mission to liberate Allied POWs, and were accompanied by French government official Jean Sainteny. The Imperial Japanese Army, being the only force capable of maintaining law and order, remained in power while keeping French colonial troops and Sainteny detained. Japanese forces allowed the Việt Minh and other nationalist groups to take over public buildings and weapons without resistance, which began the August Revolution. On August 25, Hồ Chí Minh was able to persuade Emperor Bảo Đại to abdicate. Bảo Đại was appointed "supreme advisor" to the new Việt Minh-led government in Hanoi. On September 2, aboard in Tokyo Bay, CEFEO Expeditionary Corps leader General Leclerc signed the armistice with Japan on behalf of France. The same day, Hồ Chí Minh declared Vietnam's independence from France. Deliberately borrowing from the Declaration of Independence of the United States of America, Hồ Chí Minh proclaimed: We hold the truth that all men are created equal, that they are endowed by their Creator with certain unalienable rights, among them life, liberty and the pursuit of happiness. After their surrender, the Japanese Army gave weapons to the Việt Minh. In order to further help the nationalists, the Japanese kept Vichy French officials and military officers imprisoned for a month after the surrender. OSS officers met repeatedly with Hồ Chí Minh and other Việt Minh officers during this period. The Việt Minh recruited more than 600 Japanese soldiers and gave them roles to train or command Vietnamese soldiers. On September 13, 1945, a Franco-British task force landed in Java, main island of the Dutch East Indies (for which independence was being sought by Sukarno), and Saigon, capital of Cochinchina (southern part of French Indochina), both being occupied by the Japanese and ruled by Field Marshal Hisaichi Terauchi, Commander-in-Chief of Japan's Southern Expeditionary Army Group based in Saigon. Allied troops in Saigon were an airborne detachment, two British companies of the Indian 20th Infantry Division and the French 5th Colonial Infantry Regiment, with British General Sir Douglas Gracey as supreme commander. The latter proclaimed martial law on September 21. The following night the Franco-British troops took control of Saigon. Almost immediately afterward, as agreed to at the Potsdam Conference (and under Supreme Commander for the Allied Powers' "General Order no. One"), 200,000 troops of the Chinese 1st Army occupied Indochina as far south as the 16th parallel. They had been sent by Chiang Kai-shek under General Lu Han to accept the surrender of Japanese forces occupying that area, then to supervise the disarming and repatriation of the Japanese Army. This effectively ended Hồ Chí Minh's nominal government in Hanoi. Initially, the Chinese kept the French Colonial soldiers interned, with the acquiescence of the Americans. The Chinese used the VNQDĐ, the Vietnamese branch of the Chinese Kuomintang, to increase their influence in Indochina and put pressure on their opponents. On October 9, 1945, General Leclerc arrived in Saigon, accompanied by French Colonel Massu's March Group (Groupement de marche). Leclerc's primary objectives were to restore public order in south Vietnam and to militarize Tonkin (north Vietnam). Secondary objectives were to wait for French backup in view to take back Chinese-occupied Hanoi, then to negotiate with the Việt Minh officials. Chiang Kai-shek threatened the French with war in response to manoeuvering by the French and Hồ Chí Minh against each other, forcing them to come to a peace agreement. In February 1946, he also forced the French to surrender and renounce all of their concessions and ports in China, such as Shanghai, in exchange for withdrawing from northern Indochina and allowing French troops to reoccupy the region starting in March 1946. Following this agreement, VNQDĐ forces became vulnerable due to the withdrawal of Chinese forces and were attacked by Việt Minh and French troops. The Việt Minh massacred thousands of VNQDĐ members and other nationalists in a large-scale purge. Intra-Vietnamese factions In addition to British support, the French also received assistance from various groups that modern historians consider unambiguously Vietnamese. Armed militias from the religious Hòa Hảo sect and the Bình Xuyên organized crime group individually sought power in the country and fought the Việt Minh towards that end. Conversely, militias from the Cao Đài sect fought against the French. Vietnamese society also polarized along ethnic lines: the Nung minority assisted the French, while the Tay assisted the Việt Minh. Course of the war War breaks out (1946) In early 1946, the French landed a military force at Haiphong, and negotiations took place about the future for Vietnam as a state within the French Union. Fighting broke out in Haiphong between the Việt Minh government and the French over a conflict of interest in import duty at the port. On November 23, 1946, the French fleet bombarded the Vietnamese sections of the city killing 6,000 Vietnamese civilians in one afternoon. The Việt Minh quickly agreed to a cease-fire and left the cities. This is known as the Haiphong incident. There was never any intention among the Vietnamese to give up, as General Võ Nguyên Giáp soon brought up 30,000 men to attack the city. Although the French were outnumbered, their superior weaponry and naval support made any Việt Minh attack unsuccessful. In December, hostilities between the Việt Minh and the French broke out in Hanoi, and Hồ Chí Minh was forced to evacuate the capital in favor of remote forested and mountainous areas. Guerrilla warfare ensued, with the French controlling most of the country except far-flung areas. French offensives, creation of the State of Vietnam (1947–1949) In 1947, General Võ Nguyên Giáp retreated with his command to Tan Trao deep in the hills of Tuyên Quang Province. The French sent military expeditions to attack his bases, but Giap refused to meet them head-on in battle. Wherever the French troops went, the Việt Minh disappeared. Late in the year the French launched Operation Léa to take out the Việt Minh communications center at Bắc Kạn. They failed to capture Hồ Chí Minh and his key lieutenants as intended. The French claimed 9,000 Việt Minh soldiers KIA during the campaign which, if true, would represent a major blow for the insurgency. In 1948, France started looking for means of opposing the Việt Minh politically, with an alternative government in Saigon. They began negotiations with the former emperor Bảo Đại to lead an "autonomous" government within the French Union of nations, the State of Vietnam. Two years before, the French had refused Ho's proposal of a similar status, albeit with some restrictions on French power and the latter's eventual withdrawal from Vietnam. However, they were willing to give it to Bảo Đại as he had freely collaborated with French rule of Vietnam in the past and was in no position to seriously negotiate or impose demands. In 1949, France officially recognized the nominal "independence" of the State of Vietnam as an associated state within the French Union under Bảo Đại. However, France still controlled all foreign relations and every defense issue. The Việt Minh quickly denounced the government and stated that they wanted "real independence, not Bảo Đại independence". Within the framework of the French Union, France also granted independence to the other nations in Indochina, the Kingdoms of Laos and Cambodia. Later, as a concession to the new government and a way to increase their numbers, France agreed to the formation of the Vietnamese National Army commanded by Vietnamese officers. These troops were used mostly to garrison quiet sectors, so French forces would be available for combat. Private armies from the Cao Đài and Hòa Hảo religious sects and the Bình Xuyên crime syndicate were used in the same way. Việt Minh reorganization (1949–1950) With the triumph of the communists in China's civil war, the Vietnamese communists gained a major political ally on their northern border, supporting them with weapons and supplies. Giap re-organized his local irregular forces into five full conventional infantry divisions, the 304th, 308th, 312th, 316th and the 320th. The war began to intensify when Giap went on the offensive, attacking isolated French bases along the Chinese border. The United States began to give military aid to France in the form of weaponry and military observers. By January 1950, Ho's government gained recognition from China and the Soviet Union. In the same year, the government of Bảo Đại gained recognition by the United States and the United Kingdom. In February, Giap seized the vulnerable 150-strong French garrison at Lai Khê in Tonkin just south of the border with China. In June, the Korean War broke out between communist North Korea (DPRK) supported by China and the Soviet Union, and South Korea (ROK) supported by the United States and its allies in the UN. The Cold War was turning 'hot' in East Asia, and the American government feared communist domination of the entire region would have deep implications for American interests. The US became strongly opposed to the government of Hồ Chí Minh, in part, because it was supported and supplied by China. Major General Thái attacked Đông Khê on September 15. Đông Khê fell on September 18. The Cao Bằng garrison was then evacuated south and, together with the relief force coming from That Khe, were attacked all the way by ambushing Việt Minh forces, which resulted in a stunning French defeat in the Battle of Route Coloniale 4. The French air-dropped a paratroop battalion south of Cao Bằng to act as a diversion only to see it quickly surrounded and destroyed. After that, Lạng Sơn was evacuated in panic while it was not menaced. By the time the remains of the garrisons reached the safety of the Red River Delta, 4,800 French troops had been killed, captured or missing in action and 2,000 wounded out of a total garrison force of over 10,000. Also lost were 13 artillery pieces, 125 mortars, 450 trucks, 940 machine guns, 1,200 submachine guns and 8,000 rifles destroyed or captured during the fighting. China and the Soviet Union recognized Hồ Chí Minh as the legitimate ruler of Vietnam and sent him more and more supplies and material aid. The year 1950 also marked the first time that napalm was ever used in Vietnam (this type of weapon was supplied by the U.S. for the use of the French Aéronavale). Renewed French success (January–June 1951) The military situation improved for France when its new commander, General Jean Marie de Lattre de Tassigny, built a fortified line from Hanoi to the Gulf of Tonkin, across the Red River Delta, to hold the Việt Minh in place and use his troops to smash them against this barricade, which became known as the De Lattre Line. This led to a period of success for the French. On January 13, 1951, Giáp moved the 308th and 312th Divisions, with more than 20,000 men, to attack Vĩnh Yên, northwest of Hanoi, which was manned by the 6,000-strong 9th Foreign Legion Brigade. The Việt Minh entered a trap. Caught for the first time in the open and actually forced to fight the French head-on, without the ability to quickly hide and retreat, they were heavily attacked by concentrated French artillery and machine gun fire. By January 16, the Battle of Vĩnh Yên ended as Giáp was forced to withdraw, with over 6,000 of his troops killed, 8,000 wounded and 500 captured. On March 23, Giáp tried again, launching an attack against Mạo Khê, north of Haiphong. The 316th Division, composed of 11,000 men, with the partly rebuilt 308th and 312th Divisions in reserve, went forward and were beaten in bitter hand-to-hand fighting against French troops. Giap withdrew, having lost around 500 troops (by Việt Minh estimation) to over 3,000 (by French estimation) dead and wounded by March 28. Giáp launched yet another attack, the Battle of the Day River, on May 29 with the 304th Division at Phủ Lý, the 308th Division at Ninh Bình, and the main attack delivered by the 320th Division at Phát Diệm south of Hanoi. The attacks fared no better and the three divisions lost heavily. Taking advantage of this, de Lattre mounted his counteroffensive against the demoralized Việt Minh, driving them back into the jungle and eliminating the enemy pockets in the Red River Delta by June 18, costing the Việt Minh over 10,000 killed. Every effort by Võ Nguyên Giáp to break the De Lattre Line failed, and every attack he made was answered by a French counter-attack that destroyed his forces. Việt Minh casualties rose alarmingly during this period, leading some to question the leadership of the Communist government, even within the party. However, any benefit this may have reaped for France was negated by the increasing domestic opposition to the war in France. Stalemate (July 1951–1953) On July 31, French General Charles Chanson was assassinated during a propaganda suicide attack at Sa Đéc in South Vietnam that was blamed on the Việt Minh although it was argued in some quarters that Cao Đài nationalist Trình Minh Thế could have been involved in its planning. On November 14, 1951, the French seized Hòa Bình, west of the De Lattre Line, by a parachute drop and extended their perimeter. In January, General de Lattre fell ill from cancer and returned to France for treatment. He died there shortly thereafter and was replaced by General Raoul Salan as the overall commander of French forces in Indochina. The Việt Minh launched attacks on Hòa Bình, forcing the French to withdraw back to their main positions on the De Lattre Line by February 22, 1952. Each side lost nearly 5,000 men in this campaign, and it showed that the war was far from over. Throughout the war theater, the Việt Minh cut French supply lines and wore down the resolve of the French forces. There were continued raids, skirmishes and guerrilla attacks, but through most of the rest of the year each side withdrew to prepare for larger operations. In the Battle of Nà Sản, starting on October 2, French commanders began using "hedgehog" tactics, consisting in setting up well-defended outposts to get the Việt Minh out of the jungle and force them to fight conventional battles instead of using guerrilla tactics. On October 17, 1952, Giáp launched attacks against the French garrisons along Nghĩa Lộ, northwest of Hanoi, and overran much of the Black River valley, except for the airfield of Nà Sản where a strong French garrison entrenched. Giáp by now had control over most of Tonkin beyond the De Lattre Line. Raoul Salan, seeing the situation as critical, launched Operation Lorraine along the Clear River to force Giáp to relieve pressure on the Nghĩa Lộ outposts. On October 29, 1952, in the largest operation in Indochina to date, 30,000 French Union soldiers moved out from the De Lattre Line to attack the Việt Minh supply dumps at Phú Yên. Salan took Phú Thọ on November 5, and Phu Doan on November 9 by a parachute drop, and finally Phú Yên on November 13. Giáp at first did not react to the French offensive. He planned to wait until their supply lines were overextended and then cut them off from the Red River Delta. Salan correctly guessed what the Việt Minh were up to and cancelled the operation on November 14, beginning to withdraw back to the De Lattre Line. The only major fighting during the operation came during the withdrawal, when the Việt Minh ambushed the French column at Chan Muong on November 17. The road was cleared after a bayonet charge by the Indochinese March Battalion, and the withdrawal could continue. The French lost around 1,200 men during the whole operation, most of them during the Chan Muong ambush. The operation was partially successful, proving that the French could strike out at targets outside the De Lattre Line. However, it failed to divert the Việt Minh offensive or seriously damage its logistical network. On April 9, 1953, Giáp, after having failed repeatedly in direct attacks on French positions in Vietnam, changed strategy and began to pressure the French by invading Laos, surrounding and defeating several French outposts such as Muong Khoua. In May, General Henri Navarre replaced Salan as supreme commander of French forces in Indochina. He reported to the French government "... that there was no possibility of winning the war in Indo-China", saying that the best the French could hope for was a stalemate. Navarre, in response to the Việt Minh attacking Laos, concluded that "hedgehog" centers of defense were the best plan. Looking at a map of the area, Navarre chose the small town of Điện Biên Phủ, located about north of the Lao border and west of Hanoi, as a target to block the Việt Minh from invading Laos. Điện Biên Phủ had a number of advantages: it was on a Việt Minh supply route into Laos on the Nam Yum River, it had an old airstrip for supply, and it was situated in the Tai hills where the Tai troops, allied with the French, operated. Operation Castor was launched on November 20, 1953, with 1,800 men of the French 1st and 2nd Airborne Battalions dropping into the valley of Điện Biên Phủ and sweeping aside the local Việt Minh garrison. The paratroopers gained control of a heart-shaped valley long and wide surrounded by heavily wooded hills. Encountering little opposition, the French and Tai units operating from Lai Châu to the north patrolled the hills. The operation was a tactical success for the French. However, Giáp, seeing the weakness of the French position, started moving most of his forces from the De Lattre Line to Điện Biên Phủ. By mid-December, most of the French and Tai patrols in the hills around the town were wiped out by Việt Minh ambushes. The fight for control of this position would be the longest and hardest battle for the French Far East Expeditionary Corps and would be remembered by the veterans as "57 Days of Hell". French defeat at Dien Bien Phu, end of the war (1954) By 1954, despite official propaganda presenting the war as a "crusade against communism", the war in Indochina was still growing unpopular with the French public. The political stagnation in the Fourth Republic meant that France was unable to extract itself from the conflict. The Battle of Dien Bien Phu took place in 1954 between Việt Minh forces under Võ Nguyên Giáp, supported by China and the Soviet Union, and the French Union's French Far East Expeditionary Corps, supported by US financing and Indochinese allies. The battle was fought near the village of Điện Biên Phủ in northern Vietnam and became the last major battle between the French and the Vietnamese in the First Indochina War. The battle began on March 13 when a preemptive Việt Minh attack surprised the French with heavy artillery. The artillery damaged both the main and secondary airfields that the French were using to fly in supplies. The only road into Điện Biên Phủ, already difficult to traverse, was also knocked out by Việt Minh forces. With French supply lines interrupted, the French position became untenable, particularly when the advent of the monsoon season made dropping supplies and reinforcements by parachute difficult. With defeat imminent, the French sought to hold on until the opening of the Geneva peace meeting on April 26. The last French offensive took place on May 4, but it was ineffective. The Việt Minh then began to hammer the outpost with newly supplied Soviet Katyusha rockets and other weaponry provided by communist allies. The final fall took two days, May 6 and 7, during which the French fought on but were eventually overrun by a huge frontal assault. General Cogny, based in Hanoi, ordered General de Castries, who was commanding the outpost, to cease fire at 5:30 pm and to destroy all materiél (weapons, transmissions, etc.) to deny their use to the enemy. A formal order was given to not use the white flag so that the action would be considered a ceasefire instead of a surrender. Much of the fighting ended on May 7; however, the ceasefire was not respected on Isabelle, the isolated southern position, where the battle lasted until May 8, 1:00 am. At least 2,200 members of the 20,000-strong French forces died, and another 1,729 were reported missing after the battle, and 11,721 were captured. Of the 50,000 or so Vietnamese soldiers thought to be involved, there were an estimated 4,800 to 8,000 killed and another 9,000–15,000 wounded. The prisoners taken at Điện Biên Phủ were the greatest number the Việt Minh had ever captured: one-third of the total captured during the entire war. One month after Điện Biên Phủ, the composite Groupe Mobile 100 (GM100) of the French Union forces evacuated the An Khê outpost and was ambushed by a larger Việt Minh force at the Battle of Mang Yang Pass from June 24 to July 17. At the same time, Giap launched some offensives against the delta, but they all failed. The Việt Minh victory at Điện Biên Phủ heavily influenced the outcome of the 1954 Geneva accords that took place on July 21. In August Operation Passage to Freedom began, consisting of the evacuation of Catholic and other Vietnamese civilians from communist North Vietnamese persecution. Geneva Conference and Partition The Geneva Conference on July 21, 1954, recognized the 17th parallel north as a "provisional military demarcation line", temporarily dividing the country into two zones, communist North Vietnam and pro-Western South Vietnam. Negotiations between France and the Việt Minh started in Geneva in April 1954 at the Geneva Conference, during which time the French Union and the Việt Minh were fighting a battle at Điện Biên Phủ. In France, Pierre Mendès France, opponent of the war since 1950, had been invested as Prime Minister on June 17, 1954, on a promise to put an end to the war, reaching a ceasefire in four months: Today it seems we can be reunited in a will for peace that may express the aspirations of our country ... Since already several years, a compromise peace, a peace negotiated with the opponent seemed to me commanded by the facts, while it commanded, in return, to put back in order our finances, the recovery of our economy and its expansion. Because this war placed on our country an unbearable burden. And here appears today a new and formidable threat: if the Indochina conflict is not resolved — and settled very fast — it is the risk of war, of international war and maybe atomic, that we must foresee. It is because I wanted a better peace that I wanted it earlier, when we had more assets. But even now there is some renouncings or abandons that the situation does not comprise. France does not have to accept and will not accept settlement which would be incompatible with its more vital interests [applauding on certain seats of the Assembly on the left and at the extreme right]. France will remain present in Far-Orient. Neither our allies, nor our opponents must conserve the least doubt on the signification of our determination. A negotiation has been engaged in Geneva ... I have longly studied the report ... consulted the most qualified military and diplomatic experts. My conviction that a pacific settlement of the conflict is possible has been confirmed. A "cease-fire" must henceforth intervene quickly. The government which I will form will fix itself — and will fix to its opponents — a delay of 4 weeks to reach it. We are today on 17th of June. I will present myself before you before the 20th of July ... If no satisfying solution has been reached at this date, you will be freed from the contract which would have tied us together, and my government will give its dismissal to the President of the Republic. The Geneva Accords promised elections in 1956 to determine a national government for a united Vietnam. Neither the United States government nor Ngô Đình Diệm's State of Vietnam signed anything at the 1954 Geneva Conference. With respect to the question of reunification, the non-communist Vietnamese delegation objected strenuously to any division of Vietnam, but lost out when the French accepted the proposal of Việt Minh delegate Phạm Văn Đồng, who proposed that Vietnam eventually be united by elections under the supervision of "local commissions". The United States countered with what became known as the "American Plan", with the support of South Vietnam and the United Kingdom. It provided for unification elections under the supervision of the United Nations, but was rejected by the Soviet delegation. From his home in France, Bảo Đại appointed Ngô Đình Diệm as Prime Minister of South Vietnam. With American support, in 1955 Diem used a referendum to remove the former Emperor and declare himself the president of the Republic of Vietnam. When the elections failed to occur, Việt Minh cadres who stayed behind in South Vietnam were activated and started to fight the government. North Vietnam also invaded and occupied portions of Laos to assist in supplying the National Liberation Front guerrillas fighting in South Vietnam. The war gradually escalated into the Second Indochina War, more commonly known as the Vietnam War in the West and the American War in Vietnam. French domestic situation The 1946 Constitution creating the Fourth Republic (1946–1958) made France a parliamentary republic. Because of the political context, it could find stability only by an alliance between the three dominant parties: the Christian Democratic Popular Republican Movement (MRP), the French Communist Party (PCF) and the socialist French Section of the Workers' International (SFIO). Known as tripartisme, this alliance briefly lasted until the May 1947 crisis, with the expulsion from Paul Ramadier's SFIO government of the PCF ministers, marking the official start of the Cold War in France. This had the effect of weakening the regime, with the two most significant movements of this period, Communism and Gaullism, in opposition. Unlikely alliances had to be made between left- and right-wing parties in order to form a government invested by the National Assembly, resulting in parliamentary instability, with 14 prime ministers in succession between 1947 and 1954's Battle of Dien Bien Phu. The rapid turnover of governments (there were 17 different governments during the war) left France unable to prosecute the war with any consistent policy, according to veteran General René de Biré (who was a lieutenant at Dien Bien Phu). France was increasingly unable to afford the costly conflict in Indochina and, by 1954, the United States was paying 80% of France's war effort, which was $3,000,000 per day in 1952. A strong anti-war movement came into existence in France driven mostly by the then-powerful French Communist Party (outpowering the socialists) and its young militant associations, major trade unions such as the General Confederation of Labour, and notable leftist intellectuals. The first occurrence was probably at the National Assembly on March 21, 1947, when the communist deputies refused to back the military credits for Indochina. The following year a pacifist event was organized, the "1st Worldwide Congress of Peace Partisans" (1er Congrès Mondial des Partisans de la Paix, the World Peace Council's predecessor), which took place March 25–28, 1948, in Paris, with the French communist Nobel laureate atomic physicist Frédéric Joliot-Curie as president. Later, on April 28, 1950, Joliot-Curie would be dismissed from the military and civilian Atomic Energy Commission for political reasons. Young communist militants (UJRF) were also accused of sabotage actions like the famous Henri Martin affair and the case of Raymonde Dien, who was jailed one year for having blocked an ammunition train, with the help of other militants, in order to prevent the supply of French forces in Indochina in February 1950. Similar actions against trains occurred in Roanne, Charleville, Marseille, and Paris. Even ammunition sabotage by PCF agents has been reported, such as grenades exploding in the hands of legionaries. These actions became such a cause for concern by 1950 that the French Assembly voted a law against sabotage between March 2–8. At this session tension was so high between politicians that fighting ensued in the assembly following communist deputies' speeches against the Indochinese policy. This month saw the French navy mariner and communist militant Henri Martin arrested by military police and jailed for five years for sabotage and propaganda operations in Toulon's arsenal. On May 5 communist Ministers were dismissed from the government, marking the end of Tripartism. A few months later on November 11, 1950, the French Communist Party leader Maurice Thorez went to Moscow. Some military officers involved in the Revers Report scandal (Rapport Revers) such as Salan were pessimistic about the way the war was being conducted, with multiple political-military scandals all happening during the war, starting with the Generals' Affair (Affaire des Généraux) from September 1949 to November 1950. As a result, General Georges Revers was dismissed in December 1949 and socialist Defense Ministry Jules Moch (SFIO) was brought on court by the National Assembly on November 28, 1950. Emerging media played their role. The scandal started the commercial success of the first French news magazine, L'Express, created in 1953. The third scandal was financial-political, concerning military corruption, money and arms trading involving both the French Union army and the Việt Minh, known as the Piastres affair. The war ended in 1954 but its sequel started in French Algeria where the French Communist Party played an even stronger role by supplying the National Liberation Front (FLN) rebels with intelligence documents and financial aid. They were called "the suitcase carriers" (les porteurs de valises). In the French news, the Indochina War was presented as a direct continuation of the Korean War, where France had fought: a UN French battalion, incorporated in a U.S. unit in Korea, was later involved in the Battle of Mang Yang Pass of June and July 1954. In an interview taped in May 2004, General Marcel Bigeard (6th BPC) argues that "one of the deepest mistakes done by the French during the war was the propaganda telling you are fighting for Freedom, you are fighting against Communism", hence the sacrifice of volunteers during the climactic battle of Dien Bien Phu. In the latest days of the siege, 652 non-paratrooper soldiers from all army corps from cavalry to infantry to artillery dropped for the first and last time of their life to support their comrades. The Cold War excuse was later used by General Maurice Challe through his famous "Do you want Mers El Kébir and Algiers to become Soviet bases as soon as tomorrow?", during the Generals' putsch (Algerian War) of 1961, with limited effect though. A few hours after the French Union defeat at Dien Bien Phu in May 1954, United States Secretary of State John Foster Dulles made an official speech depicting the "tragic event" and "its defense for fifty seven days and nights will remain in History as one of the most heroic of all time." Later on, he denounced Chinese aid to the Việt Minh, explained that the United States could not act openly because of international pressure, and concluded with the call to "all concerned nations" concerning the necessity of "a collective defense" against "the communist aggression". The Viet Minh victory in the war had an inspirational effect to independence movements in various French colonies worldwide, most notably the FLN in Algeria. The Algerian War broke out on 1 November 1954, only six months after the Geneva Conference. Benyoucef Benkhedda, later became the head of the Provisional Government of the Algerian Republic, praised the Viet Minh feat at Dien Bien Phu as "a powerful incentive to all who thought immediate insurrection the only possible strategy". War crimes and re-education camps The Boudarel Affair. Georges Boudarel was a French communist militant who used brainwashing and torture against French Union POWs in Việt Minh reeducation camps. The French national association of POWs brought Boudarel to court for a war crime charge. Most of the French Union prisoners died in the Việt Minh camps and many POWs from the Vietnamese National Army were missing. Passage to Freedom was a Franco-American operation to evacuate refugees. Loyal Indochinese evacuated to metropolitan France were kept in detention camps. In 1957, the French Chief of Staff with Raoul Salan would use the POWs' experience with the Việt Minh reeducation camps to create two "Instruction Center for Pacification and Counter-Insurgency" (Centre d'Instruction à la Pacification et à la Contre-Guérilla aka CIPCG) and train thousands of officers during the Algerian War. According to Arthur J. Dommen, the Việt Minh assassinated 100,000–150,000 civilians during the war; total civilian deaths are estimated at 400,000. Benjamin Valentino estimates that the French were responsible for 60,000 to 250,000 civilian deaths. The French Army tortured Việt Minh prisoners. French Union involvement By 1946, France headed the French Union. As successive governments had forbidden the sending of metropolitan troops, the French Far East Expeditionary Corps (CEFEO) was created in March 1945. The Union gathered combatants from almost all French territories made of colonies, protectorates and associated states (Algeria, Morocco, Madagascar, Senegal, Tunisia, etc.) to fight in French Indochina, which was then occupied by the Japanese. About 325,000 of the 500,000 French troops were Indochinese, almost all of whom were used in conventional units. French West Africa (Afrique Occidentale Française, AOF) was a federation of African colonies. Senegalese and other African troops were sent to fight in Indochina. Some African alumni were trained in the Infantry Instruction Center no.2 (Centre d'Instruction de l'Infanterie no.2) located in southern Vietnam. Senegalese of the Colonial Artillery fought at the siege of Dien Bien Phu. As a French colony (later a full province), French Algeria sent local troops to Indochina including several RTA (Régiment de Tirailleurs Algériens) light infantry battalions. Morocco was a French protectorate and sent troops to support the French effort in Indochina. Moroccan troops were part of light infantry RTMs (Régiment de Tirailleurs Marocains) for the "Moroccan Sharpshooters Regiment". As a French protectorate, Bizerte, Tunisia, was a major French base. Tunisian troops, mostly RTT (Régiment de Tirailleurs Tunisiens), were sent to Indochina. Part of French Indochina, then part of the French Union and later an associated state, Laos fought the communists along with French forces. The role played by Laotian troops in the conflict was depicted by veteran Pierre Schoendoerffer's famous 317th Platoon released in 1964. The French Indochina state of Cambodia played a significant role during the Indochina War through its infantrymen and paratroopers. While Bảo Đại's State of Vietnam (formerly Annam, Tonkin, Cochinchina) had the Vietnamese National Army supporting the French forces, some minorities were trained and organized as regular battalions (mostly infantry tirailleurs) that fought with French forces against the Việt Minh. The Tai Battalion 2 (BT2, 2e Bataillon Thai) is infamous for its desertion during the siege of Dien Bien Phu. Propaganda leaflets written in Tai and French sent by the Việt Minh were found in the deserted positions and trenches. Such deserters were called the Nam Yum rats by Bigeard during the siege, as they hid close to the Nam Yum river during the day and searched at night for supply drops. Another allied minority was the Muong people (Mường). The 1st Muong Battalion (1er Bataillon Muong) was awarded the Croix de guerre des théâtres d'opérations extérieures after the victorious Battle of Vĩnh Yên in 1951. In the 1950s, the French established secret commando groups based on loyal Montagnard ethnic minorities referred to as "partisans" or "maquisards", called the Groupement de Commandos Mixtes Aéroportés (Composite Airborne Commando Group or GCMA), later renamed Groupement Mixte d'Intervention (GMI, or Mixed Intervention Group), directed by the SDECE counter-intelligence service. The SDECE's "Service Action" GCMA used both commando and guerrilla techniques and operated in intelligence and secret missions from 1950 to 1955. Declassified information about the GCMA includes the name of its commander, famous Colonel Roger Trinquier, and a mission on April 30, 1954, when Jedburgh veteran Captain Sassi led the Meo partisans of the GCMA Malo-Servan in Operation Condor during the siege of Dien Bien Phu. In 1951, Adjutant-Chief Vandenberghe from the 6th Colonial Infantry Regiment (6e RIC) created the "Commando Vanden" (aka "Black Tigers", aka "North Vietnam Commando #24") based in Nam Định. Recruits were volunteers from the Thổ people, Nùng people and Miao people. This commando unit wore Việt Minh black uniforms to confuse the enemy and used techniques of the experienced Bo doi (Bộ đội, regular army) and Du Kich (guerrilla unit). Việt Minh prisoners were recruited in POW camps. The commando was awarded the Croix de Guerre des TOE with palm in July 1951; however, Vandenberghe was betrayed by a Việt Minh recruit, commander Nguien Tinh Khoi (308th Division's 56th Regiment), who assassinated him (and his Vietnamese fiancée) with external help on the night of January 5, 1952. Coolies and POWs known as PIM (Prisonniers Internés Militaires, which is basically the same as POW) were civilians used by the army as logistical support personnel. During the battle of Dien Bien Phu, coolies were in charge of burying the corpses—during the first days only, after they were abandoned, hence giving off a terrible smell, according to veterans—and they had the dangerous job of gathering supply packets delivered in drop zones while the Việt Minh artillery was firing hard to destroy the crates. The Việt Minh also used thousands of coolies to carry the Chu-Luc (regional units) supplies and ammunition during assaults. The PIM were civilian males old enough to join Bảo Đại's army. They were captured in enemy-controlled villages, and those who refused to join the State of Vietnam's army were considered prisoners or used as coolies to support a given regiment. Foreign involvement Japanese volunteers Many former Imperial Japanese Army soldiers fought alongside the Việt Minh—perhaps as many as 5,000 volunteered their services throughout the war. These Japanese had stayed behind in Indochina after World War II concluded in 1945. The occupying British authorities then repatriated most of the rest of the circa 50,000 Japanese troops back to Japan. For those that stayed behind, supporting the Việt Minh became a more attractive idea than returning to a defeated and occupied homeland. In addition the Việt Minh had very little experience, in warfare or government so the advice of the Japanese was welcome. Some of the Japanese were ex-Kenpeitai who were wanted for questioning by Allied authorities. Giap arranged for them all to receive Vietnamese citizenship and false identification papers. Some Japanese were captured by the Việt Minh during the last months of the World War II and were recruited into their ranks. Most of the Japanese officers who stayed served as military instructors for the Việt Minh forces, most notably at the Quảng Ngãi Army Academy. They imparted necessary conventional military knowledge - such as how to conduct assaults, night attacks, company/battalion level exercises, commanding, tactics, navigation, communications and movements. A few, however, actively led Vietnamese forces into combat. The French also identified eleven Japanese nurses and two doctors working for the Việt Minh in northern Vietnam in 1951. The Yasukuni Shrine commemorates a number of Japanese involved in the First Indochina War. Notable Japanese officers serving in Việt Minh included: Colonel Mukaiyama - reportedly a staff officer in the 38th Army, who became a technical advisor to the Vietnamese. Credited as the leader of Japanese forces in Vietnam; killed in combat in 1946. Colonel Masanobu Tsuji - Operations Staff Officer. - a staff officer in the 55th Division who had commanded a squadron of its cavalry regiment. Supposedly the youngest major in the Imperial Army at the time, he led a number of volunteers to the Vietnamese cause, becoming a colonel and military advisor to General Nguyễn Sơn. He headed the Quảng Ngãi Military Academy for a while before founding the Tuy Hòa Military Academy, and was killed by a land mine in 1950. Major Kanetoshi Toshihide - served with Major Igari in the 2nd Division and followed him to join the Việt Minh; he became Chief of Staff for General Nguyễn Giác Ngộ. - a staff officer in the 34th Independent Mixed Brigade; he joined the Viet Minh forces, and was killed in action against the French in 1946. He allegedly conceived the idea of establishing the Quảng Ngãi Military Academy. Lieutenant Igari Kazumasa - the commander of an infantry company in the 2nd Division's 29th Infantry Regiment; he became an instructor at the Quảng Ngãi Military Academy. Lieutenant Kamo Tokuji - a platoon leader under Lieutenant Igari; he also became an instructor at the Quảng Ngãi Military Academy. an intelligence officer who was originally supposed to remain behind in Indonesia, but linked up with the 34th Brigade to try to get home, only to end up as an instructor at the Quảng Ngãi Military Academy until 1954. an intelligence officer of the 34th Independent Mixed Brigade; became a decorated soldier in the Việt Minh forces, and later an instructor at the Quảng Ngãi Military Academy. China One point that the French had a major problem with was the concept of "sanctuary". So long as the anti-colonial revolutionaries who are fighting a guerrilla war have a sanctuary, in which they can hide out, rest and recuperate after losses and store supplies and necessary material, it is almost impossible and highly unlikely for any foreign enemy or foe to ever destroy and defeat them. During the early 1950s guerrilla troops used the southern areas of China, by then under the rule of Chinese communists allied with the anti-French Việt Minh, as a sanctuary. The Việt Minh successfully carried out several hit-and-run ambushes against French Union military convoys along the neighboring Route Coloniale 4 (RC 4) roadway, which was a major supply passage in Tonkin (northern Vietnam). One of the most famous attacks of this nature was the Battle of Cao Bằng of 1947-1949. China supplied and provided the Việt Minh guerrilla forces with almost every kind of crucial and important supplies and material required, such as food (including thousands of tonnes of rice), money, medics and medical aid and supplies, arms and weapons (ranging from artillery guns (24 of such were used at the Battle of Dien Bien Phu) to rifles and machine-guns), ammunition and explosives and other types of military equipment, including a large part of war-material captured from the then-recently defeated National Revolutionary Army (NRA) of Chiang Kai-shek's Nationalist Chinese government following the end of the Chinese Civil War in 1949. Evidence of the PRC's secret aid and supplies were found hidden in caves during the French military's Operation Hirondelle in July 1953. 2,000 military advisors from the PRC and the Soviet Union trained the Việt Minh guerrilla force with the aim of turning it into a full-fledged armed force to fight off their French colonial masters and gain national independence. On top of this, the PRC sent two People's Liberation Army (PLA) artillery battalions to fight at the siege of Dien Bien Phu on May 6, 1954, with one battalion operating the Soviet Katyusha multiple-rocket launcher systems (MRLS) against French forces besieged at Dien Bien Phu's valley. From 1950 to 1954 the Chinese government shipped goods, materials, and medicine worth $43 billion (in 2019 dollars) to Vietnam. From 1950 to 1956 the Chinese government shipped 155,000 small arms, 58 million rounds of ammunition, 4,630 artillery pieces, 1,080,000 artillery shells, 840,000 hand grenades, 1,400,000 uniforms, 1,200 vehicles, 14,000 tons of food, and 26,000 tons of fuel to Vietnam. Mao Zedong considered it necessary to buttress the Viet Minh to secure his country's southern flank against potential interference by westerners, while the bulk of the PRC's regular military forces participated in the Korean War from 1950 to 1953. After the end of the Korean War and the resolution of the First Taiwan Strait Crisis, China stepped up involvement in the Indochina Wars, viewing the presence of potentially hostile forces in Indochina as the main threat. Soviet Union The Soviet Union was the other major ally of the Việt Minh, alongside the PRC. Moscow supplied GAZ-built trucks, truck engines and motor-parts, fuel, tyres, many different kinds of arms and weapons (including thousands of Škoda-manufactured light machine-guns of Czech origin), all kinds of ammunition (ranging from rifle to machine-gun ammunition), various types of anti-aircraft guns (such as the 37mm air-defense gun) and even cigarettes and tobacco products. During Operation Hirondelle, French Union paratroopers captured and destroyed many tonnes of Soviet-supplied material destined for Việt Minh use in the area of Ky Lua. According to General Giap, the chief military leader of all Việt Minh forces, the Việt Minh used about 400 Soviet-produced GAZ-51 trucks at the Battle of Dien Bien Phu. Because the trucks were concealed and hidden with the use of highly effective camouflage (comprised predominantly of thick vegetation), French Union reconnaissance aircraft were not able to notice them and take note of the effective Việt Minh supply-train. On May 6, 1954, during the siege against French forces at the valley of Dien Bien Phu, Soviet-supplied Katyusha MRLS were successfully fielded against French Union military outposts, destroying enemy troop formations and bases and lowering their morale levels. Together with the PRC, the Soviet Union sent up to 2,000 military advisors to provide training to the Việt Minh guerrilla troops and to turn it into a conventional army. United States Mutual Defense Assistance Act (1950–1954) At the beginning of the war, the U.S. was neutral in the conflict because of its opposition to European colonialism, because the Việt Minh had recently been U.S. allies, and because most of its attention was focused on Europe where Winston Churchill argued an Iron Curtain had fallen. Then the U.S. government gradually began supporting the French in their war effort, primarily through the Mutual Defense Assistance Act, as a means of stabilizing the French Fourth Republic in which the French Communist Party was a significant political force. A dramatic shift occurred in American policy after the 1949 victory of Mao Zedong's Communist Party of China in the Chinese Civil War. By 1949 the United States became concerned about the spread of communism in Asia, particularly following the end of the Chinese Civil War, and began to strongly support the French as the two countries were bound by the Cold War Mutual Defense Programme. After the Moch–Marshall meeting of September 23, 1950, in Washington, the United States started to support the French Union effort politically, logistically and financially. Officially, US involvement did not include use of armed force. However, recently declassified US documents have revealed that undercover (CAT)—or not—US Air Force pilots flew to support the French during Operation Castor in November 1953. Two US pilots were killed in action during the siege at Dien Bien Phu the following year. These facts were declassified and made public more than 50 years after the events, in 2005 during the Légion d'honneur award ceremony by the French ambassador in Washington. In May 1950, after Chinese communist forces occupied Hainan island, U.S. President Harry S. Truman began covertly authorizing direct financial assistance to the French, and on June 27, 1950, after the outbreak of the Korean War, announced publicly that the U.S. was doing so. It was feared in Washington that if Ho were to win the war, with his ties to the Soviet Union, he would establish a puppet state of Moscow, with the Soviets ultimately controlling Vietnamese affairs. The prospect of a communist-dominated Southeast Asia spurred the U.S. to support France, with a view to containing the spread of Soviet-allied communism. On June 30, 1950, the first U.S. supplies for Indochina were delivered. In September, Truman sent the Military Assistance Advisory Group (MAAG) to Indochina to assist the French. Later, in 1954, U.S. President Dwight D. Eisenhower explained the escalation risk, introducing what he referred to as the "domino principle", which eventually became the concept of domino theory. During the Korean War, the conflict in Vietnam was also seen as part of a broader proxy war with China and the USSR in Asia. As the situation at Dien Bien Phu deteriorated in 1954, France requested more support from the United States, including equipment and direct intervention. For instance, on April 4 French Prime Minister Joseph Laniel and Foreign Minister Georges Bidault conveyed to U.S. Ambassador C. Douglas Dillon that "immediate armed intervention of US carrier aircraft at DienBien Phu is now necessary to save the situation". The United States discussed with allies multiple options, including the use of nuclear weapons. A key concern in the planning was the response of China. While the planning continued, the United States moved an aircraft-carrier task-force, which included the carriers Boxer and Essex, into the South China Sea between the Philippines and Indochina. However, the leadership of the United States eventually decided that there was not sufficient international or domestic support for the United States to become directly involved in the conflict. US Navy assistance (1951–1954) delivered Grumman F8F Bearcat fighter aircraft to Saigon on January 26, 1951. On March 2, 1951, the United States Navy transferred (LST 490) to the French Navy in Indochina in accordance with the MAAG-led MAP. Renamed RFS Vulcain (A-656), she was used in Operation Hirondelle in 1953. carrier delivered Grumman F8F Bearcat aircraft to Saigon on March 26, 1951. During September 1953, (renamed Bois Belleau) was lent to France and sent to French Indochina to replace the . She was used to support delta defenders in the Hạ Long Bay operation in May 1954. In August she joined the Franco-American evacuation operation called "Passage to Freedom". The same month, the United States delivered additional aircraft, again using USS Windham Bay. On April 18, 1954, during the siege of Dien Bien Phu, delivered 25 Korean War AU-1 Corsair aircraft for use by the French Aeronavale in supporting the besieged garrison. US Air Force assistance (1952–1954) A total of 94 F4U-7s were built for the Aéronavale in 1952, with the last of the batch, the final Corsair built, rolled out in December 1952. The F4U-7s were actually purchased by the U.S. Navy and passed on to the Aéronavale through the U.S. Military Assistance Program (MAP). They were supplemented by 25 ex-U.S.MC AU-1s (previously used in the Korean War) and moved from Yokosuka, Japan, to Tourane Air Base (Da Nang), Vietnam, in April 1952. US Air Force assistance followed in November 1953 when the French commander in Indochina, General Henri Navarre, asked General Chester E. McCarty, commander of the Combat Cargo Division, for 12 Fairchild C-119s for Operation Castor at Dien Bien Phu. The USAF also provided C-124 Globemasters to transport French paratroop reinforcements to Indochina. Under the codename Project Swivel Chair, on March 3, 1954, 12 C-119s of the 483rd Troop Carrier Wing ("Packet Rats") based at Ashiya, Japan, were painted with France's insignia and loaned to France with 24 CIA pilots for short-term use. Maintenance was carried out by the US Air Force and airlift operations were commanded by McCarty. Central Intelligence Agency covert operations (1954) Twenty four Central Intelligence Agency (Civil Air Transport) pilots supplied the French Union garrison during the siege of Dien Bien Phu - airlifting paratroopers, ammunition, artillery pieces, tons of barbed wire, medics and other military materiel. With the reducing Drop zone areas, night operations and anti-aircraft artillery assaults, many of the "packets" fell into Việt Minh hands. The CIA pilots completed 682 airdrops under anti-aircraft fire between March 13 and May 6. Two CAT pilots, Wallace Bufford and James B. McGovern Jr. were killed in action when their Fairchild C-119 Flying Boxcar was shot down on May 6, 1954. On February 25, 2005, the French ambassador to the United States, Jean-David Levitte, awarded the seven remaining CIA pilots the Légion d'honneur. Operation Passage to Freedom (1954) In August 1954, in support of the French navy and the merchant navy, the U.S. Navy launched Operation Passage to Freedom and sent hundreds of ships, including , in order to evacuate non-communist—especially Catholic—Vietnamese refugees from North Vietnam following the July 20, 1954, armistice and partition of Vietnam. Up to 1 million Vietnamese civilians were transported from North to South during this period, with around one tenth of that number moving in the opposite direction. New Zealand During 1952 and 1954 New Zealand provided from its obsolete and surplus (but serviceable) military stocks a selection of military equipment for the French Forces in Indochina, including: 43000 rifles 1350 machine guns 670,000 rounds of small arms ammunition 10,000 rounds of 40mm armour-piercing shot 500 revolvers 50 Bofors anti-aircraft guns and ammunition wireless sets field telephones charging sets various uniform items Popular culture Although a kind of taboo in France, "the dirty war" has been featured in various films, books and songs. Since its declassification in the 2000s, television documentaries have been released using new perspectives about the U.S. covert involvement and open critics about the French propaganda used during wartime. The famous Communist propagandist Roman Karmen was in charge of the media exploitation of the battle of Dien Bien Phu. In his documentary, Vietnam (Вьетнам, 1955), he staged the famous scene with the raising of the Việt Minh flag over de Castries' bunker which is similar to the one he staged over the Berlin Reichstag roof during World War II (Берлин, 1945) and the "S"-shaped POW column marching after the battle, where he used the same optical technique he experimented with before when he staged the German prisoners after the Siege of Leningrad (Ленинград в борьбе, 1942) and the Battle of Moscow (Разгром немецких войск под Москвой, 1942). Hollywood made a film about Dien Bien Phu in 1955, Jump into Hell, directed by David Butler and scripted by Irving Wallace, before his fame as a bestselling novelist. Hollywood also made several films about the war, Robert Florey's Rogues' Regiment (1948). Samuel Fuller's China Gate (1957). and James Clavell's Five Gates to Hell (1959). The first French movie about the war, Shock Patrol (Patrouille de Choc) aka Patrol Without Hope (Patrouille Sans Espoir) by Claude Bernard-Aubert, came out in 1956. The French censor cut some violent scenes and made the director change the end of his movie which was seen as "too pessismistic". Léo Joannon's film Fort du Fou (Fort of the Mad) /Outpost in Indochina was released in 1963. Another film was The 317th Platoon (La 317ème Section) was released in 1964, it was directed by Indochina War (and siege of Dien Bien Phu) veteran Pierre Schoendoerffer. Schoendoerffer has since become a media specialist about the Indochina War and has focused his production on realistic war movies. He was cameraman for the army ("Cinematographic Service of the Armies", SCA) during his duty time; moreover, as he had covered the Vietnam War he released The Anderson Platoon, which won the Academy Award for Documentary Feature. Graham Greene's novel The Quiet American takes place during this war. In 2011 a Vietnamese software developer released a first-person-shooter called 7554. Named after the date 07-05-54 (7 May 1954) which marks the end of the decisive Battle of Dien Bien Phu, it commemorates the First Indochina War from the Vietnamese point of view. The 2017 film by Olivier Lorelle, Ciel Rouge, starring Cyril Descours and Audrey Giacomini, is set during the early part of the First Indochina War. See also Cambodian–Vietnamese War Hélie de Saint Marc Franco-Thai War Japanese invasion of French Indochina Japanese coup d'état in French Indochina Indochina Wars Mỹ Trạch massacre North Vietnamese invasion of Laos Second Indochina War Third Indochina War Pathet Lao United Issarak Front Mémorial des guerres en Indochine Algerian War References Sources Further reading NIAS Press version. Online search tool at UQÀM website. External links Pentagon Papers, Chapter 2 Vietnam: The Impossible War Fall, Bernard B. Street Without Joy: The French Debacle In Indochina ANAPI's official website (National Association of Former POWs in Indochina) Hanoi upon the army's return in victory (bicycles demystified) Viet Nam Portal Photos about the First War of Indochina (French Defense Archives) (ECPAD) 1940s conflicts 1940s in French Indochina 1940s in Vietnam 1950s conflicts 1950s in French Indochina 1950s in Vietnam 20th century in France 20th century in Vietnam Indochina01 Articles containing video clips Indochina Indochina Indochina French Indochina 1 Insurgencies in Asia Invasions by France Invasions of Vietnam Proxy wars Resistance to the French colonial empire Indochina Viet Minh Vietnamese independence movement Indochina Wars involving France Indochina Indochina Wars involving the Soviet Union Wars involving the United States Wars involving Vietnam Wars of independence Guerrilla wars
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Allen
Allen
Allen, Allen's or Allens may refer to: Buildings Allen Arena, an indoor arena at Lipscomb University in Nashville, Tennessee Allen Center, a skyscraper complex in downtown Houston, Texas Allen Fieldhouse, an indoor sports arena on the University of Kansas campus in Lawrence Allen House (disambiguation) Allen Power Plant (disambiguation) Businesses Allen (brand), an American tool company Allen's, an Australian brand of confectionery Allens (law firm), an Australian law firm formerly known as Allens Arthur Robinson Allen's (restaurant), a former hamburger joint and nightclub in Athens, Georgia, United States Allen & Company LLC, a small, privately held investment bank Allens of Mayfair, a butcher shop in London from 1830 to 2015 Allens Boots, a retail store in Austin, Texas Allens, Inc., a brand of canned vegetables based in Arkansas, US, now owned by Del Monte Foods Allen's department store, a.k.a. Allen's, George Allen, Inc., Philadelphia, USA People Allen (surname), a list of people Allen (given name), a list of people and fictional characters The Allen Brothers (Australia), a 1960s cabaret act Places Mount Allen (disambiguation) Ireland Allen, County Kildare, a village Hill of Allen, County Kildare Bog of Allen United Kingdom River Allen (disambiguation), four rivers, all in England Allen, a townland of County Tyrone, Northern Ireland United States Allen, Alabama, an unincorporated community in Clarke County, Alabama Allen, Arizona, a ghost town Allen, Indiana, an unincorporated community Allen, Kansas, a city Allen, Kentucky, a city Allen, Louisiana, an unincorporated community Allen, Maryland, an unincorporated community Allen, Michigan, a village Allen, Mississippi, an unincorporated community Allen, Nebraska, a village Allens, an alternate name for Allens Station, New Jersey, an unincorporated community Allen, New York, a town Allen, Oklahoma, a town Allen, South Dakota, a census-designated place Allen, Texas, a city Allen, West Virginia, an unincorporated community Allen, Wisconsin, an unincorporated community Allen Township (disambiguation) Allen County (disambiguation) Allen Parish, Louisiana Allen Mountain (Montana) Allen Mountain (New York) Allen Island (Maine) Allen Parkway, a major street in Houston, Texas Allens Bay, Minnesota Elsewhere Allen, Río Negro, Argentina, a city Allen Island, Queensland, Australia Allen Island (Nunavut), Canada Allen, Northern Samar, Philippines, a municipality Allen Rocks, Ross Island, Antarctica Schools Allen Community College, a junior college in Iola, Kansas Allen High School (disambiguation) Allen University, a private, coeducational historically black university in Columbia, South Carolina Television "Allen" (Prison Break), an episode of the TV series Prison Break "Allen" (Aqua Unit Patrol Squad 1), a two-part episode of the television series Aqua Teen Hunger Force Transportation Allen (1913 Ohio automobile), an early American automobile Allen (1913 Philadelphia automobile), an early American automobile Allen Parkway, Houston, Texas, U.S. Allen Road, Toronto, Canada Allen station, a freeway-median light rail station in Los Angeles, California, U.S. Allen Street, Manhattan, New York, U.S. Other uses Allen (robot), a 1980s robot Allen baronets, two extinct titles, one in the Baronetage of England and one in the Baronetage of the United Kingdom Allen Army Air Field, Fort Greely, Alaska Allen Telescope Array, California Allen's interval algebra, a calculus for temporal reasoning Allen's Coffee Brandy, a liqueur Hurricane Allen (1980) See also Van Allen (disambiguation) Justice Allen (disambiguation) Alan (disambiguation) Alen (given name) Allan (disambiguation) Alleine Alleyn Allyn
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Amsterdam%20%28disambiguation%29
Amsterdam (disambiguation)
Amsterdam is the capital and largest city of the Kingdom of the Netherlands. Amsterdam may also refer to: Places United States Amsterdam, California, a community Amsterdam, Georgia, an unincorporated community Amsterdam, Missouri, a city in Missouri Amsterdam, Montana, an unincorporated community Amsterdam, New Jersey, an unincorporated community Amsterdam (town), New York, a town Amsterdam (city), New York, a city within the town Amsterdam (Amtrak station), a train station in Amsterdam (city), New York Amsterdam, Ohio, a village in Jefferson County, Ohio Amsterdam, Licking County, Ohio, an unincorporated community Amsterdam, Pennsylvania, an unincorporated community Amsterdam, Texas, an unincorporated community Amsterdam, Virginia, an unincorporated community Amsterdam Avenue (Manhattan), a street in New York City Other places Amsterdam, Mpumalanga, a town in Mpumalanga, South Africa Amsterdam, Saskatchewan, a hamlet in Saskatchewan, Canada Fort Amsterdam, Ghana, a sea-side fort and World Heritage Site in Kormantin, Ghana Ships , ships named Amsterdam, owned by the Dutch East India Company and its pre-companies , a cruise ship owned and operated by Holland America Line Stad Amsterdam, a historical clipper reconstruction , warships of the Royal Netherlands Navy , a Cleveland-class light cruiser , later redesignated to , an Independence-class aircraft carrier , a number of merchant ships , a WW2 hospital ship previously known as the , sunk by a mine while taking D-Day casualties back to England Literature and media Amsterdam (novel), a 1998 novel by Ian McEwan Amsterdam (Killmaster novel), a 1968 novel in the Nick Carter-Killmaster series "Hamsterdam", a 2004 episode of The Wire, was called "Amsterdam" on the first DVD release Amsterdam (1964 film), a Dutch film directed by Herman Van Der Horst Amsterdam (2009 film), a Dutch film directed by Ivo van Hove Amsterdam (2013 film), a Canadian film directed by Stefan Miljevic Amsterdam Vallon, a character played by Leonardo DiCaprio in the movie Gangs of New York People Jane Amsterdam (b. 1951), American news and magazine editor Morey Amsterdam (1908–1996), an American comedian Robert Amsterdam (born 1956), a Canadian international lawyer Saul Amsterdam (1898–1937), a Polish communist Sibori Amsterdam ( 1654–1690), 12th Sultan of Ternate Music Amsterdam (band), a pop band from the United Kingdom Amsterdam (The Lofty Pillars album) Amsterdam (Phish album) Amsterdam '08, a compilation album by Markus Schulz Songs "Amsterdam" (Jacques Brel song), a song by Jacques Brel "Amsterdam" (Maggie MacNeal song). a song by Maggie MacNeal "Amsterdam" (Guster song), a song by Guster "Amsterdam" (Van Halen song), a song by Van Halen "Amsterdam" (Imagine Dragons song), a song by Imagine Dragons "Amsterdam", a song from the album God Forgives, I Don't by Rick Ross "Amsterdam", a song from the album Wedding Album by John Lennon and Yoko Ono "Amsterdam", a song from the album A Rush of Blood to the Head by Coldplay "Amsterdam", a song from the album Intriguer by Crowded House "Amsterdam", a song from the album Writer's Block by Peter Bjorn and John "Amsterdam", a song from the album Ode to Ochrasy by Mando Diao "Amsterdam", a song from the album Play Me Backwards by Joan Baez "Amsterdam", a song from the album Colours by Nadia Oh "Amsterdam", a song from the Broadway musical Passing Strange by Stew and Heidi Rodewald "Amsterdam", a song from the album Broken Machine by Nothing But Thieves "Amsterdam", a song from the album Qui by Michèle Torr "Amsterdam", a song from the album The Weatherman by Gregory Alan Isakov Other Amsterdam station (disambiguation), stations of the name FC Amsterdam, a former Dutch association football club .amsterdam, a top-level domain for the city of Amsterdam New York Amsterdam News American weekly newspaper See also New Amsterdam (disambiguation) The Amsterdams, Romanian rock band Amsterdam Island (disambiguation)
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List%20of%20diseases%20of%20the%20honey%20bee
List of diseases of the honey bee
Diseases of the honey bee or abnormal hive conditions include: Pests and parasites Varroa mites Varroa destructor and V. jacobsoni are parasitic mites that feed on the fat bodies of adult, pupal and larval bees. When the hive is very heavily infested, Varroa mites can be seen with the naked eye as a small red or brown spot on the bee's thorax. Varroa mites are carriers for many viruses that are damaging to bees. For example, bees infected during their development will often have visibly deformed wings. Varroa mites have led to the virtual elimination of feral bee colonies in many areas, and are a major problem for kept bees in apiaries. Some feral populations are now recovering—it appears they have been naturally selected for Varroa resistance. Varroa mites were first discovered in Southeast Asia in about 1904, but are now present on all continents except Australia. They were discovered in the United States in 1987, in New Zealand in 2000, and in Devon, United Kingdom in 1992. To the untrained eye, these mites are generally not a very noticeable problem for a strongly growing hive- as the bees may appear strong in number, and may even be very effective at foraging. However, the mite reproduction cycle occurs inside the capped pupae, and the mite population can surge as a result of colony growth. Careful observation of a colony can help identify signs of disease often spread by mites. When the hive population growth is reduced in preparation for winter or due to poor late summer forage, the mite population growth can overtake that of the bees and can then destroy the hive. It has been observed diseased colonies may slowly die off and be unable to survive through winter even when adequate food stores are present. Often a colony will simply abscond (leave as in a swarm, but leaving no population behind) under such conditions. Varroa in combination with viral vectors and bacteria have been theoretically implicated in colony collapse disorder. It is known that thymol, a compound produced by thyme, naturally occurring in thyme honey, is a treatment for Varroa, though it may cause bee mortality at high concentrations. Provisioning active colonies with crops of thyme may provide the colony with a non-interventional chemical defense against Varroa. Treatment A variety of chemical and mechanical treatments are used to attempt to control Varroa mites. "Hard" chemicals "Hard" chemical treatments include amitraz (marketed as ″Apivar″), fluvalinate (marketed as ″Apistan″), coumaphos (marketed as CheckMite), flumethrin (marketed as ″Bayvarol″ and ″PolyVar Yellow″). "Soft" chemicals "Soft" chemical treatments include thymol (marketed as ″ApiLife-VAR″ and ″Apiguard″), sucrose octanoate esters (marketed as ″Sucrocide″), oxalic acid and formic acid (sold in liquid form or in gel strips as Mite Away Quick Strips and Formic Pro, but also used in other formulations). According to the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, when used in beehives as directed, chemical treatments kill a large proportion of the mites while not substantially disrupting bee behavior or life span. Use of chemical controls is generally regulated and varies from country to country. With few exceptions, they are not intended for use during production of marketable honey. "Mechanical" treatments Common mechanical controls generally rely on disruption of some aspect of the mites' lifecycle. These controls are generally intended not to eliminate all mites, but merely to maintain the infestation at a level which the colony can tolerate. Examples of mechanical controls include drone brood sacrifice (Varroa mites are preferentially attracted to the drone brood), powdered sugar dusting (which encourages cleaning behavior and dislodges some mites), screened bottom boards (so any dislodged mites fall through the bottom and away from the colony), brood interruption and, perhaps, downsizing of the brood cell size. Acarine (tracheal) mites Acarapis woodi is a parasitic mite that infests the trachea that lead from the first pair of thoracic spiracles. An unidentified bee illness was first reported on the Isle of Wight in England in 1904, becoming known as the 'Isle of Wight Disease' (IoWD), which was initially thought to be caused by Acarapis woodi when it was identified in 1921 by Rennie. The IoWD disease quickly spread to the rest of Great Britain and Ireland, dealing a devastating blow to British and Irish beekeeping, being claimed as having wiped out the indigenous bee population of the British Isles. In 1991 Bailey & Ball stated "The final opinion of Rennie (1923), a co-discoverer of Acarapis woodi, who had much experience with bees said to have the Isle of Wight Disease, was that under the original and now quite properly discarded designation 'Isle of Wight Disease' were included several maladies having analogous superficial symptoms", the authors came to the firm conclusion that the IoWD was not caused by Acarine (Acarapis woodi) mites solely, but primarily by Chronic Bee Paralysis Virus (CBPV), even though Acarapis woodi was always found to be present within the hive whenever CBPV symptoms were observed. Brother Adam at Buckfast Abbey developed a resistant bee breed known as the Buckfast bee, which is now available worldwide. Diagnosis for tracheal mites generally involves the dissection and microscopic examination of a sample of bees from the hive. Acarapis woodi are believed to have entered the U.S. in 1984, from Mexico. Mature female acarine mites leave the bee's airway and climb out on a hair of the bee, where they wait until they can transfer to a young bee. Once on the new bee, they move into the airways and begin laying eggs. Treatment Acarine mites are commonly controlled with grease patties (typically made from one part vegetable shortening mixed with three to four parts powdered sugar) placed on the top bars of the hive. The bees come to eat the sugar and pick up traces of shortening, which disrupts the mite's ability to identify a young bee. Some of the mites waiting to transfer to a new host remain on the original host. Others transfer to a random bee—a proportion of which will die of other causes before the mite can reproduce. Menthol, either allowed to vaporize from crystal form or mixed into the grease patties, is also often used to treat acarine mites. Nosema disease Nosema apis is a microsporidian that invades the intestinal tracts of adult bees and causes Nosema disease, also known as nosemosis. Nosema infection is also associated with black queen cell virus. It is normally only a problem when the bees cannot leave the hive to eliminate waste (for example, during an extended cold spell in winter or when the hives are enclosed in a wintering barn). When the bees are unable to void (cleansing flights), they can develop dysentery. Nosema disease is treated by increasing the ventilation through the hive. Some beekeepers treat hives with agents such as fumagillin. Nosemosis can also be prevented or minimized by removing much of the honey from the beehive, then feeding the bees on sugar water in the late fall. Sugar water made from refined sugar has lower ash content than flower nectar, reducing the risk of dysentery. Refined sugar, however, contains fewer nutrients than natural honey, which causes some controversy among beekeepers. In 1996, a similar type of organism to N. apis was discovered on the Asian honey bee Apis cerana and subsequently named N. ceranae. This parasite apparently also infects the western honey bee. Exposure to corn pollen containing genes for Bacillus thuringiensis (Bt) production may weaken the bees' defense against Nosema. In relation to feeding a group of bees with Bt corn pollen and a control group with non-Bt corn pollen: "in the first year, the bee colonies happened to be infested with parasites (microsporidia). This infestation led to a reduction in the number of bees and subsequently to reduced broods in the Bt-fed colonies, as well as in the colonies fed on Bt toxin-free pollen. The trial was then discontinued at an early stage. This effect was significantly more marked in the Bt-fed colonies. (The significant differences indicate an interaction of toxin and pathogen on the epithelial cells of the honeybee intestine. The underlying mechanism which causes this effect is unknown.)" This study should be interpreted with caution given that no repetition of the experiment nor any attempt to find confounding factors was made. In addition, Bt toxin and transgenic Bt pollen showed no acute toxicity to any of the life stages of the bees examined, even when the Bt toxin was fed at concentrations 100 times that found in transgenic Bt pollen from maize. Nosema disease is very common when bees get into winter clusters, as they spend an extensive time in their hives as they keep together for warmth and have little to no opportunities to eliminate waste. Small hive beetle Aethina tumida is a small, dark-colored beetle that lives in beehives. Originally from Africa, the first discovery of small hive beetles in the Western Hemisphere was made in St. Lucie County, Florida, in 1998. The next year, a specimen that had been collected from Charleston, South Carolina, in 1996 was identified, and is believed to be the index case for the United States. By December 1999, small hive beetles were reported in Iowa, Maine, Massachusetts, Minnesota, New Jersey, Ohio, Pennsylvania, Texas, and Wisconsin, and it was found in California by 2006. The lifecycle of this beetle includes pupation in the ground outside of the hive. Controls to prevent ants from climbing into the hive are believed to also be effective against the hive beetle. Several beekeepers are experimenting with the use of diatomaceous earth around the hive as a way to disrupt the beetle's lifecycle. The diatoms abrade the insects' surfaces, causing them to dehydrate and die. Treatment Several pesticides are currently used against the small hive beetle. The chemical fipronil (marketed as Combat Roach Gel) is commonly applied inside the corrugations of a piece of cardboard. Standard corrugations are large enough that a small hive beetle can enter the cardboard through the end, but small enough that honey bees cannot enter (thus are kept away from the pesticide). Alternative controls such as oil-based top-bar traps are also available, but they have had very little commercial success. Wax moths Galleria mellonella (greater wax moths) do not attack the bees directly, but feed on the shed exoskeletons of bee larvae and pollen that is found in dark brood comb, which was used by the bees to hold the developing bees. Their full development to adults requires access to used brood comb or brood cell cleanings—these contain protein essential for the larval development, in the form of brood cocoons. The destruction of the comb will spill or contaminate stored honey and may kill bee larvae. When honey supers are stored for the winter in a mild climate, or in heated storage, the wax moth larvae can destroy portions of the comb, though they will not fully develop. Damaged comb may be scraped out and replaced by the bees. Wax moth larvae and eggs are killed by freezing, so storage in unheated sheds or barns in higher latitudes is the only control necessary. Because wax moths cannot survive a cold winter, they are usually not a problem for beekeepers in the northern U.S. or Canada, unless they survive winter in heated storage, or are brought from the south by purchase or migration of beekeepers. They thrive and spread most rapidly with temperatures above 30 °C (90 °F), so some areas with only occasional days that are hot rarely have a problem with wax moths, unless the colony is already weak due to stress from other factors. Control and treatment A strong hive generally needs no treatment to control wax moths; the bees themselves kill and clean out the moth larvae and webs. Wax moth larvae may fully develop in cell cleanings when such cleanings accumulate thickly where they are not accessible to the bees. Wax moth development in comb is generally not a problem with top bar hives, as unused combs are usually left in the hive during the winter. Since this type of hive is not used in severe wintering conditions, the bees are able to patrol and inspect the unused comb. Wax moths can be controlled in stored comb by application of the aizawai variety of B. thuringiensis spores by spraying. It is a very effective biological control and has an excellent safety record. Wax moths can be controlled chemically with paradichlorobenzene (moth crystals or urinal disks). If chemical methods are used, the combs must be well-aired for several days before use. The use of naphthalene (mothballs) is discouraged because it accumulates in the wax, which can kill bees or contaminate honey stores. Control of wax moths by other means includes the freezing of the comb for at least 24 hours. Tropilaelaps Tropilaelaps mercedesae and T. clareae are considered serious threats to honeybees. Although they are not currently found outside Asia, these mites have the potential to inflict serious damage to colonies due to their rapid reproduction inside the hive. Bacterial diseases American foulbrood American foulbrood (AFB), caused by the spore-forming Paenibacillus larvae (formerly classified as B. larvae, then P. larvae ssp. larvae/pulvifaciens), is the most widespread and destructive of the bee brood diseases. P. larvae is a rod-shaped bacterium. Larvae up to three days old become infected by ingesting spores present in their food. Young larvae less than 24 hours old are most susceptible to infection. Spores germinate in the gut of the larva and the vegetative bacteria begin to grow, taking nourishment from the larva. Spores will not germinate in larvae over three days old. Infected larvae normally die after their cell is sealed. The vegetative form of the bacterium will die, but not before it produces many millions of spores. American foulbrood spores are extremely resistant to desiccation and can remain viable for 80 years in honey and beekeeping equipment. Each dead larva may contain as many as 100 million spores. This disease only affects the bee larvae, but is highly infectious and deadly to bee brood. Infected larvae darken and die. As with European foulbrood, research has been conducted using the "Shook Swarm" method to control American foulbrood, "the advantage being that chemicals are not used". European foulbrood European Foulbrood (EFB) is caused by the bacterium Melissococcus plutonius that infects the midgut of bee larvae. European foulbrood is considered less serious than American foulbrood. M. plutonius is not a spore-forming bacterium, but bacterial cells can survive for several months on wax foundation. Symptoms include dead and dying larvae which can appear curled upwards, brown or yellow, melted or deflated with tracheal tubes more apparent, or dried out and rubbery. European foulbrood is often considered a "stress" disease—dangerous only if the colony is already under stress for other reasons. An otherwise healthy colony can usually survive European foulbrood. Chemical treatment with oxytetracycline hydrochloride may control an outbreak of the disease, but honey from treated colonies could have chemical residues from the treatment. The "Shook Swarm" technique of bee husbandry can also effectively control the disease, with the advantage of avoiding the use of chemicals. Prophylactic treatments are not recommended as they lead to resistant bacteria. Scientific research showed, that the spread of the disease is density dependent. The higher the density of apiaries, the higher the probability of disease transmission. Fungal diseases Chalkbrood Ascosphaera apis causes a fungal disease that infests the gut of the larvae. The fungus competes with them for food, ultimately causing them to starve. The fungus then goes on to consume the rest of the larval bodies, causing them to appear white and "chalky." Chalkbrood (ascosphaerosis larvae apium) is most commonly visible during wet springs. Hives with chalkbrood can generally be recovered by increasing the ventilation through the hive. Stonebrood Stonebrood (aspergillosis larvae apium) is a fungal disease caused by Aspergillus fumigatus, A. flavus, and A. niger. It causes mummification of the brood of a honey bee colony. The fungi are common soil inhabitants and are also pathogenic to other insects, birds, and mammals. The disease is difficult to identify in the early stages of infection. The spores of the different species have different colours and can also cause respiratory damage to humans and other animals. When bee larvae take in spores, they may hatch in the gut, growing rapidly to form a collar-like ring near the larval heads. After death, the larvae turn black and become difficult to crush, hence the name stonebrood. Eventually, the fungus erupts from the integument of the larvae and forms a false skin. In this stage, the larvae are covered with powdery fungal spores. Worker bees clean out the infected brood and the hive may recover depending on factors such as the strength of the colony, the level of infection, and hygienic habits of the strain of bees (variation in the trait occurs among different subspecies). Viral diseases Dicistroviridae Chronic bee paralysis virus Syndrome 1 result in abnormal trembling of the wings and body. The bees cannot fly, and often crawl on the ground and up plant stems. In some cases, the crawling bees can be found in large numbers (1000+). The bees huddle together on the top of the cluster or on the top bars of the hive. They may have bloated abdomens due to distension of the honey sac. The wings are partially spread or dislocated. Syndrome 2-affected bees are able to fly, but are almost hairless. They appear dark or black and look smaller. They have a relatively broad abdomen. They are often nibbled by older bees in the colony and this may be the cause of the hairlessness. They are hindered at the entrance to the hive by the guard bees. A few days after infection, trembling begins. They then become flightless and soon die. In 2008, the chronic bee paralysis virus was reported for the first time in Formica rufa and another species of ant, Camponotus vagus. Acute bee paralysis virus Acute bee paralysis virus is considered to be a common infective agent of bees. It belongs to the family Dicistroviridae, as does the Israel acute paralysis virus, Kashmir bee virus, and the black queen cell virus. It is frequently detected in apparently healthy colonies. This virus seemingly plays a role in cases of sudden collapse of honey bee colonies infested with the parasitic mite V. destructor. Israeli acute paralysis virus A related virus described in 2004 is known as the Israeli acute paralysis virus. The virus is named after the place where it was first identified—its place of origin is unknown. It has been suggested as a marker associated with colony collapse disorder. Kashmir bee virus Kashmir bee virus is related to the preceding viruses. Recently discovered, it is currently only positively identifiable by a laboratory test. Little is known about it yet. Black queen cell virus Black queen cell virus causes the queen larva to turn black and die. It is thought to be associated with Nosema. Cloudy wing virus Cloudy wing virus is a little-studied, small, icosahedral virus commonly found in honey bees, especially in collapsing colonies infested by V. destructor, providing circumstantial evidence that the mite may act as a vector. Sacbrood virus A picornavirus-like virus causes sacbrood disease. Affected larvae change from pearly white to gray and finally black. Death occurs when the larvae are upright, just before pupation. Consequently, affected larvae are usually found in capped cells. Head development of diseased larvae is typically retarded. The head region is usually darker than the rest of the body and may lean toward the center of the cell. When affected larvae are carefully removed from their cells, they appear to be a sac filled with water. Typically, the scales are brittle but easy to remove. Sacbrood-diseased larvae have no characteristic odor. Iflaviridae Deformed wing virus Deformed wing virus (DWV) is the causative agent of the wing deformities and other body malformations typically seen in honeybee colonies that are heavily infested with the parasitic mite V. destructor. DWV is part of a complex of closely related virus strains/species that also includes Kakugo virus, V. destructor virus 1 and Egypt bee virus. This deformity can clearly be seen on the honeybee's wings in the image. The deformities are produced almost exclusively due to DWV transmission by V. destructor when it parasitizes pupae. Bees infected as adults remain symptom-free, although they do display behavioral changes and have reduced life expectancy. Deformed bees are rapidly expelled from the colony, leading to a gradual loss of adult bees for colony maintenance. If this loss is excessive and can no longer be compensated by the emergence of healthy bees, the colony rapidly dwindles and dies. Kakugo virus Kakugo virus is an Iflavirus infecting bees; varroa mites may mediate its prevalence. Kakugo virus appears to be a subtype of Deformed wing virus. Slow bee paralysis virus As the name suggests, slow bee paralysis virus induces paralysis to the anterior legs ten to twelve days after infection. Iridoviridae Invertebrate iridescent virus type 6 (IIV-6) Applying proteomics-based pathogen screening tools in 2010, researchers announced they had identified a co-infection of an Iridovirus; specifically invertebrate iridescent virus type 6 (IIV-6) and N. ceranae in all CCD colonies sampled. On the basis of this research, the New York Times reported the colony collapse mystery solved, quoting researcher Dr. Bromenshenk, a co-author of the study, "[The virus and fungus] are both present in all these collapsed colonies." Evidence for this association, however, remains minimal and several authors have disputed the original methodology used to associate CCD with IIV-6. Secoviridae Tobacco ringspot virus The RNA virus tobacco ringspot virus, a plant pathogen, was described to infect honeybees through infected pollen, but this unusual claim was soon challenged and remains to be confirmed. Lake Sinai virus In 2015, Lake Sinai virus (LSV) genomes were assembled and three main domains were discovered: Orf1, RNA-dependent RNA polymerase and capsid protein sequences. LSV1, LSV2, LSV3, LSV4, LSV5, and LSV6 were described. LSV were detected in bees, mites and pollen. It only actively replicates in honey bees and mason bees (Osmia cornuta) and not in Varroa mites. Dysentery Dysentery is a condition resulting from a combination of long periods of inability to make cleansing flights (generally due to cold weather) and food stores that contain a high proportion of indigestible matter. As a bee's gut becomes engorged with feces that cannot be voided in flight as preferred by the bees, the bee voids within the hive. When enough bees do this, the hive population rapidly collapses and death of the colony results. Dark honeys and honeydews have greater quantities of indigestible matter. Occasional warm days in winter are critical for honey bee survival; dysentery problems increase in likelihood during periods of more than two or three weeks with temperatures below 50 °F (10 °C). When cleansing flights are few, bees are often forced out at times when the temperature is barely adequate for their wing muscles to function, and large quantities of bees may be seen dead in the snow around the hives. Colonies found dead in spring from dysentery have feces smeared over the frames and other hive parts. In very cold areas of North America and Europe, where honey bees are kept in ventilated buildings during the coldest part of winter, no cleansing flights are possible; under such circumstances, beekeepers commonly remove all honey from the hives and replace it with sugar water or high-fructose corn syrup, which have nearly no indigestible matter. Chilled brood Chilled brood is not actually a disease, but can be a result of mistreatment of the bees by the beekeeper. It also can be caused by a pesticide hit that primarily kills off the adult population, or by a sudden drop in temperature during rapid spring build-up. The brood must be kept warm at all times; nurse bees will cluster over the brood to keep it at the right temperature. When a beekeeper opens the hive (to inspect, remove honey, check the queen, or just to look) and prevents the nurse bees from clustering on the frame for too long, the brood can become chilled, deforming or even killing some of the bees. Pesticide losses Honey bees are susceptible to many of the chemicals used for agricultural spraying of other insects and pests. Many pesticides are known to be toxic to bees. Because the bees forage up to several miles from the hive, they may fly into areas actively being sprayed by farmers or they may collect pollen from contaminated flowers. Carbamate pesticides, such as carbaryl, can be especially pernicious since toxicity can take as long as two days to become evident, allowing infected pollen to be returned and distributed throughout the colony. Organophosphates and other insecticides are also known to kill honey bee clusters in treated areas. Pesticide losses may be relatively easy to identify (large and sudden numbers of dead bees in front of the hive) or quite difficult, especially if the loss results from a gradual accumulation of pesticide brought in by the foraging bees. Quick-acting pesticides may deprive the hive of its foragers, dropping them in the field before they can return home. Insecticides that are toxic to bees have label directions that protect the bees from poisoning as they forage. To comply with the label, applicators must know where and when bees forage in the application area, and the length of residual activity of the pesticide. Some pesticide authorities recommend, and some jurisdictions require, that notice of spraying be sent to all known beekeepers in the area, so they can seal the entrances to their hives and keep the bees inside until the pesticide has had a chance to disperse. This, however, does not solve all problems associated with spraying and the label instructions should be followed regardless of doing this. Sealing honey bees from flight on hot days can kill bees. Beekeeper notification does not offer any protection to bees, if the beekeeper cannot access them, or to wild native or feral honey bees. Thus, beekeeper notification as the sole protection procedure does not really protect all the pollinators of the area, and is, in effect, a circumventing of the label requirements. Pesticide losses are a major factor in pollinator decline. Colony collapse disorder Colony collapse disorder (CCD) is a poorly understood phenomenon in which worker bees from a beehive or western honey bee colony abruptly disappear. CCD was originally discovered in Florida by David Hackenberg in western honey bee colonies in late 2006. European beekeepers observed a similar phenomenon in Belgium, France, the Netherlands, Greece, Italy, Portugal, and Spain, and initial reports have also come in from Switzerland and Germany, albeit to a lesser degree. Possible cases of CCD have also been reported in Taiwan since April 2007. Initial hypotheses were wildly different, including environmental change-related stresses, malnutrition, pathogens (i.e., disease including Israel acute paralysis virus), mites, or the class of pesticides known as neonicotinoids, which include imidacloprid, clothianidin, and thiamethoxam. Most new research suggests the neonicotinoid hypothesis was incorrect, however, and that pesticides play little role in CCD compared to Varroa and Nosema infestations. Other theories included radiation from cellular phones or other man-made devices and genetically modified crops with pest-control characteristics,. In 2010, U.S. researchers announced they had identified a co-infection of invertebrate iridescent virus type 6 (IIV-6) and N. ceranae in all CCD colonies sampled. References Further reading Canadian Honey Council Essential Oils for Varroa, Tracheal, AFB Control (via Web Archive) Morse, Roger (editor), The ABC and XYZ of Beekeeping Sammataro, Diana; et al., The Beekeeper's Handbook Shimanuki, Hachiro and Knox, David A., Diagnosis of Honey Bee Diseases, US Department of Agriculture, July 2000 External links Beekeeping page at the University of Georgia, with a large section on Honey Bee Disorders Apiculture Factsheets at the British Columbia Ministry of Agriculture and Lands (via Web Archive) BeeBase at the Defra Food and Environment Research Agency in the UK Diseases and Afflictions of Honey Bees, Kohala.net (via Web Archive) Beediseases Honey bee diseases website by Dr. Guido Cordoni. Agricultural pests Bee diseases Western honey bee pests Beekeeping Honey bee
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222939
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/McDonnell%20XF-88%20Voodoo
McDonnell XF-88 Voodoo
The McDonnell XF-88 Voodoo was a long-range, twinjet fighter aircraft with swept wings designed for the United States Air Force. Although it never entered production, its design was adapted for the subsequent supersonic F-101 Voodoo. Design and development The XF-88 originated from a 1946 United States Army Air Forces requirement for a long-range "penetration fighter" to escort bombers to their targets. It was to be essentially a jet-powered replacement for the wartime North American P-51 Mustang that had escorted Boeing B-17 Flying Fortress bombers over Germany. It was to have a combat radius of 900 mi (1,450 km) and high performance. McDonnell began work on the aircraft, dubbed Model 36, on 1 April 1946. On 20 June the company was given a contract for two prototypes designated XP-88. Dave Lewis was Chief of Aerodynamics on this project. The initial design was intended to have straight wings and a V-shaped tail, but wind tunnel tests indicated aerodynamic problems that led to a conventional tailplane being substituted and the wings being swept. The USAAF confirmed the order for the two prototypes on 14 February 1947, while a change in designation schemes led to the unflown prototypes being re-designated XF-88 on 1 July 1948, with the type gaining the nickname "Voodoo". The Voodoo had a low/mid-mounted wing, swept to 35°. The two engines, specified as Westinghouse J34 turbojets were in the lower fuselage, fed by air intakes in the wing roots and jetpipes beneath the rear fuselage. This made room in the long fuselage for the fuel tanks required for the required long range. The Voodoo's short nose had no radar, being intended to house an armament of six 20 mm (.79 in) M39 cannon, while the fighter's single pilot sat in a pressurized cockpit and was provided with an ejection seat. Operational history The first XF-88 made its maiden flight from Muroc Field on 20 October 1948, piloted by McDonnell Chief Test Pilot Robert Edholm. It was unarmed and powered by non-afterburning J34-13 engines that gave 3,000 lbf (13.37 kN) thrust. While testing demonstrated adequate handling and the required endurance, the XF-88 proved to be underpowered. This resulted in inadequate performance, with its maximum speed of 641 mph being less than the F-86A then in production. In order to improve performance, it was decided to fit the second prototype's engines with McDonnell-designed afterburners. Thus modified, the engines became J34-22s, giving 3,600 lbf (16.05 kN) thrust. The second prototype, XF-88A, made its maiden flight on 26 April 1949, with the first prototype later modified to the same standard. The afterburners improved the Voodoo's performance, with the XF-88A reaching 700 mph (1,126 km/h) but at the expense of decreased range owing to increased fuel consumption. Despite this, the XF-88 was chosen against the Lockheed XF-90 and North American YF-93 for the USAF's Penetration Fighter requirement, with planned production versions to use more powerful Westinghouse J46 engines. (A 1948 order for 118 F-93s had been cancelled in 1949.) Changes in Air Force priorities, together with a shortage of money, led the penetration fighter to be cancelled in August 1950. The first prototype was modified to XF-88B standard as a propeller-research vehicle. The model propeller was driven by a nose-mounted Allison T38 turboprop which was used to assist in the climb as well as to reach the test conditions. The aircraft was used to test three propellers through 1956, to speeds slightly exceeding Mach 1.0, the first propeller-equipped aircraft to do so. The propeller was tested in level flight to about M 0.9 with the help of the turbojet afterburners, and to just over M 1.0 in a dive. McDonnell also proposed a naval version of the XF-88, a two-seat operational trainer, and a reconnaissance variant but none were built. Both prototypes were scrapped by 1958. Experience of the Korean War led the USAF to reconsider its plans for penetration fighters and led to a new specification for a long-range fighter, General Operational Requirement (GOR) 101 being issued in February 1951. A considerably enlarged version of the design was chosen to meet this requirement later that year, the revised design becoming the F-101 Voodoo, the first production version of which flew on 29 September 1954. Operators United States Air Force Variants XF-88 First prototype, powered by 3,000 lbf (13.38 kN) Westinghouse J34-13 engines. Unarmed. XF-88A Second prototype, fitted with J-34-22 engines with primitive afterburners. Later fitted with armament. First prototype also modified to this standard. XF-88B Modification of first prototype with 2,500 shp (1,865 kW) Allison XT38 turboprop engine in nose, and retaining its jet engines. First flown 14 April 1953. Specifications (XF-88A) See also References Notes Bibliography Angelucci, Enzo and Peter Bowers. The American Fighter. Sparkford, Somerset, UK: Haynes Publishing Group, 1987. . Dorr, Robert F. "McDonnell F-88/F-101 Variant Briefing". Wings of Fame, Volume 1. London: Aerospace Publishing, 1995. . Dorr, Robert F. and Donald, David. Fighters of the United States Air Force. London: Temple, 1990. . Francillon, René J. McDonnell Douglas Aircraft since 1920. London: Putnam, 1979. . Knaack, Marcelle Size. Encyclopedia of US Air Force Aircraft and Missile Systems: Volume 1 Post-World War II Fighters, 1945-1973.. Washington, D.C.: Office of Air Force History, 1978. . Peacock, Lindsay. "The One-O-Wonder". Air International, Volume 29, No. 2, August 1985, pp. 75–81, 93–95. ISSN 0306-5634. F-088 Voodoo McDonnell F-88 Voodoo Twinjets Cancelled military aircraft projects of the United States XF-88B Mid-wing aircraft Aircraft first flown in 1948
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Common%20planigale
Common planigale
The common planigale (Planigale maculata), also known as the pygmy planigale or the coastal planigale, is one of many small marsupial carnivores known as "marsupial mice" found in Australia. There they fill a similar niche to the insectivores of other parts of the world. Taxonomy The common planigale was first described by John Gould in 1851, using a specimen forwarded to England by the collector Frederick Strange. It was originally described as Antechinus maculatus, and it was retained in the genus Antechinus until Mike Archer transferred it to Planigale in his 1976 revision of the latter genus. The species' scientific name means "spotted flat-weasel". Two subspecies are recognised: Planigale maculata maculata, found on mainland Australia; Planigale maculata sinualis, found on Groote Eylandt. Physical description As a "marsupial mouse," the common planigale lies somewhere between a mouse and a shrew in shape. Its body is covered in fur, though that of the tail is sparse when compared to the rest of the body. The underside of its coat is a light grayish yellow color, while the rest varies by individual from gray to a cinnamon color. This species is the largest of the genus, with a body and head length of about and a tail length of about . Typical weights are close to for males and close to for females. The head of the common planigale is very narrow, giving it a flattened appearance, though less so than other planigales. Females have a well-developed pouch that opens toward the rear. Reproduction The gestation time for common planigale is 19–20 days. At the end of that period, the female gives birth to 5-11 young; the number varies but tends to be consistent with the number of teats the female possesses. They are born at an early stage in development and migrate to the pouch, where they suckle until they are fully developed. Young fully emerge from the pouch around 28 days of age, begin eating solid food at around 55, and are independent of the mother at 70. Breeding begins at around 290 days, later than many similar species. Males continue breeding until at least 24 months of age. Females are polyestrous and can raise several litters a year; in captivity, breeding takes place year-round. Behaviour The common planigale makes its living on the ground where thick cover is present to protect it from predators. Its flattened skull allows it to slip through narrow crevasses, holes, and stands of grass to escape quickly or hunt for its prey. Community nests are often built. In captivity, females make small, saucer-shaped nests out of bark and grass; it is assumed that they do the same in the wild. The species is primarily nocturnal, though in the winter it will come out to forage for food in the daylight if conditions are favourable. If conditions are unfavourable, individuals may enter a state of torpor. In this state, metabolism is suppressed, decreasing oxygen use and lowering the respiration rate from 100/min to 15-30/min. Most species only enter torpor when food is scarce, but the common planigale has been observed to do so even when food is abundant, so air temperature may be the primary factor. While in this state, individuals curl up on their sides and tuck their heads into their stomach. Diet The common planigale, like other members of the genus Planigale, eats primarily insects and other arthropods, though they may occasionally prey on other small animals, such as lizards or birds. Due to its small size, the common planigale tends to prefer smaller insects, typically those that are less than in length. However, it is capable of taking larger prey, such as large beetles and especially grasshoppers. To kill an insect, it bites the prey's underside, where the exoskeleton is softer. In captivity, the species is known to eat mealworms, commercial dog food, eggs, honey, and minced meat. Distribution and habitat The common planigale is found from the upper Hunter River valley not far north of Sydney along the coast and hinterland to Cape York, and across the Top End of Australia to the Kimberley and a little beyond. It is also found on Groote Eylandt and on Great Keppel Island where its survival is threatened by proposed development. It occupies a wider range of habitat than other planigales, living in sclerophyll forest, rainforest, marshlands, grasslands and even the outer suburbs of Brisbane where it is occasionally trapped mistakenly as a house mouse. Throughout these habitats, it prefers areas with thick cover near water. Conservation status The exact population of the common planigale is not known, but the species is not believed to be threatened and is not listed as such. References Dasyuromorphs Mammals of Western Australia Mammals of the Northern Territory Mammals of New South Wales Mammals of Queensland Marsupials of Australia Mammals described in 1851
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/BMP-1
BMP-1
The BMP-1 is a Soviet amphibious tracked infantry fighting vehicle. BMP stands for Boyevaya Mashina Pjehoty 1 (), meaning "infantry fighting vehicle, 1st serial model". The BMP-1 was the first mass-produced infantry fighting vehicle (IFV) of the Soviet Union. It was called the M-1967, BMP and BMP-76PB by NATO before its correct designation was known. The Soviet military leadership saw any future wars as being conducted with nuclear, chemical and biological weapons and a new design, like the BMP, combining the properties of an armored personnel carrier (APC) and a light tank would allow infantry to operate from the relative safety of its armoured, radiation-shielded interior in contaminated areas and to fight alongside it in uncontaminated areas. It would increase infantry squad mobility, provide fire support to them, and also be able to fight alongside main battle tanks. The BMP-1 was first tested in combat in the 1973 Yom Kippur War, where it was used by Egyptian and Syrian forces. Based on lessons learned from this conflict, and early experiences in the Soviet–Afghan War, a version with improved fighting qualities was developed, called the BMP-2. It was accepted into service in August 1980. In 1987, the BMP-3, a radically redesigned vehicle with a completely new weapon system, entered service in limited numbers with the Soviet Army. Development The Red Army Mechanized infantry tactics during the 1950s were similar to World War II methods in which APCs were used as "battle taxis"; they would keep the infantry in close proximity to the battle-tanks during movement, but on enemy contact they would unload their infantry before retreating to safer areas. This was in contrast to the German doctrine of infantry fighting vehicles manifested in the Schützenpanzer Lang HS.30, where the vehicles were supposed to stay with the tanks and engage lighter targets, both to take a burden off the tanks and to support their infantry squads. Existing APCs offered little or no protection from either nuclear or chemical weapons, as they were either open-topped or could not be sealed sufficiently. Furthermore, the infantry had to disembark to be able to use their weapons. The requirement for the BMP, which was first drawn up in the late 1950s, stressed speed, good armament, and the ability for all squad members to fire from within the vehicle. The armament had to provide direct support for dismounted infantry in the attack and defense and to be able to destroy comparable light armored vehicles. The vehicle needed to protect the crew from .50 cal machinegun fire and 20–23 mm caliber autocannons across the frontal arc, as well as from light shell fragments at distances between 500 m and 800 m. Firepower consisted of the innovative combination of the 73 mm 2A28 Grom gun and a launcher for the 9M14 Malyutka (AT-3A Sagger A) anti-tank wire-guided missile (ATGM). The gun was intended to engage enemy armored vehicles and firing points at a range of up to , while the missile launcher was intended to be used against targets that were to away. Requirements were issued to the various design bureaux between 1959 and 1960. There was a question as to whether the BMP should be tracked or wheeled, so a number of experimental configurations were explored, including hybrid wheeled/tracked designs. The tracked Ob'yekt 764 (codename Object 764) was chosen because its front-engine design provided a convenient and fast way of mounting and dismounting through two rear doors. The original prototype was built in 1964, followed by the improved Ob'yekt 765 in 1965, which was accepted by the Army in 1966, under a designation BMP-1. The 120th Guards Rifle Division was the first unit in the Soviet Union to test prototypes of the new BMP ("objekt 765") infantry fighting vehicle in January–November 1965, under the command of Guards Major Vasiliy Samodelov. Small-scale production began in 1966. Models A large number of variants of the BMP-1 were produced, with the most notable IFV variants being: BMP-2, MLI-84 and Boragh. Table of models Production history The BMP went into production with the Soviet Army in 1966. The first series (Ob'yekt 765 Sp1, "specification 1") was produced until 1969. It was replaced by the improved production model, the BMP-1 (the Ob'yekt 765 Sp2), which was produced from 1969 until 1973. This, in turn, was replaced by the Ob'yekt 765 Sp3, which was a modernized, 200 kg heavier version that was produced from 1973 to 1979. A number of improvements were made to the reliability of the chassis, engine and transmission during mass production. The last version of the BMP-1 IFV (BMP-1P, Ob'yekt 765 Sp4), which was produced from 1979 to 1983, was armed with a more powerful ATGM launcher 9P135M-1 for the ATGM "Konkurs"/"Fagot". The main manufacturer of the BMP-1 and its different variants was the Kurgan Machine Building Works (Kurganskiy Mashinostroitelyniy Zavod), but the PRP-3 artillery reconnaissance vehicles were produced by the Chelyabinsk Tractor Works (ChTZ) and PRP-4/PRP-4M artillery reconnaissance vehicles were produced by the Rubtsovsk Engineering Works (RMZ). Upgrades of the BMP-1 were performed by KMZ as well as by tank repair workshops of the Ministry of Defence during scheduled and major overhauls. More than 20,000 BMP-1s and vehicles based on it were built in the USSR. BMP-1s were produced under license by Czechoslovakia (BVP-1), Romania (MLI-84) and India. Since 1986, the People's Republic of China has produced its own unlicensed copy called the Type 86 (WZ 501). The number of Type 86 IFVs and vehicles based on it is around 3,000. It is still in service with the People's Liberation Army. From 1997, Iran produced its own modification of the BMP-1, the Boragh, which resembles the Chinese WZ 503. Variants and modernization In the mid-1970s, after analysis of the use of light AFVs during the Yom Kippur, Angolan and Vietnam wars, a modernization program was begun that resulted in the BMP-1P (Ob'yekt 765 Sp4). The main changes were the replacement of the largely ineffective 9M14M Malyutka ATGM with the more reliable, longer range and more powerful 9P135M or 9P135M-1 ATGM launcher. It was located on a special pintle mount on top of the turret roof, that could fire the SACLOS guided 9M113 and 9M113M Konkurs-M ATGMs, which increased armor penetration to and had an extended range of . The 9P135M-1 launcher was also capable of firing 9M111 and 9M111-2 Fagot ATGMs. The Malyutka loading hatch was usually welded shut and the mounting bracket was removed. The new missiles were somewhat difficult to use since the gunner had to stand in his open hatch, exposing himself to hostile fire. It is possible to detach the 9P135M(1) ATGM launcher from the turret and use it from the ground. The BMP-1P was equipped with neutron weapon protection covering and a new fire-extinguishing system for protection against napalm. Later BMP-1Ps were fitted with an array of six 902V "Tucha" calibre smoke grenade launchers at the rear of the turret. Some were also equipped with the track-width KMT-10 mine plow. The BMP-1P replaced the BMP-1 in production in 1979 and many BMP-1s were upgraded to the new standard during the 1980s. The BMP-1PG model added a AGS-17 "Plamya" automatic grenade launcher on top of the turret on the left side, for which it carries 290 grenades. Some BMP-1s had the AGS-17 added during major repairs (Ob'yekt 765Sp8). A non-amphibious BMP-1D (the so-called 'Afghan' variant), was built in 1982 for assault units in Afghanistan. It had 5 mm thick appliqué steel armor plates on the hull sides with holes for side firing ports as well as armor plate under the commander's and driver's seats for added protection against mines. It also had large steel armored skirts fitted to the sides of the hull covering the suspension. Firing ports were added into the top hatches of the troop compartment and a stowage box was placed on the roof at the rear of the hull on some vehicles. The 9S428 ATGM launcher was often removed and replaced by an AGS-17 automatic grenade launcher. Due to experience in Afghanistan, a new version with enhanced fighting capabilities, the BMP-2, was introduced in 1980. It had a new two-man turret armed with a 30 mm 2A42 multi-purpose autocannon and a 9P135M-1 ATGM launcher capable of firing SACLOS guided 9M113 Konkurs and 9M113M Konkurs-M as well as 9M111 and 9M111-2 Fagot ATGMs. Later modernization plans included mounting the turret of the BMD-2 IFV on to BMP-1s, but the vehicle never left the design phase. Recent proposals for the modernization of BMP-1s include mounting new turrets armed with a 2A72 autocannon, finally approved in 2018, or a TKB-799 Kliver one-man weapons station with a computerized fire control system, armed with a missile pod (which can be armed with either four 9M133 Kornet (AT-14 Spriggan) or 9M133F Kornet ATGMs or 9K38 Igla (SA-18 Grouse) SAMs), a 30 mm 2A72 dual-purpose autocannon and a PKTM coaxial machine gun (BMP-1AM 'Basurmanin' and BMP-1M respectively). BMP-1AM Basurmanin is an upgraded version of BMP-1 developed by The Uralvagonzavod (UVZ) research-and-manufacturing corporation (a subsidiary of the Rostec state corporation). BMP-1AM is BMP-1 with the original turret replaced by the turret from BTR-82A with 2A72 30 mm autocannon, a Kalashnikov PKTM 7.62 mm medium machinegun, and smoke grenade launchers 902V Tucha. The turret will be fitted with the TKN-4GA combined day-night sighting system. The 2A72 cannon will be able to use air burst munitions. Approved in 2018, it is the most recent Russian BMP-1 upgrade. The Russian army plans to upgrade all of their BMP-1s and BMP-1Ps to BMP-1AM level. See BMP-1 variants article for a complete list of BMP-1 modifications and variants based on it. Description The BMP-1 is a fully amphibious tracked vehicle, with a front-engined chassis developed especially for it, a welded steel hull with a sharp, sloping front with a conspicuously ridged surface, a centrally located, flat, truncated cone turret and a troop compartment at the rear. Driver's station The driver sits in the front on the left side of the hull. He has three TNPO-170 periscope vision-blocks to provide vision when his hatch is closed. The driver's center vision block can be replaced with a TVNO-2 active night binocular vision device for use in night and poor visibility conditions or with a TNPO-350B extended periscope when swimming with the trim vane erected. The BMP was the first Soviet armored vehicle to use a simple yoke steering system. Commander's station The commander's station is located behind the driver's station and is provided with a removable OU-3GA2 or OU-3GK infrared searchlight with an effective range of about . A dual mode (day/night) TKN-3B 5x/4.2x magnification binocular vision device is coupled to the infrared searchlight. Two periscope vision blocks are also fitted with a heating and cleaning system. The commander's station is equipped with an R-123M radio set. Turret The BMP-1 has a conical turret equipped with a fume extraction system and an electric traverse drive with a manual backup system. The main gun has a dead-zone over the commander's hatch (between the 10:00 and 11:00 o'clock positions), where the gun must be elevated over the infra-red searchlight to avoid crushing it. When the gun is facing backwards, it prevents hatches on top of the troop compartment from opening. The low profile of the turret makes it a difficult target. The same turret is used in the BMD-1. Gunner's station The gunner's station is located to the left of the main gun. The gunner has a dual mode (day/night) 1PN22M1 6x/6.7x magnification image intensifying monocular periscope sight, four day-use periscope vision blocks, and an OU-3GK removable infrared or white-light searchlight. The 1PN22M1 sight has a maximum range of at night, with the use of the infra-red searchlight. The sight is marked stadiametricly with the apparent size of a tall tank at various ranges. The original sight was replaced with the 1PN22M2, which has an additional scale for the OG-15V HE-Frag rounds used by the Ob'yekt 765Sp3, produced from July 1974. The new sight has two day scales for the two projectiles – one from and the other from . Armament Gun Main armament is the 73 mm 2A28 "Grom" low pressure smoothbore semi-automatic gun. It is fed from a 40-round magazine located around the turret ring. Cyclic rate of fire is 8 to 10 rounds per minute, with the gun returning to an elevation of +3° 30' to reload after each shot if the autoloader is used. The gun can be reloaded by hand if necessary. Some units removed the autoloader altogether when new vehicles were delivered, but the mechanized ammunition conveyor magazine was kept. High-explosive ammunition, introduced in 1974, can only be loaded manually, from a conveyor. The 2A28 'Grom' smoothbore gun fires the same PG-15V projectiles as the SPG-9 infantry light recoilless gun, but with a smaller propellant charge. The PG-15V HEAT warhead can penetrate of steel armor – more than enough to penetrate the frontal armor of NATO MBTs of the 1970s, such as the US M60A1, the British Chieftain or the German Leopard 1. The modernized PG-9 shell is able to penetrate up to of steel armor. Under battlefield conditions, it has a maximum effective range of . OG-15V high explosive ammunition was made available only from 1974. The warhead has twice the weight of explosives as the anti-armor PG-15V; it is intended for use against troops or soft targets. A coaxial 7.62 mm PKT machine gun is mounted to the right of the main armament for which the BMP-1 carries 2,000 rounds. The 2A28 'Grom' gun and PKT coaxial machine gun cannot be accurately fired while the vehicle is on the move over rough ground as the turret is unstabilised. Missile Mounted on the gun mantlet, the ATGM launcher is capable of firing the 9M14 Malyutka, (NATO: AT-3A Sagger A); the 9M14M Malyutka-M (NATO: AT-3B Sagger B) and the 9M14P Malyutka-P (NATO: AT-3C Sagger C), all of which are intended to be used against enemy MBTs and other AFVs at distances from . These ATGMs can penetrate up to of steel armor (NATO standard at the time). 9M14P missile can be used in manual mode only, like older missiles, without advantages of semi-automatic guidance. The BMP-1 carries four ATGMs with their launching rails as a standard (two inside the turret and two inside the hull). In theory, a fifth missile can be carried on the launcher. The missiles are loaded onto a rail launcher through a small rectangular hatch in a turret's roof behind the launcher. Each 9M14M weighs , a 9M14P is . These missiles can only be fired in daylight because of the lack of a night sight. A guidance device used in the BMP-1 has the code 9S428. Besides such advantages as interference immunity and simple control equipment, wire-guided ATGMs are hampered by significant disadvantages, such as: a relatively low flight speed, response delay, the inability to load a new missile until the previous one has reached its target and a very long minimum range (). Successful operation of the ATGM while the vehicle is on the move requires a very skilled gunner. Those BMP-1s still in Russian service that were not modernized to BMP-1P standard, can now use 9M14-2 Malyutka-2 (NATO: AT-3D Sagger D) ATGMs (developed in 1995), which have either a tandem shaped-charge or high-explosive thermobaric warhead. The BMP-1 was a threat to NATO APCs, light AFVs, and even MBTs of its time, by use of its main gun or ATGM. Nevertheless, the strong anti-tank focus of its armament didn't provide sufficient firepower against enemy unarmored vehicles, infantry and light fortified positions, especially during mountain battles (mostly due to the low elevation angle of the main gun). The appearance of the more successful BMP-2 armed with the 30mm 2A42 dual-purpose autocannon solved this serious problem. Troop compartment The troop compartment located at the rear of the vehicle can carry up to eight soldiers. There are four firing ports on each side of the vehicle and a single firing port in the left rear door; a combination fume extractor hose and cartridge deflector is provided to clip on to weapons at each station. Soldiers sit on two padded benches along the center line of the vehicle and face the sides. Vehicle batteries, electric equipment and the main fuel tank are located between the benches, with tool stowage beneath. There are four large D-shaped hatches in the roof of the hull, which can be opened from the troop compartment. The airtight rear doors of the troop compartment also contain fuel tanks. Space inside the troop compartment is limited. There is little room for personal equipment, which leads to it being stowed outside while on operation, sometimes limiting rearward traverse of the turret. The seating is also cramped, especially for troops in full battle dress. In BMP-1 and BMP-2 ammunition is stored near or even inside the compartment, which can lead to a catastrophic failure in case a hull breach. Maneuverability The 300 horsepower (224 kW) UTD-20 six-cylinder four-stroke diesel engine is located in the centre of the front hull, behind the transmission, with the cooling system to the right and radiator above. The engine drives a manual gearbox with five forward and one reverse gear. The steering system considerably reduces driver fatigue, especially when compared to the usual lever systems to control the tracks in the older tracked AFVs; so the BMP is very fast and maneuverable, even if the long, pointed nose can give some problems when crossing large trenches. The fuel tanks have a maximum capacity of . The diesel engine is of a multifuel design and can use DL (summer) or DZ (winter). It can also use TS-1 kerosene. The BMP-1 has a maximum road speed of , which is automatically reduced to around off-road. The BMP-1 can climb high vertical obstacles, and cross a wide trench. It can be driven on 25° side slopes and can climb 35° slopes. The drive sprockets are at the front with six road wheels, using torsion bar suspension. The BMP-1 has a ground pressure of 0.6 kg/cm² (8.5 psi) and is able to cross snow-covered and boggy terrain. It has the range, off-road speed and cross-country ability necessary to keep up with fast-moving MBTs. Amphibious capability The BMP-1 is amphibious, propelling itself in the water using its tracks, assisted by hydrodynamic fairings on the track upper side covers. Top swimming speed is . The shape of the hull and some features (hollow road wheels and road wheel arms with air chambers) aid flotation. The BMP-1 can overcome water barriers with a current of up to and waves up to high. More challenging conditions require engineer support. Before entering the water, the trim vane at the front of the hull should be erected to prevent water from flooding over the bow. While in its travelling position, it serves as additional frontal armor. The rear doors of the troop compartment must be closed tightly before entering the water. Also, before entering the water, either full crew of eight troopers or an equivalent ballast must be present in the rear of the vehicle, otherwise vehicle balance is upset and it could sink, as it's naturally front heavy. The BMP-1 can cross water obstacles such as rivers and lakes but it is not intended for sea landing operations. Armor protection The vehicle's armor is welded rolled steel varying in thickness between thick on the top of the hull and on the mantlet of the main gun. The original requirements called for protection against 23 mm armor-piercing rounds across the frontal arc fired from and for protection against 7.62 mm armor-piercing rounds across the side and rear arcs from . The BMP-1's steeply sloped frontal armor can withstand artillery shell fragments, small arms fire and existing .50 caliber (12.7 mm) heavy machine gun AP and API rounds over 60° of the frontal arc from all distances. The very high angle of the hull frontal armor increases the probability of ricochets, and the trim vane in the traveling position adds little additional protection. On most examples, the front armor is immune to 20 millimeter Oerlikon KAD or HS820 auto-cannon fire from ranges greater than 100 meters, but armor quality varies quite significantly with the nationality of a factory. The side, rear and top armor protect the BMP-1 from 7.62 mm small arms fire from most distances as well as smaller artillery shell fragments, but do not protect the vehicle against 12.7 mm heavy machine gun fire from close distances or larger artillery shell fragments. Nevertheless, ground tests demonstrated that rear doors with their fuel tanks filled with sand withstood hits from standard 12.7 mm rounds. In Afghanistan and Chechnya, armor-piercing 7.62 mm rounds fired from general-purpose machine guns at ranges of around 30 – 50 m sometimes penetrated the rear doors and hatches. During the First Persian Gulf War, the armor protection of the BMP-1 proved vulnerable to the armor-piercing rounds of the US M2/M3 Bradley's M242 Bushmaster autocannon. During the intense fighting in Chechnya, no penetration of the BMP-1/BMD-1 turret front armor were noticed because the turret made for a small target and had relatively thick frontal armor compared to other parts of the vehicle. Armor 26–33 mm gun mantlet 23 mm at 42° turret front 19 mm at 36° turret side 13 mm at 30° turret rear 6 mm turret top 7 mm at 80° upper hull front 19 mm at 57° hull lower front 16 mm at 14° hull upper side 18 mm at 0° hull lower side 16 mm at 19° hull rear 6 mm hull top 7 mm hull belly rear Protection issues The BMP-1 had significant shortcomings in its protection scheme, which only became obvious during the Soviet–Afghan War. It seats its driver and commander in a tandem layout, on the left side of the hull front, alongside the diesel engine. When an antitank mine hits the BMP-1's left track, the explosion usually destroyed one to three left side roadwheels, penetrated the bottom, and killed or seriously wounded both the driver and the commander, which caused painful losses of specialist personnel in the Soviet Army. Drivers laid sandbags on the bottom of their compartment in an effort to protect themselves against possible mine attack. The same kind of explosion under the right track was much less dramatic for the driver and the commander, who remained relatively safe. If the vehicle hit a tilt-rod antitank mine, its steeply sloped lower front glacis plate allowed the mine's arming rod to tilt with little resistance until the mine was well under the chassis. When it eventually detonated, the blast was usually sufficient to kill or badly wound the driver and the commander. From 1982, the Soviet 40th Army in Afghanistan began to receive improved BMP-1Ds (the so-called "Afghan" variant), which, among other improvements, included an additional armored plate under the driver's and commander's stations. This situation was addressed in the later BMP-2 design, where the commander shares the two-man turret with the gunner. The driver's and engine compartments could be equipped with additional bottom armor for improved protection against landmines filled with up to of explosives. There is also a protection issue concerning the reloading of the 9M14 "Malyutka" and 9M14M "Malyutka-M" ATGMs in NBC conditions, because doing it through the small hatch from inside the vehicle would destroy whatever protection the fighting compartment's NBC protection suite gave. The compactness and low silhouette of the vehicle are generally advantages on a battlefield. Critical areas, such as the engine compartment, the ammunition storage area, fuel cells and the troop compartment, are located in a manner that became the standard for many IFVs and APCs. Penetration anywhere in these areas will often result in mobility and/or firepower damage and/or disabling of the personnel. BMP-1 and BMP-2 series vehicles share a major drawback with many Soviet tanks. Ammunition is stored near or even inside the fighting compartment, which makes them more vulnerable to a hit from an anti-tank round or a missile across the side arc. If that happens, the ammunition often explodes, killing everyone and completely destroying the vehicle. During the fighting in Afghanistan and Chechnya, hits by rocket-propelled grenades (RPGs) penetrated the BMP-1's armor in 95% of cases. This often resulted in the vehicle burning until the ammunition exploded. Due to these limitations, Soviet/Russian soldiers customarily rode on the outside of the BMP-1, sitting on top of the hull while in combat zones. This tactic had also been adopted by their American counterparts during the Vietnam war, when they found that their own M113 APCs were vulnerable to RPG attack. This has an obvious downside on the likelihood of passenger survivability in a war-zone. The armor of BMP-1 IFVs is also insufficient to deal with AP cannon rounds – sufficiently thick armor would increase the weight of the BMP-1 considerably and jeopardize its amphibious ability. Some military analysts support the idea of returning to the concept of open-topped APCs, as the armor of light AFVs cannot protect the crew from anti-tank weapons. Modern APCs are mostly used in local conflicts instead of hypothetical large-scale wars with NBC weapons. The problem most often cited by western analysts is the design of the main fuel tank. Due to the low profile of the vehicle, the designers have had to place the fuel tank between the two rows of outward-facing seats, meaning that the infantrymen sit very close to the bulk of the vehicle's fuel storage; extra fuel is carried in the hollow armored rear doors. Therefore, a hit by an armor-piercing incendiary round would set the fuel contained there on fire, especially if the fuel is kerosene instead of diesel. The burning fuel would move into the crew compartment, resulting in the death or injury to the infantrymen (if they are unable to leave the vehicle via the roof hatches), and a possible explosion. However, the rear door tanks are almost always empty when the BMP goes into combat, as they are only meant to increase the road travel range of the vehicle. In intense war areas where the BMP sees action often, and it is relatively near to its base of operations, instructions highly recommend detaching the rear door tanks from the fuel system, filling them with sand as additional protection for the troop compartment, and adding fuel to the internal main fuel tank from other sources when the need arises. This was not practiced by some BMP-1s crews during a number of local conflicts, e.g., in Chechnya, which resulted in frequent attempts by the enemy to hit the rear doors of the BMP-1s. The inner fuel tank is more vulnerable than that of many modern IFVs – the thin side armor means that penetration is likely to occur to the inner fuel tank as well. The BMP-1 has no air conditioning or air cooling system, its crew members and passengers suffer heavily in hot climates as its air filtration system and exhaust-ventilation fans cannot provide any comfort at high temperatures. During the Yom Kippur War, crews kept some of the roof hatches open. This meant that they were vulnerable to machine gun fire from higher ground. Only a few examples of the BMP-1 were intended for export – mainly to countries with a hot climate (for example, the Slovak-Belorussian "Cobra-S"), they are equipped with an air conditioning system. The cooling system for the engine is improved, as is the additional forced air cooling system of the engine compartment and radiator. The exhaust system helps to eject gases together with hot air from the engine compartment through the grille located on the right side of the hull roof in front of the turret. Equipment The BMP-1 can make its own smoke screen by injecting vaporized diesel fuel into the exhaust manifold using the TDA engine thermal smoke generating system. Later models also have an array of 902V Tucha smoke grenade launchers which can form a screen wide, in front of the vehicle. A number of BMP-1s were fitted with mountings for the KMT-10 plow-type mine-clearing system in the early 1980s. It is installed on the front of the hull in line with the tracks. The plow weighs and can be attached in 30 minutes. Emergency detaching takes around 10 minutes. The KMT-10 is intended for clearing anti-tank mines under different ground conditions. It is pneumatically driven and takes four seconds to switch from the traveling position to the digging position. The mine-clearing plows are very narrow, with just two digging tines, each wide, (the same as each track), which limits them to clearing surface-laid mines, in particular scatterable anti-tank mines. A chain mounted between the plows can detonate tilt-rod mines. Maximum mine-clearing speed is . When the NBC protection system is configured and operating, the crew and passengers are protected from chemical weapons, biological agents and nuclear fallout by an air filtration and overpressure system, which consists of the NBC filter element and the blower/dust separator. BMP-1s were equipped with one RPG-7/RPG-7V shoulder-launched anti-tank rocket-propelled grenade (RPG) and five PG-7 rounds or one 9K32 Strela-2/9K38 Igla man-portable anti-aircraft missile launcher and two replacement missiles. It carries 1600 rounds for two PK general-purpose machine guns. Service history Currently, the major BMP-1 operators, each with over a thousand vehicles in active service, are Russia, India, Poland, and the People's Republic of China. Soviet Union and Russia The BMP-1 entered service with the Soviet Army in 1966. The BMP-1 was first seen by Westerners during the 7 November 1967 military parade in Moscow. Its appearance created a stir in the West, where lightly armed APCs were still the norm for transportation and infantry support on the battlefield. In the Soviet Army, BMP-1s were typically issued to motorized rifle divisions and the motorized rifle regiments of tank divisions, where they replaced the BTR-152, BTR-50P and some BTR-60P APCs. Currently, BMP-1s and vehicles based on it are used by the Russian Army and internal security troops of the Russian Ministry of Internal Affairs (MVD). Afghanistan BMP-1s were widely used in Afghanistan by motorized rifle and tank units. They were also operated by some special forces. In 1982, as a result of combat experience, a version with applique armor was introduced, called BMP-1D (D='desantnaya'=paratroopers). That version did not have amphibious capability [not critical in Afghanistan environment]. Many field modifications were made to their BMP-1s by various units. Syria The BMP-1 has seen wide use by all factions fighting in the Syrian Civil War due to large numbers being in stock. Since 2017 Hayat Tahrir al-Sham have been using captured BMP-1s as vehicle-borne improvised explosive devices in suicide attacks. The vehicle's advantages in this role are the large amount of explosives it can carry, the off-road capability afforded by tracks and the armour that both protects the driver from fire and amplifies the effect of the explosion. Others Other BMP operators have included Poland, Egypt, Syria, the People's Republic of China, Afghanistan, India, Iraq, North Korea, East Germany, Greece, Slovakia, Sweden, Cambodia, and Vietnam. The Ontario Regiment Museum has an operational BMP 1. See also Comparable vehicles BMD-1 – related family of Soviet airborne fighting vehicles (USSR) BMP-2 (USSR) BMP-3 (USSR) Type 86 – a Chinese copy of the BMP-1 MLI-84 – a Romanian IFV based on a modified BMP chassis BMP-23 (Bulgaria) Dardo IFV (Italy) Marder (IFV) (Germany) Lazika, (Georgia) M2 Bradley (US) Combat Vehicle 90 (Sweden) ASCOD (Austria and Spain) AMX-10P (France) Warrior IFV (UK) BVP M80 IFV (Yugoslavia) References Bibliography External links UTD-20 battle tank engine - Working process, intake stroke, compression stroke. Tracked infantry fighting vehicles Cold War armoured fighting vehicles of the Soviet Union Amphibious infantry fighting vehicles Fire support vehicles Infantry fighting vehicles of the Soviet Union Infantry fighting vehicles of the Cold War Military vehicles introduced in the 1960s Infantry fighting vehicles of India Kurganmashzavod products
