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222324 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Archegonium | Archegonium | An archegonium (pl: archegonia), from the ancient Greek ἀρχή ("beginning") and γόνος ("offspring"), is a multicellular structure or organ of the gametophyte phase of certain plants, producing and containing the ovum or female gamete. The corresponding male organ is called the antheridium. The archegonium has a long neck canal or venter and a swollen base. Archegonia are typically located on the surface of the plant thallus, although in the hornworts they are embedded.
Bryophytes
In bryophytes and other cryptogams sperm reach the archegonium by swimming in water films, whereas in Pinophyta and Angiosperms the pollen are delivered by wind or animal vectors and the sperm are delivered by means of a pollen tube.
In the moss Physcomitrella patens, archegonia are not embedded but are located on top of the leafy gametophore (s. Figure). The Polycomb protein FIE is expressed in the unfertilized egg cell (right) as the blue colour after GUS staining reveals. Soon after fertilisation the FIE gene is inactivated (the blue colour is no longer visible, left) in the young embryo.
Gymnosperms
They are much-reduced and embedded in the megagametophytes of gymnosperms. The term is not used for angiosperms or the gnetophytes Gnetum and Welwitschia because the megagametophyte is reduced to just a few cells, one of which differentiates into the egg cell. The function of surrounding the gamete is assumed in large part by diploid cells of the megasporangium (nucellus) inside the ovule. Gymnosperms have their archegonium formed after pollination inside female conifer cones (megastrobili).
References
Plant anatomy
Gymnosperms
Plant reproduction
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222325 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Imperial%20circle | Imperial circle | During the Early Modern period the Holy Roman Empire was divided into Imperial Circles (; ; singular: ; ), administrative groupings whose primary purposes were the organization of common defensive structure and the collection of imperial taxes. They were also used as a means of organization within the Imperial Diet and the Imperial Chamber Court. Each circle had a Circle Diet, although not every member of the Circle Diet would hold membership of the Imperial Diet as well.
Six Imperial Circles were introduced at the Diet of Augsburg in 1500. In 1512, three more circles were added, and the large Saxon Circle was split into two, so that from 1512 until the collapse of the Holy Roman Empire in the Napoleonic era, there were ten Imperial Circles. The Crown of Bohemia, the Swiss Confederacy and Italy remained unencircled, as did various minor territories which held imperial immediacy.
Formation
Initially the 1500 Diet of Augsburg set up six Imperial Circles as part of the Imperial Reform:
the Bavarian Circle
the Franconian Circle
the Saxon Circle
the Swabian Circle
the Upper Rhenish Circle
the (Lower Rhenish-)Westphalian Circle
Originally, the territories held by the Habsburg dynasty and the Electors remained unencircled. In 1512 the Diet at Trier and Cologne organized these lands into three more circles:
the Austrian Circle, including the Habsburg territories inherited by Maximilian I
the Burgundian Circle, including the patrimony of Maximilian's late wife, Mary of Burgundy
the Electoral Rhenish Circle, including the ecclesiastical Electorates of Mainz, Cologne and Trier, and the secular Electorate of the Palatinate.
Also, the Saxon circle was divided into:
the Lower Saxon Circle
the Upper Saxon Circle, including the Electorates of Saxony and Brandenburg
Though the Empire lost several western territories after the secession of the Seven United Netherlands in 1581 and during the French annexations of the 1679 Peace of Nijmegen, the ten circles remained largely unchanged until the early 1790s, when the French Revolutionary Wars brought about significant changes to the political map of Europe.
Some of the circles were de facto controlled by a powerful noble house. The Austrian Circle corresponded almost exactly with the Habsburg hereditary lands. The Burgundian Circle encompassed the territory controlled by the Spanish Habsburgs (Franche-Comte and the Habsburg Netherlands). The Bavarian Circle mostly consisted of the Wittelsbach Duchy of Bavaria plus its satellites. The Upper Saxon Circle was dominated by the electorates of Saxony (plus its satellite Ernestine duchies) and Brandenburg.
Unencircled territories
A number of imperial territories remained unencircled, notably the lands of the Bohemian crown, the Old Swiss Confederacy and most of the Italian territories.
Besides these, there were also a considerable number of minor territories which retained imperial immediacy, such as individual Imperial Villages, and the lands held by individual Imperial Knights.
References
Winfried Dotzauer: Die deutschen Reichskreise in der Verfassung des alten Reiches und ihr Eigenleben. 1500–1806. Wissenschaftliche Buchgesellschaft, Darmstadt 1989,
Peter Claus Hartmann (ed.): Regionen in der frühen Neuzeit. Reichskreise im deutschen Raum, Provinzen in Frankreich, Regionen unter polnischer Oberhoheit. Ein Vergleich ihrer Strukturen, Funktionen und ihrer Bedeutung. (= Zeitschrift für historische Forschung; Beiheft 17). Duncker und Humblot, Berlin 1994, .
Literature
Contemporary (1500–1806) literature and source material:
Wolfgang Wüst (ed.): Die "gute" Policey im Reichskreis. Zur frühmodernen Normensetzung in den Kernregionen des Alten Reiches, edition of primary sources in four volumes, vol. 1: Der Schwäbische Reichskreis, unter besonderer Berücksichtigung Bayerisch-Schwabens, Berlin 2001; vol. 2: Der Fränkische Reichskreis, Berlin 2003; vol. 3: Der Bayerische Reichskreis und die Oberpfalz, Berlin 2004; vol.: Die lokale Policey: Normensetzung und Ordnungspolitik auf dem Lande. Ein Quellenwerk, Berlin 2008.
Hernach volgend die Zehen Krayß, 1532.
Johannes Alhusius: Politica methodice digesta. 3.Aufl., Herborn 1614.
Martin Zeiller: Von den zehn Kreisen. 1660, 1694.
Johann Samuel Tromsdorff: Accurate neue und alte Geographie von ganz Teutschland. Frankfurt 1711 (pp. 128ff).
"Creiß" in: Zedler, Grosses vollständiges Universallexikon aller Wissenschaften und Künste, vol. 6 (Ci – Cz), 1733.
External links
.
Types of administrative division
States and territories established in 1500
1500s establishments in the Holy Roman Empire
1500 establishments in Europe
Maximilian I, Holy Roman Emperor | [
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222333 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Western%20Digital | Western Digital | Western Digital Corporation (WDC, commonly known as Western Digital or WD) is an American computer hard disk drive manufacturer and data storage company, headquartered in San Jose, California. It designs, manufactures and sells data technology products, including storage devices, data center systems and cloud storage services.
Western Digital has a long history in the electronics industry as an integrated circuit maker and a storage products company. It is one of the largest computer hard disk drive manufacturers, along with producing SSDs and flash memory devices. Its competitors include the data management and storage companies Seagate Technology and Micron Technology.
History
1970s
Western Digital was founded on April 23, 1970, by Alvin B. Phillips, a Motorola employee, as General Digital, initially a manufacturer of MOS test equipment. It was originally based in Santa Ana, California, and would go on to become one of the largest technology firms headquartered in Orange County. It rapidly became a specialty semiconductor maker, with start-up capital provided by several individual investors and industrial giant Emerson Electric. Around July 1971, it adopted its current name and soon introduced its first product, the WD1402A UART.
During the early 1970s, the company focused on making and selling calculator chips, and by 1975, Western Digital was the largest independent calculator chip maker in the world. The oil crisis of the mid-1970s and the bankruptcy of its biggest calculator customer, Bowmar Instrument, changed its fortunes, however, and in 1976 Western Digital declared Chapter 11 bankruptcy. After this, Emerson Electric withdrew their support of the company. Chuck Missler joined Western Digital as chairman and chief executive in June 1977, and became the largest shareholder of Western Digital.
In 1973, Western Digital established its Malaysian plant, initially to manufacture semiconductors.
Western Digital introduced several products during the late 1970s, including the MCP-1600 multi-chip, microcoded CPU. The MCP-1600 was used to implement DEC's LSI-11 system, the WD16, and their own Pascal MicroEngine microcomputer which ran the UCSD p-System Version III and UCSD Pascal. However, the WD integrated circuit that arguably drove Western's forward integration was the FD1771, one of the first single-chip floppy disk drive formatter/controllers, which could replace significant amounts of TTL logic.
1980s
The FD1771 and its kin were Western Digital's first entry into the data storage industry; by the early 1980s, they were making hard disk drive controllers, and in 1983, they won the contract to provide IBM with controllers for the PC/AT. That controller, the WD1003, became the basis of the ATA interface (which Western Digital developed along with Compaq and Control Data Corporation's MPI division, now owned by Seagate Technology), starting in 1986. Throughout most of the 1980s, the family of controllers based on the WD1003 provided the bulk of Western Digital's revenues and profits, and for a time generated enormous corporate growth.
Much of the mid-to-late 1980s saw an effort by Western Digital to use the profits from their ATA storage controllers to become a general-purpose OEM hardware supplier for the PC industry. As a result, Western Digital purchased a number of hardware companies. These included graphics cards (through its Paradise subsidiary, purchased 1986, which became Western Digital Imaging), core logic chipsets (by purchasing Faraday Electronics Inc. in 1987), SCSI controller chips for disk and tape devices (by purchasing ADSI in 1986), networking (WD8003, WD8013 Ethernet and WD8003S StarLAN). They did well (especially Paradise, which produced one of the best VGA cards of the era), but storage-related chips and disk controllers were their biggest money makers. In 1986, they introduced the WD33C93 single-chip SCSI interface, which was used in the first 16-bit bus mastering SCSI host adapter, the WD7000 "FASST"; in 1987 they introduced the WD37C65, a single-chip implementation of the PC/AT's floppy disk controller circuitry, and the grandfather of modern super I/O chips; in 1988 they introduced the WD42C22 "Vanilla", the first single-chip ATA hard disk controller.
1988 also brought what would be the biggest change in Western Digital's history. That year, Western Digital bought the hard drive production assets of PC hardware maker Tandon; the first products of that union under Western Digital's own name were the "Centaur" series of ATA and XT attachment drives.
1990s
By 1991, things were starting to slow down, as the PC industry moved from ST-506 and ESDI drives to ATA and SCSI, and thus were buying fewer hard disk controller boards. That year saw the rise of Western Digital's Caviar drives, brand new designs that used the latest in embedded servo and computerized diagnostic systems.
Eventually, the successful sales of the Caviar drives resulted in Western Digital starting to sell some of its divisions. Paradise was sold to Philips, and since disappeared. Its networking and floppy drive controller divisions went to SMC Networks and its SCSI chip business went to Future Domain, which was later bought out by market leader Adaptec. Around 1995, the technological lead that the Caviar drives had enjoyed was eclipsed by newer offerings from other companies, especially Quantum Corp., and Western Digital fell into a slump.
In 1994, Western Digital began producing hard drives at its Malaysian factory, employing 13,000 people.
Products and ideas of this time did not go far. The Portfolio drive (a form factor model, developed with JT Storage) was a flop, as was the SDX hard disk to CD-ROM interface. Western Digital's drives started to slip further behind competing products, and quality began to suffer; system builders and PC enthusiasts who used to recommend Western Digital above all else, were going to the competition, particularly Maxtor, whose products had improved significantly by the late 1990s.
In an attempt to turn the tide in 1998, Western Digital recruited the help of IBM. This agreement gave Western Digital the rights to use certain IBM technologies, including giant magneto-resistive (GMR) heads and access to IBM production facilities. The result was the Expert line of drives, introduced in early 1999. The idea worked, and Western Digital regained respect in the press and among users, even despite a recall in 2000 (which was due to bad motor driver chips). Western Digital later broke ties with IBM.
2000s
In 2001, Western Digital became the first manufacturer to offer mainstream ATA hard disk drives with 8 MiB of disk buffer. At that time, most desktop hard disk drives had 2 MB of buffer. Western Digital labeled these 8 MB models as "Special Edition" and distinguished them with the JB code (the 2 MB models had the BB code). The first 8 MB cache drive was the 100 GB WD1000JB, followed by other models starting with 40 GB capacity. Western Digital advertised the JB models for cost-effective file servers. In October 2001, Western Digital restated its prior year results to reflect the adoption of SEC Staff Accounting Bulletin No.101 and the reclassification of Connex and SANavigator results as discontinued operations.
In 2003, Western Digital acquired most of the assets of bankrupt one-time market leading magnetic hard drive read-write head developer Read-Rite Corporation. In the same year, Western Digital offered the first 10,000 rpm Serial ATA HDD, the WD360GD "Raptor", with a capacity of 36 GB and an average access time of less than six milliseconds. Soon, the 74 GB WD740GD followed, which was also much quieter. In 2004, Western Digital redesigned its logo for the first time since 1997, with the design of new logo focusing on the company's initials ("WD"). In 2005, Western Digital released a 150 GB version, the WD1500, which was also available in a special version with a transparent window enabling the user to see the drive's heads move over the platters while the drive read and wrote data. , the Western Digital Raptor drives have a five-year warranty, making them a more attractive choice for inexpensive storage servers, where a large number of drives in constant use increases the likelihood of a drive failure.
In 2006, Western Digital introduced its My Book line of mass market external hard drives that feature a compact book-like design. On October 7, 2007, Western Digital released several editions of a single 1 TB hard drive, the largest in its My Book line.
In 2007, Western Digital acquired magnetic media maker Komag. Also in the same year, Western Digital adopted perpendicular recording technology in its line of notebook and desktop drives. This allowed it to produce notebook and desktop drives in the largest classes of the time. Western Digital also started to produce the energy efficient GP (Green Power) range of drives.
In 2007, Western Digital announced the WD GP drive touting rotational speed "between 7200 and 5400 rpm", which is technically correct while also being misleading; the drive spins at 5405 rpm, and the Green Power spin speed is not variable. WD GP drives are programmed to unload the heads whenever idle for a very short period of time. Many Linux installations write to the file system a few times a minute in the background. As a result, there may be 100 or more load cycles per hour, and the 300,000 load cycles rating of a WD GP drive may be exceeded in less than a year.
On April 21, 2008, Western Digital announced the next generation of its 10,000 rpm SATA WD Raptor series of hard drives. The new drives, called WD VelociRaptor, featured 300 GB capacity and platters enclosed in the IcePack, a mounting frame with a built-in heat sink. Western Digital said that the new drives are 35 percent faster than the previous generation. On September 12, 2008, Western Digital shipped a 500 GB notebook hard drive which is part of their Scorpio Blue series of notebook hard drives.
On January 27, 2009, Western Digital shipped the first 2 TB internal hard disk drive. On March 30, 2009, they entered the solid-state drive market with the acquisition of Siliconsystems, Inc. Its acquisition was unsuccessful, and few years later Western Digital discontinued all solid-state storage products based on Siliconsystems design (SiliconEdge and SiliconDrive families of SSDs and memory cards), but its inventions was used later in development of various other solid-state storage products, with larger developments going on after 2016 acquisition of SanDisk.
On July 27, 2009, Western Digital announced the first 1 TB mobile hard disk drive, which shipped as both a Passport series portable USB drive as well as a Scorpio Blue series notebook drive.
In October 2009, Western Digital announced the shipment of first 3 TB internal hard disk drive, which has 750 GB-per-platter density with SATA interface.
2010s
In March 2011, Western Digital agreed to acquire the storage unit of Hitachi, HGST, for about $4.3 billion of which $3.5 billion was paid in cash and the rest with 25 million shares of Western Digital.
In 2011, Western Digital established an R&D facility at its Malaysian plant at a cost of 1.2 billion US dollars.
In March 2012, Western Digital completed the acquisition of HGST and became the largest traditional hard drive manufacturer in the world. To address the requirements of regulatory agencies, in May 2012 Western Digital divested assets to manufacture and sell certain 3.5-inch hard drives for the desktop and consumer electronics markets to Toshiba, in exchange for one of its 2.5-inch hard drive factories in Thailand.
In December 2013, Western Digital stopped manufacturing parallel ATA hard disk drives for laptops (2.5-inch form factor) and desktop PCs (3.5-inch form factor). Until that time, they were last hard disk manufacturer to produce PATA hard disk drives. Furthermore, they were the only manufacturer that had 250 GB and 320 GB in 2.5-inch form factor.
In February 2014, Western Digital announced a new "Purple" line of hard disk drives for use in video surveillance systems, with capacities from 1 to 4 TB. They feature internal optimizations for applications that involve near-constant disk writing, and "AllFrame" technology which is designed to reduce write errors.
In October 2015, after being required to operate the company autonomously from WD, the Chinese Ministry of Commerce issued a decision allowing the company to begin integrating HGST into its main business, but under the condition that it maintain the HGST brand and sales team for at least two more years. The HGST brand was phased out in 2018, and since then, all HGST-branded products are just branded Western Digital.
In May 2016, Western Digital acquired SanDisk for US$19 billion. In the summer of 2017, Western Digital licensed the Fusion-io/SanDisk ION Accelerator software to One Stop Systems.
In 2016, HGST closed its Malaysian plant.
In August 2017, Western Digital bought cloud storage provider Upthere, with the intention to continue building out the service.
In September 2017, Western Digital acquired Tegile Systems, maker of flash memory storage arrays. Western Digital rebranded Tegile as IntelliFlash and sold it to DataDirect Networks in September 2019.
In April 2017, Western Digital moved its headquarters from Irvine, California to HGST's headquarters in San Jose, California. In December 2017, Western Digital reached an agreement with Toshiba about the sale of the jointly owned NAND production facility in Japan. In May 2018, Toshiba reached an agreement with the Bain consortium about the sale of that chip unit.
In October 2017, Western Digital shipped the world's first 14 TB HDD, the helium-filled HGST Ultrastar Hs14.
In June 2018, Western Digital acquired Wearable, Inc., a small company based in the Chicago area that produced the SanDisk Wireless Drive and SanDisk Connect Wireless Stick, which were derived from Wearable Inc.’s AirStash wireless server platform.
In July 2018, Western Digital announced their plan to close their hard disk production facility in Kuala Lumpur to shift the company towards flash drive production, leaving the company with just two HDD production facilities in Thailand. The company ranked 158th on the 2018 Fortune 500 of the largest United States corporations by revenue.
In June 2019, Kioxia experienced a power cut at one of its factories in Yokkaichi, Japan, resulting in the loss of at least 6 exabytes of flash memory, with some sources estimating the loss as high as 15 exabytes. Western Digital used (and still uses) Kioxia's facilities for making its own flash memory chips.
2020s
In November 2020, Western Digital produced a new consumer SSD, the WD Black SN850 1TB. Using a proprietary NVMe version 1.4 controller ("G2"), it is reported to outperform Samsung's 980 Pro 1TB as well as other, new-to-market SSDs containing the Phison E18 controller that arrived after the SN850 became available. The only higher-performing SSD at that time was Intel's Optane line, which is a non-consumer, workstation/server-based SSD with a cost of over five times the SN850.
In June 2021, users reported that their My Book Live NAS drives, which were discontinued products last manufactured in 2013, had been erased, leading to the company advising that the devices be disconnected from the internet.
In August 2021, Western Digital and Japanese memory-chip supplier Kioxia (formerly Toshiba Memory) began working out the details of a merger to be finalized in September 2021. In October of the same year, it became clear that the merger talks stalled.
In February 2022, Western Digital and Kioxia reported that contamination issues have affected the output of their flash memory joint-production factories, with WD admitting that at least 6.5 exabytes of memory output being affected. The Kiakami and Yokkaichi factories in Japan stopped producing due to the contamination.
Products
Storage devices
Western Digital's offerings include HDDs and SSDs for computing devices (e.g. PCs, security surveillance systems, gaming consoles and set-top boxes); NAND-flash embedded storage products for mobile devices, notebook PCs and other portable and IoT devices; and NAND flash memory wafers. Western Digital's embedded storage devices include the iNAND product line and custom embedded products. Western Digital also provides microSD and SD card products to OEMs only for automotive and industrial applications.
Use case classes
Western Digital color-codes certain storage devices based on their intended use case:
WD Green drives are energy efficient and are currently only available as an SSD. The WD Green HDD series was discontinued in 2015, and instead merged with WD Blue.
WD Purple hard drives are designed for write-heavy workloads; for instance, security applications (ex: recording video). These drives feature AllFrame technology, which attempts to reduce video frame loss, time limited error recovery, and support for the ATA streaming command set.
WD brand
Western Digital also sells external hard drives under the WD brand, with product families called My Passport, My Book, WD Elements, and Easystore. While traditionally these products have used HDDs, Western Digital has started to offer SSD versions, such as the My Passport SSD, its first portable SSD.
Western Digital external hard drives with encryption software (sold under the My Passport brand) have been reported to have severe data protection faults and to be easy to decrypt.
As of 2019, the WD Elements line consists of WD Elements Portable (1-5TB, 4.3 x 3.2 x 0.5 inch), WD Elements Desktop (3-14 TB, 5.3 x 1.8 x 6.5 inch), and WD Elements SE.
SanDisk
Under the SanDisk brand, Western Digital offers mobile storage products, cards and readers, USB flash drives, SSDs and MP3 players. Most of Western Digital's consumer flash memory products are offered through SanDisk. The SanDisk product family, including the Flash Drive and Base, is made specifically for use with the Apple iPhone and iPad. The 400GB SanDisk Ultra microSDXC UHS-I card was designed primarily for use in Android smartphones that include an expansion slot.
G-Technology
Under the G-Technology brand, Western Digital offers HDD, SSD, platforms and systems products designed specifically for creative professionals. The G-Technology brand has partnerships with Apple, Atomos, and Intel.
Other products
After first offering the Western Digital Media Center in 2004 (which was actually only a storage device), Western Digital offered the WD TV series of products between 2008 and 2016. The WD TV series of products functioned as a home theater PC, able play videos, images, and music from USB drives or network locations.
Western Digital offers the My Cloud series of products, which function as home media servers.
In September 2015, Western Digital released My Cloud OS 3, a platform that enables connected HDDs to sync between PCs and mobile devices.
Through Western Digital's acquisition of Upthere, the company offers personal cloud storage through the Upthere Home app and UpOS operating system.
Western Digital sells data center hardware and software including an enterprise-class Ultrastar product line that was previously sold under the HGST brand. Current hardware products include the 20 TB CMR helium-filled HC560, the 20 TB SMR helium-filled HC650, and the 6.4 TB U.2 NVMe SN840 SSD,
Corporate affairs
Western Digital Capital is Western Digital's investment arm. It has contributed funding for data technology companies such as Elastifile and Avere Systems.
Lawsuits
Lawsuits have been filed against various manufacturers including Western Digital, related to the claimed capacity of their drives. The drives are labelled using the convention of 103 (1,000) bytes to the kilobyte, resulting in a perceived capacity shortfall when reported by most operating systems, which tend to use 210 (1,024) bytes to the kilobyte.
While Western Digital maintained that they used "the indisputably correct industry standard for measuring and describing storage capacity", and that they "cannot be expected to reform the software industry", they agreed to settle in March 2006, with a $30 refund to affected customers in the form of backup and recovery software of the same value.
In May 2020, Western Digital was sued for using shingled magnetic recording technology in its NAS line of consumer drives without explicitly informing consumers. The lawsuit alleged that SMR technology is not suitable for the advertised use of the drives in a RAID array and intended to end any use of SMR in NAS drives. Seagate, another data storage company and a direct competitor of Western Digital, stated that SMR is not suitable for NAS use and that Seagate uses only conventional magnetic recording in its NAS-oriented products. In response to the controversy, Western Digital introduced a new naming scheme, in which "WD Red Plus" describes disks using conventional magnetic recording and "WD Red" means SMR.
Acquisitions
References
External links
American brands
American companies established in 1970
Technology companies based in the San Francisco Bay Area
Manufacturing companies based in San Jose, California
Computer hardware companies
Multinational companies headquartered in the United States
Companies listed on the Nasdaq
Companies that filed for Chapter 11 bankruptcy in 1976
Computer storage companies
Computer companies established in 1970
Computer companies of the United States
Computer memory companies
1970 establishments in California | [
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222342 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/K.%20Viswanath | K. Viswanath | Kasinadhuni Viswanath (born 19 February 1930) is an Indian film director, screenwriter and actor known for his works predominantly in Telugu cinema. He is recipient of five National Film Awards, seven state Nandi Awards, ten Filmfare Awards South, and a Filmfare Award in Hindi. In 1992, he received the Andhra Pradesh state Raghupathi Venkaiah Award, and the civilian honor Padma Shri for his contribution to the field of arts. He was awarded the 2017 Dadasaheb Phalke Award, the highest award in Indian cinema, at the 64th National Film Awards.
Viswanath started his film career as an audiographer and in sixty years, he has directed fifty three feature films in a variety of genres, including films based on performing arts, visual arts, and aesthetics. He received international recognition for his works, and is known for blending parallel cinema with mainstream commercial cinema. Viswanath's filmography is known for addressing the issues of caste, colour, disability, gender discrimination, misogyny, alcoholism and socio-economic challenges through liberal arts medium. He was honored with the "Prize of the Public" at the "Besançon Film Festival of France" in the year 1981.
His directorial works which are produced by Poornodaya Movie Creations were screened to special mention at the Moscow International Film Festival; such films were dubbed into Russian language and have been theatrically released in Moscow.
Early life and education
Kasinadhuni Viswanath was born on 19 February 1930 in Repalle of Guntur district, Andhra Pradesh. His parents are Kasinadhuni Subramanyam and Kasinadhuni Saraswathy (Saraswathamma) and his ancestral roots come from Pedapulivarru, Andhra Pradesh, a small village on the banks of River Krishna. Kasinadhuni is his family name, Viswanath is his given name. Viswanath studied Intermediate from Guntur Hindu College, and holds a BSc degree from Andhra Christian College of Andhra University. He began his career as a sound recordist at Vauhini Studios in Madras, where his father was an associate. There, he apprenticed under the guidance of A Krishnan, who was the Head of Sound Engineering at Vauhini. Vishwanath and A Krishnan developed a close rapport and later after the former made the transition into film direction, he would always bounce ideas off the latter. Vishwanath made his entry into film direction at Annapurna Pictures under Adurthi Subba Rao and K. Ramnoth. He wished to work as an assistant to director K. Balachander and Bapu.