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/BMP-2
BMP-2
The BMP-2 (Boyevaya Mashina Pekhoty, , literally "infantry combat vehicle") is a second-generation, amphibious infantry fighting vehicle introduced in the 1980s in the Soviet Union, following on from the BMP-1 of the 1960s. Development history Although the BMP-1 was a revolutionary design, its main armament, the 2A28 Grom and the 9S428 ATGM launcher capable of firing 9M14 Malyutka (NATO: AT-3A Sagger A) and 9M14M Malyutka-M (NATO: AT-3B Sagger B) ATGMs, quickly became obsolete. Therefore, the Soviet Union decided to produce an updated and improved version of the BMP-1. The main emphasis was put on improving the main armament. In 1972, work got under-way to develop an improved version of the BMP-1. During its combat debut in the Yom Kippur War, Egyptian and Syrian BMPs proved vulnerable to .50 calibre machine-gun fire in the sides and rear, and to 106 mm M40 recoilless rifles. The 73 mm gun proved inaccurate beyond 500 metres, and the AT-3 Sagger missile could not be guided effectively from the confines of the turret. Several Soviet technical teams were sent to Syria in the wake of the war to gather information. These lessons, combined with observations of western AFV developments, resulted in a replacement program for the original BMP in 1974. The first product of this program was the BMP-1P upgrade, which was intended as a stopgap to address the most serious problems with the existing design. Smoke grenade launchers were added to the rear of the turret and the manually guided AT-3 Sagger missile system was replaced with the semi-automatically guided AT-4 Spigot / AT-5 Spandrel system. The BMP-1P was in production by the late 1970s and existing BMP-1s were gradually upgraded to the standard during the 1980s. Design The BMP-2 is broadly similar to the BMP-1. The most significant changes are: The commander now sits with the gunner in an enlarged, two-man turret. Armament changed to the 2A42 30 mm autocannon and the 9P135M ATGM launcher capable of firing SACLOS guided 9M111 "Fagot" (AT-4 Spigot), 9M113 "Konkurs" (AT-5 Spandrel) and 9M113M "Konkurs-M" (AT-5B Spandrel B) anti-tank missiles. Only seven troops can be carried instead of eight. Two rear infantry roof hatches instead of four. Slightly improved armour. Layout In the centre of the vehicle is the welded steel turret, which seats the commander and gunner, both of whom have hatches. The commander sits to the right and has three day-vision periscopes, a 1PZ-3 day-sight designed for anti-aircraft use with 1×, 2× and 4× magnification, an OU-3GA2 infra-red searchlight, a TNP-165A designator and a TKN-3B binocular sight with 4.75× day magnification and 4× night-sight magnification. The gunner sits to the commander's left and has a smaller rectangular hatch with a rearward-facing day periscope, additionally, there are three other day periscopes facing forward and left. The gunner has a BPK-1-42 binocular sight with a moon/starlight vision range of 650 metres, or 350 metres using the infra-red searchlight, and a TNPT-1 designator. An FG-126 infra-red searchlight is mounted coaxially to the 30 mm cannon. The driver sits in the front left of the vehicle, with the engine in a separate compartment to his right. The driver has his own entry hatch above him, with three-day-periscopes. The centre TNPO-170A periscope can be replaced with either a TNPO-350B extended periscope for amphibious operation or a TVNE-1PA night vision scope. An infantryman sits immediately behind the driver, and has a firing port and vision block. TNPO-170A periscopes are used throughout the vehicle and are electrically heated. In the BMP-1 and BMP-2 ammunition is stored near or even inside the compartment, which can lead to a catastrophic failure in case of a hull breach. Mobility The BMP-1 and BMP-2 share the same chassis and have almost identical road performance. The BMP-2 is heavier, but also has a more powerful engine to compensate. The BMP-2 is amphibious with little preparation, using hydrodynamic fairings to convert track momentum into water jets. Peacetime regulations require that any BMPs entering water must have a working radio set, since its bearings are not airtight and it can be carried away by currents in case of loss of engine power (the vehicle lacks an anchor). Weapons The main armament is a turret with a stabilized 30 mm 2A42 autocannon with dual ammunition feeds, which provide a choice of 3UBR6 AP-T and 3UOR6 HE-T / 3UOF8 HE-I ammunition and 9M113 Konkurs ATGM. The gun has a selectable rate of fire, either slow at 200 to 300 rounds per minute or fast at 550 rounds per minute, which gives a continuous fire time of 100–150 seconds (or only 55 seconds, depending on the rate of fire chosen) before running out of ammo. The original stabilization provides reasonable accuracy up to a speed of about 35 kilometres per hour. The AP-T ammunition can penetrate 15 millimetres of armour at sixty degrees at 1,500 metres, while a new APDS-T tungsten round can penetrate 25 millimetres at the same distance. A typical ammunition load is 160 rounds of AP ammunition and 340 rounds of HE ammunition. The ammunition sits in two trays located on the turret floor rear. The gun can be fired from either the commander's or the gunner's station. The commander's 1PZ-3 sight is specifically designed for anti-aircraft operation and combined with the high maximum elevation of 74 degrees, it allows the 30 mm cannon to be used effectively against helicopters and slow flying aircraft. The turret traverse and elevation are powered and it can traverse 360 degrees in 10.28 seconds and elevate through 74 degrees in 12.33 seconds. Reloading the BMP-2's 30 mm cannon can be somewhat problematic and can take up to two hours, even if the ammunition is prepared. Additionally, the cannon is normally only used on the slow rate of fire, otherwise, fumes from the weapon would build up in the turret faster than the extractor fan can remove them. The effective range of the 30 mm cannon is up to 1,500 metres against armour, 4,000 metres against ground targets, and 2,500 metres against air targets. A coaxial 7.62 mm PKT machine gun is mounted to the left of the 30 mm cannon, and 2,000 rounds of ammunition are carried for it. On the roof of the turret is an ATGM launcher, on Russian vehicles this fires AT-5 Spandrel missiles; but on export models it normally fires AT-4 Spigot missiles. A ground-mount for the missile is also carried, allowing it to be used away from the vehicle. The missiles are a substantial improvement on the AT-3 Sagger missiles used on the BMP-1, in both range and accuracy. Behind the turret is the troop compartment that holds six troops, a seventh sits just behind the driver. The troops sit back to back, along the center of the vehicle. Down each side of the compartment are three firing ports with periscopes. Access to the compartment is by the two rear doors, which also hold fuel tanks, both doors have integral periscopes and the left door has a firing port. In addition to the main weapons, it can carry a man-portable surface-to-air missile launcher and two missiles, and an RPG launcher and five rounds. The vehicle is fitted with a PAZ overpressure NBC system and fire suppression system, and carries a GPK-59 gyrocompass. Countermeasures The original BMP-1 had a vulnerability in its mine protection scheme, which only became obvious during the war in Afghanistan. The one-man-turret fighting vehicle seated its driver and commander in tandem layout, in the front-left side of the hull alongside the diesel engine. When a BMP-1 hit a tilt-rod anti-tank land mine its steeply sloped lower front glacis armour plate allowed the mine's arming rod to tilt with little resistance until the maximum deflection was reached, at which time the mine was already well under the chassis. When it subsequently detonated, the blast usually killed both the driver and the vehicle commander. This shortcoming was addressed in the BMP-2 design, where the tank commander shares the well-armoured two-man turret with the gunner. The driver's station has been enlarged and he is provided with an armored driver's seat, in addition to extra belly-armor in the lower front. The BMP-2's armor is broadly similar to the original BMP-1. Its side armor is not effective against the most recent .50-calibre SLAP (Saboted Light Armor Penetrator) and the front armor against 25 mm cannon of the US M2 Bradley MICV or the British GKN Warrior IFV's 30 mm RARDEN. Like the BMP-1, the rear doors of the BMP-2 are filled with diesel fuel which may present some risk from incendiary rounds. These additional fuel tanks are used only during transport from area to area and are typically drained before entering combat. The basic hull armor on the BMP-2 can be easily penetrated by any shaped-charge missile, from the 66 mm LAW on up. One important modification carried out as the result of operational experience in Afghanistan was the fitting of a second layer of stand-off armor, usually a high resistant ballistic rubber-like material, to act as spaced armour around the top of the hull sides and around the attack. The BMP-2's hull provides all-around protection from 7.62 mm armor piercing rounds at 30 meters, while the front can withstand several hits from 23 mm armor piercing shells. The IFV lacks the ability to install add-on protection packages like slat armor cages or explosive reactive armor (ERA). Service history In the Soviet Army, BMPs were typically issued to the motor rifle battalions of tank regiments. In a typical motor-rifle division, one motor-rifle regiment had BMPs, the other two had wheeled BTRs. Proliferation varied greatly among the rest of the Warsaw Pact nations. For example, at least some East German motor-rifle divisions were recorded to have all three motor-rifle regiments with BMPs, ranging down to the Romanian and Bulgarian Armies, some of whose divisions had no BMPs at all. Poland planned to replace its BWP-1 with BWP-2 (BMP-2 and BMP-2D); but, because of financial problems, only ordered 62 vehicles in 1988, which were delivered in 1989. Since obtaining a sufficient number of BWP-2 vehicles after the political changes of 1989 became impossible, Poland was forced to abandon this plan. The 62 BWP-2 that Poland bought were sold to Angola in 1995. Combat history 1975–2002: Angolan Civil War (Angola) 1979–1989: Soviet–Afghan War (Soviet Union) 1980–1988: Iran–Iraq War (Iraq) 1988–1993: Georgian Civil War (Georgia) 1991–1992: War in South Ossetia 1992–1993: War in Abkhazia 1988–1994: First Nagorno-Karabakh War (Armenia, Azerbaijan) 1989: Georgian-Ossetian conflict 2008 – War in South Ossetia 1990–1991: Gulf War (Iraq, Kuwait) 1991–present Somali Civil War 1992–1997: Civil War in Tajikistan (Russia, Tajikistan) 1994: Yemeni Civil War (1994) 1994–1996: First Chechen War (Russia) 1998: Six-Day War of Abkhazia 1998: Second Congo War (Angola) 1999: Second Chechen War (Russia) 2000–2003 Indonesian military operation in the Province of Aceh (Indonesia) 2001: War in Afghanistan (2001–present) (Afghanistan, Czech Republic) 2003: Iraq War 2003 invasion of Iraq (Iraq) 2004: Iran–PJAK conflict (Iran) 2008: South Ossetia War (Russia, Georgia) 2011–present: Syrian civil war (Syria) 2014–present: War in Donbass (Ukraine, Pro-Russian separatists) 2015: Yemeni Civil War (2015–present) 2016: 2016 Nagorno-Karabakh clashes (Armenia, Azerbaijan) 2020: 2020 Nagorno-Karabakh War (Armenia, Azerbaijan) 2021: 2021 Kyrgyzstan–Tajikistan clashes (Kyrgyzstan) 2022: 2022 Russian invasion of Ukraine (Russia, Ukraine) Variants Soviet Union and Russian Federation BMP-2 obr. 1980 – Initial production model. BMP-2 obr. 1984 – Improved version with "kovriki" armour on turret front. BMP-2 obr. 1986 – Late-production model with new BPK-2-42 sight instead of the BPK-1-42. BMP-2D (D stands for dorabotanaya – modified) – Fitted with additional spaced type steel appliqué armour on the hull sides, under the driver's and commander's stations, and 6 mm thick appliqué armour on the turret. Owing to the added weight, the vehicle is no longer amphibious. It also has provision for mounting a mine clearing system under the nose of the vehicle. In service since 1982, it saw service during Soviet–Afghan War. During that conflict, western observers saw the vehicle for the first time and gave it a designation BMP-2E. BMP-2K (K stands for komandirskaya – command) – Command variant fitted with two whip antennas mounted on the rear of the hull, one behind the turret and one on the right-hand side of the rear of the vehicle, one IFF antenna (pin stick) on the left-hand side of the rear of the vehicle and a support for a telescopic mast in the front of the IFF antenna. The firing port equipped with the periscope was removed from either side of the vehicle. The antennae on the turret was removed. The radio equipment consists ether of the R-123M and R-130M radio sets, or the more modern R-173, R-126 and R-10. The crew consists of six men. BMP-2M – This is the general designator for upgraded (modernizirovannyj) versions. BMP-2M "Berezhok" – Modernized version from KBP. This version has B05Ya01 Berezhok turret equipped with 2A42 30mm autocannon, PKMT 7.62mm coaxial machine gun, AGS-30 grenade launcher, 2+2 launchers for ATGM 9M133M "Kornet-M" and new day/night sights as found on the BMD-4. This upgrade was selected by Algeria, and Russia will upgrade several hundred of its vehicles. The upgrade package from Kurganmashzavod consists of the UTD-23 400 hp (294 kW) turbocharged engine, BPK-3-42 and TKN-AI sights, additional passive armour, an AG-17 "Plamya" grenade launcher and a KBM-2 air conditioning unit. Furthermore, the upgraded vehicle will have an improved suspension with road wheels of higher load carrying capacity, enhanced-hardness torsion bars, power-consuming shock absorbers and tracks with rubber pad shoes. The upgrade package was ready in 2008. BMO-1 (boyevaya mashina ognemyotchikov) – Transport vehicle for a flamethrower squad armed with 30 RPO-A "Shmel" 93 mm napalm rocket launchers. It is equipped with storage racks and a dummy turret. The crew consists of seven soldiers. It entered service in 2001. Former Czechoslovakia BVP-2 (bojové vozidlo pěchoty) – Czechoslovak-produced version of BMP-2. BVP-2V or VR 1p (vozidlo velitele roty) – Company commander's vehicle with tent, telescopic mast and radiosets RF 1325 (x 2), IPRS 32, RF 1301 and NS 2480D. Photos VPV (VPV stands for vyprošťovací pásové vozidlo) – BVP-2 conversion into an ARV developed at the ZTS Martin Research and Development Institute and production commenced at the ZTS Martin plant (which is now in Slovakia) in 1984. It is equipped with a powered crane with 5 tonnes capacity, heavy winch, wider troop compartment etc. Hatches on top of the turret and the troop compartment were removed. The vehicle is divided into four compartments: engine, commander's, driver's and repair/cargo. The crew consists of a commander/crane operator, driver/welder/slinger and a logistician/mechanic. The vehicle is armed with a pintle-mounted 7.62 mm PKT light machine gun. A small number of those vehicles was also based on BVP-1. India BMP-2 "Sarath" ("Chariot of Victory"), also known as BMP-II – Indian licence-produced variant of the BMP-2, built by Ordnance Factory Medak. The first vehicle, assembled from components supplied by KBP, was ready in 1987. By 1999, about 90% of the complete vehicle and its associated systems were being produced in India. It was estimated that, by 2007, 1,250 vehicles had been built. As of February 2020, around 2,500 Saraths were made. On June 2, 2020, India's Ministry of Defence announced placement of an order of 156 BMP-2 Sarath vehicles (Infantry Combat Vehicles) for the Indian Army's infantry units. The Rs 1,094 crore ($145.2 million) order will be executed by state owned Ordnance Factory Board, and BMP-2/2K Sarath will be produced by Ordnance Factory Medak. The delivery is expected to be complete by 2021. India has also developed the following versions of the "Sarath": BMP-2 Light Tank – DRDO developed light tank on BMP-2 Chassis DRDO light tank. BMP-2K "Sarath" Carrier Command Post Tracked – Command vehicle, similar to the Soviet/Russian version. Armoured Ambulance – This version retains the turret but without the gun or smoke grenade launchers. The troop compartment has been modified to carry four stretchers. Armoured Vehicle Tracked Light Repair – Armoured recovery vehicle, fitted with a light hydraulic crane. Armoured Amphibious Dozer (AAD) – Turret-less combat engineer vehicle, fitted with a folding dozer blade at the rear, mine ploughs, a main winch with a capacity of 8,000 kg and a rocket-propelled earth anchor for self-recovery. Armoured Engineer Reconnaissance Vehicle (AERV) – This version has no gun and is fitted with specialised equipment, including an echo-sounder, a water current metre, a laser range finder and GPS. On the left rear of the hull, a marking system with 40 rods is fitted. NBC Reconnaissance Vehicle (NBCRV) – For detection of nuclear, biological and chemical contamination. The NBCRV was developed by DRDO and VRDE and has been ordered by the Indian army. Carrier Mortar Tracked Vehicle – This turret-less version has an 81 mm mortar mounted in the modified troop compartment. The mortar is fired through an opening in the hull roof that has two hinged doors. It has a max. range of 5,000 m and a normal rate of fire of 6–8 rds/min. There is also a longe-range version of the mortar. The vehicle carries 108 mortar rounds and is also fitted with a 7.62 mm machine gun with 2,350 rounds. Crew: 2+4. The first prototype was completed in 1997. NAMICA (Nag Missile Carrier) – part of the Nag anti-tank missile system. The Nag (Cobra) missile is launched from a retractable armoured launcher that contains four launch tubes and the guidance package. "Nag" is a fire-and-forget top-attack ATGM with a tandem-HEAT warhead and a range of at least 4 km. Akash – Air-defence missile system that is based on a modified "Sarath" chassis with 7 road wheels. On top of the hull there's a launcher for three SAMs with a range of 27 km and semi-active homing guidance. Trishul Combat Vehicle - A variant with four Trishul SAM launchers and a Flycatcher radar system. The vehicle entered trials in June 2003, but never entered service. Rajendra – This is a multifunctional 3-D phased radar (MUFAR), associated with the "Akash" system. It is also based on the stretched chassis. BMP-2 UGV "Muntra" – is an family of unmanned reconnaissance vehicles developed by DRDO,The Muntra family has several versions such as "S" version is fitted with equipment used to detect nuclear, biological and chemical contamination while the "M" version is designed to detect mines and "N" for operations in Nuclear and chemical contaminated areas. 105 mm Self-Propelled Gun – This is OFB's mechanized version of the Indian Indian Light Field Gun (EQPT 105/37 LFG E2) with 42 rounds stowed. The gun is mounted in a lightly armoured turret. The 105 mm SPG was shown for the first time in public in February 2010 during DEFEXPO-2010 in New Delhi and is planned to replace the FV433 Abbot SPG in the Indian army. Israel BMP-2 upgrade designed by Nimda fitting it with new power unit and automatic transmission which improves both mobility and reliability. Poland BWP-2 – Polish designation for BMP-2 and BMP-2D. Finland BMP-2MD – Finnish modernisation of the BMP-2, which includes thermal camouflage, thermal sights, anti-aircraft sight and new day/night optics for the gunner and commander, heated cabin and seats, new external storage boxes functioning also as spaced armour and new radio and communications systems. Operators Current operators – 150 along with 1,500 9M111 Fagot ATGMs were ordered in 1987 from the Soviet Union and delivered between 1987 and 1991 (some of the vehicles were possibly previously in Soviet service). 550 BMP-1s and BMP-2s in service in 1992. Between 60 and 80 BMP-1s and BMP-2s were delivered from Russia after 2002. – 225 along with 2,250 9M111 Fagot ATGMs were ordered in 1989 from the Soviet Union and delivered between 1990 and 1991. 54 BVP-2s and BVP-2Ks were ordered in 1994 from Slovakia and delivered between 1995 and 1996. 64 were ordered in 1998 from Ukraine and delivered between 1998 and 1999 (the vehicles were previously in Soviet and later Ukrainian service). In 2005 Algeria ordered modernization of 300 of its BMP-2s to the BMP-2M standard which started in 2006 and is scheduled to be completed in 2010. 160 were modernized between 2006 and 2008. – 65, along with 650 9M111 Fagot ATGMs, were ordered in 1987 from the Soviet Union and delivered in 1987. 7 were ordered in 1993 from Hungary and delivered in 1993 (the vehicles were previously in Hungarian service and were sold via Czech Republic). 62 BMP-2s and BMP-2Ds were ordered in 1994 from Poland and delivered between 1994 and 1995 (the vehicles were previously in Polish service). 65 were ordered in 1997 from Russia and delivered in 1998 (the vehicles were possibly previously in Soviet and later Russian service). 62 were ordered in 1999 from Belarus and delivered in 1999 (the vehicles were previously in Soviet and later Belorussian service). 31 were ordered in 1999 from Ukraine and delivered in 1999 (the vehicles were previously in Soviet and later Ukrainian service). 62 are currently in service. – The Armenian Army currently has over a 50 BMP-2s in service. – 53 BMP-2s in service with the armed forces in 1992, 88 in 1993, 191 in 1994, 206 in 1995, 197 in 1996, 96 in 1997 and 1998, 91 in 1999, 41 in 2000–2004, and 39 in 2006. 100 BMP-2s in service with the border troops in 1997–1999, and 147 in 2000–2006 – 1,278 were in service in 1995 and 1,164 in 2000, 2003 and 2005. – 200 inherited from former Czechoslovakia. 174 in service on 1 January 2008. – 20 were ordered in 1988 from the Soviet Union and delivered between 1988 and 1989. Further 84 were ordered in 1991 from the Soviet Union and delivered in 1992 by Russia. The remaining 100 vehicles will be upgraded by 2019 and designated BMP-2MD (FIN). Upgrades include integral camo netting, thermal scopes, new autocannons, new periscopes, display screens for the driver and commander, and internal heating with heated seats. – 40 were ordered in 2004 from Ukraine and were delivered between 2004 and 2005 (the vehicles were previously in Soviet and later Ukrainian service). 11 in service in 2000, 13 in 2002 and 2005 and 57 in 2008. – 700 BMP-2 "Sarath" ordered in 1984 from the Soviet Union and delivered between 1987 and 1991 (most produced in India). 400 BMP-2 "Sarath" ordered in 1985 and produced in India between 1992 and 1995 at Ordnance Factory Medak of Ordnance Factories Board under Russian licence. 123 BMP-2K ordered in 2006 from Russia and delivered between 2007 and 2008. Around 300 BMP-2 "Sarath" were in service in 1995, 1,000 in 2000 and 2002, around 1,000 in 2005 and more than 1,000 in 2008 and about 2,500 in 2020. In May 2013, the Indian Army decided to upgrade all BMP-2/2K vehicles to BMP-2M standard. In Oct 2014 government of India gave nod to produce 362 more BMP-2 Saraths. – 1,500 ordered in 1991 from Russia and 413 were delivered between 1993 and 2001 of which 82 were delivered directly by Russia and 331 were assembled in Iran. 100 were in service in 1995, 140 in 2000 and 400 in 2002, 2005 and 2008. 400 are currently in service. Being equipped with new unmanned towers. – 9 ordered in 1998 from Ukraine and delivered in 1998 (the vehicles were possibly previously in Soviet and later Ukrainian service and were sold via Slovakia). 2 ordered in 1998 from Ukraine and delivered in 1998 (the vehicles were possibly previously in Soviet and later Ukrainian service and were sold via Slovakia). 11 BVP-2s ordered in 1999 from Slovakia and delivered in 2000 (the vehicles were probably previously in Czechoslovak and later Slovakian service). 40 ex-Czech BVP-2s are currently in service in the Marine Corps. – 2 ordered in 2002 from Angola and delivered in 2002 (the vehicles were previously in Angolan service). 1 ordered in 2003 from Ukraine and delivered in 2003 (the vehicle probably was previously in Ukrainian service). – 31 – 100 were in service in 1995, 140 in 2000 and 400 in 2002 and 2005. Currently 300 are in service. – 245 along with 2,450 9M111 Fagot ATGMs were ordered in 1988 from the Soviet Union and delivered between 1989 and 1990. Some captured or destroyed by the Iraqi forces. 46 along with 460 9M111 Fagot ATGMs were ordered in 1994 from Russia and delivered between 1994 and 1995. 46 were in service in 1995 and 2000 and 76 in 2005. – 101 – 11 were ordered in 2001 from Ukraine and delivered in 2001 (the vehicles were previously in Soviet and later Ukrainian service). 10 are currently in service. – 12,200 BMP-1s, BMP-2s and BMP-3s in 1995 and 12,700 in 2000–2009. 2,750 are currently in active service and 6,500 are in reserve. Currently, several hundred BMP-2s are being upgraded with Berezhok combat module and with new electronics, communications and navigation systems. – 4 were ordered in 1992 from Russia and delivered in 1992 (the vehicles were second-hand). 12 are currently in service. – 93 – 4 were ordered in 1994 from Ukraine and delivered in 1994 (the vehicles were previously in Soviet and later Ukrainian service). 36 were ordered in 2001 from Russia and delivered in 2001. – 6 were ordered in 1995 from Ukraine and delivered in 1996 (the vehicles were probably previously in Soviet and later Ukrainian service). 9 were ordered in 2003 from Belarus and delivered in 2003 (the vehicles were previously in Soviet and later Belorussian service). – 100 were ordered in 1987 from the Soviet Union and were delivered between 1987 and 1988. – 25 were in service in 2000 and 2005. – 20 ordered in 1996 from an unknown supplier (officially Poland despite the fact that all 62 Polish BWP-2s were exported to Angola) and delivered in 1997. – 538 BMP-1s and BMP-2s were in service in 1995, 930 in 2000 and 2005. – 31 were ordered in 2003 from Ukraine and were delivered between 2004 and 2005 (the vehicles were previously in Soviet and later Ukrainian service). – 1,460 were in service in 1995, 1,467 in 2000 and 1,434 in 2005. Currently 1,400 are in service. – 97 were in service in 1995, 160 in service in 2000 and 270 in service in 2005. – Around 20 along with 500 9M111 Fagot ATGMs were ordered in 1982 from the Soviet Union and were delivered between 1982 and 1984. Currently 600 are in service. – 100 were ordered in 2002 from Ukraine and were delivered between 2003 and 2004 (the vehicles were probably previously in Soviet and later Ukrainian service). Between 180 and 188 BMP-2Ds were ordered in 2004 from Russia and were delivered between 2004 and 2005. Currently 334 are in service. Former operators – 279 ordered in 1978 and produced between 1983 and 1989. Passed on to the successor states. – 24 were ordered in 1985 from the Soviet Union and were delivered between 1986 and 1987 (the vehicles were possibly produced in Czechoslovakia). Passed on to the unified German state. / – 24, taken from East Germany's army, all sold to other countries or given to the museums. Iraq – 200 were ordered in 1986 from the Soviet Union and were delivered between 1987 and 1989 (some of the vehicles were possibly produced in Czechoslovakia). 900 of both BMP-1s and BMP-2s in service in 1990, about 900 in 1995, about 1000 in 2000 and about 900 in 2002. Possibly captured some from Kuwait in the First Persian Gulf War. All destroyed or scrapped. – 62 BMP-2s and BMP-2Ds (all of which were designed as BWP-2) ordered in 1988 and delivered in 1989. Sold in 1994 to Angola and delivered between 1994 and 1995. – 24,000 BMP-1s and BMP-2s in service in 1985. Passed on to successor states. See also BMP Development BMD-1 – related family of Soviet airborne fighting vehicles BMP-3 Combat Vehicle 90 M2 Bradley Warrior Tracked Armoured Vehicle Notes References Tsouras, P.G. Changing Orders: The evolution of the World's Armies, 1945 to the Present Facts On File, Inc, 1994. FM 100-60 Ustyantsev, Sergej Viktorovich; Kolmakov Dmitrij Gennadevich Boyeviye mashiny Uralvagonzavoda. Tank T-72 A.V. Karpenko (1996) Obozreniye Bronetankovoj Tekhniki (1905–1995 gg.) Nevskij Bastion Further reading Grau, Lester W. Russian-Manufactured Armored Vehicle Vulnerability in Urban Combat: The Chechnya Experience, Red Thrust Star, January 1997 External links SOVIET BMP-2 Infantry Fighting Vehicle – Walk around photos Global Security Article on the BMP-2 BMP-2 at indian-military.org BMP-2M Berezhok and other upgrades on V. Kuzmin's photo blog BMP-2M Berezhok walk-around on Prime Portal Tracked infantry fighting vehicles Cold War armoured fighting vehicles of the Soviet Union Tracked reconnaissance vehicles Amphibious infantry fighting vehicles Infantry fighting vehicles of the Soviet Union Infantry fighting vehicles of the Cold War Infantry fighting vehicles of India Kurganmashzavod products Military vehicles introduced in the 1980s
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Table%20of%20bases
Table of bases
This article is about "bases" as that term is used in discussion of certain numeral systems. This table of bases gives the values of 0 to 256 in bases 2 to 36. (Using A−Z for 10−35) See also Numeral system List of numeral systems Numeral systems Bases Bases
[ 0.17617470026016235, 0.4845719635486603, -0.2525462210178375, 0.14256104826927185, -0.3106521964073181, 0.13911007344722748, 0.026797831058502197, -0.06498033553361893, -0.35267460346221924, -0.24085360765457153, 0.03360767662525177, -0.16711504757404327, -0.08505165576934814, -0.11644911766052246, -0.3408164083957672, 0.48898249864578247, 0.34554946422576904, 0.21560822427272797, -0.07660573720932007, 0.11609610170125961, 0.19225864112377167, 0.5015453696250916, 0.021781716495752335, -0.6391246318817139, 0.11775970458984375, 0.20093822479248047, 0.23768745362758636, 0.10817190259695053, -0.3476265072822571, -0.048205576837062836, -0.31079140305519104, 0.3717871308326721, 0.08266542851924896, 0.04702381044626236, 0.012691715732216835, -0.5648677349090576, -0.17788727581501007, -0.22560904920101166, 0.3545571267604828, -0.8117034435272217, -0.3828907608985901, -1.3205041885375977, 0.14979355037212372, 0.5216341018676758, -0.13996858894824982, 0.15139779448509216, -1.3670824766159058, 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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Front%20Line%20Assembly
Front Line Assembly
Front Line Assembly (FLA) is a Canadian electro-industrial band formed by Bill Leeb in 1986 after leaving Skinny Puppy. FLA has developed its own sound incorporating elements of electronic body music (EBM) and electro-industrial. The band's membership has rotated through the years, including Michael Balch, Rhys Fulber, and Chris Peterson, all of whom are associated with several other acts. Since their inception, the group have produced over a dozen studio albums and EPs, several of which have charted on Billboard'''s Top Dance/Electronic Album chart. The albums Tactical Neural Implant and Hard Wired are two of the group's most successful records, the former being considered a classic among industrial music fans. They have also produced soundtracks for video games such as Quake III: Team Arena (a collaboration with Sonic Mayhem) and AirMech. Over the years, the band's name has sometimes been published as "Front Line Assembly" and sometimes as "Frontline Assembly". The former spelling is the most common, and the band's members have stated that the version with three separate words is preferred. History Formation (1985–1986) Between 1985 and 1986, Bill Leeb performed with Skinny Puppy under the name Wilhelm Schroeder, a combination of his first name and the name of the Peanuts character and was meant as a joke. Leeb had no musical training, and learned to play synthesizer while contributing bass synth and backing vocals for the band. He also supported their 1985 tour. Not prepared for another tour, Leeb left Skinny Puppy in early 1986. Having developed some instrumental skills and music industry experience, and wanting to do more vocal work, Leeb decided to take the risk of starting his own project. Leeb decided to call the project Front Line Assembly to reflect his belief that strength lies in working together. Leeb started by producing a demo tape, Nerve War, which was distributed on a limited basis. Contacts in the music scene he had gathered while with Skinny Puppy led to contract offers from the first two labels that Leeb later approached with cassettes. Around this time, Leeb and Rhys Fulber became friends when they discovered they both had a similar interest in underground music. As an unofficial member at this time, Fulber partnered with Leeb during the production of Total Terror and was credited for the song "Black Fluid" on the demo. Both demo releases were limited to 100 and mostly distributed amongst friends. Early releases and Michael Balch (1987–1989) The band members were influenced by early electronic and industrial acts such as Cabaret Voltaire, Portion Control, D.A.F., Test Dept, SPK, and Severed Heads, but mainly by the electronic body music style of Front 242. The first appearance of Front Line Assembly was the track "Aggression", which was included on the compilation For Your Ears Only, released in 1987 by British independent record label Third Mind showcasing the label's repertoire at the time. The track would be re-released the following year on the Disorder EP. Although the contact to Third Mind would later develop into a long-standing collaboration, the band debuted its first album The Initial Command with credited assistance by Fulber and Michael Balch on Belgian independent record label KK at the end of 1987. The album had been produced on a tight budget which would determine whether or not cuts would be done with an eight track system or split into two four track cuts. With the next album State of Mind, released in January 1988, the band switched to German independent label Dossier. They changed labels as Leeb did not want to be bound to one label, so the releases were issued only on European labels. In 1988, Balch became an official band member and began writing songs alongside Leeb for the next few albums. Balch mostly contributed by providing keyboards and programming. This partnership produced the releases Corrosion and Disorder. A planned release on the Canadian label Nettwerk fell through, and the two finished masters were issued instead by Third Mind in 1988. Through Levermore Corrosion was licensed to Wax Trax!. Both records were re-released together with three more unreleased tracks on the compilations Convergence later that year and Corroded Disorder in 1995. Adhering to Third Mind for Europe and Wax Trax! for North America resulted in better availability of the albums in both places, and the signing with Third Mind attracted the attention of established music magazines, including Melody Maker or NME as well as the underground magazine Music From the Empty Quarter. Front Line Assembly produced their next album Gashed Senses & Crossfire in 1989. This album introduced their first single Digital Tension Dementia which became their first chart success and peaked at position 45 of the Billboard Hot Dance Club Songs chart. In support of their latest release, the band, together with Fulber as live metal percussionist, headed out to Europe and North America for their first tour. However, during the show in London in July 1989 their first live album Live was recorded under unfavourable circumstances. Presumably not well attended, the audience's reactions at the show had to be reworked. For Balch it was also the last Front Line Assembly tour because he parted ways to join Ministry and Revolting Cocks. Rhys Fulber and growing popularity (1990–1999) Filling the void left by Balch's departure, Fulber officially joined. The two musicians had similar tastes, both being enthusiastic about electronic music. The duo recorded their next album, Caustic Grip, in the first half of 1990. Accompanied by the release of two singles in 1990, "Iceolate" and "Provision", the album raised Front Line Assembly's profile in the industrial music scene and in the media considerably. Melody Maker elected both album singles Single of the week while the promotional video for "Iceolate" received some airplay on MTV. On Caustic Grip the band started working with Greg Reely which would evolve into a long-term partnership. The tour in support of the album started in January 1991 in the United States to be followed by a European leg in February which was accompanied by the release of stand-alone single Virus the same month. Chris Peterson, who would later become a full-time member of Front Line Assembly, gave his debut for the band on this tour, completing the live line-up as percussionist. In 1992, Front Line Assembly reached a turning point in the band's musical style with the album Tactical Neural Implant. The media, including Melody Maker, Siren Magazine and fanzine Industrial Strength all commented particularly on the more melodious approach featured on the album and noted the use of multi-layered sounds which would become a trademark of the band. Asked about this composing style by Industrial Nation, Leeb explained that the band continually experimented with new ways to use technology to make each recording different, and had focused on clarity and sustain in their instrumentation and structure in their songs. The video for the first single off the album, "Mindphaser", was awarded "Best Alternative Video" at Much Music's 1992 Canadian Music Video Awards. In August 1992, Front Line Assembly embarked on a tour that covered Northern America and Europe. The album continues to be played in industrial and electronic music dance clubs and is considered a classic among listeners and musicians of industrial music. The next album Millennium (1994) featured a combination of metal guitars, electronic music, and media sampling (much of which was taken from the Michael Douglas film Falling Down) which had become one of the characteristics of industrial rock and industrial metal during the 1990s. Hard Wired (1995) and the world tour following the release was FLA's most successful commercial and critical period. Leeb has stated he was influenced to pursue this style of music after listening to Pantera's "Walk", which he later incorporated into the single "Surface Patterns". In September 1996 the band made a live performance in Vancouver for the MuchMusic Video Awards which was broadcast via satellite. In 1997, Fulber left the band to concentrate on producing Fear Factory with other bands. Chris Peterson, who had already supported the band's live shows, replaced Fulber. Soon after Fulber's departure, the album [FLA]vour of the Weak was released. Yet again, the album was stylistically divergent from previous releases. The metal influences found in Millennium gave way to a more electronica sound within the new release. Front Line Assembly returned somewhat to their former sound with the album Implode (1999). Front Line Assembly composed the soundtrack for the video game, Quake III Team Arena. In October 1999, it was made public that the band had left their label Metropolis. Success in the new millennium (2000–2011) The band followed up Implode with the 2001 album Epitaph. This was the final album worked on by Peterson before departing in 2002. The album was a critical success and spawned the single "Everything Must Perish". The album also marked the band's return to Metropolis records. Fulber rejoined the band in 2003. The reunited duo released the single "Maniacal" in October of that year. The single peaked at No. 15 on Billboards Hot Dance Singles. The next year, they released the studio album Civilization, which landed the No. 2 position on the German Alternative Albums chart. Peterson later rejoined the band to release Artificial Soldier in 2006. It was the first album to feature new members Jeremy Inkel and Jared Slingerland. The album peaked on Billboards Top Dance/Electronic Albums chart at No. 19. After a problem with the tour bus company, the US tour that year was cut short, and the band returned home to Vancouver after playing roughly half of their scheduled dates; performances in New York and Canada were cancelled. The band toured in Europe in August 2006, playing in 18 cities. In April 2007, Front Line Assembly released a remix album titled Fallout. The album was released in a 4-panel digipak and featured three previously unreleased tracks ("Electric Dreams," "Unconscious," and "Armageddon") and nine remixes by several other Industrial acts and names. After the release of the remix album, the band went out to tour North America and Europe. In 2010, Front Line Assembly released two new singles, "Shifting Through the Lens" and "Angriff", and an album, Improvised Electronic Device; I.E.D. saw the band embrace a heavier, more guitar-driven sound, much like Millenium. The album reached No. 23 on Billboards Top Dance/Electronic Albums chart and was supported by a series of tours throughout North America and Europe. Peterson once more left the band, starting a T-shirt company with his brother. The band completed the line-up with live drummer Jason Bazinet. Back to electronic roots and new influences (2012–present) Having integrated guitars into their sound since the late 1980s, either sampled or as live guitars, FLA returned in 2012 to making exclusively electronic music. This change was heard on the soundtrack album AirMech for the video game of the same name at the end of 2012. Comprising only instrumental tracks, AirMech laid some grounds for 2013 full-length album Echogenetic Echogenetic was widely praised by critics, who also noted the dubstep influences on the record, and hit the charts in the United States and in Germany. Entering the official German charts was a first in the band's history. On the occasion of the release of Echogenetic Front Line Assembly announced a remix album which was released in May 2014 under the moniker of Echoes. Shortly after the release of Echogenetic the band started promoting the album with an extensive tour schedule in Europe and North America. In August 2013, Front Line Assembly covered dates in Russia, Germany, Hungary, the Czech Republic, and the UK. They continued their tour in Europe in June 2014, playing shows in Slovakia, the Czech Republic, Germany, Sweden, Finland and France, this time also in support of Echoes. Former member Fulber joined the band for their last European leg in October and November 2014 in Poland and Germany, where they performed with a philharmonic orchestra in Leipzig, a first for the band. The same month Front Line Assembly returned from Europe, they were asked on short notice to join Leeb's former band Skinny Puppy on their Eye vs Spy North American tour as supporting band after VNV Nation, previously booked for the slot, had opted out. On some dates, Fulber joined them. At the Vancouver show Leeb performed with Skinny Puppy on their encore song Assimilate. Resuming tour activities, the band gave a number of concerts in September and November 2015. They started off with a show in Vancouver and went on to headline the second day of the Cold Waves industrial festival in Chicago. The accompanying festival CD, released in October, featured an exclusive remix of Next War from Slighter. In November the band followed up with their first show in Mexico City, supported by Mexican electro-industrial band Hocico, and a gig in Guadalajara both of which were also supported by Canadian electro-industrial group Decoded Feedback. October 2014 saw the return of former long-time band member Rhys Fulber, joining Front Line Assembly on their European tour. In late October 2016, the band announced that a new album was in the making, including contributions by Rhys Fulber, In March 2017 an announcement followed that the successor of sound track album AirMech was ready for release. The band supported industrial rock band Revolting Cocks on their North American tour the same year. Keyboardist Jeremy Inkel died January 23, 2018, due to complications resulting from an asthma condition, at the age of 34. In March 2018 the band announced a joint European tour with German electro-industrial band Die Krupps under the moniker of "The Machinists United Tour 2018". The tour will be preceded by the release of the soundtrack album WarMech, successor of 2015's AirMech, in June. Also, the band completed work on their 17th studio album, Wake Up the Coma, which was released in February 2019. In October 2020, the band announced a brand new album, called Mechanical Soul is due out on January 15, 2021. It will reportedly feature guest appearances from Jean-Luc De Meyer of Front 242 and Dino Cazares of Fear Factory. The band were set to perform as a part of the industrial strength tour, alongside bands Ministry and Helmet, scheduled for late 2021. KMFDM were originally planned to be a part of the tour, but were later replaced with Helmet. The 25-date tour was originally slated for July 2020, but was pushed to March 2021 due to COVID-19. This was pushed back again to October 2021, because of the ongoing uncertainty with the development of the pandemic. However, in September 2021, Ministry announced that they were once again postponing the industrial strength tour due to safety concerns related to the pandemic, this time with the Melvins and Corrosion Of Conformity as support. In response to this, Front Line Assembly released a statement via social media, alleging that Ministry had never explained why they were dropping them from the tour or given them forewarning of this, and expressing disappointment with the way that the situation was handled. The band proceeded to announce a headlining US tour for Spring 2022 and a second European co-headline tour with Die Krupps scheduled for August 2022. Musical style The band has explored many music genres across their releases, including: Industrial, industrial rock, industrial metal, EBM and electro-industrial. Development Although being established as a largely industrial project, the band is known to take liberty in adapting their sound across many of their releases over the years. The band's early catalogue has been largely described as EBM, industrial and electro-industrial from Total Terror to Gashed Senses and Crossfire. Rhys Fulber has featured as a prominent collaborator with Leeb across many FLA releases, as both found they have a shared interest in electronic music. Fulber officially replaced longtime member Michael Balch on Caustic Grip, who was busy with other projects at the time. Fulber has since worked on and off with the band across several releases, he rejoined as a member in 2014.Caustic Grip (1990) marked a shift to industrial rock on the single "Provision", featuring guitar work that would later be featured much more extensively on the next several albums. The opening track (Resist) also features guitar, which is uncredited and is possibly a sample. Tactical Neural Implant released soon after in 1992 and marked a major change in the band's sound, exploring more melodic and electronic styles throughout the album. The album was the first to feature widespread use of multiple film and instrumental samples, another element to be expanded on later. The release is considered one of the band's very best by fans and critics alike.Millennium (1994) then followed and became the band's first industrial metal record, containing several guitar samples from prominent metal bands such as Pantera ("Walk") alongside the session guitar work of Devin Townsend, who also appears on the follow-up Hard Wired (1995). The inclusion of guitars has since become common on recent FLA albums, such as Improvised Electronic Device (2010), though not a permanent change. [FLA]vour of the Weak (1997) is similar to Tactical Neural Implant, though it has significant electronica and big beat influences and is possibly the band's most melodic and musically varied album in their entire catalogue. The album largely eschews previously used guitars and samples, featuring a more stripped-down sound. Flavour' and the next two releases, Implode (1999) and Epitaph (2001), featured Chris Peterson as a collaborator (including future albums) before the return of Fulber on Civilization (2004). Echogenetic (2013) saw the band incorporate dubstep into their music, which was popular at the time. The band released a soundtrack album titled AirMech in 2012, followed by WarMech in 2018. The albums feature a continuation of the electronica style of the band's later material. The first is the eponymous soundtrack of the game and the latter is for the game's sequel, titled AirMech Wastelands.Members Current members Bill Leeb – vocals, keyboard, percussion Rhys Fulber – keyboard, programming, percussion Former members Michael Balch – keyboard, programming, percussion Chris Peterson – keyboard, programming, percussion Jeremy Inkel – keyboard, programming, percussion (died 2018) Jared Slingerland – guitar, keyboard, programming, percussion Member timeline Discography Studio albums This listing only lists regular full-length studio albums.The Initial Command (1987) State of Mind (1988)Corrosion (1988)Gashed Senses & Crossfire (1989)Caustic Grip (1990)Tactical Neural Implant (1992)Millennium (1994)Hard Wired (1995)[FLA]vour of the Weak (1997) Implode (1999)Epitaph (2001)Civilization (2004)Artificial Soldier (2006)Improvised Electronic Device (2010)Echogenetic (2013)Wake Up the Coma (2019)Mechanical Soul (2021) Tours Gashed Senses & Crossfire tour (Europe and North America), 1989 Caustic Grip tour (Europe and North America), 1991 Hard Wired tour (World), 1995–1996 Re-Wind tour, 1998 Implosion tour (North America), 1999 Artificial Soldier tour (Europe and North America), 2006 Fallout tour (Europe and North America), 2007 Improvised Electronic Device tour (Europe and North America), 2010–2011 Echogenetic tour (Europe and North America), 2013–2014 The Machinists United Tour, 2018 (with Die Krupps) Side projects and associated acts In the course of Front Line Assembly's history, current and former band members have engaged in a multitude of musical activities besides Front Line AssemblyActive bands Conjure One is Rhys Fulber's project he started after leaving Front Line Assembly in 1997, venturing deeper into ambient and worldbeat. Fulber released the first album under this moniker in 2002 and has since hit the charts several times. Delerium started off as a side project in 1987. While Bill Leeb is the only constant member and band leader, collaborators include current and former Front Line Assembly personnel. The project is stylistically diverse ranging from trance, world music and ambient to electronic pop music, features a number of female guest singers and had several chart entries and number one hits. Fear Factory is an American industrial metal band with a long-standing working relationship with Fulber. He started off delivering remixes for Fear Factory at the beginning of the 1990s, eventually becoming their long-time producer, and was considered de facto member. Left Spine Down is a Canadian digital hardcore band co-founded by Jeremy Inkel. Jared Slingerland is a former member. Noise Unit is an industrial spin-off of Front Line Assembly launched in the late 1980s by Leeb and including Marc Verhaeghen from Belgian industrial band Klinik on their first two albums. Other Front Line Assembly members joined at different times, the project also saw a collaboration with German industrial band Haujobb. Skinny Puppy is Leeb's first band. Unit 187 is a Canadian industrial metal band which Peterson wrote songs for in 2003 and later joined as full-time member. Inactive or defunct bands Blackland was the main project of Michael Balch, launched in the first half of the 1990s after his departure from Front Line Assembly. Although having recorded a full-length album and an EP, Blackland never released officially through a label. Cyberaktif was a one-off collaboration between Bill Leeb and cEvin Key and Dwayne Goettel of Skinny Puppy in 1990 and 1991 which resulted in one album and two accompanying singles, released on Wax Trax!. Decree is a noise dark ambient industrial metal band Chris Peterson co-founded in 1991. Their most recent album is the 2011 release "Fateless", and their website is no longer active. Equinox was a drum and bass-oriented side project of Leeb and Peterson that spawned an album and a single in 1998. Fauxliage is the name of the project and the album that Leeb and Fulber started and released in 2007 together with Sixpence None the Richer singer Leigh Nash whom they had worked with on past Delerium albums. Intermix was a side project of Leeb and Fulber in the 1990s that focused on techno and later on ambient. Mutual Mortuary was a collaboration between Leeb and Skinny Puppy's Nivek Ogre which resulted in two tracks released on compilations in 1986. Ogre was opposed to releasing any track of the project, claiming the tracks were unfinished. Pro>Tech was a solo effort of Leeb in 1997 which spawned only one album that bore similarities with Front Line Assembly's [FLA]vour of the Weak. Revelstoker was a drum 'n' bass side project of Chris Peterson that released only one track on a compilation of Vancouver-based label Xynthetic in 2007. Stiff Valentine is a Canadian metal band for which Jared Slingerland appeared as guest member. Their most recent release was the track "Coke Ah Cola" for the 2015 compilation Electronic Saviors Volume 3: Remission. Synæsthesia was an ambient side project of Leeb and Fulber in the 1990s. Will'' was an industrial venture of Peterson and Fulber together with vocalist John McRae. See also List of bands from British Columbia Music of Vancouver References External links Mindphaser.com Official Site Front Line Assembly discography at Discogs Canadian industrial music groups Industrial rock musical groups Electro-industrial music groups Electronic body music groups Cyberpunk music Musical groups from Vancouver Musical groups established in 1986 ROIR artists 1986 establishments in British Columbia Third Mind Records artists Wax Trax! Records artists Metropolis Records artists Dependent Records artists Nettwerk Music Group artists Off Beat label artists Zoth Ommog Records artists Cleopatra Records artists
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Douglas%20B-18%20Bolo
Douglas B-18 Bolo
The Douglas B-18 Bolo is an American medium bomber which served with the United States Army Air Corps and the Royal Canadian Air Force (as the Digby) during the late 1930s and early 1940s. The Bolo was built by the Douglas Aircraft Company, based on its DC-2, and was developed to replace the Martin B-10. By 1940, it was considered to be underpowered, to have inadequate defensive armament, and to carry too small a bomb load. Many were destroyed during the attacks on Pearl Harbor and the Philippines in December 1941. In 1942, the surviving B-18s were relegated to antisubmarine, transport duty, and training. A B-18 was one of the first American aircraft to sink a German U-boat, on 22 August 1942 in the Caribbean. Design and development In 1934, the United States Army Air Corps put out a request for a bomber with double the bomb load and range of the Martin B-10, which was just entering service as the Army's standard bomber. In the evaluation at Wright Field the following year, Douglas showed its DB-1. It competed with the Boeing Model 299 (later developed into the Boeing B-17 Flying Fortress) and Martin 146. While the Boeing design was clearly superior, the crash of the B-17 prototype (caused by taking off with the controls still locked) removed it from consideration. During the depths of the Great Depression, the lower price of the DB-1 ($58,500 vs. $99,620 for the Model 299) also counted in its favor. The Douglas design was ordered into immediate production in January 1936 as the B-18. The DB-1 design was essentially that of the DC-2, with several modifications. The wingspan was greater. The fuselage was deeper, to better accommodate bombs and the six-member crew; the wings were fixed in the middle of the cross-section rather than to the bottom due to the deeper fuselage. Added armament included nose, dorsal, and ventral gun turrets. Preston Tucker's firm received a contract to supply a remote controlled gun turret for the aircraft. Operational history The initial contract called for 133 B-18s (including DB-1), using Wright R-1820 radial engines. The last B-18 of the run, designated DB-2 by the company, had a power-operated nose turret. This design did not become standard. Additional contracts in 1937 (177 aircraft) and 1938 (40 aircraft) were for the B-18A, which had the bombardier's position further forward over the nose-gunner's station. The B-18A also used more powerful engines. Deliveries of B-18s to Army units began in the first half of 1937, with the first examples being test and evaluation aircraft being turned over to the Materiel Division at Wright Field, Ohio, the Technical Training Command at Chanute Field, Illinois, the Aberdeen Proving Ground, Maryland, and Lowry Field, Colorado. Deliveries to operational groups began in late 1937, the first being the 7th Bombardment Group at Hamilton Field, California. Production B-18s, with full military equipment fitted, had a maximum speed of 217 mph, cruising speed of 167 mph, and combat range of 850 miles. By 1940, most USAAC bomber squadrons were equipped with B-18s or B-18As. However, the deficiencies in the B-18/B-18A bomber were becoming readily apparent to almost everyone. In range, speed, bomb load, and particularly defensive armor and armament, the design came up short, and the Air Corps conceded that the aircraft was obsolete and totally unsuited for the long-range bombing role for which it had originally been acquired. To send crews out in such a plane against a well-armed, determined foe would have been nothing short of suicidal. However, in spite of the known shortcomings of the B-18/B-18A, the Douglas aircraft was the most numerous American bomber type deployed outside the continental United States at the time of the attack on Pearl Harbor. It was hoped that the B-18 could play a stopgap role until more suitable aircraft such as the Boeing B-17 Flying Fortress and Consolidated B-24 Liberator became available in quantity. World War II When war came to the Pacific, most of the B-18/B-18A aircraft based overseas in the Philippines and in Hawaii were destroyed on the ground in the initial Japanese onslaught. The few Bolos that remained played no significant role in subsequent operations. The B-18s remaining in the continental US and in the Caribbean were then deployed in a defensive role in anticipation of attacks on the US mainland. These attacks never materialized. B-17s supplanted B-18s in first-line service in 1942. Following this, 122 B-18As were modified for anti-submarine warfare. The bombardier was replaced by a search radar with a large radome. Magnetic anomaly detection (MAD) equipment was sometimes housed in a tail boom. These aircraft, designated B-18B, were used in the Caribbean on anti-submarine patrol. On 2 October 1942, a B-18A, piloted by Captain Howard Burhanna Jr. of the 99th Bomb Squadron, depth charged and sank the north of Cayenne, French Guiana. Two aircraft were transferred to Força Aérea Brasileira in 1942 and used with a provisional conversion training unit set up under the provisions of Lend-Lease. They were later used for anti-submarine patrols. They were struck off charge at the end of the war. In 1940 the Royal Canadian Air Force acquired 20 B-18As (as the Douglas Digby Mark I), and also used them for patrol duties, being immediately issued to 10 Squadron to replace the squadron's Westland Wapitis. Bolos and Digbys sank an additional two submarines during the course of the war. RCAF Eastern Air Command (EAC) Digbys carried out 11 attacks on U-boats. was confirmed sunk by Flying Officer F. Raymes' crew of No. 10 (BR) Squadron, on 30 October 1942. east of Newfoundland. However, the antisubmarine role was relatively short-lived, and the Bolos were superseded in this role in 1943 by Consolidated B-24 Liberators which had a much heavier payload and a substantially longer range which finally closed the mid-Atlantic gap. Surviving USAAF B-18s ended their useful lives in training and transport roles within the continental United States, and saw no further combat action. Two B-18As were modified as unarmed cargo transports under the designation C-58. At the end of the war, those bombers that were left were sold as surplus on the commercial market. Some postwar B-18s of various models were operated as cargo or crop-spraying aircraft by commercial operators. Some of the Douglas Digbys in Canadian service were converted to C-58s or used for training. Variants DB-1 Manufacturer's designation for prototype, first of B-18 production run, 1 built. B-18 Initial production version, 131 or 133 built. B-18M Trainer B-18 with bomb gear removed. DB-2 Manufacturer's designation for prototype with powered nose turret; last of B-18 production run, 1 built. B-18A B-18 with more powerful Wright R-1820-53 engines and relocated bombardier's station, 217 built. B-18AM Trainer B-18A with bomb gear removed. B-18B Antisubmarine conversion, 122 converted by adding a radar and magnetic anomaly detector B-18C Antisubmarine conversion, 2 converted. Fixed forward-firing .50 cal machine gun, starboard side of the fuselage near lower nose glazing. XB-22 Improved version of B-18 using Wright R-2600-3 radial engines (1,600 hp/1,194 kW). Never built, largely due to better light bombers such as the B-23 Dragon. C-58 Transport conversion. Digby Mark I Royal Canadian Air Force modification of B-18A. Named after the RAF school of bombing at RAF Digby. Operators Brazilian Air Force 1st Bomber Group (3 examples) Royal Canadian Air Force No. 10 Squadron RCAF, Halifax, Nova Scotia (Digby Mk.1) United States Army Air Corps/United States Army Air Forces 1st Search Attack Group, Langley Field, Virginia (B-18A/B/C) 2d Bombardment Group, Langley Field, Virginia (B-18A) 3d Bombardment Group, Barksdale Field, Louisiana (B-18) 5th Bombardment Group, Hickam Field, Hawaii (B-18)** 6th Bombardment Group, Rio Hato Airfield, Panama, (B-18/B-18A/B) 7th Bombardment Group, Hamilton Field, California, (B-18) 5th Bombardment Group, Luke Field, Oahu, Hawaii Territory (B-18)** 9th Bombardment Group, Caribbean; Panama and South American air bases (B-18/B-18A/B) 11th Bombardment Group, Hickam Field, Hawaii Territory (B-18)** 13th Bombardment Group, Langley Field, Virginia (B-18A/B) 17th Bombardment Group, McChord Field, Washington (B-18) 19th Bombardment Group, Clark Field, Philippines Commonwealth (B-18)** 22d Bombardment Group, Muroc Field, California (B-18) 25th Bombardment Group, Caribbean (B-18/B) 27th Bombardment Group, Barksdale Field, Louisiana (B-18) 28th Bombardment Group, California, (B-18) 28th Composite Group, Elmendorf Field, Alaska, (B-18A) 29th Bombardment Group, Langley Field (B-18A) 40th Bombardment Group, Panama, Puerto Rico (B-18/B) 41st Bombardment Group, California, (B-18) 42nd Bombardment Group, Portland, Oregon (B-18) 45th Bombardment Group, Savannah Airfield, Georgia (B-18A) 47th Bombardment Group, McChord Field, Washington (B-18) 479th Antisubmarine Group, Langley Field, Virginia (B-18A/B) **Note: Most aircraft destroyed 7–8 December 1941 at outbreak of World War II Aircraft on display Only six B-18s still exist, five of them preserved or under restoration in museums in the United States: B-18 36-446 – Kohala Mountains, Hawaii. Tail code "81 50R". Crash-landed due to engine failure on February 25, 1941. Crew was rescued and the aircraft was abandoned; it remains in a gulch on private land. The Air Force later recovered the nose turret for 37-029 and the dorsal turret for 37-469. There have been plans to recover the aircraft for the Pacific Air Museum in Honolulu. 37-029 – Castle Air Museum at the former Castle Air Force Base in Atwater, California. Dropped from USAAF inventory in 1944, it was registered as NC52056 in 1945, later to N52056. The B-18 was used by Avery Aviation and then Hawkins and Powers, as a firebomber, dropping borate for many years. B-18A 37-469 – National Museum of the United States Air Force at Wright-Patterson Air Force Base in Dayton, Ohio. One of the first production Bolos, was delivered to Wright Field in 1937 for evaluation testing. Sold as N56847, converted to crop sprayer; by May 1969 stored derelict at Tucson, Arizona. It sat outdoors for many years before being restored to static display condition. This aircraft has an incorrect dorsal turret. The museum has been attempting to locate a correct turret for this aircraft for many years. 39-025 – Wings Over the Rockies Air and Space Museum at the former Lowry Air Force Base in Denver, Colorado. This Bolo spent World War II at several airfields as a bombardier trainer and as a light transport. It was dropped from inventory on 3 November 1944, and was later sold, acquiring the civil registry NC62477. It spent 14 years on the civil registry before going to Cuba in 1958. In November 1958 the aircraft was seized in Florida by US Treasury agents when it was hauling guns to Fidel Castro. In 1960, the aircraft was parked at Cannon AFB, New Mexico, until being presented to the National Museum of the United States Air Force at Wright-Patterson AFB. It flew to the museum in April 1961. In 1988, the aircraft was transferred to the Wings Over The Rockies Aviation and Space Museum where it was restored through the 1990s. It is displayed there as AAC Ser. No. 39-522. B-18B 37-505 – At the McChord Air Museum, McChord AFB, Washington. Sold as N67947, then Mexican registration XB-JAJ. Acquired by Tucson Air Museum Foundation of Tucson, Arizona and stored at Watsonville, California. This was the last flyable B-18, making its final flight to Tucson on 10 April 1971. At Pima Air & Space Museum in 1973, it was subsequently acquired by the National Museum of the United States Air Force in 1981 and moved to Davis-Monthan AFB, Arizona for storage, then in 1983 put on display at the McChord Air Museum. Access to the McChord Air Museum is currently restricted to military personnel (active, reserve, national guard, retired), and their dependents unless a base visitor pass is acquired in advance. 38-593 – Pima Air & Space Museum adjacent to Davis-Monthan Air Force Base in Tucson, Arizona. This Bolo spent the early part of WWII on anti-submarine patrol. In 1943 began use a light transport. She was retired and struck from the inventory in 1945. Was operated as a firebomber as N66267, 1954–1970. In storage at Phoenix Goodyear Airport, Litchfield Park, Arizona by September 1969, then delivered to Pima on 5 September 1976. The aircraft sat outside in the desert for many years before being restored and moved indoors for display. The aircraft is still equipped with an antisubmarine search radar dome. Specifications (B-18A) Notable appearances in media See also References Notes Bibliography Francillon, René J. McDonnell Douglas Aircraft Since 1920. London: Putnam, 1979. . . Gradidge, Jennifer M. The Douglas DC-1, DC-2, DC-3 – The First Seventy Years (two volumes), Tonbridge, Kent, UK: Air-Britain (Historians), 2006. . Kostenuk, Samuel and John Griffin. RCAF Squadron Histories and Aircraft: 1924–1968. Toronto: Samuel Stevens, Hakkert & Co, 1977. . External links . . . 1930s United States bomber aircraft B-18 Bolo 1930s United States military trainer aircraft 1930s United States military transport aircraft Aircraft first flown in 1935 Mid-wing aircraft World War II bombers of the United States Twin piston-engined tractor aircraft
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Air%20Vanuatu
Air Vanuatu
Air Vanuatu is an airline with its head office in the Air Vanuatu House, Port Vila, Vanuatu. It is Vanuatu's national flag carrier, operating to Australia, New Zealand, New Caledonia and points in the South Pacific. Its main base is Bauerfield International Airport, Port Vila. History Air Vanuatu was established in early 1981 after Vanuatu gained independence from the United Kingdom and France the previous year. The assistance of Ansett Airlines was sought and a five-year agreement put in place for Ansett to provide aircraft and operating staff. Ansett also took a 40% stake in the new airline, the government of Vanuatu holding the other 60%. The first Air Vanuatu flight, a McDonnell Douglas DC-9-31 owned and operated by Ansett, departed Sydney for Port Vila on 5 September 1981. In May 1982 a Boeing 737-200 of Polynesian Airlines replaced the DC-9; this was replaced in turn by an Ansett 737-200 in October 1985. In March 1986 the agreement with Ansett expired and was not renewed, this had the effect of grounding the airline. In 1987 the company was re-established with 100% ownership by the government of Vanuatu, after a new commercial agreement was signed with Australian Airlines; weekly Sydney – Port Vila flights re-commenced on 19 December using a Boeing 727-200 chartered from Australian. Air Vanuatu subsequently bought the aircraft in 1989 and leased it back to Australian for use on that airline's network on days that it was not used by Air Vanuatu. In November 1992 the 727 was replaced by a Boeing 737-400 leased from Australian Airlines. The following year an Embraer EMB 110 Bandeirante was also leased from Australian, entering service that April to operate flights between Port Vila and Nouméa. The leases on both aircraft continued after Australian was taken over by Qantas in October 1993, with the commercial agreement being rolled-over to Qantas as well. Qantas is deeply involved in the airline's operations to this day; Air Vanuatu uses Qantas Frequent Flyer program, Qantas codeshares on Air Vanuatu's flights from Australia, and provides maintenance and pilot training services as well. Air Vanuatu terminated the lease on the Qantas Boeing 737-400 after it took delivery of its own Boeing 737-300 in April 1997. The same month Bandeirante services ceased when a Saab 2000 entered service. The lease on the Saab 2000 was terminated in March 1999 and in June that year Air Vanuatu commenced using a de Havilland Canada Dash 8 of Vanuatu's government-owned domestic carrier Vanair on weekly services to Nouméa. In April 2001 Air Vanuatu merged with Vanair, however the merger was reversed only five months later. In November 2003 an ATR 42 entered service for use on domestic routes in competition with Vanair. In September 2004, Air Vanuatu again merged with Vanair. In January 2008 Air Vanuatu replaced its Boeing 737-300 with a new Boeing 737-800. Three Harbin Y-12s were added to the fleet in early 2009 and in October the same year the airline took delivery of a new ATR 72–500 aircraft to replace its ATR 42. Four days after the ATR 72 arrived at Port Vila the Board of Air Vanuatu was sacked and replaced by Directors General of various Vanuatu government ministries. The ATR 72 made its first revenue flight for Air Vanuatu on 8 November 2009. A second ATR 72–500 was delivered to the airline in November 2014. In 2016 the Harbin Y-12s were phased out and replaced by de Havilland Canada DHC-6 Twin Otters. In July 2020, Air Vanuatu announced a major set of changes for the airline due to the COVID-19 pandemic. With the reshuffling of Orders and the shrinking and localization of the management team. During this, the CEO Derek Nice has stepped down, being temporarily replaced by Joseph Laloyer. Until a replacement can be found. This includes delaying the delivery of the 4 A220 Family aircraft they had on order. And a strategic review of their network. Destinations Domestic As of November 2009 Air Vanuatu operates 28 domestic routes throughout the country. Malampa Craig Cove (Craig Cove Airport) Lamap (Malekoula Island Airport) Norsup (Norsup Airport) Paama (Paama Airport) South West Bay (South West Bay Airport) Ulei (Ulei Airport) Penama Longana, east Ambae (Longana Airport) Naone, Maewo (Maewo-Naone Airport) Redcliffe, south Ambae (Redcliffe Airport) Lonorore, south Pentecost (Lonorore Airport) Sara, north Pentecost (Sara Airport) Walaha, west Ambae (Walaha Airport) Shefa Émaé (Siwo Airport) Lamen Bay (Lamen Bay Airport) Tongoa (Tongoa Airport) Valesdir (Valesdir Airport) Tafea Anatom (Anatom Airport) Aniwa (Aniwa Airport) Dillon's Bay (Dillon's Bay Airport) Futuna Island (Futuna Airport) Ipota (Ipota Airport) Tanna (White Grass Airport) Torba Gaua (Gaua Airport) Mota Lava (Mota Lava Airport) Sola, Vanua Lava (Vanua Lava Airport) Torres Islands (Torres Airport) International Charter Flights Air Vanuatu Charter As of September 2020 Air Vanuatu commenced International Charter Flights to / from the following international destinations specialising in seasonal worker, company, diplomatic and freight charters throughout the Pacific Islands, South West Pacfic, South East Asia, Asia, Australia and New Zealand. #airvanuatucharter : International Scheduled As of March 2019 Air Vanuatu operates to the following international destinations: Codeshare agreements Air Vanuatu has codeshare agreements with the following airlines: Aircalin Air Niugini Fiji Airways Qantas Solomon Airlines Fleet , the Air Vanuatu fleet consists of the following aircraft: Incidents and accidents 19 December 2008 – a Britten-Norman Islander aircraft (Flight 261) with nine passengers crashed into a mountain near Olpoi Airport on the western side of the island of Espiritu Santo, killing the pilot and seriously injuring some passengers. The aircraft had been heading to Santo-Pekoa International Airport. The mountainous region where the aircraft crashed was shrouded in thick fog at the time. 25 July 1991 – a Britten-Norman Islander aircraft crashed on the island of Espiritu Santo, killing all nine passengers and the pilot. The crash site was only located after a four-day search involving several helicopters. The crash was attributed to pilot error. 28 July 2018, ATR 72 registration YJ-AV71, operating Flight 241, suffered an in-flight engine failure. On landing at Port Vila, the aircraft departed the runway and collided with two parked Britten-Norman Islander aircraft belonging to Unity Airlines and that of another company. Thirteen people sustained minor injuries. See also Vanair References External links Air Vanuatu Captain Bani dies saving passengers 1981 establishments in Vanuatu Airlines established in 1981 Airlines of Vanuatu Government-owned airlines Port Vila
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle%20of%20Sluys
Battle of Sluys
The Battle of Sluys (; ), also called the Battle of l'Écluse, was a naval battle fought on 24 June 1340 between England and France. It took place in the roadstead of the port of Sluys (French Écluse), on a since silted-up inlet between Zeeland and West Flanders. The English fleet of 120–150 ships was led by Edward III of England and the 230-strong French fleet by the Breton knight Hugues Quiéret, Admiral of France, and Nicolas Béhuchet, Constable of France. The battle was one of the opening engagements of the Hundred Years' War. Edward sailed from the River Orwell on 22 June and encountered the French blocking his way to Sluys harbour. The French had bound their ships into three lines, forming large floating fighting platforms. The English fleet spent some time manoeuvring to gain the advantage of wind and tide. During this delay the French ships were driven to the east of their starting positions and became entangled with each other. Béhuchet and Quiéret ordered the ships to be separated and the fleet attempted to move back to the west, against the wind and the tide. While the French were in this disorganised state, the English attacked. The English were able to manoeuvre against the French and defeat them in detail, capturing most of their ships. The French lost 16,000–20,000 men. The battle gave the English fleet naval supremacy in the English Channel. However, they were unable to take strategic advantage of this, and their success barely interrupted French raids on English territories and shipping. Operationally, the battle allowed the English army to land and to then besiege the French town of Tournai, albeit unsuccessfully. Background Cause of war Since the Norman Conquest of 1066, English monarchs had held titles and lands within France, the possession of which made them vassals of the kings of France. French monarchs systematically sought to check the growth of English power, stripping away lands as the opportunity arose. Over the centuries, English holdings in France had varied in size, but by 1337 only Gascony in south-western France and Ponthieu in northern France were left. The independent-minded Gascons had their own customs and their own language. A large proportion of the red wine they produced was shipped to England in a profitable trade. The tax raised from this trade provided the English king with much of his revenue. The Gascons preferred their relationship with a distant English king, who left them alone, to one with a French king, who would interfere in their affairs. Following a series of disagreements between Philip VI of France () and Edward III of England (), on 24 May 1337 Philip's Great Council in Paris agreed that the Duchy of Aquitaine, effectively Gascony, should be taken back into Philip's hands on the grounds that Edward was in breach of his obligations as a vassal. This marked the start of the Hundred Years' War, which was to last 116 years. Opposing navies At the beginning of the war the French had the advantage at sea. Galleys had long been used by the Mediterranean powers and the French adopted them for use in the English Channel. Being shallow-draught vessels propelled by banks of oars the galleys could penetrate shallow harbours and were highly manoeuvrable, making them effective for raiding and ship-to-ship combat in meeting engagements. The French galleys were supplemented by galleys hired from Genoa and Monaco. The French were able to disrupt English commercial shipping, principally the Gascon wine and the Flanders wool trades, as well as raiding the south and east coasts of England at will. Operating the galleys was a specialist activity and called for highly trained crews, who were normally also drawn from Genoa, Monaco and, to a lesser extent, other Mediterranean ports. The English did not have a purpose-built navy; Edward owned only three warships. The king relied on requisitioning cogs, the merchant vessels of English traders. Cogs had a deep draught, a round hull and were propelled by a single large sail set on a mast amidships. They were converted into warships by the addition of wooden "castles" at the bow and stern and the erection of crow's nest platforms at the masthead. The cogs had a displacement of and were able to carry many fighting men. Their high freeboard made them superior to the oared vessels in close combat, particularly when they were fitted with castles from which arrows or bolts could be fired or stones dropped on to enemy craft alongside. By English common law, the crown was required to compensate the owners of ships impressed into service, but in practice, the king paid little and late, which caused shipowners to be reluctant to answer summonses to arms. Earlier activities In March 1338, the English town of Portsmouth was captured and razed by French galleys. Five English ships carrying wool were captured off Walcheren in September after a fierce fight known as the Battle of Arnemuiden. The lost ships included two of Edward's three warships: the Christopher and the "great cog" Cog Edward. In October the major port of Southampton was captured and burnt down. The following year it was the turn of Hastings. In 1339, there had been discontent among the Genoese mercenaries hired by the French, whose commander had not been passing on their pay. Believing the fault lay with their French paymasters, a deputation sought an audience with the French king in August. The deputation was jailed, causing the Genoese crews to mutiny and return to the Mediterranean. When the mutinous sailors arrived back to Genoa, they led an uprising that overthrew the ruling patricians. The new regime was disinclined to enter into new contracts with the French. When several ship captains were persuaded to do so, they were bribed by English agents to renege. In January 1340 the English successfully raided the port of Boulogne, where the majority of the French galley fleet was drawn up on the harbour beach and was inadequately guarded. Taking advantage of a mist the English surprised the French and destroyed 18 galleys, 24 other ships, large stocks of naval equipment and much of the harbour district before being driven off. The French were left with only 6 galleys, which they supplemented with 22 oared barges. The loss of their galleys reduced the threat posed by the French to the English south coast and freed the English ships for offensive operations. During the winter and the spring of 1340, the French ports of Dieppe, Le Treport and Mers were successfully raided. The French fell back on the English expedient of requisitioning merchant ships. Philip ordered the collection of 200 ships, mostly Norman, into a 'Great Army of the Sea'. Contemporary French documents record the fleet's size as 202 vessels: 6 galleys, 7 royal warships, 22 oared barges and 167 merchant vessels. The crew complement was over 19,000, but they only included 150 men-at-arms and 500 crossbowmen. It was commanded by the Breton knight Hugues Quiéret, the Admiral of France, and Nicolas Béhuchet, the Grand Constable of France, the senior figure in the French military hierarchy. The six galleys were commanded by Pietro Barbavera, who had learnt his trade in the Mediterranean as a corsair. Although Gascony was the cause of the war, Edward was able to spare few resources for it, and determined to campaign with his main force in north-eastern France in 1340. He wished to land his army and link up with his continental allies: several states of the Holy Roman Empire; and the Flemings, who had revolted against France during the winter and launched an April offensive, which had failed. A French offensive against these forces commenced on 18 May, meeting with mixed fortunes; Edward's outnumbered allies were desperate for the English army to reinforce them. Sources There are numerous contemporary accounts of the battle, including three surviving letters written by Edward shortly afterwards. Several others are eyewitness accounts, but almost all are written from a partisan perspective: either English, French, or Flemish. For the most part they lack detail, so much so that the historian Kelly DeVries has commentated that for some aspects of the battle "we have only a patchwork of interesting anecdotes to lead us to any conclusions." The best-known contemporary chronicler of this period of the Hundred Years' War is Jean Froissart and his Chronicles contain information missing from other surviving sources. The three redactions of his Chronicles differ from each other in many details of the battle and in their view of the reasons for its outcome. Prelude Edward had planned to ship his army to Sluys (modern Sluis), in Flemish Zeeland, in mid-April, but most English merchantmen, aware they were unlikely to receive the payments they were entitled to, were refusing to muster. In many cases they were probably bribing officials to turn a blind eye. The departure date was repeatedly postponed. On 4June the King's Council decided to sail with what ships they had, even though they could only carry 600 men-at-arms. On 10 June the council received with consternation news that the Great Army of the Sea had arrived at Sluys, the main port of Flanders, on the 8th. Quiéret and Béhuchet had cut English communications with the continent. As they blocked the roadstead a further 11 ships reinforced them, bringing the total French strength to 213 ships. The entire Zwin estuary has silted up since the battle, and modern Sluis is from the sea. An acrimonious meeting of the Council took place. A senior adviser, John de Stratford, Archbishop of Canterbury, insisted that putting to sea would risk the loss of the King and the whole expedition should be cancelled. Stratford stormed out of the council. The men in charge of the shipping arrangements were then personally abused by the King after they supported Stratford's opinion. In a fury Edward declared "Those who are afraid can stay at home". A string of instructions went out. Coastal defences were stripped. Peremptory orders were sent to royal officers to brook no excuses from tardy mariners. Edward personally harangued the shipowners of Yarmouth, the largest port in England. Meanwhile, the horses which had already been loaded were unloaded and the erstwhile transports were rapidly converted to warships by having forecastles, aftercastles and crow's nests added. In a feat which the modern historian Jonathan Sumption describes as "truly remarkable" a sizeable fleet had been assembled at the Orwell by 20 June. The payroll records for the English fleet have been lost, so historians have relied on the estimates of chroniclers to ascertain the size of the fleet. Of the ships which sailed with it, 66 have been identified by name and it is believed it totalled between 120 and 150 ships. It carried 1,300 men-at-arms and 1,000 longbowmen. Edward's lieutenants were the Earls of Northampton and Huntingdon. The fleet set sail early on 22 June 1340 and was in sight of the roadstead at Sluys by the afternoon of the following day. Edward anchored at Blankenberge and in the evening sent ashore Reginald Cobham, Sir John Chandos and Stephen Lambkin to reconnoitre the French fleet. Edward's intentions were well known; he wished to sail up the Zwin to Bruges and land his army to support his hard-pressed allies. When the English were sighted the French manoeuvred to bar Edward's way to the port of Sluys. Their fleet organised itself in three lines, one behind the other, each stretching across the estuary of the Zwin. The ships of each line were bound together with chains and ropes to prevent the passage of enemy ships, "like a line of castles". Several large ships were stationed in the front of the line, including the very large captured English prize the Christopher. This was a normal medieval tactic for a fleet fighting on the defensive. Barbavera, the experienced commander of the galleys, was concerned about this, realising they would lack manoeuvrability in their anchorage and be open to attack from the ship-based English archers. He advised the French commanders to put to sea and gain the weather gage, so as to be able to attack the English while they were disembarking, or deter this by the threat of an attack. Béhuchet, who as constable exercised overall command, knew little of naval operations. He viewed Barbavera as a mere commoner and near pirate, and wishing to take no chances of the English slipping past, insisted on holding a position blocking the inlet. Battle Cobham reported back late that night on the state of the French fleet. Edward entered the roadstead at high tide the next day, 24 June, manoeuvring to be able to attack with the advantage of wind and tide and with the sun behind them. The traditional view is that the attack took place at 3:00 pm. After nearly a day linked by chains and ropes, and with wind and rain working against them, the French ships had been driven to the east of their starting positions and become entangled with each other. Béhuchet and Quiéret ordered the ships to be separated, although in the event this proved difficult, and the fleet attempted to move back to the west, against the wind and the tide. In this disorganised state they made contact with the English. Edward sent his ships against the French fleet in units of three, two ships carrying archers flanking one with men-at-arms. The English ships with the archers would approach a French ship and loose arrows at a rate of more than ten per minute from each archer onto its decks; the men-at-arms would then board and take the vessel. The modern historians Jonathan Sumption and Robert Hardy separately state that the English archers, with their longbows, had a rate of fire two or three times greater than the French crossbowmen and significantly outranged them: Hardy reckons the longbows had an effective range of compared with for the crossbows. The battle resembled a land engagement at sea. Two opposing ships would be lashed together and the men-at-arms would then engage in hand-to-hand fighting while supporting troops fired arrows or bolts. As the battle progressed Béhuchet's tactic of chaining his ships together proved disastrous for the French, as it allowed the English to attack single ships or small groups of ships with overwhelming force while the rest of the French were immobilised. The greater number of fighting men in the English ships, especially archers, also told. A London longbowman reported that the English arrows were "like hail in winter". Many French ships were boarded and captured after fierce fighting. Barbavera had refused to tie his highly manoeuvrable galleys in with the French ships and they managed to board and capture two English ships. Several English noblewomen were killed when their ship was either boarded or sunk. As it became clear that the battle was going the way of the English, their Flemish allies sallied from the nearby ports and fell upon the French rear. In a letter to his son, Edward said the French "made a most noble defence all that day and the night after". Late at night the French rear line attempted to break out. Apart from the galleys only 17 other French ships escaped. The English captured 166 French merchant ships. The remaining 24 ships of the French fleet were sunk or burnt. Few, if any, prisoners were taken and the water was thick with blood and corpses. French losses were between 16,000 and 20,000 killed, a high proportion of these by drowning. The two French commanders were both captured and Béhuchet was hanged from the mast of his own ship, while Quiéret was beheaded, in vengeance for the massacre they had overseen at Arnemuiden two years earlier and for their raids on the English coast. Frenchmen who managed to swim ashore were clubbed to death by Flemish spectators. Only four English knights were killed, along with a larger number of other English combatants; chroniclers of the time estimated 400–600. The English joked that if the fish in Sluys harbour could speak, it would be in French, from the feast of French bodies they had dined on. For days the tides washed up bodies. Edward was wounded in the thigh by either an arrow or a bolt. Sumption summarises: "The French had suffered a naval catastrophe on a scale unequalled until modern times". Aftermath Tactically the battle allowed Edward to land his army, which went on to besiege Tournai, a city in Flanders loyal to Philip VI, although the campaign ended in failure. In the aftermath of the battle, the French suffered an invasion scare and rushed troops to their coastal districts. Philip ordered that Barbavera be arrested for desertion. Strategically the victory had little effect. It gave the English fleet naval supremacy in the English Channel, but Philip had greater resources than Edward and was able to rapidly rebuild the French navy around the ships which had escaped and those which were not involved in the battle. Within a month a French squadron under their new admiral, Robert de Houdetot, captured 30 merchantmen from an English wool convoy and threw the crews overboard. French ships continued to capture English merchantmen in the North Sea and to run men and munitions to their allies, the Scots. Nevertheless, the naval historian Graham Cushway says the loss of mariners economically devastated Norman and Picard maritime trade. An almshouse was set up at Leure (near Harfleur) to care for survivors too injured to work as seamen. English coastal communities rejoiced in the victory and in the relief from French raids they supposed it brought. They were mistaken; later in the year the French raided the Isle of Wight, Portland, Teignmouth, Plymouth and the Channel Islands. The English retaliated in September by raiding Brest, capturing many ships, including six fully laden Genoese merchantmen. In 1341 French, Castilian and Portuguese squadrons successfully interdicted English communications with Gascony. Edward made some efforts to remove a few of his more corrupt officials, and revoked some privileges of some of the ports which had failed to supply ships. The battle was later commemorated on Edward's gold noble coin, which depicted the King seated in a ship. The inscription reads: IHC TRANSIENS PER MEDIUM ILLORUM IBAT ("Jesus passing through the midst of them went his way"), an antiphon based on the Gospel of Luke 4:30, a text which was commonly invoked at the time for protection against harm in battle. Notes, citations and sources Notes Citations References External links Battle of Sluys on Medieval Archives Podcast 1340 in England 1340 in France 14th-century military history of the Kingdom of England Conflicts in 1340 Edward III of England History of Zeeland Naval battles involving England Naval battles involving France Naval battles of the Hundred Years' War Battle 1340
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Flag%20of%20Greece
Flag of Greece
The national flag of Greece, popularly referred to as the "blue and white" (, ) or the "sky blue and white" (, ), is officially recognised by Greece as one of its national symbols and has nine equal horizontal stripes of blue alternating with white. There is a blue canton in the upper hoist-side corner bearing a white cross; the cross symbolises Eastern Orthodox Christianity, the prevailing religion of Greece. The blazon of the flag is Azure, four bars Argent; on a canton of the field a Greek cross throughout of the second. The official flag ratio is 2:3. The shade of blue used in the flag has varied throughout its history, from light blue to dark blue, the latter being increasingly used since the late 1960s. It was officially adopted by the First National Assembly at Epidaurus on 13 January 1822. The nine stripes represent the nine syllables of the phrase ("Freedom or Death"), the five blue stripes for the syllables and the four white stripes . The nine stripes also represent the letters of the word "freedom" (). There is also a theory, that the nine stripes symbolise the nine Muses, the goddesses of art and civilisation (nine has traditionally been one of the numbers of reference for the Greeks). White and blue have been interpreted as symbolising the colours of the sky and sea. Historical background The origins of today's national flag with its cross-and-stripe pattern are a matter of debate. Every part of it, including the blue and white colors, the cross, as well as the stripe arrangement can be connected to very old historical elements; however, it is difficult to establish "continuity", especially as there is no record of the exact reasoning behind its official adoption in early 1822. It has been suggested by some Greek historians that the current flag derived from an older design, the virtually identical flag of the powerful Cretan Kallergis family. This flag was based on their coat of arms, whose pattern is supposed to be derived from the standards of their claimed ancestor, Byzantine Emperor Nicephorus II Phocas (963–969 AD). This pattern (according to not easily verifiable descriptions) included nine stripes of alternating blue and white, as well as a cross, assumed to be placed on the upper left. Although the use of alternating blue and white - or silver - stripes on (several centuries-old) Kallergis' coats of arms is well documented, no depiction of the above described pattern (with the nine stripes and the cross) survives. Antiquity and the Byzantine Empire Flags as they are known today did not exist in antiquity. Instead, a variety of emblems and symbols (, ; , ) were used to denote each state and were for example painted on the hoplite shields. The closest analogue to a modern flag were the -like banners used by ancient Greek armies, such as the so-called , a cloth of deep red, suspended from the top of a staff or spear. It is not known to have carried any device or decoration though. The Byzantines, like the Romans before them, used a variety of flags and banners, primarily to denote different military units. These were generally square or rectangular, with a number of streamers attached. Most prominent among the early Byzantine flags was the . In the surviving pictorial sources of the middle and later Empire, primarily the illustrated Skylitzes Chronicle, the predominating colours are red and blue in horizontal stripes, with a cross often placed in the centre of the flag. Other common symbols, prominently featuring on seals, were depictions of Christ, the Virgin Mary and saints, but these represent personal rather than family or state symbols. Western European-style heraldry was largely unknown until the last centuries of the Empire. There is no mention of any "state" flag until the mid-14th century, when a Spanish atlas, the Conosçimiento de todos los reynos depicts the flag of "the Empire of Constantinople" combining the red-on-white Cross of St George with the "tetragrammatic cross" of the ruling house of the Palaiologoi, featuring the four betas or pyrekvola ("fire-steels") on the flag quarters representing the imperial motto ("King of Kings Reigning over those who Rule"). The tetragrammatic cross flag, as it appears in quarters II and III in this design, is well documented. In the same Spanish atlas this "plain" tetragrammatic cross flag is presented as (among other places in the Empire) "the Flag of Salonika" and "the real Greece and Empire of the Greeks (la vera Grecia e el imperio de los griegos)". The (quartered) arrangement that includes the Cross of St. George is documented only in the Spanish atlas, and most probably combines the arms of Genoa (which had occupied Galata) with those of the Byzantine Empire, and was most probably flown only in Constantinople. Pseudo-Kodinos records the use of the "tetragrammatic cross" on the banner (phlamoulon) borne by imperial naval vessels, while the megas doux displayed an image of the emperor on horseback. Ottoman period During the Ottoman rule several unofficial flags were used by Greeks, usually employing the Byzantine double-headed eagle (see below), the cross, depictions of saints and various mottoes. The Christian Greek sipahi cavalry employed by the Ottoman Sultan were allowed to use their own, clearly Christian flag, when within Epirus and the Peloponnese. It featured the classic blue cross on a white field with the picture of St. George slaying the dragon, and was used from 1431 until 1639, when this privilege was greatly limited by the Sultan. Similar flags were used by other local leaders. The closest to a Greek "national" flag during Ottoman rule was the so-called "Graeco-Ottoman flag" (), a civil ensign Greek Orthodox merchants (better: merchants from the Greek-dominated Orthodox millet) were allowed to fly on their ships, combining stripes with red (for the Ottoman Empire) and blue (for Orthodoxy) colours. After the Treaty of Küçük Kaynarca, Greek-owned merchant ships could also fly the Russian flag. During the uprising of 1769 the historic blue cross on white field was used again by key military leaders who used it all the way to the revolution of 1821. It became the most popular Revolution flag, and it was argued that it should become the national flag. The "reverse" arrangement, white cross on a blue field, also appeared as Greek flag during the uprisings. This design had apparently been used earlier as well, as a local symbol (a similar 16th or 17th century flag has been found near Chania). A military leader, Yiannis Stathas, used a flag with white cross on blue on his ship since 1800. The first flag featuring the design eventually adopted was created and hoisted in the Evangelistria monastery in Skiathos in 1807. Several prominent military leaders (including Theodoros Kolokotronis and Andreas Miaoulis) had gathered there for consultation concerning an uprising, and they were sworn to this flag by the local bishop. War of Independence Revolutionary flags Prior and during the early days of the Greek War of Independence (1821–1829), a large variety of flags was designed, proposed and used by various Greek intellectuals in Western Europe, local leaders, chieftains and regional councils. Aside from the cross, many of these flags featured saints, the phoenix (symbolising the rebirth of the Greek nation), mottoes such as "Freedom or Death" () or the fasces-like emblems of the Philiki Etaireia, the secret society that organised the uprising. Adoption Because the European monarchies, allied in the so-called "Concert of Europe", were suspicious towards national or social revolutionary movements such as the Etaireia, the First Greek National Assembly, convening in January 1822, took steps to disassociate itself from the Etaireias legacy and portray nascent Greece as a "conventional", ordered nation-state. As such not only were the regional councils abolished in favour of a central administration, but it was decided to abolish all revolutionary flags and adopt a universal national flag. The reasons why the particular arrangement (white cross on blue) was selected, instead of the more popular blue cross on a white field, remain unknown. On 15 March 1822, the Provisional Government, by Decree Nr. 540, laid down the exact pattern: white cross on blue (plain) for the land flag; nine alternate-coloured stripes with the white cross on a blue field in the canton for the naval ensign; and blue with a blue cross on a white field in the canton for the civil ensign (merchant flag). On 30 June 1828, by decree of the Governor Ioannis Kapodistrias, the civil ensign was discontinued, and the cross-and-stripes naval ensign became the national ensign, worn by both naval and merchant ships. This design became immediately very popular with Greeks and in practice was often used simultaneously with the national (plain cross) flag. On 7 February 1828 the Greek flag was internationally recognised for the first time by receiving an official salutation from British, French, and Russian forces in Nafplio, then the capital of Greece. Historical evolution After the establishment of the Kingdom of Greece in 1832, the new king, Otto, added the royal Coat of Arms (a shield in his ancestral Bavarian pattern topped by a crown) in the centre of the cross for military flags (both land and sea versions). The decree dated 4 (16) April 1833 provided for various maritime flags such as the war flag or naval ensign (set at 18:25), pennant, royal standard (set at 7:10) and civil ensign (i.e. the naval ensign without coat of arms). A royal decree dated 28 August 1858 provided for details on the construction and dimensions concerning the flags described in the 1833 decree and other flags. After Otto's abdication in 1862, the royal coat of arms was removed. In 1863, the 17-year old Danish prince William was selected as Greece's new king, taking on the name George I. A royal decree dated 28 December 1863 introduced crowns into the various flags in place of the coat of arms. Similar arrangements were made for the royal flags, which featured the coat of arms of the House of Schleswig-Holstein-Sonderburg-Glücksburg on a square version of the national flag. A square version of the land flag with St. George in the centre was adopted on 9 April 1864 as the Army's colours. The exact shape and usage of the flags was determined by Royal Decree on 26 September 1867. By a new Royal Decree, on 31 May 1914, the various flags of Greece and its military were further regulated. By this decree, the flag with the crown was adopted for use as a state flag by ministries, embassies and civil services, while the sea flag (without the crown) was allowed for use by private citizens. On 25 March 1924, with the establishment of the Second Hellenic Republic, the crowns were removed from all flags. On 20 February 1930, the national flag's proportions were established at a 2:3 ratio, with the arms of the cross being "one fifth of the flag's width". The land version of the national flag was to be used by ministries, embassies, and in general by all civil and military services, while the sea flag was to be used by naval and merchant vessels, consulates and private citizens. On 10 October 1935, Georgios Kondylis declared that the monarchy had been restored. By decree of 7 November 1935, the 31 May 1914 decree was restored. Thereby, the crown was restored on the various flags. The crown was again removed by the military dictatorship in 1967, following the aborted counter-coup and subsequent self-exile of King Constantine II on 13 December. The sea flag was established as the sole national flag in 1969, using a very dark shade of blue, and on 18 August 1970, the flag ratio was changed to 7:12. After the restoration of democracy in August 1974, the land flag was restored for a while (per Law 48/1975 and Presidential Decree 515/1975, on effect on 7 June 1975) until 1978. Theories regarding the blue and white colours Several Greek researchers have attempted to establish a continuity of usage and significance of the blue and white colours, throughout Greek history. Usages cited include the pattern of blue and white formations included on the shield of Achilles, the apparent connection of blue with goddess Athena, some of Alexander the Great's army banners, possible blue and white flags used during Byzantine times, supposed coats of arms of imperial dynasties and noble families, uniforms, emperors' clothes, patriarchs' thrones etc., 15th century versions of the Byzantine Imperial Emblems and, of course, cases of usage during the Ottoman rule and the Greek revolution. On the other hand, the Great Greek Encyclopedia notes in its 1934 entry on the Greek flag that "very many things have been said for the causes which lead to this specification for the Greek flag, but without historical merit". Current flag of Greece In 1978 the sea flag was adopted as the sole national flag, with a 2:3 ratio. The flag is used on both land and sea is also the war and civil ensign, replacing all other designs surviving until that time. No other designs and badges can be shown on the flag. To date, no specification of the exact shade of the blue colour of the flag has been issued. Consequently, in practice hues may vary from very light to very dark. The Greek Flag Day is on 27 October. The old land flag is still flown at the Old Parliament building in Athens, site of the National Historical Museum, and can still be seen displayed unofficially by private citizens. Protocol The use of the Greek flag is regulated by Law 851. More specifically, the law states that: When displayed at the Presidential Palace, the Hellenic Parliament, the ministries, embassies and consulates of Greece, schools, military camps, and public and private ships as well as the navy, the flag must: Fly from 8am until sunset, Be displayed on a white mast topped with a white cross on top of a white sphere, Not be torn or damaged in any way. If the flag is damaged, it should be burned in a respectful manner. The flag can be displayed by civilians on days specified by the ministry of internal affairs, as well as in sporting events and other occasions of the sort. When displayed vertically, the canton must be on the left side of the flag from the point of view of the spectator. The flag should never be: Defaced by means of writing or superimposing any kind of image or symbol upon it, Used to cover a statue. In that case, cloth in the national colours must be used, Hung from windows or balconies without the use of a mast, Used for commercial purposes, Used as a logo for any corporation or organization, even at different proportions. When placed on top of a coffin, the canton must always be on the right of the person's head. Colours The government has not specified exactly which shade of blue should be used for the flag, and as such flags with many varying shades exist. In the most recent legislation regarding the national flag, the colours mentioned are: Because of the use of the word 'cyan' (, ), which can also mean 'blue' in Greek, the exact shade of blue remains ambiguous. Although it implies the use of a light shade of blue, such as on the flag of the United Nations, the colours of the Greek flag tend to be darker, especially during the dictatorship and in recent years, with the exception of the years of the rule of King Otto, when a very light shade of blue was used. Consequently, the shade of blue is largely left to the flagmakers to decide, as shown in the table below. Flag days Law 851/1978 sets the general outline for when the specific days on which the flag should be raised. For national holidays, this applies country-wide, but on local ones it only applies to those areas where the said holiday is being celebrated. Additionally, the flag may also be flown on days of national mourning, half-mast. The Minister of the Interior has the authority to proclaim flag days if they are not already proclaimed, and proclaiming regional flag days is vested with the elected head of each regional unit (formerly prefectures). Although 17 November is not an official national holiday, Presidential Decree 201/1998 states that respects are to be paid to the flag on that particular day. Military flags Army and Air Force War Flag The War flag (equivalent to regimental colours) of the Army and the Air Force is of square shape, with a white cross on blue background. On the centre of the cross the image of Saint George is shown on Army war flags and the image of archangel Michael is shown on Air Force war flags. In the Army war flags are normally carried by infantry, tank and special forces regiments and battalions, by the Evelpidon Military Academy, the Non-Commissioned Officers Academy and the Presidential Guard when in battle or in parade. However, flying a war flag in battle is unlikely with current warfare tactics. Naval and civil ensigns The current naval and civil ensigns are identical to the national flag. The simple white cross on blue field pattern is also used as the Navy's jack and as the base pattern for naval rank flags. These flags are described in Chapter 21 (articles 2101–30) of the Naval Regulations. A jack is also flown by larger vessels of the Hellenic Coast Guard. Units of Naval or Coast Guard personnel in parade fly the war ensign in place of the war flag. Other uniformed services In the past a war flag was assigned to the former semi-military Hellenic Gendarmerie, which was later merged with Cities Police to form the current Hellenic Police. The flag was similar to the Army war flag but showing Saint Irene in place of Saint George. Since the Fire Service and the Hellenic Police are considered civilian agencies, they are not assigned war flags. They use the National Flag instead. Identical rules were applied to the former Cities Police. However, recently the Police Academy has been assigned a war flag, and they paraded for the first time with this flag on Independence Day, March 25, 2011. The flag is similar to the Army war flag, with the image of St George replaced with that of Artemius of Antioch. Flag of the Head of State Throughout the history of Greece, various heads of state have used different flags. The designs differ according to the historical era they were used in and in accordance with the political scene in Greece at the time. The first flag to be used by a head of state of Greece was that of King Otto of Greece. Following the establishment of the Kingdom of Greece in 1832, the 17-year old Bavarian prince Otto was selected as king for the newfound monarchy. A royal decree dated 4 (16) April 1833 prescribed a number of maritime flags, including the royal standard. This flag, set at a 7:10 ratio, was a variant of the Greek white-cross-on-blue and featured the ancestral coat of arms of the Wittelsbach dynasty at its centre. The construction and dimensions of this flag was further described by a decree dated 28 August 1858, which also changed the proportions of the flag from 7:10 to 3:2. Following Otto's abdication in 1862, the Wittelsbach coat of arms would subsequently be removed. In 1863, the 17-year old Danish prince William was selected as Greece's new king, taking on the name George I. A royal decree dated 28 December 1863 prescribed that the king's standard would retain the same dimensions and basic design of the previous flag. At the flag's centre, the royal coat of arms of the new dynasty (Schleswig-Holstein-Sonderburg-Glücksburg) would feature. By a new royal decree of 3 June 1914, the distinguishing flags to be utilised by the various members of the royal family were described. The king's flag was defined as being square in shape and, as in previous flags, featured the coat of arms of the king on a Greek white-cross-on-blue. As the king at the time, Constantine I, was made a field marshal the previous year, the coat of arms on his flag featured a heraldic representation of the Marshal's baton in twos, crossed behind his coat of arms. With the establishment of the Second Hellenic Republic in 1924, the king's flag was made redundant. In 1930, a presidential decree described the president's flag as being a square version of the usual cross flag, devoid of any distinguishing markings. On 10 October 1935, Georgios Kondylis declared that the monarchy had been restored and the 3 June 1914 decree was restored by decree of 7 November 1935. This flag, and the flags of other members of the royal family, was replaced the following year with new designs. Unlike previous designs, all flags now featured the coat of arms of the dynasty at its centre and would be distinguished by the number of crowns present at each of the four corners of the flags: The flag of the king featured a crown on each of the corners of the flag. This was the last design of a royal standard to be adopted prior to the eventual formal abolition of the monarchy in 1973. The president's flag is currently prescribed by Presidential Decree 274/1979. Use of double-headed eagle One of the most recognisable (other than the cross) and beloved Greek symbols, the double-headed eagle, is not a part of the modern Greek flag or coat of arms (although it is officially used by the Greek Army, the Church of Greece, the Cypriot National Guard and the Church of Cyprus, and was incorporated in the Greek coat of arms in 1926 ). One suggested explanation is that, upon independence, an effort was made for political — and international relations — reasons to limit expressions implying efforts to recreate the Byzantine Empire. Yet another theory is that this symbol was only connected with a particular period of Greek history (Byzantine) and a particular form of rule (imperial). More recent research has justified this view, connecting this symbol only to personal and dynastic emblems of Byzantine Emperors. Some Greek sources have attempted to establish links with ancient symbols: the eagle was a common design representing power in ancient city-states, while there was an implication of a "dual-eagle" concept in the tale that Zeus left two eagles fly east and west from the ends of the world, eventually meeting in Delphi, thus proving it to be the centre of the earth. However, there is virtually no doubt that its origin is a blend of Roman and Eastern influences. Indeed, the early Byzantine Empire inherited the Roman eagle as an imperial symbol. During his reign, Emperor Isaac I Comnenus (1057–59) modified it as double-headed, influenced by traditions about such a beast in his native Paphlagonia in Asia Minor (in turn reflecting possibly much older local myths). Many modifications followed in flag details, often combined with the cross. After the recapture of Constantinople by the Byzantine Greeks in 1261, two crowns were added (over each head) representing — according to the most prevalent theory — the newly recaptured capital and the intermediate "capital" of the empire of Nicaea. There has been some confusion about the exact use of this symbol by the Byzantines; it appears that, at least originally, it was more a "dynastic" and not a "state" symbol (a term not fully applicable at the time, anyway), and for this reason, the colours connected with it were clearly the colours of "imperial power", i.e., red and yellow/gold. After the fall of Constantinople to the Ottoman Empire nonetheless, the double-headed eagle remained a strong symbol of reference for the Greeks. Most characteristically, the Orthodox Church continues to use the double-headed eagle extensively as a decorative motif, and has also adopted a black eagle on yellow/gold background as its official flag. After the Ottoman conquest, however, this symbol also found its way to a "new Constantinople" (or Third Rome), i.e. Moscow. Russia, deeply influenced by the Byzantine Empire, saw herself as its heir and adopted the double-headed eagle as its imperial symbol. It was also adopted by the Serbs, the Montenegrins, the Albanians and a number of Western rulers, most notably in Germany and Austria. See also Greece Coat of arms of Greece Hymn to Liberty Byzantine heraldry History of Greece List of Greek flags References Further reading I. Nouchakis, Η Σημαία μας (Our Flag), Athens 1908. External links Article on the Greek Flag from the website of the Hellenic Army Older article on the Greek Flag from the website of the Hellenic Army Greek flags during the Ottoman era Decrees specifying the design of the flag: Regarding the Naval and Commercial Flag of the Kingdom (3 June 1833) – contains official drawings Regarding the Naval and Commercial Flag (13 September 1858) Regarding the Flags of the Kingdom of Greece and other distinctive ensigns (31 May 1914) contains numerous official drawings Regarding the flag of Greece and other distinctive ensigns (25 February 1930) Regarding the National and War Flags (18 August 1969) changed the proportions to 7:12 and abolished the state flag Regarding amendments to provisions subject to Legislative Decree 254/69 (29 January 1971) removed the royal crowns from all flags Law 48 Regarding the National Flag of Greece, the Emblem of the Hellenic Republic, etc (7 June 1975) restored the old proportions and the state flag Law 851 Regarding the National Flag, the War Flags and the Emblem of the President of the Republic (22 December 1978) current flag design 1822 introductions Greece National symbols of Greece Greece Flags introduced in 1978
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Joseph%20Andrews
Joseph Andrews