Recognition
During his early career, Viswanath was associated with Adurthi Subba Rao on National Award-winning films such as Mooga Manasulu (1964) and Doctor Chakravarthy (1964). Viswanath scripted Sudigundalu (1968), and directed works such as Aatma Gowravam (1965), O Seeta Katha (1974) and Jeevana Jyothi (1975) which garnered the state Nandi Awards, and were screened at the Asian and African film Festival at Tashkent.
Viswanath's classic blockbusters Sankarabharanam (1979) and Sagara Sangamam (1983) were included among CNN-IBN's list of one hundred greatest Indian films of all time.
His directorial works Sankarabharanam and Saptapadi have garnered the National Film Award for Best Popular Film Providing Wholesome Entertainment and Best Feature Film on National Integration, respectively. Sankarabharanam, was premiered at the 8th International Film Festival of India, the Tashkent Film Festival, and the Moscow International Film Festival held in May 1980. Viswanath also won the Prize of the Public at the Besançon Film Festival of France in the year 1981.
Viswanath's Swati Mutyam was India's official entry to the 59th Academy Awards. Swati Mutyam, Sagara Sangamam and Sirivennela were premiered at the Asia Pacific Film Festival. Swayam Krushi was premiered to special mention at the Moscow International Film Festival.
Sankarabharanam, Sagara Sangamam, Sruthilayalu, Swarnakamalam and Swati Kiranam were screened in the Indian Panorama section at International Film Festival of India, Ann Arbor Film Festival, and AISFM Film Festival.
Film craft
In 1965, Viswanath debuted as a director with Telugu film Aatma Gowravam, which won the Nandi Award for Best Feature Film of the year. Viswanath followed it up with drama films Chelleli Kapuram, Sarada, O Seeta Katha and Jeevana Jyoti, which are women-centric films. It was in Siri Siri Muvva that the artistic touch in his craft first became visible.
Sankarabharanam highlights the neglect of traditional Indian music under the increasing influence of western music. The film brings out the grandeur of Carnatic music, the traditional South Indian music towards the end. Bhaskaran, a media and film researcher from Chennai has documented, in his study of South Indian music culture, how Sankarabharanam contributed to the revival of Carnatic music in a big way. The film broke many commercial records by running for over one year in cinemas. In a recent study published in Journal of Dance, Movements & Spiritualities published by "Intellect Group" of the United Kingdom, C. S. H. N. Murthy, a media and film studies scholar from India, has demonstrated how Viswanath's filmography embraces a wide spectrum of characters that include mentally and physically challenged subjects as well, like the film Sarada, which exploits a psychologically deranged woman, Swati Mutyam, which exploits an autistic man's humanism, Sirivennela which revels in situations between deaf and dumb characters, and Kalam Marindi, which dwells on characters stuck in a caste-based society.
Film researcher, C. S. H. N. Murthy observed that Viswanath's films offer a pathway towards inclusiveness, affecting positive spiritual change at both personal and social levels. Situating the content in the broad arena of de-westernizing media studies, through immersive and culturally embedded perspectives, Murthy endeavoured to offer modern and postmodern dimensions in Viswanath's films.
Films with social issues
Viswanath has made many films dealing with a wide range of human and social issues: Saptapadi, Sirivennela, Sutradharulu, Subhalekha, Sruthilayalu, Subha Sankalpam, Aapadbandhavudu, Swayam Krushi, and Swarnakamalam have lead characters representing different strata of society, meticulously etched to suit the larger picture.
In Saptapadi, he decries the evils of untouchability and the caste system. In Subhodayam and Swayam Krushi he emphasizes the dignity and respectability of manual labor. In Subhalekha, he deals, in a humorous way, with the dowry system – one of the major evils in today's society. While Sutradharulu urges present-day society to recognize the need to adopt the ideals of non-violence, Swati Kiranam depicts the harm that can be caused by the basic instincts of envy and anger in a man, however accomplished he may be.
In spite of the nature of these subjects, they are presented in a subtle manner with an imaginative storyline, with just the right amount of emphasis on the intended message. Yet Viswanath's films were never offbeat cinema, but wholesome entertainers those elevated the lead actors' image. He is a director with social-conscious mind and who believes cinema can bring out desirable changes in society if presented in a format liked by a cross-section of audience.
Association with Poornodaya Creations
Edida Nageswara Rao founded "Poornodaya Movie Creations", which encouraged Viswanath to make aesthetic films.
Poornodaya has produced several of Viswanath's films like Sankarabharanam, Swatimutyam, Saagarasangamam, Sutradharulu, and Aapadbandhavudu. Most of these films were dubbed into Russian and were screened at the Moscow Film Festival.
Bollywood
Viswanath has also directed Hindi language films such as Sargam (1979), Kaamchor (1982), Shubh Kaamna (1983), Jaag Utha Insan (1984), Sur Sangam (1985), Sanjog (1985), Eeshwar (1989), Sangeet (1992) and Dhanwaan (1993). Some of these films (especially his collaboration with actress Jayaprada) have been super hits at the box office.
Acting career
In 1995, Viswanath debuted as an actor with Telugu film Subha Sankalpam. As a character actor, he has appeared in works such as Vajram (1995), Kalisundam Raa (2000), Narasimha Naidu (2001), Nuvvu Leka Nenu Lenu (2002), Santosham (2002), Seema Simham (2002), Tagore (2003), Lakshmi Narasimha (2004), Swarabhishekam (2004), Aadavari Matalaku Arthale Verule (2007), Athadu (2005), and Pandurangadu (2008), and Devasthanam (2012). He essayed characters in Tamil works such as Kuruthipunal (1995), Mugavaree (1999), Kakkai Siraginilae (2000), Bagavathi (2002), Pudhiya Geethai (2003), Yaaradi Nee Mohini (2008), Rajapattai (2011), Singam II (2013), Lingaa (2014) and Uttama Villain (2015).
Television
Viswanath had also acted on a few television serials; Siva Narayna Teertha on SVBC TV, Chellamey on Sun TV, and Suryiavamsam on Vendhar TV. He also endorses brands such as GRT Jewellers and appears in various television commercials.
Personal life
Viswanath is married to Kasinadhuni Jayalakshmi. Actor Chandra Mohan and the late singer S. P. Balasubrahmanyam are Viswanath's cousins.
Filmography
As an actor
Awards
Civilian honor
Padma Shri (1992), Government of India
International honors
1981 – Prize of the Public at the Besançon Film Festival of France
1982–87 – Special Mention – Moscow International Film Festival
2014 – Gulf Andhra Award for Life Time Achievement in Cinema – U.A.E.
National Film Awards
2017 – Dadasaheb Phalke Award for lifetime achievement in cinema.
1980 – National Film Award for Best Popular Film Providing Wholesome Entertainment – Sankarabharanam
1982 – Nargis Dutt Award for Best Feature Film on National Integration – Saptapadi
1987 – Best Feature Film in Telugu – Swati Mutyam
1990 – Best Feature Film in Telugu – Sutradharulu
2005 – Best Feature Film in Telugu – Swarabhishekam
Nandi Awards
1980: Second Best Story Writer - Sankarabharanam
1981: Best Screenplay Writer – Saptapadi
1982: Best Story Writer - Subhalekha
1986: Best Director – Swati Mutyam
1987: Best Director – Sruthilayalu
1992: Raghupathi Venkaiah Award – Lifetime achievement for outstanding contributions to Telugu cinema
1995: Best Character Actor – Subha Sankalpam
2000: Best Supporting Actor – Kalisundam Raa
Cinema Express Awards
1988: Cinema Express Award for Best Director – Swarnakamalam
CineMAA Awards
CineMAA Award for lifetime achievement – (2008)
South Indian International Movie Awards
2021: Lifetime Achievement Award
Filmfare Awards
1989: Filmfare Best Story Award – Eeshwar
Filmfare Awards South
1974: Filmfare Award for Best Direction – O Seeta Katha
1975: Best Director – Jeevana Jyoti
1982: Best Director – Subhalekha
1983: Best Director – Saagara Sangamam
1986: Best Director – Swati Mutyam
1987: Best Director – Sruthilayalu
1992: Best Director – Aapadbandhavudu
1994: Lifetime Achievement
1995: Best Director – Subha Sankalpam
Honorary doctorate
Potti Sreeramulu Telugu University
Other honors
2012 – Viswa Vikhyata Darsaka Sarvabhowma for achievement in direction.
2012 – Chittoor V. Nagaiah Puraskaram for lifetime achievement in cinema.
2017 – Film Nagar Cultural Center – Hyderabad Award for achievement in cinema.
2017 – Telugu Film Director's Association Award for achievement in direction.
2017 – Aathmeeya Sanmanam from Government of Andhra Pradesh for achievement in cinema at Vijayawada Thummalapalli Kalakshetram.
References
External links
1930 births
Living people
People from Guntur
Telugu people
Telugu film directors
Film directors from Andhra Pradesh
Indian male screenwriters
Hindi-language film directors
Male actors in Telugu cinema
Indian male film actors
Male actors in Tamil cinema
Indian male television actors
Recipients of the Padma Shri in arts
Filmfare Awards winners
Filmfare Awards South winners
Nandi Award winners
Dadasaheb Phalke Award recipients
Male actors from Andhra Pradesh
20th-century Indian male actors
20th-century Indian film directors
Male actors in Hindi cinema
Directors who won the Best Popular Film Providing Wholesome Entertainment National Film Award
Directors who won the Best Film on National Integration National Film Award
South Indian International Movie Awards winners | [
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222346 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kamal%20Haasan | Kamal Haasan | Kamal Haasan (born 7 November 1954) is an Indian actor, filmmaker, director, lyricist, playback singer, choreography, politician and a polymath. He primarily works in Tamil cinema and has also worked in Telugu, Hindi, Malayalam, Kannada, and Bengali films. His production company, Raaj Kamal Films International, has produced several of his films. Haasan's contributions to film have been praised by his contemporaries across the Indian film industry, and he has been recognised as an influence for actors and filmmakers in the Tamil film industry. He has won four National Film Awards and 20 Filmfare Awards. He was awarded the Kalaimamani award in 1984 the Padma Shri in 1990, the Padma Bhushan in 2014 and the Ordre des Arts et des Lettres (Chevalier) in 2016. He was awarded the Lifetime Achievement Award at 15th Mumbai International Film Festival in 2013.
Haasan started his career as a child artist in the 1960 Tamil-language film Kalathur Kannamma, for which he won the President's Gold Medal. His breakthrough as a lead actor came in the 1975 drama Apoorva Raagangal, directed by K. Balachander, in which he played a rebellious youth who falls in love with an older woman. He won his first National Film Award for his portrayal of a guileless school teacher who cares for a woman who suffers from retrograde amnesia in Moondram Pirai (1983). He was noted for his performances in K. Viswanath's Swathi Muthyam (1986), Mani Ratnam's Nayakan (1987), and S. Shankar's Indian (1996) and also won second and third National film awards respectively. Since then he has appeared in films including Hey Ram (2000), Virumaandi (2004), Dasavathaaram (2008) in which he played ten roles and Vishwaroopam (2013) which were his own productions. Haasan has acted in over 230 films, and in 2019 he became one of the few actors in India to have completed 60 years working in cinema.
For his philanthropic efforts Haasan received the first Abraham Kovoor National Award in 2004. He was project ambassador for the Hridayaragam 2010 event, which raised funds for an orphanage for HIV/AIDS-affected children. In September 2010, Haasan launched a children's cancer relief fund and gave roses to children with cancer at Sri Ramachandra University in Porur, Chennai. Haasan was nominated by the Indian Prime Minister Narendra Modi for the Swachh Bharat Mission. On 21 February 2018, Haasan formally launched his political party, Makkal Needhi Maiam (lit. People's Justice Centre).
Early life and family
Haasan was born on 7 November 1954, in a Tamil Iyengar family, to D. Srinivasan, who was a lawyer and freedom fighter, and Rajalakshmi, who was a housewife. Haasan was initially named as Parthasarathy. His father later changed his name to Kamal Haasan. His brothers, Charuhasan (born 1930) and Chandrahasan (born 1936), have also acted. Haasan's sister, Nalini (born 1946), is a classical dancer. He received his primary education in Paramakudi before moving to Madras (now Chennai) as his brothers pursued their higher education. Haasan continued his education in Santhome, Madras, and was attracted towards film and fine arts as encouraged by his father.
Film career
1960–1963
When a physician friend of his mother, visited A. V. Meiyappan (AVM) to treat his wife, she brought Haasan with her. Apparently impressed by his demeanor AVM's son, M. Saravanan, recommended him for their production Kalathur Kannamma. Haasan won the Rashtrapati Award (President's gold medal) for his performance in Kalathur Kannamma at age six and starred in five more films as a child. He debuted in the Malayalam film industry with Kannum Karalum (1962). Upon his father's encouragement, he joined a repertory company (T. K. S. Nataka Sabha) headed by T. K. Shanmugam. In the meanwhile, he continued his education at the Hindu Higher Secondary School in Triplicane. His time with the theatre company shaped Haasan's craft and kindled his interest in makeup.
1970–1975
After a seven-year hiatus from films, Haasan returned to the industry as a dance assistant, apprenticing under choreographer Thankappan. During this time, Haasan made brief appearances in some films including a few uncredited roles. His first appearance came in the 1970 film Maanavan, in which he appeared in a dance sequence. He went on to assist Thankappan in films such as Annai Velankani (1971) and Kasi Yathirai (1973). In the former he had a supporting role and worked as an assistant director. His first full-fledged role came in K. Balachander's Tamil film Arangetram (1973). Balachander cast him as the antagonist in his Sollathaan Ninaikkiren (1973). Haasan went on to do supporting roles in films such as Gumasthavin Magal (1974), Aval Oru Thodar Kathai (1974) and Naan Avanillai. The same year, he played his first lead role in the Malayalam film, Kanyakumari, for which he won his first Filmfare Award. In Tamil cinema, he had his breakthrough as a lead actor in Balachander's Apoorva Raagangal. He played a rebellious young man who falls in love with an older woman. For this character portrayal, Haasan learned to play the mridangam. The role won him his second Filmfare Award.
1976–1979
In 1976, Haasan appeared Balachander's Manmadha Leelai; this was followed by Oru Oodhappu Kan Simittugiradhu (directed by S. P. Muthuraman), which won him his third Filmfare Award. Haasan later appeared in the Balachander drama Moondru Mudichu. Avargal (1977) concerned the women's movement; for this role, he learned ventriloquism. It was remade in Telugu as Idi Katha Kaadu (1979), with Haasan reprising his role. 16 Vayathinile, in which he played a village bumpkin, won him a fourth consecutive Best Actor award. In 1977 Haasan starred in his first Kannada film, Kokila, the directorial debut of friend and mentor Balu Mahendra. That year he also appeared in a Bengali film, Kabita, a remake of the Tamil film Aval Oru Thodar Kathai. In 1978 Haasan made his Telugu film debut with a lead role in the cross-cultural romantic Maro Charitra, directed by Balachander. His fifth consecutive Filmfare Award resulted from Sigappu Rojakkal, a thriller in which he played a psychopathic sexual killer. He appeared in the Malayalam film Eeta, for which he won his sixth Filmfare Award. He first played opposite to the Sridevi in the 1977 Malayalam movie Satyavan Savithri directed by P.G. Viswambharan, this combination was later on well-accepted and celebrated.
In the 1979 Telugu film Sommokadidi Sokokadidi, Haasan played two parts. This was also his first collaboration with director Singeetam Srinivasa Rao. He appeared in the musical Ninaithale Inikkum, a snake-horror film Neeya and Kalyanaraman. At the end of the 1970s he had six regional Best Actor Filmfare Awards, including four consecutive Best Tamil Actor Awards.
1980–1989
Haasan's films during the 1980s included 1980 Tamil-language Varumayin Niram Sivappu, the film was simultaneously shot in Telugu as Aakali Rajyam, in which he played an unemployed youth and earned him a first Filmfare Award in Telugu. In 1980 he appeared in the drama film Ullasa Paravaigal, Guru and Maria My Darling. Haasan made his debut in Hindi cinema with Ek Duuje Ke Liye (1981), the remake of his own acted Telugu-language film Maro Charitra directed by K. Balachander (which earned him his first Filmfare Hindi-language nomination). He made his 100th film appearance in 1981 in Raja Paarvai, debuting as a producer. Despite the film's relatively poor box-office performance, his portrayal of a blind session violinist earned him a Filmfare Award. After a year of starring in commercial films, Haasan won the first of three National Awards for Best Actor for his portrayal of a schoolteacher caring for an amnesia patient in Balu Mahendra's Moondram Pirai, later reprising his role in the Hindi version, Sadma. During this period he focused on Bollywood remakes of his Tamil films, including Yeh To Kamaal Ho Gaya and Zara Si Zindagi. In 1983 he appeared in Sagara Sangamam, directed by K. Viswanath. His portrayal of an alcoholic classical dancer won him his first Nandi Award for Best Actor and his second Filmfare Best Telugu Actor Award.
After 1984's multistarrer Raaj Tilak, Haasan appeared in Saagar (released 1985), winning the Filmfare Best Actor Award and nominated for the Best Supporting Actor award. The film was India's representative for the Best Foreign Language Oscar in 1985. He left Bollywood temporarily after Geraftaar and Dekha Pyar Tumhara to feature in Japanil Kalyanaraman (a sequel to his 1979 Kalyanaraman).
In 1986, Haasan produced the technically brilliant Vikram and collaborated with Kodandarami Reddy for Oka Radha Iddaru Krishnulu and then K. Viswanath in Swathi Muthyam, playing an autistic person who tries to change society and won him his second Nandi Award for Best Actor. it was India's entry for Best Foreign Language Film at the Academy Awards in 1986. These Tollywood films found him a large audience in Andhra Pradesh, and many of his later Tamil films were dubbed into Telugu.
Following Punnagai Mannan (in which he played two roles, including a satire of Charlie Chaplin as Chaplin Chellappa) and Kadhal Parisu, Haasan appeared in Mani Ratnam's 1987 film Nayakan. He received his second Indian National Award for his performance; Nayakan was submitted by India as its entry for Best Foreign Language Film at the 1987 Academy Awards, and is on the Time's All-Time 100 Movies list. Haasan appeared in his only silent film to date: Pushpaka Vimana (1987) a black comedy film, in which he played an unemployed youth and earned him a first Filmfare Award in Kannada. In 1988 he appeared Unnal Mudiyum Thambi, Malayalam film Daisy and Sathyaa which were his own productions. Haasan's all four films of 1989 were major success, Apoorva Sagodharargal, where he played a dwarf, then Chanakyan, an original Malayalam film, later Vettri Vizhaa (where he played an amnesiac) and finally Haasan played two parts in Indrudu Chandrudu, winning the Filmfare Best Actor and won him his third Nandi Award for Best Actor for his performance. By the end of the 1980s Haasan was successful in the Malayalam, Kannada, Telugu and Hindi film industries, with Filmfare Awards in each industry and two national awards.
1990–1998
In 1990, Michael Madana Kama Rajan saw Haasan build on Apoorva Sagodharargal by playing quadruplets. It began as a collaboration with writer Crazy Mohan for future comedy films. Haasan won successive Best Actor awards for his portrayal of deranged, obsessive protagonists in Gunaa and Thevar Magan (which was remade in Hindi as 1997's Virasat). He was credited with the story for the latter. Haasan won his third National Film Award for Best Feature Film in Tamil as a producer for Thevar Magan. The film was India's submission for the Academy Awards that year. A series of films followed: Singaravelan, Maharasan, Kalaignan, Mahanadhi, Nammavar, and Sathi Leelavathi Produced by Haasan, it featured himself alongside Kannada actor Ramesh Aravind and comedian Kovai Sarala. Haasan resumed his collaboration with K. Viswanath in the Telugu film, Subha Sankalpam, and starred in the police story Kuruthipunal (Tamil) simultaneously shot in Telugu as Drohi with Arjun Sarja and won Filmfare Best Actor. Haasan's success in the latter was followed by his third National Film Award for Best Actor for Indian. Haasan also won Tamil Nadu State Film Award for Best Actor and Filmfare Best Actor for Indian. The film was India's submission for the Academy Awards.
'The Week', in its 13 September 1992 edition, reported that Chiranjeevi charged Rs. 12.5 million per a film and which is the highest ever remuneration for any Indian hero then. In 1994, Haasan became the first actor to charge 15 million per film. The highest paid Indian actor from 1970 to 1987 was Rajesh Khanna.
After Indian, Haasan played a woman in the comedy Avvai Shanmughi, which was inspired by Mrs. Doubtfire. He chose Shantanu Sheorey to direct the Hindi remake of Avvai Shanmughi, Chachi 420, but after dissatisfaction with five days of shooting Haasan took over as director. In 1997 Haasan began directing an unfinished biopic of Mohammed Yusuf Khan, Marudhanayagam; a forty five minutes of film and a trailer was shot. Marudhanayagam was expected to be the biggest, most expensive film in Indian cinematic history and his magnum opus; a number of well-known actors and technicians had been signed, and it was launched at a public ceremony by Queen Elizabeth during her 1997 visit to India. Although the film failed to materialise due to budget constraints, Haasan expressed an interest in reviving the project. In 1998, he appeared in Singeetam Srinivasa Rao's romantic comedy, Kaathala Kaathala opposite Prabhu Deva. The film was a commercial success and was dubbed in Hindi as Mirch Masala, which was never released.
2000–2009
After a two-year hiatus from Indian cinema, Haasan decided against reviving Marudhanayagam. He directed his second film, Hey Ram, a period drama, told in flashback, with a fact-based plot centering on the partition of India and the assassination of Mahatma Gandhi. Haasan produced and choreographed the film, writing its screenplay and lyrics; it was India's submission for the Academy Awards that year. Hey Ram was a box-office failure in India but was successful worldwide. Also in 2000, Haasan appeared in the comedy Thenali as a Sri Lankan Tamilian with PTSD who is under a psychiatrist's care. Thenali, starring Malayalam actor Jayaram, was a box-office success. Haasan's next film was 2001's Aalavandhan, in which he played two roles: For one he had his head shaved and gained ten kilograms. To play the other Army major in Aalavandhan, he went to the NDA for a crash course. The Hindi version was distributed by Shringar Films. Despite pre-release publicity, the film was a commercial failure.
After a number of successful comedies including Pammal K. Sambandam and Panchatanthiram and guest appearances, Haasan directed Virumaandi, a film about capital punishment which won the Best Asian Film Award at the Puchon International Fantastic Film Festival. He also appeared in Anbe Sivam with Madhavan. Priyadarshan, its original director, left and Sundar C. completed the film. Anbe Sivam tells the story of Nallasivam, portrayed by Haasan as a communist. His performance was praised by critics, with The Hindu saying that he "has once again done Tamil cinema proud".
In 2004 Haasan appeared in Vasool Raja MBBS, a remake of Bollywood's Munna Bhai M.B.B.S., with Sneha which was a box-office success. The following year, he wrote and starred in the comedy Mumbai Xpress. Released during Tamil New Year, it was a disappointment at the box office despite positive reviews. He appeared Kannada language comedy film Rama Shama Bhama with Ramesh Aravind. In 2006 Haasan's long-delayed project, the stylish police story Vettaiyaadu Vilaiyaadu, was a success. Directed by Gautham Vasudev Menon, the film is about a police officer sent to the US to investigate a series of medical murders. In 2008's Dasavathaaram, he played ten roles; the film was released in a number of languages (including Tamil, Telugu and Hindi) throughout India and overseas. Dasavathaaram, written by Haasan and director K. S. Ravikumar, is one of the first modern science-fiction films made in India. Starring Haasan and Asin Thottumkal, it was the highest-grossing Tamil film () and his performance was critically praised. In Canada, Dasavathaaram was the first Tamil film distributed by Walt Disney Pictures.
After Dasavathaaram, Haasan directed a film tentatively titled Marmayogi, which stalled after a year of pre-production. He then produced and starred in Unnaipol Oruvan, a remake of the Bollywood film A Wednesday, where he reprised the role originally played by Naseeruddin Shah with Malayalam actor Mohanlal playing Anupam Kher's role. It was released in Telugu as Eeenadu, with Venkatesh reprising the role played by Kher. Both versions were critically acclaimed and commercially successful.
2010–present
Haasan collaborated for the fifth time with Ravikumar in Manmadan Ambu, for which he also wrote the screenplay. The story concerns a man who hires a detective to find out if his fiancée is cheating on him. The film was released in December 2010 to mixed reviews, with Behindwoods calling it "an entertainer, but in parts" and Sify saying it "lacks the punch to captivate the audiences".
Haasan's next film after Manmadhan Ambu was 2013's Vishwaroopam, released in Hindi as Vishwaroop. It won two National Film Awards (Best Production Design and Best Choreography) at the 60th National Film Awards. Muslim groups in Tamil Nadu demanded the ban of the film and claimed, that the film would hurt Muslim sentiments. Although the film was cleared by Central Board of Film Certification of India, district collectors in the state of Tamil Nadu gave orders to the theatre owners to not show Vishwaroopam, citing law and order problems. However, the film was released in other states with greater Muslim populations than in Tamil Nadu. A mutual agreement with the Muslims of Tamil Nadu was finally settled on 2 February 2013, when Haasan accepted to mute five scenes. Vishwaroopam was the highest-grossing Tamil film of 2013.
In May 2014, he was appointed as the official Indian delegate to the 67th Cannes Film Festival. As of July 2014, he was working on three films: Uttama Villain, Vishwaroopam II, the sequel of Vishwaroopam and Papanasam. After 2 years of Vishwaroopam s release, Uttama Villain was released on 2 May 2015 with exceptional critical reviews and on 3 July 2015, Papanasam a Tamil remake of Malayalam film Drishyam was released with positive reviews and became a huge success followed by the bi-lingual Thoongaa Vanam and Cheekati Rajyam, both doing moderate business.