The History of the Adventures of Joseph Andrews and of his Friend Mr. Abraham Adams, was the first full-length novel by the English author Henry Fielding to be published and among the early novels in the English language. Appearing in 1742 and defined by Fielding as a "comic epic poem in prose", it tells of a good-natured footman's adventures on the road home from London with his friend and mentor, the absent-minded parson Abraham Adams. Inspirations The novel embodies a fusion of two competing aesthetics of 18th-century literature: the mock-heroic and neoclassical (and, by extension, aristocratic) approach of Augustans such as Alexander Pope and Jonathan Swift, and the popular, domestic prose fiction of novelists such as Daniel Defoe and Samuel Richardson. The novel draws on various inspirations. Written "in imitation of the manner of Cervantes, the author of Don Quixote" (see title page on right), the work owes much of its humour to the techniques developed by Cervantes, and its subject-matter to the seemingly loose arrangement of events, digressions and lower-class characters to the genre of writing known as picaresque. In deference to the literary tastes and recurring tropes of the period, it relies on bawdy humour, an impending marriage and a mystery surrounding unknown parentage, but conversely is rich in philosophical digressions, classical erudition and social purpose. Background Fielding's first venture into prose fiction came a year previously with the publication in pamphlet form of Shamela, a travesty of the stylistic failings and moral hypocrisy that Fielding saw in Richardson's Pamela and a direct response to them. Richardson's epistolary tale of a resolute servant girl, armed only with her "virtue", battling against her master's attempts at seduction had become an overnight literary sensation in 1741. The implicit moral message—that a girl's chastity has eventual value as a commodity—and the awkwardness of the epistolary form in dealing with ongoing events, along with the triviality of the detail which the form necessitates, were some of the main targets of Fielding's parody. Richardson would continue to be a target of Fielding's first novel, but the Pamela phenomenon was just one example of what he saw as a culture of literary abuses in the mid-18th century. Colley Cibber, poet laureate and mock-hero of Pope's Dunciad, is identified in the first chapter of the novel as another offender against propriety, morality and literary value. The impetus for the novel, as Fielding claims in the preface, is the establishment of a genre of writing "which I do not remember to have been hitherto attempted in our language", defined as the "comic epic-poem in prose": a work of prose fiction, epic in length and variety of incident and character, in the hypothetical spirit of Homer's lost (and possibly apocryphal) comic poem Margites. He dissociates his fiction from the scandal-memoir and the contemporary novel. Book III describes the work as biography. As becomes apparent from the first few chapters of the novel, in which Richardson and Cibber are parodied mercilessly, the real germ of Joseph Andrews is Fielding's objection to the moral and technical limitations of the popular literature of his day. But while Shamela started and finished as a sustained subversion of a rival work, in Joseph Andrews Fielding merely uses the perceived deprivation of popular literature as a springboard to conceive more fully his own philosophy of prose fiction. Plot summary Book I The novel begins with the affable, intrusive narrator outlining the nature of our hero. Joseph Andrews is the brother of Richardson's Pamela and is of the same rustic parentage and patchy ancestry. At the age of 10, he found himself tending animals as an apprentice to Sir Thomas Booby. In proving his worth as a horseman, he caught the eye of Sir Thomas's wife, Lady Booby, who now employs him (age 17) as her footman. After Sir Thomas's death, Joseph finds his Lady's affections redoubled as she offers herself to him in her chamber while on a trip to London. In a scene analogous to many of Pamela's refusals of Mr. B in Richardson's novel, Lady Booby finds Joseph's Christian commitment to pre-marital chastity unwavering. After suffering the Lady's fury, Joseph sends a letter to his sister much like Pamela's anguished missives in her own novel. The Lady makes one last attempt at seduction before dismissing him from both his job and his lodgings. As Joseph sets out from London by moonlight, the narrator introduces the novel's heroine, Fanny Goodwill, Joseph's true love. A poor, illiterate girl of 'extraordinary beauty' (I, xi), now living with a farmer close to Lady Booby's parish, she and Joseph had grown ever closer since their childhood, before their local parson and mentor Abraham Adams recommended that they postpone marriage until they have the means to live comfortably. On his way to see Fanny, Joseph is mugged and laid up in a nearby inn where, by coincidence, he is reunited with Parson Adams, who is on his way to London to sell three volumes of his sermons. The thief is found and brought to the inn (only to escape later that night), and Joseph is reunited with his possessions. Adams and Joseph catch up with each other, and the parson, in spite of his own poverty, offers his last 9s 3½d to Joseph's disposal. Joseph and Adams's stay in the inn is capped by one of many burlesque, slapstick digressions in the novel. Betty, the inn's 21-year-old chambermaid, had taken a liking to Joseph, but is doomed to disappointment by Joseph's constancy to Fanny. The landlord, Mr. Tow-wouse, who had always admired Betty, saw this disappointment as an opportunity to take advantage. Locked in an embrace, they are discovered by the choleric Mrs. Tow-wouse, who chases the maid through the house until Adams restrains her. With the landlord promising not to transgress again, his lady allows him to make his peace at the cost of "quietly and contentedly bearing to be reminded of his transgressions, as a kind of penance, once or twice a day, during the residue of his life" (I, xviii). Book II During his stay in the inn, Adams's hopes for his sermons are mocked in a discussion with a travelling bookseller and another parson. Nevertheless, Adams remains resolved to continue his journey to London until it is revealed that his wife, deciding that he would be more in need of shirts than sermons on his journey, has neglected to pack them. The pair thus decide to return to the parson's parish: Joseph in search of Fanny, and Adams in search of his sermons. With Joseph following on horseback, Adams finds himself sharing a stage coach with an anonymous lady and Madam Slipslop, an admirer of Joseph's and a servant of Lady Booby. When they pass the house of a teenage girl named Leonora, the anonymous lady is reminded of a story and begins one of the novel's three interpolated tales, "The History of Leonora, or the Unfortunate Jilt". This continues for a number of chapters, punctuated by the questions and interruptions of the other passengers. After stopping at an inn, Adams relinquishes his seat to Joseph, and forgetting his horse, sets out ahead on foot. Finding himself some time ahead of his friend, Adams rests by the side of the road where he becomes so engaged in conversation with a fellow traveller that he misses the stage coach as it passes. As the night falls and Adams and the stranger discourse on courage and duty, a shriek is heard. The stranger, having seconds earlier lauded the virtues of bravery and chivalry, makes his excuses and flees the scene without turning back. Adams, however, rushes to the girl's aid and after a mock-epic struggle knocks her attacker unconscious. In spite of Adams's good intentions, he and the girl, who reveals herself to be none other than Fanny Goodwill (in search of Joseph after hearing of his mugging), find themselves accused of assault and robbery. After some comic litigious wrangling before the local magistrate, the pair are eventually released and depart shortly after midnight in search of Joseph. They do not have to walk far before a storm forces them into the same inn that Joseph and Slipslop have chosen for the night. Slipslop, her jealousy ignited by seeing the two lovers reunited, departs angrily. When Adams, Joseph and Fanny come to leave the following morning, they find their departure delayed by an inability to settle the bill, and, with Adams's solicitations of a loan from the local parson and his wealthy parishioners failing, it falls on a local peddler to rescue the trio by loaning them his last 6s 6d. The solicitations of charity that Adams is forced to make, and the complications which surround their stay in the parish, bring him into contact with many local squires, gentlemen and parsons, and much of the latter part of Book II is taken up by discussions of literature, religion, philosophy and trade that result. Book III The three depart the inn by night, and it is not long before Fanny needs to rest. With the party silent, they overhear approaching voices agree on "the murder of any one they meet" (III, ii) and flee to a local house. Inviting them in, the owner, Mr. Wilson, informs them that the gang of supposed murderers were in fact sheep-stealers, intent more on the killing of livestock than of Adams and his friends. The party being settled, Wilson begins the novel's most lengthy interpolated tale by recounting his life story; a story which bears a notable resemblance to Fielding's own youth. At the age of 16, Wilson's father died and left him a modest fortune. Finding himself the master of his destiny, he left school and travelled to London where he soon acquainted himself with the dress, manners and reputation for womanising necessary to consider himself a "beau". Wilson's life in the town is a façade: he writes love-letters to himself, obtains his fine clothes on credit, and is concerned more to be seen at the theatre than to watch the play. After two bad experiences with women, he is financially crippled, and much like Fielding, falls into the company of a group of Deists, freethinkers and gamblers. Finding himself in debt, he, like Fielding, turns to the writing of plays and hack journalism to alleviate his financial problems. He spends his last few pence on a lottery ticket, but with no reliable income, is soon forced to exchange it for food. While in jail for his debts, news reaches him that the ticket he gave away has won a £3,000 prize. His disappointment is short-lived, however, as the daughter of the winner hears of his plight, pays off his debts, and, after a brief courtship, agrees to marry him. Wilson found himself at the mercy of many of the social ills that Fielding had written about in his journalism: the over-saturated and abused literary market, the exploitative state lottery, and regressive laws which sanctioned imprisonment for small debts. Having seen the corrupting influence of wealth and the town, he retires with his new wife to the rural solitude in which Adams, Fanny and Joseph find them. The only break in his contentment, and one which turns out to be significant to the plot, was the kidnapping of his eldest son, whom he has not seen since. Wilson promises to visit Adams when he passes through his parish, and after another mock-epic battle on the road, this time with a party of hunting dogs, the trio proceed to the house of a local squire, where Fielding illustrates another contemporary social ill by having Adams subjected to a humiliating roasting. Enraged, the three depart to the nearest inn to find that, while at the squire's house, they had been robbed of their last half-guinea. To compound their misery, the squire has Adams and Joseph accused of kidnapping Fanny, to have them detained while he orders the abduction of the girl himself. She is rescued in transit, however, by Lady Booby's steward, Peter Pounce, and all four of them complete the remainder of the journey to Booby Hall together. Book IV On seeing Joseph arrive back in the parish, a jealous Lady Booby meanders through emotions as diverse as rage, pity, hatred, pride and love. The next morning Joseph and Fanny's banns are published and the Lady turns her anger onto Parson Adams, who is accommodating Fanny at his house. Finding herself powerless either to stop the marriage or to expel them from the parish, she enlists the help of Lawyer Scout, who brings a spurious charge of larceny against Joseph and Fanny to prevent, or at least postpone the wedding. Three days later, the Lady's plans are foiled by the visit of her nephew, Mr Booby, and a surprise guest: Booby has married Pamela, granting Joseph a powerful new ally and brother-in-law. What is more, Booby is an acquaintance of the justice presiding over Joseph and Fanny's trial, and instead of Bridewell, has them committed to his own custody. Knowing of his sister's antipathy to the two lovers, Booby offers to reunite Joseph with his sister and take him and Fanny into his own parish and his own family. In a discourse with Joseph on stoicism and fatalism, Adams instructs his friend to submit to the will of God and control his passions, even in the face of overwhelming tragedy. In the kind of cruel juxtaposition usually reserved for Fielding's less savoury characters, Adams is informed that his youngest son, Jacky, has drowned. After indulging his grief in a manner contrary to his lecture a few minutes previously, Adams is informed that the report was premature, and that his son has in fact been rescued by the same peddler that loaned him his last few shillings in Book II. Lady Booby, in a last-ditch attempt to sabotage the marriage, brings a young beau named Didapper to Adams's house to seduce Fanny. Fanny is unmoved by his bold attempts at courtship. Didapper is too bold in his approach and provokes Joseph into a fight. The Lady and the beau depart in disgust, but the peddler, having seen the Lady, is compelled to relate a tale. The peddler had met his wife while in the army, and she died young. While on her death bed, she confessed that she once stole an exquisitely beautiful baby girl from a family named Andrews, and sold her on to Sir Thomas Booby, thus raising the possibility that Fanny may in fact be Joseph's sister. The company is shocked, but there is general relief that the crime of incest may have been narrowly averted. The following morning, Joseph and Pamela's parents arrive, and together with the peddler and Adams, they piece together the question of Fanny's parentage. The Andrews identify her as their lost daughter, but have a twist to add to the tale. When Fanny was an infant, she was indeed stolen from her parents, but the thieves left behind a sickly infant Joseph in return, who was raised as their own. It is immediately apparent that Joseph is the above-mentioned kidnapped son of Wilson, and when Wilson arrives on his promised visit, he identifies Joseph by a birthmark on his chest. Joseph is now the son of a respected gentleman, Fanny an in-law of the Booby family, and the couple no longer suspected of being siblings. Two days later they are married by Adams in a humble ceremony, and the narrator, after bringing the story to a close, and in a disparaging allusion to Richardson, reassures readers that there will be no sequel. Stage adaptation Joseph Andrews, a stage adaptation of the first and fourth books of the novel, was written by Samuel Jackson Pratt and performed on 20 April 1778 at the Theatre Royal, Drury Lane. The role of Fanny was played by Mary Robinson. Film adaptation The novel was adapted for the screen in 1977 by Tony Richardson, Allan Scott and Chris Bryant. Richardson directed the critically well-received work, with Michael Hordern as Adams, Peter Firth as Joseph, and Lady Booby played by Swedish-born Ann-Margret, who received a Golden Globe nomination for the role. The tag line ("The story of a young, English footman who served the Lady Booby but loved the little Fanny") suggests how it captures some of the source material's bawdy humour. It was released on region 1 DVD in 2003. Radio adaptations A four-part radio adaption dramatised by John Scotney was broadcast on BBC Radio 4 in April 1986. A two-part adaptation, Joseph Andrews Remixed, was broadcast on BBC Radio 4 in July 2021. It was written by Shaun McKenna and incorporated a fictionalization of Fielding writing the novel with the help of his wife whilst the couple struggled for money in fear of retribution for some of Fielding's anonymous satires against the Tory government. Notes References A contemporary New York Times review of the 1977 film adaptation Requires free subscription Fielding, Henry. Joseph Andrews. Ed. Paul A. Scanlon. Peterborough: Broadview Press, 2001. . Lang, Bernhard. The Triumph of Chaste Love – Fielding. In: Bernhard Lang, Joseph in Egypt: A Cultural Icon from Grotius to Goethe. New Haven: Yale University Press 2009, 153–176. Bibliography Editions The Wesleyan Edition of the Works of Henry Fielding is the standard collection of Fielding's texts. Reliable paperback editions include: Fielding, Henry Joseph Andrews with Shamela and Related Writings. Edited by Homer Goldberg. (New York: W. W. Norton & Co., 1987) . Based on the Wesleyan text (see above). Includes selections of critical essays and contextual material. Fielding, Henry Joseph Andrews and Shamela. Edited by Judith Hawley. (Harmondsworth: Penguin, 1999) . The copy text of this edition is based on the second edition released on 10 June 1742. Fielding, Henry Joseph Andrews and Shamela. Edited by Thomas Keymer. (Oxford: World's Classics, Oxford University Press, 2008) . Based on the Wesleyan text. Criticism Battestin, Martin The Moral Basis of Fielding’s Art: A Study of Joseph Andrews. (Connecticut: Wesleyan University Press, 1959) [no ISBN]. Goldberg, Homer The Art of Joseph Andrews (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1969) [no ISBN]. Watt, Ian The Rise of the Novel. (London: Pimlico, 2000) . External links Full text of Joseph Andrews from Project Gutenberg Joseph Andrews, Volume 1 Joseph Andrews, Volume 2 1742 novels Novels by Henry Fielding 18th-century British novels British comedy novels Metafictional novels English novels Picaresque novels British novels adapted into films Andrews, Joseph
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Precious%20Bunny
Precious Bunny
Precious Bunny (May 6, 1988 - April 15, 2015) is a bay Standardbred pacer and sire. Background Precious Bunny is a bay horse bred in Cranbury, New Jersey. He was sired by Cam Fella who won the Cane Pace and Messenger Stakes in 1982. His dam Bunny's Wish was a daughter of B Gs Bunny. He was trained to be a harness racer. He was trained by Bill Robinson and usually driven by Jack Moiseyev. Racing career In 1990, Precious Bunny ran fourteen times, recording his only success in a New Jersey Sire Stakes. As a three-year-old in 1991 Precious Bunny won twenty of his twenty-five races. In June, he won the $1 million North America Cup at Greenwood Raceway in June. In the following month he was matched against Artsplace, the leading two-year-old pacer of 1990 in the $1 million Meadowlands Pace at Meadowlands Racetrack. Starting second in the betting, Precious Bunny overtook Artsplace on the backstretch and drew away in the straight to win by two lengths in a time of 1:49.4, one of the fastest times ever recorded in harness racing. He later won the Art Rooney Pace and the Adios Pace. On September 19 the colt started favorite for the Little Brown Jug at Delaware, Ohio. Racing in front of a record crowd of 52,967 Precious Bunny won his heat in 1:54.1, before winning the final in 1:55.0, beating Nuke Skywalker by three quarters of a length. After the race, Moiseyev said "This is the first time I really started him up that fast. He felt good... He's done everything we have asked him to do and he proved himself today". In the Autumn of 1991, Precious Bunny added victories in the Cleveland Classic, NJSS final and Windy City Pace. Stud record Precious Bunny was retired to stud at Hickory Lane Horse Farm in Findlay, Ohio. He was exported to New Zealand in 2000. He is the sire of Bunny Lake – the United States Harness Horse of the Year in 2001, Precious Delight, Stout, Bunny's Express Lane, and PB Bullville, who set a record for three-year old pacers of 1:48 for the mile. Honors Precious Bunny was voted Harness Horse of the Year in 1991. He was elected to the Canadian Horse Racing Hall of Fame in 2004, and the United States Harness Racing Hall of Fame in 2014. Pedigree Precious Bunny was inbred 3 x 4 to Meadow Skipper and Bret Hanover, meaning that these stallions appear in both the third and fourth generations of his pedigree. References 1988 racehorse births American Standardbred racehorses American Champion harness horses Canadian Horse Racing Hall of Fame inductees United States Harness Racing Hall of Fame inductees Racehorses bred in New Jersey Harness Horse of the Year winners Harness racing in the United States Little Brown Jug winners
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pamela
Pamela
Pamela may refer to: Pamela; or, Virtue Rewarded, a novel written by Samuel Richardson in 1740 Pamela (name), a given name and, rarely, a surname Pamela Spence, a Turkish pop-rock singer. Known as her stage name "Pamela" MSC Pamela, a container ship launched in 2005 Pamela (butterfly), a butterfly genus Perrhybris pamela, a butterfly with the common name Pamela Pamela hat, a straw hat named after Richardson's heroine, worn 1790s–1870s Pamela (film), a 1945 French film Super Typhoon Pamela, a typhoon in 1976 Una donna da guardare, a 1990 Italian erotic movie P.A.M.E.L.A., a first-person survival video game Songs "Pamela Pamela", a song recorded by Wayne Fontana that reached number 11 in the UK Singles Chart in 1967 "Pamela" (song), a 1988 hit song for the band Toto "Pamella", a song by Remmy Ongala from the album Songs For the Poor Man "Pamela Wan", a song composed by Vhong Navarro in 2004, inspired by the movie Otso-Otso Pamela-Mela-Wan Acronyms PAMELA Project, Process for Advanced Management of End of-Life-Aircraft Payload for Antimatter Matter Exploration and Light-nuclei Astrophysics, astrophysical satellite module Pedestrian Accessibility and Movement Environment Laboratory, artificial pavement at a research center at University College London See also Pam (disambiguation)
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fran%C3%A7ois%20Jacob
François Jacob
François Jacob (17 June 1920 – 19 April 2013) was a French biologist who, together with Jacques Monod, originated the idea that control of enzyme levels in all cells occurs through regulation of transcription. He shared the 1965 Nobel Prize in Medicine with Jacques Monod and André Lwoff. Early years Jacob was born the only child of Simon, a merchant, and Thérèse (Franck) Jacob, in Nancy, France. An inquisitive child, he learned to read at a young age. Albert Franck, Jacob's maternal grandfather, a four-star general, was Jacob's childhood role model. At seven he entered the Lycée Carnot, where he was schooled for the next ten years; in his autobiography he describes his impression of it: "a cage". He was antagonized by rightist youth at the Lycée Carnot around 1934. He describes his father as a "conformist in religion", while his mother and other family members important in his childhood were secular Jews; shortly after his bar mitzvah he became an atheist. Though interested (and talented) in physics and mathematics, Jacob was horrified at the prospect of spending two additional years in "an even more draconian regime" to prepare for higher study at the Polytechnique. Instead, after observing a surgical operation that cemented his "slight interest" in medicine, he entered medical school. During the German occupation of France—and on the heels of his mother's death—Jacob left France for Great Britain to join the war effort. Jacob, who had only completed his second year of medical studies, joined the medical company of the French 2nd Armored Division in 1940. He was injured in a German air attack in 1944 and returned to now-liberated Paris in on 1 August 1944. For his wartime service, he was awarded France's WWII highest decoration for valor, the Cross of Liberation, as well as Légion d'honneur and croix de guerre. After his recovery, Jacob returned to medical school and began researching tyrothricin and learning the methods of bacteriology in the process. He completed a thesis he described as "replicating American work" on the effectiveness of the antibiotic against local infections, and became a medical doctor in 1947. Though attracted to research as a career, he was discouraged by his own perceived ignorance after attending a microbiology congress that summer. Instead he took a position at the Cabanel Center, where he had done his thesis research; his new work entailed the manufacture of antibiotic, tyrothricin. Later, the center was contracted to convert gunpowder factories for penicillin production (though this proved impossible). Also in this period, he met and began courting his future wife, Lise Bloch. Jacob remarried in 1999 to Geneviève Barrier. Research In 1961 Jacob and Monod explored the idea that the control of enzyme expression levels in cells is a result of regulation of transcription of DNA sequences. Their experiments and ideas gave impetus to the emerging field of molecular developmental biology, and of transcriptional regulation in particular. For many years it had been known that bacterial and other cells could respond to external conditions by regulating levels of their key metabolic enzymes, and/or the activity of these enzymes. For instance, if a bacterium finds itself in a broth containing lactose, rather than the simpler sugar glucose, it must adapt itself to the need to 1) import lactose, 2) cleave lactose to its constituents glucose and galactose, and 3) convert the galactose to glucose. It was known that cells ramp up their production of the enzymes that do these steps when exposed to lactose, rather than wastefully producing these enzymes all the time. Studies of enzyme activity control were progressing through theories of the (allosteric) action of small molecules on the enzyme molecule itself (switching it on or off), but the method of controlling the enzyme production was not well understood at the time. With the earlier determination of the structure and central importance of DNA, it became clear that all proteins were being produced in some way from its genetic code, and that this step might form a key control point. Jacob and Monod made key experimental and theoretical discoveries that demonstrated that in the case of the lactose system outlined above (in the bacterium E. coli), there are specific proteins that are devoted to repressing the transcription of the DNA to its product (RNA, which in turn is decoded into protein). This repressor (the lac repressor) is made in all cells, binding directly to DNA at the genes it controls, and physically preventing the transcription apparatus from gaining access to the DNA. In the presence of lactose, some of the lactose is converted to allolactose, which binds to the repressor making it no longer able to bind to DNA, and the transcriptional repression is lifted. In this way, a robust feedback loop is constructed that allows the set of lactose-digesting proteins products to be made only when they are needed. Jacob and Monod extended this repressor model to all genes in all organisms in their initial exuberance. The regulation of gene activity has developed into a very large sub-discipline of molecular biology, and in truth exhibits enormous variety in mechanism and many levels of complexity. Current researchers find regulatory events at every conceivable level of the processes that express genetic information. In the relatively simple genome of baker's yeast, (Saccharomyces cerevisiae), 405 of its 6,419 protein-encoding genes are directly involved in transcriptional control, compared to 1,938 that are enzymes. Honours and awards 1962 Grand Prix Charles-Leopold Mayer by the Académie des Sciences 1965 Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine with André Lwoff and Jacques Monod 1973 Elected a Foreign Member of the Royal Society (ForMemRS) 1996 Lewis Thomas Prize for Writing about Science 1996 Académie française Seat 38 References Bibliography Jacob, François; E. L. Wollman. Sexuality and the Genetics of Bacteria. Academic Press, 1961 Jacob, François. The Possible & The Actual. Pantheon Books, 1982 Jacob, François. The Statue Within: An Autobiography by, translated from the 1987 French edition by Franklin Philip. Basic Books, 1988. ; new edition: 9780879694760 Jacob, François. The Logic of Life. translated from the 1976 French edition by Princeton University Press, 1993 Jacob, François. Of Flies, Mice and Men, translated from the French edition and published by Harvard University Press, 1998 External links François Jacob tells his life story at Web of Stories (video) L'Académie française Discoveries concerning genetic control of enzyme and virus synthesis. 1920 births 2013 deaths Collège de France faculty French geneticists French atheists People of French-Jewish descent French biochemists Members of the Académie Française French molecular biologists Nobel laureates in Physiology or Medicine French Nobel laureates Foreign Members of the Royal Society Foreign associates of the National Academy of Sciences Members of the European Molecular Biology Organization Phage workers Members of the French Academy of Sciences People from Nancy, France Lycée Carnot alumni Pasteur Institute
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Frances%20Sheridan
Frances Sheridan
Frances Sheridan (née Chamberlaine) (1724 – 26 September 1766) was an Anglo-Irish novelist and playwright. Life Frances Chamberlaine was born in Dublin, Ireland. Her father, Dr. Phillip Chamberlaine, was an Anglican minister. In 1747 she married Thomas Sheridan, who was then an actor and theatre director, and at the same time she began work on her first novel, Eugenia and Adelaide. The couple moved to London permanently in 1758 for business reasons (after an earlier sortie to London in 1754). In London Frances was introduced to Samuel Richardson, who encouraged her in her writing. Her most successful novel, Memoirs of Miss Sidney Bidulph (1761), in diary format, was influenced by Samuel Richardson's Pamela. She then turned to drama, and two of her plays were produced at London's Drury Lane theatre by David Garrick's company in the 1760s. Frances Sheridan was the mother of the famous playwright Richard Brinsley Sheridan, and her son's early successful plays were much influenced by his mother's plays. Frances and Thomas Sheridan also had another son, Sackville Sheridan, who only lived two months after his birth in 1754. Frances Sheridan's daughter, Alicia Sheridan Lefanu (1753–1817), wrote a play, Sons of Erin, which was produced in London in 1812. Sheridan's second daughter, Anne Elizabeth Sheridan Lefanu (1756–1837) wrote as well, and some of her journals were published in 1960 as Betsy Sheridan's Journal, Letters from Sheridan's sister, 1784–1786 and 1788–1790. Frances Sheridan died at age 42 in Blois, France. Her oriental tale, The History of Nourjahad, and her sequel to The Memoirs of Miss Sidney Biddulph, were published posthumously. A book-length biography of Frances Sheridan, Memoirs of the Life and Writings of Mrs. Frances Sheridan, was published in 1824, written by her granddaughter, Alicia LeFanu. Works Plays The Discovery (1763) The Dupe (1764) A Trip to Bath (1765) Novels Memoirs of Miss Sidney Bidulph (1761) The History of Nourjahad (1767) Conclusion of the Memoirs (1767) Eugenia and Adelaide (unpublished until 1791) References External links Frances Sheridan (Chamberlaine) at James Boswell – a Guide Frances Sheridan, The History of Nourjahad, The Norton Anthology of English Literature 1724 births 1766 deaths Writers from Dublin (city) British women novelists British women dramatists and playwrights 18th-century British women writers 18th-century British writers Irish Anglicans
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/North%20and%20South
North and South
North and South may refer to: Literature North and South (Gaskell novel), an 1854 novel by Elizabeth Gaskell North and South (trilogy), a series of novels by John Jakes (1982–1987) North and South (Jakes novel), first novel in the series North & South, a 1946 poetry collection by Elizabeth Bishop Avatar: The Last Airbender – North and South, a 2016–2017 graphic novel trilogy Magazines North & South (New Zealand magazine), a New Zealand current affairs magazine North & South (US magazine), a magazine devoted to the American Civil War Television and movies North and South (miniseries), a 1985 and later miniseries based on the novels of John Jakes North & South (TV serial), a 2004 BBC TV adaptation of Elizabeth Gaskell's novel with Richard Armitage as John Thornton North/South, a 2006 CBC television series North-South, or Four Buddies and the Bride, a 2015 Armenian comedy Music North & South, a late 1990s boyband who starred in the television series No Sweat North and South (album), an album by Gerry Rafferty and a song on the album "North and South", a song by the Clash from Cut the Crap Sport Golf tournaments at Pinehurst Resort, North Carolina, U.S.A.: North and South Open, 1902–1951 North and South Men's Amateur Golf Championship, staged annually since 1901 North and South Women's Amateur Golf Championship, staged annually since 1902 Video games North & South (computer game), a 1989 strategy title focusing on the American Civil War for multiple formats The Bluecoats: North vs South, a 2012 video game by Microïds for iPod touch/iPhone/iPad Orientation (geometry) Two of the four cardinal directions A line of longitude A vertical circle in astronomy Other North and South Railway, defunct American railroad "North and South", rhyming slang for the mouth North–south position, ground grappling position North–south, a pattern of computer network traffic between client and server; compare to east-west North–South divide in the World, a socio-economic and political division between "North" developed countries and "South" developing countries North vs. South: The Great American Civil War, 1999 video game
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/AS%20Monaco%20FC
AS Monaco FC
Association Sportive de Monaco Football Club SA, commonly referred to as AS Monaco () or Monaco, is a professional football club based in Monaco that competes in Ligue 1, the top tier of French football. Founded in 1918, the team plays its home matches at the Stade Louis II in Fontvieille. Though based in Monaco, the club plays in the French football league system. Monaco is one of the most successful clubs in French football, having won eight league titles and five Coupe de France trophies. The club is among the best in European football, and were runners-up in the UEFA Cup Winners' Cup in 1992 and the UEFA Champions League in 2004. The club's traditional colours are red and white, and the club is known as Les Rouges et Blancs (The Red and Whites). Monaco is a member of the European Club Association. In December 2011, two-thirds of the club was sold to an investment group led by Russian oligarch and billionaire Dmitry Rybolovlev. With Rybolovlev's financial backing, the club quickly returned to Ligue 1 and won the 2016–17 Ligue 1, their first league title in 17 years. Status Unlike several other European microstates, Monaco has never organized a domestic league and has never sought separate membership in either UEFA or FIFA. As a result, AS Monaco has no domestic league to play in its home country, resulting in it being expatriated into the French league system. AS Monaco is a full member of said French league pyramid, enabling it to represent France in European competitions. There are several other expatriated football clubs in operation around Europe, although AS Monaco is unique in that it represents a nation not a member of the international organizations. Although Vaduz among other Liechtenstein clubs play in the Swiss league system due to Liechtenstein not having a league, those clubs do have a domestic cup in their home country and qualify for European football that way. Two other microstates in Europe have or had teams playing abroad, Andorra and San Marino, although those clubs are separate from existing domestic league infrastructures. History Early history AS Monaco FC was founded on 1 August 1919 as a unification of numerous local clubs based in France and the principality. Then, the multiple sports club of the Association Sportive de Monaco was founded on 23 August 1924. AS Monaco FC was then absorbed by the latter and became the football section of the enlarged Monegasque sporting club. The club's early years were spent in the amateur regional divisions of the Provence-Alpes-Côte d'Azur region, rising rapidly between the leagues in the 1920s. In 1933, Monaco were invited by the French Football Federation to turn professional. The Monégasques' first year of second division football ended in failure, however, as they were relegated to the amateur leagues the following year. By 1948, Monaco re-acquired its professional status and returned to the French second division; they subsequently consistently finished in its upper echelons, with this sustained effort resulting in promotion to the French first division for the first time in 1953. 1960–1986: Domestic successes In 1960, Monaco coach Lucien Leduc led the club to its first professional trophy, the Coupe de France, beating Saint-Étienne 4–2 in extra time. This initial success was bettered in the following year with the club winning the French Championship for the first time in its history, qualifying for the European Cup. Leduc subsequently led the club to its first League and Cup Double in 1963. Upon Leduc's departure in 1963, Monaco endured a barren run, entrenched in the middle half of the league for the best part of the next decade and alternating between the first and second divisions after 1963. In 1975, Jean-Louis Campora, son of former president Charles Campora, became chairman of the club. In his second season, he brought back Leduc, who immediately won the club promotion to the first division and won them the championship the following year in 1978. Leduc subsequently left the club again in 1979, to be succeeded by Lucien Muller and Gérard Banide, both of whom were unable to halt the club's decline. The early 1980s saw a steady stream of successes in national competitions. Monaco won a title almost every other year; the Coupe de France in 1980 and 1985, the French Championship in 1982, was Coupe de France finalist in 1984. In the 1985–86 season, Monaco hammered Bordeaux 9–0, one of the biggest wins in club history. Disappointingly for Monaco fans, the club could not translate its domestic leadership into European success. Up to this point, Monaco had never passed the first round of any European competition. Monaco lost to Dundee United (1981), CSKA Sofia twice (1982 and 1984) and Universitatea Craiova (1985). 1990s: Wenger and Tigana In 1986, former Ajax manager Ștefan Kovács, who succeeded Rinus Michels and honed his Total Football ideals with the Dutch champions, came out of a three-year "retirement" to manage Monaco, but even he could not bring them success. With the club facing a second barren spell, they signed Arsène Wenger, who had hitherto been relatively unknown, managing Nancy without much success. Wenger's reign saw the club enjoy one of its most successful periods, with several inspired signings, including George Weah, Glenn Hoddle, Jürgen Klinsmann, and Youri Djorkaeff. Youth team policies produced future World Cup winners Emmanuel Petit, Lilian Thuram and Thierry Henry. Under Wenger, they won the league in his first season in charge (1988) and the Coupe de France in 1991, with the club consistently competing in the latter stages of the European Cup and regularly challenging for the league title. The club could have had even greater success in this period, as it emerged in 1993 that bitter rivals Marseille had indulged in match fixing and numerous improprieties, a view that Wenger had long held. In 1994, after being blocked by the Monaco board from opening discussions with German powerhouse Bayern Munich for their vacant managerial post after being shortlisted for the role, Wenger was released from the club, several weeks after the post had already been filled. After Wenger's departure, the club went on to record two further league championships; under Jean Tigana in 1997 and under Claude Puel in 2000. However, as the decade came to an end, rumours were surfacing that the club was facing numerous financial difficulties. In 2003, these financial problems came to a head. Despite finishing second in the league, the club was relegated to Ligue 2 by the French Professional League for amassing a €50 million ($68 million) debt. Whilst this was reduced on appeal to a ban on purchasing players, it was enough to force President Jean-Louis Campora, who had been in charge for 28 years, to step aside. He was replaced by Pierre Svara, an administrator considered to be close to the principality's princely family but with no footballing experience. The following season saw remarkable success on the field, given the club's financial strife. The team, coached by former French national team captain Didier Deschamps and featuring stalwarts such as Fernando Morientes, Ludovic Giuly, Jérôme Rothen and Dado Pršo, finished third in Ligue 1 and enjoyed a remarkable run to the final of the UEFA Champions League, beating Real Madrid and Chelsea along the way. However, despite the on-field success, the 2003–04 season was the club's worst financial year in its history. Within 12 months, Deschamps had left as coach and Svara had been replaced by Michel Pastor. Relegation and takeover With Francesco Guidolin hired to replace Deschamps, one of Pastor's first tasks was to hold on to the players who had turned the club into one of the best in Europe. However, he failed to convince them to stay and their replacements were unable to replicate previous successes. Guidolin lasted only one year, before being replaced by assistant coach Laurent Banide who, in turn, only lasted a year, before being replaced by Brazilian Ricardo Gomes. In 2008, after four years at the club featuring six coaches and only mid-table finishes, Pastor left the club amid severe criticism of his management skills. In 2008, Jérôme de Bontin, a leading shareholder of the club since 2003, took charge of the club, promising a complete shake-up. Under his reign as president, the club brought in players such as Park Chu-young and Freddy Adu, but they did not find much success on the pitch, going through a torrid season and only managing a mid-table finish. De Bontin resigned at the end of the season, replaced by banker Étienne Franzi and a new board of directors. In July 2009, Ricardo Gomes was replaced by former Cannes and Rennes coach Guy Lacombe, inheriting a youthful squad featuring numerous highly lauded youth team prospects, including Cédric Mongongu, Serge Gakpé, Vincent Muratori, Frédéric Nimani, Nicolas N'Koulou, Park Chu-young, Yohan Mollo and Yohann Thuram-Ulien. Lacombe led Monaco to eighth place in Ligue 1 in his first season in charge, but he was unable to replicate this performance in his second season and was sacked in January 2011, with Monaco in 17th place in Ligue 1. He was replaced by former coach Laurent Banide, who was unable to turn around the club's fortunes; Monaco finished the 2010–11 season in 18th, thus becoming relegated to Ligue 2. In December 2011, 66.67% of the club was sold to the Russian oligarch and billionaire Dmitry Rybolovlev (via a trust under his daughter Ekaterina's name) while the club were bottom of Ligue 2. Banide was sacked due to this poor start to the 2011–12 season, and was replaced by Italian manager Marco Simone. Although he lifted the club to eighth by the end of the season, the club's board targeted promotion for the upcoming season and so fired him and appointed his compatriot Claudio Ranieri, whose attacking style of football saw the club score 64 goals in the 2012–13 season. With the club only losing four times, Monaco finished the season as champions, earning promotion back to Ligue 1. Using Rybolovlev's funds, Monaco were one of the biggest spenders in Europe in 2013, spending roughly £140 million, including a club-record £50 million for Radamel Falcao from Atlético Madrid and £40 million for James Rodríguez from FC Porto. Monaco finished in 2nd place in Ligue 1 in the 2013–14 season and Ranieri was replaced by Leonardo Jardim. The following season, Monaco cut expenses, selling Rodriguez to Real Madrid for €75m and loaning Falcao to Manchester United. Despite the high-profile departures, Monaco finished in 3rd place in Ligue 1 and made it to the quarter-finals of the Champions League, defeating Arsenal in the Round of 16 before exiting at the hands of Juventus. Top-scorer from the 2013–14 season Anthony Martial, who managed 12 goals in all competitions, departing for Manchester United in the summer for a fee of €60m, the highest fee paid for a teenager in football history. This, combined with the sales of Geoffrey Kondogbia, Layvin Kurzawa, Yannick Carrasco, Aymen Abdennour, Lucas Ocampos and other, saw the Monegasque club earn over €180m in the transfer window. Ligue 1 triumph and aftermath (2016–present) Monaco won the Ligue 1 title on 17 May 2017, defeating AS Saint-Étienne 2–0. Radamel Falcao and Kylian Mbappé scored 30 and 26 goals respectively to ensure a first Ligue 1 title in 17 years. Monaco went undefeated for the last 20 games of the season, winning 18 of those 20 games. In the 2016–17 UEFA Champions League, Monaco staged a comeback in the Round of 16, losing the first leg 5–3 to Manchester City before beating the English side 3–1 at home to win on away goals. Monaco then defeated Borussia Dortmund 6–3 on aggregate before going down 4–1 over two legs to Juventus. In the summer, Kylian Mbappé went to rivals PSG on loan, with obligation to buy for a fee of €180m, making it the second-highest transfer fee in history after Neymar. Teammates Bernardo Silva and Benjamin Mendy were sold to Manchester City for over €100m combined and Tiémoué Bakayoko was sold to Chelsea for €40 million. Monaco managed to finish 2nd in the 2017–18 Ligue 1, 13 points behind league winners PSG. In the summer of 2018, they also sold Fabinho to Liverpool for €42 million. Jardim was replaced as coach by Thierry Henry in October 2018 after a poor start to the season. Henry was suspended from his job in January, and Jardim returned days later. Monaco finished the season in 17th, avoiding relegation playoffs by 2 points. In December 2019 Jardim was fired for the second time in 14 months, and former Spain manager Robert Moreno was appointed in his place. In 2019–20, the COVID-19 pandemic suspended and then curtailed the football sason. Monaco ended the season in 9th. Moreno was sacked in July, and replaced by former Bayern Munich manager Niko Kovač, who finished the following season in third position with 78 points and winning 24 matches from 38 (63%). Kovač left at the start of the year 2022, being replaced by Philippe Clement. Stadium Monaco played at the original Stade Louis II since its construction in 1939. In 1985, the stadium was replaced with the current iteration, built on a nearby site consisting of land reclaimed from the Mediterranean, which has become a recurring feature of the stadium's seaside surroundings. The stadium is named after the former Prince of Monaco Louis II and houses a total of 18,523 supporters. The Stade Louis II is noted for its iconic nine arches and has hosted numerous athletic events and European Cup finals. Every August from 1998 to 2012, it hosted each instance of the annual UEFA Super Cup, but from 2013 onward, UEFA decided to rotate the event throughout various stadiums. Players Current squad (on loan from Bayern Munich) Out on loan Reserves Management and staff Senior club staff Presidential history Coaching history Honours Domestic competitions Ligue 1 Winners (8): 1960–61, 1962–63, 1977–78, 1981–82, 1987–88, 1996–97, 1999–2000, 2016–17 Runners-up (7): 1963–64, 1983–84, 1990–91, 1991–92, 2002–03, 2013–14, 2017–18 Ligue 2 Winners: 2012–13 Runners-up (3): 1952–53, 1970–71, 1976–77 Championnat de France Amateur Winners (3): 1963–64, 1970–71, 2007–08 Coupe de France Winners (5): 1959–60, 1962–63, 1979–80, 1984–85, 1990–91 Runners-up (5): 1973–74, 1983–84, 1988–89, 2009–10, 2020–21 Coupe de la Ligue Winners: 2002–03 Runners-up (3): 2000–01, 2016–17, 2017–18 Trophée des Champions Winners (4): 1961, 1985, 1997, 2000 Runners-up (3): 1960, 2017, 2018 Coupe Charles Drago Winners: 1961 European UEFA Champions League Runners-up (1): 2003–04 UEFA club coefficient ranking Records References External links Multi-sport clubs in France Expatriated football clubs Association football clubs established in 1924 Football clubs in Monaco
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Albatross%20%28horse%29
Albatross (horse)
Albatross (1968–1998) was a bay Standardbred horse by Meadow Skipper. He was voted United States Harness Horse of the Year in 1971 and 1972. Albatross won 59 of 71 starts, including the Cane Pace and Messenger Stakes in 1971, earned $1,201,477. It was, however, as a sire that he really made his mark. Albatross's 2,546 sons and daughters won $130,700,280. Racing career Trained and driven by Harry Harvey from the time he was a yearling until a week before his three-year-old season and later Stanley Dancer, he won 14 of 17 starts at age two in 1970 including wins in the Lawrence Sheppard Pace, Roosevelt Futurity, Star Pointer Pace and Fox Stakes. Early in 1972 he was syndicated for $1.25 million and Stanley Dancer became his trainer. He won 25 of his 28 races as a three-year-old, including the Adios Pace, the Cane Pace, the Messenger Stakes, Battle Of The Brandywine, Prix d'Été, Shapiro Stakes and the American Classic against older horses. As a three-year-old he also set a record for fastest race mile with two races in 1:54.4 at The Red Mile in Lexington, Kentucky. It was the first time a horse and set and equalled or lowered a world record the same day. He was denied the Triple Crown when beaten in the Little Brown Jug by Nansemond. He broke his world record as a four-year-old with a race in 1:54.3 at Sportsman's Park in Chicago. Also in 1973 he won the Canadian Pacing Derby, National Pacing Derby, Realization Park and the American Classic for a second time. Albatross set the single-season harness horse earnings record of $558,009 in 1971. and was the sports richest horse at the time of his retirement. Stud record After his four-year-old racing season he retired to stud at Hanover Shoe Farms in Hanover, Pennsylvania. One of his sons Niatross was the winner of the Triple Crown of Harness Racing for Pacers in 1980 and in that year was also a world champion with a mark of 1:49.1. Others were Fan Hanover, Merger, Colt Fortysix, and Jaguar Spur, all, like Niatross, winners of the Little Brown Jug. His sons and daughters made him the all-time leading stakeswinning sire. He was also an outstanding broodmare sire. In 1998, Albatross died at the age of 30 at Hanover Shoe Farm in Pennsylvania of complications from heart failure and colic. He was buried at the Hanover Shoe Farms horse cemetery. See also Harness racing References 1968 racehorse births 1998 racehorse deaths Harness Horse of the Year winners American Champion harness horses American Standardbred racehorses Racehorses bred in the United States Racehorses trained in the United States Harness racing in the United States United States Harness Racing Hall of Fame inductees Cane Pace winners Messenger Stakes winners Horse racing track record setters
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Act%20of%20Contrition
Act of Contrition
An Act of Contrition is a Christian prayer genre that expresses sorrow for sins. It may be used in a liturgical service or be used privately, especially in connection with an examination of conscience. Special formulae for acts of contrition are in use in the Anglican, Catholic, Lutheran, Methodist and Reformed Churches. The Catholic Church does not restrict the term "act of contrition" to any one formula. Its Handbook on Indulgences mentions examples of approved formulas for an act of contrition the Confiteor, the Psalm De Profundis, the Psalm Miserere, the Gradual Psalms and the Penitential Psalms. Catholic Church The Act of Contrition is part of the Sacrament of Penance and is prayed by the penitent after the priest assigns a penance and before he gives the penitent absolution. It is also customarily said especially before one goes to bed at night. It is generally supposed that individuals might have recourse to an Act of Contrition when they find themselves in extremis. Fulton Sheen recounts a story told of John Vianney. When a recent widow bemoaned the death of her husband who committed suicide by jumping off a bridge, Monsieur le Curé observed, "Remember, Madam, that there is a little distance between the bridge and the water." By this he meant that her husband had time to make an Act of Contrition. This is analogous to the well-known quote, "Between the stirrup and the ground, he something sought and something found," indicating that mercy is available when sought. (The original quote is from the sixteenth century English antiquarian William Camden; the more familiar version is from Graham Greene's 1938 novel Brighton Rock.) The prayer expresses in words a deeply personal "act" that engages a person's affections and will. A particular Latin formula and its English translations Within the Catholic Church, the term "act of contrition" is often applied to one particular formula, which is not given expressly in the handbook of Indulgences. The Catechism of the Catholic Church notes that "Among the penitent’s acts, contrition occupies first place. Contrition is 'sorrow of the soul and detestation for the sin committed together with the resolution not to sin again.' When it arises from a love by which God is loved above all else, contrition is called ‘perfect’ (contrition of charity). Such contrition remits venial sins; it also obtains forgiveness of mortal sins if it includes the firm resolution to have recourse to sacramental confession as soon as possible" (CCC 1451–1452). Catholic teaching holds that "imperfect" contrition, is also a gift of God. Born of fear of eternal damnation or other penalties, it is nonetheless sufficient to inspire a valid Act of Contrition. There are different versions of the Act of Contrition, but all generally include an expression of sorrow, an acknowledgment of wrongdoing and a promise to amend one's life and avoid sin. The Latin text and a number of English versions that approximate to the Latin text are given here. Latin text and other English variants Deus meus, ex toto corde pænitet me omnium meorum peccatorum, eaque detestor, quia peccando, non solum pœnas a te iuste statutas promeritus sum, sed præsertim quia offendi te, summum bonum, ac dignum qui super omnia diligaris. Ideo firmiter propono, adiuvante gratia tua, de cetero me non peccaturum peccandique occasiones proximas fugiturum. Amen. Traditional version O my God, I am heartily sorry for having offended Thee, and I detest all my sins because I dread the loss of Heaven and the pains of hell, But most of all because they have offended Thee, my God, Who art all good and deserving of all my love. I firmly resolve, with the help of Thy grace, to confess my sins, to do penance, and to amend my life. Amen. A popular Catholic American English version My God, I am sorry for my sins with all my heart. In choosing to do wrong and failing to do what is good, I have sinned against You whom I should love above all things, I firmly intend, with Your help, to do penance, to sin no more, and to avoid whatever leads me to sin. Our Savior Jesus Christ, suffered and died for us. In His name, my God, have mercy. Amen. A modern version taught in Religious Education Lord have mercy on me Do not look upon my sins But take away all my guilt Create in me a clean heart And renew within me an upright spirit Amen. Irish version O my God, I am heartily sorry for having offended Thee: and I detest my sins most sincerely because they displease Thee, my God, Who art so deserving of all my love for Thy infinite goodness and most amiable perfections: and I firmly purpose by Thy holy grace never more to offend Thee. Nigerian version “O my God, because You are so good, I am truly sorry that I have sinned against You and by the help of Your grace, I will not sin again.” Other formulas for acts of contrition Sacrosanctum concilium (the Constitution on the Sacred Liturgy) called for the revision of the Rite of Penance so that it more clearly express both the nature and effect of the sacrament. Consequently, the Rite of Penance was revised in 1973. The revised rite offered several possible options for making an Act of Contrition. One may choose one of the general formula prayers or other prayers of contrition. The following are some formulas for acts of contrition that differ more considerably from the Latin text given above. My Lord, I am heartily sorry for all my sins, help me to live like Jesus and not sin again. Amen. Oh my God, I am sorry that I have sinned against You. Because You are so good, and with Your help, I will try not to sin again. Amen. Oh My God, because You are so good, I am very sorry that I have sinned against You, and by the help of Your grace, I will try not sin again. Amen. I love You, Jesus, my Love above all things. I repent with my whole heart for ever having offended You. Never permit me to separate myself from You again. Grant that I may love You always. Then do with me what You will. - Alphonsus Liguori Protestantism Anglican Communion In the Church of England Reconciliation of a Penitent the Act of Contrition "expresses the desire and intention before God to turn away from sin and walk in newness of life. The penitent may use his or her own words or the form provided." The Anglican Communion, which includes the Church of England, The Episcopal Church (in the United States) and other member churches, has its own act of contrition, referred to in the Prayer Book as the General Confession. This is said by the Congregation en masse during worship. The 1662 Book of Common Prayer contains two versions. The first (for use at Matins and Evensong) is: ALMIGHTY and most merciful Father; We have erred, and strayed from Thy ways like lost sheep. We have followed too much the devices and desires of our own hearts. We have offended against Thy holy laws. We have left undone those things which we ought to have done; And we have done those things which we ought not to have done; And there is no health in us. But Thou, O Lord, have mercy upon us, miserable offenders. Spare thou them, O God, which confess their faults. Restore thou them that are penitent; According to Thy promises declared unto mankind in Christ Jesu our Lord. And grant, O most merciful Father, for His sake; That we may hereafter live a godly, righteous, and sober life, To the glory of Thy Holy Name. Amen. The second (for use during Holy Communion) is: ALMIGHTY God, Father of our Lord Jesus Christ, Maker of all things, judge of all men; We acknowledge and bewail our manifold sins and wickedness, Which we, from time to time, most grievously have committed, By thought, word, and deed, Against thy Divine Majesty, Provoking most justly Thy wrath and indignation against us. We do earnestly repent, And are heartily sorry for these our misdoings; The remembrance of them is grievous unto us; The burden of them is intolerable. Have mercy upon us, Have mercy upon us, most merciful Father; For Thy Son our Lord Jesus Christ's sake, Forgive us all that is past; And grant that we may ever hereafter Serve and please Thee in newness of life, To the honour and glory of Thy Name; Through Jesus Christ our Lord. Amen. Modernized forms can be found in other Anglican Prayer Books. Lutheran formula The Lutheran Church also has its own act of contrition, which is said during Holy Absolution. The following version, taken from the Lutheran Service Book (2006), says: O Almighty God, merciful Father, I a poor, miserable sinner, confess to You all my sins and iniquities, with which I have ever offended You and justly deserved Your punishment now and forever. But I am heartily sorry for them and sincerely repent of them, and I pray You of Your boundless mercy, and for the sake of the holy, innocent, bitter sufferings and death of Your beloved son, Jesus Christ, to be gracious and merciful to me, a poor sinful being. References External links Common Catholic Prayers An Act of Contrition Roman Catholic prayers
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Avondale
Avondale
Avondale may refer to: Places Australia Avondale, New South Wales, a village in New South Wales Avondale, Parramatta, a heritage-listed former residence and now offices at 25 O'Connell Street, Parramatta, New South Wales Avondale, Queensland, a village in Queensland Canada Avondale, Newfoundland and Labrador Avondale, Hants, Nova Scotia in the Hants County Avondale, Pictou, Nova Scotia in Pictou County Ireland Avondale Forest, an estate in County Wicklow Avondale House, birthplace of Irish political leader Charles Stewart Parnell New Zealand Avondale, Auckland Avondale, Canterbury, a suburb of Christchurch Scotland Avondale, South Lanarkshire Avondale Castle Avondale Landfill, Falkirk United States Avondale (Birmingham), a neighborhood of Birmingham, Alabama Avondale, Arizona Avondale, Colorado Avondale (Jacksonville), a neighborhood of Jacksonville, Florida Avondale, Georgia Avondale (Columbus, Georgia), a neighborhood Avondale, Chicago, a community area of Chicago, Illinois Avondale, Louisiana Avondale, Maryland, an unincorporated area in Prince George's County Avondale (Westminster, Maryland), historic home listed on the NRHP in Maryland Avondale, Missouri Avondale, Stark County, Ohio, an unincorporated community near Canton Avondale, Cincinnati, a neighborhood of Cincinnati, Ohio Avondale, Pennsylvania Avondale, Texas Avondale, McDowell County, West Virginia Avondale Colliery near Plymouth, Pennsylvania Zimbabwe Avondale, Harare Education Avondale College, an Australian tertiary education provider Avondale College, Auckland, a secondary education provider Avondale School (disambiguation) Transportation Avondale Bridge (disambiguation) Avondale Shipyard, an independent shipbuilding company Avondale railway station, New Zealand, on the Western Line of the Auckland railway network Avondale railway station, Queensland, a closed railway station on the North Coast railway Avondale station (MARTA), a train station in Decatur, Georgia, United States A boat, later renamed Hero Avondale Coaches in Scotland Other fields Avondale Agricultural Research Station, one of thirteen research farms/stations operated by Western Australia's Department of Agriculture Avondale FC, an Australian semi-professional football club Avondale Mine Disaster at the Avondale Colliery (1869) Avondale Park (Chicago) is a 1.7 acre park in the Avondale community area of Chicago, Illinois. Lynn-Avon United (formerly Avondale FC and Avondale United), a New Zealand football club See also Avon (disambiguation) Avondale Estates, Georgia Avondale Heights, Victoria Avondale High School (disambiguation) Avondale House, in Avondale, County Wicklow, Ireland, is the birthplace and home of Charles Stewart Parnell Duke of Clarence and Avondale Earl of Avondale Lord Avondale, referring to the dale (or valley) of the Avon Water in Scotland
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/North%20America%20Cup
North America Cup
The North America Cup is an annual harness racing event for 3-year-old standardbred pacing horses which is held at Mohawk Raceway in Campbellville, Ontario, Canada. The race replaced the Queen City Pace run from 1964 to 1983. From 1984 to 1993, the North America Cup was held at Greenwood Raceway and from 1994 to 2006, the North America Cup was held at Woodbine Entertainment Group's other harness racing venue, Woodbine Racetrack. It is the richest harness race in North America at $1,000,000. Records Most wins by a driver 6 – John Campbell (1991, 1994, 1995, 1996, 1997, 1999) Most wins by a trainer 3 – William G. Robinson (1993, 1994, 2002) Stakes record 1:47 2/5 – Captain Crunch (2019) North America Cup winners References Recurring sporting events established in 1984 Harness races in Canada Mohawk Racetrack 1984 establishments in Ontario
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Christiane%20N%C3%BCsslein-Volhard
Christiane Nüsslein-Volhard
Christiane (Janni) Nüsslein-Volhard (; born 20 October 1942) is a German developmental biologist and a 1995 Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine laureate. She is the only woman from Germany to have received a Nobel Prize in the sciences. Nüsslein-Volhard earned her PhD in 1974 from the University of Tübingen, where she studied protein-DNA interaction. She won the Albert Lasker Award for Basic Medical Research in 1991 and the Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine in 1995, together with Eric Wieschaus and Edward B. Lewis, for their research on the genetic control of embryonic development. Early life and education Nüsslein-Volhard was born in Magdeburg on 20 October 1942, the second of five children to Rolf Volhard, an architect, and Brigitte Haas Volhard, a nursery school teacher. She has four siblings: three sisters and one brother. She grew up and went to school in south Frankfurt, exposed to art and music and thus was "trained in looking at things and recognizing things". Her great-grandfather was the chemist Jacob Volhard, her grandfather the known internist Franz Volhard. She is the aunt of the Nobel laureate in chemistry Benjamin List. After the Abitur in 1962, she briefly considered pursuing medicine, but dropped the idea after doing a month’s nursing course in a hospital. Instead she followed her genuine interest and opted to study biology at Johann Wolfgang Goethe University in Frankfurt. In 1964 Nüsslein-Volhard left Frankfurt for the University of Tübingen, to start a new course in biochemistry. She originally wanted to do behavioral biology, "but then somehow I ended up in biochemistry (...) and molecular genetics because at the time this was the most modern aspect, and I was ambitious — I wanted to go where the leaders were. The old-fashioned botanists and zoologists were such dull people— there was nothing interesting there." She received a diploma in biochemistry in 1969 and earned a PhD in 1974 for research into protein–DNA interactions and the binding of RNA polymerase in Escherichia coli. Career In 1975 Nüsslein-Volhard became a postdoctoral researcher in Walter Gehring´s laboratory at the Biozentrum, the University of Basel, a specialist in the developmental biology of Drosophila melanogaster (fruit fly) supported by a long-term fellowship from the European Molecular Biology Organization (EMBO). In 1977, she continued in the laboratory of Klaus Sander at Freiburg University, who was an expert in embryonic patterning. In 1978, she set up her own lab in the newly founded European Molecular Biology Laboratory in Heidelberg with Eric Wieschaus, whom she had met in Basel. Over the next three years they examined about 20,000 mutated fly families, collected about 600 mutants with an altered body pattern and found that out of the about 5,000 essential genes only 120 were essential for early development. In October 1980, they published the mere 15 genes controlling the segmented pattern of the Drosophila larva. In 1981, Nüsslein-Volhard moved to the Friedrich Miescher Laboratory of the Max Planck Society in Tübingen. From 1984 until her retirement in 2014, she was the Director of the Max Planck Institute for Developmental Biology in Tübingen and also led its Genetics Department. After 1984 she launched work on the developmental biology of vertebrates, using the zebrafish (Danio rerio) as her research model. In 2001, she became a member of the Nationaler Ethikrat (National Ethics Council of Germany) for the ethical assessment of new developments in the life sciences and their influence on the individual and society. Her primer for the lay-reader, Coming to Life: How Genes Drive Development, was published in April 2006. In 2004, she started the Christiane Nüsslein-Volhard Foundation (Christiane Nüsslein-Volhard Stiftung) which aids promising young female German scientists with children. The foundation's main focus is to facilitate childcare as a supplement to existing stipends and day care. Research During the late 1970s and early 1980s little was known about the genetic and molecular mechanisms by which multicellular organisms develop from single cells to morphologically complex forms during embryogenesis. Nüsslein-Volhard and Wieschaus identified genes involved in embryonic development by a series of genetic screens, generating random mutations in fruit flies using ethyl methanesulfonate. Some of these mutations affected genes involved in the development of the embryo. They took advantage of the segmented form of Drosophila larvae to address the logic of the genes controlling development. In normal unmutated Drosophila, each segment produces bristles called denticles in a band arranged on the side of the segment closer to the head (the anterior). They looked at the pattern of segments and denticles in each mutant under the microscope, and were therefore able to work out that particular genes were involved in different processes during development based on their differing mutant phenotypes (such as fewer segments, gaps in the normal segment pattern, and alterations in the patterns of denticles on the segments). Many of these genes were given descriptive names based on the appearance of the mutant larvae, such as hedgehog, gurken (German: "cucumbers"), and Krüppel ( "cripple"). Later, researchers identified exactly which gene had been affected by each mutation, thereby identifying a set of genes crucial for Drosophila embryogenesis. The subsequent study of these mutants and their interactions led to important new insights into early Drosophila development, especially the mechanisms that underlie the step-wise development of body segments. These experiments are not only distinguished by their sheer scale (with the methods available at the time, they involved an enormous workload), but more importantly by their significance for organisms other than fruit flies. It was later found that many of the genes identified had homologues in other species. In particular, the homeobox genes (coding for transcription factors critically involved in early body development) are found in all metazoans, and usually have similar roles in body segmentation. Her findings led to important realizations about evolution – for example, that protostomes and deuterostomes are likely to have had a relatively well-developed common ancestor with a much more complex body plan than had been conventionally thought. Additionally, they greatly increased our understanding of the regulation of transcription, as well as cell fate during development. Nüsslein-Volhard is associated with the discovery of Toll, which led to the identification of toll-like receptors. , Nüsslein-Volhard has an h-index of 103 according to Scopus. Personal life Nüsslein-Volhard married in the mid-1960s while studying at the Johann-Wolfgang-Goethe University in Frankfurt, but divorced soon and did not have any children. She lives in Bebenhausen, Germany. She has said that she loves to sing, play the flute and do chamber music. She published a cookbook in 2006. Awards and honors 1986: Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz Prize of the German Research Foundation 1986: Franz Vogt Award of the University of Giessen 1991: Albert Lasker Award for Basic Medical Research 1991: Keith R. Porter Lecture 1992: Alfred P. Sloan, Jr. Prize 1992: Louis-Jeantet Prize for Medicine 1992: Louisa Gross Horwitz Prize from Columbia University 1992: Otto Warburg Medal of the German Society for Biochemistry and Molecular Biology 1992: Otto Bayer Award 1993: Sir Hans Krebs Medal from the Federation of European Biochemical Societies 1993: Ernst Schering Prize 1994: Merit Cross of the Federal Republic of Germany 1995: Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine 1996: Order of Merit of Baden-Württemberg 1997: Pour le Mérite for Sciences and Arts 2005: Grand Merit Cross with Star and Sash of the Federal Republic of Germany (Großes Verdienstkreuz mit Stern und Schulterband) 2007: German Founder Award of the Federation of German Foundations 2009: Austrian Decoration for Science and Art 2013–2021: Chancellor of the order Pour le Mérite for Sciences and Arts 2014: Bavarian Maximilian Order for Science and Art 2019: Schiller Prize of the City of Marbach The asteroid 15811 Nüsslein-Volhard is named in her honour Honorary degrees Nüsslein-Volhard has been awarded honorary degrees by the following Universities: Yale, Harvard, Princeton, Rockefeller, Utrecht, University College London, Oxford (June 2005), Sheffield, St Andrews (June 2011), Freiburg, Munich and Bath (July 2012). 1991: Honorary doctorate from the University of Utrecht 1991: Honorary doctorate from Princeton University 1993: Honorary doctorate from the University of Freiburg 1993: Honorary doctorate from Harvard University 2008: Mercator Professorship, University of Duisburg-Essen 2011: Honorary doctorate from the University of St Andrews 2012: Honorary doctorate from the University of Bath Memberships 1989: Founding member of the Academia Europaea 1989: Corresponding member of the Heidelberg Academy of Sciences 1990: Corresponding member of North Rhine-Westphalia Academy for Sciences and Arts 1990: Elected a Foreign Member of the Royal Society (ForMemRS), London 1990: Member of the National Academy of Sciences, Washington 1991: Member of the German Academy of Sciences Leopoldina 1992: Member of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences 1995: Member of the American Philosophical Society 2001–2006: Member of the National Ethics Council of the Federal Government (German Ethics Council) Member of the French Academy of Sciences Member of the Scientific Committee of the Ingrid zu Solms Foundation Member of the European Molecular Biology Organization See also Timeline of women in science Notes References External links including the Nobel Lecture on 8 December 1995 The Identification of Genes Controlling Development in Flies and Fishes 1942 births Living people German biochemists German geneticists German physiologists German embryologists German women biochemists German women biologists Women geneticists Women medical researchers Women physiologists Women Nobel laureates German Nobel laureates Nobel laureates in Physiology or Medicine Foreign associates of the National Academy of Sciences Members of the European Molecular Biology Organization Fellows of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences Fellows of the AACR Academy Foreign Members of the Royal Society Max Planck Society people Members of Academia Europaea Members of the French Academy of Sciences Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz Prize winners Grand Crosses with Star and Sash of the Order of Merit of the Federal Republic of Germany Recipients of the Pour le Mérite (civil class) Recipients of the Albert Lasker Award for Basic Medical Research Recipients of the Order of Merit of Baden-Württemberg Recipients of the Austrian Decoration for Science and Art Goethe University Frankfurt alumni University of Duisburg-Essen faculty University of Tübingen alumni University of Tübingen faculty Scientists from Magdeburg 20th-century German women scientists 21st-century German women scientists 20th-century German biologists 21st-century German biologists Members of the American Philosophical Society
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Grand%20Slam%20Prize%20in%20harness%20racing
Grand Slam Prize in harness racing
From 2001 to 2003, the Grand Slam Prize of $1 million was offered to any harness racing pacer who could win the North America Cup (Woodbine Racetrack, Toronto), Meadowlands Pace (Meadowlands Racetrack, N.J.), Little Brown Jug (Delaware County Fair, Ohio) and their Breeders Crown event (Meadowlands Racetrack, NJ). Similarly, a $1 million Grand Slam Prize was offered in harness racing to the owners of a trotter that could win the Hambletonian (Meadowlands Racetrack, N.J.), the World Trotting Derby (DuQuoin State Fair, Ill.), the Kentucky Futurity (The Red Mile, Lexington, Kentucky) and their Breeders Crown event (Meadowlands Racetrack, NJ). No horse was able to win either the Trotting or Pacing Grand Slam. Harness racing in the United States Racing series for horses
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223000
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indent
Indent
Indent may refer to: Indent (album), a 1973 free jazz album by Cecil Taylor indent (Unix), a computer program that formats programming language files with a particular indent style Indent test, a test for material hardness Indent, a special type of purchase order Indent agent, or buying agent, person or company that purchases goods on behalf of another party See also Indentation (disambiguation)
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Teratology
Teratology
Teratology is the study of abnormalities of physiological development in all organisms including plants during the entire life span. It is a sub-discipline in medical genetics which focuses on the classification of congenital abnormalities is dysmorphology. The related term developmental toxicity includes all manifestations of abnormal development that are caused by environmental insult. These may include growth retardation, delayed mental development or other congenital disorders without any structural malformations. Teratogens are substances that may cause birth defects via a toxic effect on an embryo or fetus. Known teratogens include: retinol, thalidomide, mercury, alcohol, lead, polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs), and 2,3,7,8-tetrachlorodibenzodioxin. Etymology The term was borrowed in 1842 from French tératologie, where it was formed in 1830 from the Greek teras (word stem terat-), meaning "sign sent by the gods, portent, marvel, monster", and -ology, used to designate a discourse, treaty, science, theory, or study of some topic. As early as the 17th century, teratology referred to a discourse on prodigies and marvels of anything so extraordinary as to seem abnormal. In the 19th century, it acquired a meaning more closely related to biological deformities, mostly in the field of botany. Currently, its most instrumental meaning is that of the medical study of teratogenesis, congenital malformations or individuals with significant malformations. Historically, people have used many pejorative terms to describe/label cases of significant physical malformations. In the 1960s David W. Smith of the University of Washington Medical School (one of the researchers who became known in 1973 for the discovery of fetal alcohol syndrome), popularized the term teratology. With the growth of understanding of the origins of birth defects, the field of teratology overlaps with other fields of science, including developmental biology, embryology, and genetics. Until the 1940s teratologists regarded birth defects as primarily hereditary. In 1941 the first well-documented cases of environmental agents being the cause of severe birth defects were reported. Mammalia Teratogenesis Along with this new awareness of the in utero vulnerability of the developing mammalian embryo came the development and refinement of The Six Principles of Teratology put forth by Jim Wilson in 1959 and in his monograph Environment and Birth Defects. These principles guide the study and understanding of teratogenic agents and their effects on developing organisms: Susceptibility to teratogenesis depends on the genotype of the conceptus and the manner in which this interacts with adverse environmental factors. Susceptibility to teratogenesis varies with the developmental stage at the time of exposure to an adverse influence. There are critical periods of susceptibility to agents and organ systems affected by these agents. Teratogenic agents act in specific ways on developing cells and tissues to initiate sequences of abnormal developmental events. The access of adverse influences to developing tissues depends on the nature of the influence. Several factors affect the ability of a teratogen to contact a developing conceptus, such as the nature of the agent itself, route and degree of maternal exposure, rate of placental transfer and systemic absorption, and composition of the maternal and embryonic/fetal genotypes. There are four manifestations of deviant development (Death, Malformation, Growth Retardation and Functional Defect). Manifestations of deviant development increase in frequency and degree as dosage increases from the No Observable Adverse Effect Level (NOAEL) to a dose producing 100% Lethality (LD100). Studies designed to test the teratogenic potential of environmental agents use animal model systems (e.g., rat, mouse, rabbit, dog, and monkey). Early teratologists exposed pregnant animals to environmental agents and observed the fetuses for gross visceral and skeletal abnormalities. While this is still part of the teratological evaluation procedures today, the field of Teratology is moving to a more molecular level, seeking the mechanism(s) of action by which these agents act. One example of this is the use of mammalian animal models to evaluate the molecular role of Teratogens in the development of embryonic populations, such as the Neural Crest, which can lead to the development of Neurocristopathies. Genetically modified mice are commonly used for this purpose. In addition, pregnancy registries are large, prospective studies that monitor exposures women receive during their pregnancies and record the outcome of their births. These studies provide information about possible risks of medications or other exposures in human pregnancies. Prenatal alcohol exposure (PAE) can produce craniofacial malformations, a phenotype that is visible in Fetal Alcohol Syndrome. Current evidence suggests that craniofacial malformations occur via: apoptosis of neural crest cells, interference with neural crest cell migration, as well as the disruption of sonic hedgehog (shh) signaling. Understanding how a teratogen causes its effect is not only important in preventing congenital abnormalities but also has the potential for developing new therapeutic drugs safe for use with pregnant women. Alcohol Alcohol is known to act as a teratogen. Prenatal alcohol exposure (PAE) remains the leading cause of birth defects and neurodevelopmental abnormalities in the United States, affecting 9.1 to 50 per 1000 live births in the U.S. and 68.0 to 89.2 per 1000 in populations with high levels of alcohol use. Humans In humans, congenital disorders resulted in about 510,000 deaths globally in 2010. About 3% of newborns have a "major physical anomaly", meaning a physical anomaly that has cosmetic or functional significance. Vaccinating while pregnant In humans, vaccination has become readily available, and is important to the prevention of some diseases like polio, rubella, smallpox and COVID-19, among others. There has been no association between congenital malformations and vaccination, as shown in Finland in which expecting mothers received the oral polio vaccine and saw no difference in infant outcomes than mothers who had not received the vaccine. However, it is still not recommended to vaccinate for polio while pregnant unless there is risk of infection. Another important implication of this includes the ability to get the influenza vaccine while pregnant. During the 1918 and 1957 influenza pandemics, mortality in pregnant women was 45%. However, even with prevention through vaccination, influenza vaccination in pregnant women remains low at 12%. Munoz et al. demonstrated that there was no adverse outcome observed in the new infants or mothers. Causes Causes of teratogenesis can broadly be classified as: Toxic substances, such as, for humans, drugs in pregnancy and environmental toxins in pregnancy. Potassium iodide is a possible teratogen. Potassium iodide in its raw form is a mild irritant and should be handled with gloves. Chronic overexposure can have adverse effects on the thyroid. Vertically transmitted infection Lack of nutrients. For example, lack of folate acid in the nutrition in pregnancy for humans can result in spina bifida. Folic acid is a synthetic form of folate acid. Folic is added to processed food products, such as flour and breakfast cereals. High levels of un-metabolized folic acid have been associated with several health problems. Physical restraint. An example is Potter syndrome due to oligohydramnios in humans. Genetic disorders Alcohol consumption during pregnancy. Other animals Fossil record Evidence for congenital deformities found in the fossil record is studied by paleopathologists, specialists in ancient disease and injury. Fossils bearing evidence of congenital deformity are scientifically significant because they can help scientists infer the evolutionary history of life's developmental processes. For instance, because a Tyrannosaurus rex specimen has been discovered with a block vertebra, it means that vertebrae have been developing the same basic way since at least the most recent common ancestor of dinosaurs and mammals. Other notable fossil deformities include a hatchling specimen of the bird-like dinosaur, Troodon, the tip of whose jaw was twisted. Another notably deformed fossil was a specimen of the choristodere Hyphalosaurus, which had two heads- the oldest known example of polycephaly. Chick embryo limb development Thalidomide is a teratogen known to be significantly detrimental to the development of certain body parts and organs in the body such as the eyes or the heart. During embryogenesis it is observed that many different organisms experience different impacts of teratogens on organ morphogenesis and development overall. One of these organisms that are popular to study the malformations created by thalidomide are chick embryos. It is observed that thalidomide induces limb outgrowth deformities through inducing oxidative stress and thereby enhancing genetic signaling through irregular expression of bone morphogenic proteins, Bmp. According to a study that was performed in 2007, the results revealed that with the increased oxidative stress thalidomide promotes, the up-regulation of the Bmp target gene and Wnt antagonist (Dkk1) this in turn inhibited canonical Wnt/B-catenin signaling and an increase in cell death was observed. The thalidomide induced cell death was significantly reduced when the introduction of inhibitors against Bmp, Dkk1 (Wnt antagonist), and Gsk3B (B-catenin antagonist) was administered into the chick embryos and cell death of the limb tissue was decreased. These results helped to conclude that these three pathways significantly impacted by thalidomide for chick limb development and that the teratogenic outcomes of the limb development deficiencies thalidomide creates can be reversed if these three pathways are inhibited. Mouse embryo limb development Retinoic acid (RA) is significant in embryonic development. It induces the function of limb patterning of a developing embryo in species such as mice and other vertebrate limbs For example, during the process of regenerating a newt limb an increased amount of RA moves the limb more proximal to the distal blastoma and the extent of the proximalization of the limb increases with the amount of RA present during the regeneration process. A study looked at the RA activity intracellularly in mice in relation to human regulating CYP26 enzymes which play a critical role in metabolizing RA. This study also helps to reveal that RA is significant in various aspects of limb development in an embryo, however irregular control or excess amounts of RA can have teratogenic impacts causing malformations of limb development. They looked specifically at CYP26B1 which is highly expressed in regions of limb development in mice. The lack of CYP26B1 was shown to cause a spread of RA signal towards the distal section of the limb causing proximo-distal patterning irregularities of the limb. Not only did it show spreading of RA but a deficiency in the CYP26B1 also showed an induced apoptosis effect in the developing mouse limb but delayed chondrocyte maturation, which are cells that secrete a cartilage matrix which is significant for limb structure. They also looked at what happened to development of the limbs in wild type mice, that are mice with no CYP26B1 deficiencies, but which had an excess amount of RA present in the embryo. The results showed a similar impact to limb patterning if the mice did have the CYP26B1 deficiency meaning that there was still a proximal distal patterning deficiency observed when excess RA was present. This then concludes that RA plays the role of a morphogen to identify proximal distal patterning of limb development in mice embryos and that CYP26B1 is significant to prevent apoptosis of those limb tissues to further proper development of mice limbs in vivo. Plantae In botany, teratology investigates the theoretical implications of abnormal specimens. For example, the discovery of abnormal flowers—for example, flowers with leaves instead of petals, or flowers with staminoid pistils—furnished important evidence for the "foliar theory", the theory that all flower parts are highly specialised leaves. Types of deformations in plants Plants can have mutations that leads to different types of deformations such as: Fasciation : Development of the apex (growing tip) in a flat plane perpendicular to the axis of elongation Variegation : Degeneration of genes, manifesting itself among other things by anomalous pigmentation Virescence : Anomalous development of a green pigmentation in unexpected parts of the plant Phyllody : Floral organs or fruits transformed into leaves Witch's broom : Unusually high multiplication of branches in the upper part of the plant, mainly in a tree Pelorism : Zygomorphic flower regress to their ancestral actinomorphic symmetry Proliferation : Repetitive growth of an entire organ, such as a flower Galls are not part of plant teratology, as they are formed due to external factors like insects bites or parasites. See also Carcinogen Congenital abnormalities Mutagen Retinoic acid Teratoma Thalidomide References External links Society of Teratology European Teratology Society Organization of Teratology Information Specialists March of Dimes Foundation A Telling of Wonders: Teratology in Western Medicine through 1800 (New York Academy of Medicine Historical Collections) The Reproductive Toxicology Center Database Alcohol and health Developmental biology Radiation health effects Substance-related disorders Teratogens
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indian%20classical%20music
Indian classical music
Indian classical music is the classical music of the Indian subcontinent. It has two major traditions: the North Indian classical music known as Hindustani and the South Indian expression known as Carnatic. These traditions were not distinct until about the 15th century. During the period of Mughal rule of the Indian subcontinent, the traditions separated and evolved into distinct forms. Hindustani music emphasizes improvisation and exploration of all aspects of a raga, while Carnatic performances tend to be short composition-based. However, the two systems continue to have more common features than differences. The roots of the classical music of India are found in the Vedic literature of Hinduism and the ancient Natyashastra, the classic Sanskrit text on performing arts by Bharata Muni. The 13th century Sanskrit text Sangeeta-Ratnakara of Sarangadeva is regarded as the definitive text by both the Hindustani music and the Carnatic music traditions. Indian classical music has two foundational elements, raga and tala. The raga, based on a varied repertoire of swara (notes including microtones), forms the fabric of a deeply intricate melodic structure, while the tala measures the time cycle. The raga gives an artist a palette to build the melody from sounds, while the tala provides them with a creative framework for rhythmic improvisation using time. In Indian classical music the space between the notes is often more important than the notes themselves, and it traditionally eschews Western classical concepts such as harmony, counterpoint, chords, or modulation. History The root of music in ancient India are found in the Vedic literature of Hinduism. The earliest Indian thought combined three arts, syllabic recital (vadya), melos (gita) and dance (nrtta). As these fields developed, sangeeta became a distinct genre of art, in a form equivalent to contemporary music. This likely occurred before the time of Yāska (c. 500 BCE), since he includes these terms in his nirukta studies, one of the six Vedanga of ancient Indian tradition. Some of the ancient texts of Hinduism such as the Samaveda (c. 1000 BCE) are structured entirely to melodic themes, it is sections of Rigveda set to music. The Samaveda is organized into two formats. One part is based on the musical meter, another by the aim of the rituals. The text is written with embedded coding, where swaras (octave notes) are either shown above or within the text, or the verse is written into parvans (knot or member); in simple words, this embedded code of swaras is like the skeleton of the song. The swaras have about 12 different forms and different combinations of these swaras are made to sit under the names of different ragas. The specific code of a song clearly tells us what combination of swaras are present in a specific song. The lyrical part of the song is called "sahityam" and sahityam is just like singing the swaras altogether but using the lyrics of the song. The code in the form of swaras have even the notation of which note to be sung high and which one low. The hymns of Samaveda contain melodic content, form, rhythm and metric organization. This structure is, however, not unique or limited to Samaveda. The Rigveda embeds the musical meter too, without the kind of elaboration found in the Samaveda. For example, the Gayatri mantra contains three metric lines of exactly eight syllables, with an embedded ternary rhythm. In the ancient traditions of Hinduism, two musical genre appeared, namely Gandharva (formal, composed, ceremonial music) and Gana (informal, improvised, entertainment music). The Gandharva music also implied celestial, divine associations, while the Gana also implied singing. The Vedic Sanskrit musical tradition had spread widely in the Indian subcontinent, and according to Rowell, the ancient Tamil classics make it "abundantly clear that a cultivated musical tradition existed in South India as early as the last few pre-Christian centuries". The classic Sanskrit text Natya Shastra is at the foundation of the numerous classical music and dance traditions of India. Before Natyashastra was finalized, the ancient Indian traditions had classified musical instruments into four groups based on their acoustic principle (how they work, rather than the material they are made of) for example flute which works with gracious in and out flow of air. These four categories are accepted as given and are four separate chapters in the Natyashastra, one each on stringed instruments (chordophones), hollow instruments (aerophones), solid instruments (idiophones), and covered instruments (membranophones). Of these, states Rowell, the idiophone in the form of "small bronze cymbals" were used for tala. Almost the entire chapter of Natyashastra on idiophones, by Bharata, is a theoretical treatise on the system of tala. Time keeping with idiophones was considered a separate function than that of percussion (membranophones), in the early Indian thought on music theory. The early 13th century Sanskrit text Sangitaratnakara (literally, "Ocean of Music and Dance"), by Sarngadeva patronized by King Sighana of the Yadava dynasty in Maharashtra, mentions and discusses ragas and talas. He identifies seven tala families, then subdivides them into rhythmic ratios, presenting a methodology for improvization and composition that continues to inspire modern era Indian musicians. Sangitaratnakara is one of the most complete historic medieval era Hindu treatises on this subject that has survived into the modern era, that relates to the structure, technique and reasoning behind ragas and talas. The centrality and significance of music in ancient and early medieval India is also expressed in numerous temple and shrine reliefs, in Buddhism, Hinduism and Jainism, such as through the carving of musicians with cymbals at the fifth century Pavaya temple sculpture near Gwalior, and the Ellora Caves. Texts The post-Vedic era historical literature relating to Indian classical music has been extensive. The ancient and medieval texts are primarily in Sanskrit (Hinduism), but major reviews of music theory, instruments and practice were also composed in regional languages such as Braj, Kannada, Odia, Pali (Buddhism), Prakrit (Jainism), Tamil and Telugu. While numerous manuscripts have survived into the modern era, many original works on Indian music are believed to be lost, and are known to have existed only because they are quoted and discussed in other manuscripts on classical Indian music. Many of the encyclopedic Puranas contain large chapters on music theory and instruments, such as the Bhagavata Purana, the Markandeya Purana, the Vayu Purana, the Linga Purana, and the Visnudharmottara Purana. The most cited and influential among these texts are the Sama Veda, Natya shastra (classic treatise on music theory, Gandharva), Dattilam, Brihaddesi (treatise on regional classical music forms), and Sangita Ratnakara (definitive text for Carnatic and Hindustani traditions). Most historic music theory texts have been by Hindu scholars. Some classical music texts were also composed by Buddhists and Jain scholars, and in 16th century by Muslim scholars. These are listed in the attached table. Major traditions The classical music tradition of the ancient and medieval Indian subcontinent (modern Bangladesh, India, Pakistan) were a generally integrated system through the 14th century, after which the socio-political turmoil of the Delhi Sultanate era isolated the north from the south. The music traditions of the North and South India were not considered distinct until about the 16th century, but after that the traditions acquired distinct forms. North Indian classical music is called Hindustani, while the South Indian expression is called Carnatic (sometimes spelled as Karnatic). According to Nazir Ali Jairazbhoy, the North Indian tradition acquired its modern form after the 14th or the 15th century. Indian classical music has historically adopted and evolved with many regional styles, such as the Bengali classical tradition. This openness to ideas led to assimilation of regional folk innovations, as well as influences that arrived from outside the subcontinent. For example, Hindustani music assimilated Arabian and Persian influences. This assimilation of ideas was upon the ancient classical foundations such as raga, tala, matras as well as the musical instruments. For example, the Persian Rāk is probably a pronunciation of Raga. According to Hormoz Farhat, Rāk has no meaning in modern Persian language, and the concept of raga is unknown in Persia. Carnatic music Purandara Dasa (1484–1564) was a Hindu composer and musicologist who lived in Hampi of the Vijayanagara Empire. He is considered Pithamaha (literally, "grandfather") of the Carnatic music. Purandara Dasa was a monk and a devotee of the Hindu god Krishna (Vishnu, Vittal avatar). He systematised classical Indian music theory and developed exercises for musicians to learn and perfect their art. He travelled widely sharing and teaching his ideas, and influenced numerous South Indian and Maharashtra Bhakti movement musicians. These exercises, his teachings about raga, and his systematic methodology called Suladi Sapta Tala (literally, "primordial seven talas") remains in use in contemporary times. The efforts of Purandara Dasa in the 16th century began the Carnatic style of Indian classical music. Carnatic music, from South India, tends to be more rhythmically intensive and structured than Hindustani music. Examples of this are the logical classification of ragas into melakartas, and the use of fixed compositions similar to Western classical music. Carnatic raga elaborations are generally much faster in tempo and shorter than their equivalents in Hindustani music. In addition, accompanists have a much larger role in Carnatic concerts than in Hindustani concerts. Today's typical concert structure was put in place by the vocalist Ariyakudi Ramanuja Iyengar. The opening piece is called a varnam, and is a warm-up for the musicians. A devotion and a request for a blessing follows, then a series of interchanges between ragams (unmetered melody) and Tanam (the ornamentation within a melorhythmic cycle, equivalent to the jor). This is intermixed with hymns called krithis. The pallavi or theme from the raga then follows. Carnatic pieces also have notated lyrical poems that are reproduced as such, possibly with embellishments and treatments according to the performer's ideology, referred to as Manodharmam. Primary themes include worship, descriptions of temples, philosophy, and nayaka-nayika (Sanskrit "hero-heroine") themes. Tyagaraja (1759–1847), Muthuswami Dikshitar (1776–1827) and Syama Sastri (1762–1827) have been the important historic scholars of Carnatic music. According to Eleanor Zelliot, Tyagaraja is known in the Carnatic tradition as one of its greatest composers, and he reverentially acknowledged the influence of Purandara Dasa. A common belief in South India is that Carnatic music represents a more ancient approach to classical music, whereas Hindustani music has evolved by external influences. Hindustani music It is unclear when the process of differentiation of Hindustani music started. The process may have started in the 14th century courts of the Delhi Sultans. However, according to Jairazbhoy, the North Indian tradition likely acquired its modern form after the 14th or after the 15th century. The development of Hindustani music reached a peak during the reign of Akbar. During this 16th century period, Tansen studied music and introduced musical innovations, for about the first sixty years of his life with patronage of the Hindu king Ram Chand of Gwalior, and thereafter performed at the Muslim court of Akbar. Many musicians consider Tansen as the founder of Hindustani music. Tansen's style and innovations inspired many, and many modern gharanas (Hindustani music teaching houses) link themselves to his lineage. The Muslim courts discouraged Sanskrit, and encouraged technical music. Such constraints led Hindustani music to evolve in a different way than Carnatic music. Hindustani music style is mainly found in North India, Pakistan and Bangladesh. It exists in four major forms: Dhrupad, Khyal (or Khayal), Tarana, and the semi-classical Thumri. Dhrupad is ancient, Khyal evolved from it, Thumri evolved from Khyal. There are three major schools of Thumri: Lucknow gharana, Banaras gharana and Punjabi gharana. These weave in folk music innovations. Tappa is the most folksy, one which likely existed in Rajasthan and Punjab region before it was systematized and integrated into classical music structure. It became popular, with the Bengali musicians developing their own Tappa. Khyal is the modern form of Hindustani music, and the term literally means "imagination". It is significant because it was the template for Sufi musicians among the Islamic community of India, and Qawwals sang their folk songs in the Khyal format. Dhrupad (or Dhruvapad), the ancient form described in the Hindu text Natyashastra, is one of the core forms of classical music found all over the Indian subcontinent. The word comes from Dhruva which means immovable and permanent. A Dhrupad has at least four stanzas, called Sthayi (or Asthayi), Antara, Sanchari and Abhoga. The Sthayi part is a melody that uses the middle octave's first tetrachord and the lower octave notes. The Antara part uses the middle octave's second tetrachord and the higher octave notes. The Sanchari part is the development phase, which builds using parts of Sthayi and Antara already played, and it uses melodic material built with all the three octave notes. The Abhoga is the concluding section, that brings the listener back to the familiar starting point of Sthayi, albeit with rhythmic variations, with diminished notes like a gentle goodbye, that are ideally mathematical fractions such as dagun (half), tigun (third) or chaugun (fourth). Sometimes a fifth stanza called Bhoga is included. Though usually related to philosophical or Bhakti (emotional devotion to a god or goddess) themes, some Dhrupads were composed to praise kings. Improvisation is of central importance to Hindustani music, and each gharana (school tradition) has developed its own techniques. At its core, it starts with a standard composition (bandish), then expands it in a process called vistar. The improvisation methods have ancient roots, and one of the more common techniques is called Alap, which is followed by the Jor and Jhala. The Alap explores possible tonal combinations among other things, Jor explores speed or tempo (faster), while Jhala explores complex combinations like a fishnet of strokes while keeping the beat patterns. As with Carnatic music, Hindustani music has assimilated various folk tunes. For example, ragas such as Kafi and Jaijaiwanti are based on folk tunes. Persian and Arab influences Hindustani music has had Arab and Persian music influences, including the creation of new ragas and the development of instruments such as the sitar and sarod. The nature of these influences are unclear. Scholars have attempted to study Arabic maqam (also spelled makam) of Arabian peninsula, Turkey and northern Africa, and dastgah of Iran, to discern the nature and extent. Through the colonial era and until the 1960s, the attempt was to theoretically study ragas and maqams and suggested commonalities. Later comparative musicology studies, states Bruno Nettl – a professor of Music, have found the similarities between classical Indian music and European music as well, raising the question about the point of similarities and of departures between the different world music systems. One of the earliest known discussions of Persian maqam and Indian ragas is by the late 16th century scholar Pundarika Vittala. He states that Persian maqams in use in his times had been derived from older Indian ragas (or mela), and he specifically maps over a dozen maqam. For example, Vittala states that the Hijaz maqam was derived from the Asaveri raga, and Jangula was derived from the Bangal. In 1941, Haidar Rizvi questioned this and stated that influence was in the other direction, Middle Eastern maqams were turned into Indian ragas, such as Zangulah maqam becoming Jangla raga. According to John Baily – a professor of Ethnomusicology, there is evidence that the traffic of musical ideas were both ways, because Persian records confirm that Indian musicians were a part of the Qajar court in Tehran, an interaction that continued through the 20th century with import of Indian musical instruments in cities such as Herat near Afghanistan-Iran border. Features Classical Indian music is a genre of South Asian music, the other being film, various varieties of pop, regional folk, religious and devotional music. In Indian classical music, the raga and the tala are two foundational elements. The raga forms the fabric of a melodic structure, and the tala keeps the time cycle. Both raga and tala are open frameworks for creativity and allow a very large number of possibilities, however, the tradition considers a few hundred ragas and talas as basic. Raga is intimately related to tala or guidance about "division of time", with each unit called a matra (beat, and duration between beats). Raga A raga is a central concept of Indian music, predominant in its expression. According to Walter Kaufmann, though a remarkable and prominent feature of Indian music, a definition of raga cannot be offered in one or two sentences. Raga may be roughly described as a musical entity that includes note intonation, relative duration and order, in a manner similar to how words flexibly form phrases to create an atmosphere of expression. In some cases, certain rules are considered obligatory, in others optional. The raga allows flexibility, where the artist may rely on simple expression, or may add ornamentations yet express the same essential message but evoke a different intensity of mood. A raga has a given set of notes, on a scale, ordered in melodies with musical motifs. A musician playing a raga, states Bruno Nettl, may traditionally use just these notes, but is free to emphasize or improvise certain degrees of the scale. The Indian tradition suggests a certain sequencing of how the musician moves from note to note for each raga, in order for the performance to create a rasa (mood, atmosphere, essence, inner feeling) that is unique to each raga. A raga can be written on a scale. Theoretically, thousands of raga are possible given 5 or more notes, but in practical use, the classical Indian tradition has refined and typically relies on several hundred. For most artists, their basic perfected repertoire has some forty to fifty ragas. Raga in Indian classical music is intimately related to tala or guidance about "division of time", with each unit called a matra (beat, and duration between beats). A raga is not a tune, because the same raga can yield a very large number of tunes. A raga is not a scale, because many ragas can be based on the same scale. A raga, states Bruno Nettl and other music scholars, is a concept similar to mode, something between the domains of tune and scale, and it is best conceptualized as a "unique array of melodic features, mapped to and organized for a unique aesthetic sentiment in the listener". The goal of a raga and its artist is to create rasa (essence, feeling, atmosphere) with music, as classical Indian dance does with performance arts. In the Indian tradition, classical dances are performed with music set to various ragas. Tala According to David Nelson – an Ethnomusicology scholar specializing in Carnatic music, a tala in Indian music covers "the whole subject of musical meter". Indian music is composed and performed in a metrical framework, a structure of beats that is a tala. A tala measures musical time in Indian music. However, it does not imply a regular repeating accent pattern, instead its hierarchical arrangement depends on how the musical piece is supposed to be performed. The tala forms the metrical structure that repeats, in a cyclical harmony, from the start to end of any particular song or dance segment, making it conceptually analogous to meters in Western music. However, talas have certain qualitative features that classical European musical meters do not. For example, some talas are much longer than any classical Western meter, such as a framework based on 29 beats whose cycle takes about 45 seconds to complete when performed. Another sophistication in talas is the lack of "strong, weak" beat composition typical of the traditional European meter. In classical Indian traditions, the tala is not restricted to permutations of strong and weak beats, but its flexibility permits the accent of a beat to be decided by the shape of musical phrase. The most widely used tala in the South Indian system is adi tala. In the North Indian system, the most common tala is teental. In the two major systems of classical Indian music, the first count of any tala is called sam. Instruments Instruments typically used in Hindustani music include the sitar, sarod, surbahar, esraj, veena, tanpura, bansuri, shehnai, sarangi, violin, santoor, pakhavaj and tabla. Instruments typically used in Carnatic music include veena, venu, gottuvadyam, harmonium, mridangam, kanjira, ghatam, nadaswaram and violin. Players of the tabla, a type of drum, usually keep the rhythm, an indicator of time in Hindustani music. Another common instrument is the stringed tanpura, which is played at a steady tone (a drone) throughout the performance of the raga, and which provides both a point of reference for the musician and a background against which the music stands out. The tuning of the tanpura depends on the raga being performed. The task of playing the tanpura traditionally falls to a student of the soloist. Other instruments for accompaniment include the sarangi and the harmonium. Notation system Indian classical music is both elaborate and expressive. Like Western classical music, it divides the octave into 12 semitones of which the 7 basic notes are, in ascending tonal order, Sa Re Ga Ma Pa Dha Ni for Hindustani music and Sa Ri Ga Ma Pa Dha Ni for Carnatic music, similar to Western music's Do Re Mi Fa So La Si . However, Indian music uses just-intonation tuning, unlike some modern Western classical music, which uses the equal-temperament tuning system. Also, unlike modern Western classical music, Indian classical music places great emphasis on improvisation. The underlying scale may have four, five, six or seven tones, called swaras (sometimes spelled as svaras). The swara concept is found in the ancient Natya Shastra in Chapter 28. It calls the unit of tonal measurement or audible unit as Śhruti, with verse 28.21 introducing the musical scale as follows, These seven degrees are shared by both major raga systems, that is the North Indian (Hindustani) and South Indian (Carnatic) systems. The solfege (sargam) is learnt in abbreviated form: sa, ri (Carnatic) or re (Hindustani), ga, ma, pa, dha, ni, sa. Of these, the first that is "sa", and the fifth that is "pa", are considered anchors that are unalterable, while the remaining have flavors that differs between the two major systems. Contemporary Indian music schools follow notations and classifications (see melakarta and thaat). These are generally based on a flawed but still useful notation system created by Vishnu Narayan Bhatkhande. Reception outside India According to Yukteshwar Kumar, elements of Indian music arrived in China in the 3rd century, such as in the works of Chinese lyricist Li Yannian. In the 1980s, 1990s and particularly the 2000s onwards, Indian Classical Music has seen rapid growth in reception and development around the globe, particularly in North America, where immigrant communities have preserved and passed on classical music traditions to subsequent generations through the establishment of local festivals and music schools. Numerous musicians of American origin, including Ramakrishnan Murthy, Sandeep Narayan, Abby V, and Mahesh Kale have taken professionally to Indian Classical Music with great success. In his 2020 released video, Canadian singer Abby V demonstrated 73 different Indian Classical ragas in a live rendering, which went viral on the internet; further establishing the growing prominence of Indian Classical Music around the globe. Organizations SPIC MACAY, established in 1977, has more than 500 chapters in India and abroad. SPIC MACAY claims to hold around 5000 events every year related to Indian classical music and dance. Prayag Sangeet Samiti is also a well established organizastion promoting Indian Classical Music. See also List of Indian classical music festivals List of rāgas in Indian classical music References Bibliography Indian Music: Ancient Beginnings – Natyashastra Ludwig Pesch, The Oxford Illustrated Companion to South Indian Classical Music, Oxford University Press. George E. Ruckert, Music in North India: Experiencing Music, Expressing Culture, Oxford University Press. T. Viswanathan and Matthew Harp Allen; Music in South India: The Karnatak Concert Tradition and Beyond Experiencing Music, Expressing Culture; Oxford University Press. Martin Clayton; Time in Indian Music: Rhythm, Metre, and Form in North Indian Rag Performance; Oxford University Press. External links Rajan Parrikar Music Archive includes detailed articles on Indian classical music with analyses and audio extracts from rare recordings. Vijaya Parrikar Library of Indian Classical Music Library contains recorded music of India's great music masters of yesteryear, excerpts of old, hard-to-find or unpublished recordings. Hindustani Rag Sangeet Online – more than 800 audio and video archives Raag Hindustani – Explanations and examples of Indian Classical (Hindustani) music Classical Indian music, SPIC MACAY
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cavalier%20Parliament
Cavalier Parliament
The Cavalier Parliament of England lasted from 8 May 1661 until 24 January 1679. It was the longest English Parliament, and longer than any Great British or UK Parliament to date, enduring for nearly 18 years of the quarter-century reign of Charles II of England. Like its predecessor, the Convention Parliament, it was overwhelmingly Royalist and is also known as the Pensioner Parliament for the many pensions it granted to adherents of the King. History Clarendon ministry The first session of the Cavalier Parliament opened on May 8, 1661. Among the first orders of business was the confirmation of the acts of the previous year's irregular Convention of 1660 as legitimate (notably, the Indemnity and Oblivion Act). Parliament immediately ordered the public burning of the Solemn League and Covenant by a common hangman. It also repealed the 1642 Bishops Exclusion Act, thereby allowing Church of England bishops to resume their temporal positions, including their seats in the House of Lords. Other notable pieces of first session legislation include the Militia Act placing the armed forces unambiguously under the king's authority, and the Sedition Act. It also continued proceedings against the regicides of Charles I. Later that same year (1661), Parliament passed the Corporation Act, the first of a series of acts known as the Clarendon Code, to cement the episcopal Anglican church as the official church of England. The Clarendon code is normally given as the following four acts: the Corporation Act 1661 the Act of Uniformity 1662 the Conventicle Act 1664 the Five Mile Act 1665. The Quaker Act 1662, specifically targeting Quakers, can also be cited as part of the new religious 'code'. In January 1661, the Fifth Monarchists, anticipating the arrival of Jesus Christ to claim the throne, led a succession of revolts under the command of Vavasor Powell and Thomas Venner. To silence radical agitators and pamphleteers, Parliament passed the Licensing of the Press Act 1662, instituting government censorship of the press. On the economic legislation, the Cavalier parliament had a notable Mercantilist bent. To promote the English cloth industry, it outlawed the exportation of raw materials, such as wool, raw hides and fuller's clay (1662) and forbade the importation of finished materials like lace and embroidery (1662). It repealed old domestic restrictions on linen manufacturing (1663). To encourage the development of the American colonies as raw-material producers and consumers of English manufactured goods, the Cavalier parliament confirmed and reinforced the Navigation Act passed by the prior parliament in 1660, with the new Staple Act in 1663, requiring foreigners trading with the American colonies to transship their goods through English ports. Old corn laws were adjusted to the advantage of English farmers: the old restrictions on the exportation of wheat was gradually relaxed, exportation becoming fully free in 1670 and even subsidized with bounties after 1673. Conversely, the importation of wheat was restricted, with the first prohibitive tariffs on the importation of grains introduced in 1663 in a two-tier system, adjusted (1670) into a three-tier system based on current price. The importation of Irish cattle into Britain was forbidden (1666), giving English beef producers a protected home market (in trade, Scotland was already excluded altogether, treated as a foreign country on par with France). To facilitate the overseas operations of the charter companies, parliament inserted a clause into the 1663 Staple Act allowing the free exportation of coin and bullion - over the vigorous opposition of Arthur Annesley (Earl Anglesey), the leading mercantilist in parliament. To encourage the inflow of gold and silver from abroad and into circulation, the Coinage Act 1666 abolished seignorage, and introduced free minting at the Royal Mint. The prior Convention of 1660 had promised King Charles II a generous annual revenue of £1.2 million, secured on customs duties and excise taxes. It was up to Cavalier parliament to ensure that the promise was kept. But in the first few years, the revenue fell short of the promised amount, and parliament had to look for new ways to make up for it. Parliament was responsible for the introduction of the controversial hearth tax (1662), with its unpopular and intrusive method of assessment (tax collectors had to go inside everyone's private homes to count hearths). Another problem also emerged at this time: the sudden rise in the number of paupers, which had catapulted with the demobilization of the army. It was feared they would migrate en masse to the better-off parishes and swamp their social assistance programs. So, in another controversial piece of legislation, parliament changed the Elizabethan Poor Laws with the Act of Settlement and Removal (1662), legally restricting the poor to seeking assistance in their own home parish. Other significant and curious pieces of early legislation include the first licensing of hackney carriages (1662), an act against "excessive gaming" (1663) and a famous 1663 act authorizing the erection of toll gates on the Great North Road, the prelude to a series of acts to help finance road-building for highways. In 1664, the Cavalier parliament amended the old Triennial Act so that it was now only suggested (rather than required) that the king summon a parliamentary session at least once every three years. In 1665, parliament met in Oxford to escape the Great Plague of London. The next year, in the aftermath of the Great Fire of London which ravaged the city in September 1666, parliament set up a court to settle disputes between landlords and tenants of burned buildings (Fire of London Disputes Act 1666), and passed a series of acts setting down regulations for rebuilding of the city (Rebuilding of London Act 1666). Mercantilist agitation had prompted parliament to support the Second Anglo-Dutch War in 1665. But when the war turned out poorly in 1667, parliament decided to lay the blame on Charles II's chief minister Edward Hyde (Earl of Clarendon) and the king's brother and lord admiral, James, Duke of York. Parliament, echoing public belief, accused that the money voted for the war had been embezzled by court officers. Under pressure, Charles consented to setting up an independent commission for inquiry, but the verdict was inconclusive. Nonetheless, parliament decided to launch impeachment proceedings against Clarendon. Before these bore fruit, Clarendon went into exile. Cabal ministry Clarendon's departure opened the way for the rise of a new crop of young ministers, known as "the Cabal", a loose ministerial coalition consisting of Clifford, Arlington, Buckingham, Ashley, Lauderdale. The beginnings of what is now called a cabinet system began to emerge within the government. Sir George Downing, who had long stressed parliamentary prerogative in tying expenditures to specific sources (rather than just voting for supply and letting the crown allocate as it saw fit), became secretary to the Treasury, and helped overhaul crown finances, finally putting them on a steady course. Nonetheless, parliament was shocked when, in 1668, the Cabal announced the "Triple Alliance", which brought England into alliance with her recent enemy, the Dutch Republic. Although a league of northern Protestant powers had some appeal, mercantilist sentiment in parliament was still very strong, and the Netherlands was still seen as the main threat to England. Disillusioned by the lukewarm reception, Charles II re-oriented his foreign policy and struck up the notorious secret Treaty of Dover in May 1670, allying England and Louis XIV's France, in a plan to dismember the Netherlands. Despite their comparative energy and efficiency, the Cabal were a fractious and unpopular lot and their infighting spilled over publicly into parliament, particularly the House of Lords. At this stage, the House of Commons was de facto subservient to Lords, "managed from above" by the Lords' handlers, following their lead and echoing their quarrels. But Commons soon began to find its own voice. Finding the Cabal insufferable, Sir William Coventry resigned as Secretary to the Admiralty and went back to the House of Commons, where he emerged in 1669 as the formidable leader of a group of parliamentarians known as the "Country Party" - a group of MPs held together by their suspicion of corruption in high places, suspicious of the king's dubious foreign policy and, increasingly, suspicious of his loyalty to Protestantism. The factions of a "party political" system thus gradually emerged in parliament, polarised between the Coventry-led "Country Party" (ancestral to the Whigs) and the "Court Party" (supporters of the king's council, ancestral to the Tories). The new self-assurance of Commons was felt in a quarrel that erupted during the 9th Session in 1670 between Lords and Commons, where Commons assailed the Lords' assumption that they had the right to amend their revenue bills. Finding their handlers could no longer control Commons, and that the goodwill that had attended Charles II at the Restoration was wearing thin, the Cabal recommended doing without them, and persuaded Charles II to keep parliament out of session with repeated prorogations. The Third Anglo-Dutch war (begun in April 1672), however, soon forced Charles II's hand. While parliament was prorogued, the Cabal had unwisely engineered the "Great Stop of the Exchequer" in January 1672, redirecting the revenues designated for the paying of government debt towards financing a new fleet for the upcoming war. The default prompted the goldsmith bankers of London to cease all further credit to the crown, forcing Charles II to finally call parliament again in early 1673 for its 10th Session to plead for funds. By this time, the war was not going very well, and English public sentiment, which had originally been itching for revenge on the hated Dutch, now swung firmly against it. Facing the Anglo-French onslaught, the Dutch republic had delivered itself into the hands of the charismatic young stadtholder William III of Orange, Charles's own nephew. English public opinion (encouraged by Dutch propaganda) embraced the image of the heroic young Protestant prince valiantly defying an "international Catholic conspiracy" (uncomfortably close to the truth, given the secret Treaty of Dover). The Cabal defended the war vigorously - Ashley making his famous "Delenda est Carthago" speech before the House of Lords, comparing England to Rome and Holland to Carthage (an unusual classical reference for this audience). But Commons wanted to address a different item of business - the Declaration of Indulgence that had been issued by Charles II during the recess in 1672 suspending penal laws on Dissenters and Catholics. Parliament's opposition to this was not merely a spasm of religious intolerance. The Declaration effectively suspended a parliamentary act, and the MPs were eager to emphasize the constitutional point that an act which was passed in session could only be modified, suspended or repealed in session. They also saw religion as a means to break the hated Cabal - which contained both crypto-Catholics like Arlington and Clifford and crypto-Presbyterians like Ashley and Lauderdale. Parliament believed the Cabal had been responsible for keeping them out of session and counselling to king to govern without them. To that end, parliament used its purse-strings to force not only the repeal of the Declaration but also the passage of the first Test Act in May 1673, requiring all office-holders to deny Catholic transubstantiation and take Anglican communion. Following the Test Act, the members of the Cabal gradually resigned or were dismissed. Rather than submit to the Test, Clifford and, more significantly the king's own brother and heir apparent, James Duke of York, resigned their offices. James's refusal caught the public by surprise - and signalled the prospect that Charles II might be succeeded by a Catholic king. Through the late Summer of 1673, apprehension about James's Catholicism was the talk of the day. When the next session opened in October 1673, Ashley (now Earl of Shaftesbury), sensing the new mood, turned up at the House of Lords to loudly denounce the proposed marriage of James of York to the Catholic princess Mary of Modena. The king angrily prorogued the session and dismissed Shaftesbury. Around that same time, Arlington and Buckingham fell into a quarrel, in the process of which the details of the secret Treaty of Dover were leaked to parliament, provoking an alarmed parliamentary inquiry. Arlington and Buckingham sheepishly appeared before the inquiry in January 1674, accusing each other of crafting the French alliance. His foreign policy in shambles, Charles II decided to pull England out of the controversial war. In February, Charles II took the unprecedented step of communicating the terms of the Treaty to Westminster to parliament before it was signed. Danby ministry With the fall of the Cabal (only Lauderdale lingered on in Scotland), Charles II turned to Thomas Osborne (Earl of Danby) as his chief minister. The House of Commons, which had played a significant role in the events of 1673, was comparatively calmed by Danby's orthodox Anglican government and vigorous enforcement of the Test Act. But the drama now shifted to the House of Lords, where the dismissed Ashley-Shaftesbury, in alliance with the disgruntled Buckingham and George Savile (Viscount Halifax) (Coventry's nephew), emerged as leader of the opposition to the government. In the House of Commons, the Country Party gained strength with the adherence of talented MPs like William Russell, William Cavendish, Henry Powle, Thomas Littleton and John Birch and coordinated their actions in Commons closely with Shaftesbury's Lords. Through the brief 12th Session of early 1674, Shaftesbury and his friends, flexing their new muscles, steered a slew of provocative bills in the House of Lords, e.g. expelling Catholics from London, forcing an oath that renounced the Pope, requiring royal family members to get parliamentary consent on marriage and how to raise their children. Finally when Shaftesbury's clique begin considering bringing James of York on charges of high treason, Charles II quickly prorogued the session, preventing the session's act from being passed. The next year's sessions of 1675 went little better: Shaftesbury led an attempt to impeach Danby, following the defeat of Danby's proposed legislation to reinforce the Test Act with a new oath forswearing any attempt to "modify" the Church and State. The impeachment effort came to naught, but Danby responded to the opposition's new muscle with a strenuous effort to construct a "Court Party" in the House of Commons to counter the Country Party (Danby's generous bribes to MPs caused the Cavalier Parliament to also be known as the "Pensionary Parliament"). After these calamitous sessions, Charles II prorogued parliament in November 1675 and kept it out of session for the next fifteen months (the "Long Prorogation"). When parliament resumed in February 1677, it opened with a bang. Shaftesbury (joined by Buckingham, Salisbury and Wharton), proclaimed the session illegitimate, claiming that the "Long Prorogation" implied that parliament was effectively dissolved and that the king must call for new elections. This prospect alarmed the House of Commons, whose members (unlike Lords) risked losing their seats. The leaders of the Country Party in Commons believed their party would be strengthened by new elections, but were unable to persuade other members to follow suit. While the combative lords were sent to the Tower of London for their challenge, Commons were only willing to agree that the long prorogation was probably unconstitutional, but that the session itself was not. The session of 1677 had been called by Charles II to finance England's re-entry into the Franco-Dutch war, which had been dragging on since England left in 1674, and hopefully get himself a seat at the peace table. Parliament was inclined, provided the king joined the Dutch side. To this end, Danby negotiated the marriage of James of York's eldest daughter Mary to the Dutch Stadtholder William III of Orange in November 1677. But parliament was unwilling to provide enough funds to raise an army. The memoirs of the French ambassador Paul Barillon d'Amoncourt reveal extensive French communication (and bribery) of the MPs to delay supply - even Country Party leaders like Henry Powle, William Harbord and Thomas Littleton were paid. This has led some historians to speculate that parliament's war-call was a bluff from the start, that they were more interested in denying the king a foreign policy victory and embarrassing Danby. Nonetheless, Charles II hurried things along in late 1677 by precipitously signing a treaty with William III to re-enter the war, and presenting it to parliament as a fait accompli. The reluctant parliament was forced to cough up enough funds to dispatch an expeditionary force of around 15,000 troops under the Duke of Monmouth to Flanders in May, 1678. But it was too late - the French and Dutch quickly wound up their negotiations (without England), and went on to sign the Treaties of Nijmegen ending the war. In June, parliament quickly voted a sum to finance the disbanding of the expeditionary force, but Charles II decided to use the money to maintain it instead for a few months longer, in the hope he might still affect the final treaty. This humiliating conclusion to the king's war policy dragged the political reputation of the King and Danby to a low point, making them vulnerable when the Popish Plot erupted in August and September 1678. When the 17th session opened that October, parliament was in a tremendously combative mood. Worked up by the Popish plot, they strengthened the Test Act with the Papists' Disabling Act excluding Catholics from both houses of parliament and the king's court (James exempted). Parliament also demanded to know why the king had misapplied the June funds and was still maintaining the expeditionary force in Flanders. The session was finally wrecked when details emerged that, on Charles II's instructions, Danby had entered into secret negotiations with Louis XIV in early 1676, promising England would not re-enter the war on the Dutch side, negotiations which had not been revealed during the 1677 debate. Parliament immediately impeached Danby, forcing Charles II to prorogue the session in December, 1678. In the recess, Charles II entered into negotiations with Shaftesbury and other parliamentary leaders. In return for saving Danby from trial in the House of Lords, Charles II reluctantly agreed to their demands to finally dissolve parliament and call for new elections. The dissolution was announced on 24 January 1679, bringing the seemingly interminable Cavalier Parliament to its end. After the elections, the new parliament - known as the Habeas Corpus Parliament (or "First Exclusion Parliament") - was assembled in March, 1679. Officers In the first decade, the Speaker of the House of Commons was Sir Edward Turnour (MP for Hertford), who was elected by the first session in 1661. Turnour become Solicitor-General in 1670 and held the speakership until 1671 (end of 9th Session), after which he was appointed the new Chief Baron of the Exchequer. At the opening of the 10th Session (February 1673), Job Charlton (MP Ludlow) was elected as the new speaker, but resigned after a month on account of ill-health. Sir Edward Seymour (MP for Totnes and Treasurer of the Navy) replaced him, and served as Speaker until the 1678 session, when the speakership went to the Sir Robert Sawyer (MP for High Wycombe). But Sawyer resigned within weeks, also on account of health, and Seymour stepped in again as speaker until the end of the Cavalier parliament. Sessions At the 1660 Restoration, the Commonwealth era was obliterated from the legal record, with the result that Charles II's regnal years officially begin on January 30, 1649 (the death date of Charles I). The Cavalier parliament thus officially begins on the thirteenth year of Charles II's reign. The Cavalier parliament went through seventeen sessions, although some sessions were broken up by adjournments and recesses (an "adjournment" only interrupts a session; a "prorogation" ends a session, a "dissolution" ends a parliament). By English tradition, a parliamentary session passes only one public "act", albeit an act with various "chapters". English legal statutes are cited by parliamentary session labeled by the regnal year in which that session sat. So the citation "15 Charles II c.4" means "the fourth chapter of the act passed by the parliamentary session that sat in the 15th year of the reign of Charles II". Charles II's regnal year begins January 30, so if a single parliamentary session overlaps that date, it will usually be given a double label, e.g. "19 & 20 Charles II" (the session that sat from the 19th to the 20th year of Charles II's reign). If there are two sessions within the same regnal year, they are differentiated by a "Statute" suffix (e.g. 13 Charles II Stat.1 is a different session than 13 Charles II Stat. 2). Finally, some sessions were prorogued without passing an act, and thus have no legal statute label at all. The legal titles of parliamentary sessions of the Cavalier parliament are as given in the two most prominent compilations of statutes - the popular Statutes at Large (ed. Owen Ruffhead, 1762–65 or Danby Pickering 1762–66) and the official The Statutes of the Realm (ed. John Raithby, 1819). We note where the title differs between the two compilations. The session dates are sometimes incorrect in the rolls. This table largely follows the dating in Cobbett's Parliamentary History. (N.B. - In the 17th century, the English "legal year" began on March 25, so an act which is passed, say, on February 10, 1663, will be officially dated February 10, 1662. This can be a cause of confusion. Cobbett notes the double date by a hyphen 1662–63, with the latter number as the historical calendar year. The table below follows the regular calendar dates.) For the acts of parliament passed in each session, see List of Acts of the Parliament of England, 1660–1699. See also 1661 English general election List of MPs elected to the English Parliament in 1661 List of Acts of the Parliament of England, 1660–1699 English Restoration List of Parliaments of England Notes and references 1661 establishments in England 1679 disestablishments in England 17th-century English parliaments Parliaments of Charles II of England The Restoration