Sabaash Naidu () in Tamil and Telugu, titled Shabhash Kundu () in Hindi, is an upcoming Indian spy comedy-adventure film which is written, co-produced and directed by Haasan. He plays the lead role reprising the role of Balram Naidu (a Telugu RAW Officer), a spin off of one of the characters which he played in Dasavathaaram (2008). The film's release date has been delayed owing to Haasan's entry into politics, though he pledged to finish the films he had signed on for.
On 17 September 2020, director Lokesh Kanakaraj announced through his Twitter handle that his next venture will have Kamal Haasan in lead role with Anirudh handling the music and movie has been temporarily named Vikram.
Off-screen contributions
In addition to acting, Haasan is noted for his involvement in other aspects of filmmaking. He has written many of his films, including Raja Paarvai, Apoorva Sagodharargal, Michael Madana Kama Rajan, Thevar Magan, Mahanadhi, Hey Ram, Aalavandhan, Anbe Sivam, Nala Damayanthi, Virumaandi, Dasavathaaram, Manmadan Ambu and Vishwaroopam. Haasan's production company (Raaj Kamal Films International) has produced several of his films, and he directed Chachi 420, Hey Ram, Virumaandi and Vishwaroopam. He considered directing full-time if Hey Ram was successful, but changed his mind when the film failed at the box office. In his earlier career, he choreographed for MGR in Naan Yen Pirandhen, Sivaji Ganesan in Savaale Samaali and Jayalalithaa in Anbu Thangai In 2010 Haasan said he wanted to do more directing, since young actors wished to work for him. When he played supporting roles early in his career he wanted to become a technician and joked: "Film makers like K. Balachander told me that I won't be able make much money by being a technician. So the end result is that the star Kamal funds the technician Kamal in pursuing his dreams". Haasan attended workshops for makeup technicians in the US for several years, and trained as a makeup artist under Michael Westmore.
Haasan has written songs for his films. He wrote the lyrics for a single in Hey Ram, songs in Virumaandi and Unnaipol Oruvan and the album for Manmadhan Ambu. Haasan's musical work has been well received by his peers in Tamil film. He is also a playback singer, singing in Tamil, Hindi, Telugu, Malayalam and English. Hassan also wrote the lyrics for a song about the Coronavirus and released its music video, "Arivum Anbum". The album, composed by Ghibran and directed by Haasan, featured Anirudh Ravichander, Yuvan Shankar Raja and a number of other contemporary performers.
In 2021, Hasan featured in a song 'Shades of Blue: A Musical Tribute to Venmurasu’ composed by Rajan Somasundaram and released by Director Mani Ratnam in honor of Venmurasu, the longest novel ever written. Earlier, he has spoken in appreciation of Venmurasu and writer Jeyamohan on Bigg Boss during his book recommendations.
Bigg Boss Tamil
Haasan made his return on Star Vijay TV, hosting the first season of Bigg Boss Tamil in 2017. The show soon went onto become one of the most watched television series in Tamil Nadu and gained positive reviews among audience from season 1 onwards. Haasan also hosted the second season of Bigg Boss Tamil 2 which started its telecast on 17 June 2018, Bigg Boss Tamil 3 which started its telecast on 23 June 2019 and Bigg Boss Tamil 4 which started telecast on 4 October 2020. He hosted Bigg Boss Tamil 5 which started to telecast from 3 October 2021. Then, now he is the host to the Bigg Boss Ultimate (Season 1) which is to be launched at ott platform (Disney+Hotstar) on 30th January 2022 onwards.
KH House of Khaddar (KHHK)
Kamal Haasan launched his personal fashion line brand called KH House of Khaddar (KHHK).
Personal life
Family
Haasan was born into a Tamil Iyengar family in the town of Paramakudi, in the Ramanathapuram district of Tamil Nadu, to criminal defence lawyer D. Srinivasan and Rajalakshmi, a housewife. During 2013 his daughter Shruti Hassan appeared on an episode of Neengalum Vellalam Oru Kodi, where "phone a friend" option is availed to Shruti and when she called her father Kamal, he stated that his parents named him Parthasarathy before he was called as Kamal Haasan and his mother always used to call him by that name. In an interview with Karan Thapar, Haasan said his father was literate in Sanskrit. Haasan was the youngest of four children; his siblings are Charuhasan, Chandrahasan and Nalini (Raghu). His two older brothers followed their father's example and studied law. Haasan continued his education in Sir M.Ct. Muthiah Chettiar Boys Higher Secondary School and Hindu Higher Secondary School in Madras (now Chennai).
Haasan has alluded to his parents in some of his works, notably Unnaipol Oruvan and in the song "Kallai Mattum" in Dasavathaaram. His oldest brother Charuhasan, like Haasan, is a National Film Award-winning actor who appeared in the Kannada film Tabarana Kathe. Charuhasan's daughter Suhasini is also a National Film Award winner married to director (and fellow award-winner) Mani Ratnam, who collaborated with Haasan on 1987's Nayakan. Chandrahasan has produced several of Haasan's films and was an executive with Raaj Kamal Films International, he died in March 2017. Chandrahasan's daughter Anu Hasan has had supporting roles in several films, including Suhasini's Indira. Haasan's sister, Nalini Raghu, is a dance teacher for whom he named an auditorium (Nalini Mahal). Her son, Gautham, played Haasan's grandson in "Hey Ram".
Relationships
In 1978, at age 24, Haasan married dancer Vani Ganapathy. She acted with Haasan in the 1975 movie Melnaattu Marumagal. After marriage, Vani worked as Haasan's costume designer for several movies. They divorced ten years later.
Haasan and actress Sarika began living together in 1988, marrying after the birth of their first child, Shruti (born 1986). Shruti is a singer and a Tollywood-Kollywood actress. Their younger daughter, Akshara (born 1991), was assistant director for 2013's Vishwaroopam and actress for 2019's Kadaram Kondan. Sarika stopped acting soon after their marriage, Sarika worked as Haasan's costume designer for the movie Hey Ram and won the National Film Award for Best Costume Designer. In 2002, the couple filed for divorce, which became final in 2004. After their divorce, Sarika acted in movies and TV serials, winning the National Film Award for Best Actress for the 2005 film Parzania.
From 2005 till 2016, Haasan was in a relationship with actress Gautami, , his frequent co-star during the late 1980s and early 1990s. Gautami had announced on her blog that she had ended her relationship with him writing, "It is heartbreaking for me to have to say today that I and Mr. Haasan are no longer together. After almost 13 years together, it has been one of the most devastating decisions that I have ever had to make in my life."
Early in his career, he co-starred in several films with Srividya. Haasan visited Srividya on her deathbed in 2006.
Views
Haasan is a self-proclaimed atheist. He has often questioned the existence of God and has highlighted the theme in his films like Anbe Sivam and Dasavathaaram. He was mistaken to be Muslim because of his Arabic-sounding name, most notably when he was denied preclearance to travel to the United States by Customs and Border Protection authorities at Toronto Pearson International Airport in 2002.
In Sanskrit Kamal means "lotus", but it was rumoured that his name originated with a friend of his father (Yaakob Hassan, a Muslim freedom fighter who was imprisoned along with Kamal's father by the British). In a BBC interview with Karan Thapar, Haasan said that his last name derives from the Sanskrit word hasya, and although the Yaakob Hassan connection was publicised by the media it was only "a story". Haasan is considered left-leaning or independent. Although he initially abstained from politics, he entered regional politics in Tamil Nadu in 2018. He also said that his entering politics would result in his death within a year.
Humanitarian work
Haasan is the first Tamil actor to convert his fan clubs into welfare organisations and is involved in social-service activities through the clubs under the name Kamal Narpani Iyakkam (Kamal Welfare Association). His fan clubs help organise blood- and eye-donation drives, and donate educational materials to students.
Haasan received the first Abraham Kovoor National Award for his humanist activities and secular life in 2004. He was project ambassador for Hridayaragam 2010, which raised funds for an orphanage for HIV/AIDS-affected children. In September 2010 Haasan launched a children's cancer relief fund and gave roses to children with cancer at Sri Ramachandra University in Porur, Chennai. He has pledged his product-endorsement income to social causes. Haasan, along with his partner Gautami, won 5 million on Neengalum Vellalam Oru Kodi in March 2013 and donated the prize money to Petral Thaan Pillaya, a nonprofit organization supporting cancer patients.
Haasan was nominated by the Indian Prime Minister Narendra Modi for the Swachh Bharat campaign. He chose to clean the Madambakkam lake in Chennai with the Environmentalist Foundation of India's Arun Krishnamurthy on 7 November 2014.
Known for refusing any kind of brand endorsement, Haasan endorsed Pothys for the first time in 2015. His daughter, Shruti has previously endorsed Pothys. In the past, Haasan has stated that should he ever act in commercials, the revenue earned from them would be donated to HIV affected children.
Writings
Haasan publishes the magazine Mayyam, by the Kamal Haasan Welfare Association (Narpani Iyakkam).His views on cinema, child and drug abuse, and the Kashmir conflict have been published as Thedi Theerpom Va (Come, Let's Find and Solve) by his fan club. He is also interested in Tamil literature.
Political career
He formed the centrist party Makkal Needhi Maiam (MNM), a regional political party in Tamil Nadu. He formally announced the party's formation on 21 February 2018 in Madurai. The party's flag displays six joined hands in a circle in alternate red and white colours with a white star at its centre in a black background. Haasan began his political journey from late President A. P. J. Abdul Kalam’s residence and his memorial at Rameswaram. His party contested in 37 seats in 2019 Indian general election and lost. Makkal Needhi Maiam's vote share in the 2019 Lok Sabha election was 3.72% (in the seats it contested).
He unsuccessfully contested the 2021 Tamil Nadu Legislative Assembly election from Coimbatore South and lost to BJP Mahila Morcha President Vanathi Srinivasan by a narrow margin.
Awards and honours
Haasan received, in 1990, the Padma Shri, and, in 2014, the Padma Bhushan for his contributions to Indian cinema. At age six, he won the President's Gold Medal for Best Child Actor for his debut film, Kalathur Kannamma. He is tied with Mammootty for the second most Best Actor National Film Awards with three. He won a National Film Award for Best Feature Film in Tamil for producing the 1992 Tamil film, Thevar Magan. He has a record 19 Filmfare Awards in five languages; after his last award, in 2000, he wrote to the organisation requesting no further awards. In 2003, his films Hey Ram, Pushpak, Nayakan and Kuruthipunal were showcased in the "Director in Focus" category at the Rotterdam Film Festival. In 2004, Virumaandi won the inaugural Best Asian film award at the Puchon International Fantastic Film Festival (PiFan).
In 2005, Sathyabama Deemed University awarded Haasan an honorary doctorate. He received the Chevalier Sivaji Ganesan Award for Excellence in Indian Cinema at the inaugural Vijay Awards in 2006. He received the Living Legend Award in 2007 from FICCI. In 2010, the United Progressive Alliance government organised a retrospective of his films. Union Information and Broadcasting Minister Ambika Soni said the actor was unique, since his films broke regional and language barriers. That year, the government of Kerala honoured him for 50 years in Indian cinema during statewide Onam celebrations in Thiruvananthapuram.
Haasan received the Kalaimamani Award from the government of Tamil Nadu in 1979. Other honours include Tamil Nadu State Film Awards, Nandi, Screen and Vijay Awards, including four awards for his performance in Dasavathaaram. In 2009 he was appointed chairman of the Federation of Indian Chambers of Commerce and Industry (FICCI) Media and Entertainment Business Conclave, organised by FICCI's entertainment division. He is on the academic advisory council for ISFM (International school of Film+Media), and was the first Indian actor invited aboard an American ship as a special friend of the US. In April 2013 he received an award on behalf of Indian cinema from Chris Brown, executive vice-president for conventions and business operations of the National Association of Broadcasters, as part of the New York Festivals International Film & TV Awards. He is one of 20 film celebrities recognised by Coca-Cola India with the launch of the 24th edition of the Limca Book of Records in 2013. Recently honoured with S. S. Vasan Award for his lifetime achievement in film industry by Ananda Vikatan.
Public perception
Mani Ratnam who directed Haasan in Nayakan, has said that there are many things he can do that no other actor can. Veteran Tamil actor Nagesh called Haasan the best actor he had ever seen. His contributions to the film industry have been praised by his contemporaries, including Mammootty, Sridevi, Amitabh Bachchan, Mohanlal, Venkatesh, Shah Rukh Khan and Aamir Khan. Younger generation actors (Suriya and Madhavan) and filmmakers (Bala, Ameer and Gautham Menon) have been inspired by him.
The animated action sequence in Quentin Tarantino's 2003 film, Kill Bill, was inspired by 2D animated sequences in an Indian film believed to be Aalavandhan. Hollywood filmmaker Barrie M. Osburne called Haasan's knowledge of literature, history and films "encyclopedic", and Ang Lee said he was stunned by his brilliance and knowledge of films. Some of his films were inspired by Hollywood films.