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223020
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Klemheist%20knot
Klemheist knot
The klemheist knot or French Machard knot is a type of friction hitch that grips the rope when weight is applied, and is free to move when the weight is released. It is used similarly to a Prusik knot or the Bachmann knot to ascend or descend a climbing rope. One advantage is that webbing can be used as an alternative to cord. The Klemheist is easier to slide up than a Prusik. The klemheist is also a way to attach a snubber to the anchor rope of small boats, with the advantage that it is easy to undo. Sometimes the knot name is misspelled as kleimheist, with an extra i. Technique Make a secure loop of a cord (see Double fisherman's knot) that is definitely narrower than the rope. Wrap from one end around the rope two or three times in a direction that will be down. The loose end is then threaded through the starting end, and carefully tightened to leave the wraps neat. In use, strain must be taken only on the hanging end. If the knot slips when load is placed on the hanging loop, re-tie around the climbing rope another time or two, until there is no slippage. Holding around the wraps will let you slide the knot up or down. Making the wraps slide when the hitch is under tension will create friction heat on the rope and the knot. See also List of knots List of friction hitch knots References External links Chockstone: Friction Knots Mark Adams's "Son of a Hitch: A Genealogy of Arborists’ Climbing Hitches" A scientific study of common friction knots Climbing knots
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Praying%20mantis%20%28disambiguation%29
Praying mantis (disambiguation)
The praying mantis is any insect of the order Mantodea. Praying mantis may also refer to: Arts and entertainment Praying Mantis (1983 film), a film directed by Jack Gold Praying Mantis (film), an American psychological thriller film Praying Mantis (band), a New Wave of British Heavy Metal band Military Operation Praying Mantis, a 1988 naval battle between US and Iranian forces Praying Mantis, a British prototype light tank Universal Carrier of World War II Martial arts Northern Praying Mantis, the Northern Chinese martial art from Shandong Southern Praying Mantis, the Southern Chinese martial art of the Hakka people See also Mantis (disambiguation)
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/London%20Action%20Resource%20Centre
London Action Resource Centre
The London Action Resource Centre (LARC) is an anarchist infoshop and self-managed social centre situated in Whitechapel, in the East End of London. Previously a school and a synagogue, it was purchased in 1999. It hosts meetings and events from various groups and is part of the UK Social Centre Network. History The building was constructed 1866–7 as a mission house and infants’ school, keeping this usage until around 1918. It then housed the Louise Michel International Modern School, organised by Jewish anarchists. It also hosted the New Worker's Friend (Arbeter Fraynd) Club and the East London Anarchist Group. It was then converted into a synagogue in 1925. After World War II, the building was used in the rag trade before falling into dereliction. Project LARC was purchased in the autumn of 1999 by people active in Reclaim the Streets, just after the Carnival against Capitalism which occurred on 18 June 1999. It was rebuilt over three years. The Guardian described it in 2005 as "a hub of the new anarchist movement." It has been used for events and as a meeting place by various groups, including the Radical Librarians Collective, Queeruption and Indymedia in London. It was originally known as the Fieldgate Action Resource Centre. LARC is part of the UK Social Centre Network, alongside other projects which were set up around the same time, like the Cowley Club in Brighton and the Sumac Centre in Nottingham, and also the 1 in 12 Club in Bradford. On its own website, the project states it is "a cooperatively owned and run building dedicated to the furthering of social justice and environmental issues, locally, nationally and globally. We believe this is done through direct action, refusing to be a spectator or waiting for someone else to do it for us. It is about taking back power and realising our potential to bring about change. This is an anti-capitalist, non-hierarchical space." See also Freedom Press Rampart Social Centre References Notes Bibliography External links LARC website London RTS website (historical interest, not updated) Louise Michel International Modern School Buildings and structures in the London Borough of Tower Hamlets DIY culture Infoshops Social centres in the United Kingdom Whitechapel
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gannet
Gannet
Gannets are seabirds comprising the genus Morus, in the family Sulidae, closely related to boobies. "Gannet" is derived from Old English ganot, ultimately from the same Old Germanic root as "gander". Morus is derived from Ancient Greek moros, "foolish", due to lack of fear shown by breeding gannets and boobies, allowing them to be easily killed. Gannets are large white birds with yellowish heads; black-tipped wings; and long bills. Northern gannets are the largest seabirds in the North Atlantic, having a wingspan of up to . The other two species occur in the temperate seas around southern Africa, southern Australia, and New Zealand. Gannets hunt fish by diving into the sea from a height and pursuing their prey underwater, and have a number of adaptations: They have no external nostrils; they are located inside the mouth, instead. They have air sacs in the face and chest under the skin, which act like bubble wrap, cushioning the impact with the water. The position of their eyes is far enough forward on the face for binocular vision, allowing them to judge distances accurately. Gannets can dive from a height of , achieving speeds of as they strike the water, enabling them to catch fish at a much greater depth than most airborne birds. The gannet's supposed capacity for eating large quantities of fish has led to "gannet" becoming a description of somebody with a voracious appetite. Mating and nesting Gannets are colonial breeders on islands and coasts, normally laying one chalky-blue egg. They lack brood patches and use their webbed feet to warm the eggs. They reach maturity around 5 years of age. First-year birds are completely black, and subsequent subadult plumages show increasing amounts of white. Northern gannets The most important nesting ground for northern gannets is the United Kingdom, with about two-thirds of the world's population. These live mainly in Scotland, including the Shetland Isles. The rest of the world's northern-gannet population nests in Canada, Ireland, the Faroe Islands, and Iceland, with small numbers in France (they are often seen in the Bay of Biscay), the Channel Islands, Norway, and a single colony in Germany on Heligoland. The biggest northern-gannet colony is on Scotland's Bass Rock in the Firth of Forth; in 2014, this colony contained some 75,000 pairs. Sulasgeir off the coast of the Isle of Lewis, St. Kilda, Grassholm in Pembrokeshire, Bempton Cliffs in the East Riding of Yorkshire, Sceilig Bheag, Ireland, and Bonaventure Island, Quebec, are also important northern-gannet breeding sites. Systematics and evolution The three gannet species are now usually placed in the genus Morus, Abbott's booby in Papasula, and the remaining boobies in Sula. However, some authorities believe that all nine sulid species should be considered congeneric, in Sula. At one time, the various gannet species were considered to be a single species. Most fossil gannets are from the Late Miocene or Pliocene, when the diversity of seabirds in general was much higher than today. The cause the decline in species at the end of the Pleistocene is not clear; increased competition due to the spread of marine mammals may have played a role. The genus Morus is much better documented in the fossil record than Sula, though the latter is more numerous today. The reasons are not clear; boobies possibly were better adapted or simply "lucky" to occur in the right places for dealing with the challenges of the Late Pliocene ecological change, or many more fossil boobies could still await discovery. Notably, gannets are today restricted to temperate oceans, while boobies are also found in tropical waters, whereas several of the prehistoric gannet species had a more equatorial distribution than their congeners of today. Fossil species of gannets are: Morus loxostylus (Early Miocene of EC USA) – includes M. atlanticus Morus olsoni (Middle Miocene of Romania) Morus lompocanus (Lompoc Late Miocene of Lompoc, USA) Morus magnus (Late Miocene of California) Morus peruvianus (Pisco Late Miocene of Peru) Morus vagabundus (Temblor Late Miocene of California) Morus willetti (Late Miocene of California) – formerly in Sula Morus sp. (Temblor Late Miocene of Sharktooth Hill, US: Miller 1961) – possibly M. magnus Morus sp. 1 (Late Miocene/Early Pliocene of Lee Creek Mine, US) Morus sp. 2 (Late Miocene/Early Pliocene of Lee Creek Mine, US) Morus peninsularis (Early Pliocene) Morus recentior (Middle Pliocene of California, US) Morus reyanus – Del Rey gannet (Late Pleistocene of W US) Cultural references In many parts of the United Kingdom, the term "gannet" is used to refer to people who steadily eat vast quantities of food, especially at public functions. Young gannets were historically used as a food source, a tradition still practised in Ness, Scotland, where they are called "guga". Like examples of continued traditional whale harvesting, the modern-day hunting of gannet chicks results in great controversies as to whether it should continue to be afforded "exemption from the ordinary protection afforded to sea birds in UK and EU law". The Ness hunt is currently limited to 2,000 chicks per year, and dates back at least to the Iron Age. The hunt is considered to be sustainable, as between 1902 and 2003, gannet numbers in Scotland increased dramatically from 30,000 to 180,000. In "The Bookshop Sketch", originally from At Last the 1948 Show (1967), a customer (Marty Feldman) asks the bookshop proprietor (John Cleese) for "the expurgated version" of Olsen's Standard Book of British Birds, "the one without the gannet", because he does not like gannets due to their "long nasty beaks". Desperate to satisfy the customer, the proprietor tears the page about the gannet out of the book. The sketch is reprised in Monty Python's Contractual Obligation Album, where the customer (Graham Chapman) says he does not like the gannet because "they wet their nests." In Series 1, Episode 3 of The F Word, Gordon Ramsay travels to the northwestern coast of Scotland and is shown how to prepare, cook, and eat gannet. References External links Gannet videos on the Internet Bird Collection Seabirds Taxa named by Louis Jean Pierre Vieillot
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Booby
Booby
A booby is a seabird in the genus Sula, part of the family Sulidae. Boobies are closely related to the gannets (Morus), which were formerly included in Sula. Systematics and evolution The genus Sula was introduced by the French zoologist Mathurin Jacques Brisson in 1760. The type species is the brown booby. The name is derived from súla, the Old Norse and Icelandic word for the other member of the family Sulidae, the gannet. The English name "booby" was possibly based on the Spanish slang term bobo, meaning "stupid", as these tame birds had a habit of landing on board sailing ships, where they were easily captured and eaten. Owing to this, boobies are often mentioned as having been caught and eaten by shipwrecked sailors, notably William Bligh of the Bounty and his adherents during their famous voyage after being set adrift by Fletcher Christian and his followers. Six of the ten extant Sulidae species called boobies are in the genus Sula, while the three gannet species are usually placed in the genus Morus. Abbott's booby was formerly included in Sula but is now placed in a monotypic genus Papasula, which represents an ancient lineage perhaps closer to Morus. Some authorities consider that all ten species should be considered congeneric in Sula. However, they are readily distinguished by means of osteology. The distinct lineages of gannets and boobies are known to have existed in such form, since at least the Middle Miocene, c.15mya. The fossil record of boobies is not as well documented as that of gannets, either because booby speciation was lower from the late Miocene to the Pliocene (when gannet diversity was at its highest), or because the booby fossil species record is as yet incomplete, due to most localities being in continental North America or Europe despite boobies' more tropical distribution. Behaviour Boobies hunt fish by diving from a height into the sea and pursuing their prey underwater. Facial air sacs under their skin cushion the impact with the water. Boobies are colonial breeders on islands and coasts. They normally lay one or more chalky-blue eggs on the ground or sometimes in a tree nest. Selective pressures, likely through competition for resource, have shaped the ecomorphology and foraging behaviours of the six species of boobies in the Pacific. List of species References External links Videos of several Booby species on The Internet Bird Collection (Archived from the original on 2016-04-12) Taxa named by Mathurin Jacques Brisson
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Great%20Teacher%20Onizuka
Great Teacher Onizuka
Great Teacher Onizuka, officially abbreviated as GTO, is a Japanese manga series written and illustrated by Tooru Fujisawa. It was originally serialized in Kodansha's Weekly Shōnen Magazine from January 1997 to February 2002, with its chapters compiled into twenty-five tankōbon volumes. The story focuses on 22-year-old ex-bōsōzoku member Eikichi Onizuka, who becomes a teacher at a private middle school, Holy Forest Academy, in Tokyo, Japan. It is a continuation of Fujisawa's earlier manga series Shonan Junai Gumi and Bad Company, both of which focus on the life of Onizuka before becoming a teacher. Due to the popularity of the manga, several adaptations of GTO were created, including a twelve-episode Japanese television drama running from July to September 1998; a live-action film directed by Masayuki Suzuki and released in December 1999; and a 43-episode anime television series produced by Pierrot, which aired in Japan on Fuji TV from June 1999 to September 2000. A second live-action series aired in Japan during 2012, and two more in 2014. A sequel manga series, titled GTO: 14 Days in Shonan, ran in Weekly Shōnen Magazine from June 2009 to September 2011. Another sequel, titled GTO: Paradise Lost, began in Weekly Young Magazine in April 2014. Both the anime and manga were licensed in North America by Tokyopop. The anime series was re-licensed by Discotek Media in 2012. The manga is licensed by Kodansha USA. The Great Teacher Onizuka manga had sold over 50 million copies as of November 2007. It won the 1998 Kodansha Manga Award in the shōnen category. Plot Eikichi Onizuka is a 22-year-old ex-gang member and a virgin. While peeping up girls' skirts at a local shopping mall, Onizuka meets a girl who agrees to go out on a date with him. Onizuka's attempt to sleep with her fails when her current "boyfriend", her teacher, shows up at the love hotel they are in and asks her to return to him. The teacher is old and unattractive, but has sufficient influence over her that she leaps from a second-story window and lands in his arms. Onizuka, upon seeing this display of a teacher's power over girls, decides to become a teacher himself. However, he earns his teaching degree, just barely, at a second-rate college. In his quest, he discovers two important things: he has a conscience and a sense of morality. This means taking advantage of impressionable schoolgirls is out of the question, but their unusually attractive mothers are a different matter. He enjoys teaching and, most of the time, he teaches life lessons rather than the routine schoolwork. He hates the systems of traditional education, especially when they have grown ignorant and condescending to students and their needs. With these realizations, he sets out to become the greatest teacher ever, using his own brand of philosophy and the ability to do nearly anything when under enough pressure. He is hired as a long-shot teacher by a privately operated school, in Kichijōji, to tame a class that has driven one teacher to a mysterious death, another to nervous breakdown, and one other to joining a cult. He embarks on a mission of self-discovery by breaking through to each student one by one, and helping each student to overcome their problems and learn to genuinely enjoy life. He uses methods that would be unorthodox, against the law, and also life-threatening, yet, somehow, he manages to succeed in educating and opening up his students. Production When writing GTO, Fujisawa was influenced by the writing style of Kōhei Tsuka. The series was originally intended to run for 10 volumes; however, it was extended at the request of the publisher. Fujisawa began to run out of characters as a result. When faced with writing block he would write stories without Onizuka. Onizuka's first name, Eikichi, was taken from musician Eikichi Yazawa. When developing Onizuka's character for the series, Fujisawa sought to incorporate real character traits from Japanese gangs often referred to as "Yankees". Onizuka's look is modelled on such gang members and was not intended to convey an "American look". Onizuka acts tough and confident but is actually shy and lacking in confidence to follow through on some of his desires. He is a simple character that stands by his own reasoning and principles and has his own conscience. Fujisawa gave him the viewpoint that you should take responsibility for your actions, something he sees as important. Onizuka's role in the school is to provide a bridge between the students and teachers. The character of Fuyutsuki reflects the point of view of the average teacher. Fujisawa highlights his own school experience where teachers were mostly focused only on a good performance record rather than the teaching itself. However, he was able to take an interest in mathematics because of the approach of his teacher. He used this experience to build the series. Tatsuya Egawa has claimed that GTO plagiarized his debut manga, Be Free!. Media Manga Written and illustrated by Tooru Fujisawa, Great Teacher Onizuka was serialized in Kodansha's shōnen manga magazine Weekly Shōnen Magazine from January 8, 1997, to February 13, 2002. Kodansha collected its chapters in twenty-five tankōbon volumes, released from May 16, 1997, to April 17, 2002. The series was licensed in English by Tokyopop and was one of Tokyopop's first releases in the "Authentic Manga" lineup of titles using the Japanese right-to-left reading style. In doing so the artwork remained unchanged from the original compared to previous publishing methods. The twenty-five volumes were published between April 23, 2002, and August 9, 2005. Kodansha USA republished the series digitally on February 2, 2022. Sequels and spin-off A side story series, titled GTO: 14 Days in Shonan, was serialized in Weekly Shōnen Magazine from June 10, 2009, to September 14, 2011. Kodansha compiled its chapters into nine tankōbon volumes, released from October 16, 2009 to November 17, 2011. A three-chapter spin-off, titled Black Diamond, was later published in Weekly Shōnen Magazine in November 2011. A spin-off manga, titled GT-R, focused on Onizuka's friend Ryūji Danma, was published in Weekly Shōnen Magazine from June 27 to October 3, 2012. Kodansha published a compiled tankōbon volume on November 16, 2012. A sequel, titled GTO: Paradise Lost, started in Kodansha's seinen manga magazine Weekly Young Magazine on April 14, 2014. The manga went on hiatus in June 2015 and resumed publication in December of the same year. The series' first part finished in October 2017, and went on hiatus due to a staff shortage. The manga resumed its publication on May 27, 2019. Kodansha has compiled its chapters into individual tankōbon volumes. The first volume was published on August 6, 2014. As of July 6, 2020, thirteen volumes have been published. In North America, Vertical announced the English-language release of GTO: 14 Days in Shonan in May 2011. The nine volumes were published from January 31, 2012 to May 28, 2013. Crunchyroll published GTO: Paradise Lost digitally in English. In April 2017, Kodansha USA announced the digital release of the manga. Live-action A 12-episode live-action Japanese television drama adaption was broadcast from July 7, 1998, to September 22, 1998. The series starred Takashi Sorimachi as Onizuka and had an average audience share of 28.5% with the final episode recording a rate of 35.7%. The final episode was the 8th-most-watched broadcast in the Kantō region during 1998. Several changes were made for the live-action adaption. For example, Fuyutsuki (Nanako Matsushima) is an eager teacher who supports Onizuka in the manga, whereas in the live-action adaptation she initially dislikes Onizuka and wants to leave teaching to become an Air Hostess. A television special was broadcast on June 29, 1999. This was followed by a theatrical movie in January 2000. The film was successful at the box office grossing ¥1.32 billion, becoming the tenth-highest-grossing film of the year. The movie was released in North America by Tokyo Shock on July 26, 2005. During 2012, it was announced that a new live-action series would be broadcast in Japan. Produced by KTV and Media Mix Japan, the series ran from July 3, 2012, until September 11, 2012. Originally, Jin Akanishi was to play the role of Onizuka; however, he was forced to withdraw by his management. Instead, Akira of Japanese band Exile was selected to play Onizuka. An Autumn special was broadcast on October 2, 2012, followed by a New Year's special on January 2, 2013, and a Spring special on April 2, 2013. On March 22, 2014, a 4-part mini-series aired in Taiwan, before being broadcast in Japan at a later date. The mini-series places Onizuka in a Taiwanese school as part of a training program and is a joint Japan/Taiwan co production that contains both Japanese and Mandarin Chinese dialogue. The series has been announced for English subtitled release via the Crunchyroll streaming service. A new series set in Japan aired from July to September 2014. Anime A 43-episode anime adaption was produced by Studio Pierrot and directed by Noriyuki Abe, was broadcast on Fuji TV from June 30, 1999, to September 24, 2000. Yoshiyuki Suga provided scripts, having also written scripts for the live-action adaption. Tokyopop licensed the series for release in North America and released it across 10 DVDs between March 22, 2002, and September 16, 2003, and for American TV broadcast on Showtime's SHONext channel in 2004 and Comcast's Anime Selects on Demand network in 2006. The series was re-released in a 7-disc box set by Discotek Media on September 24, 2013. Crunchyroll began streaming the series in January 2015. Reception As of November 2007, the manga had sold over 50 million copies. Great Teacher Onizuka won the 1998 Kodansha Manga Award for the shōnen category. In Manga: The Complete Guide, Jason Thompson refers to the series as "shameless, frequently sexist and totally hilarious". He praises the series for staying fresh through imagery, detailed art, and pop culture dialogue, even though the formula repeats itself. Lastly, he states that the manga "approaches true social satire". He gave the series four stars out of four. In The Dorama Encyclopedia, Jonathan Clements and Motoko Tamamuro note that television adaptation's subject and humorous approach was well received by the teenage audience. In The Anime Encyclopedia: A Guide to Japanese Animation Since 1917, Jonathan Clements and Helen McCarthy noted the use of computer cloud and water effects in the anime adaptation. While appreciating the advantages of the anime adaption allowing for more violence, they call the first live-action adaption the "quintessential GTO". In 2008, Russian network 2x2 came under investigation by Rossvyazkomnadzor, the government watchdog, for allegedly promoting child pornography by broadcasting GTO. References External links Studio Pierrot website 1997 manga 1998 Japanese television series debuts 1999 anime television series debuts 1999 films 2012 Japanese television series debuts 2012 Japanese television series endings Action anime and manga Anime series based on manga Aniplex Comedy anime and manga Comics set in Tokyo Discotek Media Films scored by Takayuki Hattori Fuji TV original programming Japanese drama television series Japanese films Japanese high school television series Japanese television dramas based on manga Kodansha manga Pierrot (company) Sequel comics Shōnen manga Teaching anime and manga Television shows set in Tokyo Television shows written by Kazuhiko Yukawa Tokyopop titles Winner of Kodansha Manga Award (Shōnen) Yakuza in anime and manga Yankī anime and manga
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Allan%20Cunningham%20%28author%29
Allan Cunningham (author)
Allan Cunningham (7 December 178430 October 1842) was a Scottish poet and author. Life He was born at Keir, near Dalswinton, Dumfries and Galloway, and first worked as a stonemason's apprentice. His father was a neighbour of Robert Burns at Ellisland, and Allan with his brother James visited James Hogg, the "Ettrick shepherd", who became a friend to both. Cunningham's other brothers were the naval surgeon Peter Miller Cunningham (1789–1864) and the poet, Thomas Mounsey Cunningham (1776–1834). Cunningham gave his leisure to reading and writing imitations of old Scottish ballads. In 1809 he collected old ballads for Robert Hartley Cromek's Remains of Nithsdale and Galloway Song; he sent in, however, poems of his own, which the editor inserted, even though he may have suspected their real authorship. It gained for him the friendship of Walter Scott and James Hogg. In 1810 Cunningham went to London, where he worked as a parliamentary reporter and journalist till 1814, when he became clerk of the works in the studio of the sculptor, Francis Chantrey, a post he kept until Chantrey's death in 1841. Works Cunningham contributed some songs to Eugenius Roche's Literary Recreations in 1807. He wrote three novels, a life of Sir David Wilkie, and Lives of Eminent British Painters, Sculptors, and Architects (1829–33), that include biographies of William Hogarth, Sir Joshua Reynolds, Thomas Gainsborough and William Blake. Besides these, he wrote many songs. A Wet Sheet and a Flowing Sea is a sea-song; and many other of Cunningham's songs became popular. He also brought out an edition of Robert Burns' Works. Other works included: Sir Marmaduke Maxwell (1820) (play) The King of the Peak (1822), the story of Sir George Vernon and his daughter, Dorothy Vernon's supposed elopement with John Manners from Haddon Hall. The Maid of Elvar (1830) (a poem, in twelve parts) Family Cunningham was married to Jean Walker, who had been servant in a house where he lived, and they had five sons and one daughter, all of whom rose to important positions, and inherited in some degree his literary gifts. Among them were Joseph Davey Cunningham, Alexander Cunningham, Peter Cunningham and Francis Cunningham. See also Scottish literature References External links Scottish poets Scottish biographers Scottish journalists People from Dumfries and Galloway 1784 births 1842 deaths Burials at Kensal Green Cemetery Scottish song collectors Protestant Jacobites Scottish Jacobites Jacobite propagandists William Blake scholars Scottish folk-song collectors
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Endeavour
Endeavour
Endeavour or endeavor may refer to: Action (philosophy) Intention People Fictional characters Endeavour Morse, central character of the Inspector Morse novels by Colin Dexter Endeavor, the hero name for the character Enji Todoroki from the anime series My Hero Academia Places Endeavor Endeavor, Pennsylvania, US Endeavor, Wisconsin, a city in the US Endeavour Endeavour (crater), on Mars Endeavour, Saskatchewan, a village in Saskatchewan, Canada Endeavour, Trinidad and Tobago, a district of the Borough of Chaguanas Endeavour Bank, a submarine mountain in the North Atlantic Endeavour Hydrothermal Vents, a group of hydrothermal vents in the northeastern Pacific Ocean Endeavour Massif, a massif in Victoria Land, Antarctica Endeavour Piedmont Glacier, a glacier on Ross Island near Antarctica Endeavour Reef, north of Cape Tribulation, Queensland Endeavour River, in Far North Queensland, Australia Endeavour Strait, running between the Australian mainland and Prince of Wales Island Awards Endeavour Award, a science fiction literary award Endeavour Awards, a scholarship program by the Australian Government Computing and technology Endeavour (supercomputer), a shared memory supercomputer at the NASA Ames Research Center Endeavour Software Project Management, a server-based solution for corporate level project management EndeavourOS, an Arch Linux based Linux distribution Telstra Endeavour, a submarine cable between Sydney and Hawaii Education Endeavor Charter School, in Raleigh, North Carolina, United States Endeavour College, a Lutheran high school in Mawson Lakes, South Australia Endeavour Learning and Skills Centre, an adult and further education college in Kingston upon Hull, England Buildings and structures Endeavour (building), a residential tower in Greater Houston, Texas Endeavour House, Suffolk County Council headquarters located in Ipswich, Suffolk, England Media Endeavour (journal), a scholarly journal of the history of science, technology, and medicine Endeavour Radio, a community radio station for Boston, Lincolnshire Endeavour (TV series), a television prequel drama adapted from characters in Colin Dexter's novels Music Monstercat 019 - Endeavour, the 19th compilation album released by the Monstercat record label Organizations Endeavor Christian Endeavor International, a nondenominational evangelical society Endeavor (non-profit), an American non-profit organization that promotes entrepreneurship Endeavor Air, an American regional airline, a subsidiary of Delta Air Lines Endeavor Talent Agency, in Beverly Hills, California Endeavor (company), successor to Endeavor Talent Agency Endeavour Endeavour Energy, a state owned electricity infrastructure company in Australia Endeavour Foundation, a non-profit organisation in Queensland, Australia Endeavour Group, Australian drinks retailer Endeavour Entertainment, a home media company responsible for releasing Thomas & Friends videos in New Zealand Endeavour Yacht Corporation, an American sailboat manufacturer Transport Ships Endeavour (yacht), a 1934 J-class yacht Endeavour II (barque), wrecked in New Zealand in 1971 HMS Endeavour, a bark in the Royal Navy 1768–1775, commanded by James Cook HM Bark Endeavour Replica, a modern replica of the former HMNZS Endeavour, any of three ships of the Royal New Zealand Navy STS Young Endeavour, a 1987 sail training ship operated by the Australian Navy National Geographic Endeavour, exploration ship of the U.S. National Geographic Society The schooner Endeavour salvaging L'Enterprise Space vehicles Endeavour, the Apollo 15 command and service module Space Shuttle Endeavour, one of the retired orbiters of the NASA Space Shuttle program Crew Dragon Endeavour, the first SpaceX Crew Dragon capsule to take astronauts to space, on mission Crew Dragon Demo-2 Trains Endeavour (train), a former passenger train service in New Zealand New South Wales Endeavour railcar, a diesel railcar of the NSW TrainLink network in New South Wales, Australia Road vehicles Endeavour, World Solar Challenge 2009 and 2011 vehicle by Cambridge University Eco Racing Ford Everest, a midsize SUV also known as the Ford Endeavour in India Mitsubishi Endeavor, a mid-size SUV Fictional vehicles Endeavour, a spacecraft from Rendezvous with Rama by Arthur C. Clarke Endeavour, an Alliance Strike carrier from Starlancer H.M.S. Endeavour, a starfaring ship from the Micronauts (comics) HMS Endeavour, the flagship of the East India Trading Company from Pirates of the Caribbean Other uses Callistemon 'Splendens', a plant cultivar also known as "Endeavour" Endeavour, a brand of drug-eluting stent Endeavor, a strategy game from Z-Man Games See also Endevor or CA-Endevor, a source code management tool
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tak%20province
Tak province
Tak (, ) is one of Thailand's seventy-seven provinces (changwat) lies in lower northern Thailand. Neighbouring provinces are (from north clockwise) Mae Hong Son, Chiang Mai, Lamphun, Lampang, Sukhothai, Kamphaeng Phet, Nakhon Sawan, Uthai Thani and Kanchanaburi. The western edge of the province has a long boundary with Kayin State of Myanmar (Burma). Geography The Bhumibol Dam (named after King Bhumibol Adulyadej, the old name was Yanhee Dam) is in Khao Kaew Tambon (sub-district), Sam Ngao District of Tak and was built from 1958 to 1964. It stops the river Ping, one of the two sources of the Chao Phraya River. The artificial lake created covers an area of 300 km2 and is the largest in Thailand. Taksin Maharat National Park, Namtok Pha Charoen National Park, Lan Sang National Park, and Khun Phawo National Parks are all in the province. Thungyai Naresuan Wildlife Sanctuary shares half of the lake front with Kanchanaburi and Huai Kha Khaeng Wildlife Sanctuary at the border with Uthai Thani and are World Heritage Sites. On the western side of Tak province the Tenasserim Hills meet the Dawna Range. One of the few transnational roads and cross-border points into Myanmar is at Mae Sot. Northwest of Mae Sot the main road on the Thai side skirts the border until it turns straight north towards Mae Hong Son. Tak province occupies and lies 426 km north of Bangkok. The total forest area is or 72 percent of provincial area. History Tak was a historical kingdom built over 2,000 years ago, even before the Sukhothai period. The ancient kingdom had its peak around the 1st century. By the 5th century the capital of this kingdom was moved south to Lavo (present day Lopburi province). A city named Ban Tak was established by Jamadevi (พระนางจามเทวี), princess of the Lavo kingdom, around 663 CE. It became part of the Sukhothai kingdom through battles led by Ramkhamhaeng the Great and formed the main fortress on the western front. The city was moved further west and renamed Mueang Rahang when the Ayuthaya kingdom was lost to Burma during King Maha Thammaracha's reign. The city was moved back to the east side of the Ping River during the early Bangkok period. King Taksin was vice-governor of Tak before the Ayutthaya kingdom fell during the war with Burma. As his name was Sin, he became called Tak-Sin during his time in Tak. Demographics About a quarter of the population belongs to one of Thailand's hill tribes: Yao, Karen (Thai Kariang), Akha (Thai Akha), Lahu (Thai Musoe), Hmong (Thai Mong), and Lisu (Thai Lisaw). The largest tribe in Tak is Karen. Refugees According to the UNHCR data of 2008, nearly 95,000 of Thailand's 121,000 registered refugees from Burma are housed in several refugee camps in Tak province of which Mae La camp is the largest with around 45,000 Karen refugees. Administrative divisions Provincial government The province is divided into nine districts (amphoes). These are further divided into 63 subdistricts (tambons) and 493 villages (mubans). Local government As of 26 November 2019 there are: one Tak Provincial Administration Organisation () and 19 municipal (thesaban) areas in the province. Mae Sot has city (thesaban nakhon) status. Tak has town (thesaban mueang) status. Further 17 subdistrict municipalities (thesaban tambon). The non-municipal areas are administered by 49 Subdistrict Administrative Organisations - SAO (ongkan borihan suan tambon). Symbols The provincial seal shows King Naresuan on the royal elephant. Sometimes below the elephant a garuda is depicted, as the garuda is the state symbol of Thailand. King Naresuan is shown pouring consecrated water on the ground, a symbolic act to declare independence. This refers to the war of 1584 with Burma, when Tak was the first border town to be liberated from Burmese control. The provincial slogan is, "A town of wonderful nature, huge Bhumiphol Dam, King Taksin The Great and beautiful forests". The provincial tree is the Asian Jatoba (Xylia xylocarpa var. kerrii), and the provincial flower is the Orchid tree (Bauhinia sp.). Health There are two main public hospitals in Tak: Somdejphrajaotaksin Maharaj Hospital and Mae Sot Hospital, both operated by the Ministry of Public Health. Economy Agriculture is a major part of the Tak economy. The province of Tak produces rice, corn, vegetables, fruits, beef, tilapia, and other foods. Industries in Tak include granite quarrying and jewelry. Zinc mining was formerly conducted in Mae Sot District. Handicrafts and Myanmar products are also important for trade. The Bhumibol Dam in the northern part of Tak is its most popular tourist attraction. Tourism, especially ecotourism, in the southern part is seasonal with popular destinations such as the Thi Lo Su Waterfall, Thi Lo Le Waterfall, hiking and white water rafting in its various forest reserves. Tak is also known for its Loi Krathong festival where krathong sai (กระทงสาย) consisting of many krathongs are floated in a long line down the river. The Loi Krathong festival is held on the Ping River in Mueang Tak District on Loi Krathong night. Transportation Roads Tak is a key communication and transportation centre of the north, with three Asian highways passing through the province. AH1 enters through the Myanmar-Thai border at Mae Sot District AH2 passes through the province from north to south. Also AH16 terminates at Tak. Air Tak province is served by Tak Airport. Human achievement index 2017 Since 2003, United Nations Development Programme (UNDP) in Thailand has tracked progress on human development at sub-national level using the Human achievement index (HAI), a composite index covering all the eight key areas of human development. National Economic and Social Development Board (NESDB) has taken over this task since 2017. References External links Provincial website Provinces of Thailand
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Georges%20Guillain
Georges Guillain
Georges Charles Guillain () (3 March 1876 – 29 June 1961) was a French neurologist born in Rouen. He studied medicine in Rouen and Paris, where he learned clinical education at several hospitals. He developed an interest in neurology, and his first important scientific work involved lesions of the plexus brachialis. He earned his medical doctorate at Paris in 1898. He later became chef de clinique for nervous disease, and in 1910 acquired his agrégation. After the end of World War I, he worked at Charité Hospital in Paris, followed by a professorship of neurology at the Salpêtrière (1923). Guillain was a prolific writer. In 1920 with his friend Jean Barré (1880-1967), he published a major work titled Travaux neurologiques de guerre, a book that described the two doctors' clinical experiences during wartime. He was a member of French, American and Japanese academies of science, and in 1949 was appointed commander of the Légion d'honneur. He died in Paris. His daughter, Andrée, married the aircraft manufacturer Claude de Cambronne. Associated eponyms Guillain-Laroche-Léchelle reaction, Réaction au benjoin colloidal. Guillain–Barré–Strohl syndrome (ser André Strohl), the most common form of acquired inflammatory polyneuropathy. Guillain-Thaon syndrome, syndrome rare due to syphilis of the central nervous system. References Georges Charles Guillain @ Who Named It (retrieved 19 November 2011) 1876 births 1961 deaths Members of the French Academy of Sciences French neurologists People from Rouen
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jean%20Alexandre%20Barr%C3%A9
Jean Alexandre Barré
Jean Alexandre Barré (25 May 1880, Nantes – 26 April 1967, Strasbourg) was a French neurologist who in 1916 worked on the identification of Guillain-Barré-Strohl syndrome, as well as Barré–Liéou syndrome. Biography First studies He studied medicine in Nantes, afterwards serving his internship in Paris, where he was influenced by Joseph Babinski (1857–1932). In 1912 he obtained his medical doctorate with a thesis on osteoarthropathy associated with tabes dorsalis. Guillain-Barré-Strohl syndrome See also André Strohl. During World War I, he worked in a neurological unit of the 6th army, directed by Georges Guillain (1876-1961), with whom he began a longtime collaboration. In 1919 he was appointed professor of neurology in Strasbourg. He was especially interested in vestibular function and disorders associated with the vestibular system. He was founder of the journal Revue d’oto-neuro-ophtalmologie. Barré test Barré is also credited with the "Barré Test" which may identify pronator drift or pyramidal drift, although the test was earlier described by Giovanni Mingazzini. This test is performed by making the patient stretch out their hands with the palms facing upwards, and then having the patient close their eyes. If one hand drops involuntarily (or drops after the physician taps on the patient's palms), the test indicates damage to the pyramidal tract. A maneuver that is sometimes used for examining the legs for latent pyramidal paresis is referred to as the "Mingazzini test" (named after Italian neurologist Giovanni Mingazzini 1859-1929). Written works Barré was the author of over 800 scientific papers. With Guillain, he was co-author of Travaux neurologiques de guerre (1920), a book that was published in three editions. His doctoral thesis, Les osteo-arthropathies du tabès, was a continuation of Jean Charcot's research of the disorder. References Jean Alexandre Barré @ Who Named It External links Google Books Neurological Eponyms edited by Peter J. Koehler, George W. Bruyn, John M. S. Pearce. 1880 births 1967 deaths French neurologists People from Nantes University of Strasbourg faculty
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Francis%20Leggatt%20Chantrey
Francis Leggatt Chantrey
Sir Francis Leg(g)att Chantrey (7 April 1781 – 25 November 1841) was an English sculptor. He became the leading portrait sculptor in Regency era Britain, producing busts and statues of many notable figures of the time. Chantrey's most notable works include the statues of King George IV (Trafalgar Square); King George III (Guildhall), and George Washington (Massachusetts State House). He also executed four monuments to military heroes for St Paul's Cathedral, London. He left the Chantrey Bequest (or Chantrey Fund) for the purchase of works of art for the nation, which was available from 1878 after the death of his widow. Life Chantrey was born at Jordanthorpe near Norton (then a Derbyshire village, now a suburb of Sheffield), where his father had a small farm. His father, who also dabbled in carpentry and wood-carving, died when Francis was twelve; and his mother remarried, leaving him without a clear career to follow. At fifteen, he was working for a grocer in Sheffield, when, having seen some wood-carving in a shop-window, he asked to be apprenticed as a carver instead, and was placed with a woodcarver and gilder called Ramsay in Sheffield. At Ramsay's house he met the draughtsman and engraver John Raphael Smith who recognised his artistic potential and gave him lessons in painting, and was later to help advance his career by introducing him to potential patrons. In 1802 Chantrey paid £50 to buy himself out of his apprenticeship with Ramsay and immediately set up a studio as a portrait artist in Sheffield, which allowed him a reasonable income. For several years he divided his time between Sheffield and London, studying intermittently at the Royal Academy Schools. In the summer of 1802 he travelled to Dublin, where he fell very ill, losing all his hair. He exhibited pictures at the Royal Academy for a few years from 1804, but from 1807 onwards devoted himself mainly to sculpture. Asked later in life, as a witness in a court case, whether he had ever worked for any other sculptors, he replied: "No, and what is more, I never had an hour's instruction from any sculptor in my life". His first recorded marble bust was one of the Rev. James Wilkinson (1805–06), for Sheffield parish church. His first imaginative sculpture, a head of Satan was shown at the Royal Academy in 1808. In 1809 the architect Daniel Asher Alexander commissioned him to make four monumental plaster busts of the admirals Duncan, Howe, Vincent and Nelson for the Royal Naval Asylum at Greenwich, for which he received £10 each. Three of them were shown at the Royal Academy that year. On 23 November 1809 he married his cousin, Mary Ann Wale at St Mary's Church, Twickenham. By this time he was settled permanently in London, His wife brought £10,000 into the marriage, which allowed Chantrey to pay off his debts, and for the couple to move into a house at 13 Eccleston Street, Pimlico, (recorded as Chantrey's address in the Royal Academy catalogues from 1810). He also bought land to build two more houses, a studio and offices. In 1811 he showed six busts in the Royal Academy. The subjects included Horne Tooke and Sir Francis Burdett, two political figures he greatly admired; his early mentor John Raphael Smith, and Benjamin West. Joseph Nollekens placed the bust of Tooke between two of his own, and the prominence given to it is said to have had a significant influence on Chantrey's career. In the wake of the exhibition he received commissions amounting to £2,000. In 1813 he was able to raise his price for a bust to a hundred and fifty guineas, and in 1822 to two hundred. He visited Paris in 1814, and again in 1815, this time with his wife, Thomas Stothard, and D. A. Alexander, visiting the Louvre where he especially admired the works of Raphael and Titian. In 1819 he went to Italy, accompanied by the painter John Jackson, and an old friend named Read. In Rome he met Thorvaldsen and Canova, getting to know the latter especially well. In 1828 Chantrey set up his own foundry in Eccleston Place, not far from his house and studio, where large-scale works in bronze, including equestrian statues, could be cast. Working practices Chantrey developed a procedure of making a portrait sculpture in which he would begin by making two life-sized drawings of his sitter's head, one full-face and one in profile, with the aid of a camera lucida. His assistants would then make a clay model based on the drawings, to which Chantry would add the finishing touches in front of the sitter. A plaster cast would be made of the clay model, and then a marble replica made of that. Allan Cunningham and Henry Weekes were his chief assistants, and made of many of the works produced under Chantrey's name. The debilitating effects of heart disease made him even more reliant on assistants in the last few years of his life. Style Chantrey was rare among the leading sculptors of his time in not having visited Italy at a formative stage in his career. A writer in Blackwood's Edinburgh Magazine in 1820 saw him as liberating English sculpture from foreign influence:Those who wish to trace the return of English sculpture from the foreign artificial and allegorical style, to its natural and original character—from cold and conceited fiction to tender and elevated truth, will find it chiefly in the history of Francis Chantrey and his productions. More recently, Margaret Whinney wrote that Chantrey "had a great gift for characterisation, his ability to render the softness of flesh was much admired" and that "though compelled by the fashion of the day to produce, on occasions, classicizing works, his robust common sense and his enormous talent is better displayed in works which combine an almost classical simplicity of form with naturalism in presentation". Works Chantrey was a prolific sculptor. According to an article published in 1842, he produced, besides his busts and reliefs, three equestrian statues, 18 standing ones, 18 seated ones and 14 recumbent figures. His most notable works include the statues of George III in The Guildhall, London; of George Washington in the State-house at Boston, Massachusetts; of George IV at Brighton (in bronze); of William Pitt the Younger in Hanover Square, London (in bronze); of James Watt in Westminster Abbey and in Greenock (also a bust, plus one of William Murdoch, at St. Mary's Church, Handsworth); of William Roscoe and George Canning in Liverpool; of John Dalton in Manchester Town Hall; of Lord President Blair and Lord Melville in Edinburgh. He made a bronze equestrian statue of Sir Thomas Munro for Madras (now Chennai) and another of King George IV, originally commissioned, on the instructions of the king himself, to stand on top of the Marble Arch, in front of Buckingham Palace, but eventually placed in Trafalgar Square. The horses in these two works are identical. A third, of the Duke of Wellington for a site in front of the Royal Exchange in London, was completed after Chantrey's death. He executed four monuments to military heroes for St Paul's Cathedral: they commemorate Major-General Daniel Hoghton, Major-General Bowes, and Colonel Henry Cadogan, and (in a single monument) Major-Generals Gore and Skerrett. He was also responsible for the memorials to Sir James Brisbane in St James' Church, Sydney and to Reginald Heber in Calcutta, a replica of which was made for St Paul's Cathedral in London. Other good examples of his church monuments are those to the Earl of Farnham (1826) in Urney Parish Church, Cavan and Mary Anne Boulton (1834) in Great Tew In Snaith church there is a notable monument to Viscount Downe by Chantrey. One of his most famous works was The Sleeping Children, a monument to two girls of the Robinson family, depicting them asleep in one another's arms, the younger holding a bunch of snowdrops. It attracted a great deal of attention when shown at the Royal Academy in 1817, before its installation in Lichfield Cathedral. The design of the monument was widely rumoured to be by Thomas Stothard; Chantrey's biographer, James Holland, however gave more credence to another account of its history, according to which Stothard had merely made a drawing from Chantrey's preliminary model. Another popular work, much reproduced, was a small statue, made for Woburn Abbey of the young Louisa, Lady Russell, depicted cradling a dove. The Derby Museum has an unusual bust of William Strutt. Honours Chantrey was elected an Associate of the Royal Academy in 1816 and a full Academician in 1818. In 1822 Henry Wolsey Bayfield named Chantry Island in Ontario after him. He received the degree of MA from Cambridge, and that of DCL from Oxford, and was knighted in 1835. Death He died suddenly at his home in Eccleston Street, Pimlico, London, on 25 November 1841, having suffered from heart disease for some years. He was buried in a tomb constructed by himself in the churchyard of his native village, Norton in Derbyshire (now Sheffield). Bequest By his will, dated 31 December 1840, Chantrey (who had no children) left his whole residuary personal estate after the decease or on the second marriage of his widow (less certain specified annuities and bequests) in trust for the president and trustees of the Royal Academy (or in the event of its dissolution to such society as might take its place), the income to be devoted to the encouragement of British painting and sculpture, by "the purchase of works of fine art of the highest merit ... that can be obtained." The funds might be allowed to accumulate for not more than five years; works by British or foreign artists, dead or living, might be acquired, so long as such works were entirely executed within Great Britain, the artists having been in residence there during the execution and completion. The prices to be paid were to be "liberal," and no sympathy for an artist or his family was to influence the selection or the purchase of works, which were to be acquired solely on the ground of intrinsic merit. No commission or orders might be given: the works must be finished before purchase. Conditions were made as to the exhibition of the works, in the confident expectation that the government or the country would provide a suitable gallery for their display; and an annual sum of £300 and £50 was to be paid to the president and the secretary of the Royal Academy respectively, for the discharge of their duties in carrying out the provisions of the will. Lady Chantrey died in 1875, and two years later the fund became available for the purchase of paintings and sculptures. The capital sum available amounted to £105,000 in 3% Consols (reduced to 2½% in 1903), which was producing an available annual income varying between £2,100 and £2,500 by around 1910. Initially the works acquired were shown at the Victoria and Albert Museum, but in 1898 the Royal Academy arranged with the treasury, on behalf of the government, for the transfer of the collection to the National Gallery of British Art, which had been erected by Sir Henry Tate at Millbank. It was agreed that the Tate Gallery should be its future home, but that the trustees and director of the National Gallery should have no power over what works were to be transferred there, or added to the collection at a later date. (Treasury Letter, 18054-98, 7 December 1898) By the end of 1905, 203 works had been bought—all but two from living artists—at a cost of nearly £68,000. Of these, 175 were oil paintings, 12 were watercolours, and 16 were sculptures. The bequest remained the main source of funding for expanding the collection of what is now Tate Britain until the 1920s, and it remains active today. References Sources Attribution Further reading . A complete illustrated record of the purchases, etc.. A controversial publication by the leading assailant of the Royal Academy. Report from the Select Committee of the House of Lords on the Chantrey Trust, together with the Proceedings of the Committee, Minutes of Evidence and Appendix (Wyman & Sons, 1904), and Index (separate publication, 1904). External links Works by Sir Francis Leggatt Chantrey at the National Portrait Gallery, London Profile on Royal Academy of Arts Collections , an image drawn by Henry Corbould and accompanied by Felicia Hemans's poem, The Child's Last Sleep, from the Friendship's Offering annual for 1826. , drawn by Henry Corbould from the statue at Woburn Abbey and accompanied by Felicia Hemans's poem, The Child and Dove, from The Literary Souvenir annual for 1826. , a poem by Felicia Hemans for the Forget Me Not annual for 1829 on The Sleeping Children in Lichfield Cathedral. 1781 births 1841 deaths History of Sheffield Artists from Sheffield English sculptors English male sculptors Royal Academicians Knights Bachelor Fellows of the Royal Society People from Derbyshire (before 1933) 19th-century British sculptors 19th-century English painters English male painters
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Benchmarking
Benchmarking
Benchmarking is the practice of comparing business processes and performance metrics to industry bests and best practices from other companies. Dimensions typically measured are quality, time and cost. Benchmarking is used to measure performance using a specific indicator (cost per unit of measure, productivity per unit of measure, cycle time of x per unit of measure or defects per unit of measure) resulting in a metric of performance that is then compared to others. Also referred to as "best practice benchmarking" or "process benchmarking", this process is used in management in which organizations evaluate various aspects of their processes in relation to best-practice companies' processes, usually within a peer group defined for the purposes of comparison. This then allows organizations to develop plans on how to make improvements or adapt specific best practices, usually with the aim of increasing some aspect of performance. Benchmarking may be a one-off event, but is often treated as a continuous process in which organizations continually seek to improve their practices. In project management benchmarking can also support the selection, planning and delivery of projects. In the process of best practice benchmarking, management identifies the best firms in their industry, or in another industry where similar processes exist, and compares the results and processes of those studied (the "targets") to one's own results and processes. In this way, they learn how well the targets perform and, more importantly, the business processes that explain why these firms are successful. According to National Council on Measurement in Education, benchmark assessments are short assessments used by teachers at various times throughout the school year to monitor student progress in some area of the school curriculum. These also are known as interim government. In 1994, one of the first technical journals named Benchmarking: An International Journal was published. History The term benchmark, originates from the history of guns and ammunition, in regards to the same aim as for the business term; comparison and improved performance. The introduction of gunpowder arms replaced the bow and arrow from the archer, the soldier who used the bow. The archer now had to adapt to the new situation, and learn to handle the gun. The new weapon left only a mark on the target, where the arrow used to be visible, and with the bow gone, the soldiers title changed to marksman, the man who put the mark. The gun was improved already in the early beginning, with rifling of the barrel, and the rifle was born. With the industrialization of the weapon-industry in the mid-1800s, The mass production of ammunition as a cartridge replaced the manual of loading of black-powder and bullet into the gun. Now, with standardized production of both the high-precision rifle, as well as the cartridge, the marksman was now the uncertain variable, and with different qualities and specifications on both rifle as well as ammunition, there was a need for a method of finding the best combination. The rifled weapon was fixed in a bench, making it possible to fire several identical shots at a target to measure the spread. In 2008, a comprehensive survey on benchmarking was commissioned by The Global Benchmarking Network, a network of benchmarking centres representing 22 countries. Mission and Vision Statements and Customer (Client) Surveys are the most used (by 77% of organizations) of 20 improvement tools, followed by SWOT analysis (strengths, weaknesses, opportunities, and threats) (72%), and Informal Benchmarking (68%). Performance Benchmarking was used by 49% and Best Practice Benchmarking by 39%. The tools that are likely to increase in popularity the most over the next three years are Performance Benchmarking, Informal Benchmarking, SWOT, and Best Practice Benchmarking. Over 60% of organizations that are not currently using these tools indicated they are likely to use them in the next three years. Benchmarking mainly depends on SWOT analysis and will also be using in future for almost 4-5 years. Procedure There is no single benchmarking process that has been universally adopted. The wide appeal and acceptance of benchmarking has led to the emergence of benchmarking methodologies. One seminal book is Boxwell's Benchmarking for Competitive Advantage (1994). The first book on benchmarking, written and published by Kaiser Associates, is a practical guide and offers a seven-step approach. Robert Camp (who wrote one of the earliest books on benchmarking in 1989) developed a 12-stage approach to benchmarking. The 12 stage methodology consists of: Select subject Define the process Identify potential partners Identify data sources Collect data and select all partners Determine the gap Establish process differences Target future performance Communicate Adjust goal Implement Review and recalibrate The following is an example of a typical benchmarking methodology: Identify problem areas: Because benchmarking can be applied to any business process or function, a range of research techniques may be required. They include informal conversations with customers, employees, or suppliers; exploratory research techniques such as focus groups; or in-depth marketing research, quantitative research, surveys, questionnaires, re-engineering analysis, process mapping, quality control variance reports, financial ratio analysis, or simply reviewing cycle times or other performance indicators. Before embarking on comparison with other organizations it is essential to know the organization's function and processes; base lining performance provides a point against which improvement effort can be measured. Identify other industries that have similar processes: For instance, if one were interested in improving hand-offs in addiction treatment one would identify other fields that also have hand-off challenges. These could include air traffic control, cell phone switching between towers, transfer of patients from surgery to recovery rooms. Identify organizations that are leaders in these areas: Look for the very best in any industry and in any country. Consult customers, suppliers, financial analysts, trade associations, and magazines to determine which companies are worthy of study. Survey companies for measures and practices: Companies target specific business processes using detailed surveys of measures and practices used to identify business process alternatives and leading companies. Surveys are typically masked to protect confidential data by neutral associations and consultants. Visit the "best practice" companies to identify leading edge practices: Companies typically agree to mutually exchange information beneficial to all parties in a benchmarking group and share the results within the group. Implement new and improved business practices: Take the leading edge practices and develop implementation plans which include identification of specific opportunities, funding the project and selling the ideas to the organization for the purpose of gaining demonstrated value from the process. Costs The three main types of costs in benchmarking are: Visit Costs - This includes hotel rooms, travel costs, meals, a token gift, and lost labor time. Time Costs - Members of the benchmarking team will be investing time in researching problems, finding exceptional companies to study, visits, and implementation. This will take them away from their regular tasks for part of each day so additional staff might be required. Benchmarking Database Costs - Organizations that institutionalize benchmarking into their daily procedures find it is useful to create and maintain a database of best practices and the companies associated with each best practice now. The cost of benchmarking can substantially be reduced through utilizing the many internet resources that have sprung up over the last few years. These aim to capture benchmarks and best practices from organizations, business sectors and countries to make the benchmarking process much quicker and cheaper. Technical/product benchmarking The technique initially used to compare existing corporate strategies with a view to achieving the best possible performance in new situations (see above), has recently been extended to the comparison of technical products. This process is usually referred to as "technical benchmarking" or "product benchmarking". Its use is well-developed within the automotive industry ("automotive benchmarking"), where it is vital to design products that match precise user expectations, at minimal cost, by applying the best technologies available worldwide. Data is obtained by fully disassembling existing cars and their systems. Such analyses were initially carried out in-house by car makers and their suppliers. However, as these analyses are expensive, they are increasingly being outsourced to companies who specialize in this area. Outsourcing has enabled a drastic decrease in costs for each company (by cost sharing) and the development of efficient tools (standards, software). Types Benchmarking can be internal (comparing performance between different groups or teams within an organization) or external (comparing performance with companies in a specific industry or across industries). Within these broader categories, there are three specific types of benchmarking: 1) Process benchmarking, 2) Performance benchmarking and 3) Strategic benchmarking. These can be further detailed as follows: Process benchmarking - the initiating firm focuses its observation and investigation of business processes with a goal of identifying and observing the best practices from one or more benchmark firms. Activity analysis will be required where the objective is to benchmark cost and efficiency; increasingly applied to back-office processes where outsourcing may be a consideration. Benchmarking is appropriate in nearly every case where process redesign or improvement is to be undertaking so long as the cost of the study does not exceed the expected benefit. Financial benchmarking - performing a financial analysis and comparing the results in an effort to assess your overall competitiveness and productivity. Benchmarking from an investor perspective- extending the benchmarking universe to also compare to peer companies that can be considered alternative investment opportunities from the perspective of an investor. Benchmarking in the public sector - functions as a tool for improvement and innovation in public administration, where state organizations invest efforts and resources to achieve quality, efficiency and effectiveness of the services they provide. Performance benchmarking - allows the initiator firm to assess their competitive position by comparing products and services with those of target firms. Product benchmarking - the process of designing new products or upgrades to current ones. This process can sometimes involve reverse engineering which is taking apart competitors products to find strengths and weaknesses. Strategic benchmarking - involves observing how others compete. This type is usually not industry specific, meaning it is best to look at other industries, i.e. Strategic Benchmarking with the help of PIMS (Profit impact of marketing strategy). Functional benchmarking - a company will focus its benchmarking on a single function to improve the operation of that particular function. Complex functions such as Human Resources, Finance and Accounting and Information and Communication Technology are unlikely to be directly comparable in cost and efficiency terms and may need to be disaggregated into processes to make valid comparison. Best-in-class benchmarking - involves studying the leading competitor or the company that best carries out a specific function. Operational benchmarking embraces everything from staffing and productivity to office flow and analysis of procedures performed. Energy benchmarking - process of collecting, analysing and relating energy performance data of comparable activities with the purpose of evaluating and comparing performance between or within entities. Entities can include processes, buildings or companies. Benchmarking may be internal between entities within a single organization, or - subject to confidentiality restrictions - external between competing entities. Tools Benchmarking software can be used to organize large and complex amounts of information. Software packages can extend the concept of benchmarking and competitive analysis by allowing individuals to handle such large and complex amounts or strategies. Such tools support different types of benchmarking (see above) and can reduce the above costs significantly. The emerging technology of benchmarking engines automates the stage of going from data to noteworthy comparative insights, sometimes even expressing the insights in English sentences. Metric benchmarking Another approach to making comparisons involves using more aggregative cost or production information to identify strong and weak performing units. The two most common forms of quantitative analysis used in metric benchmarking are data envelopment analysis (DEA) and regression analysis. DEA estimates the cost level an efficient firm should be able to achieve in a particular market. In infrastructure regulation, DEA сan be used to reward companies/operators whose costs are near the efficient frontier with additional profits. Regression analysis estimates what the average firm should be able to achieve. With regression analysis, firms that performed better than average can be rewarded while firms that performed worse than average can be penalized. Such benchmarking studies are used to create yardstick comparisons, allowing outsiders to evaluate the performance of operators in an industry. Advanced statistical techniques, including stochastic frontier analysis, have been used to identify high and weak performers in industries, including applications to schools, hospitals, water utilities, and electric utilities. One of the biggest challenges for metric benchmarking is the variety of metric definitions used among companies or divisions. Definitions may change over time within the same organization due to changes in leadership and priorities. The most useful comparisons can be made when metrics definitions are common between compared units and do not change so improvements can be changed. Social media and benchmarking Social media is beginning to penetrate more and more into existing business processes. In this sense, benchmarking is no exception. Because of their inherent characteristics, it can even be argued that social media will have a significant impact on benchmarking. Here are some of the benefits associated with this. Joint benchmarking is, in fact, a social activity, and social media provide many new and effective ways for social interaction. Social media opens the way to new additional sources of information and data collection channels. Benchmarking is becoming increasingly business-oriented, and social media is supporting this type of continuous engagement, different from working on individual projects. See also Global Benchmarking Network Project management triangle Profit impact of marketing strategy References Trade and industrial classification systems Strategic management
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Emmanuel%20Pahud
Emmanuel Pahud
Emmanuel Pahud (born 27 January 1970) is a Franco-Swiss flautist. He was born in Geneva, Switzerland. His father is of French and Swiss background and his mother is French. The Berlin-based flutist is most known for his baroque and classical flute repertoire. Pahud was born into a nonmusical family. As a young boy living in Italy, Pahud was captivated by the sounds of the flute. From the age of four to the age of 22, he was tutored and mentored by flutists such as François Binet, Carlos Bruneel and Aurele Nicolet. Classically trained at the Conservatoire de Paris, he leapt into the international orchestral and solo music scene when he joined the Berlin Philharmonic Orchestra in 1992. His versatility in music styles over the years has "signalled the arrival of a new master flautist" (The Guardian). He plays in diverse music genres, whether baroque, jazz, contemporary, classical, orchestral, or chamber music. Biography Early life Travelling has been a big part of Emmanuel Pahud's life from birth. His father worked for a US company, and the family moved repeatedly during his childhood. However, this would only shape Pahud's international outlook for his future. Only six weeks after Pahud was born, his parents moved to Baghdad for one year. They moved again when he was one to Paris, where Emmanuel's younger brother was born. In 1972, they then moved to Madrid for two years, and in 1974, finally settled in Rome for four years. The Swiss-French Binet family, whose four children played musical instruments, lived in the same apartment building in Rome. The father (François) was a flautist who studied in Zurich and Paris but stopped performing in later years. At the age of four, Pahud first heard the flute. As the eldest son Philippe played Mozart's Flute Concerto No. 1, it set the course to a remarkable chapter of Pahud's life. He recalls: I could hear the flute, the violin, the cello, the piano. I don't know why I chose the flute but maybe it was because the eldest son was playing it, so he was the one playing at the best level at that time – or because the father was also a flute player, so there was a kind of authority there. Anyhow, I said to my parents, "I want to play the flute, I want to play the Mozart concerto that guy next door is practicing." That Christmas, after receiving his first flute, Pahud began his first year of lessons with Philippe (who was only 15 years old) and the next three years with Phillipe's father, François. In 1978, at the age of eight, the Pahud family moved to Brussels, Belgium. Emmanuel then began studying at the Music Academy of Uccle in Southern Brussels. There he studied with Michel Moinil from 1979 to 1985. As he became more determined and focused on playing the flute at a higher level, Pahud began to study from 1984 to 1987 with Carlos Bruneel, the then and current principal flautist of the Théâtre Royal de la Monnaie opera house in Brussels. In 1985, Pahud won the National Competition of Belgium (le concours National de Belgique) and in the same year, he played his first concert with the National Orchestra of Belgium, performing the piece that inspired him 11 years earlier: Mozart Concerto K.313 in G Major. Pahud remained in Brussels until receiving his A-Level at the age of 17 and went off to finish his schooling in Paris. With the strong support of his family, he also received lessons with other of Europe's finest players, including Peter-Lukas Graf in Basel. Studies and early accomplishments Pahud attended the Conservatoire de Paris (Conservatoire National Supérieur de Musique de Paris) in France, studying with Michel Debost, Alain Marion, Pierre Artaud, and Christian Lardé. Whilst studying, he won two major competitions, one in Duino 1988 and the other in Kobe in 1989. In 1988, Emmanuel also won the 2nd Prize at the International Scheveningen Music Competition in Scheveningen, Netherlands. Winning these competitions put Pahud in the forefront to become principal flautist in the Basel Radio Symphony, under the direction of Nello Santi which he obtained the position in 1989 whilst finishing his studies in Paris. He resigned from the orchestra in 1992. Pahud also held the principal flautist position at the Munich Philharmonic under Sergiu Celibidache. Pahud graduated at the age of 20 from the Conservatoire in 1990, obtaining the First Prize (Premier Prix). He then continued to advance his studies for the next two years in style and interpretation with one of France's greatest flautists, Swiss-born Aurèle Nicolet, who turned out to be his neighbour. In 1992, Nicolet prepared Pahud in an extensive 10-day rehearsal for both the Geneva International Music Competition, or le Concours International de Genève in September of that year and the audition for principal flautist of the Berlin Philharmonic Orchestra (BPO) in October. He attributes achieving both the first prize at le Concours International de Genève and being appointed for the position at the age of 22 by BPO's conductor, Claudio Abbado, to his experience with Nicolet. Career Berlin Philharmonic Orchestra Being appointed as principal flutist at the Berlin Philharmonic Orchestra (BPO) signalled Pahud's entrance into the international spotlight. He entered the orchestra during its rejuvenation period as the post-war generation of players began to retire. Over 40 per cent, including Pahud's position was up for audition, or on trial. His predecessor was Karlheinz Zöller (1960–69, 1976–93). Apart from Pahud, other previous international flutists held the same principal flutist position such as Aurèle Nicolet (1950–59) and Sir James Galway (1969–75). Pahud wrote of his experience playing with the orchestra:There was a way of phrasing and wave that goes throughout the orchestra, coming from the bass and shaping the phrase with amazing beauty and intensity. The dynamic range of the orchestra was phenomenal. The art of playing with the Berlin Phil is very different compared to other Orchestras, where we work as equals with our individual voice. Pahud at 22 was the youngest player in the Berlin Philharmonic, a position to which he returned in 2002 under Sir Simon Rattle after taking an 18-month sabbatical in 2000 in order to teach the Virtuosity Class at the Conservatoire de Musique de Genève for one year and to perform in concerts worldwide. He was surprised on how emotional it was to leave the BPO. He recalls his emotions beginning a couple of hours before playing his last concert and only leaving him once he rejoined BPO in 2002. The versatility and authority of current conductor Sir Simon Rattle, says Pahud, gives the orchestra a unique working partnership and a capacity to be more adventurous in its exploration of repertoire. He also sees Rattle as an intellect; "he knows the orchestra and he achieves what he wants by taking into account the vision of the musicians. In addition, Pahud also observed that whilst the former conductor Herbert von Karajan "produced a big string sound with a great legato. The Rattle sound is a very transparent and constructed sound, with much more articulation to achieve definition in the sound." In baroque and classical music, this represents the influence of period performance. The Berlin Philharmonic these days considers themselves a very individualist and soloistic "large ensemble." In 2007, Pahud was voted onto the Media Vorstand (or the Member of the Media Board) of the BPO. He shares the principal flute position with Mathieu Dufour. International appearances Pahud's workload has more than tripled since the early days of his international career in 1992. At that time he was doing about 50 concerts a year – but with the success of his solo career and continued involvement with the Berlin Philharmonic Orchestra, that number has spiralled to around 160: 90 solo or chamber music and 75 orchestral concerts in an average year – roughly twice the number of performances that most musicians would consider a heavy work-load. Pahud says that it's a balance he has had all his life and what prevents him from being isolated in one genre or repertoire of music, or what he calls "a musical corner". In 1993, Pahud began accepting international concert performances soon after settling into his position in Berlin. He has appeared as soloist with internationally renowned orchestras in addition to the Berlin Philharmonic: the Yomiuri Nippon Symphony Orchestra, the London Symphony Orchestra, the Tonhalle Orchester Zürich, the Orchestre de la Suisse Romande, the Geneva Camerata the Berlin Radio Symphony Orchestra, and the Danish Radio Symphony also known as the Danish National Symphony Orchestra. He also appears regularly at leading festivals throughout Europe, the United States and the Far East. His more famous international concerto appearances and collaborations of the past few seasons (2005–2008) included the Berlin Philharmonic, the Baltimore Symphony Orchestra, the London Philharmonic Orchestra, the Monte-Carlo Philharmonic Orchestra, the Bavarian Radio Symphony Orchestra, the NHK Symphony Orchestra, the Berliner Barock-Solisten, the Vienna Radio Symphony Orchestra, the Orchestre National de Belgique, the Orchestre philharmonique de Radio France and a US tour with the Barcelona Symphony and Catalonia National Orchestra (including a Carnegie Hall debut). Another famous concerto collaboration took place in 2005–2006 with the Australian Chamber Orchestra in reviving the Vivaldi Flute Concertos. Pahud is also a dedicated chamber musician and has recently made international appearances throughout Europe, North America and Japan in recital with pianists Éric Le Sage and Stephen Kovacevich as well as in a flute and string quartet formation with Christoph Poppen (violin), Hariolf Schichtig (viola) and Jean-Guihen Queyras (cello) with whom he recorded his 1999 record Mozart Flute Quartets. In 1993, he co-founded Le festival de l'Empéri in Salon-de-Provence, France, along with his regular chamber music partners pianist Éric Le Sage (close friend and confidant) and Paul Meyer. In a French interview, Pahud describes the success of the festival as a project "filled with enthusiasm and fun" where the public has "recognised our work, our fellow artists, musicians and actors and have the desire to come back regularly." He also describes the festival as a "musical laboratory" which avoids the programming of works that the public are used to hearing in concert halls. It is about "daring to combine performers, works (music), create new collaborations and by taking risks. Pahud has made several recordings and performed internationally with pianist Éric Le Sage throughout his career. In 2008 he performed for the first time at the Jerusalem International Chamber Music Festival, where he played in the world premier of Elliott Carter's Flute Concerto, conducted by Daniel Barenboim. He returned to the Festival on 2009 to play in a series of concerts. Musical styles and recordings Pahud describes his versatility over the years in music, as transforming himself into a chameleon who tries to match the colour of the music, or the idea he has of it, to what the composer had in mind. But his discography and career have also been built on encounters—both professionally and in human relationships. He expresses in playing like a chameleon, "I try to change style, colour and phrasing, the way I breathe and articulate to suit the piece I am playing. I do not represent any particular national style." Pahud seems himself as a performer/actor rather than a composer/creator. For the Dalbavie Record (2008) Pahud dedicated himself to commissioning new works and to new flute concertos, performing them for the first time on stage. Three composers were selected: Marc-André Dalbavie (French), Michael Jarrell (Swiss), and Matthias Pintscher (German) reflecting Pahud as a French and Swiss citizen living in Germany for over 15 years. Whilst working with German Composer, Matthias Pintscher, Pahud sought to explore a new level and style of playing the flute. He recalls:We spent some time talking about the effects and about the special way of using the instrument. The most interesting thing is how you interconnect these various effects [from an instrument] that is one of the oldest on earth. Whether you blow on it, in it, or you use it as a trumpet or a recorder, you can have a lot of different sounds on such an instrument. But that's nothing new about it, the new thing is how you can combine them and how you can get them to interconnect so that it becomes one musical statement, one phrase. In March 2008 Pahud performed the world première of another work commissioned by Frank Michael Beyer, who composed Meridian, a Concerto for Flute & String Ensemble. Other world premières include music composed by Elliott Carter: Concerto for Flute & Ensemble, which Pahud premièred in September 2008 in Jerusalem. It was joint commissioned by the BPO, Jerusalem International Chamber Music Festival and Boston Symphony Orchestra. Pahud will world première the Flute Concerto by Luca Lombardi in 2010, commissioned by the Kansas City Symphony. Though he is an enthusiastic consumer and commissioner of new music, Pahud sounds most excited when relishing the old repertoire. "Mastery of an instrument helps you to sense new barriers. This is where you keep music moving," and he acknowledges his various experiences with newer flute compositions as benefiting the way he performs his traditional repertoire. Pahud sees the future of interpretation (of music) will always be a blend of "tradition and novelty." But to him, this concept is not a novelty in itself. Many composers have evolved from traditions such as Bach for Fortepiano and Beethoven for the Hammerklavier. Pahud sees the term "tradition" as often being used to disguise the past, a lack of evolution or in denial of progress. But to him, the meaning of tradition is something evolving. He adds, "Artists such as Wilhelm Furtwängler, Herbert von Karajan, Claudio Abbado and Simon Rattle (conductors of BPO) were or are in line with tradition and make it evolve. In complete unconsciousness they feed from the past to define the future. That is one of the secrets of these great artists." In most interviews, Pahud describes music/musical styles in terms of "phrasing" or a Phrase. In musical terms, this refers to "a musical unit, often a component of a melody. The phrase may be regarded as a dependent division of music, such as a single line of poetry; it does not have a sense of completion in itself. Usually two or more phrases balance each other." It is like a grammatical construction with words to stress. Musical phrasing is also expressed in terms of how the music is executed. In terms of style of the Dalbavie concerto itself, Pahud reflects how the flute finds a resonance within the orchestra whilst maintaining its virtuosic, colourful and sensual phrasing. In interpreting the poetic style of Jarrell, where the imagination of both the composer and of the audience are "immensely present," Pahud describes, "This is something to me I like a lot in music is exactly what you cannot express with words but that it's all there in the essence of the music." On reflecting the style of the famous flutist Jean-Pierre Rampal, "[Rampal] brought something new and unusual in terms of sound, class and grandeur of the expressive aspect of the flute. He was able to perform admirable phrases that never seemed to end, or how the breathing faded into the musical flow; and his ability to make the sound of the flute seem to extend endlessly, infinitely." Pahud's debut into the world of jazz came through meeting and collaborating with jazz pianist Jacky Terrasson. He admires and derives inspiration from jazz flutists such as James Newton, James Moody, Herbie Mann, and Jeremy Steig. He has explored jazz further through performing big band music with friends and colleagues from the Berlin Philharmonic and local jazz musicians. Pahud's collaboration with Jacky Terrasson resulted in a duo CD titled "Into the Blue," with performances including original takes on Bolero, Apres un Reve, and the Bolling Suite among others. Other personnel on the project included Sean Smith (bass) and Ali Jackson (drums). Other examples of his vast interests in innovative musical genres include so-called "one-time projects" (as Pahud calls them); most recently in 2006, it included a collaboration project with the NHK Symphony Orchestra of a recorded original soundtrack for the NHK Taiga series Komyo ga Tsuji (Jp: 功名が辻). For the many that come to see Pahud perform, either jazz or classical, it is not only about entertaining. Pahud reflects on his audiences being able to learn about music at his performances; it is about reacting at different levels and ranges of emotions. To Pahud, it is about interacting, connecting and enabling the audience to think about what is happening as the music is being played. He wants to open opportunities in developing curiosity to discover more about music as a way of giving back to the audience. In 1996 he signed an exclusive contract with EMI Classics, the only flutist in the world to have a solo recording contract with a major record company. Pahud promises to be one of the most significant contributors to the catalogue of recorded flute music today. Nowadays much of his time is taken up with recording. He extended his contract with EMI for a further six years. Recording adds a welcome diversity to Pahud's schedule:I like to work for the mic – it brings a certain close-up on your playing. You have to take care of lots of things that you do not necessarily have to take care of when you are performing in a live concert hall. You don't have the emotional or the visual support, and you have to be exciting nevertheless. So at the same time you have to take greater care of the detail and bring a greater intensity to the music. Pahud has recorded and/or collaborated a total of 24 discs for EMI. Instrument Pahud's first flute was a silver-plated Yamaha. His parents later bought him two Muramatsu Flutes, one half hand-made and the other fully hand-made. Pahud previously played on a 14-karat golden flute which he bought from Brannen Brothers in Boston, Massachusetts, in 1989 with money he won from competitions. Two weeks later he bought a head joint (the part into which the player blows) from Dana Sheridan, another Boston flute manufacturer. Pahud chose the Brannen flute body because it is one of the only flute makers that produce a decent Cooper scale, based on the scales developed by Albert Cooper. He describes his instrument:This is the most flexible instrument I have tried so far. It enables me to transpose into music what I'm thinking and what I'm feeling. But, although the instrument is important, the player is the most important. All the work must be done before the mouth even makes contact with the instrument. It all happens by the way you hold your muscles, control your lungs, use the different cavities in the head and the upper body to let the sound resonate more or less. Pahud now plays a solid 14-karat Haynes flute with a pinless mechanism, having previously played a solid 14-karat Brannen-Cooper flute with a Sheridan head joint from 1989 to 2012. Personal life Pahud has two sons, Grégoire and Tristan, from a former marriage. Repertoire Flute and Symphony Orchestra Lennox Berkeley: Concerto op. 36 Leonard Bernstein: Halil for Flute & Orchestra Ferruccio Busoni: Divertimento Aram Khatchaturian: Concerto György Ligeti: Double Concerto for Flute & Oboe Lorin Maazel: Music for Flute and Orchestra Carl Nielsen: Concerto Carl Reinecke: Concerto in D major op. 283 Jacques Ibert: Concerto Flute and Chamber Orchestra Theobald Boehm: Concerto in G major, op. 1 Domenico Cimarosa: Concerto in G major for 2 flutes Franz Danzi: Sinfonia Concertante for Flute & Clarinet François Devienne: Concerto no. 2 in D major, and No. 7 in E minor Sofia Gubaidulina: Music for Flute, Strings and Percussions Michael Haydn: Concerto in D major Arthur Honegger: Double Concerto for Flute & Oboe Bernhard Molique Concerto in E minor Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart: Concerto in G major K313, Concerto in D major K314, Concerto for flute and harp K299, Andante in C major K315, Rondo in D major K184 Carl Nielsen: Concerto Jacques Ibert: Concerto Jean Rivier: Concerto Erwin Schulhoff: Double Concerto for Flute & Piano Friedrich Schwindl: Concerto in D major Salvatore Sciarrino: Rondo Louis Spohr: Concerto no. 8 in a minor op. 47 Carl Stamitz: Concerto in G major Mario Zafred: Concerto Flute and Strings Carl Philipp Emanuel Bach: Concertos in D minor (H426), G major (H445), A major (H438) and B flat major (H435) Johann Sebastian Bach: Concerto in A minor BWV 1056, Suite no. 2 in B minor BWV 1067, Brandenburg Concertos nos 4 and 5, Triple concerto BWV 1044 Luigi Boccherini: Concerto in D major op. 27 André Grétry: Concerto in C major Joseph Haydn Concerto in D major André Jolivet: Concerto Jean-Marie Leclair: Concerto in C major no.3 op. 7 Saverio Mercadante: Concerto in E minor Giovanni Battista Pergolesi: Concertos in G major and D major Ignaz Pleyel: Concerto in C major Johann Joachim Quantz: Concertos in G major, D major, C minor, E minor Georg Philipp Telemann: Concertos in F major and G major Antonio Vivaldi: Concerti: Four Seasons, Piccolo concerto Awards and recognition 2009: Awarded the French Order of Arts and Literature (Ordre des Arts et des Lettres) presented by Ambassador Bernard de Montferrand for contribution to French music. 2006: Lucerne Festival honoured him with the highest distinction of "Artiste Étoile". February 1998: "Instrumentalist of the Year 1997" at the prestigious Victoires de la Musique award ceremony in Paris. 1998–99: Pahud's second EMI disc, Paris (1998) containing French flute music, in collaboration with Le Sage, won the Diapason d'Or award. 1997–98: Pahud's first EMI disc, Mozart Flute Concertos and the Concerto for Flute and Harp (1997) won the Diapason "CD of the Year" award, the Radio France listeners' poll as favourite recording of the year, the Japanese Geijutsu Award, and a Fono-Forum award. October 1992: Hand-picked by Claudio Abbado to be principal flautist of Berlin Philharmonic Orchestra. September 1992: Pahud won eight out of the twelve special prizes at the Concours de Genève. 1989: Won first prize at the Kobe International Flute Competition. 1988: Won first prize at the Duino International Music Competition. 1988: Won second prize at the International Scheveningen Music Competition. 1985: Won first prize at the National Competition of Belgium (le concours National de Belgique) Soloists Prize in the Worldwide French-speaking Community Radio Awards. Awarded a total of four TV-Echo awards in Germany. "Ongaku no Tomo" award from the Japanese record industry. Awarded European Council's Juventus Prize. Pahud is also a laureate of the Yehudi Menuhin Foundation and of the International Tribune for Musicians of UNESCO. Discography On EMI Classics The Flute King (2011) Fantasy: A Night at the Opera (2010) Opium- Mélodies françaises (2009) Bach Flute & Harpsichord Sonatas (2008)Dalbavie: Flute Concerto (2008)Brahms: Sonatas Op.120, No.1 & No.2 and Reinecke Sonata Op.167 (2007)Nielsen: Clarinet & Flute Concertos, Wind Quintet with Sabine Meyer, BPO (2007)Vivaldi: Flute Concertos with Australian Chamber Orchestra (2006)Haydn: Flute Concertos etc. (2005)French Connection: Chamber Works (2005)Beau Soir with Mariko Anraku (2004)Le Carnaval des animaux (2004)Khachaturian/Ibert Flute Concertos with Tonhalle-Orchestra Zürich (2003)Into the Blue with Jacky Terrasson (2003)Telemann Concertos (2003)Gubaidulina: The Canticle of the Sun- Music for Flute, Strings and Percussion (2001)Mozart: Flute/Flute & Harp & Clarinet Concerti with Sabine Meyer (2001)Bach: Brandenburg Concerto No.5 etc. with Berliner Barock Solisten (2001)Debussy/Ravel/Prokofiev (2000)Mozart: Quartets for Flute, Violin, Viola & Cello (1999)Haydn: Flute Concertos with Haydn Ensemble Berlin (1998)Cantos y Danzas with Manuel Barrueco (1998)Paris- French Flute Music with Eric Le Sage (1998)Mozart: Flute Concertos with BPO (1997) On Auvidis ValoisWeber: Sonatas for flute and piano with Eric Le Sage (1995)Schubert: Introduction and Variations D.802, Sonata D.821, Sonatine D.385 with Eric Le Sage (1994)Beethoven: Sonata in B flat major, Sonata in F major op. 17, Serenade in D op.41 with Eric Le Sage (1993) On Musiques SuissesFlötenmusik (1995) References External links Emmanuel Pahud Artist's Page on Askonas Holt Management Emmanuel Pahud Biography on EMI Classics. Further information and concert list on fluteconnection.net. Emmanuel Pahud Artist Profile on Berliner Philharmoniker Audio and video Emmanuel Pahud performing: Quartett in D für Flöte, Violine, Viola und Violoncello, KV 285: Adagio (not G Major as it states on the website). Emmanuel Pahud Performing: Mozart Flute Concerto No.1 K.313 – 1st Mov (The piece that inspired him to play the flute). Emmanuel Pahud playing Vivaldi concerto in D "il gardellino" – Allegro (with the Australian Chamber Orchestra). Emmanuel Pahud performing a live recording of the Jazz rendition of Vivaldi: Été (Summer) with Jacky Terrasson (Into the Blue'' record, 2003.) Emmanuel Pahud plays Syrinx for flute solo by Claude Debussy in this video by Louisiana Channel, filmed in 2011. Emmanuel Pahud plays Lenski's Aria from Eugene Onegin by Peter Tchaikovsky in this video by Louisiana Channel, filmed in 2011. Emmanuel Pahud plays allegro from Sonata in A minor by Carl Phillip Emmanuel Bach in this video by Louisiana Channel, filmed in 2011. 1970 births EMI Classics and Virgin Classics artists French classical flautists Living people People from Geneva Players of the Berlin Philharmonic Swiss classical flautists Winners of the Geneva International Music Competition
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/James%20Moffat%20%28author%29
James Moffat (author)
James Moffat (27 January 1922 – 8 November 1993) was a Canadian-born British writer who wrote at least 290 novels in several genres under at least 45 pseudonyms". Moffat produced many pulp novels for the United Kingdom publishing house New English Library during the 1970s. Moffat's pen names included Richard Allen, Etienne Aubin (The Terror of the Seven Crypts) and Trudi Maxwell (Diary of A Female Wrestler). Moffat's pulp novels mostly focused on youth subcultures of the late 1960s and 1970s, such as skinheads, hippies and bikers. In particular Moffat wrote a series of popular and commercially successful books featuring what came to be known as his most famous protagonist, the skinhead antihero Joe Hawkins. Moffat often expressed admiration for his subject matter and commented on social issues, mostly from a right-wing perspective. The collected works of Richard Allen were reissued in a six volume set by ST Publishing in the 1990s. A BBC TV documentary about his life, Skinhead Farewell, aired in 1996. Allen's formulaic and sensationalist writing style has been imitated by Neoist writer Stewart Home. Mark Sargeant wrote a feature in Scootering Magazine titled The Richard Allen Legacy. An interview titled The Return of Joe Hawkins with publisher George Marshall was in issue seven of Skinhead Times (1992). Under his own name Moffat wrote at least two science fiction novels: The Sleeping Bomb (New English Library, 1970; US edition 1973, The Cambri Plot) and a Queen Kong (1977) a movie tie-in to the low-budget 1976 movie of that name. Books written as Richard Allen Skinhead series New English Library published 18 Skinhead novels by Richard Allen. Skinhead (June 1970) Suedehead (1971) Demo (1971) Boot Boys (1972) Skinhead Escapes (1972) Skinhead Girls (1972) Glam (1973) Smoothies (1973) Sorts (1973) Teeny Bopper Idol (1973) Top Gear Skin (1973) Trouble for Skinhead (1973) Skinhead Farewell (1974) Dragon Skins (1975) Terrace Terrors (1975) Knuckle Girls (1977) Punk Rock (1977) Mod Rule (1980) References External links The Richard Allen Project Stewart Home on James Moffat Stewart Home on Richard Allen and other Youthsploitation Novelists Johnny Canuck at Thrilling Detective Silas Manners Spy Fiction at Spy Guys and Gals Virginia Box Spy Fiction at Spy Guys and Gals 1922 births 1993 deaths British male novelists British spy fiction writers Canadian emigrants to the United Kingdom Pulp fiction writers Skinhead 20th-century British novelists Canadian expatriate writers
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Euphoria%20Morning
Euphoria Morning
Euphoria Mourning (originally titled Euphoria Morning) is the first solo studio album released by American musician Chris Cornell. It was released on September 21, 1999 through Interscope Records. Euphoria Mourning sold over 75,000 copies in its first week of release, and eventually sold 393,000 copies in the U.S. alone. While a large success critically, it did not sell nearly as well as Cornell's albums with Soundgarden. It is Cornell's only album between the split of Soundgarden until he formed Audioslave with members of Rage Against the Machine. The lead single "Can't Change Me" was nominated for a Grammy Award for Best Male Rock Vocal Performance at the 2000 Grammy Awards. On August 14, 2015, the album was re-released on CD and vinyl with the title Euphoria Mourning, with Cornell stating in the press release that he had originally intended the album to be called that. Production Recording history In 1998, Cornell began working on material for a solo album on which he collaborated with Alain Johannes and Natasha Shneider of the band Eleven, and the album was recorded at their Los Angeles home studio. Cornell stated that the lead single "Can't Change Me" is "kind of a sad discovery that this singer is involved with this person that has amazing powers to help people and change things positively, and he's realizing that none of it is really rubbing off on him." Cornell told MTV News that the genesis of "Can't Change Me" can be found in some of Soundgarden's hits, such as "Blow Up the Outside World" and "Fell on Black Days". Cornell also recorded a version of the song in French. This version is a bonus track on the deluxe version of Euphoria Morning, and on the Japanese and European editions of the album that were released in November 1999. The song was translated to French by Alexis Lemoine. "Flutter Girl" was an outtake from Superunknown, the 1994 Soundgarden album. The title was created by Pearl Jam bassist Jeff Ament as part of the joke tracklist of Poncier's EP for the 1992 Cameron Crowe film Singles, and Cornell wrote the lyrics and music for it. The complete Poncier EP with the 1992 demo version of "Flutter Girl" was released as a promotional CD demo in 2015 for Record Store Day. "Moonchild" is about Cornell's then-wife Susan Silver. In the song, Cornell affectionately describes how Silver "gets really freaked out during the full moon". Cornell stated that "Wave Goodbye" was written as a tribute to his friend Jeff Buckley, who died in 1997. Musical style According to AllMusic's Euphoria Mourning is "a shaded, textured rock album," lacking the "grinding sludge and furious rock" of Soundgarden. Nevertheless, the album was described to be of a piece with Soundgarden's psychedelic-indebted 1994 album Superunknown and "delves back into ’60s psychedelic melodies and acoustic ditties." Los Angeles Times Mikael Wood described the album's style as "psychedelic folk-rock." Reception The album proved commercially unsuccessful although the album's single "Can't Change Me" was nominated for Best Male Rock Vocal Performance at the 2000 Grammy Awards. He also contributed the song "Sunshower" (a bonus track on the Japanese release of Euphoria Morning) to the soundtrack of the 1998 film, Great Expectations, and a reworked version of the track "Mission", retitled "Mission 2000", was used on the soundtrack to the 2000 film, Mission: Impossible 2. In 2000, Cornell embarked on a tour in support of the album. The song "Preaching the End of the World" inspired the title of Lorene Scafaria's 2012 film Seeking a Friend for the End of the World. Re-release and title change The album was re-released on August 14, 2015 on CD and vinyl and retitled Euphoria Mourning. Cornell stated that he had originally intended the album to be called that, but his manager at the time of the original release, Jim Guerinot, suggested that "Euphoria Morning" without the "u" would be a better title. Cornell on the title: It was a pretty dark album lyrically and pretty depressing, and I was going through a really difficult time in my life – my band wasn’t together anymore, my marriage was falling apart and I was dealing with it by drinking way too much, and that has its own problems, particularly with depression. So I titled the album Euphoria Mourning, but right before the record came out and I was doing interviews over the radio for example, if you say “Euphoria Mourning”, the listener doesn’t know if it’s mourning with a “u” or morning without a “u”. And that started to bother me. So I had a conversation with my manager at the time, and said I really love the title but do you think it’s confusing? And he suggested that Euphoria Morning would probably be a better title. I thought, in contrast to the lyrics maybe that works. And it wasn’t my manager’s fault, I was a grown man and could say I don’t think that’s a good idea, and in the back of my mind I didn’t think it was a good idea. But mentally I wasn’t together enough to really know what was right. So I went with “Morning”, and it’s bothered me ever since. It even showed up in an early review where someone reviewing the record said that the title sounded like a potpourri scent, and when I read that I was just like [with disdain], “Fuck! Fuckin’ bullshit!” The title was so beautifully poetic to begin with, just the concept of euphoria in mourning; it was a moment I felt inspired and I let all the air out of it. So when we decided to do its first vinyl release I thought, I want to change the fuckin’ title! [Laughs] It’s time to change it. Track listing "Can't Change Me" (French version) is also found on international versions "Can't Change Me" (French version) & another b-side "Nowhere But You" are also found on the "Can't Change Me" single. Personnel Personnel adapted from Euphoria Morning liner notes. Main personnel Chris Cornell - lead vocals (all tracks), guitar (tracks 1-3 and 5-13), harmonica (track 1) Alain Johannes - guitar (tracks 1-6, 8, and 10-12), bass guitar (tracks 2-5, 10, and 11), backing vocals (tracks 1 and 13), theremin (track 4), mandolin (tracks 4 and 13), clarinet (track 10), tabla (track 12) Natasha Shneider - keyboards (tracks 1-4, 6-8, and 10-13), bass guitar (tracks 6 and 13), backing vocals (tracks 4-7, and 13), tambourine (tracks 1-4, 11, and 12), piano (track 5), organ (track 5), timpani (track 11) Ric Markmann - bass guitar (tracks 1, 7, 8, and 12) Josh Freese - drums (tracks 1-4, 6, 8, and 11) Additional musicians Jason Falkner - bass guitar (track 5) Greg Upchurch - drums (track 5) Victor Indrizzo - drums (track 7) Matt Cameron - drums (track 10) Bill Rieflin - drums (track 12) Misha Shneider - bayan (track 14) Technical personnel Chris Cornell - production, engineering, mixing Alain Johannes - production, engineering, mixing Natasha Shneider - production, engineering, mixing Dave Collins - mastering Charts References 1999 debut albums Chris Cornell albums Interscope Records albums Albums produced by Chris Cornell Albums produced by Alain Johannes
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bleach%20%28disambiguation%29
Bleach (disambiguation)
Bleach is a chemical that removes color or whitens. Bleach or Bleaching may also refer to: Music Bleach (American band), an American Christian rock group Bleach (American band Bleach album), 1999 Bleach (British band), a British shoegazing group active in the early 1990s Bleach, their 1991 album Bleach (Japanese band), a Japanese all-girl punk group, known as Bleach03 in North America Bleach (Japanese band Bleach album), 2003 Bleach (Nirvana album), a 1989 album by Nirvana "Bleach", a song by Easyworld from This Is Where I Stand "Bleach", a song by Brockhampton from Saturation III Processes or techniques Anal bleaching Bleach and recycle, a process to increase the dynamic range in the human eye Bleaching of wood pulp, whitening and lignin removal from wood pulp Coral bleaching, a pathological response of coral to environmental stresses Textile bleaching Skin whitening Tooth bleaching Other Bleach (manga), a Japanese manga series Bleach (TV series), the animated adaptation of the manga Bleach (2018 film), a live-action film based on the manga Bleach (1998 film), a 1998 science-fiction short film Bleach, a 2002 film starring Adam Scott See also Bleech, British alternative rock band founded 2009 Bleached, an American pop band
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/I%20Corps%20%28United%20States%29
I Corps (United States)
I Corps is a corps of the United States Army headquartered in Joint Base Lewis-McChord, Washington. It is a major formation of United States Army Pacific (USARPAC) and its current mission involves administrative oversight of Army units in the Asia-Pacific region, including the Pacific Pathways program. Activated in World War I in France, I Corps oversaw US Army divisions as they repelled several major German offensives and advanced into Germany. The corps was deactivated following the end of the war. Reactivated for service in World War II, the corps took command of divisions in the south Pacific, leading US and Australian Army forces as they pushed the Japanese army out of New Guinea. It went on to be one of the principal leading elements in the Battle of Luzon, liberating the Philippines. It then took charge as one of the administrative headquarters in the occupation of Japan. Deployed to Korea at the start of the Korean War, the corps was one of three corps that remained in the country for the entire US participation in the conflict, commanding US, British, and South Korean forces through three years of back-and-forth campaigns against North Korean and Chinese forces. Following the end of the war, it remained in Korea for almost 20 years guarding the Korean Demilitarized Zone. Active today, the corps acts as a subordinate headquarters of United States Army Pacifc, and has also seen deployments in support of Operation Iraqi Freedom and Operation Enduring Freedom. History World War I Following the American declaration of war on Germany, on 6 April 1917, I Corps was organized and activated on 15–20 January 1918, in the National Army in Neufchâteau, France, the first of several corps-sized formations intended to command divisions of the American Expeditionary Force in Europe during World War I. Assisted by the French XXXII Corps, the headquarters was organized and trained; on 20 January, Major General Hunter Liggett took command. In February, the corps consisted of the 1st, 2nd, 26th, 32nd, 41st, and 42nd Infantry Divisions. From February to July, 1918, the German Army launched four major offensives, attempting to secure victory before the full American forces could be mobilized. The final offensive, started in July 1918, was an attempt to cross the Marne, in the area of Château-Thierry, but I Corps and other formations on the American lines held, and the attack was rebuffed. With the defeat of these German drives, I Corps conducted its first offensive mission, participating in the Second Battle of the Marne from 18 July until 6 August, which resulted in the reduction of the more important salients driven into Allied lines by the German offensives. After a brief period in the defensive sectors of Champagne and Lorraine between 7 August and 11 September, the corps took part in the St. Mihiel attack on 12 September, which reduced the German salient there during the next four days. Then followed another period on the defense in Lorraine as preparations advanced for what was to be the final Allied offensive of the war. On 26 September, I Corps troops began the attack northward that opened the Meuse-Argonne Offensive. From that day until 11 November 1918 when the war ended, I Corps was constantly moving forward. The I Corps shoulder sleeve insignia was first worn by members of I Corps after approval from the AEF on 3 December 1918, but it was not officially approved until 1922. I Corps continued to train in France, until it was demobilized on 25 March 1919. During its time in World War I, I Corps commanded the 1st, 2nd, 3rd, 4th, 5th, 6th, 26th, 28th, 32nd, 35th, 36th, 41st, 43rd, 77th, 78th, 80th, 82nd, 90th, 91st, 92nd Infantry Divisions at one point or another. Also assigned to the corps were the French 62nd, 167th and 5th Cavalry Divisions. World War II Lieutenant Colonel Steven Clay (Retd.) has traced the Corps' history in the interwar period. It was constituted in the Organized Reserve on 29 July 1921, allotted to the First Corps Area and assigned to the First Army. The Headquarters and Headquarters Company (HHC) were initiated by September 1922 at the Army Base, Boston, MA. The corps was assigned the 9th (Regular Army, Inactive) and 26th and 43rd Divisions (National Guard). (Clay Vol I 142) HHC, I Corps was withdrawn from the OR on 15 August 1927 and demobilized. On 15 August 1927, XX Corps was reconstituted in the Regular Army. Two months later, on 13 October 1927, the XX Corps was redesignated as I Corps. However, the corps headquarters remained inactive during peacetime, until the US Army's buildup following the outbreak of War in Europe. On 1 November 1940, I Corps was reactivated at Columbia, South Carolina. For the next nine months, the corps supervised training and large scale divisional maneuvers. New Guinea Campaign On 6 July 1942 Lieutenant General Robert L. Eichelberger took command of the corps which he would lead through the majority of its service in the war. In the summer of 1942 the corps was ordered to Australia, closing into the area at Rockhampton on 17 October 1942. This move was to be part of a larger overall offensive in the south Pacific region. The corps at this time comprised the 41st and 32nd Divisions, engaged in the defense of British New Guinea, the beginning of the New Guinea campaign. Though the Japanese advanced rapidly at first, a number of factors slowed their progress against the Allied forces. Stubborn resistance from two Australian brigades bought time for I Corps reinforcements to arrive while the terrain proved more difficult than the Japanese had anticipated. Supplies, which were already insufficient for the Japanese forces, were shortened even more as Japan's high command diverted them to the Guadalcanal campaign. The Japanese attack stalled, and once the threat of a Japanese invasion of Australia was abated, I Corps launched an offensive to push back the Japanese. With the 32nd Division and the 163rd Infantry Regiment of the 41st Division, the offensive was launched across the Owen Stanley Mountains of New Guinea. This force, later augmented by the Australian 7th Division, fought the Battle of Buna-Gona, slowly advancing north against a tenacious enemy under harsh weather and terrain conditions. Overstretched Japanese forces, low on supplies, were eventually overcome by US and Australian forces. Despite being surrounded, trapped, and outnumbered, the Japanese forces continued to fight until they were completely wiped out by Allied forces. Buna, on the north coast of the island, fell on 22 January 1943. The campaign was the first major Allied victory against the Japanese Army, and I Corps received the Distinguished Unit Citation. This victory marked the turn of the tide in the ground war against Japan. After this campaign I Corps returned to Rockhampton, where it was engaged in the training of the Allied forces beginning to arrive in that area for the coming campaigns. From February 1943 until March 1944 I Corps prepared for its next assignment, Operation Cartwheel. That mission was the capture of Hollandia on the north coast of Dutch New Guinea; the units allocated to the corps for this task were the 24th and 41st Infantry Divisions. The Task Force established itself ashore after a successful amphibious assault on 19 April 1944. It then began an offensive in that area to remove Japanese forces, before establishing air bases there. The battle was a vicious one; the jungles and swamps made difficult fighting ground, and it was not until 6 June that the area was secured. The entire Japanese 18th Army was cut off from its bases by the force. Following this campaign the corps directed the seizure of the island of Biak, which was secured by 24 June, to complete the advances necessary for the subsequent invasion of the Philippine Islands. On 20 August Major General Innis P. Swift succeeded General Eichelberger as commander of the corps. Luzon The corps was assigned to the Sixth United States Army in preparation for the offensive in the Philippines from the assets of the Philippine Commonwealth Army, Philippine Constabulary and the recognized guerrilla units. On 9 January 1945, I Corps successfully landed on the coast of the Lingayen Gulf in Northern Luzon with the mission of establishing a base for future operations to the north and of denying the enemy northern access to the South China Sea. As a part of the Sixth Army with an overall force of 175,000 men, the American forces faced over 260,000 Japanese in Luzon. In a sustained drive of thirty-four days which covered over 100 miles, I Corps crossed central Luzon and thus separated the Japanese forces in the north from those in southern Luzon, destroying Japanese armored units along the way. Additional landings at Samar and Palawan were conducted in February, reducing the pressure on the forces of I Corps. Following this accomplishment, the corps turned northward and began the systematic reduction of the enemy positions on the approach to the Cagayan Valley. The breakthrough into the valley was followed by a swift exploitation that took the corps to the north coast. This advance covered two hundred miles in little over 100 days; eliminating effective enemy resistance in northern Luzon. Manila was recaptured by the Allies after heavy fighting that ravaged the city. The intense fighting that ensued cost 8,000 killed and 30,000 wounded in the Sixth Army, compared to 190,000 dead for Japan. As the Sixth Army finished off the Japanese on Luzon, the Eighth United States Army in the south sent units all throughout the Philippines to eliminate remaining Japanese resistance on the islands. The Tenth United States Army in the north commenced securing Okinawa and Iwo Jima. With the defeat of the Japanese at each of these places, the US forces had locations from which to launch attacks into mainland Japan. Allied forces then began preparing for the invasion of mainland Japan, Operation Downfall. I Corps was assigned as one of four Corps under the command of the Sixth Army, with a strength of 14 divisions. I Corps was to lead the assault on Miyazaki, in southern Kyūshū, with the 25th, 33rd, and 41st Infantry Divisions. Opposing them would be the Japanese 57th Army, with the 154th, 156th, and 212th Japanese Infantry Divisions. Before the assault was not required. Japan surrendered following the use of nuclear weapons on Hiroshima and Nagasaki. During World War II, the 6th, 8th, 9th, 24th, 25th, 30th (during training in U.S. only?), 32nd, 33rd, 37th, 41st, 43rd, 77th and 98th Infantry Divisions were assigned to I Corps at one time or another, along with the 2nd Marine Division, 7th Australian Division, and elements of the 11th Airborne Division. Occupation of Japan After the end of hostilities, I Corps was assigned to occupation duty in Japan. On 19 September 1945 the corps, with the assigned 33rd Infantry Division, sailed from Lingayen Gulf for Japan, landing on the island of Honshū on 25 September, three weeks after Japan's formal surrender. The next few years were a period during which the terms of the surrender were supervised and enforced; Japanese military installations and material were seized, troops were disarmed and discharged, and weapons of warfare disposed of. The duties of the occupation force included conversion of industry, repatriation of foreign nationals, and supervision of the complex features of all phases of Japanese government, economics, education, and industry. By 1948, as the purely occupational mission was accomplished, troops of the corps focused more military training and field exercises designed to prepare them for combat. Its force was eventually downsized to the 24th Infantry Division on Kyūshū and 25th Infantry Division on mid-Honshū. The US Army continued a slow and steady process of post-war drawdown and demobilization on its own, and on 28 March 1950, the corps was formally inactivated in Japan, and its command consolidated with other units. Korean War Only a few months later, the Korean War began, and units from Japan began streaming into South Korea. The Eighth United States Army, taking charge of the conflict, requested the activation of three corps headquarters for its growing command of United Nations Command (UN) forces. I Corps was reactivated at Fort Bragg, North Carolina, on 2 August 1950. Pusan Perimeter Advance elements of the headquarters took their place in the Pusan perimeter on 27 August. The headquarters, designated "Task Force Jackson", assumed control of the Republic of Korea Army (ROK) I Corps, the 21st Regimental Combat Team and the 3rd Battalion Combat Team of the 9th Infantry Regiment. On 12 September, under command of Lieutenant General Frank W. Milburn, the corps became operational. It took command of the 1st Cavalry Division, 24th Infantry Division and the ROK 1st Infantry Division, along with the 27th British Commonwealth Brigade, defending the Naktong River area against attacking North Korean units. Amphibious landings at Inchon by X Corps hit North Korean Korean People's Army (KPA) forces from behind, allowing I Corps to breakout from the Pusan perimeter starting on 16 September. Four days later I Corps troops began a general offensive northward against crumbling KPA opposition to establish contact with forces of the 7th Infantry Division driving southward from the beachhead. Major elements of the KPA were destroyed and cut off in this aggressive penetration; the link-up was effected south of Suwon on 26 September. The offensive was continued northwards, past Seoul, and across the 38th Parallel into North Korea on 1 October. The momentum of the attack was maintained, and the race to the North Korean capital, Pyongyang, ended on 19 October when elements of the ROK 1st Infantry Division and US 1st Cavalry Division both captured the city. The advance continued, but against unexpectedly stiffening resistance. The Chinese People's Volunteer Army (PVA) entered the war on the side of North Korea, making their first attacks in late October. By the end of October the city of Chongju, from the Yalu River border of North Korea, had been captured. Chinese intervention The UN forces renewed their offensive on 24 November before being stopped by the PVA Second Phase Offensive starting on 25 November. The Eighth Army suffered heavy casualties, ordering a complete withdrawal to the Imjin River, south of the 38th Parallel, having been destabilised by the overwhelming PVA forces. In the wake of the retreat, the disorganized Eighth Army regrouped and re-formed in late December. I Corps relinquished command of the 1st Cavalry Division, the 24th Infantry Division and the 27th British Brigade, taking command of the 3rd Infantry Division and the 25th Infantry Division in their place. On 1 January 1951, 500,000 PVA troops attacked the Eighth Army's line at the Imjin River, forcing them back and allowing the PVA to capture Seoul. The PVA eventually advanced too far for their supply lines to adequately support them, and their attack stalled. The Eighth Army, battered by the PVA assault, began to prepare counteroffensives to retake lost ground. Following the establishment of defenses south of the capital city, General Matthew B. Ridgway ordered I, IX and X Corps to conduct a general counteroffensive against the PVA/KPA, Operation Thunderbolt. Between February and March, the corps participated in Operation Killer, pushing PVA forces north of the Han River. This operation was quickly followed up with Operation Ripper, which retook Seoul in March. After this Operation Rugged and Operation Dauntless in April saw Eighth Army forces advance north of the 38th Parallel and reestablish themselves along the Kansas Line and Utah Line, respectively. As I Corps troops approached the Iron Triangle formed by the cities of Cheorwon, Kumhwa and Pyonggang, PVA/KPA resistance increased. By that time, the ROK 1st Infantry Division was relieved from the corps and assigned to one of the Korean corps. The 1st Cavalry Division was returned to the corps in its place. In late April, the PVA launched a major counterattack. Though the 24th and 25th Infantry Divisions were able to hold their ground against the PVA 9th Army Corps, the ROK 6th Infantry Division, to the east, was destroyed by the PVA 13th Army Corps, which penetrated the line and threatened to encircle the American divisions. The 1st 1st Marine Division and 27th British Commonwealth Brigade were able to drive the PVA 13th Army Corps back while the 24th and 25th Divisions withdrew on 25 April. The line was pushed back to Seoul but managed to hold. In May–June the UN launched another counteroffensive erasing most of the PVA gains. Stalemate In September, the UN Forces launched another counteroffensive with the 24th Infantry Division at the center of the line, west of the Hwachon Reservoir. Flanked by the ROK 2nd and 6th Divisions, the 24th advanced past Kumwha, engaging the PVA 20th and 27th Armies. In November, the PVA attempted to counter this attack, but were unsuccessful. It was at this point, after several successive counteroffensives that saw both sides fighting intensely over the same ground, that the two sides started serious peace negotiations. In late 1951, the 1st Cavalry Division, depleted after having suffered 16,000 casualties so far in the conflict, was relegated to the Far East reserve to rebuild. It was replaced by the 45th Infantry Division of the Oklahoma Army National Guard, which was newly arrived in the theater. In March 1952, the corps grew in size as the 25th Infantry Division was relieved from its command and it gained command of 1st British Commonwealth Division and the ROK 1st, 8th and 9th Infantry Divisions. In June 1952, a ten-day attack against 45th Infantry Division outposts was repulsed. September 1952 began with renewed enemy attacks against the outposts that protected the main line. PVA/KPA attacks up to regimental size against garrisons of platoon and company strength were turned back by Corps troops. Outposts at Bunker Hill, The Hook, Kelly, Old Baldy Hill, Noris and Pork Chop Hill were defended in heavy fighting within I Corps' area of responsibility. All along the front, the PVA/KPA were driven back with thousands of casualties. In January 1953, the corps underwent its last major reorganization of the war, losing command of the US 3rd, 24th and 45th Infantry Divisions, the ROK 8th and 9th Infantry Divisions and the British 1st Commonwealth Division, while taking command of the US 2nd, 7th, and 25th Infantry Divisions and the 1st Marine Division. On 23 January 1953, the first major action of the year was initiated with a raid by the ROK 1st Infantry Division against the PVA/KPA's Big Nori positions. The next months saw many such raids which harassed the PVA/KPA, captured prisoners, and destroyed defensive works. Beginning in March, the PVA/KPA continually attacked the corps outposts. In that month, troops on Old Baldy were withdrawn, on orders from I Corps, after suffering heavy casualties from the PVA. On 10 April 1953 Lieutenant General Bruce C. Clarke, who was to see the corps through the remainder of its combat, assumed command. The fighting on the outposts continued; the 7th Infantry Division stopped wave after wave of troops that the PVA threw against Pork Chop Hill. In late May troops of the Turkish Brigade, attached to the 25th Infantry Division, defended the Nevada Complex in fierce hand-to-hand combat. They were ordered to evacuate all but the Berlin position at the end of May. The 1st British Commonwealth Division ejected the PVA after their assault on the Hook. The ROK 1st Division troops were ordered off the positions on Queen, Bak and Hill 179 when heavy PVA/KPA assaults deprived them of their tactical value. The closing days of the fighting saw the 7th Infantry Division withdrawn from Pork Chop and the 1st Marine Division ordered to evacuate the Berlin positions for the same reason. Cold War After the 1953 armistice, the defense of the Korean Demilitarized Zone was handled by the ROK and US armies. The eastern half of the border was handled by the ROK while I Corps took charge in the west. For the next 18 years, the corps oversaw US forces on the DMZ, seeing only occasional incidents with the KPA. In 1971, under Nixon's détente policy, the 7th Infantry Division was withdrawn, leaving the 2nd Infantry Division as the only US Army unit in Korea. I Corps remained in Korea as a two-division formation until 1972 when it was reduced to zero strength and was replaced in 1982 by the Third Republic of Korea Army (TROKA). In 1980, Fort Lewis, Washington was notified of a major change of structure. A corps headquarters was to be activated in March 1982. I Corps was formally activated on 1 October 1981, much earlier than expected. On 1 August 1983, the corps expanded its operational control of active Army units outside Fort Lewis, to include the 7th Infantry Division (Light) at Fort Ord, and the 172nd Infantry Brigade in Alaska, which then was expanded to 6th Infantry Division (Light). In 1988, the distinctive unit insignia was approved for the corps. This was the fourth design held by the corps, with previous versions being approved then retracted in 1942, 1970, and 1982. Gulf War Following the end of the Cold War in 1989, the US government conducted careful restructuring of national priorities and of the defense establishment. Fort Lewis, ideally located to act as a base for mobilization and power projection into the Pacific region, was one of few military bases that did not downsize with the US military overall. Thus, while most of the Army was downsizing, Fort Lewis began to grow, however, several tenant units such as the 9th Infantry Division were downsized. The 3rd Brigade, 9th Infantry Division became the 199th Infantry Brigade, attached to I Corps, remaining under I Corps until its redesignation as the 2nd Armored Cavalry Regiment, and its departure for Fort Polk, Louisiana in 1993. Also in 1990, the U.S. intervened in the Middle East with Operation Desert Storm. During that intervention, Fort Lewis deployed 34 active and 25 reserve component units to Saudi Arabia. I Corps also contributed to the command structure, with the I Corps Commander, LTG Calvin A. H. Waller and the Deputy I Corps Commander, MG Paul R. Schwartz, assisting General H. Norman Schwarzkopf, the Commander of the American Forces. I Corps expanded its contingency missions and became a quick-response corps. For several months, I Corps was the nation's worldwide contingency corps, while the XVIII Airborne Corps was engaged in the Gulf War. This caused a good deal of activity on Fort Lewis, as the post restructured itself to support the corps' new mission, and to insure that it had a smooth, rapid departure in case they were needed anywhere in the world. This duty was returned to XVIII Airborne Corps upon its return to the United States. The corps then began to convert to a permanently structured, no-mobilization contingency corps and was placed under the operational control of the United States Army Forces Command. This entailed the addition of a number of active component corps units. In preparation for these new requirements, Fort Lewis began to receive new corps support units which were coming out of Europe. One of these was the 7th Engineer Brigade which was inactivated on 16 January 1992 and immediately reactivated as the 555th Engineer Group. On 16 February 1992 the 210th Field Artillery Brigade, also from Europe, was activated. In 1997, the 35th Air Defense Artillery Brigade moved to Fort Bliss, Texas, to join other air defense brigades. The corps and Fort Lewis would see a reshuffling of units in and out of the area through 2000. Plans were drawn up for emergency operations for I Corps should a major conflict emerge in the Pacific region. Plans exist for I Corps to rapidly deploy in defense of Japan or South Korea. War on Terrorism With the events of 11 September 2001, I Corps began providing support for Army units deploying in support of the War on Terrorism. Its assets were active in providing combat support and combat service support missions, including Operation Enduring Freedom in Afghanistan, Operation Iraqi Freedom in Iraq and the domestic Operation Noble Eagle. On 4 February 2004, I Corps forward headquarters deployed to Iraq. The element, called Task Force Olympia, deployed to Mosul, Iraq in January 2004, where it assumed its mission from the 101st Airborne Division to form a headquarters to exercise command and control of all coalition and Iraqi forces in northern Iraq. It coordinated the efforts of both of the active Stryker Brigade Combat Teams, attached engineers, civil affairs, signal, and other supporting units as well as Iraqi security forces, eventually numbering more than 12,000. The Iraqi security forces included four Civil Defense Corps battalions, three Border Police battalions, several thousand members of the Iraq Facility Protection Security Forces and an Armed Forces battalion. After more than a year in Iraq, the corps forward headquarters handed over responsibility for northern Iraq to the soldiers of Task Force Freedom and 11th Armored Cavalry Regiment in February 2005. In 2008, it was announced that I Corps was to deploy to Iraq in 2009, to replace XVIII Airborne Corps in support of Operation Iraqi Freedom. Soldiers of the corps trained for a year in preparation for the deployment, which began on 9 April 2009. I Corps filled the role of Multi-National Corps - Iraq at Al-Faw Palace. In January 2010, Multi-National Corps - Iraq integrated with Multi-National Forces - Iraq (MNF-I) and Multi-National Security Transition Command – Iraq (MNSTC-I) to form United States Forces - Iraq (USF-I). Over its one-year deployment, the corps oversaw the responsible drawdown of major components of US Forces in Iraq. I Corps returned from Iraq in March 2010 following their RIP/TOA with III Corps. I Corps headquarters deployed to Afghanistan to serve as the headquarters of the International Security Assistance Force Joint Command (IJC) for a period of one year. The commander of I Corps, Lieutenant General Curtis Scaparrotti, served concurrently as the commander of the International Security Assistance Force Joint Command and Deputy Commander, U.S. Forces – Afghanistan from 11 July 2011 to 11 July 2012. Asia-Pacific Shift I Corps shifted its mission to the Asia-Pacific region in mid-2012. I Corps Commander Lt. Gen. Robert Brown announced this Pacific Rim rebalance during his Change-of-Command Ceremony at Joint Base Lewis-McChord. In late 2011, President Barack Obama and Secretary of Defense Leon Panetta signaled the Asia-Pacific pivot and made several trips to the region. The Pacific Rim Rebalance will involve several combined and joint military exercises in Japan, Korea, Thailand, Philippines, and Australia. Part of I Corps' objectives for these exercises will be Joint Task Force certification in support of United States Pacific Command missions. Current organization I Corps is unique among the active US Army corps in that it is composed of a mixture of active duty and US Army Reserve units in 47 of the 50 U.S. states, for a total of around 20,000 active duty and 20,000 Army Reserve forces. I Corps, Joint Base Lewis–McChord (WA) I Corps Headquarters and Headquarters Battalion 7th Infantry Division 25th Infantry Division United States Army Alaska United States Army Japan 593rd Expeditionary Sustainment Command 17th Field Artillery brigade 555th Engineer Brigade 201st Expeditionary Military Intelligence Brigade 42nd Military Police Brigade Honors The I Corps was awarded seven campaign streamers for service in World War I, three campaign streamers and two unit decorations in World War II, ten campaign streamers and one unit decoration in the Korean War, one unit award during Operation Iraqi Freedom, and one unit award in peacetime, for a total of 20 campaign streamers and five unit decorations in its operational history. Campaign streamers Unit decorations See also Fort Lewis Museum Complete list of commanders I Corps (Union Army) I Corps (Army of Northern Virginia, CSA) I Corps (Army of Tennessee, CSA) III Corps (United States) V Corps (United States) XVIII Airborne Corps (United States) References Sources External links I Corps website GlobalSecurity.org: I Corps 01 01 Military units and formations in Washington (state) Military units and formations established in 1918 USCorps0001 1918 establishments in France Military units of the United States Army in South Korea Military units and formations of the United States in the Cold War United States
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Amphetamine%20Reptile%20Records
Amphetamine Reptile Records
Amphetamine Reptile Records (or AmRep Industries) is a record label which was founded in 1986 by Tom Hazelmyer in Washington state. The label specializes in noise rock and also released Strap It On, the debut album by alternative metal band Helmet which sold more than 40,000 records. According to Hazelmyer, the success of the album was vital to keeping AmRep going throughout the 1990s, as it "helped support the other things that sold less." The label was the subject of the 2014 documentary The Color of Noise. History Hazelmyer originally started the label to release records by his band, Halo of Flies. Eventually the label's roster expanded to include releases by Helmet, Melvins, Cows, Helios Creed, Chokebore, Servotron and others. Hazelmyer later moved the label to Minneapolis. Today the label is used by the Melvins, H•O•F and other legacy AmRep acts on to release limited edition vinyl. These releases are generally noted for their Linocut artwork, hand carved by Hazelmyer, their limited availability and their highly sought after nature as collector's items. Much of the AmRep back catalog is now out of print, although many of the releases are available in digital download format and streaming. On May 13, 2020 Tom Hazelmyer participated in an in-depth interview about the label on Conan Neutron's Protonic Reversal. Artists Bailter Space Boredoms Boss Hog Brainiac Calvin Krime Casus Belli Cherubs Chokebore Chrome Cranks Cosmic Psychos Cows Dwarves feedtime Fetish 69 Freedom Fighters Gas Huffer Gaunt Gay Witch Abortion Gear Jammer Gnomes of Zurich God Bullies godheadSilo Guzzard Halo of Flies/H•O•F Halo of Kitten Hammerhead Hedonists Helios Creed Helmet The Heroine Sheiks Janitor Joe Jawbox Jonestown Killdozer King Barry and the Sinister Soulsters King Snake Roost Lollipop Lonely Moans Love 666 lowercase Lubricated Goat Mama Tick Melvins/Snivlem Mog Stunt Team Mudhoney Nashville Pussy Negative Approach Party Diktator Pogo the Clown Powers That Be S.W.A.T. Servotron Silver Salute Steel Pole Bath Tub Strapping Fieldhands Surgery Superchunk Supernova Tad Tar The Jesus Lizard Thee Headcoats Thee Mighty Caesars The Thrown Ups The U-Men The Urinals Today is the Day Unsane Vaz Vertigo White Drugs Whopping Big Naughty X Notable performances Cosmic Psychos / Hammerhead / Surgery / Cows / Melvins / Helmet - the CMJ / Amphetamine Reptile Tour - Friday, October 30, 1992, at The Ritz Discography See also List of record labels References External links Official site |||861 Allmusic.com listing of releases 2013 Audio interview with Thomas Hazelmyer American independent record labels Record labels established in 1986 Alternative rock record labels Independent record labels based in Minnesota Experimental music record labels Indie rock record labels Noise music record labels Punk record labels 1986 establishments in Washington (state)
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Paul%20Petard
Paul Petard
Paul Pétard (1912–1980) was a French botanist who specialized in the study of native plants of French Polynesia. His book Petard Botanical Plant Encyclopedia is still widely used as a reference, and contains much information about traditional applications of Tahitian Noni juice. He held a doctorate in pharmacy. 1912 births 1980 deaths French botanists Botanists active in the Pacific Ethnobotanists 20th-century botanists
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cunt%20%28novel%29
Cunt (novel)
Cunt (1999) is a novel by Stewart Home written in the form of a journal kept by a novelist from Aldeburgh called David Kelso (who also has a false passport in the name of Kevin Callan). Plot summary Kelso, who has already published books (for example novels entitled Desiring Machines in the Australian Bush and Fuck Your Mother Up the Arse, but also non-fiction), is in his thirties, several times divorced, a heavy drinker and, according to his own description, a "sex beast". As a writer, he says he has no intention whatsoever of using his imagination; rather, he wants to chronicle his present life, which in turn is fuelled by his most ambitious literary project so far, the completion of a trilogy entitled Countdown to Chaos. In order to be able to write the final part of his trilogy, Kelso wants to track down and have sex again with all the girls he "shagged" when he was in his teens—in reverse order. He always carries his laptop with him to be able to record each of his sexual encounters immediately after it has taken place. Although he says he wants to record all events exactly as they happened, he does embellish his story again and again. On his way through Europe—England, Scotland, Austria, Finland and Estonia—he has sex with all willing women and girls that cross his path, "asserting my inalienable right to freedom". Kelso is a "sex machine". He always has an erection, and never fails to please the woman or women he is with, even if he is drunk. They invariably enjoy multiple orgasms. Some of them want to have sex with Kelso because, they say, that way they are transformed into art and thus immortalized. Kelso is also into kinky sex. Although Kelso never commits any violent crimes in connection with his sexual exploits, violent death does play a role in Cunt. A maniac called Gary McMara, who likes to wear women's underwear and who accuses Kelso of conspiring with some radical political group (the "secret state"), follows Kelso to Finland, where McMara dies after he is thrown into an ice-cold lake by Kelso and subsequently warmed too quickly in a sauna. Amber, a transsexual and his publisher's new secretary, accompanies McMara to Finland and, standing under Kelso's window, accidentally shoots herself when she slips on a piece of ice. After Kelso has left Finland incognito (using his false passport) he meets his ex-wife Cherry, who is a cocaine and heroin addict (Kelso himself never takes drugs) and who dies of an overdose while Kelso is present. At the beginning of the novel Kelso has a chance meeting with Sandra Stone, the girl with whom he lost his virginity back when they were at school. At the end he goes back to Aldeburgh to embark on the final chapter of his trilogy. He wants to stab Sandra so that he has a spectacular ending to his book. For that reason he is carrying a knife in his trouser pocket. However, he suddenly realizes that he has always been in love with Sandra. The words "The first shall be last" suddenly occur to him, and he reinterprets them his way: Sandra is the last woman he will ever make love to. He turns to, and embraces, Jesus, marries Sandra, hopes that she will also become a believer one day, gives away his royalties to the church, takes a blue collar job and leads a simple and honest life. He wants to find a Christian publisher who is willing to bring out this journal as the account of a reformed sinner. Commentary About his trilogy, Kelso says: Like Chaucer and all other great writers, I embrace simplicity and directness of language. Nevertheless, my Countdown to Chaos trilogy will resist categorisation of any sort even if certain critics take it to be an example of the picaresque novel. Apart from being some sort of travelogue, Cunt is of course a picaresque novel. Kelso, the first person narrator, also grants the reader some insight into his own character. Apart from being a sex-driven individual, Kelso is a left-wing intellectual who keeps commenting on the political and social situation of the places he visits. He also makes the reader believe that he is widely read in philosophy: He mentions, amongst others, Derrida, Baudrillard and Deleuze. In many ways, what applies to Countdown to Chaos is also true of Cunt. On the surface level, the novel is a work of pornography, using explicit language and describing in detail various sexual acts. In this respect, one might believe it were targeted at dirty old men. This is also the view taken by one of the girls Kelso has sex with: 'What's your surname?' 'Kelso.' 'I've read some of your books, you write really horny pornography.' 'Actually, I consider it to be post-modern literature.' On a deeper level, though, Cunt can be seen as an attempt to ridicule both machismo (with the man always willing, ready and able) and the whole genre of pornographic literature, the latter by the author's making use of exactly the same devices—a flimsy plot linking the various descriptions of the sexual act, the presentation of women reduced to "cunts" pleading to be abused, and filthy language everywhere. Home reverses the usual climax at the end of pornographic novels (which typically depict the kinkiest and most daring action) by introducing the altogether new element of Christian religion and ending his novel with a climax of a completely different kind. Cunt more or less starts rather than ends with a gang bang. In their book Cult Fiction. A Reader's Guide (London, 1998), Andrew Calcutt and Richard Shephard are of the opinion that now that everyone from gameshow hosts and television news producers to established novelists are busily 'subverting' and 'transgressing' genres, it does mean that Home's double take on trash is no longer as avant-garde as it used to be (pp132–134). Cunt was published as a paperback original by The Do Not Press, London (). 1999 British novels Self-reflexive novels Picaresque novels Novels set in Suffolk
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hejaz%20railway
Hejaz railway
The Hejaz (or Hedjaz or Hijaz) railway (, ) was a narrow-gauge railway ( track gauge) that ran from Damascus to Medina, through the Hejaz region of modern day Saudi Arabia, with a branch line to Haifa on the Mediterranean Sea. It was a part of the Ottoman railway network and the original goal was to extend the line from the Haydarpaşa Terminal in Kadikoy beyond Damascus to the holy city of Mecca. However, construction was interrupted due to the outbreak of World War I, and it reached no further than Medina, short of Mecca. The completed Damascus to Medina section was . The main purpose of the railway was to establish a connection between Istanbul, the capital of the Ottoman Empire and the seat of the Islamic Caliphate, and Hejaz in Arabia, the site of the holiest shrines of Islam and the holy city of Mecca, the destination of the Hajj annual pilgrimage. Another important reason was to improve the economic and political integration of the distant Arabian provinces into the Ottoman state, and to facilitate the transportation of military forces. History Construction Railways were experiencing a building boom in the late 1860s, and the Hejaz region was one of the many areas up for speculation. The first such proposal involved a railway stretching from Damascus to the Red Sea. This plan was soon dashed however, as the Amir of Mecca raised objections regarding the sustainability of his own camel transportation project should the line be constructed. Ottoman involvement in the creation of a railway began with Colonel Ahmed Reshid Pasha, who, after surveying the region on an expedition to Yemen in 1871–1873, concluded that the only feasible means of transport for Ottoman soldiers traveling there was by rail. Other Ottoman officers, such as Osman Nuri Pasha, also offered up proposals for a railway in the Hejaz, arguing its necessity if security in the Arabian region were to be maintained. Many around the world did not believe that the Ottoman Empire would be able to fund such a project: it was estimated the railway would cost around 4 million Turkish lira, a sizeable portion of the budget. The Ziraat Bankasi, a state bank which served agricultural interests in the Ottoman Empire, provided an initial loan of 100,000 lira in 1900. This initial loan allowed the project to commence later the same year. Abdulhamid II called on all Muslims in the world to make donations to the construction of the Hejaz Railway. The project had taken on a new significance. Not only was the railway to be considered an important military feature for the region, it was also a religious symbol. Hajis, pilgrims on their way to the holy city of Mecca, often didn't reach their destination when travelling along the Hejaz route. Unable to contend with the tough, mountainous conditions, up to 20% of hajis died on the way. Abdulhamid was adamant that the railway stand as a symbol for Muslim power and solidarity: this rail line would make the religious pilgrimage easier not only for Ottomans, but all Muslims. As a result, no foreign investment in the project was to be accepted. The Donation Commission was established to organize the funds effectively, and medallions were given out to donors. Despite propaganda efforts such as railway greeting cards, only about 1 in 10 donations came from Muslims outside of the Ottoman Empire. One of these donors, however, was Muhammad Inshaullah, a wealthy Punjabi newspaper editor. He helped to establish the Hejaz Railway Central Committee. Access to resources was a significant stumbling block during construction of the Hejaz Railway. Water, fuel, and labor were particularly difficult to find in the more remote reaches of the Hejaz. In the uninhabited areas, camel transportation was employed not only for water, but also food and building materials. Fuel, mostly in the form of coal, was brought in from surrounding countries and stored in Haifa and Damascus. Labor was certainly the largest obstacle in the construction of the railway. In the more populated areas, much of the labor was fulfilled by local settlers as well as Muslims in the area, who were legally obliged to lend their hands to the construction. This labor was largely employed in the treacherous excavation efforts involved in railway construction. In the more remote areas the railway would be reaching, a more novel solution was put to use. Much of this work was completed by railway troops of soldiers, who in exchange for their railway work, were exempt from one third of their military service. As the rail line traversed treacherous terrain, many bridges and overpasses had to be built. Since access to concrete was limited, many of these overpasses were made of carved stone and stand to this day. The Emir Hussein bin Ali, Sharif of Mecca viewed the railway as a threat to Arab suzerainty, since it provided the Ottomans with easy access to their garrisons in Hejaz, Asir, and Yemen. From its outset, the railway was the target of attacks by local Arab tribes. These were never particularly successful, but neither were the Turks able to control areas more than a mile or so either side of the line. Due to the locals' habit of pulling up wooden sleepers to fuel their camp-fires, some sections of the track were laid on iron sleepers. In September 1907, as crowds celebrated the rail reaching Al-'Ula station, a rebellion organized by the tribe of Harb threatened to halt progress. The rebels objected to the railway stretching all the way to Mecca; they feared they would lose their livelihood as camel transport was made obsolete. It was later decided by Abdulhamid that the railway would only go so far as Medina. Under the supervision of chief engineer Mouktar Bey, the railway reached Medina on 1 September 1908, the anniversary of the Sultan's accession. However, many compromises had to be made in order to finish by this date, with some sections of track being laid on temporary embankments across wadis. In 1913 the Hejaz Railway Station was opened in central Damascus as the starting point of the line. World War I To fuel locomotives operating on the railway during World War I, the German Army produced shale oil from the Yarmouk oil shale deposit. The Turks constructed a military railway from the Hejaz line to Beersheba, opening on 30 October 1915. The Hejaz line was repeatedly attacked and damaged, particularly during the Arab Revolt, when Ottoman trains were ambushed by the guerrilla force led by T. E. Lawrence. On 26 March 1917, T. E. Lawrence (known as Lawrence of Arabia) led an attack on the Aba el Naam Station, taking 30 prisoners and inflicting 70 casualties on the garrison. He went on to say, "Traffic was held up for three days of repair and investigation. So we did not wholly fail." In May 1917, British bombers dropped bombs on Al-'Ula Station. In July 1917, Stewart Newcombe, a British engineer and associate of Lawrence, conspired with forces from the Egyptian and Indian armies to sabotage the railway. The Al-Akhdhar station was attacked and 20 Turkish soldiers were captured. In October 1917, the Ottoman stronghold of Tabuk fell to Arab rebels. The Abu-Anna’em station was also captured. In November 1917, Sharif Abdullah and the tribe of Harb attacked Al-Bwair station and destroyed two locomotives. In December 1917, a group of men led by Ibn Ghusiab derailed a train on the line south of Tabuk. With the Arab Revolt and the dissolution of the Ottoman Empire, it was unclear to whom the railway should belong. The area was divided between the British and the French, both eager to assume control. However, following years of neglected maintenance, many sections of track fell into disrepair; the railway was effectively abandoned by 1920. In 1924, when Ibn Saud took control of the peninsula, plans to revive the railway were no longer on the agenda. World War II In the second world war, the Samakh Line (from Haifa to Deraa at the Syrian border and to Damascus) was operated for the Allied forces by the New Zealand Railway Group 17th ROC, from Afula (with workshops at Deraa and Haifa). The locomotives were 1914 Borsig and 1917 Hartmann models from Germany. The line, which had been operated by the Vichy French, was in disrepair. Trains over the steep section between Samakh (now Ma'agan) and Derea were 230 tons maximum, with 1,000 tons moved in 24 hours. The group also ran 60 miles (95 km) of branch line, including Afula to Tulkarm. The 1960s The railway south of the modern Jordanian–Saudi Arabian border remained closed after the fall of the Ottoman Empire in 1920. An attempt was made to rebuild it in the mid-1960s, but then abandoned due to the Six-Day War in 1967. Current status Two connected sections of the Hejaz railway are in service: from Amman in Jordan to Damascus in Syria, as the Hedjaz Jordan Railway, and from phosphate mines near Ma'an to the Gulf of Aqaba, as the Chemin de Fer de Hedjaz Syrie, or the Aqaba Railway Saudi Arabia completed the construction of the Medina-Mecca line (via Jeddah) with the Haramain high-speed railway in 2018. Workers on the railway have restored many of the original locomotives: there are nine steam locomotives in Syria and seven in Jordan in working order. Since the accession of King Abdullah II, relations between Jordan and Syria have improved, causing a revival of interest in the railway. The train runs from Qadam station in the outskirts of Damascus, not from the Hejaz Station, which closed in 2004, pending a major commercial development project. On 4 February 2009 the Turkish Transport Minister Binali Yildirim said in Riyadh regarding plans to rebuild the railway line: Small non-operating sections of the railway track, buildings and rolling stock are still preserved as tourist-attractions in Saudi Arabia, including the Medina Terminus, restored in 2005 with railway tracks and locomotive shed. The old railway bridge over the Aqiq Valley though was demolished in 2005 due to damage from heavy rain the year before. Trains destroyed during the Arab Revolt of 1916–1918 can still be seen where they fell. Israel Railways partially rebuilt the long-defunct Haifa extension, the Jezreel Valley railway, using standard gauge, with the possibility of someday extending it to Irbid in Jordan. The rebuilt line opened from Haifa to Beit She'an in October 2016. In 2009, Jordan's transport ministry proposed a 990-mile (1590-km) US$5 billion rail network, construction of which could begin in the first quarter of 2012. The planned network would provide freight rail links from Jordan to Syria, Saudi Arabia and Iraq. Passenger rail connections could be extended to Lebanon, Turkey and beyond. The government, which will fund part of the project, is inviting tenders from private firms to raise the rest of the project cost. In 2008, the "museum of the rolling stock of Al-Hejaz railway" opened in Damascus' Khadam station after major renovations for an exhibition of the locomotives. Trains run from Khadam station on demand (usually from German, British or Swiss groups). The northern part of the Zabadani track is no longer accessible. There is a small railway museum at the station in Mada'in Saleh and a larger project in the "Hejaz Railway Museum" in Medina, which opened in 2006. In November 2018, Middle East Monitor revealed Saudi-Israel's joint plans to revive the railway from Haifa to Riyadh. Image gallery See also Arab Mashreq International Railway Haramain high-speed railway Similar gauges Transport in Jordan Transport in the Arab League References Further reading Judd, Brendon The Desert Railway: The New Zealand Railway Group in North Africa and the Middle East during the Second World War (2003, 2004 Auckland, Penguin) External links Four podcasts about the Hejaz railway from BBC World service pictures and report of travelogue in the Saudi Section of Hejaz railway BBC: "A piece of railway history" BBC: "Pilgrim railway back on track" http://www.hejaz-railroad.info/Galerie.html Many pictures from the Hidjaz Railway stations from a 2008 trip across Syria Extensive website on the Hejaz railway Yarmuk River railway bridges, 1933 aerial photographs. Aerial Photographic Archive for Archaeology in the Middle East / National Archives, London. Hejaz railway overlay on Google Maps 1050 mm gauge railways 1900 establishments in the Ottoman Empire History of Hejaz International railway lines Medina Ottoman railways Railway lines in Israel Railway lines in Jordan Railway lines in Saudi Arabia Railway lines in Syria Railway lines opened in 1908
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tipperary%20Hill
Tipperary Hill
Tipperary Hill, sometimes known as Tipp Hill, is a district in the city of Syracuse, New York. It is largely settled by immigrants from Ireland, especially from County Tipperary. It makes up half of Syracuse's Far Westside neighborhood. History In the 1820s, when the Erie Canal first was built from Albany, New York to Buffalo, New York, the Irish were the chief laborers. Syracuse is about the middle of the route, the "hub" of the system. When the canal was finished many of the Irish settled west of Syracuse on a hill overlooking the canal. This area became known as Tipperary Hill. The Green on Top Traffic Light When the city first started to install traffic signal lights in the 1920s they put one at a major intersection on Tipperary Hill, on the corner of Tompkins Street and Milton Avenue. Some Irish youths, incensed that anyone would dare to put the "British" red above the "Irish" green, broke the light. The city replaced it but the Irish broke the replacement. After a few rounds of this the city decided that if they wanted a light at that intersection, they had better put the signal up inverted, and so they did. Tipperary Hill in Modern Times In recent years some long time neighborhood residents of Irish ancestry and local business owners gathered resources and encouraged the city first to demolish an old run-down commercial building and then in 1997 to build a small park, the Tipperary Hill Memorial Park, and erect a statue, the Tipperary Hill Heritage Memorial. The memorial is dedicated to those who, in their opinions, were brave sons of Ireland who had stood up to City Hall and won. The statue was created by Dexter Benedict. The park and statue are still there, as is the traffic light. On the eve of every Saint Patrick's Day, someone (or ones) goes out and paints a green shamrock underneath the light. Although most people in Syracuse know about the Tipp Hill neighborhood there is little agreement as to the exact boundaries of the neighborhood. Before 1886, the entire far west side of what is now Syracuse from Burnet Park north to Milton Avenue in Solvay was known as the Village of Geddes. When the village of Geddes joined the city, there were only two churches in the neighborhood: St. Patrick's Church and The Geddes Methodist Church. Many Irish immigrants were attracted to the neighborhood nearest to St. Patrick's Church and area factories. External links Tipperary Hill Neighborhood Association Top 'o the Hill Living on Tipperary Hill (PDF article in a city publication) Syracuse St. Patrick's Parade St. Patrick’s Day in Syracuse: Where Green Takes Precedence Neighborhoods in Syracuse, New York Irish-American neighborhoods
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List%20of%20geographers
List of geographers
This list of geographers is presented in English alphabetical transliteration order (by surnames). A Hardo Aasmäe (Estonia, 1951–2014) Aziz Ab'Saber (Brazil, 1924–2012) Diogo Abreu (Portugal, born 1947) John Adams, (England, pre–1670–1738) Peter Adams (Canada, born 1936)– Agatharchides (Ancient Greece, 2nd c. BCE) Agathedaemon of Alexandria (Ancient Greece, 2nd c. CE) John A. Agnew (England/US, born 1949) Irasema Alcántara-Ayala (Mexico, born 1970) T. Alford-Smith (US/England, 1864–1936) Richard Andree (Germany, 1835–1912) A. W. Andrews (England, 1868–1959) Ash Amin (England, born 1955) Alypius of Antioch (Roman Empire, fl. c. 450) Jacques Ancel (France, 1879–1943) Karl Andree (Germany, 1808–1875) Richard Andree (Germany, 1835–1912) Pilar Benejam Arguimbau (Spain, born 1937) Aaron Arrowsmith (England, 1750–1823) Väinö Auer (Finland, 1895–1981) Félix de Azara (Spain, 1742–1821) B Zonia Baber (US, 1862–1956) Karl Ernst von Baer (Russia, 1792–1876) Robert Bailey (US, born 1939) Thomas Bailey (England, 1785–1856) Oliver Edwin Baker (US, 1883–1949) Abu Abdullah al-Bakri (Al-Andalus, 1014–1094) Adriano Balbi (Italy, 1782–1848) Ahmed ibn Sahl al-Balkhi (Persia, 850–934) Robert Balling (US, born 1952) John Barrow (England, fl. 1735–1774) Mark Bassin (US, living) Keith Barber (England, 1944–2017) John George Bartholomew (Scotland, 1860–1920) Ibn Battuta (Morocco, 1304–1369) Oscar Baumann (Austria, 1864–1899) Jacqueline Beaujeu-Garnier (France, 1917–1995) Anthony Bebbington (US, born 1962) Battista Beccario (Italy, 15th c.) Bertha Becker (Brazil, 1930–2013) Frederick William Beechey (England, 1796–1856) Walter Behrmann (Germany, 1882–1955) Charles Tilstone Beke (England, 1800–1874) Elena Berezovich (Russia, born 1966) Lev Semenovich Berg (Russia/Soviet Union, 1876–1950) Heinrich Berghaus (Germany, 1797–1884) Luiza Bialasiewicz (Poland/Netherlands, born 1971) Abū Rayhān Bīrūnī (Persia, 973–1048) Joan Blaeu (Netherlands, 1596–1673) Harm de Blij (US, 1935–2014) Franz Boas (Germany/US, 1858–1942 Roland Bonaparte (France, 1858–1924) John Bowack (England, fl. 1737) E. G. Bowen (Wales, 1900–1983) Isaiah Bowman (Canada/US, 1878–1950) Edward William Brayley (England, 1801–1870) Harold Brookfield (England/Australia, born 1926) John Brown (England, 1797–1861) Conrad Malte-Brun (Denmark/France, 1775–1826) Jean Brunhes (France, 1869–1930) Harriet Bulkeley (England, born 1972) William Bunge (US/Canada, 1928–2013) Cristoforo Buondelmonti (Italy, 1386 – c. 1430) Philip Burden (US, living) Richard Francis Burton (England, 1821–1890) Anne Buttimer (Ireland, 1938–2017) C Rafael Torres Campos (Spain, 1853–1904) Giovanni da Carignano (Italy, c. 1250–1329) Ana Fani Alessandri Carlos (Brazil, living) Nathanael Carpenter (England, 1589 – c. 1628) Manuel Castells (Spain, born 1942) Emanuela Casti (Italy, born 1950) Richard Cathcart (US, born 1943) Nicolay de Caveri (Italy, fl. 15th–16th cc.) Andreas Cellarius (Germany/Netherlands, c. 1596–1665) Samuel de Champlain (France/Canada, 1567–1635) Sylvia Chant (England, 1960–2019) Chen Cheng-Siang Chen (China, 1922–2003) Elena Chiozza (Argentina, 1919–2011) George Chisholm (Scotland, 1850–1930) Richard Chorley (England, 1927–2002) Walter Christaller (Germany, 1893–1969) Georgius Chrysococcas (Greece/Persia, fl. 1340s) Václav Cílek (Czech Republic, born 1955) Claudius Clavus (Claudus Claussøn Swart, Denmark, born 1388) Philipp Clüver (Poland/Netherlands, 1580–1622) Denis Cosgrove (England, 1948–2008) John Antony Cramer (England, 1793–1848) Abraham Cresques (Spain, 1325–1387) George Cressey (US, 1896–1963) James Croll (Scotland, 1821–1890) Mike Crang (England, living) Vital Cuinet (France/Turkey, 1833–1896) Janel Curry (US, living) Sarah Curtis (England, living) Susan Cutter (US, born 1950) Jovan Cvijić (Serbia, 1865–1927) D Patricia Daley (Jamaica, living) Alexander Dalrymple (Scotland, 1737–1808) Jack Dangermond (US, born 1945) Amanda Davies (Australia, living) William Morris Davis (US, 1850–1934) Frank Debenham (Australia/England, 1883–1965) John Dee (England, 1527–1608) Ruth DeFries (US, born 1957) Paul Vidal de la Blache (France, 1845–1918) Félix Delamarche (France, fl. 18th–19th cc.) Jared Diamond (US, born 1937) Dicaearchus (Greece, c. 350–28 BCE) Peter Dicken (England, born 1938) Frans Dieleman (Netherlands, 1942–2005) Al-Dimashqi (Syria, 1256–1327) Abu Hanifa Dinawari (Iran, 828–896) Vasily V. Dokuchaev (Russian Empire, 1846–1903) William E. Doolittle (US, born 1947) Mona Domosh (US, born 1957) Veronica Della Dora (Italy, born 1976) Angelino Dulcert (Italy/Spain, 14th c.) John Dunkin (England, 1782–1846) G. H. Dury (England, 1916–1996) E William Gordon East (England, 1902–1998) Sally Eden (England, 1967–2016) Eratosthenes (Greece, 276–194 BCE) Lewis Evans (Wales/British American colonies, c. 1700–1756) George Everest (England, 1790–1866) F Ahmad ibn Fadlan (Iraq, 10th c.) Eileen Fairbairn (New Zealand, 1893–1981) Ghazi Falah (Canada, living) Abraham Farissol (Italy, c. 1451–1525 or 1526) Ibn al-Faqih (Persia, 10th c.) Filippo Ferrari (Italy, 1551–1626) Carlos Ferrás Sexto (Iran, fl. 902) Abu'l-Fida (Abulfeda) (Syria, 1273–1331) Louise Filion (Canada, born 1945) Ruth Fincher (Australia, born 1951) Alexander George Findlay (England, 1812–1875) Irene Fischer (Austria, US, 1907–2009) Regina Fleszarowa (Poland, 1888–1969) Georges Fournier (France, 1595–1652) Janet Franklin (US, born 1959) J. Keith Fraser (Canada, born 1922) Gemma Frisius (Netherlands, 1508–1555) Lynne Frostick (England, born 1949) Masahisa Fujita (Japan, born 1943) G Alfons Gabriel (Austria, 1894–1976) Fay Gale (Australia, 1932–2008) Johann Georg August Galletti (Germany, 1750–1828) Paul Gallez (Argentina, 1920–2007) Francis Galton (England, 1822–1911) Henry Gannett (US, 1846–1914) Abu Sa'id Gardezi (Iran, died 1061) Rita Gardner (England, born 1955) Alice Garnett (England, 1903–1989) William Garrison (US, 1924–2015) Artur Gavazzi (Croatia/Slovenia, 1861–1944) Johann Gottlieb Georgi (Germany, 1729–1802) Nicolaus Germanus (Germany, c. 1420 – c. 1490) Gerald of Wales (Wales, fl. 1310–1330) Ruth Wilson Gilmore (US, born 1950) Gim Jeong-ho (Korea, 1804 – c. 1866) Giuseppe Maria Giulietti (Italy, 1847–1881) John Alan Glennon (US, born 1970) John of Głogów (Poland, c. 1445–1507) Johann Georg Gmelin (Germany, 1709–1755) Johann Friedrich Goldbeck (Germany, 1748–1812) Reginald G. Golledge (Australia/US, 1937–2009) Michael Frank Goodchild (Canada/US, born 1944) Jean Gottman (France, 1915–1994) Peter Gould (US, 1932–2000) Derek Gregory (England/Canada, born 1951) Jean Grove (England, 1927–2001) Gu Yanwu (China, 1613–1682) Lev Gumilev (Russia/Soviet Union, 1912–1992) Arnold Henry Guyot (Switzerland/US, 1807–1884) H Mohammad Reza Hafeznia (Iran, born 1955) Toni Hagen (Switzerland, 1917–2003) Torsten Hägerstrand (Sweden, 1916–2004) Peter Haggett (England, born 1933) Yaqut al-Hamawi (Near East, 1179–1229) Hamdani (Near East, 893–945) Susan Hanson (US, born 1943) John Brian Harley (England, 1932–1991) Cole Harris (Canada, born 1936) Richard Hartshorne (US, 1899–1992) David Harvey (US/Britain, born 1935) Margaret Hasluck (Scotland, 1885–1948) Henri Hauser (France, 1866–1946) Karl Haushofer (Germany, 1869–1946) Harriet Hawkins (England, born 1980) Ibn Hawqal (Near East, died after 977) Ibn al-Haytham (Alhazen) (Iraq, 965–1039) Zheng He (China, 1371–1433 or 1435) Lesley Head (Australia, living) John Heap (England, 1932–2006) Sven Hedin (Sweden, 1865–1952) Gamal Hemdan (Egypt, 1928–1993) Andrew John Herbertson (Scotland, 1865–1915) Robert Heron (Scotland, 1764–1807) Alfred Hettner (Germany, 1859–1941) Hipparchus (Greece, 190–120 BCE) Filip Hjulström (Sweden, 1092–1982) Jacoba Hol (Netherlands, 1886–1964) Thomas Holdich (England, 1843–1929) John Holmes (Australia, living) Johann Homann (Germany, 1664–1724) Sally P. Horn (US, living) J. F. Horrabin (England, 1886–1942) Robert E. Horton (US, 1875–1945) Carl Humann (Germany, 1839–1896) Alexander von Humboldt (Germany, 1769–1859) Ellsworth Huntington (US, 1876–1947) Thomas Hutchins (US, 1730–1789) I Muhammad al-Idrisi (Dreses) (Islamic Spain, 1100–1166) Cosmas Indicopleustes (Greece, 6th c. CE) Anastas Ishirkov (Bulgaria, 1868–1937) J Jane Jacobs (US/Canada, 1916–2006) Jane M. Jacobs (Australia, born 1958) Thomas Jefferys (England, c. 1719–1771) Alexander Keith Johnston (Scotland, 1804–1871) Alexander Keith Johnston (Scotland, 1844–1879) Ron J. Johnston (England, 1941–2020) Gareth Jones (England, living) Kelvyn Jones (Wales/England, born 1953) Reece Jones (US, born 1976) Ibn Jubayr (Taifa of Valencia/Arabia, 1145–1217) K Felix Philipp Kanitz (Austria-Hungary, 1829–1904) Mahmud al-Kashgari (Kara-Khanid Khanate, 1005–1102) Robert Kates (US, 1929–2018) Cindi Katz (US, born 1954) Ibn Khordadbeh (Persia, c. 820–912) Muhammad ibn Mūsā al-Khwārizmī (Persia, 780–850) Heinrich Kiepert (Germany, 1818–1899) Richard Kiepert (Germany, 1846–1915) Al-Kindi (Alkindus, Abbasid Caliphate, 801–873) Cuchlaine King (England, 1922–2019) Caroline King-Okumu (Kenya, living) Fred B. Kniffen (US, 1900–1993) Peter Knight (England, born 1947) Anne Kelly Knowles (US, born 1957) Janelle Knox-Hayes (US, living) Audrey Kobayashi (Canada, born 1951) Grigorios Konstantas (Greece, 1753–1844) Peter Kosler (Carniola, 1824–1879) Blasius Kozenn (Carniola, 1821–1871) Stepan Krasheninnikov (Russia, 1711–1755) Peter Kropotkin (Russia, 1842–1921) L Yves Lacoste (France, born 1929) Joannes de Laet (Netherlands, 1581–1649) in Dutch and Latin William Lambton (England, c. 1753–1823) Marcia Langton (Australia, born 1951) Wendy Larner (New Zealand, living) Vanessa Lawrence (England, born 1962) Giovanni Leardo (Italy, 15th c.) Philippe Le Billon (Canada, living) Jean Le Clerc (France, c. 1560–1621/1624) Peirce F. Lewis (US, 1927–2018) Elisabeth Lichtenberger (Austria, 1925–2017) Diana Liverman (England, born 1954) Liu An (China, 177–122 BCE) David Livingstone (Scotland/East Africa, 1813–1873) Fyodor Luzhin (Russia, died 1727) M Halford John Mackinder (UK, 1861–1947) Ibn Sa'id al-Maghribi (Arabia, 1213–1286) Ahmad ibn Mājid (Arabia, born 1432) Conrad Malte-Brun (Denmark/France, 1775–1826) Victor Adolphe Malte-Brun (France, 1816–1889) Luigi Ferdinando Marsili (Italy, 1658–1730) Kenneth Mason (England, 1887–1976) Doreen Massey (England, 1944–2016) Abu al-Hasan (Arabia, 896-956) Otto Maull (Austria/Germany, 1887–1957) Linda McDowell (England, born 1949) Katherine McKittrick (Canada, living) Megasthenes (Greece, c. 350 – c. 290 BCE) Simion Mehedinți (Romania, 1868–1962) D. W. Meinig (US, born 1928) August Meitzen (Germany 1822–1910) Anton Melik (Slovenia, 1890–1966) Josefina Gómez Mendoza (Spain, born 1942) Daniel Gottlieb Messerschmidt (Germany/Russia, 1685–1735) Alfred Merz (US, born 1924) Nick Middleton (England, born 1960) Don Mitchell (US, born 1961) Henry Mitchell (US, 1830–1902) Katharyne Mitchell (US, born 1961) Aleksandra Monedzhikova, (Bulgaria, 1889–1959) Janice Monk (Australia, born 1937) Mark Monmonier (US, born 1943) Elina González Acha de Correa Morales (Spain, 1861–1942) Jedidiah Morse (US, 1761–1826) Michael Mortimore (England, 1937–2017) William G. Moseley (US, born 1965) Al-Muqaddasi (Jerusalem/Fatimid Caliphate, c. 945–1000) Hamdallah Mustawfi (Persia, 1281–1349) N Richa Nagar (India, born 1968) Catherine Nash (England, living) Christophe Neff (Germany/France, born 1964) Marion Newbigin (Scotland, 1869–1934) Linda Newson (England, living) Joseph Nicollet (France, 1786–1843) Ng Cho-nam (Hong Kong, 1960–2019) Ljubinka Nikolić (Yugoslavia/Serbia, born 1964) Pedro Nunes (Portugal, 1502–1578) O Erich Obst (Germany, 1886–1981) Vladimir Obruchev (Russia/Soviet Union, 1863–1956) Patrick O'Flanagan (Ireland, born 1947) Miles Ogborn (England, living) Kenneth Olwig (US, born 1946) Gearóid Ó Tuathail (Ireland, born 1962) Ibn Al Ouardy (Arabia, died 1330) Susan Owens (England, born 1954) P Diego de Pantoja (Spain/Macau, 1571–1618) Xoán Paredes (Spain/Ireland, born 1975) Joseph Partsch (Germany, 1851–1925) Martin J. Pasqualetti (US, living) Patrick Geddes (Scotland, 1854–1932) Pausanias (Greece, fl. c. 150) Ceri Peach (Wales, 1939–2018) Albrecht Penck (Germany, 1858–1945) Walther Penck (Germany, 1888–1923) Nikolai Petrusevich (Russia, 1838–1880) Daniel Philippidis (Greece, c. 1750–1832) Chris Philo (England/Scotland, born 1960) Domenico and Francesco Pizzigano (Italy, 14th c.) Marco Polo (Italy, 1254–1324) Posidonius (Greece, 135–51 BCE) Alice Poulleau (France, 1885–1960) Allan Pred (US, 1936–2007) John Robert Victor Prescott (England/Australia, 1931–2018) Nikolai Przhevalsky (Russia, 1839–1888) Pseudo-Scymnus (Greece, c. 100 BCE) Ptolemy (Roman Egypt, c. 85–165) Denise Pumain (France, born 1946) Pytheas (Greece, fl. c. 360 BCE) Q Qudama ibn Ja'far (Syria, c. 873 – c. 932/948) R Sarah A. Radcliffe (England, living) Friedrich Ratzel (Germany, 1844–1904) Amin Razi (Persia, 16th century) Élisée Reclus (France, 1830–1905) Judith Rees (England, born 1944) Piri Reis (Turkey, 1465–1554) James Rennell (England, 1742–1830) Ebenezer Rhodes (England, 1762–1839) Orlando Ribeiro (Portugal, 1911–1997) Ferdinand Baron Von Richthofen (19th century) Tristram Risdon (England, c. 1580–1640) Carl Ritter (Germany, 1779–1859) Arthur H. Robinson (US, 1915–2004) Edward Robinson (US, 1894–1963) Jean Baptiste Gaspard Roux de Rochelle (France, 1762–1849) Joseph Rock (Austria/US, 1884–1962) Friedrich Gerhard Rohlfs (Germany, 1831–1896) Bernard Romans (Netherlands, 1741–1784) Albrecht Roscher (Germany, 1836–1860) Gillian Rose (England, born 1962) Thomas E. Ross (US, born 1942) William Roy (Scotland, 1726–1790) Ibn Rushd (Averroes, 1126–1198) Ibn Rustah (Persia, died 903 CE) S David Sadler (England, born 1960) Louis Vivien de Saint-Martin (France, 1802–1896) Luis García Sáinz (Spain, 1894–1965) Milton Santos (Brazil, 1926–2001) Saskia Sassen (US, born 1947) Carl Sauer (US, 1889–1975) Fred K. Schaefer (Germany/US, 1904–1953) Henry Schoolcraft (US, 1793–1864) Leopold von Schrenck (Russia, 1826–1894) Peter Carl Ludwig Schwarz (Germany/Russia, 1822–1894) Allen J. Scott (US, born 1938) Scymnus of Chios (Greece, fl. c. 185 BCE) Pyotr Semenov-Tyan-Shansky (Russia, 1827–1914) Ellen Churchill Semple (US, 1863–1932) Karen Seto (US, living) Edward Shackleton, Baron Shackleton (England, 1911–1994) Shen Kuo (沈括, China, 1031–1095) Yuly Shokalsky (Russia/Soviet Union, 1856–1940) Ibn Sina (Persia, 980–1037) Paul Allen Siple (US, 1908–1968) Andrew Sluyter (US, born 1958) George Smith (Scotland, 1833–1919) Neil Smith (Scotland/US, 1954–2012) Richard G. Smith (England/Wales, living) Susan J. Smith (England, born 1956) Edward Soja (US, 1940–2015) Pavle Solarić (Slavonia, 1779–1821) Guillem Soler (Spain, fl. 1380s) Su Song (蘇頌, China, 1020–1101) Nikolai Spathari (Moldavia/Russia, 1636–1708) Oskar Spate (England/Australia, 1911–2000) John Hanning Speke (England, 1827–1864) Alison Stenning (England, living) Evelyn Stokes (New Zealand, 1936–2005) Strabo (Roman Empire, Greece, c. 63/64 – c. 24 BCE) T Andres Tarand (Estonia, born 1940) Ralph Stockman Tarr (US, 1864–1912) Eva Germaine Rimington Taylor (England, 1879–1966) Peter J. Taylor (England, born 1944) Nigel Thrift (England, born 1949) Johann Heinrich von Thünen (Germany, 1783–1850) Joy Tivy (Ireland/Scotland, 1924–1995) Waldo R. Tobler (US, 1930–2018) Wilhelm Tomaschek (Austrian Empire, 1841–1901) Roger Tomlinson (England, 1933–2014) George Trebeck (England/India, 1800–1825) Emil Trinkler (Germany, 1896–1931) Carl Troll (Germany, 1899–1975) Yi-Fu Tuan (段義孚, US/China, born 1930) Billie Lee Turner II (US, born 1945) Marinos of Tyre (Greece, c. 70–130 CE) U Edward Ullman (US, 1912–1976) V Vakhushti of Kartli (Georgia, 1696–1757) Gill Valentine (England, living) Didier Robert de Vaugondy (France, 1723–1786) Pietro Vesconte (Italy, fl. 1310–1330) José Antonio Villaseñor y Sánchez (Mexico, fl. 1740s) Albertinus de Virga (Italy, 15th c.) W Alfred Russel Wallace (England, 1823–1913) Ibn al-Wardi (Arabia, 1291/1292–1348/1349) Michael Watts (England, born 1951) Bradford Washburn (US, 1910–2007) Alfred Weber (Germany, 1868–1958) Alfred Lothar Wegener (Germany, 1911–2006) Johannes Werner (Germany, 1468–1522) Sarah Whatmore (England, born 1959) Gilbert F. White (US, 1911–2006) Emma Willard (US, 1787–1870) John Francon Williams FRGS (Wales, 1854–1911) Alan Wilson (England, born 1939) Charles W. J. Withers (Scotland, born 1954) Jennifer Wolch (US, living) Denis Wood (US, born 1945) David Woodward (US, 1942–2004) Fanny Bullock Workman (US, 1859–1925)) Dawn Wright (US, born 1961) John Kirtland Wright (US, 1891–1969) X Xu Xiake (徐霞客, China, 1587–1641) Y Naomasa Yamasaki (山崎 直方, Japan, 1870–1929) Ya'qubi (Abbasid Caliphate, died 897) Z Wilbur Zelinsky (US, born 1921) Jacob Ziegler (Germany, 1470/1471–1549) Eberhard August Wilhelm von Zimmermann (Germany, 1743–1815) Karl Bernhard Zoeppritz (Germany, 1881–1908) See also List of cartographers List of Graeco-Roman geographers List of Muslim geographers Russian geographers Geographers
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Orangemen
Orangemen
Orangemen or Orangewomen can refer to: Historically, supporters of William of Orange Members of the modern Orange Order (also known as Orange Institution), a Protestant fraternal organisation Members or supporters of the Armagh GAA Gaelic football team The former name of the sports teams of Syracuse University, now called the Syracuse Orange The elite cheering group of the Seattle Pacific University men's basketball team See also Orange People (disambiguation)
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Harald%20Cram%C3%A9r
Harald Cramér
Harald Cramér (; 25 September 1893 – 5 October 1985) was a Swedish mathematician, actuary, and statistician, specializing in mathematical statistics and probabilistic number theory. John Kingman described him as "one of the giants of statistical theory". Biography Early life Harald Cramér was born in Stockholm, Sweden on 25 September 1893. Cramér remained close to Stockholm for most of his life. He entered the University of Stockholm as an undergraduate in 1912, where he studied mathematics and chemistry. During this period, he was a research assistant under the famous chemist, Hans von Euler-Chelpin, with whom he published his first five articles from 1913 to 1914. Following his lab experience, he began to focus solely on mathematics. He eventually began his work on his doctoral studies in mathematics which were supervised by Marcel Riesz at the University of Stockholm. Also influenced by G. H. Hardy, Cramér's research led to a PhD in 1917 for his thesis "On a class of Dirichlet series". Academic professional career Following his PhD, he served as an Assistant Professor of Mathematics at Stockholm University from 1917 to 1929. Early on, Cramér was highly involved in analytic number theory. He also made some important statistical contributions to the distribution of primes and twin primes. His most famous paper on this subject is entitled "On the order of magnitude of the difference between consecutive prime numbers", which provided a rigorous account of the constructive role in which probability applied to number theory and included an estimate for prime gaps that became known as Cramér's conjecture. In the late 1920s, Cramér became interested in the field of probability, which at the time was not an accepted branch of mathematics. Cramér knew that a radical change was needed in this field, and in a paper in 1926 said, "The probability concept should be introduced by a purely mathematical definition, from which its fundamental properties and the classical theorems are deduced by purely mathematical operations." Cramér took an interest in the rigorous mathematical formulation of probability in the work of French and Russian mathematicians such as Kolmogorov, Lévy, Bernstein, and Khinchin in the early 1930s. Cramér also made significant development to the revolution in probability theory. Cramér later wrote his careful study of the field in his Cambridge publication Random variables and probability distributions which appeared in 1937 (with a 2nd edition in 1962 and a 3rd edition in 1970). Shortly after World War II, Cramér went on to publish the influential Mathematical Methods of Statistics in 1946. This text was one that "showed the way in which statistical practice depended on a body of rigorous mathematical analysis as well as Fisherian intuition." His 1955 book Elements of Probability Theory and Some of its Applications introduces probability theory at a more elementary level than Mathematical Methods of Statistics. In 1929, Cramér was appointed to a newly created chair in Stockholm University, becoming the first Swedish professor of Actuarial Mathematics and Mathematical Statistics. Cramér retained this position up until 1958. During his tenure at Stockholm University, Cramér was a PhD advisor for 10 students, most notably Herman Wold and Kai Lai Chung. In 1950 he was elected as a Fellow of the American Statistical Association. Starting in 1950, Cramér took on the additional responsibility of becoming the President of Stockholm University. In 1958, he was also appointed to be Chancellor of the entire Swedish university system. Cramér retired from the Swedish university system in 1961. Actuarial career A large portion of Cramér's work concerned the field of actuarial science and insurance mathematics. During the period from 1920 to 1929, he was an actuary for the life insurance company Svenska livförsäkringsbolaget. His actuarial work during this time led him to study probability and statistics which became the main area of his research. In 1927 he published an elementary text in Swedish Probability theory and some of its applications. Following his work for Svenska livförsäkringsbolaget, he went on to work for Återförsäkringsaktiebolaget Sverige, a reinsurance company, up until 1948. He was also known for his pioneering efforts in insurance risk theory. After this period, he remained as a consultant actuary to Sverige from 1949 to 1961. Later in his life, he was elected to be the Honorary President of the Swedish Actuarial Society. Later years Cramér remained an active contributor to his professional career for an additional 20 years. Following his retirement in 1961, he became extremely active in research, which had been slowed due to his Chancellorship. During the years from 1961 to 1983, Cramér traveled throughout the United States and Europe to continue his research, making significant stops at Berkeley, Princeton, and at the Research Triangle Institute of North Carolina. Cramér received an Honorary Doctorate from Heriot-Watt University in 1972. His academic career spanned over seven decades, from 1913 to 1982. Harald Cramér married Marta Hansson in 1918, and they remained together up until her death in 1973. He had often referred to her as his "Beloved Marta". Together they had one daughter, Marie-Louise, and two sons, Tomas and Kim. Notes References External links photographs of Harald Cramér at the Oberwolfach Photo Collection Photograph with C. R. Rao from the PORTRAITS OF STATISTICIANS 1893 births 1985 deaths Swedish statisticians Swedish actuaries Probability theorists 20th-century Swedish mathematicians Scientists from Stockholm Fellows of the American Statistical Association Foreign associates of the National Academy of Sciences
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cork%20taint
Cork taint
Cork taint is a broad term referring to a wine fault characterized by a set of undesirable smells or tastes found in a bottle of wine, especially spoilage that can only be detected after bottling, aging and opening. Though modern studies have shown that other factors can also be responsible for taint – including wooden barrels, storage conditions and the transport of corks and wine – the cork stopper is normally considered to be responsible, and a wine found to be tainted on opening is said to be corked or "corky". Cork taint can affect wines irrespective of price and quality level. The chief cause of cork taint is the presence of the chemical compounds 2,4,6-trichloroanisole (TCA) or 2,4,6-tribromoanisole (TBA) in the wine, which in many cases will have been transferred from the cork, but which also can have been transferred through the cork rather than from it. TCA is a compound which does not occur naturally. It is created when some fungi are treated with chlorinated phenolic compounds, which are a type of antimicrobial agent used in the processing of wood. This compound is one of the chief factors responsible for the problem associated with mold liable to be found in cork. Very small amounts of this compound, on the order of nanograms, can be responsible for this defect. Corked wine containing TCA has a characteristic odor, variously described as resembling a moldy newspaper, wet dog, damp cloth, or damp basement. In almost all cases of corked wine the wine's native aromas are reduced significantly, and a very tainted wine is quite unpalatable, although harmless. While the human threshold for detecting TCA is measured in the single-digit parts per trillion, this can vary by several orders of magnitude depending on an individual's sensitivity. Detection is also complicated by the olfactory system's particularly quick habituation to TCA, making the smell less obvious on each subsequent sniff. Production The production of TCA in cork or its transfer by other means into wine is complex, but most results when naturally occurring airborne fungi are presented with chlorophenol compounds, which they then convert into chlorinated anisole derivatives. Chlorophenols taken up by cork trees are an industrial pollutant found in many pesticides and wood preservatives, which may mean that the incidence of cork taint has risen in modern times. Chlorophenols can also be a product of the chlorine bleaching process used to sterilize corks (not in use anymore); this has led to the increasing adoption of methods such as peroxide bleaching. TCA and TBA are responsible for the vast majority of cases of cork taint, but other less common and less known compounds that can cause different varieties include guaiacol, geosmin, 2-methylisoborneol (MIB), octen-3-ol and also octen-3-one - each has its own aroma, all of them considered objectionable in wine. Estimated occurrence and industry response The cork-industry group APCOR cites a study showing a 0.7–1.2% taint rate. In a 2005 study of 2800 bottles tasted at the Wine Spectator blind-tasting facilities in Napa, California, 7% of the bottles were found to be tainted. In 2013, the Cork Quality Council ran over 25 thousand tests. The results, compared with data from eight years ago, show a sharp reduction in TCA levels, of around 81 percent. In the last test, 90 percent of samples of natural cork stopper shipments showed values of under 1.0 ppt and only 7 percent had showed results of 1.0–2.0 ppt. Improvements in cork and winemaking methodology continue to strive to lower the incidence, but the media attention given to cork taint has created a controversy in the winemaking community, with traditional cork growers on one side and the makers of newer synthetic closures and screw caps on the other. Screw caps and synthetic corks, however, are thought to be prone to another aroma taint: sulphidisation. This may arise from the reduced oxygen supply which concentrates sulphurous smells arising from wines with universal preservatives, however it is more likely that these wines contain excessive/imbalanced amounts of sulphite based preservatives to begin with. Systemic TCA Systemic TCA tainting occurs when TCA has infiltrated a winery via means other than cork and can affect the entire production of wine instead of just a few bottles. This occurs when wine barrels, drain pipes, wooden beams in the cellars, or rubber hoses are tainted by TCA. Sometimes entire cellars have to be rebuilt in order to eliminate all potential systemic TCA culprits. Rubber hoses or gaskets have a high affinity for TCA and therefore concentrate TCA from the atmosphere. Wine or water that subsequently passes through infected hoses can become tainted with TCA. Another possible means of TCA contamination is through the use of bentonite, a swelling clay preparation (smectite) used in treating wine for heat stability. Bentonite has a high affinity for TCA and will absorb TCA and related chemicals in the atmosphere. If an open bag of bentonite is stored in an environment with a high (1–2 ng/g or ppb) TCA concentration, this TCA will be absorbed in the bentonite and transferred to the wine lot to which the bentonite is added. It is notable that this systemic TCA will often impart a trace (1–2 ng/L or ppt) to the wine, which itself is not detected by most consumers. However, with this high baseline level of TCA in bottled wine, even the additional contribution of a relatively clean cork can elevate the TCA level in the wine above threshold levels (4–6 ng/L or ppt), rendering the wine "corked". The primary chemical precursor to TCA is TCP (2,4,6-trichlorophenol), an anti-microbial agent used in processing wood. Molds (and some suspect bacteria such as Streptomyces) are able to de-toxify TCP by methylating the -OH to -OCH3, which is not toxic. Chlorinated phenols can form chemically when hypochlorous acid (HOCl, one of the active forms of chlorine) or chlorine radicals come in contact with wood (untreated, such as barrels or pallets.) The use of chlorine or other halogen-based sanitizing agents is being phased out of the wine industry in favor of peroxide or peracetic acid preparations. Chlorine dioxide has not been shown to produce these spontaneous chlorophenols. Chlorine dioxide is a relatively new agent being used in the wine industry due to its obvious advantages, having shown no evidence of the possibility of TCA formation. Wine Spectator has reported that such California wineries as Pillar Rock Vineyard, Beaulieu Vineyard, and E & J Gallo Winery have had trouble with systemic TCA. Treatment Filtration and purification systems now exist that attempt to remove the TCA from corked wine to make it drinkable again, though there are few means of reducing the level of TCA in tainted wine that are approved by the TTB (formerly BATF). One method of removing TCA from tainted wine is to soak polyethylene (a plastic used for applications such as milk containers and plastic food wrap) in the affected wine. The non-polar TCA molecule has a high affinity for the polyethylene molecule, thereby removing the taint from the wine. The surface area of polyethylene needed to reduce the taint to sub-threshold levels is based on the TCA level in the affected wine, temperature, and the alcohol level of the wine. This can be done at home, as advocated by Andrew Waterhouse, professor of wine chemistry at University of California, Davis, by pouring the wine into a bowl with a sheet of polyethylene plastic wrap. For ease of pouring, a pitcher, measuring cup, or decanter can be used instead. The 2,4,6-trichloroanisole will stick to the plastic. The process is effective within a few minutes. Some vintners have used the so-called half and half mix of milk and cream to remove TCA from wine (the TCA in the wine is sequestered by the butterfat in half and half). The French company Embag markets a product called "Dream Taste" which uses a copolymer shaped like a cluster of grapes to remove the TCA taint from wine. See also Alternative wine closure Flavor scalping Wine fault Notes References External links Wine terminology Oenology Wine packaging and storage
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223131
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Table%20grape
Table grape
Table grapes are grapes intended for consumption while fresh, as opposed to grapes grown for wine production, juice production, or for drying into raisins. Vitis vinifera table grapes can be in the form of either seeded or non-seeded varietals and range widely in terms of colour, size, sweetness and adaptability to local growing conditions. Common commercially available table grape varieties such as Thompson Seedless and Flame Seedless are favoured by growers for their high yield and relative resistance to damage during shipment. Other less common varietals such as Cotton Candy, Kyoho or Pione are custom hybrids bred for size, appearance and specific flavour characteristics. Market characteristics Chile, Peru, the United States, China, Turkey, Spain, South Africa and Australia are all major producers and exporters of table grapes. World table grape production in 2016 is estimated by the USDA to be in the region of 21.0 million metric tons per annum, China alone accounting for an estimated 9.7 million metric tons of this global total. Chile remains the world's single largest table grape exporter, exporting over 800,000 metric tons to mainly North American and European markets. China, by way of contrast, exports only 247,000 metric tons per annum mainly to South East Asian markets; a small percentage of overall production. The global trade in table grapes has enjoyed strong growth since the 1950s. Since the turn of the century table grape export growth has primarily come from the Southern Hemisphere and developing economies such as Chile, India, Peru and Turkey. The international trade in table grapes has significantly benefitted from the increased availability of cold storage and refrigerated container technology. Table grapes are a labour-intensive agricultural product that require harvesting by hand at peak ripeness. In order to maintain product quality at point of sale, harvested grapes must be sorted, packaged and cooled to near 0 °C as quickly as possible. Transportation in ventilated and temperature controlled environments requires significant investment in processing facilities, shipping and logistics. As the production cycle for table grapes is relatively long compared with other fruit, with new plantations taking 2–3 years to become productive, export production and promotion is often concentrated in the hands of large vertically integrated commercial enterprises or producer-exporter associations such as the Fruit Exporters Association of Chile (ASOEX). North America and Europe Table grapes commonly sold in North American and European markets include Sultana (Thompson Seedless), Flame, Muscat, Almeria, Niagara and Concord. In the United States, California remains the largest single producer of table grapes with over 85,000 acres under cultivation. According to the USDA over 70 varietals are grown in the state, but the bulk of shipments are limited to a dozen mainly seedless varieties often sold domestically under generic green, red, or black descriptors. Japan and East Asia In Japan and other East Asian markets, as well as supporting a market for imported grapes commonly produced in Australia and Chile, domestically produced table grapes are often grown and sold as premium gift products. In Japan Kyoho, Delaware and Pione grapes rank as the first, second and third most popular table grapes in terms production volume. In July 2015, setting new pricing records for Japanese premium table grapes, a single bunch of Ruby Roman grapes, containing 26 grapes at a weight of about 700 grams, sold for 1 million yen (around US$8400). In the Philippines, most table grapes in the country are imported although grapes can be cultivated in the islands. In the Ilocos region, the red cardinal is the most commonly grown variety. Table grape varietals Gallery See also Table apple References ja:ブドウ
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Earnie%20Shavers
Earnie Shavers
Earnie Dee Shaver (born August 31, 1944), best known as Earnie Shavers, is an American former professional boxer who competed between 1969 and 1995. A two-time world heavyweight championship challenger, Shavers is known for being one of the hardest punchers in boxing history. He scored 68 knockout wins, including 23 in the first round. He holds a 76.4% overall knockout ratio. Shavers challenged unsuccessfully twice for the heavyweight championship, losing to Muhammad Ali in 1977 and to Larry Holmes in 1979. He hurt Ali in the second round and scored a seventh-round knockdown against Holmes. Shavers defeated former world champions Vicente Rondón, Jimmy Ellis, and Ken Norton, as well as three-time European heavyweight champion Joe Bugner and top heavyweight contender Jimmy Young. In 2001, Shavers released an autobiography called Welcome to the Big Time. Since retiring from boxing he has attended boxing events as a special guest, autograph signer, and motivational speaker. Amateur career Shavers started boxing at the late age of 22. Before turning professional, he had a short but notable amateur career, winning the 1969 National AAU heavyweight title. In March 1969, National Golden Gloves director Tony Mange said Shavers "carries a hefty punch". He had nine straight knockout wins before he was himself knocked out by the 230-pound (104 kg) West German Horst Koschemann. Highlights Cleveland Golden Gloves, Cleveland, Ohio, 1968: Finals: Defeated Mike Boswell National Golden Gloves, Salt Lake City, Utah, March 1968: 1/8: Defeated Dave Foley 1/4: Defeated Tommy Garrett by decision 1/2: Lost to Frank Steele TKO 3 United States National Championships, Toledo, Ohio, April 1968: 1/8: Lost to Chuck Haynes TKO National Golden Gloves, Municipal Auditorium, Kansas City, Missouri, March 1969: 1/8: Defeated Bernard Roberts KO 1 1/4: Defeated Nick Wells by decision 1/2: Lost to Ron Draper by decision United States National Championships, San Diego, California, April 1969: 1/8: Defeated Wayne McGee KO 1/4: Defeated Mose Hill Jr. KO 2 1/2: Defeated Otis Evans KO Finals: Defeated Charles Elder TKO 1 USA–FRG Duals, Cincinnati Gardens, Cincinnati, Ohio, June 1969: Lost to Horst Koschemann (West Germany) TKO 2 Ohio State Fair Amateur Boxing Tournament, State Fairgrounds, Columbus, Ohio, August 1969: National Team Selection Eliminator, Fort Campbell, Kentucky, October 1969: Lost to Charles Elder by decision Shavers posted a 20–6 amateur record as a heavyweight and recorded 14 knockouts (with half losses also by knockout.) Professional career Early bouts Known as the "Black Destroyer", Shavers won 44 of his first 47 fights by knockout; mostly against unremarkable opposition. This included 27 consecutive knockouts, of which 20 were in the first round. He suffered setbacks with losses to Ron Stander and Stan Johnson. He began to rise to the upper ranks of the heavyweight division after he hired Cleveland-based promoter Don King to be his manager. His wins included a novice Jimmy Young who later became a world championship contender. Stepping up the class of opposition, he came to public prominence with a first-round KO of one time WBA heavyweight champion Jimmy Ellis. His progress was halted when he was KO'd in the first round by Jerry Quarry, which was followed by another loss to a journeyman Bob Stallings. Shavers then had a thunderous match with hard hitting Ron Lyle but was stopped after 6 brutal rounds. He then knocked out hard hitter Howard King and beat powerful prospect Roy Williams in a brutal back and forward battle in which Shavers was nearly knocked out, a match Shavers maintains was one of the toughest of his career. Fighting champions Shavers vs Ali Shavers fought Muhammad Ali at Madison Square Garden on September 29, 1977. Coming into the bout, Shavers had a record of 54–5–1, with 52 knockouts. Ali nicknamed Shavers "The Acorn" because of his shaved bald head. The fight was shown in prime time broadcast television by NBC, which rarely did prime time fights (ABC tended to get the Ali fights) and had the judges' scoring announced after each round to help avoid any controversial decision. Ali's cornerman Angelo Dundee asked Baltimore matchmaker Eddie Hrica to watch the broadcast in the dressing room and signal on the scoring. In the second round, Shavers hurt Ali with an overhand right. Ali play-acted that he was seriously hurt, and Shavers hesitated. On the scorecard they exchanged rounds. Ali won the fifth decisively. To win the fight Ali had to survive the last three rounds. Shavers, whose stamina was suspect before the fight, came alive in the 13th round. In the 14th, he battered Ali about the ring. Before the 15th, according to Sports Illustrated boxing writer Pat Putnam, "Ali was on very wobbly legs." Realizing Ali needed to last three more minutes, Dundee told him, "You don't look so good. You better go out and take this round." In a furious final round, the two men tagged each other, but Ali closed strongly, nearly dropping Shavers in the last 20 seconds. He won a unanimous decision. The next day, Garden matchmaker Teddy Brenner encouraged Ali to retire by stating the Garden would never make another offer to host an Ali fight. Brenner also thought that Shavers deserved the nod against Ali. The fight made the cover of Sports Illustrated, with "ALI'S DESPERATE HOUR" featuring a photograph of Shavers scoring with an overhand right. Ali's fight doctor Ferdie Pacheco also urged Ali to retire after noting the punishment Ali had absorbed against Shavers. Ali later said Shavers was the hardest puncher he ever faced, stating "Earnie hit me so hard, it shook my kinfolk back in Africa" - a quip Ali had previously used to describe other hard-hitting opponents. Shavers vs Norton In a mandatory title challenge eliminator he knocked out former champion Ken Norton in the first round, possibly the best win of his career. Shavers vs Holmes Shavers then fought for the title against world heavyweight champion Larry Holmes at Caesars Palace in Paradise, NV on September 29, 1979, exactly two years after his defeat by Ali. Shavers knocked Holmes down in round seven but after taking punches in the eleventh round without responding, the referee stopped the fight. Holmes, known for his ability to take a punch, later said that Shavers' blow was the hardest he had ever taken in his career. Later career The Holmes bout was the last big match for Shavers. In 1980, in a wild slugfest he was stopped in the eighth round by durable prospect Randall "Tex" Cobb. Prior to the Cobb fight, Shavers had undergone eye surgery for a detached retina. (Since eye surgery was not nearly as refined then as it is today, the majority of boxers retired for good after that kind of injury. In the words of Duane Ford, a detached retina for a boxer was like an AIDS diagnosis). Shavers had not fully recovered from the surgery when he came back for the Cobb fight. He never again fought for the world title. In 1982 he fought Joe Bugner, also on the comeback trail. Bugner was knocked down in the first, and was stopped by cuts in the second round. Shavers continued to fight professionally for several years, retiring in 1995 after losing to Brian Yates. Many thought he should have retired after his upset loss to lower contender Bernardo Mercado. Shavers suffered a similar retinal eye injury as boxer Sugar Ray Leonard. Comeback Shavers attempted two abbreviated comebacks–—a fight in 1987, and two in 1995, in the second of which he was KO'd by Brian Yates in round 2. After this loss, Shavers retired for good. Shavers has been named among the top-10 punchers in boxing history by The Ring and others. Shavers finished his career in 1995 with a record of 74 wins (68 by knockout, 23 inside the first round, with 46 in the first 3 rounds), 14 losses and 1 draw. Fighting style Shavers was an exceptionally heavy puncher who stalked his opponents, setting them up for his thunderous right, which was responsible for many of his knockouts, although Angelo Dundee in a Sports Illustrated mid-1970s article said "He can get you out of there with any kind of shot", referring to Shavers's ability to inflict damage with a left hook, right cross or right uppercut. Several boxers famous for their tough chins had fallen to Shavers's punches, including Bugner and Ellis who were felled by his uppercut. Shavers would throw punches against any legal area he could reach, exposed or covered, relying on his tremendous power to wear down his opponents and exploiting any opening. His fighting stance produced a short and powerful image. His chin was his weakness. He could however "box" as well as slug. Notably, he injured his right hand early in a 10-round match against rated craftsman Henry Clark and responded with a strong jabbing performance to beat Clark, himself noted for his jabbing ability, on points. Video and book Shavers published a video of highlights of his career in 1992 titled Earnie D. Shavers, The hardest one-punch hitter, and later an autobiography. Life after boxing Shavers retired in 1983 after retinal problems were discovered. After retirement, he became an ordained Christian minister and moved to Phoenix, where he preached for many years. He moved to England to pastor a church there in the early 2000s. He has been on the Benny Hinn TV show several times. During the early 1980s while preparing for the feature film Rocky III, Sylvester Stallone explored the possibility of using a real heavyweight boxer in the role of James "Clubber" Lang by inviting Earnie Shavers to spar with him. Shavers initially refused to hit Stallone with anything other than a soft jab. This frustrated Stallone, who asked Shavers, "C'mon Earnie, show me something real." Earnie responded by punching him once near the liver, forcing an immediate retirement; Stallone later said: "that nearly killed me. I went straight to the men's room and threw up". However, according to Rhonda Young, the film's casting director, the reason why he was eventually not chosen for the part is that his voice was too high-pitched and not menacing enough (Joe Frazier was also considered but, reportedly, couldn't even read the character's lines without stuttering). Shavers visited Ali several times and he says he, Ali, and George Foreman became very good friends over the years. Foreman, when asked about toughest and hardest punching opponent he ever met in the ring, said: Foreman: You only meet three genuine punchers throughout your career: Gerry Cooney, Ronnie Lyle and Cleveland Williams, and they hit so hard that it vibrates your body even if you block, it just goes right through you. Letterman: What about Ernie Shavers? Foreman: I never fought Earnie Shavers. Thank goodness. Shavers accepted the invitation of the Full Gospel Business Men's Fellowship International to preach at the 2002 Commonwealth Games in Manchester. Earnie also worked in Liverpool in the UK, as head of security at Hannah's bar, where he was very much respected. The staff of Hannah's bar say that he does not work there now. Until 2009, he worked at Yates' Wine Lodge in Liverpool "meeting and greeting". On occasion Shavers was a troubleshooting referee in professional wrestling after his retirement. He is also a Patron of The Shannon Bradshaw Trust, a children's charity based in Warrington, Cheshire, helping children with life-threatening conditions, and their families. Earnie speaks to pupils at Barr Beacon Language College in Walsall. Earnie also gave a speech 26 February 2008 at The Streetly School in Walsall, which was based upon helping kids make the right decisions in life. Personal life Shavers was married to Laverne Payne. They had five daughters from their marriage together: Tamara, Cynthia, Catherine, Carla, and Amy. He also has four daughters and a son from other relationships: Catherine, Lisa, Natasha and Latonya, and a son, Earnie, Jr. He has 24 grandchildren and one great grandchild. He worked at General Motors in Lordstown, Ohio in the late 1960s. Shavers made a guest appearance on the Irish TV programme The Late Late Show hosted by Ron Lyle where the two fighters discussed their previous bout that had happened a month earlier. Shavers was a frequent visitor to the pub "Roddy Bolands" in Dublin. There is a signed picture of Shavers drinking a pint of Guinness on the wall there. Professional boxing record References External links 1944 births American Christian clergy Heavyweight boxers Living people Professional wrestling referees Winners of the United States Championship for amateur boxers African-American boxers American male boxers Sportspeople with a vision impairment People from Butler County, Alabama 21st-century African-American people 20th-century African-American sportspeople
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ron%20Lyle
Ron Lyle
Ronald David Lyle (February 12, 1941 – November 26, 2011) was an American professional boxer who competed from 1971 to 1980, and in 1995. He challenged unsuccessfully for the world heavyweight title, losing to Muhammad Ali in 1975. Lyle was known for his punching power, crowd-pleasing fighting style, as well as courage and determination inside the ring. He held notable wins over Buster Mathis, Oscar Bonavena, Jimmy Ellis, Vicente Rondón, Earnie Shavers, Joe Bugner, and Scott LeDoux, but is best known for his slugfest against George Foreman in 1976, which won Fight of the Year honors by The Ring magazine. Early life Lyle was born the third of 19 children to William and Nellie Lyle of Dayton, Ohio. In 1954, they moved to Denver, Colorado as his father got a job as a sandblaster at Buckley Air Force Base. He grew up on the Northeast side of the city, a predominantly African American area, in public housing projects. During his time in Denver, Lyle was known to have associated with violent gangs. At 19, after dropping out of Manual High School, Lyle was convicted of second-degree murder in the shooting to death of 21-year-old gang rival Douglas Byrd. Lyle argued he was being attacked with a lead pipe and was not the one who pulled the trigger. He was convicted for second-degree murder and sentenced to 15-to-25 years in the Colorado State Penitentiary. On December 16th 1978, Ron Lyle was acquitted his attorney Walter Gerash said that Ron shot Vernon Clark in self defense. In 1965, while in prison, Lyle nearly died on the operating table after being stabbed by an inmate, but Dr. Townsee didn't give up on him, Lyle underwent 36 blood transfusions and survived. After he underwent the operation, he was put into solitary confinement for 90 days, and as he was alone and there was nothing to do while recovering from the wound, he began doing push-ups, sit-ups, squats, and other exercises, after that he was training on a regular basis. While in prison, Lyle, then age 26, enlisted the African-American self-help group named Black Cultural Development Society (BCDS,) and coached the group's football team, The Wildcats, and led them to a championship among the inter-prison teams. He also played with the Canon City Rockbusters. He first attended a prison boxing event on July 4, 1962, as a spectator, though he noticed for himself he could compete as well. According to his own recollections, his prison boxing debut came in 1964. Lyle credited Lt. Cliff Mattax, the athletic director at the prison, with getting him interested in boxing. Although when Mattax first approached Lyle, and tried to befriend him, he wasn't welcomed, "Man, you're a screw and I'm a convict. I came here by myself and I'll leave the same way." But after recovering from a stab-wound, he changed his mind. "It was the turning point of my life. Mattax was white, and he wore a badge, but he really cared. He believed in me and my ability. Right then I decided to be a success," Lyle said later. Mattax in turn said: "I don't like to take any credit for what happened, but Ron turned into a real gentleman." He watched boxing on TV and said, "I can do better than that," and soon the prison was bringing in boxers for him to fight. "They had fight cards in prison. I sat around watching them for a while and finally said to myself, 'I can do that,'" Lyle said. In his first match for the prison boxing team, Lyle was said to be defeated by Texas Johnson. He never lost a prison boxing match again, however. According to Colorado State' Warden Wayne K. Patterson, Lyle was a "natural born athlete." Amateur career During the remainder of his sentence, he had around twenty-five unaccounted amateur fights, losing only once, and winning six heavyweight titles for inmates. By 1969 Lyle was eligible for parole, but twice he was turned down. He was told that a professional boxing career was not a suitable parole plan. Fortunately, his fame had spread to Denver, where the Denver Rocks boxing team had just joined the short-lived International Boxing League. Bill Daniels, a cable television executive, president of American Basketball Association and owner of the Denver Rocks boxing team and the Utah Stars basketball team, offered Lyle an official job as a welder with a firm he owned, and on Sunday, November 9, 1969, Lyle was released from prison on parole. He was released after serving 7½ years. The next morning he showed up at the Rocks' Gym in Denver (later known as Elks Gym,) and was trying out with the Rocks. He made the team, and in the succeeding fifteen months, before turning pro, he won a number of tournaments. He was paroled on November 22, 1969, and later he was given a full pardon by the Governor John Arthur Love. "I asked around about the Rocks. They told me they already had a heavyweight (Richard Archuletta and Dan Hermosillo). I figured I could whip him so I stuck around." They were trained by the well-known boxing veteran Bobby Lewis. Less than a month later, Lyle made his amateur debut with the team, avenged an earlier Rocks' heavyweight loss and became the team's heavyweight at 215 pounds. Lyle's first amateur victory was a third-round knockout over Fred Houpe (who would later be Leon Spinks's final opponent). He was the 1970 National AAU Heavyweight Champion (outpointed previously unbeaten Mike Montgomery of Philadelphia), the 1970 North American Amateur Heavyweight Champion, and the 1970 International Boxing League Heavyweight Champion. After capturing the NAA title, Lyle became a member of the United States National Boxing Team, as he was still on parole he was given permission to leave the U.S., and dispatched on a boxing journey across Europe, visiting Italy, Yugoslavia, and Romania and meeting top local heavyweights in the process. He lost by decision to Romanian Ion Alexe, but pounded Soviet Armenian heavyweight Kamo Saroyan (89–9) against the ropes (referee interrupted and saved Saroyan from further pounding) in a match broadcast by ABC television's Wide World of Sports, preparing for which he quit his regular job, and dispatched of Duane Bobick, which took the latter's corner five minutes to bring him back into consciousness. No American before Lyle knocked out a Soviet heavyweight. Fighting Bobick to make it to the national team, Lyle was behind on judges' scorecards, and when he fought Saroyan, he again was behind on points, which nonetheless didn't stop him from knocking out both. On January 25, 1971, Lyle fought his last fight as an amateur, knocking out the Pacific Northwest Golden Gloves heavyweight champion Jim Wahlberg. Meanwhile, two world's top-ranked heavyweights, Muhammad Ali and Joe Frazier, were preparing themselves for the Fight of the Century. In February, Lyle visited both rival camps. First he went to Miami Beach, Florida, where the Ali's training camp was based, to spar several rounds with Ali. Then he went to Catskill, New York, to the Frazier's camp, but Yancey Durham, Frazier's manager, did not approve Lyle as a sparring partner, instead he went against one of already selected Frazier's sparring partners, a professional boxer from Chicago (Frazier reportedly has invited Lyle for a two-round exhibition at Kiamesha Lake, New York, on January 19, but Lyle was busy qualifying to fight the Soviet.) Highlights IBL Denver–Chicago match-up (Denver Rocks vs. Chicago Clippers), Auditorium Arena, Denver, Colorado, December 1969: Defeated Fred Houpe KO 3 IBL Eastern–Western Division match-up (Kentucky Pacers vs. Denver Rocks), Memorial Auditorium, Louisville, Kentucky, January 1970: Lost to Tommy Garrett by split decision 1–2 IBL Denver–Milwaukee match-up (Denver Rocks vs. Milwaukee Bombers), Auditorium Arena, Denver, Colorado, January 1970: Defeated James Sherard KO 2 Denver Golden Gloves, 1970: (no data available) Colorado State Golden Gloves, February 1970: (no data available) Regional Golden Gloves, Salt Palace, Salt Lake City, Utah, February 1970: 1/2: Defeated Charles Schoolmeyer KO 1 Finals: Defeated Charles Banks KO 1 National Golden Gloves, Convention Center, Las Vegas, Nevada, March 1970: 1/16: Defeated Lerdy Sargent KO 1 1/8: Defeated Alan Kit Boursse TKO 3 1/4: Defeated Nick Wells by decision 1/2: Lost to William Thompson by decision IBL Detroit–Denver (Detroit Dukes vs. Denver Rocks), Community Arts Building, State Fairgrounds, Detroit, Michigan, April 1970: Lost to Bill Hurt by decision IBL Denver–Miami match-up (Denver Rocks vs. Miami Barracudas), Auditorium Arena, Denver, Colorado, April 1970: Defeated ? National Championships, Trenton, New Jersey, April–May 1970: 1/2: Defeated Duane Bobick KO 2 Finals: Defeated Mike Montgomery by decision IBL Denver–Milwaukee match-up (Denver Rocks vs. Milwaukee Bombers), 1970: Defeated Larry Penigar by split decision 2–1 North American Championships, Vancouver, Canada, June 1970: Finals: Defeated Jack Meda (Canada) by decision IBL Denver–Louisville match-up (Denver Rocks vs. Kentucky Pacers), Auditorium Arena, Denver, Colorado, June 1970: Defeated Tommy Garrett IBL Championships (Denver Rocks vs. Kentucky Pacers), Auditorium Arena, Denver, Colorado, June 1970: Defeated Billy Freeman by split decision 3–2 Italy–USA Duals (Rocky Marciano Trophy), Palazzo dello Sport, Rome, Italy, June 1970: Defeated Amedeo Laureti (Italy) KO 1 Yugoslavia–USA Duals, Belgrade, Yugoslavia, July 1970: Defeated Anton Vukušić (Yugoslavia) Romania–USA Duals, Bucharest, Romania, July 1970: Lost to Ion Alexe (Romania) by decision Rocky Mountain Golden Gloves, Derks Field, Salt Lake City, Utah, July 1970: (no data available) IBL Denver–Mexico Exhibition (Denver Rocks vs. all-star Mexican team), State Fair Grounds, Pueblo, Colorado, August 1970: Defeated Pete Chiano (San Antonio, Texas) TKO 1 Defeated Pedro Vega (Mexico) National Team Selection Eliminator, Fort Carson, Colorado, January 1971: Finals: Defeated Duane Bobick KO 2 USA–USSR Duals, Caesars Palace, Las Vegas, Nevada, January 1971: Defeated Kamo Saroyan (Soviet Union) TKO 2 IBL Denver–Seattle match-up (Denver Rocks vs. the Pacific Northwest team), Auditorium Arena, Denver, Colorado, January 1971: Defeated Jim Wahlberg KO His amateur career outside of prison lasted only 14 months, during which he compiled a record of 25–4 (no stoppages,) with 17 knockouts at national and international contests. (plus unaccounted record of 23–1, 15 KOs, and also without a stoppage, while serving seven-and-a-half-years prison term, bringing his overall amateur record to around 47–5.) During his amateur days he was never knocked down or cut. Lyle was an obvious choice for the 1971 Pan American Games and the 1972 Olympics, but as he stepped into the pro ranks, Duane Bobick, whom he knocked out twice, was set to represent the United States. On February 24, 1971, Lyle, age 30, signed a professional boxing contract with Bill Daniels. "Daniels told me ‘You fight this Russian in January and we'll turn you pro.’ This was the door that had to be opened, whuppin' the Russian. So I quit my job and trained for six months. I wasn't going to get beat because I wasn't in shape," Lyle recalled. Daniels, in turn, said of Lyle that, "The reason Ron has adjusted is that he's got a talent, something he knows he's good at and can dedicate himself to." After he turned pro, Lyle visited his fellow inmates in prison the day before or after each and every professional fight. Professional career Lyle had a very late start in professional boxing. He turned professional under Bill Daniels, with trainer Bobby Lewis. His first fight was at the age of 30 in Denver, Colorado, against A. J. Staples, which he won by knockout in the second round. Lyle went on to post a 19–0 record with 17 knockouts, and became the 5th rated heavyweight contender. He scored impressive knockouts over notables Vicente Rondon, a light heavyweight champion; hulking Buster Mathis; and won by unanimous decision over former WBA Heavyweight Champion, Jimmy Ellis. After dispatching of Buster Mathis, Lyle stated that he is looking for a match-up versus current undisputed champion Joe Frazier, saying "When I'm ready. I'm not taking any shortcuts." Yancey Durham, Frazier's manager and an interested observer, did compliment Lyle on his punching power. He was ranked #4 heavyweight in the world by WBA and the Ring Magazine. Lyle's undefeated streak ended on a one-sided decision to veteran Jerry Quarry: the latter gave one of his career best performances using a boxer/puncher style to create openings first, gaining the initiative using his greater experience. Lyle then lost to Jimmy Young in 1975. In a later rematch, Young again edged Lyle and went on to outpoint George Foreman in 1977. Lyle vs. Ali On May 16, 1975 he was given an opportunity to face heavyweight champion Muhammad Ali, during Ali's second title defense in his second reign as champion. Lyle had Bobby Lewis and Chico Ferrara in his corner. Lyle was the more aggressive fighter in the early rounds, with Ali conserving his energy and covering up in the center of the ring allowing Lyle to score. Lyle also showed restraint and did not respond to Ali's attempts at the rope-a-dope ploy. Though in danger of falling too far behind on points, Ali appeared to be in control of the pace of the fight, and picked his moments to score. The fight was close going into the 11th round, with Lyle winning on all three of the judges' score cards. Ali then hit Lyle with a strong right hand and followed with several flurrying punches, scoring. The referee stopped the fight, seeing that Lyle was unable to defend himself and Ali was punching him in the head at will. Lyle's corner was not happy with the referee's decision. Lyle vs. Foreman Lyle is perhaps best known for a brawling fight in 1976 with Hall of Famer George Foreman. Foreman was making a comeback after suffering his first loss to Ali in the Rumble in the Jungle. The fight is looked upon to this day as one of the most exciting and brutal in heavyweight history. Lyle took the offensive against the former champion and won the opening round. At one point he hit Foreman with a staggering body punch. After almost being knocked out in Round Two, Lyle amazed the crowd by flooring Foreman twice in the fourth round. Other than Muhammad Ali and Jimmy Young, Lyle was the only boxer to have ever knocked down George Foreman during a professional boxing match. Foreman later wrote in his autobiography, and told on several occasions, that Lyle was the toughest man he ever fought, and the hardest hitter he ever took up. The former champion recovered and scored a knockout in the fifth round. George later recalled about Ron that he won the fight due to Lyle's exhaustion. Lyle scored impressive victories over rated Jose Luis Garcia, and big names Oscar Bonavena and Earnie Shavers during his career. He also won a split decision over Joe Bugner, boring in with a thudding body attack in a fine contest. According to George Foreman, Ron Lyle was one of the three hardest punchers he had faced in his career along with Gerry Cooney and Cleveland Williams. Later career The year 1979 marked a decline in Lyle's abilities. Draws with fringe contenders Stan Ward and Scott LeDoux were followed by a stunning one-punch loss to unheard-of Lynn Ball. Ball went on to match other names but never achieved similar success. The Ring magazine quoted Lyle as saying afterwards "No one does that to me." He would return to the ring, however, but not for long. Ron retired again after a first-round knockout loss to then-rising star and undefeated power-hitting Gerry Cooney. By then, Lyle was 39 years old and his best years had gone. Comeback In 1995, after George Foreman made his comeback into the ring to capture the world heavyweight title again, Lyle, at the age of 54, also decided on a brief comeback. After scoring four quick knockouts over second-rate opponents, Lyle tried to get a rematch with Foreman. The match was never made, however, and Lyle retired from boxing. Retirement While Lyle was working as a security guard in Las Vegas, he was accused of another murder. He shot a man in his apartment who had spent time with him in the Colorado State Penitentiary. Lyle claimed self-defense and was found not guilty. A biography titled Off the Ropes: the Ron Lyle Story was written by Candace Toft and released in the United Kingdom by Scratching Shed Publishing in May 2010. It was republished in the United States by Hamilcar Publications in October 2018. Lyle ran the boxing gym Denver Red Shield in Denver, Colorado. He was the former trainer of light welterweight contender Victor Ortíz, who fought out of Denver during some of his amateur career. In 1992 Lyle trained a young promising talent from Las Vegas, Arash Hashemi, and under his mentorship Hashemi won two Golden Gloves championships. Death Lyle died at the age of 70, on Saturday November 26, 2011 from complications from a sudden stomach ailment. "We're gonna miss Ron. He was a friend", Earnie Shavers said. "He was the strongest man I have ever known, inside-and-out. When he gave advice, it was solid. He will never know how much I loved him. I will greatly miss him now that he is gone. I will never have a close friend like him again", states Lisa Dawn Sheridan. Lyle in the media and popular culture Ron Lyle appeared in the film Facing Ali, a 2009 documentary, where he discusses his life and career. About his fight against Ali, when referee Fredy Nunez stopped the fight, he said "I couldn't believe it, you know. I'm ahead on all scorecards. [...] Am I bitter? Forget about it. I never took it personal. If there don't be no Ali, you think you'd be sitting here talking to Ron Lyle? About what?" During this documentary he revealed that, during his stint in prison, where he received one meal a day consisting of a bowl of spinach, he passed time by doing up to 1,000 push-ups in an hour each day. Professional boxing record References External links Boxers from Denver 1941 births 2011 deaths Heavyweight boxers Boxers from Ohio Sportspeople from Dayton, Ohio Winners of the United States Championship for amateur boxers American male boxers American people convicted of murder American sportspeople convicted of crimes Deaths from digestive disease
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Concord%20grape
Concord grape
The Concord grape is a cultivar derived from the grape species Vitis labrusca (also known as fox grape) that are used as table grapes, wine grapes and juice grapes. They are often used to make grape jelly, grape juice, grape pies, grape-flavored soft drinks, and candy. The grape is sometimes used to make wine, particularly sacramental kosher wine. Traditionally, most commercially produced Concord wines have been finished sweet, but dry versions are possible if adequate fruit ripeness is achieved. The grape is named after the town in Massachusetts where it was developed. The skin of a Concord grape is typically dark blue or purple, and often is covered with a lighter-coloured epicuticular wax "bloom" that can be rubbed off. It is a slip-skin variety, meaning that the skin is easily separated from the fruit. Concord grapes have large seeds and are highly aromatic. The Concord grape is particularly prone to the physiological disorder black spot. In the United States 417,800 tons were produced in 2011. The major growing areas are the Finger Lakes District of New York, Lake Erie, Lake Ontario, Southwestern Michigan, and the Yakima Valley in Washington. They are sometimes found growing wild. Usage Concord grapes are often used to make grape jelly and are only occasionally available as table grapes, especially in New England. They are the usual grapes used in the jelly for the traditional peanut butter and jelly sandwich, and Concord grape jelly is a staple product in U.S. supermarkets. Concord grapes are used for grape juice, and their distinctive purple color has led to grape-flavored soft drinks and candy being artificially colored purple. Methyl anthranilate, a chemical present in Concord grapes, is used to give "grape" flavor. The dark colored Concord juice is used in some churches as a non-alcoholic alternative to wine in the service of communion. Concord grapes have been used to make kosher wine and sacramental wine. The oldest sacramental winery in America, O-Neh-Da Vineyard, still produces a Concord wine for the altar. Non-toxic sprays that contain methyl anthranilate can be sprayed on the bushes as a cost-effective bird control management. The spray repellent renders the fruit and foliage unpalatable to the birds. History The Concord grape was developed in 1849 by Ephraim Wales Bull in Concord, Massachusetts. Bull planted seeds from wild Vitis labrusca and evaluated over 22,000 seedlings before finding what he considered the ideal Concord grape. Genetic testing confirmed that Concord grape has roughly one-third V. vinifera parentage. The selected Concord vine was planted next to other cultivars including Catawba, which was later confirmed to be a parent of Concord using stematic SSR analysis. In 1853, Bull's grape won first place at the Boston Horticultural Society Exhibition. It was then introduced to the market in 1854. Dr. Thomas Bramwell Welch developed the first Concord grape juice in his house in 1869. Through the process of pasteurization, the juice did not ferment. Welch transferred the juice operations to Westfield, New York, processing 300 tons of grapes into juice in 1897. Gallery See also Muscadine Scuppernong References External links Concord Grape Association National Grape Cooperative Concord, Massachusetts Table grape varieties Red wine grape varieties
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Marcus%20Daly
Marcus Daly
Marcus Daly (December 5, 1841 – November 12, 1900) was an Irish-born American businessman known as one of the three "Copper Kings" of Butte, Montana, United States. Early life Daly emigrated from County Cavan, Ireland, to the United States as a young boy, arriving in New York City. He sold newspapers and worked his way to California in time to join the gold rush on what was to become Virginia City, Nevada, and the fabulously rich silver diggings now known as the Comstock Lode, in 1860. Career Daly gained experience in the mines of the Comstock under the direction of John William Mackay and James G. Fair. While working in the mines of Virginia City, Daly met and befriended George Hearst and partners James Ben Ali Haggin and Lloyd Tevis, co-owners of the Ophir Mining Company. (Hearst's son was William Randolph Hearst). In 1872, Daly would recommend purchase by the Hearst group the Ontario mine, near Park City, Utah. In ten years, the Ontario produced $17 million and paid $6,250,000 in dividends, and made many millions for Hearst, Tevis and Haggin. Their business friendship was to extend for many years and help establish the Anaconda Copper Mine in Butte, Montana. Daly originally came to Butte in August 1876 to look at a mine, the Alice, as an agent for the Walker brothers of Salt Lake City. The Walkers purchased the mine, installed Daly as superintendent and awarded him a fractional share of the mine. The Walkers became the namesakes of Walkerville, which formed around the Alice. Always an energetic engineer and geologist with a keen eye for paying ore, Daly noticed while working underground in the Alice, that there were significant deposits of copper ore. He gained access into several other mines in the area and concluded that the hill was full of copper ore. He envisioned an ore body several thousand feet deep, some veins of almost pure copper that would be worth hundreds of millions of dollars. He urged his employers, the Walker Bros. to purchase the Anaconda and when they refrained, Daly bought it. Daly founded his fortune on the Anaconda Copper Mine in Butte, after selling his small share of the Alice Mine, for $30,000. The Anaconda The Anaconda began as a silver mine, but Daly's purchase was for the copper, found to be one of the largest deposits known at the time. However, he lacked the money to develop it, so he turned to Hearst, Haggin and Tevis. Backed with many millions of dollars, he set out upon developing The Richest Hill on Earth. The first couple hundred feet within the mine were rich in silver, and took a few years to exhaust. By that time, Butte's other silver mines were also playing out, so Daly closed the Anaconda, St Lawrence and Neversweat mines. He reported to his associates what he had in mind and they approved. Prices on surrounding properties dropped and Daly quietly purchased them. Then he re-opened the Anaconda as a copper mine and announced to the world that Butte was "The Richest Hill on Earth". Because Thomas Edison had developed the light bulb and built a city block in New York to show off what electricity could do, the world would need copper, a very excellent conductor of electricity. Butte had copper. Hundreds of thousands of tons of it, waiting to be taken from the ground. He built a smelter to handle the ore, and by the late 1880s, had become a millionaire several times over, and owner of the Anaconda Mining and Reduction Company. Daly owned a railroad, the Butte, Anaconda and Pacific Railroad to haul ore from his mines to his smelter in Anaconda, a city he founded for his employees to work the smelters. He owned lumber interests in the Bitterroot Valley, a mansion and prized stables in the same valley, south of Missoula. In 1894, Daly spearheaded an energetic but unsuccessful campaign to have Anaconda designated as Montana's state capital, but lost out to Helena, which was supported by William Andrews Clark. Daly was active in Montana politics throughout the 1890s, because of his opposition and intense rivalry with fellow copper king, and future U.S. Senator, William Clark. Daly tried to keep Clark out of office by lavishly supporting Clark's opponents. In 1898, Daly went looking for a buyer of his company. He entered into negotiations with William Rockefeller and Henry H. Rogers of John D Rockefeller's Standard Oil of Ohio. The Anaconda Mining Company (and associated interests) were purchased in 1899 for $39 million and became Amalgamated Copper Mining Company. Daly was made president of the company in 1899 and died the following year in 1900. Thoroughbred horse racing Daly invested some of his money in horse breeding at his Bitterroot Stock Farm located near Hamilton, and was the owner/breeder of Scottish Chieftain, the only horse bred in Montana to ever win the Belmont Stakes (1897). In 1891, Daly became the owner of Tammany, identified as Horse of the Year in 1893. He owned and stood Inverness, sire of Scottish Chieftain, as well as Hamburg, Ogden, and The Pepper. He also arranged the breeding of the great Sysonby, ranked number 30 in the top 100 U.S. thoroughbred champions of the 20th Century by Blood-Horse magazine. Daly died before the horse was born. Following his death, New York's Madison Square Garden hosted a dispersal sale for the Bitterroot thoroughbred stud, beginning on January 31, 1901; 185 horses were sold for $405,525. Legacy Daly's legacy was a mixed one for Anaconda. From 1885 to 1980, the smelter was one of the town's largest employers and provided well-paid jobs for generations. When the smelter closed in 1980, during a labor strike, 25% of the town's workforce was put out of work and the town has not recovered. The smelter itself was torn down as part of environmental cleanup efforts in the 1990s, although the smokestack is still in place, visible for many miles across the valley, above the town. Daly's legacy was equally mixed for Butte. The Anaconda Company was bought out by the Amalgamated Copper Mining Company in 1899, and by the 1920s it controlled mining in the city. It continued to be one of the state's largest employers and a mainstay of the state and local economies until the 1970s. In the 1950s, the ACM began open-pit mining in Butte, creating a steadily growing pit, known as the Berkeley Pit, east of the main business district. In the mid-1970s, copper prices collapsed and the ACM was bought out by the Atlantic Richfield Company, (ARCO). ARCO ceased mining in Butte in 1980 and shut off the deep pumps in 1982, ending what Daly had begun almost exactly 100 years before. Montana Resources, owned by the Washington Group, as of 2007, operates an open pit copper and molybdenum mine in Butte, and also recovers copper from the water in the Berkeley Pit. In 1980 the Berkeley Pit, the Clark Fork River and the smelter outside the town of Anaconda, MT were declared federal Superfund sites by the US EPA. A statue of Daly by Augustus Saint-Gaudens stands at the main entrance to Montana Tech of the University of Montana (formerly the Montana School of Mines), at the west end of Park Street in Butte. A drawing of Daly by the Swiss-born American artist Adolfo Müller-Ury (1862–1947) was acquired in 2009 by the American National Portrait Gallery in Washington D.C. Riverside, the summer home of the Daly Family, is located in Hamilton, Montana and open to visitors. Margaret Daly, Marcus' wife, had the home remodeled after his death into a Georgian-Revival Style Colonial. The Marcus Daly Memorial Hospital, located in Hamilton, Montana, was incorporated on December 18, 1929. During WWII, the US Navy honored Marcus Daly with a liberty ship in honor of his accomplishments, the SS Marcus Daly. The ship served honorably during the war, from 1943 to the end of hostilities, earning several service medals in the process. See also Anaconda Copper Copper Kings George Hearst Hennessy's William A. Clark References External links National Mining Hall of Fame bio Bio on Irish Identity website Montana Resources Daly Mansion Marcus Daly Family Papers (University of Montana Archives) 1841 births 1900 deaths American mining businesspeople American racehorse owners and breeders Burials at Green-Wood Cemetery Businesspeople from Montana Businesspeople in metals History of Missoula, Montana Irish emigrants to the United States (before 1923) Irish racehorse owners and breeders People from Ballyjamesduff People from Hamilton, Montana Anaconda Copper 19th-century American businesspeople
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Peter%20Kosler
Peter Kosler
Peter Kosler or Kozler (16 February 1824 – 16 April 1879) was a Carniolan lawyer, geographer, cartographer, activist, and businessman. He was of ethnic German origin, but also identified with Slovene culture and advocated the peaceful coexistence of the Slovene and German cultures in Carniola. Kosler was born in Koče, a village south of Kočevje in Gottschee County, in what was then the Austrian Kingdom of Illyria, and is now Slovenia. He is best known for creating the first map of the Slovene Lands, called Zemljovid Slovenske dežele in pokrajin (Map of the Slovene Land and Provinces). Made already from 1848 until the end of 1852, it was published only in 1861. Despite this, it had a significant impact in the time of the Slovene national awakening. Born in a relatively well-to-do family, Kosler made a fortune with beer brewing and was the founder of the Union Brewery. He gave large amounts of money to support Slovenian cultural associations and institutions. He was close to the conservative Old Slovene political movement. Kosler bought Cekin Mansion just outside the center of Ljubljana and renovated it in a neoclassical style. Today, the mansion houses the National Museum of Contemporary History. The Koslers also owned a mansion () in the center of Ljubljana, close to Congress Square () and Čop Street (), which was regarded as one of the finest Baroque buildings in the city. The building was slated for demolition in 1956 and torn down by the Communist authorities in 1961 in order to widen the nearby street, which caused a public outcry and marked a milestone in the development of postwar urban development in Ljubljana. According to an interview with art historian Damjan Prelovšek in October 2006, trees now grow at the site of the former building, demonstrating that its demolition was a political decision and unnecessary in order to widen the street. Kosler also owned a plot of land in the Ljubljana Marshes known as Kosler's Thicket (). During World War II, the plot was used as a mass grave for victims of the Slovenian Home Guard torturer and killer Franc Frakelj. Kosler died in Ljubljana and is buried at Žale cemetery in Ljubljana. In 1999, a Slovenian postal stamp was dedicated to Kosler. See also United Slovenia National symbols of Slovenia References External links Peter Kosler Association, Slovenia Peter Kosler's map on Geopedia 1824 births 1879 deaths Austro-Hungarian lawyers Carniolan people of German descent Carniolan geographers Carniolan cartographers Carniolan lawyers Carniolan businesspeople People from the Municipality of Kočevje
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Isfahan
Isfahan