'The Week', in its 13 September 1992 edition, reported that Chiranjeevi charged Rs. 12.5 million per film, which was the highest remuneration for an Indian actor at the time. In 1994, Haasan became the first Indian actor to charge 15 million per film.
In 2015, Haasan was criticised by the-then Tamil Nadu Finance Minister O. Panneerselvam, who stated that Haasan was "confused" and had "blabbered", unaware of the ground reality for his statement on the government's response to rain relief efforts. Haasan was also criticised by Nayakan producer Muktha Srinivasan for his article in The Hindu taking unnecessary credit for that film.
Haasan has been accused of self-indulgence, and has been criticised for sexually explicit scenes and themes, offending religious sentiments and superficiality on social issues depicted in his films. There have also been complaints about his obsession with perfection, which may have caused some of his films to run over budget. In November 2017, Haasan said that right-wing Hindus have started employing extremism to propagate their communal agenda.
See also
Kamal Haasan's unrealized projects
Raaj Kamal Films International
Makkal Needhi Maiam
Haasan family
Notes
References
External links
Living people
1954 births
Male actors from Chennai
Filmfare Awards winners
20th-century Indian film directors
Indian atheists
Indian male film actors
Indian male screenwriters
Film producers from Chennai
Indian humanitarians
Male actors in Hindi cinema
Male actors in Kannada cinema
Male actors in Malayalam cinema
Male actors in Telugu cinema
Male actors in Tamil cinema
Tamil male actors
Tamil film directors
Tamil film producers
Tamil playback singers
Tamil screenwriters
Tamil film poets
Tamil Nadu State Film Awards winners
People from Ramanathapuram district
Best Actor National Film Award winners
Nandi Award winners
Recipients of the Rashtrapati Award
20th-century Indian male actors
21st-century Indian male actors
Recipients of the Padma Bhushan in arts
Recipients of the Padma Shri in arts
Indian male child actors
20th-century Indian composers
Chevaliers of the Ordre des Arts et des Lettres
21st-century Indian film directors
Hindi-language film directors
Tamil-language film directors
20th-century Indian dramatists and playwrights
21st-century Indian dramatists and playwrights
Indian Tamil people
Screenwriters from Tamil Nadu
Indian actor-politicians
Indian political party founders
Makkal Needhi Maiam politicians | [
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222348 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kamal%20%28navigation%29 | Kamal (navigation) | A kamal, often called simply khashaba (wood) in Arabic), is a celestial navigation device that determines latitude. The invention of the kamal allowed for the earliest known latitude sailing, and was thus the earliest step towards the use of quantitative methods in navigation. It originated with Arab navigators of the late 9th century, and was employed in the Indian Ocean from the 10th century. It was adopted by Indian navigators soon after, and then adopted by Chinese navigators some time before the 16th century.
Description
Since the star is currently close to the celestial pole, its elevation is equal to the latitude of the observer.The kamal consists of a rectangular wooden card about , to which a string with several equally spaced knots is attached through a hole in the middle of the card. The kamal is used by placing one end of the string in the teeth while the other end is held away from the body roughly parallel to the ground. The card is then moved along the string, positioned so the lower edge is even with the horizon, and the upper edge is occluding a target star, typically Polaris because its angle to the horizon does not change with longitude or time. The angle can then be measured by counting the number of knots from the teeth to the card, or a particular knot can be tied into the string if travelling to a known latitude.
The knots were typically tied to measure angles of one finger-width. When held at arm's length, the width of a finger measures an angle that remains fairly similar from person to person. This was widely used (and still is today) for rough angle measurements, an angle known as issabah إصبع in Arabic or a zhi 指 in Chinese (both meaning 'finger'). By modern measure, this is about 1 degree, 36 minutes, and 25 seconds, or just over 1.5 degrees. It is equal to the arcsine of the ratio of the width of the finger to the length of the arm. In Chinese navigation, the unit of jiao 角 is also used to represent a quarter 指 (an angle of 24 minutes 6 seconds).
Due to the limited width of the card, the kamal was only really useful for measuring Polaris in equatorial latitudes, where Polaris remains close to the horizon. This fact may explain why it was not common in Europe. For these higher-latitude needs somewhat more complex devices based on the same principle were used, notably the cross-staff and backstaff.
The kamal is still a tool recommended for use in sea kayaking. In such an application, it can be used for estimating distances to land. The distance can be calculated from the formula
where is the distance to the object, is the size of the object observed, is the distance from the kamal to the observer's eye, and is the apparent size of the object observed.
See also
Sextant
Notes
References
Carreiro, Carlos B., Portugal's Golden Years, The Life and Times of Prince Henry "The Navigator". Dorrance Publishing Co., p. 84
Malhão Pereira, J.M. (2003), "The Stellar Compass and the Kamal. An Interpretation of its Practical Use", in Proceedings of the International Seminar on Marine Archeology, Delhi, also published by Academia de Marinha (Lisbon, 2003).
Navigational equipment
Orientation (geometry)
Measuring instruments
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222349 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Flynn%27s%20taxonomy | Flynn's taxonomy | Flynn's taxonomy is a classification of computer architectures, proposed by Michael J. Flynn in 1966. and extended in 1972. The classification system has stuck, and it has been used as a tool in design of modern processors and their functionalities. Since the rise of multiprocessing central processing units (CPUs), a multiprogramming context has evolved as an extension of the classification system. Vector processing, covered by Duncan's taxonomy, is missing from Flynn's work because the Cray-1 was released in 1977: Flynn's second paper was published in 1972.
Classifications
The four initial classifications defined by Flynn are based upon the number of concurrent instruction (or control) streams and data streams available in the architecture. Flynn later defined three additional sub-categories of SIMD in 1972.
Single instruction stream, single data stream (SISD)
A sequential computer which exploits no parallelism in either the instruction or data streams. Single control unit (CU) fetches a single instruction stream (IS) from memory. The CU then generates appropriate control signals to direct a single processing element (PE) to operate on a single data stream (DS) i.e., one operation at a time.
Examples of SISD architectures are the traditional uniprocessor machines like older personal computers (PCs; by 2010, many PCs had multiple cores) and mainframe computers.
Single instruction stream, multiple data streams (SIMD)
A single instruction is simultaneously applied to multiple different data streams. Instructions can be executed sequentially, such as by pipelining, or in parallel by multiple functional units.
Flynn's 1972 paper subdivided SIMD down into three further categories:
Array processor – These receive the one (same) instruction but each parallel processing unit has its own separate and distinct memory and register file.
Pipelined processor – These receive the one (same) instruction but then read data from a central resource, each processes fragments of that data, then writes back the results to the same central resource. In Figure 5 of Flynn's 1977 paper that resource is main memory: for modern CPUs that resource is now more typically the register file.
Associative processor – These receive the one (same) instruction but in each parallel processing unit an independent decision is made, based on data local to the unit, as to whether to perform the execution or whether to skip it. In modern terminology this is known as "predicated" (masked) SIMD.
Some modern designs (GPUs in particular) take features of more than one of these subcategories: GPUs of today are SIMT but also are Associative i.e. each processing element in the SIMT array is also predicated.
Array processor
The modern term for an array processor is "single instruction, multiple threads" (SIMT). This is a distinct classification in Flynn's 1972 taxonomy, as a subcategory of SIMD. It is identifiable by the parallel subelements having their own independent register file and memory (cache and data memory). Flynn's original papers cite two historic examples of SIMT processors: SOLOMON and ILLIAC IV.
Nvidia commonly uses the term in its marketing materials and technical documents, where it argues for the novelty of Nvidia architecture. SOLOMON predates NVidia by more than 60 years.
The Aspex Microelectronics Associative String Processor (ASP) categorised itself in its marketing material as "massive wide SIMD" but had bit-level ALUs and bit-level predication (Flynn's taxonomy: associative processing), and each of the 4096 processors had their own registers and memory (Flynn's taxonomy: array processing). The Linedancer, released in 2010, contained 4096 2-bit predicated SIMD ALUs, each with its own content-addressable memory, and was capable of 800 billion instructions per second. Aspex's ASP associative array SIMT processor predates NVIDIA by 20 years.
Pipelined processor
At the time that Flynn wrote his 1972 paper many systems were using main memory as the resource from which pipelines were reading and writing. When the resource that all "pipelines" read and write from is the register file rather than main memory, modern variants of SIMD result. Examples include Altivec, NEON, and AVX.
An alternative name for this type of register-based SIMD is "packed SIMD" and another is SIMD within a register (SWAR). When predication is applied, it becomes associative processing (below)
Associative processor
The modern term for associative processor is "predicated" (or masked) SIMD. Examples include AVX-512.
Multiple instruction streams, single data stream (MISD)
Multiple instructions operate on one data stream. This is an uncommon architecture which is generally used for fault tolerance. Heterogeneous systems operate on the same data stream and must agree on the result. Examples include the Space Shuttle flight control computer.
Multiple instruction streams, multiple data streams (MIMD)
Multiple autonomous processors simultaneously executing different instructions on different data. MIMD architectures include multi-core superscalar processors, and distributed systems, using either one shared memory space or a distributed memory space.
Diagram comparing classifications
These four architectures are shown below visually. Each processing unit (PU) is shown for a uni-core or multi-core computer:
Further divisions
, all of the top 10 and most of the TOP500 supercomputers are based on a MIMD architecture.
Although these are not part of Flynn's work, some further divide the MIMD category into the two categories below, and even further subdivisions are sometimes considered.
Single program, multiple data streams (SPMD)
Multiple autonomous processors simultaneously executing the same program (but at independent points, rather than in the lockstep that SIMD imposes) on different data. Also termed single process, multiple data - the use of this terminology for SPMD is technically incorrect, as SPMD is a parallel execution model and assumes multiple cooperating processors executing a program. SPMD is the most common style of parallel programming. The SPMD model and the term was proposed by Frederica Darema of the RP3 team.
Multiple programs, multiple data streams (MPMD)
Multiple autonomous processors simultaneously operating at least 2 independent programs. Typically such systems pick one node to be the "host" ("the explicit host/node programming model") or "manager" (the "Manager/Worker" strategy), which runs one program that farms out data to all the other nodes which all run a second program. Those other nodes then return their results directly to the manager. An example of this would be the Sony PlayStation 3 game console, with its SPU/PPU processor.
See also
Feng's classification
Händler's (ECS)
SWAR
References
Flynn's taxonomy | [
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222351 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1799%20in%20literature | 1799 in literature | This article contains information about the literary events and publications of 1799.
Events
Premières of the second and third parts of Friedrich Schiller's dramatic trilogy Wallenstein are performed at the Weimarer Hoftheater under Johann Wolfgang von Goethe:
January 30 – Die Piccolomini.
April 20 – Wallensteins Tod (Wallenstein's Death) as Wallenstein.
April 13 – The father of Charles and Mary Lamb dies; Charles becomes his sister's guardian.
May 8 – The Religious Tract Society is established as an evangelical publisher in Paternoster Row, London; it continues as The Lutterworth Press into the 21st century.
December 20 – William Wordsworth and his sister Dorothy first take up residence at Dove Cottage, Grasmere. William completes the first version of The Prelude during the year.
unknown dates
A new edition of Edward Young's Night Thoughts is illustrated by Thomas Stothard.
The Monthly Magazine and American Review starts publication in the United States, edited by Charles Brockden Brown.
New books
Fiction
Anonymous – Village Orphan
Charles Brockden Brown
Arthur Mervyn
Edgar Huntly
Ormond
Thomas Campbell – The Pleasures of Hope
Elizabeth Gunning – The Gipsey Countess
Mary Hays – The Victim of Prejudice
Friedrich Hölderlin – Hyperion, vol. 2
William Henry Ireland – The Abbess
Jane West – A Tale of the Times
Mary Julia Young – The East Indian
Children
François Guillaume Ducray-Duminil – Les Cinquante Francs de Jeannette (Jeanette's Fifty Francs)
Edward Augustus Kendall
The Crested Wren. A Tale
The Canary Bird. A moral fiction interspersed with poetry
Dorothy Kilner (as M. Pelham) – Rational Brutes, or Talking Animals
Drama
Thomas John Dibdin – Five Thousand a Year
William Dunlap – The Italian Father
Joseph George Holman – The Votary of Wealth
Kamesuke – Picture Book of the Taiko (kabuki)
Friedrich von Schiller – Wallensteins Tod
Oscar Wegelin – The Natural Daughter
Poetry
Non-fiction
Hannah Adams – A Summary History of New-England
Hannah More – Strictures on the Modern System of Female Education
Lady Charlotte Murray – The British Garden
Philip Yorke – The Royal Tribes of Wales
Births
February 4 – Thomas Kibble Hervey, Scottish-born poet and critic (died 1859)
March – Dorothea Tieck, German translator (died 1841)
March 12 – Mary Howitt, English writer, poet and translator (died 1888)
March 13 – Maria Dorothea Dunckel, Swedish poet, translator and dramatist (died 1878)
March 20 – Karl August Nicander, Swedish poet (died 1839)
April 17 – Eliza Acton, English poet and cookery writer (died 1859)
May 13 – Catherine Gore, English author (died 1861)
May 20 – Honoré de Balzac, French novelist (died 1850)
May 23 – Thomas Hood, English poet (died 1845)
May 26 – Aleksandr Pushkin, Russian dramatist and poet (died 1837)
October 9 – Louisa Stuart Costello Irish writer on travel and history (died 1870)
November 29 – Amos Bronson Alcott, American writer, philosopher, and reformer (died 1888)
December 30 – John Moultrie, English poet and hymnist (died 1874)
Deaths
February 19 – Jean-Charles de Borda, French engineer and memoirist (born 1733)
February 24 – Georg Christoph Lichtenberg, German satirist (born 1742)
April 24 – William Seward, English man of letters (born 1747)
May 18 – Pierre Beaumarchais, French dramatist (born 1732)
August 30 – Eleonora Fonseca Pimentel, Italian poet and revolutionary (executed, born 1751)
December 31 – Jean-François Marmontel, French historian, writer (born 1723)
References
Years of the 18th century in literature | [
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222352 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1793%20in%20literature | 1793 in literature | This article contains information about the literary events and publications of 1793.