Isfahan ( ), from its ancient designation Aspadana and later Spahan in middle Persian, rendered in English as Ispahan, is a major city in Greater Isfahan Region, Isfahan Province, Iran. It is located south of Tehran and is the capital of Isfahan Province. Isfahan has a population of approximately 1.9 million, making it the third-largest city in Iran, after Mashhad and Tehran, and the second-largest metropolitan area. It is located at the intersection of the two principal north–south and east–west routes that traverse Iran. Isfahan flourished between the 9th and 18th centuries under the Safavid dynasty, when it became the capital of Persia for the second time in its history under Shah Abbas the Great. The city retains much of its history. It is famous for its Perso–Islamic architecture, grand boulevards, covered bridges, palaces, tiled mosques, and minarets. Isfahan also has many historical buildings, monuments, paintings, and artifacts. The fame of Isfahan led to the Persian proverb "Esfahān nesf-e-jahān ast": Isfahan is half (of) the world. The Naqsh-e Jahan Square in Isfahan is one of the largest city squares in the world. UNESCO has designated it a World Heritage Site. Etymology Isfahan is derived from Middle Persian . is attested in various Middle Persian seals and inscriptions, including that of the Zoroastrian magi Kartir, and is also the Armenian name of the city (). The present-day name is the Arabicized form of Ispahan (unlike Middle Persian but similar to Spanish, New Persian does not allow initial consonant clusters such as sp). The region appears with the abbreviation GD (Southern Media) on Sasanian numismatics. In Ptolemy's Geographia, it appears as (), translating to "place of gathering for the army". It is believed that derives from "the armies", Old Persian plural of , from which derives () 'army' and (, 'soldier', literally 'of the army') in Middle Persian. Some of the other ancient names include Gey, Jey (old form Zi), Park, and Judea. History Human habitation of the Isfahan region can be traced back to the Palaeolithic period. Archaeologists have recently found artifacts dating back to the Palaeolithic, Mesolithic, Neolithic, Bronze, and Iron Ages. Bronze Age What became the city of Isfahan likely emerged and gradually developed over the course of the Elamite civilisation (2700–1600 BCE). Zoroastrian era Under Median rule, a commercial entrepôt began to show signs of more sedentary urbanism, steadily growing into a noteworthy regional center that benefited from the exceptionally fertile soil on the banks of the Zayandehrud River in a region called Aspandana or Ispandana. When Cyrus the Great unified Persian and Median lands into the Achaemenid Empire, the religiously and ethnically diverse city of Isfahan became an early example of the king's fabled religious tolerance. It was Cyrus who, having just taken Babylon, made an edict in 538 BCE, declaring that the Jews in Babylon could return to Jerusalem. Nowadays, some of the freed Jews settled in Isfahan instead of returning to their homeland. The 10th-century Persian historian Ibn al-Faqih wrote: The Parthians, in the period 247 BCE–224 CE, continued the tradition of tolerance after the fall of the Achaemenids, fostering the Hellenistic dimension within Iranian culture and the political organization introduced by Alexander the Great's invading armies. Under the Parthians, Arsacid governors administered the provinces of the nation from Isfahan, and the city's urban development accelerated to accommodate the needs of a capital city. The next empire to rule Persia, the Sassanids (224 CE–651 CE), presided over massive changes in their realm, instituting sweeping agricultural reform and reviving Iranian culture and the Zoroastrian religion. Both the city and region were then called by the name Aspahan or Spahan. The city was governed by a group called the Espoohrans, who came from seven noble and important Iranian royal families. Extant foundations of some Sassanid-era bridges in Isfahan suggest that the Sasanian kings were fond of ambitious urban planning projects. While Isfahan's political importance declined during the period, many Sassanid princes would study statecraft in the city, and its military role developed rapidly. Its strategic location at the intersection of the ancient roads to Susa and Persepolis made it an ideal candidate to house a standing army, ready to march against Constantinople at any moment. The words 'Aspahan' and 'Spahan' are derived from the Pahlavi or Middle Persian meaning 'the place of the army'. Although many theories have been mentioned about the origin of Isfahan, in fact little is known of it before the rule of the Sasanian dynasty (c. 224–c. 651 CE). The historical facts suggest that in the late 4th and early 5th centuries, Queen Shushandukht, the Jewish consort of Yazdegerd I (reigned 399–420) settled a colony of Jews in Yahudiyyeh (also spelled Yahudiya), a settlement 3 km northwest of the Zoroastrian city of Gabae (its Achaemid and Parthian name; Gabai was its Sasanic name, which was shortened to Gay (Arabic 'Jay') that was located on the northern bank of the Zayanderud River(colony's establishment also attributed to Nebuchadrezzar though it's less unlikely). The gradual population decrease of Gay (Jay) and the simultaneous population increase of Yahudiyyeh and its suburbs after the Islamic conquest of Iran resulted in the formation of the nucleus of what was to become the city of Isfahan. The words "Aspadana", "Ispadana", "Spahan" and "Sepahan", all from which the word Isfahan is derived, referred to the region in which the city was located. Isfahan and Gay were both circular in design, a characteristic of Parthian and Sasanian cities. However, this reported Sasanian circular city of Isfahan is not uncovered yet. Islamic era When the Arabs captured Isfahan in 642, they made it the capital of al-Jibal ("the Mountains") province, an area that covered much of ancient Media. Isfahan grew prosperous under the Persian Buyid (Buwayhid) dynasty, which rose to power and ruled much of Iran when the temporal authority of the Abbasid caliphs waned in the 10th century. The city walls of Isfahan are thought to have been constructed during the reign of the Buyid amirs during the tenth century. The Turkish conqueror and founder of the Seljuq dynasty, Toghril Beg, made Isfahan the capital of his domains in the mid-11th century; but it was under his grandson Malik-Shah I (r. 1073–92) that the city grew in size and splendour. After the fall of the Seljuqs (c. 1200), Isfahan temporarily declined and was eclipsed by other Iranian cities such as Tabriz and Qazvin. During his visit in 1327, Ibn Battuta noted that "The city of Isfahan is one of the largest and fairest of cities, but it is now in ruins for the greater part." In 1387, Isfahan surrendered to the Turko-Mongol warlord Timur. Initially treated with relative mercy, the city revolted against Timur's punitive taxes by killing the tax collectors and some of Timur's soldiers. In retribution, Timur ordered the massacre of the city residents, and his soldiers killed a reported 70,000 citizens. An eye-witness counted more than 28 towers, each constructed of about 1,500 heads. Isfahan regained its importance during the Safavid period (1501–1736). The city's golden age began in 1598 when the Safavid ruler Abbas I of Persia (reigned 1588–1629) made it his capital and rebuilt it into one of the largest and most beautiful cities in the 17th-century world. In 1598 Abbas I moved his capital from Qazvin to the more central Isfahan. He introduced policies to develop Iranian involvement in the Silk Road trade. Turkish, Armenian and Persian craftsmen were forcefully resettled in the city to ensure its prosperity. Their contributions to the economic vitality of the revitalized city supported the recovery of Safavid glory and prestige after earlier losses to the Ottomans and Kızılbaş tribes, ushering in a golden age for the city when architecture and Persian culture flourished. As part of Abbas's forced resettlement of peoples from within his empire, as many as 300,000 Armenians (primarily from Jugha) were resettled in Isfahan during Abbas' reign.) In Isfahan, he ordered the foundation of a new quarter for these resettled Armenians from Old Julfa, and thus the Armenian Quarter of Isfahan was named New Julfa (today one of the largest Armenian quarters in the world). In the 16th and 17th centuries, thousands of deportees and migrants from the Caucasus settled in the city. Following an agreement between Shah Abbas I and his Georgian subject Teimuraz I of Kakheti ("Tahmuras Khan"), whereby the latter submitted to Safavid rule in exchange for being allowed to rule as the region's wāli (governor) and for having his son serve as dāruḡa ("prefect") of Isfahan in perpetuity, the Georgian prince converted to Islam and served as governor. He was accompanied by a troop of soldiers, some of whom were Georgian Orthodox Christians. The royal court in Isfahan had a great number of Georgian ḡolāms (military slaves), as well as Georgian women. Although they spoke both Persian and Turkic, their mother tongue was Georgian. So now the city had enclaves of Georgian, Circassian, and Daghistani descent. Engelbert Kaempfer, who dwelt in Safavid Persia in 1684–85, estimated their number at 20,000. During Abbas's reign, Isfahan became very famous in Europe, and many European travellers made an account of their visit to the city, such as Jean Chardin. This prosperity lasted until it was sacked by Afghan invaders in 1722 during a marked decline in Safavid influence. Thereafter, Isfahan experienced a decline in importance, culminating in a move of the capital to Mashhad and Shiraz during the Afsharid and Zand periods respectively, until it was finally moved to Tehran in 1775 by Agha Mohammad Khan, the founder of the Qajar dynasty. In the early years of the 19th century, efforts were made to preserve some of Isfahan's archeologically important buildings. The work was started by Mohammad Hossein Khan during the reign of Fath Ali Shah. Modern age In the 20th century, Isfahan was resettled by many people from southern Iran, firstly during the population migrations at the start of the century, and again in the 1980s following the Iran–Iraq War. During the war, 23,000 were killed by Isfahan and there were 43,000 veterans. Today, Isfahan produces fine carpets, textiles, steel, handicrafts, and traditional foods including sweets. There are nuclear experimental reactors as well as facilities for producing nuclear fuel (UCF) within the environs of the city. Isfahan has one of the largest steel-producing facilities in the region, as well as facilities for producing special alloys. Mobarakeh Steel Company is the biggest steel producer in the whole of the Middle East and Northern Africa, and it is the biggest DRI producer in the world. The Isfahan Steel Company was the first manufacturer of constructional steel products in Iran, and it remains the largest such company today. The city has an international airport and a metro line. There is a major oil refinery and a large air-force base outside the city. HESA, Iran's most advanced aircraft manufacturing plant, is located just outside the city. Isfahan is also attracting international investment. Isfahan hosted the International Physics Olympiad in 2007. 2020 Iran-Qatar Joint Economic Commission met in the city. Geography The city is located in the lush plains of the Zayanderud River at the foothills of the Zagros mountain range. The nearest mountain is Mount Soffeh (Kuh-e Soffeh), just south of the city. Hydrography There is an artificial network of canals whose components are called Madi which were built during the rule of Safavid dynasty for water channeling from "Zaayaandeh Roud" river into different parts of the city. Designed by Sheikh Bahaï, an engineer of Shah Abbas, this network has 77 madis on the northern part, and 71 on the southern part of Zayandeh Roud. In 1993, this centuries-old network provided 91% of agricultural water needs, 4% of industrial needs, and 5% of city needs. 70 emergency wells were dug in 2018 to avoid water shortages. Ecological issues Towns and villages around Isfahan have been hit so hard by drought and water diversion that they have emptied out and people who lived there have moved. An anonymous journalist said that what's called drought is more often the mismanagement of water. Subsidence rate is dire and decreases by one meter in aquifer level annually. As of 2020 the city had the worst air quality between major Iranian cities. Flora and fauna The Damask rose cultivar Rosa 'Ispahan' is named after the city. Isfahan endemic cows went extinct in 2020. Wagtails are often seen in farmlands and parks. The mole cricket is one of the major pests of plants in the soil, especially grass roots. Sheep and rams are the animal symbol of Isfahan. Armed forces base IRGC AF has an airbase in the city and has been taking a cloud seeding contract project through UAVs in Isfahan. The Islamic Republic of Iran Air Force has an airbase named 8th Predator Tactical Fighter Base (TFB.8) which is the home base for Iranian F-14s. Sepah Pasdaran is named "Master of the Era" ("Saheb al zaman" in Arabic and Farsi) after Mahdi. Climate Situated at above sea level on the eastern side of the Zagros Mountains, Isfahan has a cold desert climate (Köppen BWk). No geological obstacles exist within north of Isfahan, allowing cool winds to blow from this direction. Despite its altitude, Isfahan remains hot during the summer, with maxima typically around 35 °C (95 °F). However, with low humidity and moderate temperatures at night, the climate is quite pleasant. During the winter, days are cool while nights can be very cold. Snow falls an average of 7.8 days each winter. The Zayande River starts in the Zagros Mountains, flowing from the west through the heart of the city, then dissipates in the Gavkhouni wetland. Planting olive trees in the city is economically viable because it is compatible with water shortages. Demographics The mean of the first marriage age, for females and males in 2019 was 25 and 30 years respectively. Culture Isfahan international convention center is under construction. The Isfahan annual literature prize began in 2004. New Art Paradise built in District 6 in 2019 has the biggest open amphitheatre in the country. Since 2005, November 22 is Isfahan's National Day commemorated with various events. Based on a statue creator's symposium in 2020, the city decided to add 11 permanent art pieces to the city's monuments. Ancient traditions included Tirgan, Sepandārmazgān festivals, and historically, men used to wear Kolah namadi. The Isfahan School of painting flourished during the Safavid era. The Esfahan province annual theatre festival is in this city. Theater performances began in 1919 (1297 AH), and currently, there are 9 active theaters. Music Bayat-e Esfahan is one of the melodic pieces of Iranian traditional music. Iranian singer Salar Aghili performed in the city of Isfahan on January 12 and 13, 2018, without the female members of his band due to interference by local officials at the Ministry of Islamic Culture and Guidance. Technology, ICT and media Atlas for Isfahan Megacity is an internet service for data and statistics in Farsi made available in 2015. IRIB has a TV network and Radio channel in the city. During the Qajar era, Farhang, the first newspaper publication in the city, was printed for 13 years. Iran Metropolises News Agency (IMNA) formerly called Isfahan Municipality News Agency is based in the city. Philosophy and Islamic school Some major philosophers include Mir Damad, known for his concepts of time and nature, as well as founding the School of Isfahan, and Mir Fendereski, who was known for his examination of art and philosophy within a society. Dialect Esfahani is one of the main dialects of Western Persian. Jewish districts have a unique dialect. Cultural sites Hall of Art, Isfahan Main places The city centre consists of an older section revolving around the Jameh Mosque, and the Safavid expansion around Naqsh-e Jahan Square, with nearby places of worship, palaces, and bazaars. Cemeteries Bagh-e Rezvan Cemetery is one of the biggest and advanced in the country. Other cemeteries include New Julfa Armenian Cemetery & Takht-e Foulad. Bazaars Bazaar of Isfahan & Qeysarie Gate was built in– 17th century.Social hubs were opium houses & coffeehouses clustered around Chahar bagh & Chehel sotun the best-known traditional coffeehouse is qahva-ḵāna-ye Golestān There is also Bazar Honar. Bridges The bridges on the Zayanderud river comprise some of the finest architecture in Isfahan. The oldest bridge is the Shahrestan bridge, whose foundations were built by the Sasanian Empire (3rd–7th century Sassanid era); it was repaired during the Seljuk period. Further upstream is the Khaju bridge, which Shah Abbas II built in 1650. It is long with 24 arches, and also serves as a sluice gate. Another bridge is the Choobi (Joui) bridge, which was originally an aqueduct to supply the palace gardens on the north bank of the river. Further upstream again is the Si-o-Seh Pol or bridge of 33 arches. The building was built during the reign of Shah Abbas the Great by Sheikh Baha'i and connected Isfahan with the Armenian suburbs of New Jolfa. Armenian suburb of New Julfa. It is by far the longest bridge in Isfahan at . Another notable bridge is the Marnan Bridge. Churches and cathedrals Churches in the city are mostly in the New Julfa region. Some of the historically important ones are Bedkhem Church – 1627, St. Georg Church – 17th century, St. Mary Church – 17th century, Vank Cathedral – 1664. The oldest one is St. Jakob Church – 1607. Emamzadehs Emamzadeh Ahmad Emamzadeh Esmaeil, Isfahan Emamzadeh Haroun-e-Velayat – 16th century Emamzadeh Jafar Emamzadeh Shah Zeyd Gardens and parks The Pardis Honar Park cost 30 billion toman in District 6 by 2018. Some other zoological gardens and parks (including public & private beach parks, non beach parks) are Birds Garden, Flower Garden of Isfahan, Nazhvan Recreational Complex, Moshtagh, amusement park, and the East Park of Isfahan. Houses Alam's House Amin's House Malek Vineyard Qazvinis' House – 19th century Sheykh ol-Eslam's House Constitution House of Isfahan Mausoleums and tombs Al-Rashid Mausoleum – 12th century Baba Ghassem Mausoleum – 14th century Mausoleum of Safavid Princes Nizam al-Mulk Tomb – 11th century Saeb Mausoleum Shahshahan mausoleum – 15th century Soltan Bakht Agha Mausoleum – 14th century Minarets Menar Jonban was built in the 14th century. The tomb is an Iwan measuring 10 meters high. Other menars include Ali minaret – 11th century, Bagh-e-Ghoushkhane minaret – 14th century, Chehel Dokhtaran minaret – 12 century, Dardasht minarets – 14th century, Darozziafe minarets – 14th century, and Sarban minaret. Mosques Agha Nour mosque – 16th century Hakim Mosque Ilchi mosque Jameh Mosque Jarchi mosque – 1610 Lonban mosque Maghsoudbeyk mosque – 1601 Mohammad Jafar Abadei mosque – 1878 Rahim Khan mosque – 19th century Roknolmolk mosque Seyyed mosque – 19th century Shah Mosque – 1629 Sheikh Lotf Allah Mosque – 1618 Museums Contemporary Arts Museum Isfahan Isfahan City Center Museum Museum of Decorative Arts Natural History Museum of Isfahan – 15th century Schools (madresse) Chahar Bagh School – early 17th century Harati Kassegaran school – 1694 Madreseye Khajoo Nimavar school – 1691 Sadr school – 19th century Palaces and caravanserais Ali Qapu (The Royal Palace) – early 17th century Chehel Sotoun (The Palace of Forty Columns) – 1647 Hasht-Behesht (The Palace of Eight Paradises) – 1669 Shah Caravanserai Talar Ashraf (The Palace of Ashraf) – 1650 Squares and streets Chaharbagh Boulevard – 1596 Chaharbagh-e-khajou Boulevard Meydan Kohne (Old Square) Naqsh-e Jahan Square also known as "Shah Square" or "Imam Square" – 1602 Amadegah Taleghani street (Shah street) Synagogues Kenisa-ye Bozorg (Mirakhor's kenisa) Kenisa-ye Molla Rabbi Kenisa-ye Sang-bast Mullah Jacob Synagogue Mullah Neissan Synagogue Kenisa-ye Keter David Other sites Atashgah – a Zoroastrian fire temple New Julfa – 1606 Pigeon Towers that are placed all around the city namely 22 towers inside Gavart, Hase – 17th century Isfahan Observatory Asarkhane Shahi Cuisine Gosh-e fil and Doogh is a famous city snack. Other traditional breakfasts, desserts and meals include Khoresht mast, Beryani and meat with beans and pumpkin aush. Gaz & Poolaki are two popular Iranian candy types originating in Isfahan. Economy In 2014, Isfahan province industry, mines and commerce accounted for 35% to 50% (almost $229 billion) of Iranian Gross Domestic Product. Isfahan province's governorate in 2019 said that tourism is number one priority. According to Esfahan province's Administrator for Department of Cooperatives, Labour, and Social Welfare, Iran has cheapest labor workforce anywhere in the world and this low wage attracts foreign investors. Unemployment rate was 15% by 2018. Isfahan University of Technology is one of Iran's most prestigious engineering universities and focuses on science, engineering, and agriculture programs. The labor force shows a continuous growth in the last three decades. There are almost 500,000 people living in slums, including in the northern part and especially eastern sector of the city. Isfahan Fair, a 22 hectare exhibition center aimed at increasing tourism, is under construction. built in 1992 maintains powergrid expansion in the city. As of September 2020, handicrafts of Isfahan Province makes annual $500 million. Municipality has made an internet payment software. Aquaculture and agriculture Isfahan city is one of the active cities in this field with the production of 1,300 tons of salmon. More than 28% of the country's ornamental fish is produced in Isfahan province and 780 units are active in the field of ornamental fish production, which in 2017 produced 65 million and 500 thousand pieces of ornamental fish in Isfahan province. Opium was produced and exported in Isfahan from 1850 until it became illegal and was an important source of income. Isfahan has a large number of aqueducts, Farmers had to divert water from the river to farms by canal. Niasarm is one of the biggest water canals. From 2012 to 2013 there have been large protests against Isfahan-Yazd water tunnel by farmers, In 2019, eastern city farmers demanded water otherwise they'd sabotage water transfer pipes. Fruits and vegetables central market is where farmers sell their product wholesale buying 10,000 tons farmers product a day. High tech and heavy industries The industrialization of Isfahan dates from the Pahlavi period as in all of Iran, and was marked by the strong growth at that time of the textile industry; which earned the city the nickname “ Manchester of Persia”. There are 9,200 industrial units in the city %40 of Iranian textile industry is in Isfahan. Telecommunication Company of Iran and Mobile Telecommunication Company of Iran provide 4G, 3G, broadband, and VDSL. Isfahan Scientific and Research Town started its executive activity in 2001 for acting as a medium between government, industry and academia toward a knowledge-based economy. It is also the third-largest medicine manufacturing hub in Iran. Education and science Before schools there were maktabkhanehs in the city. In 2019 there were 20 special schools with 5,000 children in the city. The Isfahan University of Medical Sciences was established in 1947 and has almost 9,200 students & interns. The university campus is adjacent to the University of Isfahan. The Isfahan University of Art was established 1977. It was temporarily closed after the 1979 revolution, and reopened in 1984 after Iranian Cultural Revolution. The first technical university in Iran, the Isfahan University of Technology was established in the city in 1974. Aside from the seminaries and religious schools, the other public, private major universities of the Isfahan metropolitan area include: Mohajer Technical And Vocational College of Isfahan, Payame Noor University, Islamic Azad University of Isfahan, Islamic Azad University of Najafabad & Islamic Azad University of Majlesi. In total, there are more than 7,329 schools in Isfahan province. There are also more than 50 technical and vocational training centres in the province under the administration of Esfahan TVTO, which provide free, non-formal workforce skills training programs. As of 2020, 90% of workforce skills trainees are women. Transportation Ride sharing Snapp! and Tapsi are two of the carpooling apps in the city. There are 42 bicycle sharing stations and 150 kilometers bicycle pavements built by the city. As a part of Iran's religious laws, women are forbidden to use the public bicycle-sharing network, as decreed by the representative of the Supreme Leader in Isfahan Ayatollah Yousef Tabatabai Nejad and General Attorney Ali Esfahani. Airports Isfahan is served by Isfahan International Airport, which in 2019 was the 7th busiest airport in Iran. Roads and freeways Over the past decade, Isfahan's internal highway network has been undergoing a major expansion. Much care has been taken to prevent damage to valuable, historical buildings. Modern freeways connect the city to Iran's other major cities, including the capital Tehran (400 km) to the north and Shiraz (200 km) to the south. Highways also service satellite cities surrounding the metropolitan area. The Isfahan Eastern Bypass Freeway is under construction. In 2021 a new AVL system was deployed in the city. Public transit Isfahan and Suburbs Bus Company runs transit buses in the city. The East-West BRT Bus Rapid Transit line buses carry up to 120,000 passengers on peak days. The municipality has signed a memorandum with Khatam-al Anbiya to construct a tram network in the city. The Isfahan Metro was opened on 15 October 2015. It currently consists of one nort-south line of a length of 11 km, but two more lines are currently under construction, alongside three suburban rail lines. The city of Isfahan is served by a railway station, with the IRIR running services to Bandarabbas and Mashhad. The first high-speed railway in Iran, the Tehran-Qom-Isfahan line is currently being constructed and will connect Isfahan to Tehran and Qom. Notable people Music Jalal Taj Esfahani (1903–1981) Alireza Eftekhari (1956–), singer Leila Forouhar (1959–), pop singer Hassan Kassai (1928–2012), musician Hassan Shamaizadeh, songwriter and singer Jalil Shahnaz (1921–2013), tar soloist, a traditional Persian instrument Film Rasul Sadr Ameli (1953–), director Sara Bahrami (1983–), actor Homayoun Ershadi (1947–), Hollywood actor and architect Soraya Esfandiary-Bakhtiari (1956–2001), the former princess of Iran and actress Bahman Farmanara (1942–), director Jahangir Forouhar (1916–1997), actor and father of Leila Forouhar (Iranian singer) Mohamad Ali Keshvarz (1930–2020), actor Mahdi Pakdel (1980–), actor Nosratollah Vahdat (1925–2020), actor Craftsmen and painters Mahmoud Farshchian (1930–), painter and miniaturist Bogdan Saltanov (1630s–1703), Russian icon painter of Isfahanian Armenian origin Political figures Ahmad Amir-Ahmadi (1906–1965), military leader and cabinet minister Ayatollah Mohammad Beheshti (1928–1981), cleric, Chairman of the Council of Revolution of Iran Nusrat Bhutto, Chairman of Pakistan Peoples Party from 1979 to 1983; wife of Zulfikar Ali Bhutto; mother of Benazir Bhutto Hossein Fatemi, PhD (1919–1954), politician; foreign minister in Mohamed Mossadegh's cabinet Mohammad-Ali Foroughi (1875–1942), a politician and Prime Minister of Iran in the World War II era Dariush Forouhar (August 1928 – November 1998), a founder and leader of the Hezb-e Mellat-e Iran (Nation of Iran Party) Hossein Kharrazi, chief of the army in the Iran–Iraq War Mohsen Nourbakhsh (1948–2003), economist, Governor of the Central Bank of Iran Mohammad Javad Zarif (1960–), Minister of Foreign Affairs and former Ambassador of Iran to the United Nations Religious figures Lady Amin (Banou Amin) (1886–1983), Iran's most outstanding female jurisprudent, theologian and great Muslim mystic (‘arif), a Lady Mujtahideh Amina Begum Bint al-Majlisi was a female Safavid mujtahideh Ayatollah Mohammad Beheshti (1928–1981), cleric, Chairman of the Council of Revolution of Iran Allamah al-Majlisi (1616–1698), Safavid cleric, Sheikh ul-Islam in Isfahan Salman the Persian Muhammad Ibn Manda (d. 1005 / AH 395), Sunni Hanbali scholar of hadith and historian Abu Nu'aym Al-Ahbahani Al-Shafi'i (d. 1038 / AH 430), Sunni Shafi'i Scholar Seyyed Ali Qazi Askar (1954) Iran's supreme leader representative, in Haj Sportspeople Abdolali Changiz, football star of Esteghlal FC in the 1970s Mansour Ebrahimzadeh, former player for Sepahan FC, former head coach of Zobahan Ghasem Haddadifar, captain of Zobahan FC Arsalan Kazemi, forward for the Oregon Ducks men's basketball team and the Iran national basketball team Rasoul Korbekandi, goalkeeper of the Iranian National Team Moharram Navidkia, captain of Sepahan FC Mohammad Talaei, world champion wrestler Mahmoud Yavari (1939-), football player, coach of Iranian National Team Sohrab Moradi (1988-), Olympic weightlifting gold medalist, world record holder of 105 kg category Milad Beigi (1991-) Olympic taekwando bronze medalist, world champion Sina Karimian, k-1 cruiserweight kickboxing champion Writers and poets Mohammad-Ali Jamālzādeh Esfahani (1892–1997), author Hatef Esfehani, Persian Moral poet in the Afsharid Era Kamal ed-Din Esmail (late 12th century - early 13th century) Houshang Golshiri (1938–2000), writer and editor Hamid Mosadegh (1939–1998), poet and lawyer Mirza Abbas Khan Sheida (1880–1949), poet and publisher Saib Tabrizi Others Ispahani family, Perso-Bangladeshi business family Abd-ol-Ghaffar Amilakhori, 17th-century noble Adib Boroumand (1924-), poet, politician, lawyer, and leader of the National Front George Bournoutian, professor, historian, and author Jesse of Kakheti, king of Kakheti in eastern Georgia from 1614 to 1615 Simon II of Kartli, king of Kartli in eastern Georgia from 1619 to 1630/1631 David II of Kakheti, king of Kakheti in eastern Georgia from 1709 to 1722 Constantine II of Kakheti, king of Kakheti in eastern Georgia from 1722 to 1732 Nasser David Khalili (1945–), property developer, art collector, and philanthropist Arthur Pope (1881–1969), American archaeologist, buried near Khaju Bridge Alexandre de Rhodes (1591–1660), French Jesuit, designer of Vietnamese alphabet, buried in the city's Armenian cemetery Recreation and tourism In 2019-2018 some 450,000 foreign nationals visited the city.Some 110 trillion rials (over $2 billion at the official rate of 42,000 rials (2020) have been invested in the province’s tourism sector. The central historical area in Isfahan is called Seeosepol. Isfahan is noted for its production of the Isfahan rug, a type of Persian rug typically made of merino wool and silk. Teahouses are supervised and allowed to offer Hookah until 2022. As of 2020 there are almost 300 teahouses with permit. Nazhvan Park hosts a reptile zoo with 40 aquariums. Saadi water park, Nazhvan kids water park. Ancient baths include Jarchi hammam & The Bathhouse of Bahāʾ al-dīn al-ʿĀmilī; a public bath called “Garmabeh-e-shaykh” in Isfahan which for a long period it was running and providing hot water to public for years without any visible heating system of the day which usually needed tons of wood was built by Baha' al-din al-'Amili. Khosro Agha hammam was demolished by unknown people in 1992. Ali Gholi Agha hammam is another remaining one. Chardin writes that the number of baths in Isfahan in the Safavid era is 273. There is a lot of luxury party gardens & wedding halls. Religious attractions Churches There are many churches and synagogues in this city, with the main part of the churches being in Julfa region. Some of the city's churches date back to the 17th century, the most famous and oldest being the Vank Cathedral, the St. Mary Church, Isfahan, St. Georg Church and St. Nerses Church. Medical tourism Isfahan Healthcare city complex, built on a 300 hectare site near the Aqa Babaei Expressway, is intended to boost the city's medical tourism revenues. Shopping Hypermarkets Refah Chain Stores Co., Iran Hyper Star, Isfahan city center, Shahrvand Chain Stores Inc., Kowsar Market & Isfahan Mall. Cinemas There are 9 cinemas. Historically cinemas in old Isfahan were entertainment for worker class while the religious people considered cinema to be mostly an impure place and going to the cinema to be haram. Because of the 1979 revolution, many cinemas in Isfahan were burned down. Great filmmakers such as Agnès Varda and Pier Paolo Pasolini shot scenes from their films in Isfahan. Cinema Iran now a ruin was one of the oldest cinemas in the city. Sports Isfahan has three association football clubs that play professionally. These are: Sepahan Isfahan FC Zob Ahan Isfahan FC Giti Pasand Polyacryl Esfahan F.C. (historic) Sepahan has won the most league titles among the Iranian clubs (2002–03, 2009–10, 2010–11, 2011–12 and 2014–15). Giti Pasand also has a futsal team, Giti Pasand FSC, one of the best teams in Asia. They won the AFC Futsal Club Championship in 2012 and were runners-up in 2013. Basketball clubs include Zob Ahan Isfahan BC, Foolad Mahan Isfahan BC. There is also women's volleyball team Giti Pasand Isfahan VC that plays matches in Iranian Women's Volleyball League. There are Pahlavani zoorkhanehs in the city. Foolad Mobarakeh Sepahan (handball) team is one of the teams in the Iranian handball league. Sepahan has a youth women runners that became national champion in 2020. Civic administration There is a smart city program, a unified human resources administration system, transport system. Municipal government The chairman of the city council is Alireza Nasrisfahani,There is also the Leadership council within city council. and the mayor is Ghodratollah Noroozi. Representative for supreme leader and representative for Isfahan in Assembly of Experts is Yousef Tabatabai Nejad. The city's divided into 15 municipal districts.In 2020, Municipality employed 6,250 people with additional 3,000 people in 16 subsidiaries. Public works Coloring theme for the city has been Turquoise for a period of time. City waste is processed and recycled in Isfahan Waste Complex. is responsible for piping operation, network installation, preventive maintenance, repairing waterworks, wastewater equipment, supervising wastewater collection and treatment and disposal in the city. Municipality created a document in 2020 outlining future development program for the city. Human resources and public health As of June 2020, 65% of the population of Isfahan province has had social security insurance . Isfahan is known as the Multiple sclerosis capital of the world due to the presence of polluting industries. In 2015, with the cut-off of the Zayandehrood River, almost 15% of people suffered from depression. International relations The Isfahan municipality created a citizen diplomacy service program to boost foreign relations of the city through connections with sister cities around the world. Russian Federation General Consulate in Isfahan is registered cultural heritage. Chinese have expressed readiness to be the first country that opens consulate in a diplomatic zone in the central city The residence of Afghan nationals is allowed in Esfahan city.There is a plan in the future to create a diplomatic district next to Imam Khamenei international convention center for countries to base their consulates offices in. It is a member of the League of Historical Cities since 1994 and full member of Inter-City Intangible Cultural Cooperation Network. Twin towns – sister cities Isfahan is twinned with: Baalbek, Lebanon (2010) Dakar, Senegal (2009) Florence, Italy (1998) Freiburg im Breisgau, Germany (2000) Havana, Cuba (2001) Iași, Romania (1999) Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia (1997) Kuwait City, Kuwait (2000) Lahore, Pakistan (2004) Saint Petersburg, Russia (2004) Yerevan, Armenia (2000) Xi'an, Shaanxi, China (1989) Cooperation agreements Isfahan cooperates with: Barcelona, Spain (2000) Gyeongju, South Korea (2013) In addition, the New Julfa quarter of Isfahan has friendly relations with: Issy-les-Moulineaux, France (2018) See also List of the historical structures in the Isfahan province Islamic City Council of Isfahan 15861 Ispahan New Julfa Prix d'Ispahan Acid attacks on women in Isfahan Isfahan National Holy Association Courts of Isfahan Isfahan Seminary References Citations Works cited Further reading External links S treet view Public libraries atlas (Persian) Digital Library of Isfahan Municipality Populated places in Isfahan County Cities in Isfahan Province Former capitals of Iran Iranian provincial capitals Achaemenid cities Seleucid colonies Parthian cities Sasanian cities
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jerry%20Quarry
Jerry Quarry
Jerry Quarry (May 15, 1945 – January 3, 1999), nicknamed "Irish" or "The Bellflower Bomber", was an American professional boxer. During the peak of his career from 1968 to 1971, Quarry was rated by The Ring magazine as the most popular fighter in the sport. His most famous bouts were against Muhammad Ali. Accumulated damage from lack of attention to defense against larger men at the top level, no head guard sparring, and attempted comebacks in 1977, 1983 and 1992 resulted in Quarry developing an unusually severe case of dementia pugilistica. Unable to perform everyday tasks, dependent on his family, and with the fortune he had earned frittered away, Quarry died at 53 years old. Boxing career Early days Quarry was the most visible member of a significant Irish-American boxing family, which included three other pro boxers (his father and two brothers). Quarry's father first put gloves on his son at five years. His career, he later felt, was decided for him at a very young age. Quarry fought first as a Junior Amateur, winning his first trophies at the age of eight. Later, he contracted nephritis, a debilitating illness which sidelined him for years. His comeback from that illness to become a professional athlete was considered medically remarkable. Quarry came to notice by winning the 1965 National Golden Gloves championship in Kansas City at age 19. Weighing just 183 pounds, Quarry knocked out each of his five opponents in the tournament, a feat unmatched. Quarry had over 200 fights in his amateur career. He turned professional in 1965 and though undersized and cut prone compared to many of his rivals, established himself as a ticket selling attraction that promoters could count on. 1960s Despite starting in May, Quarry had 14 matches in 1965 at the start of his pro career. Many of his early career fights took place at the Olympic Auditorium in Los Angeles, where he became established as a draw. Quarry supplemented meager boxing pay by working as a tire changer at a Greyhound bus terminal. Quarry was fast handed and an effective counter puncher, but with a tendency to neglect defense and rely on his excellent chin. He had three draws on his record by the time of his first loss, which came in his 21st bout in July 1966 against crafty spoiler Eddie Machen, known for his feat of breaking Sonny Liston's run of knockouts. More careful promotor's choice of opponents for their ticket selling asset subsequently saw Quarry rise in the rankings. Championship Tournament In mid-1967, the World Boxing Association (W.B.A.) held a tournament to replace Muhammad Ali, who had been stripped of his title for refusing induction into the military after being drafted. The tournament was expanded to include eight heavyweights, and did not include Joe Frazier, who had accepted a title belt outside the WBA. When the tournament was expanded, Quarry was included. Quarry's first tournament bout was a rematch of his fourth draw fight earlier that year against former world champion Floyd Patterson. In both matches, Quarry dominated the early rounds with multiple knockdowns of Patterson, but faded in the latter stages. He hung on better in the second bout, and was given a split-decision victory. His second tournament match was a KO win against fellow Californian Thad Spencer, who was highly lauded and ranked coming into the match. In the final against crafty ex-middleweight Jimmy Ellis, Quarry prior to the bout sustained a broken back from an injury on the diving board at a pool that later developed into gangrene. Ellis was wary of Quarry's unorthodox tactic (displayed to great effect against Patterson) of retreating into the ropes then catching his opponent with a sudden two-fisted attack and Quarry--strangely unwilling to take the initiative--lost a majority decision and his best chance of fulfilling his dream of winning a world heavyweight title. After a layoff of six months, Quarry returned after the Ellis loss to post another streak of wins. Notable among these was a lopsided 12-round decision win over 1964 U.S. Olympian Buster Mathis. The win over the ranked (and much bigger) Mathis positioned Quarry for his second title shot. Frazier and Chuvalo Joe Frazier had not yet KO'd Ellis, but was considered by many to be the most legitimate heavyweight champion. Quarry met Frazier June, 23rd, 1969 at New York City's Madison Square Garden, where Quarry could count on fan support. The fight was Ring Magazine's "Fight of The Year". Frazier and Quarry went head-to-head and Frazier's high-tempo pressure came to dominate and the fight was stopped in the 7th round after Quarry, bleeding from the nose and with a very large cut under the eye, took a series of hard punches without moving away or hitting back. Returning quickly after the loss to Frazier, Quarry won two bouts before meeting Canadian George Chuvalo in December, 1969. The bout against Chuvalo, then unranked, would be the subject of controversy. Quarry was well ahead, when in the 7th round, Chuvalo knocked Quarry down. Quarry rose at the count of four, then took a knee but on rising exactly at the count of ten, he found referee Zach Clayton ruled a KO. Quarry appeared as himself in the Season 4 episode of the fantasy sitcom I Dream of Jeannie entitled "The Strongest Man in the World." Quarry's character was hired by NASA to train astronaut Tony "One-Punch" Nelson (Larry Hagman) for the annual Armed Forces Boxing tournament, headed by Gen. Hamilton (Richard X. Slattery). The episode was originally broadcast on November 18, 1968. 1970s Quarry returned quickly after the controversial loss to Chuvalo to post another streak of wins. Noteworthy among them was a 6th-round KO win over fellow Californian Mac Foster. Foster came into the bout ranked #1 with a record of 24-0, with all 24 wins by KO. Quarry was ranked #6, and weighed 195 for the bout. Foster weighed 215. It was a very impressive, dominating win by Quarry which figured to put him back in line for another title shot. At this time, exiled former champion Muhammad Ali had successfully sued to win the right to return as a professional boxer. Ali approached every one of the ten ranked heavyweights for a match. Quarry was the only one willing to face him, and so got the nod for the first bout against Ali in his return. The bout received tremendous publicity and arguably remains today as Quarry's most famous bout. The bout took place at the City Auditorium in Atlanta, Georgia on October 26, 1970. Ali dominated the first two rounds, moving well and scoring with his left jab and combinations. Quarry was able to land only a handful of punches, most of them glancing blows. In the third round, Quarry was badly cut by a right hand over his left eye following an exchange with Ali. Trainer Teddy Bentham, a veteran cutman, realized the cut was too severe for Quarry to continue, even though he argued to continue. Referee Tony Perez waved the bout over before the start of the 4th round, which was ruled a 3rd round technical KO. Quarry disputed the decision and demanded a rematch against Ali, which he would later receive. Following the loss to Ali, Quarry had his second six-month layoff. He focused on television roles during this period, appearing on a number of television shows. In June, 1971, he returned to start another streak of wins. Noteworthy among them was a revenge of his earlier draw against tall Tony Doyle at the Playboy Club in Lake Geneva, Wisconsin with a lopsided decision. He then KO'd British and European champion Jack Bodell in the first round. That fight was held in London. His second fight there during this streak was against Larry Middleton. Middleton was the kind of tall, quick boxer with long reach who often gave Quarry trouble in bouts. Quarry won a very narrow, controversial decision against Middleton. By then, Quarry had lobbied long and hard for a rematch against Ali. He finally was allowed that rematch a month after the Middleton bout. The second bout against Ali, no longer champion at this point, took place at the Las Vegas Convention Center on June 27, 1972. Their match was the headlining bout of a fight card that Ali called "The Soul Brothers Versus The Quarry Brothers." Bob Arum promoted the fight, with Ali playing up the obvious racial differences between his black fighters and the white Quarrys. In an earlier bout, Jerry's brother Mike, a high-ranked light heavyweight contender was KO'd by Light heavyweight champion and devastating puncher Bob Foster, and seriously injured. Ali weighed 216 for their bout, Quarry 198. The bout was eventful. At the opening bell, Quarry rushed Ali, got under his shoulders and lifted him briefly off the canvas before referee Mike Kaplan separated the fighters. Ali dominated most of the fight, using his jab. Visibly tired at the end of the 6th round, Quarry came out for the seventh and was hit by a half-dozen shots by Ali, who waved the referee in to stop the fight, which Quarry protested. Nevertheless, the fight was stopped in favor of Ali. The bout was a difficult night for the Quarry family, who were racially insulted by black fight fans and Ali/King supporters. This Ali bout magnified for observers the racial overtones that existed throughout Quarry's career. Greatly supported by white Americans, he had been called a "white hope", or "The Great White Hope". He was also therefore derided by many black American boxing fans of the era for the same reason. Bouncing Back After Ali, Quarry, now managed by Gil Clancy, bounced back to post another streak of wins. He seemed to mature as a fighter here, and 1973 was perhaps his greatest year as a heavyweight. Despite deterioration in his movement and reflexes, and now having very scarred facial tissue, Quarry gave possibly the two best performances of his career next. After defeating 21-2 Randy Neumann in January, Quarry was placed into a bout similar to his previous Mac Foster match, as a ranked tune-up for a higher ranked contender. Ron Lyle was 19-0 with 17 knockouts, and the tough ex-convict was in line for a title shot when he met Quarry in February. The 6' 3" Lyle weighed 219 for the bout, Quarry 200. Despite trailing early on, Quarry took control of the fight in the middle rounds and, in perhaps his best performance, thoroughly outboxed Lyle for a lopsided 12-round decision win in an action packed fight. During this time, Quarry also got a chance to show off his athletic ability. On the ABC television show "The Superstars", Quarry competed against other heavyweight boxers in a series of athletic contests. Winning that competition, he qualified for the Superstars final that year, and finished fourth to three NFL football players, an impressive showing. Noteworthy in those performances was his ability to hit a baseball. Two wins later, Don King brought Quarry in to meet hard-punching Earnie Shavers in December. Shavers was 46-2 with 44 KOs. In another bout filled with the same racial overtones as the second Ali bout, Quarry surprised Shavers. After receiving a few hard shots, he landed a big punch in the 1st round and followed that up to win a stunning first-round KO win. The incensed King reportedly left Shavers in the ring and tore up his contract to manage him. Heavyweight champion George Foreman was in attendance, and negotiations for a title bout were already in motion for mid-1974. After the Shavers bout, Foreman reportedly backed away from that proposed bout. He later claimed to have dodged Quarry, who he never formally met in the ring. Quarry later claimed to be 'locked out' of big-opportunity fights in 1974 by King, and found himself desperately looking for quality opponents that might get him a title shot. In June, 1974, he agreed to rematch Joe Frazier. Quarry was the same size as at their first bout, but Frazier, now 212 pounds, was bigger. Quarry attempted to box Frazier this time, but due to the years of punishment, even in the recent wins against hard hitters Lyle and Shavers, he was more open to Frazier's shots and less mobile than he used to be. Straight away, a determined Frazier began to connect hard punches at the physically diminished Quarry who couldn't muster the movement to evade Frazier. Staggering him with a trademark left hook at the end of the first round, Frazier exposed to the world that Quarry had lost his once great punch resistance. Frazier then began landing solidly with both hands to Quarry's head and body, beginning a sickening beat down. Quarry was already on wobbly legs when Frazier dropped with a hard left hook to the stomach just before the bell ending the 4th round. Quarry was visibly injured by the blow, but tried unsuccessfully to continue. The fight continued, with Frazier backing away from Quarry after opening up bad cuts over both eyes. Joe Louis, however, waved Frazier back on. After landing a few more clean head shots, Louis finally stopped the fight early in the 5th round, a one sided thrashing. Louis never refereed another fight. Quarry by now was not the same fighter he used to be, his reflexes and punch resistance were much diminished. But he was still a talented big-name that could attract crowds. He had made millions in the ring without ever being champion at a time when few had ever made that much money in boxing. He continued his television acting work, and had by now briefly helped road-manage the rock band Three Dog Night. After a win in February, 1975, Quarry begged to be put in line for a fight with contender Ken Norton. When first choices Oscar Bonavena and Jimmy Young bowed out with injuries, Quarry was placed into the Norton bout on 18 days notice. Norton had been training for five months. The Norton fight was Quarry's 62nd pro fight. Norton, who was about the same age as Quarry, was 32-3. The 6' 3" Norton weighed 218 for the bout, Quarry 207 with little training beforehand. Clancy was once again in Quarry's corner. The fight took place March 24, 1975. The fight was a war of hard punches, with Norton connecting well early against a Jerry Quarry with shot reflexes, a sitting duck for Norton's vicious attacks. He was cut badly in the 3rd round, and attacked Norton so that he would have a chance to win before the fight was stopped. Norton survived a tough Quarry attack and continued his assault. The fight was stopped in the 5th round after Quarry came under a barrage of clean shots to the head. There were many calls for him to retire afterwards as it was evident in the Frazier and Norton fights that he was a 'shot' fighter. Retirement Quarry retired for over two and a half years after the Norton fight. His career record was at 50–8–4 at this time, with 32 wins by KO. He had two losses each to Frazier and Ali plus one apiece to Norton, Chuvalo, Ellis and Eddie Machen to this point. He had been ranked as high as the No. 1 contender three times. At around this time, Quarry signed a contract with ABC (American Broadcasting Corporation) to be a boxing commentator. Quarry was very popular in this position, drawing the ire of Howard Cosell, an ABC commentator being pushed out of some work by Quarry. In mid-1977, a return match was being put together which would put Quarry in against a ranked heavyweight. The ranked heavyweight would be Italian Lorenzo Zanon. The match was to be televised on ABC, where Quarry was contracted. But both fighters signed to have the bout televised on CBS (Columbia Broadcasting System). When Quarry, who often negotiated his own fight contracts, signed the bout to CBS, he lost his ABC contract. The comeback match took place in November 1977, at Caesars Palace in Las Vegas. Quarry, weighing 209, looked slow and a shell of his former self, was clearly outboxed over seven rounds by Zanon. But Quarry caught him with a hard right in the 8th round, and won the fight by KO in the 9th. Despite winning, it was a poor performance, and Quarry retired again afterward, this time for almost six years. During those years, Quarry was married and divorced twice. He also lost a great deal of his fortune in failed business investments. No longer doing television work, he decided to return to the ring. With the Cruiserweight division now created, Quarry returned in that weight class. When he returned in August, 1983, he was 38 years old. Though appearing to be in good health, Quarry was in fact already beginning to show the effects of his lengthy boxing career. A Sports Illustrated reporter was researching an article about health problems among retired boxers, especially among those who started as child boxers. The reporter met Quarry, and although he appeared to be in good health, Quarry's performance on several simple cognitive tests was shockingly poor. This was the harbinger of the mental decline that would eventually destroy the last part of his life – dementia pugilistica, the atrophy of the brain from repeated blows to the head, eventually leading to an Alzheimer's-like state. A 1983 CT scan of Quarry's brain done for the article and confidently agreed to by him, showed classic evidence of brain atrophy, including the characteristic cavum septi pellucidi found in many boxers with long careers. Despite these developing facts, Quarry had two wins in 1983, but the fights accelerated his mental decline. He retired again and was inactive as a boxer from 1984 to 1992, but Quarry continued to decline physically and mentally. His entire boxing fortune completely gone by 1990, Quarry filed for Social Security at age 45. Denied a boxing license in many states because of his condition, Quarry found a loophole in Colorado that allowed him to schedule an October 30, 1992 bout with Ron Cramner, a cruiserweight 16 years Quarry's junior. At age 47 years and 6 months old, Quarry provided nothing more than a 6-round punching bag for the younger fighter, losing all six rounds and the decision. Only Quarry's courage and great chin let him last the full 6 rounds. Quarry was never the same after that fight. Last years Within a few years of his final bout Quarry was unable to feed or dress himself and had to be cared for by relatives, mainly his brother James – the only one of the four Quarry brothers not to box professionally. Jerry's brother, Mike, who had contended for the light-heavyweight championship, was himself beginning to show signs of dementia pugilistica in later life, and died as a result on June 11, 2006. Another brother, Bobby, suffers from Parkinson's disease, believed to be the result of his own heavyweight boxing career. Jerry Quarry was inducted into the World Boxing Hall of Fame in 1995. A television news broadcast of the event showed him barely aware of the proceedings, the dementia he suffered now severe. Death Quarry was hospitalized with pneumonia on December 28, 1998, and then suffered cardiac arrest. He never regained consciousness and died on January 3, 1999 at the age of 53. His body was interred at Shafter Cemetery in Shafter, California. Legacy A foundation was established in his honor to battle boxing-related dementia, a condition that has afflicted many boxers and brought Quarry's life to an early end. Quarry's overall professional record was 53–9–4 with 32 KOs. He had been lauded by countless younger boxing stars as an inspiring star in the sport. Joe Frazier, in his autobiography, said of Quarry: "A very tough man. He could have been a world champion, but he cut too easily." George Foreman has also similarly lauded Quarry. Quarry fought in what has been called "The Golden Age Of Heavyweight Boxing", where the talent level of the sport and its level of international interest were at a peak. Interest in boxing has generally declined since. This is at least partly due to the injuries and illnesses associated with the sport. Quarry, Muhammad Ali and other notable boxing stars were debilitated in their retirement. Championships and accomplishments Cauliflower Alley Club Boxing Honoree (1993) Professional boxing record References External links Jerry Quarry Foundation web site The Boxing Brothers "pressure doesn't psych me" quote at Merriam-Webster Boxer Jerry Quarry Remembered 1945 births 1999 deaths Heavyweight boxers American people of Irish descent Boxers from California National Golden Gloves champions Sportspeople from Bakersfield, California Boxing commentators American male boxers People with traumatic brain injuries Sportspeople with chronic traumatic encephalopathy
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jus%20commune
Jus commune
Jus commune or ius commune is Latin for "common law" in certain jurisdictions. It is often used by civil law jurists to refer to those aspects of the civil law system's invariant legal principles, sometimes called "the law of the land" in English law. While the ius commune was a secure point of reference in continental European legal systems, in England it was not a point of reference at all. (Ius commune is distinct from the term "common law" meaning the Anglo-American family of law as opposed to the civil law family.) The phrase "the common law of the civil law systems" means those underlying laws that create a distinct legal system and are common to all its elements. Etymology The , in its historical meaning, is commonly thought of as a combination of canon law and Roman law which formed the basis of a common system of legal thought in Western Europe from the rediscovery and reception of Justinian's Digest in the 12th and 13th centuries. In addition to this definition, the term also possibly had a narrower meaning depending upon the context in which it was used. Some scholars believe that the term, when used in the context of the ecclesiastical courts of England in the fourteenth and fifteenth century, also "meant the law that is common to the universal church, as opposed to the constitutions or special customs or privileges of any provincial church." History The was an actual part of the law in most areas, although in any one jurisdiction local laws (statutes and customs) could take precedence over the . This was the case up until the codification movement in the late 18th and 19th centuries, which explicitly removed the direct applicability of Roman and canon law in most countries, although there continued to be argument about whether the was banished completely or survived where the national codes were silent. The latter view prevailed, so it can still be said that there is, in theory at least, a common basis in substantive law throughout Western Europe (except England, which never had a reception as such) although it has of course fragmented greatly from its heyday in the 15th and 16th centuries. More important, however, is the civilian tradition of ways of thinking that the encouraged and the procedures it used, which have been more persistent than the actual substance. Influence in common law legal systems In England, the law developed its own tradition separate from the rest of Europe based on its own common law. Scotland has a mixed civil and common law system. Scotland had a reception of Roman law and partial codification through the works of the Institutional Writers, such as Viscount Stair and Baron Hume, among others. Influence from England has meant that Scotland's current system is more common law than civilian, but there are areas which are still heavily based on Roman law, such as Scots property law. References Bibliography Manlio Bellomo. The Common Legal Past of Europe, 1000-1800. Washington, DC: The Catholic University of America Press, 1995. Tamar Hezog. A Short History of European Law: The Last Two and a Half Millennia. Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 2018. David John Ibbetson, Common Law and Ius Commune. Selden Society, 2001 Randall Lesaffer. European Legal History: A Cultural and Political Perspective. Trans. Jan Arriens. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2009. George Mousourakis. “The Survival and Resurgence of Roman Law in Western Europe”, chap. 7 of Roman Law and the Origins of the Civil Law Tradition. Cham: Springer, 2015, pp. 233–86. Enrico Pattaro, ed. A Treatise of Legal Philosophy and General Jurisprudence. 12 vols. Dordrecht–London–NY: Springer, 2006–11. Andrea Padovani & Peter Stein, eds. A Treatise of Legal Philosophy and General Jurisprudence, vol. 7: The Jurists’ Philosophy of Law from Rome to the Seventeenth Century. Dordrecht–London–NY: Springer, 2016. Damiano Canala, Paolo Grossi, & Hasso Hofmann, eds. A Treatise of Legal Philosophy and General Jurisprudence, vol. 9: A History of the Philosophy of Law in the Civil Law World, 1600-1900. Dordrecht–London–NY: Springer, 2009. Heikki Pihlajamaki et al., eds. The Oxford Handbook of European Legal History. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2018. O.F. Robinson et al. European Legal History: Sources and Institutions, 3rd edn. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2005. Bart Wauters & Marco De Benito. The History of Law in Europe: An Introduction. Edward Elgar, 2017. External links Ken Pennington's lectures and articles on medieval law, including Ius Commune Jarkko Tontti: European legal pluralism as a rebirth of Ius commune. Retfaerd – Nordisk juridisk tidsskrift 94(2001). Civil law (common law) Common law Latin legal terminology Legal history Civil law legal terminology Canon law history Catholic Church legal terminology
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gantt%20chart
Gantt chart
A Gantt chart is a type of bar chart that illustrates a project schedule, named after its popularizer, Henry Gantt (1861–1919), who designed such a chart around the years 1910–1915. Modern Gantt charts also show the dependency relationships between activities and the current schedule status. Definition A Gantt chart is a type of bar chart that illustrates a project schedule. This chart lists the tasks to be performed on the vertical axis, and time intervals on the horizontal axis. The width of the horizontal bars in the graph shows the duration of each activity. Gantt charts illustrate the start and finish dates of the terminal elements and summary elements of a project. Terminal elements and summary elements constitute the work breakdown structure of the project. Modern Gantt charts also show the dependency (i.e., precedence network) relationships between activities. Gantt charts can be used to show current schedule status using percent-complete shadings and a vertical "TODAY" line. Gantt charts are sometimes equated with bar charts. Gantt charts are usually created initially using an early start time approach, where each task is scheduled to start immediately when its prerequisites are complete. This method maximizes the float time available for all tasks. Historical development Although widely used in project planning in the present day, Gantt charts were considered revolutionary when introduced. The first known tool of this type was developed in 1896 by Karol Adamiecki, who called it a harmonogram. Adamiecki did not publish his chart until 1931, however, and only in Polish, which limited both its adoption and recognition of his authorship. In 1912, published what would be considered Gantt charts while discussing a construction project. It appears that Schürch's charts were not notable but rather routine in Germany at the time they were published. The prior development leading to Schürch's work is unknown. Unlike later Gantt charts, Schürch's charts did not display interdependencies, leaving them to be inferred by the reader. These were also static representations of a planned schedule. The chart is named after Henry Gantt (1861–1919), who designed his chart around the years 1910–1915. Gantt originally created his tool for systematic, routine operations. He designed this visualization tool to more easily measure productivity levels of employees and gauge which employees were under- or over-performing. Gantt also frequently included graphics and other visual indicators in his charts to track performance. One of the first major applications of Gantt charts was by the United States during World War I, at the instigation of General William Crozier. The earliest Gantt charts were drawn on paper and therefore had to be redrawn entirely in order to adjust to schedule changes. For many years, project managers used pieces of paper or blocks for Gantt chart bars so they could be adjusted as needed. Gantt's collaborator Walter Polakov introduced Gantt charts to the Soviet Union in 1929 when he was working for the Supreme Soviet of the National Economy. They were used in developing the First Five Year Plan, supplying Russian translations to explain their use. In the 1980s, personal computers allowed widespread creation of complex and elaborate Gantt charts. The first desktop applications were intended mainly for project managers and project schedulers. With the advent of the Internet and increased collaboration over networks at the end of the 1990s, Gantt charts became a common feature of web-based applications, including collaborative groupware. By 2012, almost all Gantt charts were made by software which can easily adjust to schedule changes. In 1999, Gantt charts were identified as "one of the most widely used management tools for project scheduling and control". Example In the following tables there are seven tasks, labeled a through g. Some tasks can be done concurrently (a and b) while others cannot be done until their predecessor task is complete (c and d cannot begin until a is complete). Additionally, each task has three time estimates: the optimistic time estimate (O), the most likely or normal time estimate (M), and the pessimistic time estimate (P). The expected time (TE) is estimated using the beta probability distribution for the time estimates, using the formula (O + 4M + P) ÷ 6. Once this step is complete, one can draw a Gantt chart or a network diagram. Progress Gantt charts In a progress Gantt chart, tasks are shaded in proportion to the degree of their completion: a task that is 60% complete would be 60% shaded, starting from the left. A vertical line is drawn at the time index when the progress Gantt chart is created, and this line can then be compared with shaded tasks. If everything is on schedule, all task portions left of the line will be shaded, and all task portions right of the line will not be shaded. This provides a visual representation of how the project and its tasks are ahead or behind schedule. Linked Gantt charts Linked Gantt charts contain lines indicating the dependencies between tasks. However, linked Gantt charts quickly become cluttered in all but the simplest cases. Critical path network diagrams are superior to visually communicate the relationships between tasks. Nevertheless, Gantt charts are often preferred over network diagrams because Gantt charts are easily interpreted without training, whereas critical path diagrams require training to interpret. Gantt chart software typically provides mechanisms to link task dependencies, although this data may or may not be visually represented. Gantt charts and network diagrams are often used for the same project, both being generated from the same data by a software application. See also Critical path method Event chain methodology Float (project management) Henry Gantt List of project management software, which includes specific Gantt chart software. Program evaluation and review technique (PERT) Event chain diagram Citations References ; republished as () Adapted from Adapted from an even earlier 2006 presentation. Further reading External links Long-running discussion regarding limitations of the Gantt chart format, and alternatives, on Edward Tufte's website Diagrams Planning Project management techniques Technical drawing Schedule (project management) Charts
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sediq%20Afghan
Sediq Afghan
Sediq Afghan (Dari-Persian: ) is an Afghan philosopher and mathematician. He is the founder and head of the World Philosophical Math Research Center in Kabul, Afghanistan. He is also a political activist. He had a prominent role in protests in Kabul about Afghanistan- and Islam-related issues, including an anti-American protest in 2003, a hunger strike to protest beatings of journalists by Afghan security officers in 2006, and another one to protest the 2008 Danish Muhammad cartoons. Education period From 1960 to 1965 student in Sultan Ghayasuddin School, Mazar-e-Sharif. From 1965 to 1970 student in Mir Bacha Khan High School, Kabul. From 1970 to 1973 student in Qala-e-Moraad Beek High School, Kabul. From 1973 to 1976 student in Ansari- High School in Kabul From 1976 to 1978 special student in the field of Mathematics for the first time in the history of the country in Polytechnic Institute, Kabul, Afghanistan From 1982 up to 1988 student of Pedagogy, Faculty of Mathematics, Lypisk, Russia and receiving a master's degree diploma of Mathematics. From 1988 to 1991 student in Pedagogy- Institute- academy in Leningrad for a doctorate degree in the field of Mathematics. In 1990 recognized as founder of Philosophical Mathematics in the World and registered in the Academic Offices of Russia by the name of Sediq Afghan, citizen of Afghanistan. Occupation From 1978 up to 1979 teacher of Mathematics in Bakhtar High School, teacher training institute and Sultan Razia High School, in Mazar-e-Sharif. From year 1979 up to 1982 Teacher of Mathematics in Harbi Shoanzai Air and Air Defense University. From 1989 up to 1991 research on Philosophical Mathematics. a- Advisor and member of Scientists and Specialists in Russian and American Association. b- Advisor in International Support for Peace, and member of Cosmic Science Academy of Russia. c- Teacher in Higher Teacher Training Institute of Russia in Lypisk. d-General knowledge lecturer in Kef University, in different organizations of Ukraine and Russia universities, e-teaching of Philosophical Mathematics for more than 80 foreign scientists who had Academician, Professor and Doctorate degrees. From 1991 up to 1992 shifting the World Philosophical Mathematics Research Center to Kabul and worked as president of this center, and member of Scientific Delegation Academy. From 1992 up to 1993 establishment of World Philosophical Mathematics Research Center Agency in Tashkent and at the same time worked as director of Philosophical Mathematics Council in Uzbekistan. Lecturer in Higher Education Organizations in Republic State of Uzbekistan and Police Academy of that country. Political and Science Advisor of President Karimov. From 1993 up to 2001 President of World Philosophical Mathematics Research Center. Participation in International Conference of Brain and Spirit Amazement located in Tehran, Iran, and achievement of first rank in the conference. Establishment of Philosophical Mathematics Agency in Shiraz and participation in Shiraz University Conferences. President of Mathematics, Physics and Technical Centers of Science Academy of Afghanistan and at the same time first deputy of Science Academy. From 2001 up to 2004 President of World Philosophical Mathematics Research Center and special advisor in cultural issues. References External links Siddiq Afghan's official website Living people 1958 births People from Kabul Afghan philosophers 21st-century mathematicians Afghan human rights activists Kabul Polytechnic University alumni Moscow State University alumni
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223168
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISO%203166-1%20alpha-3
ISO 3166-1 alpha-3
ISO 3166-1 alpha-3 codes are three-letter country codes defined in ISO 3166-1, part of the ISO 3166 standard published by the International Organization for Standardization (ISO), to represent countries, dependent territories, and special areas of geographical interest. They allow a better visual association between the codes and the country names than the two-letter alpha-2 codes (the third set of codes is numeric and hence offers no visual association). They were first included as part of the ISO 3166 standard in its first edition in 1974. Uses and applications The ISO 3166-1 alpha-3 codes are used most prominently in ISO/IEC 7501-1 for machine-readable passports, as standardized by the International Civil Aviation Organization, with a number of additional codes for special passports; some of these codes are currently reserved and not used at the present stage in ISO 3166-1. The United Nations uses a combination of ISO 3166-1 alpha-2 and alpha-3 codes, along with codes that pre-date the creation of ISO 3166, for international vehicle registration codes, which are codes used to identify the issuing country of a vehicle registration plate; some of these codes are currently indeterminately reserved in ISO 3166-1. Current codes Officially assigned code elements The following is a complete list of the current officially assigned ISO 3166-1 alpha-3 codes, using a title case version of the English short names officially defined by the ISO 3166 Maintenance Agency (ISO 3166/MA):   Aruba   Afghanistan   Angola   Anguilla   Åland Islands   Albania   Andorra   United Arab Emirates   Argentina   Armenia   American Samoa   Antarctica   French Southern Territories   Antigua and Barbuda   Australia   Austria   Azerbaijan   Burundi   Belgium   Benin   Bonaire, Sint Eustatius and Saba   Burkina Faso   Bangladesh   Bulgaria   Bahrain   Bahamas   Bosnia and Herzegovina   Saint Barthélemy   Belarus   Belize   Bermuda   Bolivia (Plurinational State of)   Brazil   Barbados   Brunei Darussalam   Bhutan   Bouvet Island   Botswana   Central African Republic   Canada   Cocos (Keeling) Islands   Switzerland   Chile   China   Côte d'Ivoire   Cameroon   Congo, Democratic Republic of the   Congo   Cook Islands   Colombia   Comoros   Cabo Verde   Costa Rica   Cuba   Curaçao   Christmas Island   Cayman Islands   Cyprus   Czechia   Germany   Djibouti   Dominica   Denmark   Dominican Republic   Algeria   Ecuador   Egypt   Eritrea   Western Sahara   Spain   Estonia   Ethiopia   Finland   Fiji   Falkland Islands (Malvinas)   France   Faroe Islands   Micronesia (Federated States of)   Gabon   United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland   Georgia   Guernsey   Ghana   Gibraltar   Guinea   Guadeloupe   Gambia   Guinea-Bissau   Equatorial Guinea   Greece   Grenada   Greenland   Guatemala   French Guiana   Guam   Guyana   Hong Kong   Heard Island and McDonald Islands   Honduras   Croatia   Haiti   Hungary   Indonesia   Isle of Man   India   British Indian Ocean Territory   Ireland   Iran (Islamic Republic of)   Iraq   Iceland   Israel   Italy   Jamaica   Jersey   Jordan   Japan   Kazakhstan   Kenya   Kyrgyzstan   Cambodia   Kiribati   Saint Kitts and Nevis   Korea, Republic of   Kuwait   Lao People's Democratic Republic   Lebanon   Liberia   Libya   Saint Lucia   Liechtenstein   Sri Lanka   Lesotho   Lithuania   Luxembourg   Latvia   Macao   Saint Martin (French part)   Morocco   Monaco   Moldova, Republic of   Madagascar   Maldives   Mexico   Marshall Islands   North Macedonia   Mali   Malta   Myanmar   Montenegro   Mongolia   Northern Mariana Islands   Mozambique   Mauritania   Montserrat   Martinique   Mauritius   Malawi   Malaysia   Mayotte   Namibia   New Caledonia   Niger   Norfolk Island   Nigeria   Nicaragua   Niue   Netherlands   Norway   Nepal   Nauru   New Zealand   Oman   Pakistan   Panama   Pitcairn   Peru   Philippines   Palau   Papua New Guinea   Poland   Puerto Rico   Korea (Democratic People's Republic of)   Portugal   Paraguay   Palestine, State of   French Polynesia   Qatar   Réunion   Romania   Russian Federation   Rwanda   Saudi Arabia   Sudan   Senegal   Singapore   South Georgia and the South Sandwich Islands   Saint Helena, Ascension and Tristan da Cunha   Svalbard and Jan Mayen   Solomon Islands   Sierra Leone   El Salvador   San Marino   Somalia   Saint Pierre and Miquelon   Serbia   South Sudan      Suriname   Slovakia   Slovenia   Sweden   Eswatini   Sint Maarten (Dutch part)   Seychelles   Syrian Arab Republic   Turks and Caicos Islands   Chad   Togo   Thailand   Tajikistan   Tokelau   Turkmenistan   Timor-Leste   Tonga   Trinidad and Tobago   Tunisia   Turkey   Tuvalu   Taiwan, Province of China   Tanzania, United Republic of   Uganda   Ukraine   United States Minor Outlying Islands   Uruguay   United States of America   Uzbekistan   Holy See   Saint Vincent and the Grenadines   Venezuela (Bolivarian Republic of)   Virgin Islands (British)   Virgin Islands (U.S.)   Viet Nam   Vanuatu   Wallis and Futuna   Samoa   Yemen   South Africa   Zambia   Zimbabwe User-assigned code elements User-assigned code elements are codes at the disposal of users who need to add further names of countries, territories, or other geographical entities to their in-house application of ISO 3166-1, and the ISO 3166/MA will never use these codes in the updating process of the standard. The following alpha-3 codes can be user-assigned: to , to , to , and to . Examples The following codes are used in ISO/IEC 7501-1 for special machine-readable passports: is used for the European Union laissez-passer is used to represent the Sovereign Military Order of Malta is used for Interpol travel documents is used to represent a stateless person, as defined in Article 1 of the 1954 Convention Relating to the Status of Stateless Persons is used to represent a refugee, as defined in Article 1 of the 1951 Convention Relating to the Status of Refugees as amended by the 1967 Protocol is used to represent a refugee, other than as defined above is used to represent a person of unspecified nationality is used for the World Service Authority World Passport (The World Service Authority World Passport contains "WSA" as the authority code. It has been filed with the International Civil Aviation Organization, but does not appear in official ICAO documents as valid.) NATO STANAG 1059 INT is built upon ISO alpha-3 codes, but also defines alpha-2 codes incompatible with ISO 3166-1. It introduces several private use codes for fictional countries and organizational entities: NATO also continues to use reserved codes for continents: Reserved code elements Reserved code elements are codes which have become obsolete, or are required in order to enable a particular user application of the standard but do not qualify for inclusion in ISO 3166-1. To avoid transitional application problems and to aid users who require specific additional code elements for the functioning of their coding systems, the ISO 3166/MA, when justified, reserves these codes which it undertakes not to use for other than specified purposes during a limited or indeterminate period of time. The reserved alpha-3 codes can be divided into the following four categories: exceptional reservations, transitional reservations, indeterminate reservations, and codes currently agreed not to use. Exceptional reservations Exceptionally reserved code elements are codes reserved at the request of national ISO member bodies, governments and international organizations, which are required in order to support a particular application, as specified by the requesting body and limited to such use; any further use of such code elements is subject to approval by the ISO 3166/MA. The following alpha-3 codes are currently exceptionally reserved: Ascension Island Reserved on request of Universal Postal Union (UPU), also used by International Telecommunication Union (ITU) Clipperton Island Reserved on request of ITU Diego Garcia Reserved on request of ITU France, Metropolitan Reserved on request of France; Officially assigned before being deleted from ISO 3166-1 USSR From June 2008; Transitionally reserved from September 1992; Officially assigned before being deleted from ISO 3166-1 Tristan da Cunha Reserved on request of UPU The following alpha-3 codes were previously exceptionally reserved, but are now officially assigned: Guernsey Reserved on request of UPU Isle of Man Reserved on request of UPU Jersey Reserved on request of UPU Transitional reservations Transitional reserved code elements are codes reserved after their deletion from ISO 3166-1. These codes may be used only during a transitional period of at least five years while new code elements that may have replaced them are taken into use. These codes may be reassigned by the ISO 3166/MA after the expiration of the transitional period. The following alpha-3 codes are currently transitionally reserved: Netherlands Antilles From December 2010 Burma From December 1989 Byelorussian SSR From June 1992 Czechoslovakia From June 1993 Neutral Zone From July 1993 Romania From February 2002; Code changed to Serbia and Montenegro From September 2006 East Timor From May 2002 Yugoslavia From July 2003 Zaire From July 1997 Indeterminate reservations Indeterminately reserved code elements are codes used to designate road vehicles under the 1949 and 1968 United Nations Conventions on Road Traffic but differing from those contained in ISO 3166-1. These code elements are expected eventually to be either eliminated or replaced by code elements within ISO 3166-1. In the meantime, the ISO 3166/MA has reserved such code elements for an indeterminate period. Any use beyond the application of the two Conventions is discouraged and will not be approved by the ISO 3166/MA. Moreover, these codes may be reassigned by the ISO 3166/MA at any time. The following alpha-3 codes are currently indeterminately reserved: Aden Barbados Brunei Canada Kenya Tanganyika [Part of Tanzania, United Republic of] Uganda Zanzibar [Part of Tanzania, United Republic of] Alderney Guernsey Jersey Isle of Man Gibraltar Guatemala Jordan Malaysia Central African Republic Congo, People's Republic of Chile Mali Zambia Korea, Republic of San Marino Southern Rhodesia [now Zimbabwe] Slovenia Suriname Turkmenistan Gambia Sierra Leone Nigeria Zaire, People's Republic of The following alpha-3 code was previously indeterminately reserved, but has been reassigned to another country as its official code: Uruguay Code reassigned to Romania Codes currently agreed not to use In addition, the ISO 3166/MA will not use the following alpha-3 codes at the present stage, as they are used in ISO/IEC 7501-1 for special machine-readable passports: identifies a British Passport holder who is a British Overseas Territories citizen identifies a British Passport holder who is a British National (Overseas) identifies a British Passport holder who is a British Overseas citizen identifies a British Passport holder who is a British protected person identifies a British Passport holder who is a British subject is used as a substitute for nationality where the holder is an Official of a Specialized Agency of the UN Organization identifies Kosovo residents to whom travel documents were issued by the United Nations Interim Administration in Kosovo (UNMIK) is used to designate the UN Organization as the issuer and used as a substitute for nationality where the holder is an Official of the UN Organization Deleted codes Besides the codes currently transitionally reserved and two other codes currently exceptionally reserved ( for France, Metropolitan and for USSR), the following alpha-3 codes have also been deleted from ISO 3166-1: French Afars and Issas British Antarctic Territory Dronning Maud Land Canton and Enderbury Islands German Democratic Republic Dahomey Gilbert and Ellice Islands Upper Volta Johnston Island Midway Islands New Hebrides Pacific Islands (Trust Territory) Panama Canal Zone Philippines Code changed to in 1976 United States Miscellaneous Pacific Islands Southern Rhodesia Sikkim Viet-Nam, Democratic Republic of Wake Island Yemen, Democratic See also List of IOC country codes, used by the International Olympic Committee (IOC) List of FIFA country codes, used by the Fédération Internationale de Football Association (FIFA) Comparison of alphabetic country codes References Sources and external links ISO 3166 Maintenance Agency, International Organization for Standardization (ISO) Reserved code elements under ISO 3166-1 "Codes for the representation of names of countries and their subdivisions – Part 1: Country codes", available on request from ISO 3166/MA Standard Country or Area Codes for Statistical Use, United Nations Statistics Division Countries or areas, codes and abbreviations list of alpha-3 and numeric codes (a few territories officially assigned codes in ISO 3166-1 are not included in this list) The World Factbook (public domain), Central Intelligence Agency Appendix D Cross-Reference List of Country Data Codes comparison of FIPS 10, ISO 3166, and STANAG 1059 country codes Administrative Divisions of Countries ("Statoids"), Statoids.com Country codes comparison of ISO 3166-1 country codes with other country codes ISO 3166-1 Change History, Statoids.com 1 alpha-3 Country codes Location codes
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Adolphe%2C%20Grand%20Duke%20of%20Luxembourg
Adolphe, Grand Duke of Luxembourg
Adolphe (Adolf Wilhelm August Karl Friedrich; 24 July 1817 – 17 November 1905) was Grand Duke of Luxembourg from 23 November 1890 to his death on 17 November 1905. The first grand duke from the House of Nassau-Weilburg, he succeeded King William III of the Netherlands, ending the personal union between the Netherlands and Luxembourg. Adolphe was Duke of Nassau from 20 August 1839 to 20 September 1866, when the Duchy was annexed to the Kingdom of Prussia. Adolphe became Duke of Nassau in August 1839, following the death of his father William. The Duchy was annexed to Prussia after Austria's defeat in the Austro-Prussian War. From 1815 to 1839, Grand Duchy of Luxembourg was ruled by the kings of the Netherlands as a province of the Netherlands. Following the Treaty of London (1839), the Grand Duchy of Luxembourg became independent but remained in personal union with the Netherlands. Following the death of his sons, the Dutch king William III had no male heirs to succeed him. In the Netherlands, females were allowed to succeed to the throne. Luxembourg, however, followed Salic law which barred females from succession. Thus, upon King William III's death, the crown of the Netherlands passed to his only daughter, Wilhelmina, while that of Luxembourg passed to Adolphe in accordance with the Nassau Family Pact. Adolphe died in 1905 and was succeeded by his son, William IV. Biography He was a son of William, Duke of Nassau (1792–1839), and his first wife, Princess Louise of Saxe-Hildburghausen. Adolphe's half-sister, Sophia of Nassau, was the wife of Oscar II of Sweden. Duke of Nassau Adolphe became Duke of Nassau in August 1839 at the age of 22, after the death of his father. Wiesbaden had by this time become the capital of the Duchy and Adolphe took up residence in the newly constructed Stadtschloss in 1841. On 4 March 1848 he consented to the population of Nassau's nine "Demands of the Nassauers". A few years later, however, he revoked his liberal views and took a strongly conservative and reactionary course. In general, though, he was seen as a popular ruler. He supported the Austrian Empire in the Austro-Prussian War of 1866. After Austria's defeat, Nassau was annexed to the Kingdom of Prussia and he lost his throne on 20 September 1866. Grand Duke of Luxembourg In 1879, Adolphe's niece Emma of Waldeck and Pyrmont, the daughter of another of his half-sisters, married William III, King of the Netherlands and Grand Duke of Luxembourg. In 1890, their only daughter Wilhelmina succeeded on his death without surviving male issue to the Dutch throne, but was excluded from the succession to Luxembourg by Salic Law. The Grand Duchy, which had been linked to the Netherlands in personal union since 1815, passed to Adolphe in accordance with the Nassau Family Pact. Adolphe was King-Grand Duke William III's 17th cousin once removed through a male-only line, but was also his 3rd cousin as they both descended from William IV, Prince of Orange (he being the paternal great-grandson of William IV's eldest daughter Princess Carolina of Orange-Nassau.) He had, in fact, taken over the regency of Luxembourg for a short time during William III's illness. In any case, as he was already 73 years old and knew little of Luxembourgish politics, he left his hands off the day-to-day governing. The prime minister Paul Eyschen, in office since 1888, took care of the affairs of state, and this created a tradition that the ruler would remain absent from the politics of the day. In 1902 Adolphe appointed his son William as Lieutenant-Representative. He died in 1905 at his summer home, Schloss Hohenburg in Lenggries, and in 1953 was buried in the crypt of the church of Schloss Weilburg. Marriage and family On 31 January 1844, Adolphe married firstly in St. Petersburg Grand Duchess Elizabeth Mikhailovna of Russia, niece of Emperor Nicholas I of Russia. She died less than a year afterwards giving birth to a stillborn daughter. Adolphe built the Russian Orthodox Church of Saint Elizabeth 1847 to 1855 as her funeral church. On 23 April 1851, he remarried in Princess Adelheid-Marie of Anhalt-Dessau. They had five children, of whom only two lived to the age of eighteen and became prince and princess of Luxembourg: William IV, Grand Duke of Luxembourg (1852–1912) Prince Friedrich Paul Wilhelm of Nassau (Biebrich, 23 September 1854 – Biebrich, 23 October 1855) Princess Marie Bathildis Wilhelmine Charlotte of Nassau (Biebrich, 14 November 1857 – Biebrich, 28 December 1857) Prince Franz Joseph Wilhelm of Nassau (Biebrich, 30 January 1859 – Vienna, 2 April 1875) Princess Hilda Charlotte Wilhelmine (1864–1952), married Friedrich II, Grand Duke of Baden. In 1892, Grand Duke Adolphe conferred the hereditary title Count of Wisborg on his Swedish nephew, Oscar, Prince Bernadotte, who had lost his Swedish titles after marrying without his father's approval. Wisborg (also spelled Visborg) is the ruins of an old castle in the city of Visby within Oscar's former Dukedom of Gotland, but the title itself was created in the nobility of Luxembourg. Adelsverein On April 20, 1842, the Adelsverein, Society for the Protection of German Immigrants in Texas, was organised in the Grand Duke's castle at Biebrich on the Rhine. He was named the Protector of the organisation. The Verein was responsible for the large emigration of Germans to Texas in the 19th Century, and on January 9, 1843, established the 4,428 acre Nassau Plantation in Fayette County, Texas and named it after the Grand Duke. Honours Arms References External links Adolphe's page on the official website of the Grand-Ducal House of Luxembourg 1817 births 1905 deaths People from Wiesbaden People from the Duchy of Nassau Dukes of Nassau Grand Dukes of Luxembourg House of Nassau-Weilburg Protestant monarchs Luxembourgian Protestants Burials at Notre-Dame Cathedral, Luxembourg Burials in the Royal Crypt of Weilburg Schlosskirche Generals of Cavalry (Prussia) 19th-century Luxembourgian people Grand Crosses of the Order of Saint Stephen of Hungary
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Unix%20philosophy
Unix philosophy
The Unix philosophy, originated by Ken Thompson, is a set of cultural norms and philosophical approaches to minimalist, modular software development. It is based on the experience of leading developers of the Unix operating system. Early Unix developers were important in bringing the concepts of modularity and reusability into software engineering practice, spawning a "software tools" movement. Over time, the leading developers of Unix (and programs that ran on it) established a set of cultural norms for developing software; these norms became as important and influential as the technology of Unix itself; this has been termed the "Unix philosophy." The Unix philosophy emphasizes building simple, short, clear, modular, and extensible code that can be easily maintained and repurposed by developers other than its creators. The Unix philosophy favors composability as opposed to monolithic design. Origin The Unix philosophy is documented by Doug McIlroy in the Bell System Technical Journal from 1978: Make each program do one thing well. To do a new job, build afresh rather than complicate old programs by adding new "features". Expect the output of every program to become the input to another, as yet unknown, program. Don't clutter output with extraneous information. Avoid stringently columnar or binary input formats. Don't insist on interactive input. Design and build software, even operating systems, to be tried early, ideally within weeks. Don't hesitate to throw away the clumsy parts and rebuild them. Use tools in preference to unskilled help to lighten a programming task, even if you have to detour to build the tools and expect to throw some of them out after you've finished using them. It was later summarized by Peter H. Salus in A Quarter-Century of Unix (1994): Write programs that do one thing and do it well. Write programs to work together. Write programs to handle text streams, because that is a universal interface. In their award-winning Unix paper of 1974, Ritchie and Thompson quote the following design considerations: Make it easy to write, test, and run programs. Interactive use instead of batch processing. Economy and elegance of design due to size constraints ("salvation through suffering"). Self-supporting system: all Unix software is maintained under Unix. The UNIX Programming Environment In their preface to the 1984 book, The UNIX Programming Environment, Brian Kernighan and Rob Pike, both from Bell Labs, give a brief description of the Unix design and the Unix philosophy: The authors further write that their goal for this book is "to communicate the UNIX programming philosophy." Program Design in the UNIX Environment In October 1984, Brian Kernighan and Rob Pike published a paper called Program Design in the UNIX Environment. In this paper, they criticize the accretion of program options and features found in some newer Unix systems such as 4.2BSD and System V, and explain the Unix philosophy of software tools, each performing one general function: The authors contrast Unix tools such as , with larger program suites used by other systems. Doug McIlroy on Unix programming McIlroy, then head of the Bell Labs Computing Sciences Research Center, and inventor of the Unix pipe, summarized the Unix philosophy as follows: Beyond these statements, he has also emphasized simplicity and minimalism in Unix programming: Conversely, McIlroy has criticized modern Linux as having software bloat, remarking that, "adoring admirers have fed Linux goodies to a disheartening state of obesity." He contrasts this with the earlier approach taken at Bell Labs when developing and revising Research Unix: Do One Thing and Do It Well As stated by McIlroy, and generally accepted throughout the Unix community, Unix programs have always been expected to follow the concept of DOTADIW, or "Do One Thing And Do It Well." There are limited sources for the acronym DOTADIW on the Internet, but it is discussed at length during the development and packaging of new operating systems, especially in the Linux community. Patrick Volkerding, the project lead of Slackware Linux, invoked this design principle in a criticism of the systemd architecture, stating that, "attempting to control services, sockets, devices, mounts, etc., all within one daemon flies in the face of the Unix concept of doing one thing and doing it well." Eric Raymond's 17 Unix Rules In his book The Art of Unix Programming that was first published in 2003, Eric S. Raymond, an American programmer and open source advocate, summarizes the Unix philosophy as KISS Principle of "Keep it Simple, Stupid." He provides a series of design rules: Build modular programs Write readable programs Use composition Separate mechanisms from policy Write simple programs Write small programs Write transparent programs Write robust programs Make data complicated when required, not the program Build on potential users' expected knowledge Avoid unnecessary output Write programs which fail in a way that is easy to diagnose Value developer time over machine time Write abstract programs that generate code instead of writing code by hand Prototype software before polishing it Write flexible and open programs Make the program and protocols extensible. Mike Gancarz: The UNIX Philosophy In 1994, Mike Gancarz (a member of the team that designed the X Window System), drew on his own experience with Unix, as well as discussions with fellow programmers and people in other fields who depended on Unix, to produce The UNIX Philosophy which sums it up in nine paramount precepts: Small is beautiful. Make each program do one thing well. Build a prototype as soon as possible. Choose portability over efficiency. Store data in flat text files. Use software leverage to your advantage. Use shell scripts to increase leverage and portability. Avoid captive user interfaces. Make every program a filter. "Worse is better" Richard P. Gabriel suggests that a key advantage of Unix was that it embodied a design philosophy he termed "worse is better", in which simplicity of both the interface and the implementation are more important than any other attributes of the system—including correctness, consistency, and completeness. Gabriel argues that this design style has key evolutionary advantages, though he questions the quality of some results. For example, in the early days Unix used a monolithic kernel (which means that user processes carried out kernel system calls all on the user stack). If a signal was delivered to a process while it was blocked on a long-term I/O in the kernel, then what should be done? Should the signal be delayed, possibly for a long time (maybe indefinitely) while the I/O completed? The signal handler could not be executed when the process was in kernel mode, with sensitive kernel data on the stack. Should the kernel back-out the system call, and store it, for replay and restart later, assuming that the signal handler completes successfully? In these cases Ken Thompson and Dennis Ritchie favored simplicity over perfection. The Unix system would occasionally return early from a system call with an error stating that it had done nothing—the "Interrupted System Call", or an error number 4 (EINTR) in today's systems. Of course the call had been aborted in order to call the signal handler. This could only happen for a handful of long-running system calls such as read(), write(), open(), and select(). On the plus side, this made the I/O system many times simpler to design and understand. The vast majority of user programs were never affected because they did not handle or experience signals other than SIGINT and would die right away if one was raised. For the few other programs—things like shells or text editors that respond to job control key presses—small wrappers could be added to system calls so as to retry the call right away if this EINTR error was raised. Thus, the problem was solved in a simple manner. Criticism In a 1981 article entitled "The truth about Unix: The user interface is horrid" published in Datamation, Don Norman criticized the design philosophy of Unix for its lack of concern for the user interface. Writing from his background in cognitive science and from the perspective of the then-current philosophy of cognitive engineering, he focused on how end-users comprehend and form a personal cognitive model of systems—or, in the case of Unix, fail to understand, with the result that disastrous mistakes (such as losing an hour's worth of work) are all too easy. See also Cognitive engineering Unix architecture Minimalism (computing) Software engineering KISS principle Hacker ethic List of software development philosophies Everything is a file Worse is better Notes References The Unix Programming Environment by Brian Kernighan and Rob Pike, 1984 Program Design in the UNIX Environment – The paper by Pike and Kernighan that preceded the book. Notes on Programming in C, Rob Pike, September 21, 1989 A Quarter Century of Unix, Peter H. Salus, Addison-Wesley, May 31, 1994 () Philosophy — from The Art of Unix Programming, Eric S. Raymond, Addison-Wesley, September 17, 2003 () Final Report of the Multics Kernel Design Project by M. D. Schroeder, D. D. Clark, J. H. Saltzer, and D. H. Wells, 1977. The UNIX Philosophy, Mike Gancarz, External links Basics of the Unix Philosophy – by Catb.org The Unix Philosophy: A Brief Introduction – by The Linux Information Project (LINFO) Why the Unix Philosophy still matters Software development philosophies Unix
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kwik-E-Mart
Kwik-E-Mart
The Kwik-E-Mart (spelled "Quick-E-Mart" in "Bart the General") is a convenience store in the animated television series The Simpsons. It is a parody of American convenience stores, such as 7-Eleven and Cumberland Farms, and depicts many of the stereotypes about them, notorious for it's high prices, and the poor quality of its merchandise. It is run by an Indian-American named Apu Nahasapeemapetilon. It first appeared in the 1990 episode "The Telltale Head" and has since become a common setting in The Simpsons. The Simpsons family are regular customers. In July 2007, eleven 7-Eleven locations in the United States and one in Canada were transformed into Kwik-E-Marts as part of a special promotion for The Simpsons Movie. Also in 2007, gift shops modeled after the "Kwik-E-Marts" were opened in Universal Studios Florida and Universal Studios Hollywood, where they are a companion to "The Simpsons Ride". Role in The Simpsons In The Simpsons the Kwik-E-Mart is a convenience store that sells the usual fare at extraordinarily high prices, including the always popular Squishee. The backstory is that the Kwik-E-Mart chain was started somewhere in the Himalayas. In The Simpsons the Kwik-E-Mart is operated by an Indian American character named Apu Nahasapeemapetilon, who mans the store with his brother Sanjay and is a caricature of the stereotypical "foreign born" convenience store clerk. Apu proudly gouges customers and sells tainted merchandise, such as rotten meat or expired milk. The Kwik-E-Mart is quite often the target of robbers, leading to Apu having been shot on several occasions and as a result having almost missed work. Real-world versions 7-Eleven promotion In July 2007, convenience store chain 7-Eleven converted 11 of its stores in the United States and one in Canada (Coquitlam) into Kwik-E-Marts to promote The Simpsons Movie. The concept was first visualized in 2006 by Fox's advertising agency, and the approximately 10 million dollar (US) cost of the promotion was borne by 7-Eleven. Another part of the promotion was a contest where customers who purchased a slurpee or sandwich also received a coded game piece that could be entered into a website. The grand prize of the contest was to be animated into an episode of The Simpsons. Prior to July, the promotion had long been known but the locations were kept a secret until the morning of July 1, when the 12 stores were made over with industrial foam, vinyl and Kwik-E-Mart signs. These 12 locations, as well as the majority of other North American 7-Elevens, sold products found in The Simpsons, such as "Buzz Cola", "Krusty-O's", "Squishees", pink frosted "Sprinklicious doughnuts" and other Simpsons-themed merchandise. The Squishees were Slurpees that are sold in special collector cups and the Krusty-O's were made by Malt-O-Meal. Several other 7-Eleven items, such as sandwiches, were sold in Simpsons-themed packaging. It was decided that Duff Beer would not be sold due to the movie being rated PG-13, and the promoters wanted to have "good, responsible fun," though it was noted that it was a tough decision. However, a Duff Energy Drink was released in place of the Duff Beer. The promotion resulted in a 30% increase in profits for the changed 7-Eleven stores. Many of the stores sold out of their special Simpsons products within a few days of the start of the promotion. The conversions lasted through early August, when the stores were converted back to 7-Elevens. There was a mild controversy when the promotion offended members of the Indian-American community who felt that Apu is a caricature that plays on too many negative stereotypes. Despite this, 7-Eleven reported that many of its Indian employees have reacted positively to the idea, although it was noted that it was "not a 100 percent endorsement." Universal Studios On October 17, 2007, a gift shop that was modeled after a Kwik-E-Mart was opened at Universal Studios Florida. One also opened at Universal Studios Hollywood at a later time. They replaced the old Back to the Future gift shop and supplement The Simpsons Ride, which opened in Spring 2008. The stores sell Simpsons-related merchandise like Flaming Moe's Energy Drinks and Squishees. Broadway At The Beach On August 17, 2018, a gift shop modeled after a Kwik-E-Mart opened at Broadway at the Beach in Myrtle Beach, South Carolina. The gift shop is placed at the exit of a 4D ride based on The Simpsons and is housed in a replica of The Aztec theatre from the series, which opened in 2019. The store sells Buzz Cola, Lard Lad Donuts, and Squishees along with merchandise from the show. References Bibliography External links Apu's profile at TheSimpsons.com Fictional shops The Simpsons locations 7-Eleven it:Luoghi de I Simpson#Jet Market fi:Apu Nahasapeemapetilon#Kwik-E-Mart
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223179
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISO%203166-1%20alpha-2
ISO 3166-1 alpha-2
ISO 3166-1 alpha-2 codes are two-letter country codes defined in ISO 3166-1, part of the ISO 3166 standard published by the International Organization for Standardization (ISO), to represent countries, dependent territories, and special areas of geographical interest. They are the most widely used of the country codes published by ISO (the others being alpha-3 and numeric), and are used most prominently for the Internet's country code top-level domains (with a few exceptions). They are also used as country identifiers extending the postal code when appropriate within the international postal system for paper mail, and has replaced the previous one consisting one-letter codes. They were first included as part of the ISO 3166 standard in its first edition in 1974. Uses and applications The ISO 3166-1 alpha-2 codes are used in different environments and are also part of other standards. In some cases they are not perfectly implemented. Perfect implementations The ISO 3166-1 alpha-2 codes are used in the following standards: Imperfect implementations Starting in 1985, ISO 3166-1 alpha-2 codes have been used in the Domain Name System as country code top-level domains (ccTLDs). The Internet Assigned Numbers Authority currently assigns the ccTLDs mostly following the alpha-2 codes, but with a few exceptions. For example, the United Kingdom, whose alpha-2 code is , uses .uk instead of .gb as its ccTLD, as is currently exceptionally reserved in ISO 3166-1 on the request of the United Kingdom. The WIPO coding standard ST.3 is based on ISO 3166-1 alpha-2 codes, but includes a number of additional codes for international intellectual property organizations, which are currently reserved and not used at the present stage in ISO 3166-1. The European Commission generally uses ISO 3166-1 alpha-2 codes with two exceptions: (not ) is used to represent Greece, and (not ) is used to represent the United Kingdom. This notwithstanding, the Official Journal of the European Communities specified that and be used to represent Greece and United Kingdom respectively. For VAT administration purposes, the European Commission uses and for Greece and the United Kingdom respectively. The United Nations uses a combination of ISO 3166-1 alpha-2 and alpha-3 codes, along with codes that pre-date the creation of ISO 3166, for international vehicle registration codes, which are codes used to identify the issuing country of a vehicle registration plate; some of these codes are currently indeterminately reserved in ISO 3166-1. IETF language tags (conforming to the BCP 47 standard track and maintained in an IANA registry) are also partially derived from ISO 3166-1 alpha-2 codes (for the region subtags). The full list of ISO 3166-1 codes assigned to countries and territories are usable as region subtags. Also, the "exceptionally reserved" alpha-2 codes defined in ISO 3166-1 (with the exception of ) are also usable as region subtags for language tags. However, newer stability policies (agreed with ISO) have been implemented to avoid deleting subtags that have been withdrawn in ISO 3166-1; instead they are kept and aliased to the new preferred subtags, or kept as subtags grouping several countries. Some other region grouping subtags are derived from other standards. Under the newer stability policies, old assigned codes that have been withdrawn from ISO 3166-1 should no longer be reassigned to another country or territory (as has occurred in the past for "CS"). Current codes Decoding table The following is a colour-coded decoding table of all ISO 3166-1 alpha-2 codes. Officially assigned code elements The following is a complete list of the 249 current officially assigned ISO 3166-1 alpha-2 codes, with the following columns: Code: ISO 3166-1 alpha-2 code, pointing to its ISO 3166-2 article Country name: English short name officially used by the ISO 3166 Maintenance Agency (ISO 3166/MA) Year: Year when alpha-2 code was first officially assigned (1974, first edition of ISO 3166) ccTLD: Corresponding country code top-level domain (note that some are inactive); exceptions where another ccTLD is assigned for the country are shown in parentheses Notes: Any unofficial notes User-assigned code elements User-assigned code elements are codes at the disposal of users who need to add further names of countries, territories, or other geographical entities to their in-house application of ISO 3166-1, and the ISO 3166/MA will never use these codes in the updating process of the standard. The following alpha-2 codes can be user-assigned: , to , to , and . For example: The International Standard Recording Code (ISRC) uses as a second country code for the United States, as it ran out of three-character registrant codes within the prefix. It also uses for some registrants assigned directly. The Unicode Common Locale Data Repository (CLDR) assigns to represent Outlying Oceania (a multi-territory region containing Antarctica, Bouvet Island, the Cocos (Keeling) Islands, Christmas Island, South Georgia and the South Sandwich Islands, Heard Island and McDonald Islands, the British Indian Ocean Territory, the French Southern Territories, and the United States Minor Outlying Islands), and to represent "Unknown or Invalid Territory". Before the adoption of the macroregion code by ISO, CLDR also used to represent the European Union. The code is being used by the World Intellectual Property Organization (WIPO) as an indicator for the Community Plant Variety Office. The code is being used by Switzerland, as a country code for the Canary Islands, although is already reserved for that purpose. The code is being used by the UK Government, as an EORI number country code prefix for Northern Ireland, and the members of European union for European Union value added tax reports with trade with Northern Ireland. The code is being used by the European Commission, the IMF, and SWIFT, the CLDR, and other organizations as a temporary country code for Kosovo. The code is being used by WIPO as an indicator for the Nordic Patent Institute, an international organization common to Denmark, Iceland, Norway and Sweden. The code is being used by WIPO as an indicator for the International Union for the Protection of New Varieties of Plants. The code is being used by WIPO as an indicator for the Visegrad Patent Institute. The code is being used by WIPO as an indicator for unknown states, other entities or organizations. UN/LOCODE assigns to represent installations in international waters. Furthermore, the code element is designated as an escape code if the number of regular user-assigned code elements is not sufficient. Reserved code elements Reserved code elements are codes which have become obsolete, or are required in order to enable a particular user application of the standard but do not qualify for inclusion in ISO 3166-1. To avoid transitional application problems and to aid users who require specific additional code elements for the functioning of their coding systems, the ISO 3166/MA, when justified, reserves these codes which it undertakes not to use for other than specified purposes during a limited or indeterminate period of time. The reserved alpha-2 codes can be divided into the following four categories: exceptional reservations, transitional reservations, indeterminate reservations, and codes currently agreed not to use. Exceptional reservations Exceptionally reserved code elements are codes reserved at the request of national ISO member bodies, governments and international organizations, which are required in order to support a particular application, as specified by the requesting body and limited to such use; any further use of such code elements is subject to approval by the ISO 3166/MA. The following alpha-2 codes are currently exceptionally reserved: The following alpha-2 codes were previously exceptionally reserved, but are now officially assigned: Transitional reservations Transitional reserved code elements are codes reserved after their deletion from ISO 3166-1. These codes may be used only during a transitional period of at least five years while new code elements that may have replaced them are taken into use. These codes may be reassigned by the ISO 3166/MA after the expiration of the transitional period. The following alpha-2 codes are currently transitionally reserved: The following alpha-2 code was previously transitionally reserved, but was later reassigned to another country as its official code: For each deleted alpha-2 code, an entry for the corresponding former country name is included in ISO 3166-3. Each entry is assigned a four-letter alphabetic code, where the first two letters are the deleted alpha-2 code. Indeterminate reservations Indeterminately reserved code elements are codes used to designate road vehicles under the 1949 and 1968 United Nations Conventions on Road Traffic but differing from those contained in ISO 3166-1. These code elements are expected eventually to be either eliminated or replaced by code elements within ISO 3166-1. In the meantime, the ISO 3166/MA has reserved such code elements for an indeterminate period. Any use beyond the application of the two Conventions is discouraged and will not be approved by the ISO 3166/MA. Moreover, these codes may be reassigned by the ISO 3166/MA at any time. The following alpha-2 codes are currently indeterminately reserved: The following alpha-2 codes were previously indeterminately reserved, but have been reassigned to another country as its official code: Notes Codes currently agreed not to use In addition, the ISO 3166/MA will not use the following alpha-2 codes at the present stage, as they are used for international intellectual property organizations in WIPO Standard ST.3: WIPO Standard ST.3 actually uses , instead of , to represent the Eurasian Patent Organization. However, was already exceptionally reserved by the ISO 3166/MA to represent Ceuta and Melilla for customs purposes. The ISO 3166/MA proposed in 1995 that be used by WIPO to represent the Eurasian Patent Organization; however, this request was not honoured by WIPO. Deleted codes Besides the codes currently transitionally reserved and two other codes currently exceptionally reserved ( for France, Metropolitan and for USSR), the following alpha-2 codes have also been deleted from ISO 3166-1: For each deleted alpha-2 code, an entry for the corresponding former country name is included in ISO 3166-3. Each entry is assigned a four-letter alphabetic code, where the first two letters are the deleted alpha-2 code. See also List of FIPS country codes in FIPS 10-4, part of the Federal Information Processing Standards (FIPS) The Regional Indicator Symbol in Unicode, introduced to use these codes ISO 639-1, a different set of two-letter codes used for languages References Sources and external links ISO 3166 Maintenance Agency, International Organization for Standardization (ISO) Online Browsing Platform (OBP) — searchable list of country codes Text file (English, 2016) XML file (English, 2016) Reserved code elements under ISO 3166-1 "Codes for the representation of names of countries and their subdivisions – Part 1: Country codes", available on request from ISO 3166/MA The World Factbook (public domain), Central Intelligence Agency Appendix D – Country Data Codes — comparison of FIPS 10, ISO 3166, and STANAG 1059 country codes Core Datasets Project ISO 3166-1-alpha-2 English country names and code elements (HTML, CSV, JSON) Core Datasets Project Comprehensive country codes: ISO 3166, ITU, ISO 4217 currency codes and many more (HTML, CSV, JSON) Administrative Divisions of Countries ("Statoids"), Statoids.com Country codes — comparison of ISO 3166-1 country codes with other country codes ISO 3166-1 Change History 1 alpha-2 Country codes Location codes
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Patently%20unreasonable
Patently unreasonable
In Canadian law, patently unreasonable or the patent unreasonableness test was a standard of review used by a court when performing judicial review of administrative decisions. It was the highest of three standards of review: correctness, unreasonableness, and patent unreasonableness. Although the term "patent unreasonableness" lacked a precise definition in the common law, it was somewhere above unreasonableness, and consequently it was relatively difficult to show that a decision was patently unreasonable. A simple example of a patently unreasonable decision may be one that does not accord at all with the facts or law before it, or one that completely misstates a legal test. By a decision issued on March 7, 2008, this test was removed from the law by the Supreme Court of Canada in Dunsmuir v New Brunswick as represented by Board of Management . In Toronto (City) Board of Education v. O.S.S.T.F., District 15, [1997] 1 S.C.R. 487, at paras. 41–48, the majority of the Supreme Court of Canada noted that the test for whether a decision under review is patently unreasonable is articulated differently for findings of fact and findings of law. For interpreting a legislative provision, the test was whether the decision under review "cannot be rationally supported by the relevant legislation and demands intervention by the court upon review". In the context of a decision interpreting a collective labour agreement, the patently-unreasonable test was held to mean that the court will not intervene unless the words of the collective agreement have been given an interpretation they cannot reasonably bear. When the reviewing court reviews the evidence that was before the original decision maker, on a question where the standard of review is patent unreasonableness, the reviewing court must determine whether "the evidence reasonably viewed is incapable of supporting the tribunal's findings" (para. 48). See also Due process, the analogous standard of review in United States administrative law Wednesbury unreasonableness, the analogous standard of review in English administrative law Wednesbury unreasonableness in Singapore administrative law References 2008 disestablishments in Canada Canadian administrative law Legal tests 2008 in Canadian case law
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zephyr%20%28protocol%29
Zephyr (protocol)
Created at MIT, as part of Project Athena, Zephyr was designed as an instant messaging protocol and application-suite with a heavy Unix background. Using the "do one thing, do it well" philosophy of Unix, it was made up of several separate programs working together to make a complete messaging system. Zephyr and IRC were the first widely used IP-based instant-messaging systems. Creation Zephyr is the invention of Ciarán Anthony DellaFera who was, at that time, an employee of Digital Equipment Corporation and a Visiting Research Scientist at Project Athena. The design originated as a solution to the "reverse Remote Procedure Call (RPC)" problem: how can service providers (servers in a client–server system) locate and communicate with service users. The initial concept emerged from conversations between Ciarán and Michael R. Gretzinger, another systems engineer at Project Athena, in early 1986. By mid to late 1986 Ciarán had distilled the problem to two specific issues: the ability to locate users in a distributed computing environment (known today as "presence detection"), and the ability to deliver scalable, light-weight, and authentic messages in a distributed computing environment. The Zephyr Development Team (Mark W. Eichin, Robert S. French, David C. Jedlinsky, John T. Kohl, William E. Sommerfeld) was responsible for the creation of the initial code-base and the subsequent releases that were issued throughout the late 1980s. Application Zephyr is still in use today at a few university environments such as Carnegie Mellon, Iowa State, University of Maryland, College Park, Brown University and MIT. It has been largely replaced by modern and more popular instant messenger systems such as XMPP. MIT currently operates both Zephyr and XMPP. Points of interest Zephyr uses UDP datagrams sent between ports 2102, 2103, and 2104. It is incompatible with most routers doing NAT because it reports the internal IP address and so returning datagrams are incorrectly routed. Most sites have deployed Zephyr using Kerberos 4 authentication exclusively, though in late 2007, some sites, including Iowa State, deployed Zephyr using Kerberos 5. Client support BarnOwl has always had Zephyr protocol support. Pidgin supports the Zephyr protocol since version 0.11.0-pre10 (April 13, 2001). Adium added support for Zephyr in Version 0.70 (October 18, 2004), but dropped in version 1.4b6 (June 3, 2009). See also Comparison of instant messaging clients References External links Zephyr 3.0 The 1988 Usenix paper on Zephyr Zephyr on Athena MIT Q&A about Zephyr Zephyr's Source Code Free instant messaging clients Instant messaging protocols Massachusetts Institute of Technology software
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List%20of%20corps%20of%20the%20United%20States
List of corps of the United States
This is a list of field corps of the United States and Confederate States armies and the United States Marine Corps. Active corps , there are five active Army corps. I Corps III Corps V Corps XVIII Airborne Corps U.S. Army Corps of Engineers Former corps of the World War/Cold War/Gulf War eras I Armored Corps II Corps II Armored Corps III Armored Corps IV Corps IV Armored Corps VI Corps VII Corps VIII Corps IX Corps X Corps XI Corps XII Corps XIII Corps XIV Corps XV Corps XVI Corps XIX Corps XX Corps XXI Corps XXII Corps XXIII Corps XXIV Corps XXXIII Corps – World War II – see Fourteenth United States Army XXXV Airborne Corps – World War II deception formation – see Operation Pastel XXXVI Corps (1944–1945) U.S. XXXVII Corps- World War II – see Fourteenth United States Army World War II U.S. Marine Corps corps I Marine Amphibious Corps III Amphibious Corps V Amphibious Corps Spanish–American War corps First Army Corps (Spanish–American War) Second Army Corps (Spanish–American War) Third Army Corps (Spanish–American War) Fourth Army Corps (Spanish–American War) Fifth Army Corps (Spanish–American War) Sixth Army Corps (Spanish–American War) Seventh Army Corps (Spanish–American War) Eighth Army Corps (Spanish–American War) Civil War Union Army corps I Corps II Corps III Corps IV Corps V Corps VI Corps VII Corps VIII Corps IX Corps X Corps XI Corps XII Corps XIII Corps XIV Corps XV Corps XVI Corps XVII Corps XVIII Corps XIX Corps XX Corps XXI Corps XXII Corps XXIII Corps XXIV Corps XXV Corps Cavalry Corps Confederate States Army corps First Corps, Army of the Mississippi Second Corps, Army of the Mississippi Third Corps, Army of the Mississippi First Corps, Army of Northern Virginia Second Corps, Army of Northern Virginia Third Corps, Army of Northern Virginia Fourth Corps, Army of Northern Virginia Cavalry Corps, Army of Northern Virginia First Corps, Army of the Potomac Second Corps, Army of the Potomac First Corps, Army of Tennessee Second Corps, Army of Tennessee Notes References Corps
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zephyr
Zephyr
In European tradition, a zephyr is a light wind or a west wind, named after Zephyrus, the Greek god or personification of the west wind. Zephyr may also refer to: Arts and media Fiction Fiction media Zephyr (film), a 2010 Turkish feature film Zephyr (video game), a 1994 PC game Fictional characters Zephyr (comics), a character in the Marvel Comics universe Zephyr (Queer as Folk), a fictional comic book character created by characters in Queer as Folk Zephyr, a playable character from Warframe Characters named Zephyr also appear in: City of Heroes, a video game Heroes of Newerth, a video game The Hunchback of Notre Dame II, a film (voiced by Haley Joel Osment) Killjoys (TV series), a TV series My Little Pony: Friendship is Magic, a TV series Need for Speed Rivals, a video game One Piece, a manga series Ratchet & Clank, a video game series Resonance of Fate, a video game Tornado Outbreak, a video game XCOM: Chimera Squad, a video game Fictional concepts and objects In the TV series Agents of S.H.I.E.L.D., Zephyr One, a transport and mobile headquarters In the novel Boy's Life, an Alabama town and setting of the novel In the 2010 film Knight and Day, a prototype battery In The Twilight Zone episode "The Mighty Casey", The Hoboken Zephyrs, a baseball team In the children's book The Wreck of the Zephyr, a sailboat In the video game The Elder Scrolls V: Skyrim, an obtainable bow In the video game Spyro 2: Ripto's Rage!, a realm home to bug-like inhabitants Music Albums Zephyr (Zephyr album) Zephyr (Basement Jaxx album), a 2009 EP by Basement Jaxx Performers Zephyr (band), a blues-based hard rock band formed in 1968 in Boulder, Colorado The Zephyrs, an Edinburgh, Scotland-based indie band Zephyr Quartet, a string quartet based in Adelaide, South Australia Songs "Zephyr" (Madeon song), written and produced by Madeon, from the album Adventure "Zephyr", a song from the Mary Chapin Carpenter album The Age of Miracles "Zephyr", a song by one man project Conjure One (Rhys Fulber) from the album Exilarch "The Zephyr Song", from the Red Hot Chili Peppers' album By the Way "Zephyrus" (Bloc Party song), by the band Bloc Party, on their album Intimacy "Andvari" (translates to zephyr from Icelandic), a song on the Sigur Rós album Takk... Radio stations WRKN (FM), an alternative rock station (formerly known as 106.1 the Zephyr) in New Orleans, Louisiana KZFR, a community radio station in Chico, California WZPH-LP, 96.7 FM The Zephyr, a Classic Oldies station located in Zephyrhills, Florida Other media Zephyr (sculpture), a 1998 stainless steel sculpture by Steve Wooldridge Zephyr Books, a publishing imprint of the Continental Book Company in the 1940s Businesses Zephyr Books, a publishing imprint of the Continental Book Company in the 1940s Zephyr Headwear, a headwear company Zephyr Technology, a medical technology company Jeff Ho Surfboards and Zephyr Productions, a surfboard manufacturing facility and surf shop People Zephyr (artist), graffiti artist from New York City Mikhail Mukasei (code name: Zephyr), Soviet spy active from the 1940s through the 1970s Zephyr Teachout, professor at Fordham University and former candidate for governor of New York Zephyr Wright, African American civil rights activist and chef for President Lyndon Johnson Places Zephyr, Ontario, Canada Zephyr, North Carolina, US Zephyr, Texas, US Zephyr Cove, Nevada, US Zephyr Glacier, in Antarctica Zephyrhills, Florida Science and technology Computing Zephyr (operating system), small real-time operating system Zephyr (protocol), an instant messenger protocol and application-suite Zephyr, a hardware revision of Microsoft's Xbox 360 video game console Zephyr, a commercial test management tool sold by SmartBear Software Other uses in science and technology Zephyr (rover), a NASA concept for a robotic Venus rover Zephyranthes, a plant genus whose species include the zephyr lily Transport Aviation Advanced Aviation Zephyr, ultralight, homebuilt aircraft Addyman Zephyr, a one-off, single seat sailplane Airbus Zephyr or Qinetiq Zephyr, a series of solar-powered UAVs ATEC Zephyr, Czech ultralight aircraft manufactured by ATEC Bartlett Zephyr, light, civil aircraft of the 1940s Fouga Zéphyr, a carrier-capable jet trainer for the French Navy, based on the Fouga Magister Qinetiq Zephyr, later Airbus Zephyr, a solar powered unmanned air vehicle RAE Zephyr, 1923 pusher biplane Maritime – one of several mercantile vessels of that name Zephyr (dinghy), a New Zealand sailing dinghy class HMS Zephyr, eight ships of the British Royal Navy RV Zephyr, research vessel USS Zephyr (PC-8), United States Navy ship Zephyr Seaport Liberty Cruise, a sightseeing service operated by Circle Line Downtown in New York Rail Zephyr (train), a type of train-set with matching streamlined locomotive and passenger cars Road Ford Zephyr, an automobile Kawasaki Zephyr, a motorbike Lincoln-Zephyr, an automobile produced from 1936 to 1942 Lincoln MKZ, an automobile, originally named the Lincoln Zephyr Mercury Zephyr, an automobile Sport Zephyr (garment), a garment used in competitive rowing Chicago Zephyrs, former name of the NBA franchise currently known as the Washington Wizards Muskegon Zephyrs, former ice hockey team New Orleans Zephyrs, the former name of the Pacific Coast League franchise now known as the New Orleans Baby Cakes Zephyr skateboard team, also known as Z-boys, in the 1970s Other uses Zephyrus, one of the Anemoi and the Greek god of the west wind Zephyr (cloth), a lightweight cotton fabric Zephyr, a cultural festival of Orissa Engineering College Zephyr, a wooden roller coaster at the former amusement park Pontchartrain Beach, New Orleans, Louisiana See also Zephir (disambiguation) Zefir (disambiguation) Xephyr, a unix computer display server which targets a window on a host X Server as its framebuffer Sapphire (disambiguation)
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Parkour
Parkour