Events
February 7 – The day after poverty-stricken playwright Carlo Goldoni dies, the National Convention votes to restore his French state pension, which has been suspended due to the French Revolution. It is passed on to his widow.
June 1 – In the Reign of Terror in Paris, the Girondist Madame Roland is arrested for treason. She writes Appel à l'impartiale postérité in prison before being guillotined on November 8.
Summer – William Wordsworth tours western England and Wales (passing by Tintern Abbey). His first poems, An Evening Walk and Descriptive Sketches are published this year.
October–November – During the Reign of Terror in the French Revolution, the English writer Helen Maria Williams is imprisoned with her family in the Luxembourg Palace and later in the Convent des Anglaises in Paris, where she continues her translations of French-language works into English, including what will prove to be a popular version of Bernardin St. Pierre's novel Paul et Virginie (1788). To this she appends her own prison sonnets.
November 2 – The French dramatist Olympe de Gouges is sentenced to death by a revolutionary tribunal. Both she and her prosecutors quote the manuscript of her unfinished play La France Sauvée in evidence.
December 9 – New York City's first daily newspaper, the American Minerva, is founded by Noah Webster.
unknown date – James Lackington opens his "Temple of the Muses" bookshop in Finsbury Square, London.
The Royal Library, Denmark, in Copenhagen, opens to the public.
New books
Fiction
Eliza Parsons – The Castle of Wolfenbach
Charlotte Turner Smith
The Old Manor House
The Emigrants
Jane West as 'Prudentia Homespun' – The Advantages of Education, or The History of Maria Williams
Johann Heinrich Daniel Zschokke – Abällino, der grosse Bandit
Drama
Étienne Aignan – La mort de Louis XVI
Edward Jerningham – The Siege of Berwick
Jean-Louis Laya – Ami des lois
Poetry
William Blake – Songs of Experience
Alvarenga Peixoto – Canto Genetlíaco
Non-fiction
William Frend – Peace and Union Recommended to the Associated Bodies of Republicans and Anti-Republicans
Births
February 2 – Mary Elizabeth Mohl, née Clarke, English-born literary saloniste (died 1883)
April 4 – Casimir Delavigne, French poet and dramatist (died 1843)
May 4 – Dorothea Primrose Campbell, Scottish poet and novelist (died 1863)
June 1 – Henry Francis Lyte, English hymnist and cleric (died 1847)
June 28 – Georg Friedrich Schömann, German classicist (died 1879)
July 2 – Joseph Isidore Samson, French playwright and actor (died 1871)
July 13 – John Clare, English "peasant poet" (died 1864)
July 15 – Almira Hart Lincoln Phelps, American educator, scientist and writer (died 1884)
August 25 – John Neal, American novelist and critic (died 1876)
September 25 – Felicia Hemans, English poet (died 1835)
November 28 – Carl Jonas Love Almqvist, Swedish novelist (died 1866)
December 15 – Henry Charles Carey, American economist (died 1879)
December 28 – Karl Friedrich Neumann, German Orientalist (died 1870)
unknown date – Sarah Austin, English editor and translator (died 1867)
Deaths
January 4 – Bengt Lidner, Swedish poet (born 1757)
February 6 – Carlo Goldoni, Italian dramatist and librettist (born 1707)
April 2 – Colin Macfarquhar, Scottish bookseller and printer, co-founder of Encyclopædia Britannica (born c. 1745)
April 29 – John Michell, English philosopher and cleric (born 1724)
May 20 – Charles Bonnet, Swiss naturalist and philosopher (born 1720)
June 26
Gilbert White, English naturalist, diarist and cleric (born 1720)
Karl Philipp Moritz (C. P. Moritz), German essayist and travel writer (born 1756)
July 4 – Antoine-Marin Lemierre, French dramatist and poet (born 1733)
November 3 – Olympe de Gouges, French dramatist and political activist (guillotined; born 1748)
November 17 – Louis Pierre Manuel, French essayist and politician (guillotined, born 1751)
December 22 – William Watkiss Lloyd, English polymath (born 1813)
References
Years of the 18th century in literature | [
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222353 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1792%20in%20literature | 1792 in literature | This article contains information about the literary events and publications of 1792.
Events
February 18 – Thomas Holcroft's the comedy The Road to Ruin is premièred at Covent Garden in London.
July – Molière's body is exhumed for reburial in the Museum of French Monuments in Paris, having been originally buried in the ground reserved for unbaptised infants, because actors were not allowed to be buried on sacred ground.
September 29 – The Theatre Royal, Dumfries, opens as The Theatre. By the 21st century this will be the oldest working theatre in Scotland.
unknown date – Henry Walton Smith and his wife Anna set up a newsagent's business in London that will become the bookselling chain WHSmith.
New books
Fiction
Hugh Henry Brackenridge – Modern Chivalry: containing the Adventures of Captain John Farrago and Teague O'Regan, his servant
Johann Baptist Durach – Philippine Welserin
Susannah Gunning – Anecdotes of the Delborough Family
Thomas Holcroft – Anna St. Ives
Charlotte Palmer
It Is and It Is Not a Novel
Integrity and Content: an Allegory
Charlotte Turner Smith – Desmond
Children
Elizabeth Pinchard – The Blind Child, or, Anecdotes of the Wyndham Family
Drama
Pierre Beaumarchais – La Mère coupable
Joseph Chénier – Caïus Gracchus
Leandro Fernández de Moratín – La comedia nueva
Thomas Holcroft – The Road to Ruin
Poetry
Samuel Rogers – The Pleasures of Memory, with Other Poems
Non-fiction
Saul Ascher – Leviathan oder über Religion in Rücksicht des Judentums (Leviathan or religion in respect of Judaism)
Yuan Mei (袁枚) – Suiyuan shidan (Recipes from the Garden of Contentment)
Arthur Murphy – An Essay on the Life and Genius of Samuel Johnson
Maria Riddell – Voyage to the Madeira and Leeward and Caribbean Isles, with Sketches of the Natural History of these Islands
Gottlob Ernst Schulze – Aenesidemus
Mary Wollstonecraft – A Vindication of the Rights of Woman
Births
February 10 – Frederick Marryat (Captain Marryat), English novelist and naval officer (died 1848)
April 5 – John Lavicount Anderdon, English writer (died 1874)
April 25 – John Keble, English poet (died 1866)
June 21 – Ferdinand Christian Baur, German theologian (died 1860)
July 2 – Thomas Phillipps, English book collector (died 1872)
August 4 – Percy Bysshe Shelley, English poet and radical (died 1822)
October 17 – Sir John Bowring, English political economist and miscellanist (died 1872)
October 20 – John Pascoe Fawkner, pioneer, newspaper publisher in Melbourne, Victoria, Australia (died 1869)
October 28 – Anne Knight (Anne Waspe), English children's writer and educationist (died 1860)
November 26 – Sarah Grimké, American abolitionist and suffragist (died 1873)
November 28 – Victor Cousin, French philosopher (died 1867)
December 18 – William Howitt, English historical writer and poet (died 1879)
Deaths
April 23 – Karl Friedrich Bahrdt, German theologian and writer (born 1741)
May 4 – Giuseppe Garampi, Italian scholar and book collector (born 1725)
May 12 – Charles Simon Favart, French dramatist (born 1710)
May 29 – Thomas Marryat, English medical writer and physician (born 1730)
June 4
John Burgoyne, English dramatist and army officer (born 1723)
Jakob Michael Reinhold Lenz, Baltic German dramatist (born 1751) (found dead early this morning, May 24 in the Julian calendar)
September 25 – Jacques Cazotte, French novelist (born 1719) (executed)
September – John Edwards (1747–1792), Welsh poet (born 1747)
December 7 – Marie Jeanne Riccoboni (Laboras de Mezières), French novelist (born 1714)
References
External link
Years of the 18th century in literature | [
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222354 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Windsurfing | Windsurfing | Windsurfing is a surface water sport that is a combination of surfing and sailing. It is also referred to as "sailboarding" and "boardsailing", and emerged in the late 1960s from the surf culture of California. Windsurfing had gained a following across North America by the late 1970s and had achieved significant global popularity by the 1980s.
Windsurfing is a recreational sport, most popular at flat water locations around the world that offer safety and accessibility for beginner and intermediate participants. The sport has two distinct interest groups, namely Racing and Riding, with many participants embracing both.
Professional World Titles are awarded for the overall winners from elite World Cup events around for Slalom, Wave and increasingly Foiling and Freestyle.
Amateur World Titles come in many forms with many differences classes and disciplines of windsurfing equipment. The major titles include course racing disciplines such as the original Windsurfer Class, the high speed long board Raceboard Class, the faster shorter board Formula Class, and the Olympics that will use the new Windfoiling Class for France in 2024. Amateur world titles are also offered for highest speed racing known as slalom.
History
The enormous popularity of the sport in the late 1970s and 1980s led windsurfing to be recognized as an Olympic sport in 1984 as a demonstration sport that year. That same year saw the first international professional tour and the first year of the Aloha Classic event at Ho'okipa on Maui's north shore. The Windsurfing boom continued into the 1990s with the Professional side of the sport becoming immensely popular across global media. Windsurfing had a larger global media presence than Surfing during these years. This popularity attracted significant sponsorship deals which in turn further promoted the sport with extensive paid advertising.
The world's top riders like Robby Naish, became wealthy and very famous athletes.
Windsurfing's popularity across global media saw a decline toward the end of the 1990s. This has been attributed to many possible problems within the sport including licensing battles, equipment becoming too specialized, requiring excessive expertise, the splintering of Windsurfing into various niche groups around the world and splintering of the fundamentals as constant reinvention of technology challenged what it was to be 'a windsurfer'. On top of these internal issues there was a coinciding drop in major sponsor support. This was, in large part, caused by the steady introduction of international bans on cigarette advertising during the 1990s. Cigarette industry advertising had become the dominant source of sponsorship support during the early and mid 1990s boom years for the professional level of windsurfing. With the internationally legislated withdrawal of these large companies, the money spent on promoting the sport and paying for ad space declined steeply. Windsurfing was unable to find replacement sponsors at those same high levels, and so gradually receded from public view across global advertising and media generally.
After some lean years in the 2000s, the sport has seen a steady revival since 2010 and a new youth generation is now emerging.
The sport of Windsurfing is one of constant re-invention, innovation and of pioneers in water sports generally. With the advent of kitesurfing, and wingfoiling, created by windsurfers, many avid windsurfers took up the similar sport for some variety after many years on the traditional windsurfer style equipment. More recently 'foiling' has become a major new interest among many windsurfers. As of 2019, longer, wider boards that are easier to sail are coming back and engaging a new generation. The sense of what it is to be 'a Windsurfer' or 'a surfer' is also changing as watermen like Kai Lenny break down barriers between sports.
The inventors
Windsurfing, as a sport and recreational activity, did not emerge until the latter half of the 20th century. Long before this modern moment, there were small scale sailing craft that have used wind as the driving force, many of them sourced to the Polynesians who have been riding the wind and waves for centuries. Early accounts suggest island peoples were undertaking day trips over oceans standing upright on a solid board with a vertical sail. In the early 19th Century, people in logging communities around western Lake Michigan were purportedly fixing sails to logs as part of log float control and for recreation.
In 1948, 20-year-old Newman Darby was the first to conceive the idea of using a handheld sail and rig mounted on a universal joint so that he could control his small catamaran—the first rudderless sailboard ever built that allowed a person to steer by shifting his or her weight in order to tilt the sail fore and aft. Darby filed for a patent but lacked the funds to resubmit. However, he is widely recognized as its inventor as well as the first to conceive, design, and build a sailboard with a universal joint. In his own words, Darby experimented throughout much of the 1950s and 1960s and it wasn't until 1963 that an improved sailboard with a conventional stayed sloop rig sail arrangement made it more stable than the one built in 1948. S. Newman Darby created his first product for a wider market in 1964 that he called the "Darby sailboard" on the Susquehanna River, Pennsylvania, United States. While Darby's "sailboard" incorporated a pivoting rig, it was "square rigged" or “kite rigged” and was subject to the associated limitations. The sailboard was operated with the sailor's back to the lee side of a kite-shaped sail. Darby's article stated that "...you can learn to master a type of maneuvering that's been dead since the age of the picturesque square riggers" He began selling his sailboards in 1964. The main focus of his “Darby Industries” was to sell plans such that any school age child could build one for under $50. Rather than building personal wealth, his focus was to introduce youth to the sport of sailing in even very shallow water. A promotional article by Darby was published in the August 1965 edition of Popular Science magazine. Darby died in 2016 reportedly feeling pleased with the recognition he received for having played a key role in the start of windsurfing.