Parkour () is an athletic training discipline in which practitioners (called ) attempt to get from point A to point B in the most fluid way possible, without assisting equipment and in the fastest and most efficient way possible. With roots in military obstacle course training and martial arts, parkour includes running, climbing, swinging, vaulting, jumping, plyometrics, rolling, and quadrupedal movement—whatever is suitable for a given situation. Parkour is an activity that can be practiced alone or with others, and is usually carried out in urban spaces, though it can be done anywhere. It involves seeing one's environment in a new way, and envisioning the potential for navigating it by movement around, across, through, over and under its features. Although practicioners of Parkour often perform flips and other acrobatic movements, these are not considered a part of Parkour proper. The practice of similar movements had existed in communities around the world for centuries, notably in Africa and China. Parkour as a type of movement was later officially established by David Belle in France in 1988. The discipline was popularised in the 1990s and 2000s through films, documentaries, video games, and advertisements. Etymology The word parkour derives from parcours du combattant (obstacle course), the classic obstacle course method of military training proposed by Georges Hébert. Raymond Belle used the term "les parcours" to encompass all of his training including climbing, jumping, running, balancing, and the other methods he undertook in his personal athletic advancement. His son, David, further developed his father's methods and achieved success as a stuntman, and one day on a film set showed his 'Speed Air Man' video to Hubert Koundé. Koundé suggested he change the "c" of "parcours" to a "k" because it was stronger and more dynamic, and to remove the silent "s" for the same reason, forming "parkour". A practitioner of parkour is called a traceur, with the feminine form being traceuse. They are nouns derived from the French verb tracer, which normally means "to trace", as in "tracing a path", in reference to drawing. The verb tracer used familiarly means: "to hurry up". The term traceur was originally the name of a parkour group headed by David Belle which included Sébastien Foucan and Stéphane Vigroux. A jam refers to a meeting of traceurs, involving training lasting anywhere from hours to several days, often with people from different cities. The first parkour jam was organised in July 2002 by Romain Drouet, with a dozen people including Sébastien Foucan and Stéphane Vigroux. History Origins The practice of similar movements have existed in various communities around the world for centuries prior to the foundation of a parkour movement, which was influenced by these earlier traditions. Such athletic traditions had existed among various indigenous tribes in Africa for centuries. A similar discipline in Chinese culture is qinggong, a Chinese martial arts training technique that also dates back centuries. It was notably taught at the Peking Opera School in the 20th century; the school's most notable students are the Seven Little Fortunes, including Sammo Hung and most famously Jackie Chan, providing a basis for their acrobatic stunt work in Hong Kong action cinema from the 1970s onwards. Georges Hébert In Western Europe, a forerunner of parkour was developed by French naval officer Georges Hébert, who before World War I promoted athletic skill based on the models of indigenous tribes he had met in Africa. He noted, "their bodies were splendid, flexible, nimble, skillful, enduring, and resistant but yet they had no other tutor in gymnastics but their lives in nature." His rescue efforts during the 1902 eruption of Mount Pelée on Saint-Pierre, Martinique reinforced his belief that athletic skill must be combined with courage and altruism. Hébert became a physical education tutor at the college of Reims in France. Hébert set up a "méthode naturelle" (natural method) session consisting of ten fundamental groups: walking, running, jumping, quadrupedal movement, climbing, balancing, throwing, lifting, self-defence, and swimming. These were intended to develop "the three main forces": energetic (willpower, courage, coolness, and firmness), moral (benevolence, assistance, honour, and honesty), and physical (muscles and breath). During World War I and World War II, teaching continued to expand, becoming the standard system of French military education and training. Inspired by Hébert, a Swiss architect developed a "parcours du combattant"—military obstacle course—the first of the courses that are now standard in military training and which led to the development of civilian fitness trails and confidence courses. Raymond and David Belle Born in 1939 in Vietnam, Raymond Belle was the son of a French physician and Vietnamese mother. During the First Indochina War, his father died and he was separated from his mother, after which he was sent to a military orphanage in Da Lat at the age of seven. He took it upon himself to train harder and longer than everyone else in order never to be a victim. At night, when everyone else was asleep, he would be outside running or climbing trees. He would use the military obstacle courses in secret, and also created courses of his own that tested his endurance, strength, and flexibility. Doing this enabled him not only to survive the hardships he experienced during his childhood, but also eventually to thrive. After the Battle of Dien Bien Phu in 1954, he returned to France and remained in military education until the age of 19, when he joined the Paris Fire Brigade, a French Army unit. Raymond's son, David Belle, was born in 1973. He experimented with gymnastics and athletics but became increasingly disaffected with both school and the sports clubs. As he got older, he claims to have to read (as-yet-unconfirmed) newspaper clippings that told of his father's exploits and was increasingly curious about what had enabled his father to accomplish these feats. Through conversations with his father, he realised that what he really wanted was a means to develop skills that would be useful to him in life, rather than just training to kick a ball or perform moves in a padded, indoor environment. Through conversations with his father, David learned about this way of training that his father called "parcours". He heard his father talk of the many repetitions he had done in order to find the best way of doing things. He learned that for his father, training was not a game but something vital which enabled him to survive and to protect the people he cared about. David realised that this was what he had been searching for, and so he began training in the same way. After a time, he found it far more important to him than schooling and he gave up his other commitments to focus all his time on his training. Yamakasi David initially trained on his own, and after moving to Lisses, found other young men (including his cousins) who had similar desires, and they began to train together. The group eventually included David Belle, Sébastien Foucan, Châu Belle Dinh, Williams Belle, Yann Hnautra, Laurent Piemontesi, Guylain N'Guba Boyeke, Malik Diouf, and Charles Perrière. The group began calling themselves the Yamakasi, from the Lingala ya makási, meaning strong in one's person, or "strong man, strong spirit" (see § Name and split below). The group drew inspiration from Asian culture and Asian martial arts, notably the acrobatics of Jackie Chan such as qinggong displays in his Hong Kong action films, and the training philosophy of Bruce Lee, considering the latter to be the "unofficial president" of their group. The group also was influenced by the Japanese shōnen manga and anime series Dragon Ball, in which the heroes attained extraordinary abilities through hard work, as well as the martial arts films of Belgian actor Jean-Claude Van Damme. Discipline The group put themselves through challenges that forced them to find the physical and mental strength to succeed. Examples included training without food or water, or sleeping on the floor without a blanket to learn to endure the cold. For example, no one in the group was permitted to be late for training, as it would hold back the whole group. If any member completed a challenge, everyone else had to do the same thing. During their training, no one was allowed to complain or be negative. Few excuses were allowed. For instance, if someone claimed that his shoes were too worn out in to make a jump, he had to do it anyway, even if it meant doing the jump barefoot. At the same time, everyone was required to have knowledge of their own limits. Respecting one's health and physical well-being was one of the foundations of the group. If any member hurt himself during or after the execution of a movement, the movement was deemed a failure. A movement executed only once was not considered an achievement; only with repetition was the challenge complete. Every movement had to be repeated at least ten times in a row without the traceur having to push his limits or sustaining any injury. If any mistake was made by any traceur in the group everyone had to start all over again. Humility was an important principle. No traceur was allowed to feel superior to someone else, for example, by executing a movement only to show off in front of someone who could not perform the movement. If any traceur in the group claimed that he had completed a difficult and dangerous challenge that should not be attempted unaided, he had to prove his claims by doing the challenge again. Anyone who lied violated the principle of humility. To join the group, new members had to be recommended by an existing member and then pass tests to evaluate their motivation for joining. Despite the huge emphasis on the collective, each traceur had to progress and develop independently—"to create the means to be yourself"—and there was a complete trust within the group. Every traceur was to encourage the others and show confidence through their behaviour. If a member violated the principles, the group could meet without the offending person to discuss various punishments. Anyone deemed unsuitable could be temporarily or even permanently banned from the group in order to uphold its disciplines and values. Name and split In 1997, David Belle's brother Jean-François invited the group to perform for the public in a firefighter show in Paris. For the performance, the group named themselves Yamakasi, from the Congolese Lingala ya makási, meaning strong in one's person, or "strong man, strong spirit". Sébastien Foucan also invented a name for what they were doing: "l'art du déplacement (French for "the art of movement"). The firefighter performance caused both positive and negative attention. Some members of the group were concerned how the public would view their discipline since the performance did not demonstrate all aspects of it, such as their hard training and their values and ethics. Jean-François also sent pictures and video of the group to a French TV programme, and the popularity of parkour began to increase. A series of television programmes in various countries subsequently featured video footage of the group, and they began to get more requests for performances. During this time, conflicting interests arose within the group. Sébastien Foucan wanted to teach more rather than to train more, and David Belle had the ambition to become an actor. David and Sébastien chose to leave the group, and used the name "parkour" to describe their activity (see § Etymology above). The seven remaining Yamakasi members continued to use the term l'art du déplacement (see § Derivative terminologies and disciplines below). Organizations International parkour organizations include the World Freerunning and Parkour Federation, established in 2007, who have worked with MTV to produce parkour-related shows. International Gymnastics Federation (FIG) added parkour as one of their disciplines in 2017, despite much opposition, including the establishment of Parkour Earth to represent various national organizations in opposition to the gymnastics organization. The FIG program includes Speed-Run (Sprint) and Freestyle events. The first event in the FIG Parkour World Cup was held on 6–8 April 2018. The first Parkour World Championships was scheduled to take place at Hiroshima on 3–5 April 2020, but was postponed as a result of the COVID-19 pandemic. Parkour is expected to debut at the 2022 World Games. Philosophy According to Williams Belle, the philosophies and theories behind parkour are an integral aspect of the art, one that many non-practitioners have never been exposed to. Belle says he trains people because he wants it "to be alive" and "for people to use it". Châu Belle explains it is a "type of freedom" or "kind of expression"; that parkour is "only a state of mind" rather than a set of actions, and that it is about overcoming and adapting to mental and emotional obstacles as well as physical barriers. Traceur Dylan Baker says, "Parkour also influences one's thought processes by enhancing self-confidence and critical thinking skills that allow one to overcome everyday physical and mental obstacles". A study by Neuropsychiatrie de l'Enfance et de l'Adolescence (Neuropsychiatry of Childhood and Adolescence) in France found traceurs seek more excitement and leadership situations than gymnasts do. Academic research on parkour has tended to describe how parkour provides a novel way of interacting with the urban environment that challenges the use and meaning of urban space, metropolitan life, and embodiment. A newer convention of parkour philosophy has been the idea of "human reclamation". Andy Tran of Urban Evolution clarifies it as "a means of reclaiming what it means to be a human being. It teaches us to move using the natural methods that we should have learned from infancy. It teaches us to touch the world and interact with it, instead of being sheltered by it." Another traceur writes, "It is as much as a part of truly learning the physical art as well as being able to master the movements; it gives you the ability to overcome your fears and pains and reapply this to life, as you must be able to control your mind in order to master the art of parkour." Competition A campaign was started on 1 May 2007 by the Parkour.NET portal to preserve parkour's philosophy against sports competition and rivalry. In the words of Erwan Le Corre, "Competition pushes people to fight against others for the satisfaction of a crowd and/or the benefits of a few business people by changing its mindset. Parkour is unique and cannot be a competitive sport unless it ignores its altruistic core of self-development. If parkour becomes a sport, it will be hard to seriously teach and spread parkour as a non-competitive activity. And a new sport will be spread that may be called parkour, but that won't hold its philosophical essence anymore." Red Bull's sponsored athlete for parkour, Ryan Doyle, has said, "Sometimes people ask, 'Who is the best at parkour?' and it is because they don't understand what Parkour is; 'Who is the best?' is what you would say about a sport, and parkour is not a sport—it is an art, it's a discipline. That's like saying, 'What's the best song in the world?'" This seems to be the consensus among many professional traceurs who view parkour as a lifestyle more than as a set of tricks, as has been popularised by YouTube and most media exposure. There are competitions that use parkour as the main influence for formatting and judging criteria. Sport Parkour League's "North America Parkour Championships" hosts a series of local and regional qualifier events which culminate in a final event in Vancouver, B.C. Red Bull's Art of Motion event is the longest running and highest profile professional freerunning competition. David Belle In his 2009 book Parkour, David Belle stressed that the most important aspect of parkour is not the physical movements, but rather the practitioner's mentality and understanding of its principles. "When young trainees come to see me and give me videos telling me to check out what they are doing, I just take the tape and throw it away. What I'm interested in is what the guy's got in his head, if he has self-confidence, if he masters the technique, if he has understood the principles of parkour. I just can't deal with guys who do Parkour because they saw videos on the Internet and thought it was kinda cool and want to do even better." Further, he states the importance of traceurs being aware of their abilities and limitations, and developing in their own way. "When a young person asks me, 'Can you show me how to do this?' I simply answer, ‘No, I am going to show you how I do it. Then, you'll have to learn with your own technique, your own way of moving, your style, your abilities and your limitations. You are going to learn to be yourself, not someone else along the way.’" The philosophy of parkour has been compared to that of martial arts. In an interview with The New Yorker, David Belle acknowledges the influence, "There's a quote by Bruce Lee that's my motto: 'There are no limits. There are plateaus, but you must not stay there, you must go beyond them. A man must constantly exceed his level.' If you're not better than you were the day before, then what are you doing—what's the point?" In an interview with the press, Belle explained that parkour is a training method for warriors. "So many people try to train easy—'Come do parkour! It's really cool!' But if tomorrow I made you do real training, you would end up crying. That's what you need to know: you are going to cry, you are going to bleed and you are going to sweat like never before." In his book, Belle also quotes his father Raymond, "If two roads open up before you, always take the most difficult one. Because you know you can travel the easy one." Belle is an influential proponent of discipline and control in parkour, saying, "Precision is all about being measured," and going on to describe parkour as an art that requires huge amounts of repetition and practice to master. "With parkour, I often say, 'Once is never'. In other words, someone can manage a jump one time but it does not mean anything. It can be luck or chance. When you make a jump, you have to do it at least three times to be sure you can actually do it. It's an unavoidable rule. Do it the hard way and stop lying to yourself. When you come for training, you have to train. Even if it means doing the same jump fifty or a hundred times." To its founder, parkour is a method of self-refinement, used for learning to control and focus oneself. Practice Movement While there is no official list of "moves" in parkour, the style in which practitioners move often sets them apart from others, and there are a number of named movements that are characteristic, for example: "Parkour roll": Rolling to absorb impacts from larger drops, moving diagonally over a shoulder to convert momentum from vertical to horizontal. "Precision jump": Jumping and landing accurately with the feet on small or narrow obstacles. "Arm jump": Jumping and landing feet-first on a vertical surface, catching the horizontal top with the hands. "Wall run": Running toward a high wall and then jumping and pushing off the wall with a foot to reach the top of the wall. "Climb up": Moving from a position hanging from a wall-top or ledge, to standing on the top or vaulting over to the other side. Equipment Parkour is practiced without traditional equipment, though items such as bars, walls, and boxes found in the environment in which the parkour is being practiced in, are utilised to better navigate the area. Practitioners normally train wearing light, non-restrictive casual clothing. Traceurs who wear gloves are rare—bare hands are considered better for grip and tactile feedback. Light running shoes with good grip and flexibility are encouraged because they allow for more natural and fluid movements. Practitioners often use minimalist shoes, sometimes as a progression to bare feet, for better sensitivity and balance, while others prefer more cushioning for better absorption of impacts from large jumps. Barefoot training is done by some for movement competency without gear—David Belle noted that "bare feet are the best shoes." Various sneaker manufacturers have developed shoes specifically for parkour and freerunning. Many other companies around the world have started offering clothing targeted at parkour. Risks Trespassing Parkour is not widely practiced in dedicated public facilities. Although efforts are being made to create places for it, many traceurs do not like the idea, as it is contradictory to parkour's values of adaptation, creativity, and freedom. Traceurs practice parkour in both rural and urban areas such as gyms, parks, playgrounds, offices, and abandoned structures. Concerns have been raised regarding trespassing, damage of property, and use of inappropriate places such as cemeteries. Many parkour organizations around the globe support the Leave No Trace initiative, an urban version of the outdoor conservation ethic created by the Seattle nonprofit Parkour Visions in 2008, promoting safety, respect for the spaces used and their other users, and sometimes includes picking up rubbish to leave areas in better condition than they were found. Injuries and deaths Concerns have been raised by law enforcement and fire and rescue teams about the risks inherent in jumping off high buildings. They argue that practitioners are needlessly risking damage to both themselves and rooftops by practicing at height, with police forces calling for practitioners to stay off the rooftops. Some practitioners of parkour agree that such behaviour should be discouraged. Because parkour philosophy is about learning to control oneself in interaction with the environment, many parkour experts consider serious injury evidence of the traceur’s failure to follow the precepts of the discipline, specifically, knowing one’s limitations. Daniel Ilabaca, co-founder of the World Parkour and Freerunning Federation, said, "Thinking you're going to fail at something gives you a higher risk of doing just that. Committing to something you're thinking or knowing you will land gives you a higher chance of landing or completing the task." On biomechanical grounds, studies found parkour landing techniques result in lower landing forces in comparison with traditional sport techniques. In a survey of parkour-related emergency department visits in the United States between 2009 and 2015, most injuries were reportedly caused by landing or from striking objects. American traceur Mark Toorock said injuries are rare "because participants rely not on what they can't control—wheels or the icy surfaces of snowboarding and skiing—but their own hands and feet," but Lanier Johnson, executive director of the American Sports Medicine Institute, noted that many of the injuries are not reported. Impact Initially featured in films of French director/producer Luc Besson, parkour was first introduced to the British public by the BBC One TV channel trailer Rush Hour in April 2002. It featured David Belle leaping across London's rooftops from his office to home, in an attempt to catch his favourite BBC programme, and captured the imagination of many viewers, especially when they learned no special effects or wires were used. This advertisement, along with others for Coca-Cola, Nike, and Toyota, had a large-scale impact on public awareness of parkour. The creation of parkour show-reels and documentaries has been crucial to the spread of parkour, and is common in the parkour community. Jump London is a 2003 documentary explaining some of the background of parkour, culminating with Sébastien Foucan, Johann Vigroux, and Jérôme Ben Aoues demonstrating their parkour skills. Jump London changed the presence of parkour in the UK almost overnight and is widely credited for inspiring a new generation of traceurs. It was followed by Jump Britain in 2005. Both Jump films were shown in more than 80 countries, thereby introducing the discipline and its philosophy to an unprecedented global audience. Both films have been cited by numerous practitioners as their motivation for taking up the discipline. The Australian version of 60 Minutes broadcast a segment about parkour on 16 September 2007, featuring Foucan and Stephane Vigroux. Parkour is not defined by a set of rules or guidelines, a feature which has proven particularly attractive to young people, allowing them to explore and engage in the activity on their own terms. It can be easily accepted by all cultures as a means of personal expression and recreation. For example, in 2010 The New York Times published a short video featuring three young men from the Gaza Strip who were active members of the parkour community. In 2014, the BBC covered youth parkour participation in Jammu and Kashmir. Zahid Shah founded the Kashmir Freerunning and Parkour Federation, finding hope in the non-violent discipline of parkour. Entertainment Parkour has become a popular element in action sequences, with film directors hiring parkour practitioners as stunt performers. The first director to do so was Luc Besson, for the film Taxi 2 in 1998, followed by Yamakasi in 2001 featuring members of the original Yamakasi group, and its sequel Les fils du vent in 2004. Also in 2004, Besson wrote District 13, another feature film involving advanced parkour chase sequences, starring David Belle and Cyril Raffaelli, followed by the sequel District 13: Ultimatum in 2009 and remade in English as Brick Mansions in 2014. In 2006 the film Casino Royale featured Sébastien Foucan in a chase taking place early in the movie, sparking renewed media interest in parkour. Along with The Bourne Ultimatum (2007), Casino Royale is credited with starting a new wave of Parkour-inspired stunts in Western film and television. Parkour was prominent in Live Free or Die Hard (2007), again with stuntman/actor Cyril Raffaelli, and Prince of Persia: The Sands of Time (2010), choreographed by David Belle. Several films besides Yamakasi are about thieves who use parkour, such as Breaking and Entering (2006), Run (2013), and Tracers (2015). The 2011 film Freerunner is about eight freerunners racing through a city for survival. The 2019 Netflix film 6 Underground featured several parkour scenes choreographed and performed by team Storror. Parkour also featured in Dhoom 3 (2013), Bang Bang! (2014) and Aadhi (2018). Parkour is also featured on TV. MTV's show Ultimate Parkour Challenge premiered as a one-hour special in October 2009 starring the athletes of the World Freerunning & Parkour Federation. This was followed in May 2010 with a six-episode series of the same name. The athletes were Daniel Ilabaca, Tim Shieff, Ryan Doyle, Michael Turner, Oleg Vorslav, Ben Jenkin, Daniel Arroyo, Pip Andersen and King David. The programme format was a two-part weekly competition in different Southern California locations. Professional wrestler John Hennigan is a long-time practitioner of parkour and often incorporates it into his wrestling style, with the WWE giving him the nickname "The Prince of Parkour". Actor Stephen Amell learned parkour at Tempest Academy in preparation for his role as Oliver Queen in the television series Arrow, and co-star Caity Lotz is also a practitioner. Modern video games frequently include aspects of parkour as major game-play elements. The Assassin's Creed series makes heavy use of parkour movement (called freerunning in the game). The Mirror's Edge games are heavily inspired by parkour, consisting entirely of efficiently moving around buildings, rooftops, and other obstacles. Brink introduced a parkour mechanic into a realistic first-person shooter. Prince of Persia and Dying Light include a central parkour mechanic, while Crackdown and Crackdown 2 include an emphasis on gripping and vaulting from ledges and protruding objects. Tony Hawk's American Wasteland allows the character to use several freerunning techniques while not on the skateboard. Tron Evolutions basic movements and combat were based on parkour and capoeira. Military training Although parkour itself grew out of military obstacle-course training, it has become a separate discipline. After the attention that parkour received following the 2006 film Casino Royale, military forces around the world began looking for ways to incorporate elements from parkour into military training. A physical trainer with the Royal Marines trained with parkour practitioners with hopes of introducing some of their techniques to his own students. Colorado Parkour began a project to introduce elements from parkour into the U.S. military and one San Diego staff sergeant trained US Marines in parkour. Scientific research and applications Studies have found that in exercises such as the standing long jump, depth jump, and vertical jump, parkour athletes outperform physical educators, gymnasts, and power athletes. Parkour training is especially linked with the development of eccentric load resistance and jumping ability. Studies and experiments have integrated parkour kinaesthetics into robotics. Derivative terminologies and disciplines In September 2003, Mike Christie's documentary Jump London, starring Sébastien Foucan, was released. In the documentary, the term "freerunning" was used as an attempt to translate "parkour", in order to make it more appealing to the English-speaking audience. Foucan decided to keep using the term "freerunning" to describe his discipline, to distinguish it from David Belle's methods. The remaining seven Yamakasi members continued to use the term "l'art du déplacement, also not wanting to associate it too closely with parkour. Similar to Sébastien's freerunning, l'art du déplacement is less about the hard discipline of the original Yamakasi group; rather, it takes a participatory approach focused on making the teaching more accessible. David Belle kept the term "parkour", saying the group contributed to the development of it, but that his father was the source of his motivation and had verbally communicated this method only to him. Both parkour and freerunning encompass the ideas of overcoming obstacles and self-expression; in freerunning, the greater emphasis is on self-expression. Although the differences between the disciplines are often hard to discern, practitioners tend to aspire to parkour and describe themselves as traceurs rather than as freerunners. See also Acrobatics Buildering Calisthenics Dérive – a philosophy and technique of rapid, serendipitous movement through mostly urban environments Obstacle racing Platform game Qinggong – Chinese martial arts techniques Street workout Urban exploration World Chase Tag References Sources Sports originating in France Acrobatic sports Outdoor recreation Articles containing video clips Jumping sports Games and sports introduced in 1988
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Adolf%20of%20Nassau
Adolf of Nassau
Adolf of Nassau may refer to: Adolf, King of Germany (c. 1255–1298), King of the Romans Adolph II of Nassau (1423–1475), Archbishop of Mainz Adolf of Nassau (1362-1420), a son of Count John I Adolf of Nassau (1540–1568), brother of Louis of Nassau and William I of Orange, killed in the Battle of Heiligerlee Adolph, Prince of Nassau-Schaumburg (1629–1676), son of Louis Henry of Nassau-Dillenburg Adolphe, Grand Duke of Luxembourg (1817–1905), Duke of Nassau and later Grand Duke of Luxembourg See also Adolph of Nassau-Weilburg (disambiguation) Adolf (disambiguation) Nassau (disambiguation)
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Charles%20Thomson
Charles Thomson
Charles Thomson (November 29, 1729 – August 16, 1824) was an Irish-born Patriot leader in Philadelphia during the American Revolution, and the secretary of the Continental Congress (1774–1789) throughout its existence. Thomson is also known for co-designing the Great Seal of the United States and adding its Latin mottoes Annuit cœptis and Novus ordo seclorum. Early life Thomson was born in the town of Maghera in County Londonderry, Ireland to Scots-Irish migrants. After the death of his mother in 1739, his father, John Thomson, emigrated to the British colonies in America with Charles and two or three brothers. John Thomson died at sea, his possessions stolen, and the penniless boys were separated on arrival at New Castle, Delaware. Charles was first cared for by a blacksmith in New Castle, Delaware, and was educated in New London, Pennsylvania. In 1750 he became a tutor in Latin at the Philadelphia Academy, an ancestor school of the University of Pennsylvania. Political career During the French and Indian War, Thomson was an opponent of the Pennsylvania proprietors' American Indian policies. He served as secretary at the Treaty of Easton (1758) and wrote An Enquiry into the Causes of the Alienation of the Delaware and Shawanese Indians from the British Interest (1759), which blamed the war on the proprietors. He was allied with Benjamin Franklin, the leader of the anti-proprietary party, but the two men parted politically during the crisis over the Stamp Act 1765. Thomson became a leader of Philadelphia's Sons of Liberty. He was inducted into the American Philosophical Society around 1750. Thomson was a leader in the revolutionary crisis of the early 1770s. John Adams called him the "Samuel Adams of Philadelphia". Thomson served as the secretary of the Continental Congress in its entirety. Through those 15 years, the Congress saw many delegates come and go, but Thomson's dedication to recording the debates and decisions provided continuity. Along with John Hancock, the president of the Congress, Thomson's name (as secretary) appeared on the first published version of the Declaration of Independence in July 1776. Thomson's role as secretary to Congress was not limited to clerical duties. According to biographer Boyd Schlenther, Thomson "took a direct role in the conduct of foreign affairs." Fred S. Rolater has suggested that Thomson was essentially the "Prime Minister of the United States." Thomson is also noted for designing, with William Barton, the Great Seal of the United States, which played a prominent role in the January 14, 1784 (Ratification Day), when the Treaty of Paris was ratified. Britain's representatives in Paris initially disputed the placement of the Great Seal and Congressional President Thomas Mifflin's signature until they were mollified by Benjamin Franklin. When designing the final version of the Great Seal, Thomson (a former Latin teacher) kept the pyramid and eye for the reverse side but replaced the two mottos, using Annuit Cœptis instead of Deo Favente (and Novus ordo seclorum instead of Perennis). When he provided his official explanation of the meaning of this motto, he wrote: However, Thomson's service was not without its critics. James Searle, a close friend of John Adams, and a delegate, began a cane fight on the floor of Congress against Thomson over a claim that he was misquoted in the "Minutes" that resulted in both men being slashed in the face. Such brawls on the floor were common, and many of them were prompted by argument over Thomson's recordings. Political disagreements prevented Thomson from getting a position in the new government created by the US Constitution. Thomson resigned as secretary of Congress in July 1789 and handed over the Great Seal, bringing an end to the Continental Congress. Writings As Secretary of Congress, Thomson chose what to include in the official journals of the Continental Congress. He also prepared a work of over 1,000 pages that covered the political history of the American Revolution. After leaving office, he chose to destroy the work in an effort to preserve the myths of War of Independence leaders as heroes and stated that his desire to avoid "contradict[ing] all the histories of the great events of the Revolution. Let the world admire the supposed wisdom and valor of our great men. Perhaps they may adopt the qualities that have been ascribed to them, and thus good may be done. I shall not undeceive future generations." According to the publisher's note of the Historical Printing Society edition of Thomas Jefferson's Notes on the State of Virginia (1894), edited by John Leicester Ford, Thomson contributed a 25-page appendix to the original English publication, published by John Stockdale of London in a run of approximately 200 copies. In 1853 JW Randolph and Company republished the work and incorporated various materials from the Estate provided by Jefferson's literary executor, Thomas Jefferson Randolph. The new publication corrected some errors in the original Stockdale publication, including an error in the original publication which Jefferson made note of in a 1785 missive to Thomson: "Pray ask the favor of Colo Monroe in page 5, line 17, to strike out the words 'above the mouth of the Appomattox,' which makes none sense of the passage...". The Historical Printing Society publication removes Thomson's notes from the appendix and instead offers them in footnote form throughout the work, according to the original plates to which they refer. Personal Thompson married Ruth Mather in 1758. She and their twin infant daughters all died in 1769. On September 1, 1774, he married Hannah Harrison (1728-1807), daughter of Richard Harrison, the owner of Harriton Plantation in (what is now) Bryn Mawr, Pennsylvania. Thomson spent his final years at Harriton House, working on a translation of the Septuagint version of the Bible. He published a synopsis of the four evangelists in 1815. In retirement, he also pursued his interests in agricultural science and beekeeping. According to Thomas Jefferson, writing to John Adams in 1822, Thomson became senile in his old age and unable to recognize members of his own household. "Is this life?" Jefferson asked. "It is at most but the life of a cabbage; surely not worth a wish." Thomson died on August 16, 1824. He was initially interred beside his wife in the Harrison Family Cemetery at Harriton. In 1838, a relative had the couple re-interred at Laurel Hill Cemetery in Philadelphia. Portrayal in fiction Thomson was portrayed by Ralston Hill in the both the 1969 Broadway musical 1776 and its 1972 film version. Honors and memberships Thomson is depicted on the seven-cent postal card (and postal reply card), Scott Nos. UX68 and UY 25, issued in 1975. Thomson was elected a member of the American Antiquarian Society in 1813. See also Continental Congress Papers of the Continental Congress Founding Fathers of the United States Thomson's Bible Jane Aitken References Further reading Schlenther, Boyd Stanley. "Thomson, Charles". American National Biography Online, February 2000. External links The life of Charles Thomson 1900 The Holy Bible Translated by Charles Thomson 1808 http://charlesthomson.com Charles Thomson – "Prime Minister" of the United States (PDF file) People of Pennsylvania in the American Revolution Continental Congress Kingdom of Ireland emigrants to the Thirteen Colonies Politicians from Philadelphia American people of Scotch-Irish descent 1729 births 1824 deaths People from Maghera People from County Londonderry Members of the American Antiquarian Society Patriots in the American Revolution People of colonial Pennsylvania Burials at Laurel Hill Cemetery (Philadelphia) People from New Castle, Delaware
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jim%20Marrs
Jim Marrs
James Farrell Marrs Jr. (December 5, 1943 – August 2, 2017) was an American newspaper journalist and New York Times best-selling author of books and articles on a wide range of alleged cover-ups and conspiracies. Marrs was a prominent figure in the JFK assassination conspiracy theories community and his 1989 book Crossfire was a source for Oliver Stone's 1991 film JFK. He wrote books asserting the existence of government conspiracies regarding aliens, 9/11, telepathy, and secret societies. He began his career as a news reporter in the Dallas–Fort Worth–Arlington metroplex and taught a class on the assassination of John F. Kennedy at University of Texas at Arlington for 30 years. Marrs was a member of the Scholars for 9/11 Truth. Early life and education A native of Fort Worth, Texas, Marrs earned a B.A. in journalism from the University of North Texas in 1966 and completed graduate work at Texas Tech University in Lubbock, Texas from 1967 to 1968. Career Beginning in college, he worked as a reporter, cartoonist, and photographer for several Texas newspapers, including the Denton Record-Chronicle, Lubbock Avalanche-Journal, and Lubbock Sentinel. In 1968, he took a position with the Fort Worth Star-Telegram, where he served as police reporter and general assignment reporter covering stories locally, in Europe, and in the Middle East. From 1969 to 1970, he concurrently served in a stateside United States Army Reserve intelligence unit (under the aegis of the Fourth United States Army) as a translator of French and German periodicals; when the Army offered to remedy a longstanding shoulder ailment prior to his scheduled mobilization or release him from his service obligation, he accepted the latter option. He later became the newspaper's military and aerospace writer and an investigative reporter. After leaving the Star-Telegram to take a position with Jerre R. Todd and Associates (a public relations firm in Arlington, Texas) in 1972, he returned to the newspaper in 1974 before leaving again in 1980. For the remainder of his career, Marrs was a freelance writer, author, and public relations professional based in exurban Springtown, Texas. From 1983 to 1984, he published a weekly newspaper (the Springtown Current) in his hometown along with a monthly tourism tabloid (Cowtown Trails). Previously, he produced a cable television show (Texas Roundup) from 1982 to 1983. He also served as communications director for the First Bank and Trust of Springtown from 1985 to 1995. Marrs appeared on ABC, NBC, CBS, CNN, C-SPAN, The Discovery Channel, TLC, The History Channel, Alex Jones Show, This Morning America, Geraldo, The Montel Williams Show, Today, TechTV, Larry King, Coast to Coast AM (with George Noory and Art Bell) radio programs, as well as numerous national and regional radio and TV shows. Opinions Assassination of JFK In 1989, Marrs's book, Crossfire: The Plot That Killed Kennedy, was published and reached The New York Times Paperback Non-Fiction Best Seller list in mid-February 1992. It became a basis for the Oliver Stone film JFK, released in 1991. According to Stephen E. Ambrose in an essay generally critical of conspiracy theorists, Marrs wrote in Crossfire that motives for the murder of Kennedy were "Attorney General Robert F. Kennedy's attack on organized crime (Mafia motive); President Kennedy's failure to support the Cuban exiles at the Bay of Pigs Invasion (Cuban and C.I.A. motive); the 1963 Nuclear Test-Ban Treaty (military–industrial complex, or M.I.C. motive); Kennedy's plan to withdraw from Vietnam before the end of 1965 (Joint Chiefs of Staff and M.I.C. motive); Kennedy's talk about taking away the oil-depletion allowance (Texas oil men motive); Kennedy's monetary policies (international bankers motive); Kennedy's decision to drop Vice President Lyndon B. Johnson from the ticket in 1964 (L.B.J. motive) and Kennedy's active civil rights policy (Texas racist billionaires motive)." Sylvia Meagher is a critic of the Warren Commission and author of Master Index to the JFK Assassination and Accessories After the Fact. In April 1987, Meagher received the manuscript of Marrs's Crossfire. She was asked to evaluate the book by Simon & Schuster, which was considering publishing it. Meagher concluded, "The accuracy of the manuscript in dealing with a vast body of complex evidence is nearly impeccable ... the manuscript is, in my opinion, a fine and admirable work." Despite this glowing recommendation, Simon & Schuster became one of about 25 major U.S. publishers to turn down the book. It was finally published in 1989 by Carroll & Graf Publishers. Beginning in 1976, Marrs taught continuing education classes on the Kennedy assassination as an adjunct professor at the University of Texas at Arlington. He added a UFO course in 2000 before retiring from teaching in 2007. UFOs and other topics From 1992 to 1995, Marrs researched and completed a non-fiction book on a top-secret government program called the Stargate Project involving the psychic phenomenon known as remote viewing, only to have the program canceled as the book was going to press in the summer of 1995. In May 1997, Marrs's investigation of UFOs, Alien Agenda, was published by HarperCollins Publishers. The paperback edition was released in mid-1998. It has been translated into several foreign languages and has become the top-selling UFO book in the world. Publishers Weekly said: Marrs shows little discrimination, overemphasizing dubious phenomena like remote viewing and crop circles, and giving nearly equal weight to ludicrous pretenders like Billy Meier (who claimed close encounter with Pleiadians) and sophisticated commentators like Jacques Vallée. Marrs even devotes a chapter to theories that the moon may be a UFO, and he refuses to rule out obvious frauds like the alien autopsy tapes. But if rigorous analysis escapes Marrs, little else does; this is the most entertaining and complete overview of flying saucers and their crew in years. In early 2000, HarperCollins published Rule by Secrecy, which claimed to trace a hidden history connecting modern secret societies to ancient and medieval times. This book also reached The New York Times Best Seller list. In 2003, his book The War on Freedom probed the alleged conspiracies of the September 11 attacks and their aftermath. It was released in 2006 under the title The Terror Conspiracy. Marrs was a featured speaker at a number of national conferences including the annual International UFO Congress and the annual Gulf Breeze UFO Conference, but he also spoke at local conferences, such as Conspiracy Con and The Bay Area UFO Expo. Last years In October 2011, Marrs started his own radio program, The View from Marrs, on the Jeff Rense Radio network. The program aired on Monday, Wednesday, and Friday at 3 p.m. Central time. Marrs had on his show a wide variety of guests and dedicated the entire month of November to the latest information regarding the JFK assassination. He also explored UFO research, survivalism, and other topics. With a friend, Michael H. Price, Marrs wrote and illustrated a comic book (Oswald's Confession & Other Tales from the War) that was published by Cremo Studios, Inc., in 2012. In February 2013, Marrs's Our Occulted History: Do the Global Elite Conceal Ancient Aliens? was published by HarperCollins. Marrs usually also held a book signing at Brave New Books in Austin, Texas at least once a year. Private life, illness, and death Marrs's avocations included American Civil War reenactment, collecting Civil War memorabilia and researching the history of World War II. However, according to his wife, Carol, who met him on a blind date while they were students at the University of North Texas, "[H]e was almost a pacifist. He didn't believe we should be in a war unless you were defending your home." In March 2017, an announcement was made on Marrs' official Facebook page about an unspecified illness that caused him to cancel appearances at two upcoming events, the 5th annual Out of this World UFO Conference in Edinburg, Texas, and the Free Your Mind Conference in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, both in April. In June 2017, additional announcements were made about health issues Marrs was experiencing, including being on kidney dialysis at home, and problems with his remaining good eye. Marrs died on August 2, 2017, from a heart attack at age 73. Media Books Videos Safespace — Winter 2006 Fastwalkers — Winter 2006 Lecture at Allen Public Library — Allen Texas, November 20, 2013 Ancient Aliens and the New World Order — Writer, Host, and Star, 15 November 2014 Dr. Grover Proctor Lecture with Jim Marrs Guest Speaker at 58:00 — Allen Texas, November 2015 Audio CDs 16 Questions {Original CD is corrupted, no longer available.} Radio Interviews Though participating in a number of radio shows, it has become tradition for Marrs to be the guest of the season premier of Binnall of America Audio Binnall of America Season 1 Premier – Part 1 and Part 2 – September 10, 2005 Binnall of America Season 2 Premier – Part 1 and Part 2 – September 30, 2006 Binnall of America Season 3 Premier – Part 1 and Part 2 – October 20, 2007 Binnall of America Season 4 Premier – Part 1 and Part 2 – October 26, 2008 Binnall of America Season 5 Premier – Part 1 and Part 2 – November 24, 2009 Binnall of America Season 6 Premier – Part 1 and Part 2 – November 29, 2010 Binnall of America Season 7 Premier – May 1, 2012 See also Conspiracy theory Mark Dice James H. Fetzer David Ray Griffin Steven E. Jones Jeff Rense Aaron Russo Webster Tarpley Loose Change David Icke G. Edward Griffin Alex Jones Texe Marrs References External links Jim Marrs – Homepage Jim Marrs – Biography 1943 births 2017 deaths 20th-century American writers 21st-century American writers 20th-century American male writers 21st-century American male writers 20th-century American journalists American male journalists 20th-century American military personnel 20th-century American newspaper publishers (people) 9/11 conspiracy theorists American UFO writers American conspiracy theorists American investigative journalists John F. Kennedy conspiracy theorists JFK-UFO conspiracy theories People from Fort Worth, Texas Pseudohistorians Researchers of the assassination of John F. Kennedy Radio personalities from Texas Texas Tech University alumni Ufologists United States Army reservists University of North Texas alumni University of Texas at Arlington faculty Writers from Texas
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Emperor%20penguin
Emperor penguin
The emperor penguin (Aptenodytes forsteri) is the tallest and heaviest of all living penguin species and is endemic to Antarctica. The male and female are similar in plumage and size, reaching in length and weighing from . Feathers of the head and back are black and sharply delineated from the white belly, pale-yellow breast and bright-yellow ear patches. Like all penguins it is flightless, with a streamlined body, and wings stiffened and flattened into flippers for a marine habitat. Its diet consists primarily of fish, but also includes crustaceans, such as krill, and cephalopods, such as squid. While hunting, the species can remain submerged around 20 minutes, diving to a depth of . It has several adaptations to facilitate this, including an unusually structured haemoglobin to allow it to function at low oxygen levels, solid bones to reduce barotrauma, and the ability to reduce its metabolism and shut down non-essential organ functions. The only penguin species that breeds during the Antarctic winter, emperor penguins trek over the ice to breeding colonies which can contain up to several thousand individuals. The female lays a single egg, which is incubated for just over two months by the male while the female returns to the sea to feed; parents subsequently take turns foraging at sea and caring for their chick in the colony. The lifespan is typically 20 years in the wild, although observations suggest that some individuals may live to 50 years of age. Taxonomy Emperor penguins were described in 1844 by English zoologist George Robert Gray, who created the generic name from Ancient Greek word elements, ἀ-πτηνο-δύτης [a-ptēno-dytēs], "without-wings-diver". Its specific name is in honour of the German naturalist Johann Reinhold Forster, who accompanied Captain James Cook on his second voyage and officially named five other penguin species. Forster may have been the first person to see the penguins in 1773–74, when he recorded a sighting of what he believed was the similar king penguin (A. patagonicus) but given the location, may very well have been A. forsteri. Together with the king penguin, the emperor penguin is one of two extant species in the genus Aptenodytes. Fossil evidence of a third species—Ridgen's penguin (A. ridgeni)—has been found in fossil records from the late Pliocene, about three million years ago, in New Zealand. Studies of penguin behaviour and genetics have proposed that the genus Aptenodytes is basal; in other words, that it split off from a branch which led to all other living penguin species. Mitochondrial and nuclear DNA evidence suggests this split occurred around 40 million years ago. Description Adult emperor penguins are in length, including bill and tail. The weight ranges from and varies by sex, with males weighing more than females. It is the fifth heaviest living bird species, after only the larger varieties of ratite. The weight also varies by season, as both male and female penguins lose substantial mass while raising hatchlings and incubating their egg. A male emperor penguin must withstand the extreme Antarctic winter cold for more than two months while protecting his egg. He eats nothing during this time. Most male emperors will lose around while they wait for their eggs to hatch. The mean weight of males at the start of the breeding season is and that of females is . After the breeding season this drops to for both sexes. Like all penguin species, emperor penguins have streamlined bodies to minimize drag while swimming, and wings that are more like stiff, flat flippers. The tongue is equipped with rear-facing barbs to prevent prey from escaping when caught. Males and females are similar in size and colouration. The adult has deep black dorsal feathers, covering the head, chin, throat, back, dorsal part of the flippers, and tail. The black plumage is sharply delineated from the light-coloured plumage elsewhere. The underparts of the wings and belly are white, becoming pale yellow in the upper breast, while the ear patches are bright yellow. The upper mandible of the long bill is black, and the lower mandible can be pink, orange or lilac. In juveniles, the auricular patches, chin and throat are white, while its bill is black. Emperor penguin chicks are typically covered with silver-grey down and have black heads and white masks. A chick with all-white plumage was seen in 2001, but was not considered to be an albino as it did not have pink eyes. Chicks weigh around after hatching, and fledge when they reach about 50% of adult weight. The emperor penguin's dark plumage fades to brown from November until February (the Antarctic summer), before the yearly moult in January and February. Moulting is rapid in this species compared with other birds, taking only around 34 days. Emperor penguin feathers emerge from the skin after they have grown to a third of their total length, and before old feathers are lost, to help reduce heat loss. New feathers then push out the old ones before finishing their growth. The average yearly survival rate of an adult emperor penguin has been measured at 95.1%, with an average life expectancy of 19.9 years. The same researchers estimated that 1% of emperor penguins hatched could feasibly reach an age of 50 years. In contrast, only 19% of chicks survive their first year of life. Therefore, 80% of the emperor penguin population comprises adults five years and older. Vocalisation As the species has no fixed nest sites that individuals can use to locate their own partner or chick, emperor penguins must rely on vocal calls alone for identification. They use a complex set of calls that are critical to individual recognition between parents, offspring and mates, displaying the widest variation in individual calls of all penguins. Vocalizing emperor penguins use two frequency bands simultaneously. Chicks use a frequency-modulated whistle to beg for food and to contact parents. Adaptations to cold The emperor penguin breeds in the coldest environment of any bird species; air temperatures may reach , and wind speeds may reach . Water temperature is a frigid , which is much lower than the emperor penguin's average body temperature of . The species has adapted in several ways to counteract heat loss. Dense feathers provide 80–90% of its insulation and it has a layer of sub-dermal fat which may be up to thick before breeding. While the density of contour feathers is approximately 9 per square centimetre (58 per square inch), a combination of dense afterfeathers and down feathers (plumules) likely play a critical role for insulation. Muscles allow the feathers to be held erect on land, reducing heat loss by trapping a layer of air next to the skin. Conversely, the plumage is flattened in water, thus waterproofing the skin and the downy underlayer. Preening is vital in facilitating insulation and in keeping the plumage oily and water-repellent. The emperor penguin is able to thermoregulate (maintain its core body temperature) without altering its metabolism, over a wide range of temperatures. Known as the thermoneutral range, this extends from . Below this temperature range, its metabolic rate increases significantly, although an individual can maintain its core temperature from down to . Movement by swimming, walking, and shivering are three mechanisms for increasing metabolism; a fourth process involves an increase in the breakdown of fats by enzymes, which is induced by the hormone glucagon. At temperatures above , an emperor penguin may become agitated as its body temperature and metabolic rate rise to increase heat loss. Raising its wings and exposing the undersides increases the exposure of its body surface to the air by 16%, facilitating further heat loss. Adaptations to pressure and low oxygen In addition to the cold, the emperor penguin encounters another stressful condition on deep dives—markedly increased pressure of up to 40 times that of the surface, which in most other terrestrial organisms would cause barotrauma. The bones of the penguin are solid rather than air-filled, which eliminates the risk of mechanical barotrauma. While diving, the emperor penguin's oxygen use is markedly reduced, as its heart rate is reduced to as low as 15–20 beats per minute and non-essential organs are shut down, thus facilitating longer dives. Its haemoglobin and myoglobin are able to bind and transport oxygen at low blood concentrations; this allows the bird to function with very low oxygen levels that would otherwise result in loss of consciousness. Distribution and habitat The emperor penguin has a circumpolar distribution in the Antarctic almost exclusively between the 66° and 77° south latitudes. It almost always breeds on stable pack ice near the coast and up to offshore. Breeding colonies are usually in areas where ice cliffs and icebergs provide some protection from the wind. Three land colonies have been reported: one (now disappeared) on a shingle spit at the Dion Islands on the Antarctic Peninsula, one on a headland at Taylor Glacier in Victoria Land, and most recently one at Amundsen Bay. Since 2009, a number of colonies have been reported on shelf ice rather than sea ice, in some cases moving to the shelf in years when sea ice forms late. The northernmost breeding population is on Snow Island, near the northern tip of the Peninsula. Individual vagrants have been seen on Heard Island, South Georgia, and occasionally in New Zealand. The total population was estimated in 2009 to be at around 595,000 adult birds, in 46 known colonies spread around the Antarctic and sub-Antarctic; around 35% of the known population lives north of the Antarctic Circle. Major breeding colonies were located at Cape Washington, Coulman Island in Victoria Land, Halley Bay, Cape Colbeck, and Dibble Glacier. Colonies are known to fluctuate over time, often breaking into "suburbs" which move apart from the parent group, and some have been known to disappear entirely. The Cape Crozier colony on the Ross Sea shrank drastically between the first visits by the Discovery Expedition in 1902–03 and the later visits by the Terra Nova Expedition in 1910–11; it was reduced to a few hundred birds, and may have come close to extinction due to changes in the position of the ice shelf. By the 1960s it had rebounded dramatically, but by 2009 was again reduced to a small population of around 300. Conservation status In 2012 the emperor penguin was uplisted from a species of least concern to near threatened by the IUCN. Along with nine other species of penguin, it is currently under consideration for inclusion under the US Endangered Species Act. The primary causes for an increased risk of species endangerment are declining food availability, due to the effects of climate change and industrial fisheries on the crustacean and fish populations. Other reasons for the species's placement on the Endangered Species Act's list include disease, habitat destruction, and disturbance at breeding colonies by humans. Of particular concern is the impact of tourism. One study concluded that emperor penguin chicks in a crèche become more apprehensive following a helicopter approach to . Population declines of 50% in the Terre Adélie region have been observed due to an increased death rate among adult birds, especially males, during an abnormally prolonged warm period in the late 1970s, which resulted in reduced sea-ice coverage. On the other hand, egg hatching success rates declined when the sea-ice extent increased; chick deaths also increased; The species is therefore considered to be highly sensitive to climatic changes. In 2009, the Dion Islands colony, which had been extensively studied since 1948, was reported to have completely disappeared at some point over the previous decade, the fate of the birds unknown. This was the first confirmed loss of an entire colony. Beginning in September 2015, a strong El Niño, strong winds, and record low amounts of sea ice resulted in "almost total breeding failure" with the deaths of thousands of emperor chicks for three consecutive years within the Halley Bay colony, the second largest emperor penguin colony in the world. Researchers have attributed this loss to immigration of breeding penguins to the Dawson-Lambton colony south, in which a tenfold population increase was observed between 2016 and 2018. However, this increase is nowhere near the total number of breeding adults formerly at the Halley Bay colony. A Woods Hole Oceanographic Institution study in January 2009 found that emperor penguins could be pushed to the brink of extinction by the year 2100 due to global climate change. The study constructed a mathematical model to predict how the loss of sea ice from climate warming would affect a big colony of emperor penguins at Terre Adélie, Antarctica. The study forecasted an 87% decline in the colony's population, from three thousand breeding pairs in 2009 to four hundred breeding pairs in 2100. In June 2014 a study by the Woods Hole Oceanographic Institution concluded that emperor penguins are at risk from global warming, which is melting the sea ice. This study predicted that by 2100 all 45 colonies of emperor penguins will be declining in numbers, mostly due to loss of habitat. Loss of ice reduces the supply of krill, which is a primary food for emperor penguins. Behaviour The emperor penguin is a social animal in its nesting and its foraging behaviour; birds hunting together may coordinate their diving and surfacing. Individuals may be active day or night. A mature adult travels throughout most of the year between the breeding colony and ocean foraging areas; the species disperses into the oceans from January to March. The American physiologist Gerry Kooyman revolutionised the study of penguin foraging behaviour in 1971 when he published his results from attaching automatic dive-recording devices to emperor penguins. He found that the species reaches depths of , with dive periods of up to 18 minutes. Later research revealed a small female had dived to a depth of near McMurdo Sound. It is possible that emperor penguins can dive for even deeper and longer periods, as the accuracy of the recording devices is diminished at greater depths. Further study of one bird's diving behaviour revealed regular dives to in water around deep, and shallow dives of less than , interspersed with deep dives of more than in depths of . This was suggestive of feeding near or at the sea bottom. In 1994, a penguin from Auster rookery reached a depth of 564 m; the entire dive took him 21.8 min. Both male and female emperor penguins forage for food up to from colonies while collecting food to feed chicks, covering per individual per trip. A male returning to the sea after incubation heads directly out to areas of permanent open water, known as polynyas, around from the colony. An efficient swimmer, the emperor penguin exerts pressure with both its upward and downward strokes while swimming. The upward stroke works against buoyancy and helps maintain depth. Its average swimming speed is . On land, the emperor penguin alternates between walking with a wobbling gait and tobogganing—sliding over the ice on its belly, propelled by its feet and wing-like flippers. Like all penguins, it is flightless. The emperor penguin is a very powerful bird. In one case, a crew of six men, trying to capture a single male penguin for a zoo collection, were repeatedly tossed around and knocked over before all of the men had to collectively tackle the bird, which weighs about half as much as a man. As a defence against the cold, a colony of emperor penguins forms a compact huddle (also known as the turtle formation) ranging in size from ten to several hundred birds, with each bird leaning forward on a neighbour. As the wind chill is the least severe in the center of the colony, all the juveniles are usually huddled there. Those on the outside upwind tend to shuffle slowly around the edge of the formation and add themselves to its leeward edge, producing a slow churning action, and giving each bird a turn on the inside and on the outside. Predators The emperor penguin's predators include birds and aquatic mammals. Southern giant petrels (Macronectes giganteus) are the predominant land predator of chicks, responsible for over one-third of chick deaths in some colonies; they also scavenge dead penguins. The south polar skua (Stercorarius maccormicki) mainly scavenges for dead chicks, as the live chicks are usually too large to be attacked by the time of its annual arrival in the colony. Occasionally, a parent may attempt to defend its chick from attack, although it may be more passive if the chick is weak or sickly. The only known predators thought to attack healthy adults, and who attack emperor penguins in the water, are both mammals. The first is the leopard seal (Hydrurga leptonyx), which takes adult birds and fledglings soon after they enter the water. Orcas (Orcinus orca), mostly take adult birds, although they will attack penguins of any age in or near water. Courtship and breeding Although Emperor penguins can breed at around three years of age, they generally don't begin breeding for another one to three years. The yearly reproductive cycle begins at the start of the Antarctic winter, in March and April, when all mature emperor penguins travel to colonial nesting areas, often walking inland from the edge of the pack ice. The start of travel appears to be triggered by decreasing day lengths; emperor penguins in captivity have been induced successfully into breeding by using artificial lighting systems mimicking seasonal Antarctic day lengths. The British Antarctic Survey (BAS) used satellite imagery to find new Emperor penguin breeding sites in Antarctica, a discovery that increased the estimated population of the Emperor penguins by 5 to 10 percent to around 278,000 breeding pairs. Given their remote locations and harsh weather conditions, penguin populations are found by scanning aerial imagery and locating enormous pages of ice that have been stained with their guano. The new discoveries increased the number of known breeding sites from 50 to 61. The penguins start courtship in March or April, when the temperature can be as low as . A lone male gives an ecstatic display, where it stands still and places its head on its chest before inhaling and giving a courtship call for 1–2 seconds; it then moves around the colony and repeats the call. A male and female then stand face to face, with one extending its head and neck up and the other mirroring it; they both hold this posture for several minutes. Once in pairs, couples waddle around the colony together, with the female usually following the male. Before copulation, one bird bows deeply to its mate, its bill pointed close to the ground, and its mate then does the same. Contrary to popular belief, Emperor penguins do not mate for life; they are serially monogamous, having only one mate each year, and remaining faithful to that mate. However, fidelity between years is only around 15%. The narrow window of opportunity available for mating appears to be an influence, as there is a priority to mate and breed which usually precludes waiting for the previous year's partner to arrive at the colony. The female penguin lays one egg in May or early June; it is vaguely pear-shaped, pale greenish-white, and measures around . It represents just 2.3% of its mother's body weight, making it one of the smallest eggs relative to the maternal weight in any bird species. 15.7% of the weight of an emperor penguin egg is shell; like those of other penguin species, the shell is relatively thick, which helps minimize risk of breakage. After laying, the mother's food reserves are exhausted and she very carefully transfers the egg to the male, and then immediately returns to the sea for two months to feed. The transfer of the egg can be awkward and difficult, especially for first-time parents, and many couples drop or crack the egg in the process. When this happens, the chick inside is quickly lost, as the egg cannot withstand the sub-freezing temperatures on the icy ground for more than one to two minutes. When a couple loses an egg in this manner, their relationship is ended and both walk back to the sea. They will return to the colony next year to try mating again. After a successful transfer of the egg to the male penguin, the female departs for the sea and the male spends the dark, stormy winter incubating the egg against his brood patch, a patch of skin without feathers. There he balances it on the tops of his feet, engulfing it with loose skin and feathers for around 65-75 consecutive days until hatching. The emperor is the only penguin species where this behaviour is observed; in all other penguin species both parents take shifts incubating. By the time the egg hatches, the male will have fasted for around 120 days since arriving at the colony. To survive the cold and savage winds of up to , the males huddle together, taking turns in the middle of the huddle. They have also been observed with their backs to the wind to conserve body heat. In the four months of travel, courtship, and incubation, the male may lose as much as , from a total mass of . Hatching may take as long as two or three days to complete, as the shell of the egg is thick. Newly hatched chicks are semi-altricial, covered with only a thin layer of down and entirely dependent on their parents for food and warmth. The chick usually hatches before the mother's return, and the father feeds it a curd-like substance composed of 59% protein and 28% lipid, which is produced by a gland in his oesophagus. This ability to produce "crop milk" in birds is only found in pigeons, flamingos and male Emperor penguins. The father is able to produce this crop milk to temporarily sustain the chick for generally 4 to 7 days, until the mother returns from fishing at sea with food to properly feed the chick. If the mother penguin is delayed, the chick will die. The young chick is brooded in what is called the guard phase, spending time balanced on its parent's feet and kept warm by the brood patch. The female penguin returns at any time from hatching up to ten days afterwards, from mid-July to early August. She finds her mate among the hundreds of fathers by his vocal call and takes over caring for the chick, feeding it by regurgitating the partially digested fish, squid and krill that she has stored in her stomach. The male is often reluctant to surrender the chick he has been caring for all winter to its mother, but he soon leaves to take his turn at sea, spending 3 to 4 weeks feeding there before returning. The parents then take turns, one brooding while the other forages at sea. If either parent is delayed or fails to return to the colony, the lone parent will return to the sea to feed, leaving the chick to die. Abandoned eggs do not hatch and orphaned chicks never survive. Female emperors who failed to find a mate to breed with, or have lost their own chick may attempt to adopt a stray chick or steal the chick of another female. The mother of the chick and neighboring females will fight to protect the chick or reclaim it, if it has been successfully stolen. These scuffles involving several birds often result in the chick being smothered or trampled to death. Chicks which have been adopted or stolen are quickly abandoned once again, as it is impossible for the female to feed and care for the chick alone. The orphaned chicks wander around the colony attempting to seek food and protection from other adults. They will even try to shelter themselves in an adult bird's brood patch already occupied by their own chick. These stray chicks are brusquely driven away by the adults and their chicks. All orphaned chicks will rapidly become weaker and die of starvation, or freeze to death. About 45–50 days after hatching, the chicks form a crèche, huddling together for warmth and protection. During this time, both parents forage at sea and return periodically to feed their chicks. A crèche may consist of around a dozen, up to several thousand chicks densely packed together and is essential for surviving the low Antarctic temperatures. From early November, chicks begin moulting into juvenile plumage, which takes up to two months and is usually not completed by the time they leave the colony. Adults cease feeding them during this time. All birds make the considerably shorter trek to the sea in December and January. The birds spend the rest of the summer feeding there. Feeding The emperor penguin's diet consists mainly of fish, crustaceans and cephalopods, although its composition varies from population to population. Fish are usually the most important food source, and the Antarctic silverfish (Pleuragramma antarcticum) makes up the bulk of the bird's diet. Other prey commonly recorded include other fish of the family Nototheniidae, the glacial squid (Psychroteuthis glacialis), and the hooked squid species Kondakovia longimana, as well as Antarctic krill (Euphausia superba). The emperor penguin searches for prey in the open water of the Southern Ocean, in either ice-free areas of open water or tidal cracks in pack ice. One of its feeding strategies is to dive to around , where it can easily spot sympagic fish like the bald notothen (Pagothenia borchgrevinki) swimming against the bottom surface of the sea-ice; it swims up to the bottom of the ice and catches the fish. It then dives again and repeats the sequence about half a dozen times before surfacing to breathe. Relationship with humans In zoos and aquariums Since the 1930s, there have been several attempts at keeping emperor penguins in captivity. Malcolm Davis of the National Zoological Park made early attempts at keeping penguins, capturing several from Antarctica. He successfully transferred penguins to the National Zoological Park on March 5, 1940, where they lived for up to 6 years. Until the 1960s, keeping attempts were largely unsuccessful, as knowledge of penguin keeping in general was limited and acquired by trial and error. The first to achieve a level of success was Aalborg Zoo where a chilled house was built especially for this Antarctic species. One individual lived for 20 years at the zoo and a chick was hatched there, but died shortly after. Today, the species is kept at just a few zoos and public aquariums in North America and Asia. Emperor penguins were first successfully bred at SeaWorld San Diego; more than 20 birds have hatched there since 1980. Considered a flagship species, 55 individuals were counted in captivity in North American zoos and aquaria in 1999. In China, the emperor penguin was first bred at Nanjing Underwater World in 2009, followed by Laohutan Ocean Park in Dalian in 2010. Since then it has been kept and bred at a few other facilities in China, and the only confirmed twin emperor penguins (the species normally lays just one egg) hatched at Sun Asia Ocean World in Dalian in 2017. In Japan, the species is housed at Port of Nagoya Public Aquarium and Wakayama Adventure World, with successful hatching at Adventure World. Penguin rescue, rehabilitation and release In June 2011, a juvenile emperor penguin was found on the beach at Peka Peka, north of Wellington in New Zealand. He had consumed of sand, which he had apparently mistaken for snow, as well as sticks and stones, and had to undergo a number of operations to remove these to save his life. Following recovery, on 4 September, the juvenile, named "Happy Feet" (after the 2006 film), was fitted with a tracking device and released into the Southern Ocean north of Campbell Island. However, 8 days later scientists lost contact with the bird, suggesting that the transmitter had fallen off (considered likely) or that he had been eaten by a predator (considered less likely). Cultural references The species' unique life cycle in such a harsh environment has been described in print and visual media. Apsley Cherry-Garrard, the Antarctic explorer, wrote in 1922: "Take it all in all, I do not believe anybody on Earth has a worse time than an emperor penguin". Widely distributed in cinemas in 2005, the French documentary La Marche de l'empereur, which was also released with the English title March of the Penguins, told the story of the penguins' reproductive cycle. The subject has been covered for the small screen five times by the BBC and presenter David Attenborough: first in episode five of the 1993 series on the Antarctic Life in the Freezer, again in the 2001 series The Blue Planet, once again in the 2006 series Planet Earth, in Frozen Planet in 2011 and a one-hour programme dedicated to the species in the 2018 series Dynasties. The computer-animated movie Happy Feet (2006) features emperor penguins as its primary characters, with one in particular that loves to dance; although a comedy, it too depicts their life cycle and promotes an underlying serious environmental message of threats from global warming and depletion of food sources by overfishing. The computer-animated movie Surf's Up (2007) features a surfing emperor penguin named Zeke "Big-Z" Topanga. More than 30 countries have depicted the bird on their stamps – Australia, Great Britain, Chile and France have each issued several. It has also been depicted on a 1962 10 franc stamp as part of an Antarctic expedition series. Canadian band The Tragically Hip composed the song "Emperor Penguin" for their 1998 album Phantom Power. Notes References External links University of Michigan info site with citations for specific studies Photographs of Emperor penguins Morphology of the emperor penguin including 3D computed tomographic (CT) animations of skeletons Emperor penguin videos, photos & sounds on the Internet Bird Collection emperor penguin Birds of Antarctica emperor penguin emperor penguin Emperor Articles containing video clips
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pharyngitis
Pharyngitis
Pharyngitis is inflammation of the back of the throat, known as the pharynx. It typically results in a sore throat and fever. Other symptoms may include a runny nose, cough, headache, difficulty swallowing, swollen lymph nodes, and a hoarse voice. Symptoms usually last 3–5 days. Complications can include sinusitis and acute otitis media. Pharyngitis is a type of upper respiratory tract infection. Most cases are caused by a viral infection. Strep throat, a bacterial infection, is the cause in about 25% of children and 10% of adults. Uncommon causes include other bacteria such as gonorrhea, fungus, irritants such as smoke, allergies, and gastroesophageal reflux disease. Specific testing is not recommended in people who have clear symptoms of a viral infection, such as a cold. Otherwise, a rapid antigen detection test (RADT) or throat swab is recommended. Other conditions that can produce similar symptoms include epiglottitis, thyroiditis, retropharyngeal abscess, and occasionally heart disease. NSAIDs, such as ibuprofen, can be used to help with the pain. Numbing medication, such as topical lidocaine, may also help. Strep throat is typically treated with antibiotics, such as either penicillin or amoxicillin. It is unclear whether steroids are useful in acute pharyngitis, other than possibly in severe cases, but a recent (2020) review found that when used in combination with antibiotics they moderately improved pain and the likelihood of resolution. About 7.5% of people have a sore throat in any 3-month period. Two or three episodes in a year are not uncommon. This resulted in 15 million physician visits in the United States in 2007. Pharyngitis is the most common cause of a sore throat. The word comes from the Greek word pharynx meaning "throat" and the suffix -itis meaning "inflammation". Classification Pharyngitis is a type of inflammation caused by an upper respiratory tract infection. It may be classified as acute or chronic. Acute pharyngitis may be catarrhal, purulent, or ulcerative, depending on the causative agent and the immune capacity of the affected individual. Chronic pharyngitis may be catarrhal, hypertrophic, or atrophic. Tonsillitis is a subtype of pharyngitis. If the inflammation includes both the tonsils and other parts of the throat, it may be called pharyngotonsillitis or tonsillopharyngitis. Another subclassification is nasopharyngitis (the common cold). Cause Most cases are due to an infectious organism acquired from close contact with an infected individual. Viral These comprise about 40–80% of all infectious cases and can be a feature of many different types of viral infections. Adenovirus is the most common of the viral causes. Typically, the degree of neck lymph node enlargement is modest and the throat often does not appear red, although it is painful. The family Orthomyxoviridae which cause influenza are present with rapid onset high temperature, headache, and generalized ache. A sore throat may be associated. Infectious mononucleosis ("glandular fever") is caused by the Epstein–Barr virus. This may cause significant lymph-node swelling and an exudative tonsillitis with marked redness and swelling of the throat. The heterophile test can be used if this is suspected. Herpes simplex virus can cause multiple mouth ulcers. Measles Common cold: rhinovirus, coronavirus, respiratory syncytial virus, and parainfluenza virus can cause infection of the throat, ear, and lungs causing standard cold-like symptoms and often pain. Bacterial A number of different bacteria can infect the human throat. The most common is group A streptococcus (Streptococcus pyogenes), but others include Streptococcus pneumoniae, Haemophilus influenzae, Bordetella pertussis, Bacillus anthracis, Corynebacterium diphtheriae, Neisseria gonorrhoeae, Chlamydophila pneumoniae, Mycoplasma pneumoniae, and Fusobacterium necrophorum. Streptococcal pharyngitis Streptococcal pharyngitis or strep throat is caused by a group A beta-hemolytic streptococcus (GAS). It is the most common bacterial cause of cases of pharyngitis (15–30%). Common symptoms include fever, sore throat, and large lymph nodes. It is a contagious infection, spread by close contact with an infected individual. A definitive diagnosis is made based on the results of a throat culture. Antibiotics are useful to both prevent complications (such as rheumatic fever) and speed recovery. Fusobacterium necrophorum Fusobacterium necrophorum is a normal inhabitant of the oropharyngeal flora and can occasionally create a peritonsillar abscess. In one out of 400 untreated cases, Lemierre's syndrome occurs. Diphtheria Diphtheria is a potentially life-threatening upper respiratory infection caused by Corynebacterium diphtheriae, which has been largely eradicated in developed nations since the introduction of childhood vaccination programs, but is still reported in the Third World and increasingly in some areas in Eastern Europe. Antibiotics are effective in the early stages, but recovery is generally slow. Others A few other causes are rare, but possibly fatal, and include parapharyngeal space infections: peritonsillar abscess ("quinsy abscess"), submandibular space infection (Ludwig's angina), and epiglottitis. Fungal Some cases of pharyngitis are caused by fungal infection, such as Candida albicans, causing oral thrush. Noninfectious Pharyngitis may also be caused by mechanical, chemical, or thermal irritation, for example cold air or acid reflux. Some medications may produce pharyngitis, such as pramipexole and antipsychotics. Diagnosis Differentiating a viral and a bacterial cause of a sore throat based on symptoms alone is difficult. Thus, a throat swab often is done to rule out a bacterial cause. The modified Centor criteria may be used to determine the management of people with pharyngitis. Based on five clinical criteria, it indicates the probability of a streptococcal infection. One point is given for each of the criteria: Absence of a cough Swollen and tender cervical lymph nodes Temperature more than Tonsillar exudate or swelling Age less than 15 (a point is subtracted if age is more than 44) The Infectious Disease Society of America recommends against empirical treatment and considers antibiotics only appropriate following positive testing. Testing is not needed in children under three, as both group A strep and rheumatic fever are rare, except if they have a sibling with the disease. Management The majority of the time, treatment is symptomatic. Specific treatments are effective for bacterial, fungal, and herpes simplex infections. Medications Pain medication, such as NSAIDs and acetaminophen (paracetamol), can help reduce the pain associated with a sore throat. Aspirin may be used in adults, but is not recommended in children due to the risk of Reye syndrome. Steroids (such as dexamethasone) may be useful for severe pharyngitis. Their general use, however, is poorly supported. Viscous lidocaine relieves pain by numbing the mucous membranes. Antibiotics are useful if a bacterial infection is the cause of the sore throat. For viral infections, antibiotics have no effect. In the United States, they are used in 25% of people before a bacterial infection has been detected. Oral analgesic solutions, the active ingredient is usually phenol, but also less commonly benzocaine, cetylpyridinium chloride, and/or menthol. Chloraseptic and Cepacol are two examples of brands of these kinds of analgesics. Alternative Gargling salt water is often suggested, but there is no evidence to support or discourage this practice. Alternative medicines are promoted and used for the treatment of sore throats. However, they are poorly supported by evidence. Epidemiology Acute pharyngitis is the most common cause of a sore throat and, together with cough, it is diagnosed in more than 1.9 million people a year in the United States. References External links Infectious diseases Inflammations Upper respiratory tract diseases Gastrointestinal tract disorders Wikipedia medicine articles ready to translate Pharynx Wikipedia emergency medicine articles ready to translate
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223210
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/OSCAR%20protocol
OSCAR protocol
OSCAR (Open System for CommunicAtion in Realtime) is AOL's proprietary instant messaging and presence information protocol. It was used by AOL's AIM instant messaging system and ICQ. Despite its name, the specifications for the protocol remain proprietary. AOL has gone to great lengths to keep competitors (namely Microsoft, XMPP, and Cerulean Studios) from implementing compatible clients for their proprietary messaging systems. In 2002, AOL signed a contract with Apple, Inc., allowing them to use OSCAR (as well as AOL's own code libraries) in their iChat application. This allowed iChat users to interact with ICQ and AIM users directly. The deal also permitted users of Apple's .Mac service to log in to the AIM network using their .Mac email addresses. (This has carried over to Apple's MobileMe service.) , large parts of the protocol had been reverse-engineered and implemented by a number of third-party clients. The OSCAR protocol can be used separately from AOL's network. In fact, AOL expands on the general concept of OSCAR, adding systems for service-side buddy lists and icons, as well as features for file transfers using Bonjour. On March 6, 2006, AOL released the AIM SDK and launched a developer website, allowing developers to build plugins for AIM Triton, and build their own custom clients, which connect over the OSCAR protocol. They had not, at that point, however, released any information about the protocol itself. On March 5, 2008, AOL released portions of the OSCAR protocol documentation. Google also provided the ability to sign in to AIM network via the Google Talk client built into Gmail. Packet structure All packets sent over OSCAR are encapsulated in the same manner. All 16-bit integers sent over the network are unsigned, and big endian (see Endianness.) This is the same for 32-bit integers, and 8-bit integers (or bytes.) FLAP header A special Frame Layer Protocol (FLAP) container encloses every packet. It carries information about packet size, channel, and its number in sequence. SNAC data Within almost every packet sent over channel 2, packets contain a SNAC (Simple Network Atomic Communication). There is always either one or zero of these contained in a packet, and therefore they do not contain (nor do they need to) a length. Implementations See also Comparison of instant messaging clients Comparison of instant messaging protocols TOC protocol, AOL's free but deprecated messaging protocol TOC2 protocol, , the most current version of the TOC protocol References External links Official OSCAR-Documentation (Requires Login) - No longer available (12.07.2010) UnOfficial AIM/OSCAR Protocol Specification Archived Official Documentation FAIM: FAIM/AIM/OSCAR Protocol Specification AOL Instant messaging protocols
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tachypnea
Tachypnea
Tachypnea, also spelt tachypnoea, is a respiratory rate greater than normal, resulting in abnormally rapid breathing. In adult humans at rest, any respiratory rate of 1220 per minute is considered clinically normal, with tachypnea being any rate above that. Children have significantly higher resting ventilatory rates, which decline rapidly during the first three years of life and then steadily until around 18 years. Tachypnea can be an early indicator of pneumonia in children, and is often an outcome of a brain injury. Distinction from other breathing terms Different sources produce different classifications for breathing terms. Some describe tachypnea as any rapid breathing. Hyperventilation is then described as increased ventilation of the alveoli (which can occur through increased rate or depth of breathing, or both) where there is a smaller rise in metabolic carbon dioxide relative to this increase in ventilation. Hyperpnea, on the other hand, is defined as breathing an increased volume of air, with or without an increase in respiration rate. Others give another classification: tachypnea is as any rapid breathing, hyperventilation is increased rate of breathing at rest, hyperpnea is an increase in breathing that is appropriately proportional to an increase in metabolic rate. A third paradigm is: tachypnea is abnormally rapid respiration (though some may argue this is inaccurate as breathing differs from respiration), hyperventilation is increased rate or depth of respiration to abnormal levels causing decreased levels of blood carbon dioxide and hyperpnea is any increase in breathing rate or depth that is not normal. Threshold definition As normal respiratory rate varies with age, the definition of tachypnea also varies with age. Causes Tachypnea may have physiological or pathological causes. Both of these categories would include large lists of individual causes. Physiological causes Physiological causes of tachypnea include exercise. Pathological causes Pathological causes of tachypnea include sepsis, compensation for diabetic ketoacidosis or other metabolic acidosis, pneumonia, pleural effusion, carbon monoxide poisoning, pulmonary embolism, asthma, COPD, laryngospasm, allergic reaction causing airway edema, foreign body aspiration, tracheobronchomalacia, congestive heart failure, anxiety states, haemorrhage, or many other medical issues. Etymology and pronunciation The word tachypnea () uses combining forms of tachy- + -pnea, yielding "fast breathing". See pronunciation information at dyspnea. See also Control of respiration Hypoventilation List of terms of lung size and activity References External links Breathing abnormalities
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jonestown
Jonestown
The Peoples Temple Agricultural Project, better known by its informal name "Jonestown", was a remote settlement in Guyana, established by the Peoples Temple, a San Francisco–based cult under the leadership of Jim Jones. The settlement became internationally known when, on November 18, 1978, a total of 909 people died at the settlement, at the nearby airstrip in Port Kaituma, and at a Temple-run building in Georgetown, Guyana's capital city. The name of the settlement became synonymous with the incidents at those locations. In total, 918 individuals died in Jonestown, all but two from apparent cyanide poisoning, a significant number of whom were injected against their will, in an event termed "revolutionary suicide" by Jones and some Peoples Temple members on an audio tape of the event, and in prior recorded discussions. The poisonings in Jonestown followed the murder of five others by Temple members at Port Kaituma, including United States Congressman Leo Ryan, an act that Jones ordered. Four other Temple members committed murder–suicide in Georgetown at Jones' command. Terms used to describe the deaths in Jonestown and Georgetown evolved over time. Many contemporary media accounts after the events called the deaths a mass suicide. In contrast, most sources today refer to the deaths with terms such as mass murder–suicide, a massacre, or simply mass murder. Seventy or more individuals at Jonestown were injected with poison, and a third of the victims (304) were minors. Guards armed with guns and crossbows had been ordered to shoot those who fled the Jonestown pavilion as Jones lobbied for suicide. Origins The Peoples Temple was formed in Indianapolis, Indiana, in 1955. Though its roots and teachings shared more with Christian revival movements than with Marxism, it purported to practice what it called "apostolic socialism". In doing so, the Temple preached that "those who remained drugged with the opiate of religion had to be brought to enlightenment—socialism." In the early 1960s, Jones visited Guyana – then a British colony – while on his way to establishing a short-lived Temple mission in Brazil. After Jones received considerable criticism in Indiana for his integrationist views, the Temple moved to Redwood Valley, California in 1965. In the early 1970s, the Temple opened other branches in Los Angeles and San Francisco, and would eventually move its headquarters to San Francisco. With the move to San Francisco came increasing political involvement by the Temple and the high levels of approval they received from the local government. After the group's participation proved instrumental in the mayoral election victory of George Moscone in 1975, Moscone appointed Jones as the Chairman of the San Francisco Housing Authority Commission. Jones enjoyed public support and contact with some of the highest level politicians in the United States. Jones met with vice presidential candidate Walter Mondale and First Lady Rosalynn Carter. Guests at a large 1976 testimonial dinner for Jones included California Governor Jerry Brown, Lieutenant Governor Mervyn Dymally, and California Assemblyman Willie Brown, among others. Jonestown established Selection and establishment of Guyanese land In the fall of 1973, after critical newspaper articles by Lester Kinsolving and the defection of eight Temple members, Jones and Temple attorney Tim Stoen prepared an "immediate action" contingency plan for responding to a police or media crackdown. The plan listed various options, including fleeing to Canada or to a "Caribbean missionary post" such as Barbados or Trinidad. For its Caribbean missionary post, the Temple quickly chose Guyana, conducting research on its economy and extradition treaties with the U.S. In October 1973, the directors of the Temple passed a resolution to establish an agricultural mission there. The Temple chose Guyana, in part, because of the group's own socialist politics, which were moving further to the left during the selection process. Former Temple member Tim Carter stated that the reasons for choosing Guyana were the Temple's view of a perceived dominance of racism and multinational corporations in the U.S. government. According to Carter, the Temple concluded that Guyana, an English-speaking, socialist country with a predominantly indigenous population and with a government including prominent black leaders, would afford black Temple members a peaceful place to live. Later, Guyanese Prime Minister Forbes Burnham stated that Jones may have "wanted to use cooperatives as the basis for the establishment of socialism, and maybe his idea of setting up a commune meshed with that". Jones also thought that Guyana was small, poor, and independent enough for him to easily obtain influence and official protection. Jones was skillful in presenting the Guyanese government the benefits of allowing the Peoples Temple Agricultural Project to settle within its borders. One of the main tactics was to speak of the advantages of their American presence near Guyana's disputed border with Venezuela. This idea seemed promising to the Burnham government, who feared attack from Venezuela. In 1974, after traveling to an area of northwestern Guyana with Guyanese officials, Jones and the Temple negotiated a lease of over of land in the jungle located west of the Guyanese capital of Georgetown. The site was isolated and had soil of low fertility, even by Guyanese standards. The nearest body of water was away by muddy roads. Jonestown's location stood not far from Guyana's disputed border with Venezuela, and Guyanese officials hoped the presence of American citizens would deter a military incursion. Jonestown before mass migration As 500 members began the construction of Jonestown, the Temple encouraged more to relocate to the settlement. Jones saw Jonestown as both a "socialist paradise" and a "sanctuary" from media scrutiny. In 1976, Guyana finally approved the lease it had negotiated (retroactive to April 1974) with the Temple for the over of land in northwest Guyana on which Jonestown was located. In 1974, Guyanese officials granted the Temple permission to import certain items "duty free". Later payoffs helped safeguard shipments of firearms and drugs through Guyanese customs. Jones reached an agreement to guarantee that Guyana would permit Temple members' mass migration. To do so, he stated that they were "skilled and progressive", showed off an envelope he claimed contained $500,000, and stated that he would invest most of the group's assets in Guyana. The relatively large number of immigrants to Guyana overwhelmed the government's small but stringent immigration infrastructure in a country where immigrants had outweighed locals. Guyanese immigration procedures were compromised to inhibit the departure of Temple defectors and curtail the visas of Temple opponents. Jonestown was held up as a benevolent communist community, with Jones stating: "I believe we're the purest communists there are." Jones' wife, Marceline, described Jonestown as "dedicated to live for socialism, total economic and racial and social equality. We are here living communally." Jones wanted to construct a model community and claimed that Burnham "couldn't rave enough about us, the wonderful things we do, the project, the model of socialism". Jones did not permit members to leave Jonestown without his express prior permission. The Temple established offices in Georgetown and conducted numerous meetings with Burnham and other Guyanese officials. In 1976, Temple member Michael Prokes requested that Burnham receive Jones as a foreign dignitary along with other "high ranking U.S. officials". Jones traveled to Guyana with Dymally to meet with Burnham and Foreign Affairs Minister Fred Willis. In that meeting, Dymally agreed to pass on the message to the State Department that socialist Guyana wanted to keep an open door to cooperation with the U.S. Dymally followed up that meeting with a letter to Burnham stating that Jones was "one of the finest human beings" and that Dymally was "tremendously impressed" by his visit to Jonestown. Temple members took pains to stress their loyalty to Burnham's People's National Congress Party. One Temple member, Paula Adams, was involved in a romantic relationship with Guyana's ambassador to the U.S., Laurence "Bonny" Mann. Jones bragged about other female Temple members he referred to as "public relations women" giving all for the cause in Jonestown. Viola Burnham, the wife of the prime minister, was also a strong advocate of the Temple. Later, Burnham stated that Guyana allowed the Temple to operate in the manner it did on the references of Moscone, Mondale, and Rosalynn Carter. Burnham also said that, when Deputy Minister Ptolemy Reid traveled to Washington, D.C. in September 1977 to sign the Panama Canal Treaties, Mondale asked him, "How's Jim?", which indicated to Reid that Mondale had a personal interest in Jones' wellbeing. Investigation and mass migration In the summer of 1977, Jones and several hundred Temple members moved to Jonestown to escape building pressure from San Francisco media investigations. Jones left the same night that an editor at New West magazine read him an article to be published by Marshall Kilduff detailing allegations of abuse by former Temple members. After the mass migration, Jonestown became overcrowded. Jonestown's population was slightly under 900 at its peak in 1978. Jonestown life after mass migration Many members of the Temple believed that Guyana would be, as Jones promised, a paradise or utopia. After Jones arrived, however, Jonestown life significantly changed. Entertaining movies from Georgetown that the settlers had watched were mostly canceled in favor of Soviet propaganda shorts and documentaries on American social problems. Bureaucratic requirements after Jones' arrival sapped labor resources for other needs. Buildings fell into disrepair and weeds encroached on fields. School study and nighttime lectures for adults turned to Jones' discussions about revolution and enemies, with lessons focusing on Soviet alliances, Jones' crises, and the purported "mercenaries" sent by Tim Stoen, who had defected from the Temple and turned against the group. For the first several months, Temple members worked six days a week, from approximately 6:30 a.m. to 6:00 p.m., with an hour for lunch. In mid-1978, after Jones' health deteriorated and his wife began managing more of Jonestown's operations, the work week was reduced to eight hours a day for five days a week. After the day's work ended, Temple members would attend several hours of activities in a pavilion, including classes in socialism. Jones compared this schedule to the North Korean system of eight hours of daily work followed by eight hours of study. This also comported with the Temple's practice of gradually subjecting its followers to sophisticated mind control and behavior modification techniques borrowed from Kim Il-sung's Korea and Mao Zedong's China. Jones would often read news and commentary, including items from Radio Moscow and Radio Havana, and was known to side with the Soviets over the Chinese during the Sino-Soviet split. "Discussion" around current events often took the form of Jones interrogating individual followers about the implications and subtexts of a given news item, or delivering lengthy and often confused monologues on how to "read" certain events. In addition to Soviet documentaries, political thrillers such as The Parallax View, The Day of the Jackal, State of Siege, and Z were repeatedly screened and minutely analyzed by Jones. Recordings of commune meetings show how livid and frustrated Jones would get when anyone did not find the films interesting or did not understand the message Jones was placing upon them. Nothing in the way of film or recorded TV, shown on the commune's closed-circuit system, no matter how innocuous or seemingly politically neutral, could be viewed without a Temple staffer present to "interpret" the material for the viewers. This invariably meant damning criticisms of perceived capitalist propaganda in Western material, and glowing praise for and highlighting of Marxist–Leninist messages in material from communist nations. Jones' recorded readings of the news were part of the constant broadcasts over Jonestown's tower speakers, such that all members could hear them throughout the day and night. Jones' news readings usually portrayed the U.S. as a "capitalist" and "imperialist" villain, while casting "socialist" leaders, such as Kim Il-sung, Robert Mugabe, and Joseph Stalin in a positive light. Jonestown's primary means of communication with the outside world was a shortwave radio. All voice communications with San Francisco and Georgetown were transmitted using this radio, from mundane supply orders to confidential Temple business. The FCC cited the Temple for technical violations and for using amateur frequencies for commercial purposes. Because shortwave radio was Jonestown's only effective means of non-postal communication, the Temple felt that the FCC's threats to revoke its operators' licenses threatened Jonestown's existence. Because it stood on poor soil, Jonestown was not self-sufficient and had to import large quantities of commodities such as wheat. Temple members lived in small communal houses, some with walls woven from Troolie palm, and ate meals that reportedly consisted of nothing more on some days than rice, beans, greens, and occasionally meat, sauce, and eggs. Despite having access to an estimated $26 million by late 1978, Jones also lived in a tiny communal house, though fewer people lived there than in other communal houses. His house reportedly held a small refrigerator containing, at times, eggs, meat, fruit, salads, and soft drinks. Medical problems, such as severe diarrhea and high fevers, struck half the community in February 1978. Although Jonestown contained no dedicated prison and no form of capital punishment, various forms of punishment were used against members considered to have serious disciplinary problems. Methods included imprisonment in a plywood box and forcing children to spend a night at the bottom of a well, sometimes upside-down. This "torture hole", along with beatings, became the subject of rumor among local Guyanese. For some members who attempted to escape, drugs such as Thorazine, sodium pentathol, chloral hydrate, Demerol, and Valium were administered in an "extended care unit". Armed guards patrolled the area day and night to enforce Jonestown's rules. Children were generally surrendered to communal care, and at times were only allowed to see their biological parents briefly at night. Jones was called "Father" or "Dad" by both adults and children. The community had a nursery at which 33 infants were born. For a year, it appears the commune was run primarily through Social Security checks received by members. Up to $65,000 in monthly welfare payments from U.S. government agencies to Jonestown residents were signed over to the Temple. In 1978, officials from the U.S. embassy in Georgetown interviewed Social Security recipients on multiple occasions to make sure they were not being held against their will. None of the 75 people interviewed by the embassy stated that they were being held captive, were forced to sign over welfare checks, or wanted to leave Jonestown. Demographics African Americans made up approximately 70% of Jonestown's population. 45% of Jonestown residents were black women. Events in Jonestown before the arrival of Leo Ryan White Night rehearsals Jones made frequent addresses to Temple members regarding Jonestown's safety, including statements that the CIA and other intelligence agencies were conspiring with "capitalist pigs" to destroy the settlement and harm its inhabitants. After work, when purported emergencies arose, the Temple sometimes conducted what Jones referred to as "White Nights". During such events, Jones would sometimes give the Jonestown members four options: attempt to flee to the Soviet Union, commit "revolutionary suicide", stay in Jonestown and fight the purported attackers, or flee into the jungle. Jones was known to regularly study Adolf Hitler and Father Divine to learn how to manipulate members of the cult. Divine told Jones personally to "find an enemy" and "to make sure they know who the enemy is" as it will unify those in the group and make them subservient to him. On at least two occasions during White Nights, after a "revolutionary suicide" vote was reached, a simulated mass suicide was rehearsed. Temple defector Deborah Layton described the event in an affidavit: Everyone, including the children, was told to line up. As we passed through the line, we were given a small glass of red liquid to drink. We were told that the liquid contained poison and that we would die within 45 minutes. We all did as we were told. When the time came when we should have dropped dead, Rev. Jones explained that the poison was not real and that we had just been through a loyalty test. He warned us that the time was not far off when it would become necessary for us to die by our own hands. The Temple had received monthly half-pound shipments of cyanide since 1976 after Jones obtained a jeweler's license to buy the chemical, purportedly to clean gold. In May 1978, a Temple doctor wrote a memo to Jones asking permission to test cyanide on Jonestown's pigs, as their metabolism was close to that of human beings. Stoen custody dispute In September 1977, former Temple members Tim and Grace Stoen battled in a Georgetown court to produce an order for the Temple to show cause why a final order should not be issued returning their five-year-old son, John. A few days later, a second order was issued for John to be taken into protective custody by authorities. The fear of being held in contempt of the orders caused Jones to set up a false sniper attack upon himself and begin his first series of White Nights, called the "Six Day Siege". During the Siege, Jones spoke to Temple members about attacks from outsiders and had them surround Jonestown with guns and machetes. The rallies took an almost surreal tone as black activists Angela Davis and Huey Newton communicated via radio-telephone to the Jonestown crowd, urging them to hold strong against the "conspiracy". Jones made radio broadcasts stating "we will die unless we are granted freedom from harassment and asylum." Deputy Minister Reid finally assured Marceline Jones that the Guyana Defence Force would not invade Jonestown. Exploring another potential exodus After the Six Day Siege, Jones no longer believed the Guyanese could be trusted. He directed Temple members to write to over a dozen foreign governments inquiring about immigration policies relevant to another exodus by the Temple. He also wrote to the State Department inquiring about North Korea and Albania, then enduring the Sino-Albanian split. In Georgetown, the Peoples Temple conducted frequent meetings with the embassies of the Soviet Union, North Korea, Yugoslavia, and Cuba. Negotiations with the Soviet embassy included extensive discussions of possible resettlement there. The Temple produced memoranda discussing potential places within the U.S.S.R. in which they might settle. Sharon Amos, Michael Prokes, Matthew Blunt, Timothy Regan, and other Temple members took active roles in the "Guyana-Korea Friendship Society", which sponsored two seminars on the revolutionary concepts of Kim Il Sung. In April 1978, a high-ranking correspondent of Soviet news agency TASS and his wife visited Jim Jones. Although Jones, his executive partners, and congregation voiced their thoughts about moving their operation to the Soviet Union, Jones had a change of heart. He had stated that he preferred to stay within the Guyanese borders because of the sovereignty it afforded them. On October 2, 1978, Feodor Timofeyev, consul for the Soviet Union in Georgetown, visited Jonestown for two days and gave a speech. Jones stated before the speech, "For many years, we have let our sympathies be quite publicly known, that the United States government was not our mother, but that the Soviet Union was our spiritual motherland." Timofeyev opened the speech stating that the Soviet Union would like to send "our deepest and the most sincere greetings to the people of this first socialist and communist community of the United States of America, in Guyana and in the world". Both speeches were met by cheers and applause from the crowd in Jonestown. Following the visit, Temple members met almost weekly with Timofeyev to discuss a potential Soviet exodus. Concerned relatives Meanwhile, in late 1977 and early 1978, Tim and Grace Stoen participated in meetings with other relatives of Jonestown residents at the home of Jeannie Mills, another Temple defector. Together, they called themselves the "Concerned Relatives". Tim Stoen engaged in letter-writing campaigns to the U.S. Secretary of State and the Guyanese government, and traveled to Washington, D.C. to attempt to begin an investigation. In January 1978, Stoen wrote a white paper to Congress detailing his grievances and requesting that congressmen write to Prime Minister Burnham; 91 congressmen wrote such letters, including Congressman Leo Ryan. On February 17, 1978, Jones submitted to an interview with San Francisco Examiner reporter Tim Reiterman. Reiterman's subsequent story about the Stoen custody battle prompted the immediate threat of a lawsuit by the Temple. The repercussions were devastating for the Temple's reputation, and made most former supporters more suspicious of the Temple's claims that it was the victim of a "rightist vendetta". Still, others remained loyal. On the day after Reiterman's article was published, Harvey Milk – a member of the San Francisco Board of Supervisors who was supported by the Temple – wrote a letter to President Jimmy Carter defending Jones "as a man of the highest character," and stating that Temple defectors were trying to "damage Rev. Jones' reputation" with "apparent bold-faced lies". On April 11, 1978, the Concerned Relatives distributed a packet of documents, including letters and affidavits, that they titled an "Accusation of Human Rights Violations by Rev. James Warren Jones" to the Peoples Temple, members of the press, and members of Congress. In June 1978, Layton provided the group with a further affidavit detailing alleged crimes by the Temple and substandard living conditions in Jonestown. Tim Stoen represented three members of the Concerned Relatives in lawsuits filed in May and June 1978 against Jones and other Temple members, seeking in excess of $56 million in damages. The Temple, represented by Charles R. Garry, filed a suit against Stoen on July 10, 1978, seeking $150 million in damages. Conspiracism During the summer of 1978, Jones sought the legal services of Mark Lane and Donald Freed, both Kennedy assassination conspiracy theorists, to help make the case of a "grand conspiracy" by U.S. intelligence agencies against the Temple. Jones told Lane he wanted to "pull an Eldridge Cleaver" and return to the U.S. after repairing his reputation. In September 1978, Lane spoke to the residents of Jonestown, providing support for Jones' theories and comparing him to famed civil rights movement leader Martin Luther King Jr. Lane then held press conferences stating that "none of the charges" against the Temple "are accurate or true" and that there was a "massive conspiracy" against the Temple by "intelligence organizations," naming the CIA, the FBI, and even the U.S. Post Office. Though Lane represented himself as a disinterested party, Jones was actually paying him $6,000 per month to generate such theories. Jones' declining physical and mental health Jones' health significantly declined in Jonestown. In 1978, Jones was informed of a possible lung infection, upon which he announced to his followers that he in fact had lung cancer – a ploy to foster sympathy and strengthen support within the community. Jones was said to be abusing injectable Valium, Quaaludes, stimulants, and barbiturates. Audio tapes of 1978 meetings within Jonestown attest to Jones' declining physical condition, with the commune leader complaining of high blood pressure which he had since the early 1950s, small strokes, and weight loss of 30 to 40 pounds in the last two weeks of Jonestown, temporary blindness, convulsions, and, in late October to early November 1978 while he was ill in his cabin, grotesque swelling of the extremities. Jones often mentioned chronic insomnia; he would often say he went for three or four days without any rest. During meetings and public addresses, his once-sharp speaking voice often sounded slurred; words ran together or were tripped over. Jones would occasionally not finish sentences even when reading typed reports over the commune's PA system. Reiterman was surprised by the severe deterioration of Jones' health when he saw him in Jonestown on November 17, 1978. After covering Jones for eighteen months for the Examiner, Reiterman thought it was "shocking to see his glazed eyes and festering paranoia face to face, to realize that nearly a thousand lives, ours included, were in his hands". Initial investigation Leo Ryan, who represented California's 11th congressional district, announced that he would visit Jonestown. Ryan was friends with the father of Bob Houston, a Temple member in California whose mutilated body was found near train tracks on October 5, 1976, three days after a taped telephone conversation with Houston's ex-wife in which leaving the Temple was discussed. Over the following months, Ryan's interest was further aroused by the allegations put forth by Stoen, Layton, and the Concerned Relatives. On November 14, Ryan flew to Jonestown along with a delegation that included: Jackie Speier, Ryan's then-legal adviser; Neville Annibourne, representing Guyana's Ministry of Information; Richard Dwyer, Deputy Chief of Mission of the U.S. embassy to Guyana; Tim Reiterman, San Francisco Examiner reporter; Greg Robinson, Examiner photographer; Don Harris, NBC reporter; Bob Brown, NBC camera operator; Steve Sung, NBC audio technician; Bob Flick, NBC producer; Charles Krause, Washington Post reporter; Ron Javers, San Francisco Chronicle reporter; and Concerned Relatives representatives, including: Tim and Grace Stoen, Steve and Anthony Katsaris, Beverly Oliver, Jim Cobb, Sherwin Harris, and Carolyn Houston Boyd. Visits to Jonestown When the Ryan delegation arrived in Guyana, Lane and Garry initially refused to allow them access to Jonestown. However, by the morning of November 17, they informed Jones that Ryan would likely leave for Jonestown that afternoon regardless of his willingness. Ryan's party, accompanied by Lane and Garry, came to an airstrip at Port Kaituma, six miles (10 km) from Jonestown, some hours later. Because of aircraft seating limitations, only four of the Concerned Relatives were allowed to accompany the delegation on its flight into Jonestown. Only Ryan and three others were initially accepted into Jonestown, while the rest of Ryan's group was allowed in after sunset. That night, they attended a musical reception in the settlement's main pavilion. While the party was received warmly, Jones said he felt like a dying man and ranted about government conspiracies and martyrdom as he decried attacks by the press and his enemies. It was later reported – and verified by audio tapes recovered by investigators – that Jones had run rehearsals on how to convince Ryan's delegation that everyone was happy and in good spirits. Two Temple members, Vernon Gosney (1953-2021) and Monica Bagby (1960-2009), made the first move for defection that night. In the pavilion, Gosney mistook Harris for Ryan and passed him a note, reading, "Dear Congressman, Vernon Gosney and Monica Bagby. Please help us get out of Jonestown." A child nearby witnessed Gosney's act and verbally alerted other Temple members. Harris brought two notes, one of them Gosney's, to Ryan and Speier. According to Speier in 2006, reading the notes caused her and the congressman to realize that "something was very, very wrong." Ryan, Speier, Dwyer, and Annibourne stayed the night in Jonestown while other members of the delegation, including the press corps and members of Concerned Relatives, were told that they had to find other accommodations. They went to Port Kaituma and stayed at a small café. In the early morning of November 18, eleven Temple members sensed danger enough to walk out of Jonestown and all the way to the town of Matthew's Ridge, in the opposite direction from the Port Kaituma airstrip. Those defectors included members of the family of Jonestown's head of security, Joe Wilson. When journalists and members of the Concerned Relatives arrived in Jonestown later that day, Marceline Jones gave them a tour of the settlement. That afternoon, the Parks and the Bogue families, along with in-laws Christopher O'Neal and Harold Cordell, stepped forward and asked to be escorted out of Jonestown by the Ryan delegation. When Jones' adopted son Johnny attempted to talk Jerry Parks out of leaving, Parks told him, "No way, it's nothing but a communist prison camp." Jones gave the two families, along with Gosney and Bagby, permission to leave. When Harris handed Gosney's note to Jones during an interview in the pavilion, Jones stated that the defectors were lying and wanted to destroy Jonestown. After a sudden violent rainstorm started, emotional scenes developed between family members. Al Simon, a Native American Temple member, attempted to take two of his children to Ryan to process the requisite paperwork for transfer back to the United States. Al's wife, Bonnie, summoned on the loudspeakers by Temple staff, loudly denounced her husband. Al pleaded with Bonnie to return to the U.S., but Bonnie rejected his suggestions. Port Kaituma airstrip shootings While most of the Ryan delegation began to depart on a large dump truck to the Port Kaituma airstrip, Ryan and Dwyer stayed behind in Jonestown to process any additional defectors. Shortly before the dump truck left, Temple loyalist Larry Layton, the brother of Deborah Layton, demanded to join the group. Several defectors voiced their suspicions about Larry Layton's motives. Shortly after the dump truck initially departed, Temple member Don "Ujara" Sly grabbed Ryan while wielding a knife. While Ryan was unhurt after others wrestled Sly to the ground, Dwyer strongly suggested that the congressman leave Jonestown while he filed a criminal complaint against Sly. Ryan did so, promising to return later to address the dispute. The truck departing to the airstrip had stopped after the passengers heard of the attack on Ryan, and took him as a passenger before continuing its journey towards the airstrip. The entourage had originally scheduled a 19-passenger Twin Otter from Guyana Airways to fly them back to Georgetown. Because of the defectors departing Jonestown, the group grew in number and now an additional aircraft was required. Accordingly, the U.S. embassy arranged for a second plane, a six-passenger Cessna. When the entourage reached the airstrip between 4:30 p.m. and 4:45 p.m., the planes had not appeared as scheduled. The group had to wait until the aircraft landed at approximately 5:10 p.m. Then the boarding process began. Layton was a passenger on the Cessna, the first aircraft to set up for takeoff. After the Cessna had taxied to the far end of the airstrip, he produced a handgun and started shooting at the passengers. He wounded Bagby and Gosney, and tried to kill Dale Parks, who disarmed him after the gun misfired. Meanwhile, some passengers had boarded the larger Twin Otter. A tractor with a trailer attached, driven by members of the Temple's Red Brigade security squad, arrived at the airstrip and approached the Twin Otter. When the tractor neared within approximately of the aircraft, at a time roughly concurrent with the shootings on the Cessna, the Red Brigade opened fire with shotguns, handguns and rifles while at least two shooters circled the plane on foot. There were perhaps nine shooters whose identities are not all certainly known, but most sources agree that Joe Wilson, Stanley Gieg, Thomas Kice Sr., and Ronnie Dennis were among them. The first few seconds of the shooting were captured as an ENG video recording by NBC cameraman Bob Brown, who was killed along with Robinson, Harris, and Temple defector Patricia Parks in the few minutes of shooting. Ryan was killed after being shot more than twenty times. Jackie Speier, Sung, Dwyer, Reiterman, Anthony Katsaris, Boyd, Oliver, Krause, and Javers were the nine injured in and around the Twin Otter. After the shootings, the Cessna's pilot Tom Fernandez, along with the pilot and co-pilot of the Twin Otter, Captain Guy Spence and First officer Astil Rodwell Paul, as well as the injured Monica Bagby, fled in the Cessna to Georgetown. The damaged Twin Otter and the injured Ryan delegation members were left behind on the airstrip. Deaths in Jonestown Before leaving Jonestown for the airstrip, Ryan had told Garry that he would issue a report that would describe Jonestown "in basically good terms". Ryan stated that none of the 60 relatives he had targeted for interviews wanted to leave, the 14 defectors constituted a very small portion of Jonestown's residents, that any sense of imprisonment the defectors had was likely because of peer pressure and a lack of physical transportation, and even if 200 of the 900+ wanted to leave, "I'd still say you have a beautiful place here." Despite Garry's report, Jones told him, "I have failed." Garry reiterated that Ryan would be making a positive report, but Jones maintained that "all is lost." After Ryan's departure from Jonestown towards Port Kaituma, Marceline Jones made a broadcast on the public address system, stating that everything was all right, and asking residents to return to their homes. During this time, aides prepared a large metal tub with grape Flavor Aid, poisoned with diphenhydramine, promethazine, chlorpromazine, chloroquine, chloral hydrate, valium, and cyanide. The concoction was prepared with the help of Jonestown in-house doctor, Dr Larry Schact, a Texan native and former addict to methamphetamine who got sober with the help of Jones who subsequently paid for his college education to become a doctor. Schact had been researching the best ways for a person to die in advance of the foreseen mass suicide. About 30 minutes after Marceline Jones's announcement, Jim Jones made his own, calling all members immediately to the pavilion. A 44-minute cassette tape, known as the "death tape", records part of the meeting Jones called inside the pavilion in the early evening of November 18, 1978. When the assembly gathered, referring to the Ryan delegation's air travel back to Georgetown, Jones told the gathering: One of those people on that plane is gonna shoot the pilot, I know that. I didn't plan it but I know it's gonna happen. They're gonna shoot that pilot and down comes the plane into the jungle and we had better not have any of our children left when it's over, because they'll parachute in here on us. Parroting Jones' prior statements that hostile forces would convert captured children to fascism, one Temple member stated: "The ones that they take captured, they're gonna just let them grow up and be dummies." On the tape, Jones urged Temple members to commit "revolutionary suicide". Such an act had been planned by the Temple before and, according to Jonestown defectors, its theory was "you can go down in history, saying you chose your own way to go, and it is your commitment to refuse capitalism and in support of socialism." Temple member Christine Miller argued that the Temple should alternatively attempt an airlift to the Soviet Union. Jim McElvane, a former therapist who had arrived in Jonestown only two days earlier, assisted Jones by arguing against Miller's resistance to suicide, stating "Let's make it a beautiful day" and later citing possible reincarnation. After several exchanges in which Jones argued that a Soviet exodus would not be possible, along with reactions by other Temple members hostile to Miller, she backed down. However, Miller may have ceased dissenting when Jones confirmed at one point that "the Congressman has been murdered" after the airstrip shooters returned. When the Red Brigade members came back to Jonestown after Ryan's murder, Tim Carter, a Vietnam War veteran, recalled them having the "thousand-yard stare" of weary soldiers. After Jones confirmed that "the Congressman's dead," no dissent is heard on the death tape. By this point, armed guards had taken up positions surrounding the pavilion area. Directly after this, Jones stated that "the Red Brigade's the only one that made any sense anyway," and, "the Red Brigade showed them justice." In addition to McElvane, several other Temple members gave speeches praising Jones and his decision for the community to commit suicide, even after Jones stopped appreciating this praise and begged for the process to go faster. According to escaped Temple member Odell Rhodes, the first to take the poison were Ruletta Paul and her one-year-old infant. A syringe without a needle fitted was used to squirt poison into the infant's mouth, after which Paul squirted another syringe into her own mouth. Stanley Clayton also witnessed mothers with their babies first approach the tub containing the poison. Clayton said that Jones approached people to encourage them to drink the poison and that, after adults saw the poison begin to take effect, "they showed a reluctance to die." The poison caused death within five minutes for children, less for babies, and an estimated 20–30 minutes for adults. After consuming the poison, according to Rhodes, people were then escorted away down a wooden walkway leading outside the pavilion. It is not clear if some initially thought the exercise was another White Night rehearsal. Rhodes reported being in close contact with dying children. In response to reactions of seeing the poison take effect on others, Jones counseled, "Die with a degree of dignity. Lay down your life with dignity; don't lay down with tears and agony." He also said, I tell you, I don't care how many screams you hear, I don't care how many anguished cries ... death is a million times preferable to 10 more days of this life. If you knew what was ahead of you—if you knew what was ahead of you, you'd be glad to be stepping over tonight. Rhodes described a scene of both hysteria and confusion as parents watched their children die from the poison. He also stated that most present "quietly waited their own turn to die", and that many of the assembled Temple members "walked around like they were in a trance". Survivor Tim Carter has suggested that, like a previous practice, that day's lunch of grilled cheese sandwiches may have been tainted with sedatives. This crowd was surrounded by armed guards, offering members the basic dilemma of death by poison or death by a guard's hand. Cries and screams of children and adults were easily heard on the tape recording made. As more Temple members died, eventually the guards themselves were called in to die by poison. Jones was found dead lying next to his chair in the pavilion between two other bodies, his head cushioned by a pillow. His death was caused by a gunshot wound to his left temple that Guyanese Chief Medical Examiner Leslie Mootoo stated was consistent with being self-inflicted. The events at Jonestown constituted the greatest single loss of American civilian life in a deliberate act until the incidents of September 11, 2001. Survivors and eyewitnesses Three high-ranking Temple survivors claimed they were given an assignment and thereby escaped death. Tim Carter and his brother Mike, aged 30 and 20, and Mike Prokes, 31, were given luggage containing $550,000 in U.S. currency, $130,000 in Guyanese currency, and an envelope, which they were told to deliver to the Soviet embassy in Georgetown. The envelope contained two passports and three instructional letters, the first of which was to Timofeyev, stating: The letters included listed accounts with balances totaling in excess of $7.3 million to be transferred to the Communist Party of the Soviet Union. Prokes and the Carter brothers soon ditched most of the money and were apprehended heading for a Temple boat at Port Kaituma. It is unknown how they reached Georgetown, away, since the boat had been sent away earlier that day. The brothers were given the task before the suicides began, and soon abandoned it when they realized what was about to happen; Tim Carter desperately tried to search for his wife and son, discovering his son in time to witness him being poisoned, and his wife killing herself in despair. At this point, Carter had a nervous breakdown, and was pulled away from the village by his equally distraught brother. Just before the start of the final meeting in the pavilion, Garry and Lane were told that the people were angry with them. The lawyers were escorted to a house used to accommodate visitors. According to them, they talked their way past two armed guards and made it to the jungle, before eventually arriving in Port Kaituma. While in the jungle near the settlement, they heard gunshots. This observation concurs with the testimony of Clayton, who, having previously fled into the jungle, heard the same sounds as he was sneaking back into Jonestown to retrieve his passport. Rhodes volunteered to fetch a stethoscope and hid under a building. Two more people who were intended to be poisoned managed to survive. Grover Davis, 79, who was hearing-impaired, missed the announcement to assemble on the loudspeaker, laid down in a ditch and pretended to be dead. Hyacinth Thrash, 76, realized what was happening and crawled under her bed, only to walk out after the poisonings were completed. Medical examinations The only medical doctor to initially examine the scene at Jonestown was Mootoo, who visually examined over 200 bodies and later told a Guyanese coroner's jury of having seen needle marks on at least 70. However, no determination was made as to whether those injections initiated the introduction of poison or whether they were so-called "relief" injections to quicken death and reduce suffering from convulsions from those who had previously taken poison orally. Mootoo and American pathologist Lynn Crook determined that cyanide was present in some bodies, while analysis of the contents of the vat revealed several tranquilizers as well as potassium cyanide and potassium chloride. Plastic cups, Flavor Aid packets, and syringes, some with needles and some without, littered the area where the bodies were found. Mootoo concluded that a gunshot wound to Annie Moore could not have been self-inflicted, though Moore had also ingested a lethal dose of cyanide. Guyanese authorities waived their requirement for autopsies in the case of unnatural death. Doctors in the U.S. performed autopsies on only seven bodies, including those of Jones, Moore, Lawrence Schacht, and Carolyn Layton. Moore and Layton were selected among those autopsied, in part, because of the urging of the Moore family, including Rebecca Moore, the sister of the two victims, who was not a Temple member herself. Notes from deceased residents Found near Marceline Jones' body was a typewritten note, dated November 18, 1978, signed by Marceline and witnessed by Moore and Maria Katsaris, stating: Moore also left a note, which in part stated: "I am at a point right now so embittered against the world that I don't know why I am writing this. Someone who finds it will believe I am crazy or believe in the barbed wire that does NOT exist in Jonestown." The last line ("We died because you would not let us live in peace.") is written in different color ink. No other specific reference is made to the events of the day. Moore also wrote, "JONESTOWN—the most peaceful, loving community that ever existed." In addition, she stated, "JIM JONES—the one who made this paradise possible—much to the contrary of the lies stated about Jim Jones being a power-hungry sadistic, mean person who thought he was God—of all things." And "His hatred of racism, sexism, elitism, and mainly classism, is what prompted him to make a new world for the people—a paradise in the jungle. The children loved it. So did everyone else." Found near Carolyn Layton's body was a handwritten note signed by Layton, witnessed by Katsaris and Moore, dated November 18, 1978, stating, "This is my last will and testament. I hereby leave all assets in any bank account to which I am a signatory to the Communist Party of the U.S.S.R." Deaths in Georgetown In the early evening of November 18, at the Temple's headquarters in Georgetown, Temple member Sharon Amos received a radio communication from Jonestown instructing the members at the headquarters to take revenge on the Temple's enemies and then commit revolutionary suicide. Later, after police arrived at the headquarters, Sharon escorted her children, Liane (21), Christa (11), and Martin (10), into a bathroom. Wielding a kitchen knife, Sharon first killed Christa, and then Martin. Then Liane assisted Sharon in killing herself with the knife, after which Liane killed herself with the knife. Stephan, Tim and Jim Jr. eventually found them dead after they arrived at the Temple headquarters in their efforts to return to Jonestown to stop the suicide. Aftermath At the airstrip, Reiterman photographed the aftermath of the shootings. Dwyer assumed leadership at the scene and, at his recommendation, Larry Layton was arrested by Guyanese police. Dwyer was grazed by a bullet in his buttock during the shootings. It took several hours before the eleven wounded and others in their party gathered themselves together. Most of them spent the night in the Port Kaituma café. The more seriously wounded slept in a small tent at the airstrip. A Guyanese government plane arrived the following morning to evacuate the wounded. Five teenage members of the Parks and Bogue families, with one boyfriend, followed the instructions of defector Gerald Parks to hide in the adjacent jungle until help arrived and their safety was assured. Thereafter, that group was lost for three days in the jungle and nearly died. Guyanese soldiers eventually found them. After escaping Jonestown, Rhodes arrived in Port Kaituma on the night of November 18, 1978. That night, Clayton stayed with a local Guyanese family and travelled to Port Kaituma the next morning. Prokes and the Carter brothers were put into protective custody in Port Kaituma. They were later released in Georgetown. Rhodes, Clayton, Garry, and Lane were also brought to Georgetown. Prokes died by suicide on March 14, 1979, during a press conference, four months after the Jonestown incident. Nine hundred and fourteen of the 918 dead, including Jones himself, were collected by the United States military in Guyana, then transported by military cargo plane to Dover Air Force Base in Delaware, a location that had been used previously for mass processing of the dead from the Tenerife airport disaster. The last shipment of bodies arrived early on the morning of November 27, 1978. The base's mortuary was tasked with fingerprinting, identifying, and processing the bodies. The base's resources were overwhelmed, and numerous individuals tasked with moving or identifying the bodies suffered symptoms of PTSD. In many cases, responsibility for cremation of the remains was distributed to Dover area funeral homes. In August 2014, the never-claimed cremated remains of nine people from Jonestown were found in a former funeral home in Dover. As of September 2014, four of their remains had been returned to next-of-kin, and the remaining five had not. Those five were publicly identified in the hope that family would claim their remains, all five remained unclaimed by family and have been interred at the Jonestown Memorial at Evergreen Cemetery in Oakland, CA along with the remains of approximately half of those who perished on November 18, 1978. Larry Layton, who had fired a gun at several people aboard the Cessna, was initially found not guilty of attempted murder in a Guyanese court, employing the defense that he was "brainwashed". Acquittal in a Guyanese court did not free Layton, who was promptly deported back to the U.S. and arrested by the US Marshals Service upon arrival in San Francisco. Layton could not be tried in the U.S. for the attempted murders of Gosney, Bagby, Dale Parks, and the Cessna pilot on Guyanese soil and was, instead, tried under a federal statute against assassinating members of Congress and internationally protected people (Ryan and Dwyer). He was convicted of conspiracy and of aiding and abetting the murder of Ryan and of the attempted murder of Dwyer. Paroled in 2002, he is the only person ever to have been held criminally responsible for the events at Jonestown. The event was covered heavily by the media, and photographs pertaining to it adorned newspaper and magazine covers for months after its occurrence. It was labeled a "cult of death" by both Time and Newsweek magazines. In February 1979, 98% of Americans polled said that they had heard of the tragedy. George Gallup stated that "few events, in fact, in the entire history of the Gallup Poll have been known to such a high percentage of the US public". After the deaths, both the House Committee on Foreign Affairs and the U.S. State Department itself criticized the latter's handling of the Temple. Guyanese political opposition seized the opportunity to embarrass Prime Minister Burnham by establishing an inquest which concluded that Burnham was responsible for the deaths at Jonestown. The Cult Awareness Network (CAN), a group aimed at deprogramming members of cults, was formed soon after the Jonestown deaths. The group, which included Congressman Ryan's daughter Patricia, was involved in various personal, social and legal battles with a range of religious organizations, from The Family International and Scientology to David Koresh's Branch Davidians, where they were found to be influential on law enforcement's concerns for children in the eventual Waco siege in 1993. After a slew of legal and fiscal issues, CAN disbanded in 1996. In late February 1980, Al and Jeanne Mills (co-founders of the Concerned Relatives) and their daughter Daphene were shot and killed execution style in their Berkeley, California home. Eddie Mills, Al and Jeanne's son, was believed to be involved to the extent that he was arrested in 2005, but charges were not filed against him. The case has not been solved. In 1984, former Temple member Tyrone Mitchell, who had lost both of his parents and five siblings at Jonestown, fired upon students at a Los Angeles elementary school from his second-story window, killing two people and injuring twelve; Mitchell then turned his weapon on himself and committed suicide. The sheer scale of the event, as well as Jones' socialism, purported inconsistencies in the reported number of deaths, allegedly poor explanation of events related to said deaths, and existence of classified documents led some conspiracy theorists to suggest CIA involvement. including a Soviet-published book a decade later. The House Permanent Select Committee on Intelligence investigated the event and announced that there was no evidence of CIA involvement at Jonestown. Others suggested KGB involvement, beyond the attested visits of Soviet diplomatic personnel to Jonestown and the overtures made by Jim Jones to the USSR. The bodies of over 400 of those who died are buried in a mass grave at Evergreen Cemetery in Oakland, California. In 2011, a memorial to them was erected at the cemetery. Although Jones used poisoned Flavor Aid, the drink mix was also commonly (mistakenly) referred to as Kool-Aid. This has led to the phrase "drinking the Kool-Aid", referring to a person or group holding an unquestioned belief, argument, or philosophy without critical examination. Conspiracy theories In 1979, Joseph Hollinger, a former aide to Congressman Leo Ryan, claimed that Jonestown was a "mass mind control experiment" conducted by the CIA. A 1980 newspaper column by Jack Anderson also claimed that the CIA was involved in the Jonestown Massacre, and speculated that Deputy Chief of Mission of the U.S. Embassy to Guyana Richard Dwyer had ties to the CIA. In 1980, an investigation by the United States House Permanent Select Committee on Intelligence found no evidence of CIA activity in Jonestown. In 1987, The Jonestown Carnage: A CIA Crime (1978) (Russian: Гибель Джонстауна - преступление ЦРУ) was published in the Soviet Union, claiming that group members were assassinated by CIA agents and mercenaries to prevent further political emigration from the U.S. as well as suppress opposition to the U.S. regime. Political scientist Janos Radvanyi cites the book as an example of Soviet active measures during the 1980s that "spread both disinformation stories and enemy propaganda against the United States", adding, "It's hard to imagine that anyone could believe so ridiculous a story". According to Religious Studies scholar Rebecca Moore, "In the twenty-three years since the deaths in Jonestown, conspiracy theories have blossomed in number and sophistication." Former site Now deserted, the compound at Jonestown was first tended by the Guyanese government following the deaths. The government then allowed its re-occupation by Hmong refugees from Laos for a few years in the early 1980s. The buildings and grounds were looted by local Guyanese people, but were not taken over because of their association with the mass killing. The buildings were mostly destroyed by a fire in the mid-1980s, after which the ruins were left to decay and be reclaimed by the jungle. During a visit to tape a segment for the ABC news show 20/20 in 1998, Jim Jones Jr., the adopted son of the cult leader, discovered the rusting remains of an oil drum near the former entrance to the pavilion. Jones recognized the drum, originally adapted for use during meal times, as the drum used for drink mixtures during the White Night exercises, and which he believed was used to hold the beverage mix of poison and grape-flavored punch during the events of November 18, 1978. In 2003, with the help of Gerry Gouveia, a pilot involved with the Jonestown cleanup, a television crew recording a special for the 25th anniversary of the event returned to the site to uncover any remaining artifacts. Although the site was covered with dense vegetation, the team uncovered a standing cassava mill (possibly the largest remaining structure), the remains of a tractor (speculated to be the same tractor used by the airstrip shooters), a generator, a filing cabinet, a truck near the site of Jones' house, a fuel pump, and other smaller miscellaneous items. Gouveia also led the team to the former site of the pavilion, where they found the remains of a steel drum, an organ, and a bed of daisies growing where the bodies once lay. See also Jonestown: Paradise Lost, a 2007 documentary broadcast on The History Channel Jonestown: The Life and Death of Peoples Temple, a 2006 documentary film Guyana: Cult of the Damned, a 1979 exploitation film based on the Jonestown tragedy Guyana Tragedy: The Story of Jim Jones, a 1980 television movie based on the life of Jim Jones and the Peoples Temple Seconds From Disaster, a documentary television series that covered the events at Jonestown in Season 6, Episode 2 ("Jonestown Cult Suicide") The Sacrament (2013 film), a thriller whose plot borrows heavily from the events of Jonestown List of United States Congress members killed or wounded in office Jonestown conspiracy theory Casefile True Crime Podcast – "Case 60" – three-part series aired in September 2017 The Last Podcast on the Left – Episodes 300–304 – a five-part series aired in January 2018 605 Adults 304 Children, a 2019 short documentary filmed entirely by the Peoples Temple at Jonestown Mass suicides: Heaven's Gate (religious group) in San Diego, California Order of the Solar Temple in Canada and Switzerland Movement for the Restoration of the Ten Commandments of God in Uganda Puputan, mass ritual suicide in Bali Suicide in Guyana Notes References Further reading Based on interviews with Odell Rhodes. Fondakowski, Leigh (2013). Stories from Jonestown. Minnesota: University of Minnesota Press. . Based on interviews with survivors and family members. (published in the UK as Black & White) External links List of Jonestown massacre victims Jonestown: Rebuilding my life after surviving the massacre. By Georgina Rannard & Kelly-Leigh Cooper. BBC News. The story of Laura Johnson Kohl. Includes pre-event information & photos. Alternative considerations of Jonestown and Peoples Temple, an extensive resource on the topics, sponsored by the Department of Religious Studies at San Diego State University "Jonestown: The Life and Death of Peoples Temple", website for the film broadcast on PBS includes video interviews with survivors from 2006. "The Jonestown Death Tape (FBI No. Q 042) (November 18 1978)", an unofficial web-publishing (digital) of the death tape seemingly made just before and during the mass slaying , Time magazine cover story, Monday, December 4, 1978 Father Cares: The Last of Jonestown, a 1981 audio documentary produced by NPR (90 minutes) Jonestown Legacy website run by David Wise, once a pastor of the Los Angeles Branch of the Peoples Temple, but latterly an opponent of Jim Jones. , the contents of US Government archives on the subject obtained through the Freedom of Information Act. (web-archived copy of the original website, no longer extant; unfortunately the scanned pages are missing) , excerpt from: Report of a Staff Investigative Group to the Committee on Foreign Affairs, U.S. House of Representatives, May 15, 1979 "Davisville, 8/4/14: Listening to a survivor, and the story, of Jonestown". Radio interview with Julia Scheeres, author of A Thousand Lives: The Untold Story of Jonestown and Thom Bogue, one of the survivors, KDRT, August 2014. "Jonestown FBI Files" at Internet Archive The Downfall of Jim Jones by Larry Lee Litke. Published at The Jonestown Institute. Originally published 1980. 1974 establishments in Guyana 1978 disestablishments in Guyana Populated places established in 1974 Populated places disestablished in 1978 November 1978 events in South America 1970s in Christianity Former populated places in Guyana Ghost towns in South America Guyana–United States relations History of Guyana Christian missions Mass murder in 1978 Mass murder in Guyana Massacres in Guyana Murder in Guyana Peoples Temple Socialism in Guyana Suicide in Guyana Utopian communities Suicides by cyanide poisoning Post–civil rights era in African-American history Anti-Americanism
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jim%20Jones
Jim Jones
James Warren Jones (May 13, 1931 – November 18, 1978) was an American cult leader, political activist, preacher, and faith healer who led the Peoples Temple, a new religious organization which existed between 1955 and 1978. In what he described as "revolutionary suicide", Jones and his inner circle orchestrated a mass murder–suicide in his remote jungle commune at Jonestown, Guyana, on November 18, 1978. As a youth, Jones developed an affinity for pentecostalism and a desire to be a preacher. He was ordained as a Christian minister in the Independent Assemblies of God and attracted his first followers while participating in the Pentecostal Latter Rain movement and the Healing Revival during the 1950s. Jones' initial popularity arose from his joint campaign appearances and endorsement by the movements' prominent leaders, William Branham and Joseph Mattsson-Boze. With their support, Jones took a leadership role in multiple international conventions where he recruited many new members for his church. Jones founded the organization that would become the Peoples Temple in Indianapolis in 1955. Jones distinguished himself through civil rights activism, founding the Temple as a fully integrated congregation, and promoting Christian socialism. In 1964, Jones joined and was ordained a minister by the Disciples of Christ; his attraction to the Disciples was largely due to the autonomy and tolerance they granted to differing views within their denomination. In 1965, Jones moved the Temple to California, where the group established its headquarters in San Francisco and became heavily involved in political and charitable activity throughout the 1970s. Jones developed connections with prominent California politicians and was appointed as chairman of the San Francisco Housing Authority Commission in 1975. Beginning in the late 1960s, Jones became increasingly vocal in his rejection of traditional Christianity and began promoting his teachings as "Apostolic Socialism" and making claims of his own divinity. Jones became progressively more controlling of the members of Peoples Temple, which at its peak had over 3,000 members. Jones's followers engaged in a communal lifestyle in which they turned over all their income and property to Jones and Peoples Temple who directed all aspects of community life. Following a period of negative media publicity and reports of abuse at Peoples Temple, Jones ordered the construction of a commune called Jonestown in Guyana in 1974, and convinced or compelled many of his followers to live there with him. Jones claimed that he was constructing a socialist paradise free from the oppression of the United States government. By 1978, media reports had surfaced of human rights abuses and accusations that people were being held in Jonestown against their will. U.S. Representative Leo Ryan led a delegation to the commune in November of that year to investigate these reports. While boarding a return flight with some former Temple members who had wished to leave, Ryan and four others were murdered by gunmen from Jonestown. Jones then ordered a mass murder-suicide that claimed the lives of 909 commune members, 304 of them children; almost all of the members died by drinking Flavor Aid laced with cyanide. Early life James Warren Jones was born on May 13, 1931, in the rural community of Crete, Indiana, to James Thurman Jones and Lynetta Putnam. Jones went by the nickname Jimmy during his youth. Jones was of Irish and Welsh descent; he and his mother both claimed partial Cherokee ancestry, but there is no evidence of such ancestry. Jones's father was a disabled World WarI veteran who suffered from severe breathing difficulties from a chemical weapons attack. The military pension he received for his injuries was not sufficient to support his family, and he attempted to supplement his income by periodically working on local road repair projects. Childhood poverty The financial difficulties caused by his father's illness led to marital problems between Jones's parents. In 1934, in the midst of the Great Depression, the Jones family was evicted from their home for failure to make mortgage payments. Their relatives purchased a shack for them to live in at the nearby town of Lynn. The new home, where Jones grew up, lacked plumbing and electricity. In Lynn, the family attempted to earn an income through farming, but again met with failure when Jones's father's health further deteriorated. The family often lacked adequate food and relied on financial support from their extended family. They sometimes had to resort to foraging in the nearby forest and fields to supplement their diet. According to multiple Jones biographers, his mother had "no natural maternal instincts" and frequently neglected her son. Her pregnancy had been unwanted, and she expressed disappointment at becoming a mother and was often bitter and unhappy about their family's financial and social position. When Jones began attending school, his extended family threatened to cut off their financial assistance unless his mother took a job, forcing her to work outside the home. Meanwhile, Jones's father was hospitalized multiple times due to his illness. As a result, Jones's parents were frequently absent during his childhood. His aunts and uncles who lived nearby provided some supervision, but Jones often wandered the streets of the town (sometimes naked) with no one caring for him. Many women in Lynn felt sorry for Jones, and he was frequently invited into the homes of his neighbors who provided him with meals, clothing, and other gifts. Early religious and political influences Myrtle Kennedy, the wife of the pastor of the local Nazarene Church, developed a special attachment to Jones. Jones often stayed overnight in the Kennedys' home to be cared for by them. Kennedy, known in the community for her religious zeal, took Jones to church multiple times a week. She gave Jones a Bible and encouraged him to study it and taught him to follow the holiness code of the Nazarene Church. Jones was able to quote Bible passages from an early age. As Jones grew older, he attended services at most of the churches in Lynn, often going to multiple churches each week, and he was also baptized in several of them. Jones began to develop a desire to become a preacher as a youth and started to practice preaching in private. His mother claimed that she was disturbed when she caught him imitating the pastor of the local Apostolic Pentecostal Church and she unsuccessfully attempted to prevent him from attending the church's services. In his early teenage years, Jones spent several months evangelizing in his community on behalf of the local Pentecostal church. Although they had sympathy for Jones because of his poor circumstances, his neighbors reported that he was an unusual child who was obsessed with religion and death. He regularly visited a casket manufacturer in Lynn and held mock funerals for roadkill that he had collected. When he could not get any children to attend his funerals, he would perform the services alone. Jones claimed that he had been given special powers, including the ability to fly. To prove his powers to the other children, he once jumped from the roof of a building and fell, breaking his arm. Despite the fall, he continued to claim that he had special powers. One Jones biographer suggested that he developed his unusual interests because he found it difficult to make friends. Although his strange religious practices stood out the most to his neighbors, they also reported that he misbehaved in more serious ways. He frequently stole candy from merchants in the town; his mother was required to pay for his thefts. Jones regularly used offensive profanity, commonly greeting his friends and neighbors by saying, "Good morning, you son of a bitch" or, "Hello, you dirty bastard". At different times, he would put other children into life-threatening situations and tell them he was guided by the Angel of Death. In later years, Jones claimed that he had performed numerous sacrilegious pranks at the churches he attended as a child. He claimed that he stole the Pentecostal pastor's bible and put cow manure on Acts 2:38. He also claimed that at a Catholic church, he replaced the holy water with a cup of his own urine. Jones's mother beat him with a leather belt in order to punish his misbehavior. When World War II broke out, Jones became enamored with Adolf Hitler and the Nazi Party. He was intrigued by their pageantry, their unity, and the absolute power wielded by Hitler. The people in his community found his idolization of Nazi Germany disturbing. Jones played dictator with the other children, forcing them to goosestep in unison and hitting the children who failed to obey his orders. One childhood acquaintance recalled that Jones gave the Nazi salute and shouted "Heil Hitler!" when he met German prisoners of war passing through their community en route to a detention facility. Jones developed an intense interest in religion and social doctrines. He became a voracious reader who studied Hitler, Joseph Stalin, Karl Marx, Mao Zedong and Mahatma Gandhi. He spent hours in the community library, and he brought books home so he could read them in the evenings. Although he studied different political systems, Jones did not espouse any radical political views in his youth. Commenting on his childhood, Jones stated, "I was ready to kill by the end of the third grade. I mean, I was so aggressive and hostile, I was ready to kill. Nobody gave me love, any understanding. In those days a parent was supposed to go with a child to school functions. There was some kind of school performance, and everybody's parent was there but mine. I'm standing there, alone. Always was alone." Tom Reiterman, a biographer of Jones, wrote that Jones's attraction to religion was strongly influenced by his desire for a family. In 1942, the Kennedy family moved to Richmond, Indiana, for the summer and Jones visited them. They attended a summer religious convention at a nearby Pentecostal church, participating in services four times a week. When Jones returned to Lynn in the autumn, he offended his community by giving explicit explanations of sexual reproduction to young children. Many people in Lynn demanded that Jones' mother curtail his behavior, but she refused. The situation caused many of the other parents to keep their children away from him. By the time he entered high school, he had become an outcast among his peers and was increasingly disliked by the members of his community. Education and marriage In high school, Jones continued to stand out from his peers. He enjoyed debating his teachers, and he was also a good student. He developed a habit of refusing to answer anyone who spoke to him first, he only spoke to people when he initiated conversations with them. Jones was known to wear his Sunday church attire every day of the week, while his peers dressed more casually. He almost always carried his bible with him. His religious views alienated many of his peers. He frequently confronted them for drinking beer, smoking, and dancing. At times, he would interrupt other young people's events and insist that they read the bible with him. Jones disliked playing sports because he hated losing, so he served as coach on sports teams he organized with younger children. In 1945, Jones organized an entire league of teams for a summer baseball tournament. While he was attending a baseball game in Richmond, Jones was bothered by the treatment of African Americans who attended the game. The events at the ball game brought discrimination against African Americans to Jones's attention and influenced his strong aversion to racism. Jones's father was associated with the Indiana branch of the Ku Klux Klan, which had become very popular in Depression-era Indiana. Jones recounted how he and his father argued about the issue of race, and he also stated that he did not speak to his father for "many, many years" after he refused to allow one of Jones's black friends to enter his house. The unhappy marriage of Jones's parents came to an end when the couple finally separated in 1945 and eventually divorced. Jones relocated to Richmond with his mother, where he continued his high school education. Jones and his mother lost the financial support of their relatives following the divorce. To support himself, Jones began working as an orderly at Richmond's Reid Hospital in 1946. Jones was well-regarded by the senior management, but staff members later recalled that Jones exhibited disturbing behavior towards some patients and coworkers. Jones began dating a nurse-in-training named Marceline Baldwin while he was working at Reid Hospital. In December 1948, Jones graduated from Richmond High School early with honors. He relocated to Bloomington, Indiana in November 1948, where he attended Indiana University Bloomington with the intention of becoming a doctor, but changed his mind shortly thereafter. During his time at University, Jones was impressed by a speech which Eleanor Roosevelt delivered about the plight of African-Americans, and he began to espouse support for communism and other radical political views for the first time. Jones and Marceline Baldwin continued their relationship while he attended college, and the couple married on June 12, 1949. Their first home was in Bloomington, where Marceline worked in a nearby hospital while Jones attended college. Marceline was Methodist, and she and Jones immediately fell into arguments about church. Jones insisted on attending Bloomington's Full Gospel Tabernacle, but eventually compromised and began attending a local Methodist church on most Sunday mornings while attending Pentecostal churches Sunday evenings and weekdays. Jones's strong opposition to the Methodist church's racial segregationist practices continued the strain their marriage. Through the years, their relationship was affected by Jones's insecurity. He often felt the need to test Marceline's love and loyalty, and at times he used sadistic methods to do so. In 1950, the couple unofficially adopted Marceline's nephew Ronnie, who they cared for over a four year period. After attending Indiana University for two years, the couple relocated to Indianapolis in 1951. Jones took night classes at Butler University to continue his education, finally earning a degree in secondary education in 1961—ten years after enrolling. In 1951, the 20-year-old Jones began attending gatherings of the Communist Party USA in Indianapolis. During the McCarthy hearings, Jones and his family faced harassment from government authorities. In one event, Jones's mother was harassed by FBI agents in front of her co-workers because she had attended an event with her son. Jones also became frustrated with the persecution of open and accused communists in the U.S., especially during the trial of Julius and Ethel Rosenberg. Reflecting back on his participation in the Communist Party, Jones said that he asked himself, "How can I demonstrate my Marxism? The thought was, infiltrate the church." Peoples Temple Beginnings in Indianapolis In early 1952, Jones heard a sermon preached in the Methodist church that emphasized loving members of all races. Jones announced to his wife and her family that he would become a Methodist minister since he believed the church was ready to "put real socialism into practice." Jones was surprised when a Methodist district superintendent helped him get a start in the church, even though he knew Jones to be a communist. In the summer of 1952, Jones was hired as student pastor to the children at the Sommerset Southside Methodist Church. Jones launched a project to create a playground that would be open to children of all races. Jones continued to visit and speak at Pentecostal churches while serving as Methodist student pastor. In early 1954 Jones was dismissed from his position in the Methodist Church, ostensibly for stealing church funds, though he later claimed he left the church because its leaders forbade him from integrating blacks into his congregation. Around this time in 1953, Jones visited a Pentecostal Latter Rain convention in Columbus, Indiana where a woman at the convention prophesied that Jones was a prophet with a great ministry. Jones was surprised by the prophecy, but gladly accepted the call to preach and rose to the podium to deliver a message to the convention. Pentecostalism was in the midst of the Healing Revival and Latter Rain movements during the 1950s. Jones began to press his wife to leave the Methodist church, believing that the Latter Rain movement, which was growing in size and racially integrated, offered him a greater opportunity to become a preacher. He convinced his wife by arguing that the Pentecostal churches were more accommodating to his views on racial integration. In 1953, Jones began attending and preaching at the Laurel Street Tabernacle in Indianapolis, a Pentecostal Assemblies of God church. The pastor of the church allowed Jones to hold healing revivals until 1955. Jones began to travel and speak and other churches in the Latter Rain movement, and was invited to speak at a Latter Rain convention in Detroit in 1953. The Assemblies of God was strongly opposed to the Latter Rain movement. In 1955, they assigned a new pastor to the Laurel Street Tabernacle who enforced their denominational ban on healing revivals. This led Jones to leave the church and establish Wings of Healing, a charitable organization to promote his own ministry that would later be renamed Peoples Temple. Jones's new church only attracted twenty members who had come with him from the Laurel Street Tabernacle and was not able to financially support his vision. Jones saw a need for publicity, and began seeking a way to popularize his ministry and recruit members. Latter Rain movement Jones began closely associating with the Independent Assemblies of God (IAoG), an international group of churches that had embraced the Latter Rain movement. The IAoG had few requirements for ordaining ministers and were accepting of divine healing practices. In June 1955, Jones held his first joint meetings with William Branham, a healing evangelist and Pentecostal leader in the global Healing Revival. In 1956, Jones was ordained as an IAoG minister by Joseph Mattsson-Boze, a leader in the Latter Rain movement and the IAoG. Jones quickly rose to prominence in the group. Working with the IAoG, Jones organized and hosted a healing convention to take place June 11–15, 1956, in Indianapolis's Cadle Tabernacle. Needing a well-known figure to draw crowds, he arranged to share the pulpit again with Reverend Branham. Branham was known to tell supplicants their name, address, and why they came for prayer, before pronouncing them healed. Jones was intrigued by Branham's methods and began performing the same feats. Jones and Branham's meetings were very successful and attracted an audience of 11,000 at their first joint campaign. At the convention, Branham issued a prophetic endorsement of Jones and his ministry, saying that God had used the convention to send forth a new great ministry. Many attendees in the campaign believed Jones's performance indicated that he had a supernatural gift, and coupled with Branham's endorsement, it led to rapid growth of People's Temple. Jones was particularly effective at recruitment among the African American attendees at the conventions. According to a newspaper report, regular attendance at Peoples Temple swelled to 1,000 thanks to the publicity Branham provided to Jones and Peoples Temple. Following the convention, Jones renamed his church the "Peoples Temple Christian Church Full Gospel" to associate it with Full Gospel Pentecostalism; the name was later shortened to the Peoples Temple. Jones participated in a series of multi-state revival campaigns with Branham and Mattsson-Boze in the second half of the 1950s, making multiple joint appearances with them. Jones claimed to be a follower and promoter of Branham's "Message" during the period. Peoples Temple hosted a second international Pentecostal convention in 1957 which was again headlined by Branham. With the support of Branham and Mattsson-Boze, Jones was elected as President of the Pentecostal Convention Board in 1957, helping Jones secure connections throughout the movement. During his time in the Latter Rain movement, Jones adopted one of their key doctrines which he would continue to promote for the rest of his life: the Manifested Sons of God, also known as the Joel's Army Prophecy. William Branham and the Latter Rain movement promoted the belief that God would be manifested in lives of humans by giving them supernatural gifts and superhuman abilities. They believed that such a manifestation was a sign of the end of the world, and that the people endowed with these special gifts would usher in a millennial age of heaven on earth. Jones was fascinated with the idea, and adapted it to promote his own utopian ideas and eventually the idea that he was himself a manifestation of God. By the late 1960s, Jones came to teach he was a manifestation of the "Christ the Revolution". Branham was a major influence on Jones, and Jones subsequently adopted much of Branham's methods, doctrine, and style. Like Branham, Jones would later claim to be a return of Elijah the Prophet, the voice of God, and a manifestation of Christ, and promote the belief that the end of the world was imminent. Jones learned some of his most successful recruitment tactics from Branham. Jones eventually separated from the Latter Rain movement following a bitter disagreement with Branham in which Jones prophesied Branham's death. Their disagreement was possibly related to Branham's racial teachings or Branham's increasingly vocal opposition to communism. Disciples of Christ Through the Latter Rain movement, Jones became aware of Father Divine, an African American spiritual leader who was often derided by Latter Rain for his claims to divinity. In 1956, Jones made his first visit to investigate Father Divine's Peace Mission in Philadelphia. Jones was careful to explain that his visit the Peace Mission was so he could "give an authentic, unbiased, and objected statement" about its activities to his fellow ministers. Divine served as another important influence on the development of Jones's ministry, particularly in how he structured the Peoples Temple leadership and organized mission work. After returning to Indianapolis, while publicly disavowing many of Father Divine's teachings, Jones began to implement many of the outreach practices he witnessed at the Peace Mission, including setting up a soup kitchen and providing free groceries and clothing to people in need. At a second visit to Father Divine in 1958, Jones spent time learning how to manipulate members of the Peoples Temple. Divine told Jones to "find an enemy" and "to make sure they know who the enemy is" as it would unify those in the group and make them subservient. Jones bragged to his congregation that he would like to be the successor of Father Divine and made many comparisons between their two ministries, primarily focusing on their community outreach programs. Jones also began progressively implementing the communal lifestyle and disciplinary practices he learned from Father Divine which increasingly took control over the lives of members of Peoples Temple. As Jones gradually separated from Pentecostalism and the Latter Rain movement, he began seeking an organization that would be open to all of his beliefs. In 1960, Peoples Temple joined the Disciples of Christ denomination, whose headquarters was nearby in Indianapolis. In 1964, Archie Ijames, who had assured Jones that the organization would tolerate his political beliefs, participated in the ceremony to ordain Jones a Disciples of Christ minister. Jones was ordained as a Disciples minister at a time when the requirements for ordination varied greatly and Disciples membership was open to any church. In both 1974 and 1977 the Disciples leadership received allegations of abuse at Peoples Temple. They conducted investigations at the time, but they found no evidence of wrongdoing, and Jones and Peoples Temple remained part of the Disciples until the Jonestown massacre. Disciples of Christ found Peoples Temple to be "an exemplary Christian ministry overcoming human differences and dedicated to human services." Peoples Temple contributed $1.1 million ($ in 2020 dollars) to the denomination between 1966 and 1977. Racial integrationist The New York Times reported that, in 1953:[D]eclaring that he was outraged at what he perceived as racial discrimination in his white congregation, Mr. Jones established his own church and pointedly opened it to all ethnic groups. To raise money, he imported monkeys and sold them door to door as pets. In 1960, Indianapolis Mayor Charles Boswell appointed Jones director of the local human rights commission. Jones ignored Boswell's advice to keep a low profile, however, finding new outlets for his views on local radio and television programs. The mayor and other commissioners asked him to curtail his public actions, but he resisted. Jones was wildly cheered at a meeting of the NAACP and Urban League when he yelled for his audience to be more militant, capping his speech with, "Let my people go!". During this time, Jones also helped to racially integrate churches, restaurants, the telephone company, the Indianapolis Police Department, a theater, an amusement park, and the Indiana University Health Methodist Hospital. When swastikas were painted on the homes of two black families, Jones walked through the neighborhood comforting the local black community and counseling white families not to move. He also set up sting operations to catch restaurants refusing to serve black customers and wrote to American Nazi Party leaders, passing their responses to the media. Jones was accidentally placed in the black ward of a hospital after a collapse in 1961, but refused to be moved; he began to make the beds and empty the bedpans of black patients. Political pressures resulting from Jones's actions caused hospital officials to desegregate the wards. Jones received considerable criticism in Indiana for his integrationist views. Peoples Temple became a target of white supremacists. Among several incidents, a swastika was placed on the Temple, a stick of dynamite was left in a Temple coal pile, and a dead cat was thrown at Jones's house after a threatening phone call. Nevertheless, the publicity generated by Jones's activity helped attract a larger congregation. By the end of 1961, Indianapolis was a far more racially integrated city, and "Jim Jones was almost entirely responsible." "Rainbow Family" Jones and his wife adopted several non-white children, referring to the household as his "rainbow family", and stating: "Integration is a more personal thing with me now. It's a question of my son's future." He also portrayed the Temple as a "rainbow family". In 1954 the Joneses adopted Agnes, who was part Native American. In 1959, they adopted three Korean-American children named Lew, Stephanie, and Suzanne, the latter of whom was adopted at age six, and encouraged Temple members to adopt orphans from war-ravaged Korea. Jones was critical of U.S. opposition to North Korean leader Kim Il-sung, calling the Korean War a "war of liberation" and stating that South Korea "is a living example of all that socialism in the north has overcome." In June 1959, Jones and his wife had their only biological child, naming him Stephan Gandhi. In 1961, they became the first white couple in Indiana to adopt a black child, naming him Jim Jones Jr. (or James Warren Jones Jr.). They also adopted a white son, originally named Timothy Glen Tupper (shortened to Tim), whose birth mother was a member of the Temple. Jones also fathered Jim Jon (Kimo) with Temple member Carolyn Layton. Relocating Peoples Temple In 1961, Jones began to warn his congregation that he had received visions of a nuclear attack that would devastate Indianapolis. Jones's wife confided to her friends that he was becoming increasingly paranoid and fearful. Like other followers of William Branham who moved to South America during the 1960s, Jones may have been influenced by Branham's 1961 prophecy concerning the destruction of the United States in a nuclear war. Jones had begun to look for a way to escape the destruction he believed was imminent. In January 1962 he read an Esquire magazine article that purported South America to be the safest place to reside to escape any impending nuclear war, leading Jones to travel to South America to scout for a potential site to relocate the Peoples Temple. Jones traveled with his family to Belo Horizonte, Brazil, with the idea of setting up a new Peoples Temple location. On his way to Brazil, Jones made his first trip to Guyana, which at the time was still a British colony. Jones's family rented a modest three-bedroom home in town. Jones studied the local economy and receptiveness of racial minorities to his message, although language remained a barrier. He also explored local Brazilian syncretistic religions. Careful not to portray himself as a communist in a foreign territory, he spoke of an apostolic communal lifestyle rather than of Castro or Marx. Ultimately, the lack of resources in Belo Horizonte led the family to move to Rio de Janeiro in mid-1963, where they worked with the poor in the favelas. While scouting the region, Jones stopped briefly in Georgetown, Guyana where he held revival meetings. Unable to find a location he deemed suitable for People's Temple, Jones became plagued by guilt for effectively abandoning the civil rights struggle in Indiana and possibly losing what he had tried to build there. During the year of his absence, Peoples Temple attendance declined from 400 to less than 100. Jones had demanded the Peoples Temple sent all its revenue to him in South America to support his efforts. The church went into debt to continue to support his mission until Archie Ijames sent word that the Temple was about to collapse without him, and threatened to resign if Jones did not soon return. Jones reluctantly returned to Indiana. Jones returned from Brazil in December 1963 to find Peoples Temple bitterly divided. Financial issues and much smaller congregation forced Jones to sell the Peoples Temple church building and relocate to a smaller church nearby. To raise money, Jones briefly returned to the revival circuit, traveling and holding healing campaigns. After dealing with the issues at Peoples Temple, and possibly in part to distract from them, he told his Indiana congregation that the world would be engulfed by nuclear war on July 15, 1967, leading to a new socialist Eden on Earth, and that the Temple had to move to Northern California for safety. With Jones's return, the majority of his congregation returned to Peoples Temple, dramatically improving their financial situation. During 1964 Jones made multiple trips to California to locate a suitable location to relocate. In July 1965, Jones and his followers began moving to their new location in Redwood Valley, California, near the city of Ukiah. Jones's assistant pastor, Russell Winberg, strongly resisted Jones's efforts to move the congregation and warned members of Peoples Temple that Jones was abandoning Christianity. Winberg took over leadership of the Indianapolis church when Jones departed. The move resolved the divisions within the Indianapolis church through separation. About 140 of Jones's most loyal followers made the move to California, while the rest remained behind with Winberg. In California, Jones was able to use his education degree from Butler University to secure a job as a history and government teacher at an adult education school in Ukiah. Jones used his position to recruit for Peoples Temple, teaching his students the benefits of Marxism and lecturing on religion. Jones planted loyal members of Peoples Temple in the classes to help him with recruitment. His efforts were successful, and Jones recruited 50 new members to Peoples Temple in the first few months. In 1967, Jones's followers coaxed another 75 members of the Indianapolis congregation to move to California. In 1968, the Peoples Temple's California location was admitted to the Disciples of Christ. Jones began to use the denominational connection to promote Peoples Temple as part of the 1.5 million member denomination. He played up famous members of the Disciples, including Lyndon Johnson and J. Edgar Hoover, and misrepresented the nature of his position in the denomination. By 1969, Jones had increased the membership in Peoples Temple in California to 300. Apostolic Socialism Jones developed a theology that was significant influenced by the teachings of the Latter Rain movement, William Branham, and Father Divine, and infused with Jones's personal communist worldview. Jones referred to his belief as "Apostolic Socialism". Following the relocation of Peoples Temple to California, Jones began to gradually introduce the concepts of his doctrine to his followers. According to religious studies professor Catherine Wessinger, Jones always spoke of the Social Gospel's virtues, but chose to conceal that his gospel was actually communism until the late 1960s. By that time, he began partially revealing the details of his "Apostolic Socialism" concept in Temple sermons. Jones taught that "those who remained drugged with the opiate of religion had to be brought to enlightenment", which he defined as socialism. Jones asserted that traditional Christianity had an incorrect view of God. By the early 1970s, Jones began deriding traditional Christianity as "fly away religion", rejecting the Bible as being a tool to oppress women and non-whites, and referring to their belief in a "Sky God" who was "no God at all". Jones claimed to be following the true God who created all things. Jones taught that ultimate reality was called the "Divine Principle", and this principle was the true God. Jones equated the principle with love, and he equated love with socialism. Jones asserted he was a savior sent by the true God, to rescue humanity from their sufferings. Jones insisted that accepting the "Divine Principle" was equivalent to being "crucified with Christ". Jones increasingly promoted the idea of his own divinity, going so far as to tell his congregation that "I am come as God Socialist." Jones carefully avoided claiming divinity outside of Peoples Temple, but he expected to be acknowledged as god-like among his followers. Former Temple member Hue Fortson Jr. quoted him as saying: What you need to believe in is what you can see.... If you see me as your friend, I'll be your friend. As you see me as your father, I'll be your father, for those of you that don't have a father.... If you see me as your savior, I'll be your savior. If you see me as your God, I'll be your God. Further criticizing traditional Christianity, Jones wrote a booklet titled "The Letter Killeth", criticizing the King James Bible, and dismissing King James as a slave owner and a capitalist who was responsible for the corrupt translation of scripture. Jones claimed he was sent to share the true meaning of the gospel which had been hidden by corrupt leaders. Jones rejected even the few required tenants of the Disciples of Christ denomination. Instead of implementing the sacraments as proscribed by the Disciples, Jones followed Father Divine's holy communion practices. Jones created his own baptismal formula, baptizing his converts "in the holy name of Socialism". While in the United States, Jones remained fearful of the public discovering the full extent of his communist views. He believed that if the true nature of his views became widely known, he would quickly lose the support of political leaders and even face the possibility of Peoples Temple being ejected from the Disciples of Christ. Jones also feared losing the church's tax-exempt status and having to report his financial dealings to the Internal Revenue Service. Jones took care to always couch his socialist views in religious terms, such as "apostolic social justice". "Living the Acts of the Apostles" was his euphemism for living a communal lifestyle. Jones warned his followers that an apocalyptic race war, genocide, and nuclear war was imminent. He said that Nazi fascists and white supremacists would put people of color into concentration camps. Jones claimed he was the messiah sent to save the people by giving them a place of refuge in his church. Drawing on a prophecy in the Book of Revelation, he taught that American capitalist culture was irredeemable "Babylon". Explaining the nature of sin, Jones stated, "If you're born in capitalist America, racist America, fascist America, then you're born in sin. But if you're born in socialism, you're not born in sin." He taught his followers the only way to escape the supposed imminent catastrophe was to accept his teachings, and that after the apocalypse was over, they would emerge to establish a perfect communist society. Historian Jeff Guinn said, "It is impossible to know whether Jones gradually came to think he was God's earthly vessel, or whether he came to that convenient conclusion" to enhance his authority over his followers. In a 1976 phone conversation with John Maher, Jones alternately said he was an agnostic and an atheist. Marceline admitted in a 1977 New York Times interview that Jones was trying to promote Marxism in the U.S. by mobilizing people through religion, citing Mao Zedong as his inspiration: "Jim used religion to try to get some people out of the opiate of religion." She told the reporter that Jones had once slammed the Bible on the table yelling "I've got to destroy this paper idol!" Jones doctrines taught his followers that the ends justify the means and authorized them to achieve Jones's vision by any means necessary. Outsiders would later point to this aspect of Jones's teachings to allege that he was "morally bankrupt" and manipulating religion and other elements of society "to achieve his own selfish ends". Jones continued to use fear to control and manipulate his followers in California. He frequently prophesied that fires, car accidents, and death or injuries would come upon anyone unfaithful to him and his teachings. Jones began using illicit drugs after moving to California, which further heightened his paranoia. He constantly told his followers that they needed to be crusaders in promoting and fulfilling his beliefs. Jones frequently warned his followers that there was an enemy seeking to destroy them. The identify of that enemy changed over time from the Ku Klux Klan, to Nazis, to redneck vigilantes, to later the American government. Through his tactics, he successfully implemented a communal lifestyle among his followers that was directed by him and his lieutenants who were part of a committee called the Planning Commission. Jones, through the Planning Commission, began controlling all aspects of the lives of his followers. Members who joined Peoples Temple were required to turn over all their assets to the church in exchange for free room and board. Members were also required to turn over all their income to be used for the benefit of the community. Jones directed groups of his followers to work on various projects to earn income for the People Temple and set up an agricultural operation in Redwood Valley to grow food. Jones organized large community outreach projects, taking his followers by bus to perform work community service across the region. The first cases of serious abuse in Peoples Temple arose in California as the Planning Commission carried out discipline against members who were not fulfilling Jones's vision or following the rules. Jones's control over the members of Peoples Temple extended to their sex lives and who could be married. Some members were coerced to get abortions. Jones began to require sexual favors from the wives of some members of the church. Jones also raped several male members of his congregation. Members who rebelled against Jones's control were punished with reduced food rations, harsher work schedules, public ridicule and humiliations, and sometimes with physical violence. As the Temple's membership grew, Jones created a security group to ensure order among his followers and to ensure his own personal safety. The group purchased security squad cars and armed their guards with rifles and pistols. Focus on San Francisco By the end of 1969, Peoples Temple was growing rapidly. Jones's message of economic socialism and racial equality, along with the integrated nature of Peoples Temple, proved attractive to many in California, especially students and racial minorities. By 1970, the Temple had opened branches in cities including San Fernando, San Francisco, and Los Angeles as Jones began shifting his focus to major cities across California because of limited expansion opportunities in Ukiah. He eventually moved the Temple's headquarters to San Francisco, which was a major center for radical protest movements. By 1973, Peoples Temple had reached 2,570 members, with 36,000 subscribers to its fundraising newsletter. Jones also grew the Temple by purposefully targeting other churches. In 1970, Jones and 150 of his followers took a trip to San Francisco's Missionary Baptist Church. Jones held a faith healing revival meeting wherein he impressed the crowd by claiming to heal a man of cancer; his followers later admitted to helping him stage the "healing". At the end of the event, he began attacking and condemning Baptist teachings and encouraging the members to abandon their church and join him. The event was successful, and Jones recruited about 200 new members for Peoples Temple. In a less successful attempt in 1971, Jones and a large number of his followers visited the tomb and shrine erected for Father Divine shortly after his death. Jones confronted Divine's wife and claimed to be the reincarnation of Father Divine. At a banquet that evening, Jones's followers seized control of the event and Jones addressed Divine's followers, again claiming that he was Father Divine's successor. Divine's wife rose up and accused Jones of being the devil in disguise and demanded he leave. Jones managed to recruit only twelve followers through the event. Thanks to their growing numbers, Jones and Peoples Temple became influential in San Francisco politics, culminating in the Temple's instrumental role in George Moscone's election as mayor in 1975. Moscone subsequently appointed Jones as the chairman of the San Francisco Housing Authority Commission. Jones was able to gain contact with prominent politicians at the local and national level. For example, he and Moscone met privately with vice presidential candidate Walter Mondale on his campaign plane days before the 1976 election, leading Mondale to publicly praise the Temple. First Lady Rosalynn Carter also met with Jones on multiple occasions, corresponded with him about Cuba, and spoke with him at the grand opening of the San Francisco headquarters—where he received louder applause than she did. Jones also forged alliances with key columnists and others at the San Francisco Chronicle and other press outlets that gave Jones favorable press during his early years in California. In September 1976, Assemblyman Willie Brown served as master of ceremonies at a large testimonial dinner for Jones attended by Governor Jerry Brown and Lieutenant Governor Mervyn Dymally. At that dinner, Brown touted Jones as "what you should see every day when you look in the mirror" and said he was a combination of Martin Luther King Jr., Angela Davis, Albert Einstein, and Mao. Harvey Milk spoke to audiences during political rallies held at the Temple, and he wrote to Jones after one such visit:Rev Jim, It may take me many a day to come back down from the high that I reach today. I found something dear today. I found a sense of being that makes up for all the hours and energy placed in a fight. I found what you wanted me to find. I shall be back. For I can never leave.Jones hosted local political figures, including Davis, at his San Francisco apartment for discussions. He spoke with publisher Carlton Goodlett of the Sun-Reporter newspaper about his remorse over not being able to travel to socialist countries such as China and the Soviet Union, speculating that he could be Chief Dairyman of the U.S.S.R. Jones's criticisms led to increased tensions with the Nation of Islam, so he spoke at a large rally in the Los Angeles Convention Center that was attended by many of his closest political acquaintances, hoping to close the rift between the two groups. Jonestown Publicity problems Jones began to receive negative press beginning in October 1971 when reporters covered one of Jones's divine healing services during a visit to his old church in Indianapolis. The news report led to an investigation by the Indiana State Psychology Board into Jones's healing practices in 1972. A doctor involved in the investigation accused Jones of "quackery" and challenged Jones to give tissue samples of the material he claimed fell off people when they were healed of cancer. The investigation caused alarm within the Temple. Jones announced he was terminating his ministry in Indiana because it was too far from California for him to attend to and downplayed his healing claims to the authorities. The issue only escalated however, and Lester Kinsolving began running a series of articles targeting Jones and Peoples Temple in the San Francisco Examiner in September 1972. The stories reported on Jones's claims of divinity and exposed fraudulent "miracles" performed by Jones. To suppress the story, Jones had his followers purchase every copy of the Examiner from the stores in Ukiah to prevent the local community from seeing it. In 1973, Ross Case, a former follower of Jones, began working with an informal Christian prayer group in Ukiah to investigate what was happening at Peoples Temple. They uncovered a staged healing, the abusive treatment of a woman in the church, and evidence that Jones raped a male member of his congregation. Case began reporting his findings to the local police, but they took no action. However, reports of Case's activity reached Jones, who became increasingly paranoid that the authorities were after him. Shortly after, eight members of Peoples Temple made accusations of abuse against the Planning Commission and Peoples Temple staff members. They accused the members of Planning Commission of being homosexuals and questioned their true commitment to socialism, before leaving the Peoples Temple. Jones became convinced he was losing control and needed to relocate Peoples Temple to escape the mounting threats and allegations. On December 13, 1973, Jones was arrested and charged with lewd conduct for allegedly masturbating in the presence of a male undercover LAPD vice officer in a movie theater restroom near Los Angeles's MacArthur Park. Jones allegedly motioned to the undercover officer to join him on the theater balcony where Jones was, but later followed the officer into the bathroom where the alleged incident occurred. On December 20, 1973, the charge against Jones was dismissed, though the details of the dismissal are not clear. Furthermore, the court file was sealed, and the judge ordered that records of the arrest be destroyed. Formation In the fall of 1973 Jones and the Planning Commission devised a plan escape the United States in the event of a raid by the government, and began to develop a longer-term plan to relocate Peoples Temple. The group decided on Guyana as a favorable location, citing its recent revolution and socialist government, and the favorable reaction Jones had received when he traveled there in 1963. In October, the group voted unanimously to set up an agricultural commune in Guyana. In December Jones and Ijames traveled to Guyana to find a suitable location. By the summer of 1974 Peoples Temple had purchased land and supplies and Ijames was put in charge of preparing their new site for the first arrivals. Ijames oversaw the installation of a power generation station, clearance of fields for farming, and the construction of dormitories. In December 1974 Jones and the first group of settlers arrived in Guyana to start operating the commune that would become known as Jonestown. Jones returned to the United States, leaving Ijames in charge of Jonestown, to continue his efforts to combat the negative press. His efforts were largely unsuccessful and more stories of the abuses at Peoples Temple began to leak to public. In March 1977, Marshall Kilduff published a story in New West magazine exposing abuses at the Peoples Temple. The article included allegations by Temple defectors of physical, emotional, and sexual abuse. The article convinced Jones that it was time to permanently relocate to South America, and he began to compel members of Peoples Temple to make the move with him. Jones promoted the commune as a means to create both a "socialist paradise" and a "sanctuary" from the media scrutiny in San Francisco. Jones purported to establish it as a model communist community, adding that the Temple comprised "the purest communists there are". Jones did not permit members to leave the settlement. Jonestown had about 50 settlers at the start of 1977 who were expanding the commune, but it was not yet ready to handle a large influx of settlers. Jones's lieutenant in Jonestown warned him that the facilities could only support 200 people, but Jones believed the need to relocate was urgent and was determined to begin moving. In May 1977, Jones and about 600 of his followers arrived in Jonestown; about 400 more would follow in the subsequent months. Jones also began moving the Temple's financial assets overseas and started to sell off property in the United States. The Peoples Temple had over $10 million ($ in 2020 dollars) in assets at the time. Religious scholar Mary McCormick Maaga argues that Jones's authority among his followers decreased after the exodus to Jonestown because he was with them every day and he could not hide his drug addiction from rank-and-file members. In spite of the allegations prior to Jones's departure, he was still respected by some for setting up a racially integrated church which helped the disadvantaged; 68% of Jonestown residents were black. Jones began to propagate his belief in what he termed "Translation" once his followers settled in Jonestown, claiming that he and his followers would all die together, move to another planet, and live blissfully. Mounting pressure and waning political support Among the followers Jones took to Guyana was John Stoen. John's birth certificate listed Timothy Stoen and Grace Stoen as his parents. Jones had had a sexual relationship with Grace Stoen, and claimed he was the biological father of John. Grace Stoen left Peoples Temple in 1976, leaving her child behind. Jones ordered the child to be taken to Guyana in February 1977 to avoid a custody dispute with Grace. After Timothy Stoen also left Peoples Temple in June 1977, Jones kept the child at his own home in Jonestown. In the autumn of 1977, Timothy Stoen and other Temple defectors formed a "Concerned Relatives" group because they had family members in Jonestown who were not being permitted to return to the United States. Stoen traveled to Washington, D.C., in January 1978 to visit with State Department officials and members of Congress, and wrote a white paper detailing his grievances against Jones and the Temple and to attempt to recover his son. His efforts aroused the curiosity of California Congressman Leo Ryan, who wrote a letter on Stoen's behalf to Guyanese Prime Minister Forbes Burnham. The Concerned Relatives also began a legal battle with the Temple over the custody of Stoen's son. Most of Jones's political allies broke ties after his departure, though some did not. Willie Brown spoke out against the Temple's purported enemies at a rally that was attended by Harvey Milk and Assemblyman Art Agnos. On February 19, 1978, Milk wrote a letter to U.S. President Jimmy Carter defending Jones as "a man of the highest character", and claimed that Temple defectors were trying to "damage Rev. Jones's reputation" with "apparent bold-faced lies". Mayor Moscone's office issued a press release saying Jones had broken no laws. On April 11, 1978, the Concerned Relatives distributed a packet of documents, letters, and affidavits to the Peoples Temple, members of the press, and members of Congress which they titled an "Accusation of Human Rights Violations by Rev. James Warren Jones". In June 1978, escaped Temple member Deborah Layton provided the group with a further affidavit detailing crimes by the Temple and substandard living conditions in Jonestown. Jones was facing increasing scrutiny in the summer of 1978 when he hired JFK assassination conspiracy theorists Mark Lane and Donald Freed to help make the case of a "grand conspiracy" against the Temple by U.S. intelligence agencies. Jones told Lane that he wanted to "pull an Eldridge Cleaver", referring to a fugitive member of the Black Panthers who was able to return to the U.S. after rebuilding his reputation. White Nights Jones's paranoia and drug usage increased in Jonestown and he became fearful of a government raid on Jonestown. Concerned that the community would not be able to resist such an attack, he began holding drills to test their readiness. He called the drills "White Nights". Jones would call "Alert, Alert, Alert" over the community loudspeaker to call the community together in the central pavilion. He kept guards armed with guns and crossbows to protect the pavilion. His followers would remain at the pavilion throughout the drill, in which he told them that evil agents had their community surrounded and were preparing to destroy them. Jones led them in prayers, chanting, and singing to ward off the impending attack. Sometimes he would have his guards hide in the forest and shoot their firearms to simulate an attack. Jones's followers were only told the attacks were a drill when the event was over, and were often terrified by the drills. One drill lasted for six days. The drills served to keep the members of Jonestown fearful of venturing into the jungle outside of their commune. Following two visits by United States Embassy personnel to check on the situation at Jonestown, and an IRS investigation in early 1978, Jones became increasingly convinced that the attack he feared was imminent. In one 1978 White Night drill, Jones told his followers he was going to distribute poison for everyone to drink in an act of suicide. A batch of fruit punch was served to everyone in the pavilion who sat by waiting for their death, many crying. After some time passed, Jones informed his followers that it had all been a drill and there was not really any poison in their drink. Through the White Nights, Jones convinced his followers that the Central Intelligence Agency (CIA) was actively working to destroy their community. The situation at Jonestown was deteriorating in 1978. The majority of the community were minors or the elderly, and the few people of working age found it difficult to keep up with the work required to support the community. Healthcare, education, and food rations were all in limited supply and the situation was worsening. Jones's personal health was poor and his drug usage was becoming noticeable. His orders were increasingly erratic. He could often be seen staggering and his speech became slurred. His behavior also became more unusual, and he was seen urinating in public. His health became so poor that he found it difficult to walk without assistance. Murder of Congressman Ryan In November 1978, Congressman Ryan led a fact-finding mission to Jonestown to investigate allegations of human-rights abuses. His delegation included relatives of Temple members, an NBC camera crew, and reporters for several newspapers. The group arrived in the Guyanese capital of Georgetown on November 15. Two days later, they traveled by airplane to Port Kaituma, then were transported to Jonestown in a tractor transporter. Jones hosted a reception for the delegation that evening at the central pavilion in Jonestown, during which Temple member Vernon Gosney passed a note meant for Ryan to NBC reporter Don Harris, requesting assistance for himself and another Temple member, Monica Bagby, in leaving the settlement. Tensions began to rise as news spread through the community that some members were attempting to leave. Ryan's delegation left hurriedly the afternoon of November 18, after Temple member Don Sly attacked the congressman with a knife, though the attack was thwarted. Ryan and his delegation managed to take along fifteen Temple members who had expressed a wish to leave, and Jones made no attempt to prevent their departure at that time. As members of Ryan's delegation boarded two planes at the Port Kaituma airstrip, Jones's armed guards, called the "Red Brigade" led by Joe Wilson, Thomas Kice Sr. and Ronnie Dennis arrived on a tractor and trailer and began shooting at them. The gunmen killed Ryan and four others near a Guyana Airways Twin Otter aircraft. At the same time, one of the supposed defectors, Larry Layton, drew a weapon and began firing on members of the party inside the other plane, a Cessna, which included Gosney and Bagby. NBC cameraman Bob Brown was able to capture footage of the first few seconds of the shooting at the Otter, just before he himself was killed by the gunmen. The five killed at the airstrip were Ryan, Harris, Brown, San Francisco Examiner photographer Greg Robinson, and Temple member Patricia Parks. Surviving the attack were future Congresswoman Jackie Speier, a Ryan staff member; Richard Dwyer, Deputy Chief of Mission from the U.S. Embassy in Georgetown; Bob Flick, an NBC producer; Steve Sung, an NBC sound engineer; Tim Reiterman, an Examiner reporter; Ron Javers, a Chronicle reporter; Charles Krause, a Washington Post reporter; and several defecting Temple members. They escaped into the jungle to avoid being killed. Mass murder-suicide in Jonestown Later the same day, November 18, 1978, Jones received word that his security guards had failed to kill all of Ryan's party. Jones concluded the escapees would soon inform the United States of the attack and they would send the military to seize Jonestown. Jones called the entire community to the central pavilion. He informed the community that Ryan was dead and it was only a matter of time before military commandos descended on their commune and killed them all. Jones recorded the entire event on audio tape. On that tape, Jones tells Temple members that the Soviet Union, with whom the Temple had been negotiating a potential exodus for months, would not give them passage after the airstrip shooting. According to Jones, men would "parachute in here on us", "shoot some of our innocent babies," and "they'll torture our children, they'll torture some of our people here, they'll torture our seniors." With that reasoning, Jones and several members argued that the group should commit "revolutionary suicide" by drinking cyanide-laced grape-flavored Flavor Aid. Jones had taken large shipments of cyanide into Jonestown for several years prior to November 1978, having obtained a jeweler's license that would allow him to purchase the compound in bulk to purportedly clean gold. One Temple member, Christine Miller, dissented toward the beginning of the tape. When members apparently cried, Jones counseled, "Stop these hysterics. This is not the way for people who are socialists or communists to die. No way for us to die. We must die with some dignity." Jones can be heard saying, "Don't be afraid to die", adding that death is "just stepping over into another plane", and adding that death is "a friend". Jones's wife Marceline apparently protested killing the children. She was forcibly restrained and then joined the other adults in poisoning herself. At the end of the tape, Jones concludes: "We didn't commit suicide; we committed an act of revolutionary suicide protesting the conditions of an inhumane world." Eighty-five members of the community survived the event. Some members slipped into the jungle just as the death ritual began; one man hid in a ditch. One elderly woman hid in her dormitory and slept through the event, awaking to find everyone dead. The Jonestown basketball team was away at a game and survived. Others hid in the dormitories or were away from the community on business when the death ritual unfolded. A drink consisting of Flavor Aid mixed with cyanide was created and handed out to the members of the community to drink. Those who refused to drink were injected with cyanide via syringe. The mass murder-suicide left dead 909 inhabitants of Jonestown, 304 of them children, mostly in and around the central pavilion. This resulted in the greatest single loss of American civilian life in a deliberate act until September 11, 2001. The FBI later recovered a 45-minute audio recording of the mass poisoning in progress. Death and aftermath Following the mass murder-suicide, Jones was found dead at the stage of the central pavilion; he was resting on a pillow near his deck chair with a gunshot wound to his head which Guyanese coroner Cyril Mootoo said was consistent with suicide. Jones's body was later moved outside the pavilion for examination and embalming. The official autopsy conducted in December 1978 confirmed Jones's cause of death as suicide. His son Stephan speculated that his father may have directed someone else to shoot him. The autopsy showed high levels of the barbiturate pentobarbital in Jones's body, which may have been lethal to humans who had not developed physiological tolerance. Jones's body was cremated and his remains were scattered in the Atlantic Ocean. The military of Guyana arrived in Jonestown after the massacre to find the dead. The United States military organized an airlift to bring the dead back to the United States to be buried. Lew, Agnes, and Suzanne Jones Jones's children Lew and Agnes Jones both died at Jonestown. Agnes was 35 years old at the time of her death. Her husband Forrest, and four children, Billy, Jimbo, Michael and Stephanie, all died at Jonestown. Lew, who was 21 years old at the time of his death, died alongside his wife Terry and son Chaeoke. Stephanie Jones had died at age five in a car accident in May 1959. Suzanne Jones and her husband Mike Cartmell had both turned against the Temple and were not in Jonestown on the day of the murder-suicide. After her decision to abandon the Temple, Jones referred to Suzanne openly as "my damned, no-good-for-nothing daughter" and said she was not to be trusted. In a signed note found at the time of her death, Marceline directed that Jones's funds were to be given to the Communist Party of the Soviet Union and specified: "I especially request that none of these are allowed to get into the hands of my adopted daughter, Suzanne Jones Cartmell." Cartmell had two children and died of colon cancer in November 2006. John Stoen and Kimo Specific references to Timothy Stoen, the father of John Victor Stoen, including the logistics of possibly murdering him, are made on the Temple's final "death tape", as well as a discussion over whether the Temple should include John Victor among those committing "revolutionary suicide". At Jonestown, John Victor Stoen was found poisoned inside Jones's cabin. Jim Jon (Kimo) and his mother, Carolyn Layton, both died during the events at Jonestown. Surviving sons Stephan, Jim Jr., and Tim Jones survived the events of November 18, 1978, because they were members of the Peoples Temple's basketball team; they were playing an away game in Georgetown at the time of the mass poisoning. Stephan and Tim were both 19, and Jim Jones Jr. was 18. Tim's biological family, the Tuppers, which consisted of his three biological sisters, Janet, Mary and Ruth, biological brother, Larry and biological mother, Rita, all died at Jonestown. Three days before the tragedy, Stephan refused, over the radio, to comply with an order by his father to return the team to Jonestown for Ryan's visit. During the events at Jonestown, Stephan, Tim, and Jim Jones Jr. drove to the U.S. Embassy in Georgetown in an attempt to receive help. Guyanese soldiers guarding the embassy refused to let them in after hearing about the shootings at the Port Kaituma airstrip. Later, the three returned to the Temple's headquarters in Georgetown to find the bodies of Sharon Amos and her three children, Liane, Christa and Martin. Guyanese soldiers kept the Jones brothers under house arrest for five days, interrogating them about the deaths in Georgetown. Stephan was accused of being involved in the Georgetown deaths and was placed in a Guyanese prison for three months. Tim and Johnny Cobb, another member of the Temple basketball team, were asked to go to Jonestown and help identify bodies. After returning to the U.S., Jim Jones Jr. was placed under police surveillance for several months while he lived with his older sister, Suzanne, who had previously turned against the Temple. When Jonestown was first being established, Stephan had avoided two attempts by his father to relocate him to Jonestown. He eventually moved to Jonestown after a third attempt. He has since stated that he gave in to his father's wishes because of his mother. Stephan later became a businessman, married, and had three daughters. Although he appeared in the documentary Jonestown: Paradise Lost, which aired on the History Channel and Discovery Channel, he has stated he will not watch it and has never grieved for his father. One year later, Stephan appeared in the documentary Witness to Jonestown where he responds to rare footage shot inside the Temple. Jim Jones Jr., who lost his wife and unborn child at Jonestown, returned to San Francisco. He remarried and has three sons from this marriage, including Rob Jones, a high-school basketball star who went on to play for the University of San Diego before transferring to Saint Mary's College of California. Reactions and legacy The events at Jonestown were immediately subject to extensive news coverage. As news of the Jonestown reached the public, outsiders refused to accept Jones's attempt to blame them for the deaths. Critics and apologists offered a variety of explanations for the events that transpired among Jones's followers. The Soviet Union publicly distanced itself from Jones and what they referred to his "bastardization" of the concept of revolutionary suicide. American Christian leaders denounced Jones as Satanic and asserted that he and his teachings were in no way connected to traditional Christianity. In an article entitled "On Satan and Jonestown", Billy Graham argued that it would be a mistake to identify Jones and his cult as Christian. Graham was joined by other prominent Christian leaders in alleging that Jones was demonically possessed. The Disciples of Christ issued a press release disavowing Jones and reported that the community Jonestown was not affiliated with their denomination. They subsequently created a procedure to remove congregations from their denomination, which they used to expel Peoples Temple. Disciples responded to the Jonestown deaths with significant changes for ministerial ethics and with a process to remove ministers. In the immediate aftermath, rumors arose that surviving members of Peoples Temple in San Francisco had organized hit squads to target critics and enemies of the church. Law enforcement intervened to protect the media and other figures who were purported to be targeted. Peoples Temple's San Francisco headquarters was besieged by the media, angry protestors, and family members of the dead. Archie Ijames, who had returned to take leadership in San Francisco earlier in 1978 was left to address the public. At first he denied that Jones had any connection to the deaths and alleged the events were a plot by enemies of the church. Ijames later came to acknowledge the truth. The supporters of the church, especially politicians, had a difficult time explaining their connections to Jones following the deaths. After a period of reflection, some admitted they had been tricked by Jones. President Carter and the first lady sought to minimize their connections to Jones. San Francisco Mayor George Moscone said he vomited when he heard of the massacre, and called the friends and families of many of the victims to apologize and offer his sympathies. Moscone was assassinated only a short time later. Investigations into the Jonestown massacre were conducted by the Federal Bureau of Investigation and the United States Congress. Although individual and groups had contacted the FBI about Peoples Temple over the year, the FBI had never launched any investigation before the massacre occurred. Their investigation primarily focused on the failure of authorities, especially the United States State Department, to have been aware of the abuses in Jonestown. Although Peoples Temple collapsed shortly after the events of 1978, some individuals still continued to follow Jones teachings and look to his prophecies for guidance during the 1980s. Since the events of the Jonestown Massacre, a massive amount of literature and study has been produced on the subject. Jim Jones and the events at Jonestown have had a defining influence on society's perception of cults. The widely known expression "Drinking the Kool-Aid" originated in the events at Jonestown, although the specific beverage used at the massacre was Flavor Aid rather than Kool-Aid. In popular culture Documentaries Jonestown: Mystery of a Massacre (1998) Jonestown: The Life and Death of Peoples Temple (2006) Jonestown: Paradise Lost (2007) CNN Presents: Escape From Jonestown (2008) Seconds from Disaster, episode (season 6, episode 1) "Jonestown Cult Suicide" (2012) Witness to Jonestown (2013) Jonestown: The Women Behind the Massacre (2018) Jonestown: Terror in the Jungle (2018) 605 Adults 304 Children (2019), short documentary filmed entirely by the Peoples Temple at Jonestown Television Guyana Tragedy: The Story of Jim Jones (1980), fact-based miniseries. Powers Boothe won an Emmy for his portrayal of Jones. American Horror Story: Cult (2017) Jonestown: Terror in the Jungle (2018), a documentary produced for Sundance TV. Very Scary People (season 1, episode 6) "Jim Jones: Unholy Massacre" (2019) Corrupt Crimes (season 1, episode 79) "Deadly Religion" (2016) Film Guyana: Crime of the Century a.k.a. Guyana: Cult of the Damned (1979), fictionalized exploitation film (depicted here as 'Reverend James Johnson') The Sacrament (2013), a found-footage horror film (depicted here simply as 'Father'; in addition, Jonestown has been renamed 'Eden Parish') Jonestown (2013), an independent short film which dramatizes the last 24 hours in the lives of Jones (played here by Leandro Cano) and The Peoples Temple Church through the eyes of a reporter. The Jonestown Haunting (2020) Two biopics are in the works about Jones and Jonestown, one, Jim Jones, starring Leonardo DiCaprio as Jones, and another, titled White Night, based on Deborah Layton's memoir Seductive Poison, starring Joseph Gordon-Levitt as Jones and Chloë Grace Moretz as Layton. Fiction literature Jonestown, by Wilson Harris. London: Faber and Faber, 1996. We Agreed to Meet Just Here, by Scott Blackwood. Kalamazoo, Michigan: West Michigan University Press, 2009. Children of Paradise, by Fred D'Aguiar. New York: HarperCollins, 2014. Before White Night, by Joseph Hartmann. Richmond, Virginia: Belle Isle Books, 2014. White Nights, Black Paradise, by Sikivu Hutchinson. Infidel Books, 2015. Beautiful Revolutionary, by Laura Elizabeth Woollett. London: Scribe. 2018. Music "Brother Jonesie" by The Citations from their album Taking a Cruise with The Citations (1980) "Ballad of Jim Jones" by The Brian Jonestown Massacre from their album Thank God for Mental Illness (1996) "Carnage in the Temple of the Damned" by Deicide from their album Deicide (1990) "Guyana (Cult of the Damned)" by Manowar from their album Sign of the Hammer (1984) "Hypnotized" by Heathen from their album Victims of Deception (1991) "Jimmie Jones" by The Vapors from their album, Magnets (1981) "Jonestown" by The Acacia Strain, from their album Wormwood (2010) "Jonestown" by Concrete Blonde, from their album Mexican Moon (1993) "Jonestown" by Evan Williams, at the University of Cincinnati's College-Conservatory of Music (2015) "Jonestown" by Frank Zappa, from his album Boulez Conducts Zappa: The Perfect Stranger (1984) "Koolaid" by Accept, from their album The Rise of Chaos (2017) "Last Call in Jonestown" by Polkadot Cadaver, from their album Last Call in Jonestown (2013) "Reverend" by Church of Misery, from their album Early Works Compilation (2011) "Guyana Punch" by The Judy's, from their album Washarama (1981) "Jim Jones" by SKYND from their EP Chapter 2 (2019) Poetry Bill of Rights, by Fred D'Aguiar. London: Chatto & Windus, 1998. The Jonestown Arcane, by Jack Hirschman. Los Angeles: Parentheses Writing Series, 1991. Jonestown Lullaby, by Teri Buford O'Shea. Bloomington, IN: iUniverse, 2011. Jonestown and Other Madness, by Pat Parker. Ithaca, NY: Firebrand Books, 1985. I. at Jonestown, by Lucille Clifton. Next. Brockport: BOA, 1989. Theater The Peoples Temple. Written by Leigh Fondakowski, with Greg Pierotti, Stephen Wangh, and Margo Hall. Premiered in 2005 See also Jonestown Peoples Temple Drinking the Kool-Aid Messiah complex Doomsday Cult Notes Footnotes References Further reading Bebelaar, Judy and Ron Cabral. "And Then They Were Gone: Teenagers of Peoples Temple". Sugartown Publishing, 2018. . Brinton, Maurice. "Suicide for socialism?" Brinton's analysis of the bizarre mass suicide of a socialist cult led by American Jim Jones in Jonestown, Guyana, which discusses the dynamics of political sects in general. Fagan, Kevin. November 12, 1998. "Haunted by Memories of Hell. San Francisco Chronicle. Hatfield, Larry D. November 8, 1998. "Utopian nightmare Jonestown: What did we learn?", with contributions by Gregory Lewis, Eric Brazil, and Judy Canter. San Francisco Examiner. Isaacson, Barry. "From Silver Lake to Suicide: One Family's Secret History of the Jonestown Massacre ". LA Weekly. Kahalas, Laurie Efrein. April 8, 1999. "Jonestown: Dismantling the Disinformation". New Dawn 53. Kahalas is an -year member of the Peoples Temple who was living in the Temple building in San Francisco when tragedy struck. Kilduff, Marshall, and Phil Tracy. August 1, 1977. "Inside Peoples Temple". Used by permission of authors for the San Francisco Chronicle. Lattin, Don. February 2, 2012. "The End To Innocent Acceptance Of Sects Sharper scrutiny is Jonestown legacy". San Francisco Chronicle. Litke, Larry Lee. [1980] 2019. "The Downfall of Jim Jones". Alternative Considerations of Jonestown & Peoples Temple. Nakao, Annie. January 23, 2012. "The ghastly Peoples Temple deaths shocked the world. Berkeley Rep takes on the challenge of coming to terms with it". SF Chronicle. Rapaport, Richard. Jonestown and City Hall slayings eerily linked in time and memory Both events continue to haunt city a quarter century later. Szasz, Thomas S. February 5, 1979. "The Freedom Abusers". Inquiry. Taylor, Michael. November 12, 1998. "Jonestown: 25 Years Later How spiritual journey ended in destruction: Jim Jones led his flock to death in jungle". San Francisco Chronicle. — "Jones Captivated S.F.'s Liberal Elite: They were late to discover how cunningly he curried favor". San Francisco Chronicle. Taylor, Michael and Don Lattin. February 3, 2012. And Most Peoples Temple Documents Still Sealed". San Francisco Chronicle Zane, Maitland. November 13, 1998. "Surviving the Heart of Darkness: Twenty years later, Jackie Speier remembers how her companions and rum helped her endure the night of the Jonestown massacre". San Francisco Chronicle. External links The Jonestown Institute FBI No. Q 042 The "Jonestown Death Tape", recorded November 18, 1978 (Internet Archive) Transcript of Jones's final speech, just before the mass suicide Jonestown Audiotape Primary Project: Transcripts "Jim Jones". Encyclopædia Britannica. [2002] 2020. The first part of a series of articles about Jim Jones published in the San Francisco Examiner in 1972. History Channel Video and Stills "Mass Suicide at Jonestown: 30 Years Later". Time. Jonestown 30 Years Later, photo gallery published Friday, October 17, 2008. American Experience. 2007. Jonestown: The Life and Death of Peoples Temple. US: PBS. Retrieved June 20, 2020. Alternative Considerations of Jonestown & Peoples Temple 20th-century American criminals 20th-century apocalypticists 1931 births 1978 deaths 1978 suicides Activists for African-American civil rights Activists from Indiana American agnostics American anti-war activists American anti–Vietnam War activists American atheists American communists American conspiracy theorists American emigrants to Brazil American emigrants to Guyana American faith healers American former Christians American male criminals American mass murderers American murderers of children American people of Welsh descent American rapists American revolutionaries American socialists Bisexual men Butler University alumni Christian Church (Disciples of Christ) clergy Converts from Methodism Criminals from Indiana Deaths by firearm in Guyana Founders of new religious movements Founders of utopian communities People from Randolph County, Indiana People from Richmond, Indiana Peoples Temple Religious leaders from the San Francisco Bay Area Self-declared messiahs Suicides by firearm Suicides in Guyana LGBT people from Indiana American people of Irish descent LGBT Protestant clergy Anti-Americanism
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Benny%20Paret
Benny Paret
Bernardo "Benny the Kid" Paret (March 14, 1937 – April 3, 1962) was a Cuban welterweight boxer who won the World Welterweight Championship twice in the early 1960s. Paret's death occurred 10 days after injuries sustained in a March 24, 1962, title defense against Emile Griffith, televised live and seen by millions on ABC's Fight of the Week. Paret had a lifetime record of 35 wins (10 knockouts), 12 losses and 3 draws. Boxing career Paret won the welterweight title for the first time on May 27, 1960, by defeating Don Jordan. In his first defense of the title, Emile Griffith knocked him out in the thirteenth round on April 1, 1961. Paret recaptured the crown on September 30, 1961, in a split-decision over Griffith. Barely two months later, Paret took on middleweight champion Gene Fullmer and was knocked out in the tenth round, being behind on all three judges' scorecards. Last fight and death Although Paret had been battered in the two fights with Griffith and the fight with Fullmer, he decided that he would defend his title against Griffith three months after the Fullmer fight. Paret-Griffith III was booked for Madison Square Garden on Saturday, March 24, 1962, and was televised live by ABC. In round six Paret nearly knocked out Griffith with a multi-punch combination, but Griffith was saved by the bell. In the twelfth round of the fight Don Dunphy, who was calling the bout for ABC, remarked, "This is probably the tamest round of the entire fight." Seconds later, Griffith backed Paret into the corner before he unleashed a massive flurry of punches to the champion's head. It quickly became apparent that Paret was dazed by the initial shots and could not defend himself, but referee Ruby Goldstein allowed Griffith to continue his assault. Finally, after twenty-nine consecutive punches, which knocked Paret through the ropes at one point, Goldstein stepped in and called a halt to the bout. Paret collapsed in the corner from the barrage of punches (initially thought to be from exhaustion), fell into a coma, and died ten days later at Roosevelt Hospital in Manhattan from massive brain hemorrhaging. Paret was buried at Saint Raymond's Cemetery in the borough of the Bronx in New York City. The last fight between Paret and Griffith was the subject of many controversies. It is theorized that one of the reasons Paret died was that he was vulnerable due to the beatings he took in his previous three fights, all of which happened within twelve months of each other. New York State boxing authorities were criticized for giving Paret clearance to fight just several months after the Fullmer fight. The actions of Paret at the weigh-in before his final fight have come under scrutiny. It is alleged that Paret taunted Griffith by calling him maricón (Spanish slang for "faggot"). Griffith wanted to fight Paret on the spot but was restrained. Griffith would come out as bisexual in his later years, but in 1962 allegations of homosexuality were considered fatal to an athlete's career and a particularly grievous insult in the culture both fighters came from. The referee Ruby Goldstein, a respected veteran, came under criticism for not stopping the fight sooner. It has been argued that Goldstein hesitated because of Paret's reputation of feigning injury and Griffith's reputation as a poor finisher. Another theory is that Goldstein was afraid that Paret's supporters would riot. The incident, combined with the death of Davey Moore a year later for a different injury in the ring, would cause debate as to whether boxing should be considered a sport. Boxing would not be televised on a regular basis again until the 1970s. The fight also marked the end of Goldstein's long and respected career as a referee, as he was unable to find work after that. The fight was the centerpiece of a 2005 documentary entitled Ring of Fire: The Emile Griffith Story. At the end of the documentary Griffith, who had harbored guilt over the incident over the years, is introduced to Paret's son. The son embraced Griffith and told him he was forgiven. In popular culture Paret's death was chronicled in a 1962 protest song by folksinger Gil Turner. The song, "Benny 'Kid' Paret", was published in Broadside magazine that same month and was recorded later in the year by Turner's group, The New World Singers, for the 1963 Folkways album Broadside Ballads, Vol. 1. The emotive poem "Muerte en el Ring" ("Death in the Ring") by Afro-Peruvian poet Nicomedes Santa Cruz recounts Paret's life to the moment of his last breath. A semifictionalized story of the fight was told live by radio dramatist Joe Frank in the 1978 program "80 Yard Run" on WBAI in New York and replayed several times subsequently on NPR. In it, Frank cast Griffith rather than Paret as the defending champion and makes no mention of Paret's recent fights or his prior history with Griffith. In the dramatized version, Griffith dominates the fight from the beginning, with the fight ending in the middle rounds and Paret dying later that night. Paret is also one of many boxers named in the lyrics of Sun Kil Moon's album Ghosts Of The Great Highway. The album builds several songs around the stories of boxers who died early deaths. The story of Emile Griffith and Paret's death has been turned into an Opera in Jazz, Champion. It premiered on the campus of Webster University in Webster Groves, Missouri, on June 15, 2013. The opera was written by composer Terence Blanchard, with a libretto by playwright Michael Cristofer, who went on to develop the stage play "Man in the Ring" on the same subject. The play premiered at the Court Theatre in Chicago in 2016. Professional boxing record See also Kim Duk-koo List of welterweight boxing champions References External links https://boxrec.com/media/index.php/National_Boxing_Association%27s_Quarterly_Ratings:_1960 https://boxrec.com/media/index.php/National_Boxing_Association%27s_Quarterly_Ratings:_1961 https://boxrec.com/media/index.php/National_Boxing_Association%27s_Quarterly_Ratings:_1962 1937 births 1962 deaths People from Santa Clara, Cuba American Roman Catholics Welterweight boxers Deaths due to injuries sustained in boxing Sports deaths in New York (state) Filmed deaths in sports Cuban male boxers Burials at Saint Raymond's Cemetery (Bronx)
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/University%20of%20Colorado
University of Colorado
The University of Colorado (CU) is a system of public universities in Colorado consisting of four campuses: University of Colorado Boulder, University of Colorado Colorado Springs, University of Colorado Denver in downtown Denver and at the Anschutz Medical Campus in Aurora. It is governed by the elected, nine-member Board of Regents of the University of Colorado. Campuses The University of Colorado Boulder (CU Boulder) is the flagship university of the University of Colorado System in Boulder, Colorado. Founded in 1876, the university has more than 33,000 undergraduate and graduate students. It offers more than 2,500 courses in more than 150 areas of study through its nine colleges and schools. The University of Colorado Colorado Springs (UCCS) is the fastest growing of the three campuses with an undergraduate and graduate student population of about 12,000 students. It offers 45 bachelor's, 22 master's, and five doctoral degree programs through its six colleges. The University of Colorado Denver (CU Denver) is the largest research university in Colorado, attracting more than $420 million in research annually, and granting more master's degrees than any other institution in Colorado. The campus provides an urban learning center with liberal arts and sciences and professional programs in eight schools and colleges. CU Denver is located in downtown Denver and enrolls more than 15,000 students. CU South Denver is the newest addition to University of Colorado system, located in Lone Tree. The University of Colorado Anschutz Medical Campus (CU Anschutz) in Aurora is home to six professional schools in the health sciences and extensive research and clinical care facilities, including the University of Colorado Hospital, Children's Hospital Colorado and the Anschutz Health and Wellness Center. CU Anschutz has more than 4,300 students. Related institutions The University of Colorado Hospital Authority was created in 1991 to allow the Regents to reorganize the University of Colorado Hospital. List of notable alumni Carla Hassan, American business executive Jeffrey Kurtzman, American pianist, musicologist and music editor Kwabena Kwakye Anti, Ghanaian politician Vernon Lattin (born 1938), president of Brooklyn College Lou Alta Melton, civil and bridge engineer Joseph S. Murphy (1933–1998), President of Queens College, President of Bennington College, and Chancellor of the City University of New York James Robb, pathologist, expert on the coronavirus Virginia Sink (1913–1986), chemical engineer and the first woman automotive engineer at Chrysler David Bakhtiari (1991 – ), multiple All-Pro Awards as an NFL Offensive Tackle playing for the Green Bay Packers Byron "Whizzer" White (1917–2002), American football player and 31-year member of U.S. Supreme Court (1962–1993) Jean Knight Bain (1909–1999), Colorado state legislator List of notable faculty Frederick Masoudi, cardiologist and professor See also Sommers–Bausch Observatory References External links Official website Colorado Public universities and colleges in Colorado
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223220
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Associate%20degree
Associate degree
An associate degree is an undergraduate degree awarded after a course of post-secondary study lasting two to three years. It is a level of qualification above a high school diploma, GED, or matriculation, and below a bachelor's degree. The first associate degrees were awarded in the UK (where they are no longer awarded) in 1873 before spreading to the US in 1898. In the United States, the associate degree may allow transfer into the third year of a bachelor's degree. Associate degrees have since been introduced in a small number of other countries. Australia In 2004, Australia added "associate degree" to the Australian Qualifications Framework. This title was given to courses more academically focused than advanced diploma courses, and typically designed to articulate to bachelor's degree courses. Brazil In Brazil, undergraduate degrees are known as ('graduate') while graduate degrees are known as ('postgraduate'). Brazil follows the major traits of the continental European system; free public schools are available from kindergarten up to postgraduate degrees, both as a right established in Article 6, caput of the Brazilian Constitution and as a duty of the State in Article 208, Items I, IV, and V, of the Brazilian Constitution. In 2001, Brazil added ('technologist') as a form of undergraduate degree (). A technologist's degree varies between 2 and 3 years of full time studies to complete. This degree takes a shorter time period to obtain than a bachelor or teaching degree (some of which may take between 4 and 6 years to complete), and it aims to provide highly specialized knowledge (e.g., agribusiness technical degree, tourism management degree, web development technical degree, etc.). Canada Education in the Canadian federation is a provincial power: each province and territory regulates tertiary education and degree system in their jurisdictions, with pan-Canadian co-ordination in a Council of Ministers of Education, Canada. British Columbia is the only Canadian province offering American-style associate degrees. Similar to the U.S., these consist of a two-year program and allow for articulation onto the third year of a Bachelor's degree program. Other provinces do not offer Associate's degrees as such, but do offer similar higher education qualifications below the Bachelor's level: These are two-year courses resulting in a diploma in a broad range of technical, professional and academic subjects. Articulation into Bachelor’s programs are the norm but can differ by subject (with some specialties rarer among Bachelor's). Ontario also offers three-year advanced diplomas. The territories have fewer but similar diploma programs, some being particularly geared to Arctic environments, and northern Indigenous cultures and languages, with Bachelor’s programs being a mix of local provision, partnerships with institutions based elsewhere in Canada and international consortia. Indigenous nations in most provinces have education systems also provide First Nations-focused diplomas programs, with North American Aboriginal education bodies. In Quebec, the Diplôme d'études collégiales (diploma of college studies), taught at post-secondary collèges d'enseignement général et professionnel (colleges of general and professional education; cégeps) can be a two-year pre-university qualification that is a pre-requisite for entry onto (three year) bachelor's degree courses, or a three-year technical programme preparing students for employment. Europe Qualifications on the short cycle of the Bologna Process/level 5 on the European Qualifications Framework sit between secondary education and bachelor's degree level and are thus approximately equivalent to an associate degree. Such qualifications include the Foundation degree (FdA, FdSc, FdEng), Certificate of Higher Education (CertHE) and Diploma of Higher Education (DipHE) in the United Kingdom, the Higher Certificate in the Republic of Ireland, and the French Diplôme Universitaire de Technologie (DUT) and Brevet de Technicien Supérieur (BTS). France For many decades, a diploma comparable to an associate degree was considered a very adequate degree for those willing to work as qualified technicians. Yet as the general population spends an increasing amount of time studying, they are no longer as attractive to students who wish to distinguish themselves. In 2021, the Diplôme Universitaire de Technologie (DUT) was reframed as an intermediate degree part of a three-year curriculum now referred to as BUT. Prior to the reform of 2006, universities awarded a two-year diploma called DEUG, the purpose of which was also to help the student pursue studies in a field that differed from what was initially intended. The degree was considered a 'stepping stone' ahead of the completion of a bachelor's degree. Aside from the Brevet de Technicien Supérieur (BTS) which remains relevant in many fiels for which long academic studies are not deemed crucial and for which young professionals are in demand, degrees comparable to an associate degree are gradually being phased out, although their legitimacy remains in theory (but not always in practice) unchanged for those who were awarded one in the past. Netherlands In the Netherlands, there were four pilots between 2005 and 2011 to assess the added value of the associate degree. In 2007 the associate degree was added to the Dutch system of higher education within the Higher Professional Education (HBO) stream taught at universities of applied sciences (hogeschool). Associate degree courses form part of HBO bachelor's degree courses, and advising requirements are the same for the two-year associate degree and the related four-year bachelor's degree. Those gaining the associate degree may proceed to an HBO bachelor's degree in only two years, but it does not articulate to bachelor's degrees in the research-oriented (WO) stream. United Kingdom The title of Associate in Physical Science (Associate in Science (ASc) from 1879) was introduced in 1865 by the University of Durham College of Physical Sciences (now Newcastle University) and awarded from 1873. It required (in 1884) passes in three of mathematics, physics, chemistry and geology, and allowed students to go on to take the examination for the Bachelor of Science. As a university-level qualification lying below the bachelor's degree, this is considered to be the world's first associate degree in the modern sense, having been first awarded 25 years prior to the introduction of associate degrees into the US by the University of Chicago. The ASc was withdrawn in 1904. Durham also introduced an Associate in Theology (ATh) in 1901, which was only offered in 1901 and 1902. Yorkshire College (now the University of Leeds) offered Associate in Engineering and Associate in Coal Mining degrees from 1877 and there were thirteen different types of associate degrees offered in British universities in 1927. The title of Associate in Arts, introduced by the University of Oxford in 1857 and sometimes referred to as the degree of Associate in Arts, predates the Durham degree. However, it was an examination for "those who are not members of the university" and who were under the age of 18; as such it was at the level of a high school qualification rather than a modern associate degree. Examinations were held in English, languages, mathematics, science, drawing and music, with the title being conferred on those who students who passed any two (as long as the two were not drawing and music). British equivalents to associate degrees vary depending on the national system which issued them. Based on assessment by the UK NARIC, American and Canadian associate degrees are considered equivalent to one year higher education courses such as the Higher National Certificate at level 4 of the British Framework for Higher Education Qualifications. Australian associate degrees, however, are considered equivalent to two-year higher education courses such as the Higher National Diploma at level 5 on the framework. Denmark A 2-2.5 year education on BA-level is called "Erhvervsakademiuddannelse". This is called an AP-Degree (Academy Professional Degree) in English. Czech Republic In Czech republic you can achieve a title DiS. "Diplomovaný specialista" (Certificated Specialist) Norway A two-year education on BA-level is called Høgskolekandidat, translated "university college graduate". Only a few professions require 120 ECTS, e.g. piano tuner, driving instructor. Sweden A 2-2.5 year education on BA-level is called an AP-Degree (Academy Professional Degree). See also: List of universities and colleges in Sweden. Business academies offer two-year academy profession programmes; some business academies also offer professional bachelor programmes, further adult education and diploma programmes. Hong Kong In Hong Kong, associate degrees were first introduced into the territory in 2000 with the aim of increasing the number of students with post-secondary qualifications. As originally introduced, the qualification took two or three years, but this was reformed in 2012 to a two-year course. The associate degree is designed as a general academic education qualification, compared to the more vocational Diploma/Higher/Advanced Diploma (Qualifications Frameworks Level 4), and allows articulation onto the third year of a four-year (US-style) bachelor's degree or the second year of a three-year (British-style) bachelor's degree. A survey in 2016 showed that most students believe associate degrees will help them to get onto bachelor's degree courses, but not (by themselves) in gaining a career; however only 30% of associate degree graduates gained places for further study, leading to accusations that the degree is "a waste of time and money" and calls for the government to address this by making more bachelor's degree places available. This has been criticized, with others saying that education had benefits beyond income, which is only a short-term measure. Mexico and Hispanic America An associate degree is called a carrera técnica, tecnicatura or Técnico Superior Universitario (TSU) in Mexico and Hispanic America, while a bachelor's degree would be known as a licenciatura or ingeniería. United States In the United States, associate degrees are usually earned in two years or more and can be attained at community colleges, technical colleges, vocational schools, and some colleges, as well as at some universities. A student who completes a two-year program can earn an Associate of Arts/Associate in Arts (AA) or an Associate of Science/Associate in Science (AS) degree. AA degrees are usually earned in the liberal arts and sciences such as humanities and social science fields; AS degrees are awarded to those studying in applied scientific and technical fields and professional fields of study. Generally, one year of study is focused on college level general education and the second year is focused on the area of discipline. Students who complete a two-year technical or vocational program can often earn an Associate of Applied Science/Associate in Applied Science (AAS), although sometimes the degree name will include the subject (a "tagged" degree). Transfer admissions in the United States sometimes allows courses taken and credits earned on an AA, AS, or AAS course to be counted toward a bachelor's degree via articulation agreements or recognition of prior learning, depending on the courses taken, applicable state laws/regulations, and the transfer requirements of the university. Common associate degree titles include: Associate of Applied Business (AAB) Associate of Applied Science (AAS) Associate of Applied Technology (AAT) Associate of Arts (AA) Associate of Arts in Teaching (AAT) Associate of Business Administration (ABA) Associate of Electrical Engineering Technology (AEET) Associate of Electronics (AE) Associate of Engineering (AE/AEng) Associate of Engineering Technology (AET/AEngT) Associate of Forestry (AF) Associate of General Studies (AGS) Associate of Industrial Technology (AIT) Associate of Nursing (AN)/Associate Degree Nurse/Nursing (ADN) Associate of Science in Nursing (ASN) Associate of Occupational Studies (AOS) Associate of Science (AS) Associate of Science in Computer Assisted Design (AS-CAD) Associate of Technology (AT) California The Student Transfer Achievement Reform Act was signed into legislation on September 29, 2010, which is a legislation that grants any California Community College student who has earned the Associate in Arts degree for Transfer (AA-T) or the Associate in Science degree for Transfer (AS-T) will be granted priority admission to the CSU (California State University) into a similar baccalaureate (BA) degree program with a guarantee of junior standing. Historical development The University of Chicago was established in 1891 with four groups of colleges – liberal arts, literature, science, and practical arts (later commerce and administration). These were subdivided into 'junior' (or 'academic') and 'senior' (or 'university') colleges. Bachelor's degrees were awarded by the senior colleges, and certificates were initially awarded by the junior colleges. In 1899 the board of trustees voted to replace these certificates with associate degrees (Associate in Arts, Associate in Literature, and Associate in Science), which were first awarded in 1900. Eells concludes that it is "not unlikely" that people at Chicago knew of the associate degrees being awarded in the United Kingdom, but there is no direct evidence of this. Chicago discontinued its associate degrees in 1918. The associate degree spread across the US, with California College in Oakland (now the American Baptist Seminary of the West) introducing Associate in Arts and Associate in Letters degrees in 1900, and the Lewis Institute in Chicago (now part of the Illinois Institute of Technology) introducing Associate in Literature and Associate in Science degrees in 1901 (both replaced by the Associate in Arts in 1904) followed by the Associate in Domestic Economy degree in 1908. Associate degrees were not always two-year sub-bachelor's awards in the early 20th century: Harvard University and associated colleges awarded Associate in Arts degrees to students who had passed university extension courses "equal in number and standard to the courses required of a resident student for the degree of Bachelor of Arts" from 1910 to 1933. By 1918, 23% of junior colleges were awarding Associate in Arts degrees. By 1941–42, 40% of junior colleges awarded some form of associate degree, and by 1960 this had grown to 75%, with 137 different associate degrees in use. Over a third of associate degrees awarded in the US in 1958–59 were granted by Californian junior colleges. West Indies Two year associate degrees are found throughout the West Indies. They are offered by regional organisations such as the Caribbean Examinations Council and the University of the West Indies, and at institutions of higher education in Barbados, Jamaica, and St. Kitts and Nevis, among others. References Citations Bibliography Further reading Academic degrees of the United States Academic degrees Higher education in Canada Universities and colleges in Canada
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Member%20of%20Congress
Member of Congress
A Member of Congress (MOC) is a person who has been appointed or elected and inducted into an official body called a congress, typically to represent a particular constituency in a legislature. The term member of parliament (MP) is an equivalent term in other, unaffiliated jurisdictions. United States In referring to an individual lawmaker in their capacity of serving in the United States Congress, a bicameral legislature, the term Member of Congress is used less often than other terms in the United States. This is because in the United States the word Congress is used as a descriptive term for the collective body of legislators, from both houses of its bicameral federal legislature: the Senate and the House of Representatives. For this reason, and in order to distinguish who is a member of which house, a member of the Senate is typically referred to as Senator (followed by "name" from "state"), and a member of the House of Representatives is usually referred to as Congressman or Congresswoman (followed by "name" from the "number" district of "state"), or Representative ("name" from the "number" district of "state"). Although Senators are members of Congress, they are not normally referred to or addressed as "Congressmen" or "Congresswomen" or "Congresspeople". Members of Congress in both houses are elected by direct popular vote. Senators are elected via a statewide vote and representatives by voters in each congressional district. Congressional districts are apportioned to the states, once every ten years, based on population figures from the most recent nationwide census. Each of the 435 members of the House of Representatives is elected to serve a two-year term representing the people of their district. Each state, regardless of its size, has at least one representative. Each of the 100 members of the Senate is elected to serve a six-year term representing the people of their state. Each state, regardless of its size, has two senators. Senatorial terms are staggered, so every two years approximately one-third of the Senate is up for election. Each staggered group of one-third of the senators is called a 'class'. No state has both its senators in the same class. One senator is a class different from the other. History of the United States Congress The United States Congress was created in Article I of the Constitution, which laid out the limitations and powers of Congress. Article I grants Congress legislative power and lists the enumerated powers and allows Congress to make laws that are necessary and proper to carry out the enumerated powers. It specifies the election and composition of the House of Representatives, and the election and composition of the Senate, and the qualifications necessary to serve in each chamber. The Seventeenth Amendment changed how senators were elected. Originally, senators were elected by state legislatures. The Seventeenth Amendment changed this to senators being elected directly by popular vote. Whether or not the federal government or any governmental entity has the right to regulate how many times a representative and senator can hold office is a controversial debate. References Government occupations Legislative branch of the United States government Parliamentary titles
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/USS%20Adams
USS Adams
USS Adams may refer to: , was a 28-gun frigate launched in 1799 and active in the War of 1812 and scuttled to prevent capture in 1814. , was a wooden screw steamer commissioned in 1876 and decommissioned in 1919 , was a destroyer minelayer serving at the end of World War II. a guided missile destroyer that served during the Cold War. See also The 200-ton brig Adams was purchased during the summer of 1812 but captured by the British and renamed HMS Detroit. The Americans briefly recaptured her but had to abandon her when she grounded; she was then burnt United States Navy ship names
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/USS%20Adams%20%281799%29
USS Adams (1799)
USS Adams was a 28-gun (rated) sailing frigate of the United States Navy. She was laid down in 1797 at New York City by John Jackson and William Sheffield and launched on 8 June 1799. Captain Richard Valentine Morris took command of the ship. Quasi-War with France The frigate departed New York in mid-September 1799 and headed for the West Indies to protect American shipping from attacks by French privateers, during the Quasi-War with France. She arrived at Saint Christopher on 10 October and soon began cruising nearby waters in search of French men of war and any prizes which had been captured by warships flying French colors. Later that month, she recaptured the brig Zylpha and assisted in taking an unidentified 4-gun French privateer and freeing an English brig and a schooner from Boston which that vessel of prey had seized. On 12 November, she again teamed with Insurgent in recapturing the 14-gun English brig Margaret. On the 15th, they took the French privateer Le Onze Vendémiaire. On the 20th, they cooperated in liberating the schooner Nancy which had struck her colors on the 18th. On 10 January 1800, Adams and made the French schooner La Fougeuse their prize and, late in the month, Adams recaptured the schooner Alphia. Two more French schooners, L'Heureuse Rencontre and Isabella fell into her hands in February. The following month, she freed the sloop Nonpareil and she did the same for the schooner Priscilla in April. But Adams most successful month came in May when she recaptured an unidentified schooner and teamed up with Insurgent once more in freeing a British letter of marque. During the same month she also recaptured another schooner named Nancy, one called Grinder, and an unidentified brig while capturing the brig Dove and the schooner Renommee. In need of repairs, Adams returned to New York in July 1800, but early in the fall headed back to the Caribbean under the command of Capt. Thomas Robinson. However, on this cruise she did not have the success which she had enjoyed under Capt. Richard Morris but for the most part was limited to patrol and escort duty. She did manage to recapture the British schooner Grendin, but the date of the action is unknown. On 23 March 1801, the Secretary of the Navy ordered her home and she was laid up at New York. First Barbary War However, trouble in the Mediterranean prevented her respite from being long. The Barbary states on the northern coast of Africa were capturing American merchantmen attempting to trade in that ancient sea and enslaving their crews. Adams was reactivated in the spring of 1802 under the command of Capt. Hugh George Canfield. On 10 June 1802, she departed New York and headed for the Strait of Gibraltar carrying orders for Commodore Richard V. Morris, her first commanding officer who was now in command of the American Mediterranean Squadron. She arrived there on 22 July and remained in that port blockading the Tripolitan cruiser Meshuda lest she escape and prey on American shipping. It was not until 8 April 1803 that she was freed of this duty. She then joined the rest of Morris' squadron in operations off Tripoli. However, as a squadron commander, Morris seemed to have lost the dash and daring he had displayed in operations against the French in the West Indies while in command of a single ship. His indecisiveness in the Mediterranean prompted Washington to order his recall and he sailed for home in Adams on 25 September. The frigate carried Morris to Washington and was placed in ordinary at the navy yard there in November 1803. 1805–1811 Reactivated under command of Capt. Alexander Murray in July 1805, Adams cruised along the coast of the United States from New York to Florida protecting American commerce. In the autumn of the following year she was again laid up in Washington and – but for service enforcing the Embargo Act in 1809 – remained inactive at the nation's capital until the outbreak of the War of 1812. In August 1811 she became the receiving ship at the Washington Navy Yard. War of 1812 In June 1812, Adams was cut in half amidships and lengthened 15 feet in the course of being completely rebuilt as a sloop-of-war of 26 × 18-pounder guns. Commanded by Capt. Charles Morris, she was ready for action by the end of the year, but was bottled up in the Chesapeake Bay by blockading British warships until she finally managed to slip out to sea on 18 January 1814. She cruised in the eastern Atlantic and along the African coast and took five merchantmen prizes before putting in at Savannah, Georgia, in April. Underway again in May, she headed for the Newfoundland Banks and ultimately sailed eastward to waters off the British Isles. During this cruise, she took five more merchant ships chased two more into the River Shannon, and barely managed to escape from a much larger British warship. She captured Woodbridge, which was sailing from India to Britain, but had to give her up when and arrived on the scene while escorting a convoy to the . Near the end of her homeward passage, Adams ran aground on the Isle au Haut on 17 August 1814 and was damaged seriously. Skillful seamanship aided by a rising tide managed to refloat the ship and despite heavy leaking she made it into the Penobscot River and reached Hampden, Maine (then part of the District of Maine under Massachusetts). There on 3 September 1814, during the Battle of Hampden, she was scuttled and set ablaze to prevent capture by a British squadron under the command of Rear-Admiral Edward Griffiths supporting British offensive operations in Maine. See also List of sailing frigates of the United States Navy Bibliography of early United States naval history Citations Further Information Further reading Frost, John (1845). The pictorial book of the commodores: comprising lives of distinguished commanders in the navy of the United States. Nafis and Cornish, New York. p. 432, , E'Book Mackenzie, Alexander Slidell (1840). The life of Commodore Oliver Hazard Perry, Volume 1, Harper & Brothers, New York. p. 443, E'Book Adams (1799) Adams (1799) Ships built in New York City Adams (1799) Adams (1799) 1799 ships Captured ships Maritime incidents in 1814 Scuttled vessels Ships named for Founding Fathers of the United States
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