Twelve-year-old Peter Chilvers is also cited for inventing a kind of sailboard in 1958.
Modern Windsurfing, as we know it today, was invented in 1966 by California aeronautical engineer Jim Drake. In 1962, Drake, along with close friend and fellow aeronautical engineering colleague Fred Payne, discussed options for creating a wind-powered water-ski which would allow Payne to "sail" on the Potomac River. By the end of their long discussion, the idea of a sail powered surfboard was born. On later reflection, Drake realized their idea still needed some work and would return to it later. At that time a number of sailboard designs were already available, and Drake was concerned about the integrity of a design needing taut wire close to a human body to keep the sail upright. The technical problem facing Drake was that most boats steer by varying the angle of attack in the water between the centerboard and the rudder, and Drake's question came down to simple operation of how a standing person could control both the power of the sail as well as the direction of the craft without a rudder. Drake reflected on early 17th century based sail ship control. Rudders then were weak and ineffective, mostly used for trimming course. Hence with multi-masted boats, the sailors would trim the upper sails on the forward and rearwards masts to steer the ship. Dismissing the idea of a design with two upright sails, Drake decided to move the sail by rotation, as moving it linearly would require a mechanical system. Experimenting with a rotational design which became the concept for the universal joint, he discovered the angle of attack of the sail to the board could be varied to allow control of both power and direction. Drake finished the design by using a wishbone boom, allowing the sailor to stand and hold directly onto the free sail system.
Drake's first prototype, the Windsurfer name
At a dinner party in late1966 Drake mentioned his idea of inventing a sailboard to friend and businessman Hoyle Schweitzer. Drake's focus, as an engineer, was on "solving a puzzle" to create a new type of portable sail craft, whereby the sailor stood upright on a surfboard while holding directly onto a sail. Schweitzer's goal, as a businessman, was to take Drake's invention, patent it, and create profitable business opportunity. As a partnership, Drake was the inventor, Schweitzer was the salesman. Windsurfing's origin story is often misconstrued through popular media. The romanticized storyline of a sailor and a surfer, combining their two respective sports into a single new sport is idealized and untrue. More accurately, it was the combination of a skilled engineer and an aggressive businessman that together created the modern sport of windsurfing. Schweitzer played a motivating role which pushed Drake to complete the initial engineering design phase and move forward with building and testing the original prototype.
Working from his engineering design plans, Drake hand built nearly all of the original prototype components in his home garage in January 1967. He crafted the wishbone boom, center board and mast foot from laminated pine wood. Drake designed and built the universal joint from marine grade stainless steel. The sail, designed by Drake, was cut and sewn by sail maker Bob Broussard into a triangular Bermuda rig. The custom board, designed by Drake, was built by Santa Monica surfboard maker Con Colburn. A repurposed 14 foot fiberglass dingy mast was sourced from a local marine outfitter.
On May 21, 1967, Jim Drake, along with his wife Wendy and daughter Stephanie, went to Marina del Rey's Jamaica Bay to make history with the world's first modern sailboard. YouTube has Jim Drake teaching himself how to windsurf on the first day.
Originally Drake and Schweitzer wanted to name their new sailboard concept the "Skate". However, they found another company had already used the name Skate and were preparing to copyright it, so decided on the name "Baja Board." While developing the design and patent paperwork, in late 1967/early 1968, Schweitzer was showing a prototype "Baja Board" in Seattle, when Public Relations man Bert Salisbury stopped his car to have a look, and commented: "Gee I have the perfect name for it! The windsurfer!"
The details of the original designs are available in Drake's 1969 white paper on windsurfing, and from various interviews. Despite forty years of subsequent development, the design is still remarkably similar to today's windsurfing equipment, and the word "windsurfer" has become synonymous with the sport itself.
Windsurfing International
On March 27, 1968, Hoyle Schweitzer, a businessman and Jim Drake, an aeronautical engineer filed the very first windsurfing patent, which was granted by the USPTO in 1970.
Schweitzer soon offered Drake a buy out of his half of the patent, however Drake was not interested in selling, mainly because he viewed Schweitzer as a trusted friend and partner, and also wanted to wait and see what the concept might develop into and be worth over time. Schweitzer, however, acting as a businessman, was relentless, and for years pursued Drake to sell his half. Failing to include Drake, Schweitzer incorporated Windsurfing International, the company they had started together, and began licensing the production of sailboards around the world. This move ended the friendship between Drake and Schweitzer. In 1973 Drake reluctantly sold his half of the patent to Windsurfing International for the sum of $36,000.
Windsurfing International, registered the term "windsurfer" as a trademark at the United States Patent and Trademark Office in 1973, launching the craft as a one-design class. Going one-design was influenced by the success of the Laser and Hobie Cat classes. Each Windsurfer had an identical computer-cut sail, a technology new at that time and pioneered by Ian Bruce and the Laser class.
Patents
Through the seventies, Schweitzer aggressively promoted and licensed the Windsurfing International design and licensed the patent to manufacturers worldwide, mainly through competition and the publication of a magazine. As a result, the sport underwent very rapid growth, particularly in Europe after the sale of a sub-license sold to Ten Cate Sports in the Netherlands. In 1975 Ten Cate Sports sold 45,000 boards in Europe.
At the same time, Schweitzer also sought to defend his patent rights vigorously against unauthorized manufacturers. This led to a host of predating windsurfer-like devices being presented to courts around the world by companies disputing Windsurfing International's rights to the invention.
In 1979, Schweitzer licensed Brittany, France-based company Dufour Wing, which was later merged with Tabur Marine – the precursor of Bic Sport. Europe was now the largest growing market for windsurfers, and the sub-licensed companies – Tabur, F2, Mistral – wanted to find a way to remove or reduce their royalty payments to Windsurfing International.
Tabur lawyers found prior art, in a local English newspaper which had published a story with a picture about Peter Chilvers, who as a young boy on Hayling Island on the south coast of England, assembled his first board combined with a sail, in 1958. This board used a universal joint, one of the key parts of the Windsurfing International's patent. They also found stories published about the 1948 invention of the sailboard by Newman Darby and his wife Naomi in Wilkes-Barre, Pennsylvania.
In Windsurfing International Inc. v Tabur Marine (GB) Ltd. 1985 RPC 59 with Tabur backed financially by French sailing fan Baron Marcel Bich, British courts recognized the prior art of Peter Chilvers. It did not incorporate the curved wishbone booms of the modern windsurfer, but rather a "straight boom" that became curved in use. The courts found that the Schweitzer windsurfer boom was "merely an obvious extension". This court case set a precedent for patent law in the United Kingdom, in terms of inventive step and non-obviousness; the court upheld the defendant's claim that the Schweitzer patent was invalid, based on film footage of Chilvers. Schweitzer then sued the company in Canada, where the opposition team again financially backed by Bic included Chilvers and Jim Drake, and Schweitzer lost again. After the cases, no longer obliged to pay Windsurfing International any royalty payments, the now renamed Bic Sport became one of the world's larger producers of windsurfing equipment, with an annual production of 15,000 boards.
There is no evidence that Schweitzer or Drake had knowledge of any prior inventions similar to theirs. Drake accepted in retrospect that, although he can be credited with the invention, he was "probably no better than third," behind mid-west based Newman Darby and Englishman Peter Chilvers. The battle over the origin story of the sport would go on to cause much legal grief for the global sporting phenomenon for much of the 1980s.
In 1983, Schweitzer sued. Swiss board manufacturer Mistral and lost. Mistral's defense hinged on the work of US inventor Newman Darby, who by 1965 conceived the "sailboard": a hand-held square rigged "kite" sail on a floating platform for recreational use.
Eventually US courts recognized the Schweitzer windsurfer as an obvious step from Darby's prior art. Schweitzer had to reapply for a patent under severely limited terms, and finally it expired in 1987. Shortly thereafter, having lost its license royalty income, Windsurfing International ceased operations.
In 1984, Australian courts determined a patent case: Windsurfing International Inc & Anor v Petit & Anor (also part reported in 3 IPR 449 or [1984] 2 NSWLR 196), which attributed the first legally accepted use of a split boom to an Australian boy, Richard Eastaugh. Between the ages of ten and thirteen, from 1946 to 1949, aided by his younger brothers, he built around 20 galvanized iron canoes and hill trolleys which he equipped with sails with split bamboo booms. He sailed these in a sitting position and not as a windsurfer standing up, near his home on the Swan River in Perth. The judge noted that, "Mr Eastaugh greatly exaggerated the capacity of his galvanised iron canoes to sail to windward" and that, "There is no corroboration of Mr Eastaugh's experiences by any other witness. Neither of his brothers or his father was called".
It is acknowledged in the courts that the separate Eastaugh (1946–1949), Darby (1965) and Chilvers (1958) inventions pre-dated the Schweitzer/Drake patent (1968).
By the late 1980s the sport was massive and in the midst of a full-blown marketing and legal battle between the original market in the US, and the exploding European markets. This epic legal battle laid the ground for a still running rivalry between the European and American hemispheres.
Trademarks
Windsurfing International briefly claimed trademark rights with respect to the word "windsurfer". While this was registered in the United States for some years, it was not accepted for registration in many jurisdictions as the word was considered too descriptive. Registration was ultimately lost in the United States for the same reason. Eventually the sport became known widely as either sailboarding or windsurfing.
Equipment
Windsurfers are often classified as either shortboards or longboards. Longboards are usually longer than 3 meters, with a retractable daggerboard, and are optimized for lighter winds or course racing. Shortboards are less than 3 meters long and are designed for planing conditions.
While windsurfing is possible under a wide range of wind conditions, most intermediate and advanced recreational windsurfers prefer to sail in conditions that allow for consistent planing with multi-purpose, not overly specialized, free-ride equipment. Larger (100 to 140 liters) free-ride boards are capable of planing at wind speeds as low as if rigged with an adequate, well-tuned sail in the six to eight square meter range. The pursuit of planing in lower winds has driven the popularity of wider and shorter boards, with which planing is possible in wind as low as , if sails in the 10 to 12 square meter range are used.
Modern windsurfing boards can be classified into many categories: The original Windsurfer board had a body made out of polyethylene filled with PVC foam. Later, hollow glass-reinforced epoxy designs were used. Most boards produced today have an expanded polystyrene foam core reinforced with a composite sandwich shell, that can include carbon fiber, kevlar, or fiberglass in a matrix of epoxy and sometimes plywood and thermoplastics. Racing and wave boards are usually very light (5 to 7 kg), and are made out of carbon sandwich. Such boards are very stiff, and veneer is sometimes used to make them more shock-resistant. Boards aimed at the beginners are heavier (8 to 15 kg) and more robust, containing more fiberglass.
Beginner boards: (Sometimes called funboards) these often have a daggerboard, are almost as wide as Formula boards, and have plenty of volume, hence stability.
Freeride: Boards meant for comfortable recreational cruising (mostly straight-line sailing and occasional turning) at planing speed (aka blasting), mainly in flat waters or in light to moderate swell. They typically fall into the volume range of 90 to 170 liters. The so-called freeride sailing movement diverged from course racing as more recreational sailors chose to sail freely without being constrained to sailing on courses around buoys.
Racing longboards: Internationally recognised One Design Classes such as the WINDSURFER Class, Mistral One Design, or the old Olympic RS:X class race boards, and the new 2024 Olympic Class iQFoil.
Formula Windsurfing Class: Shorter boards up to one meter in width, for use in Formula Windsurfing races. See below for a more detailed description.
Slalom boards: In the past, the key feature of slalom boards was merely speed, but it has been proven that maneuverability and ease of use are as important as speed in order to get you around the slalom course faster, and therefore modern slalom boards are shortboards aimed at top speed, maneuverability and ease of use.
Speed boards: In essence an extremely narrow and sleek slalom board, built for top speed only.
Freestyle boards: Related to wave boards in terms of maneuverability, these are wider, higher volume boards geared specifically at performing acrobatic tricks (jumps, rotations, slides, flips and loops) on flat water. Usually 80 to 110 liters in volume, and about 203 to 230 centimeters in length, with widths frequently in excess of 60 centimeters. Freestyle boards began to diverge more noticeably in design from wave boards in the early part of the 2000 decade, as aerial tricks (the Vulcan, Spock, Grubby, Flaka, and related New School maneuvers, almost all involving a jump-and-spin component) became the predominant part of the freestyle repertoire, superseding Old School moves, in which the board did not leave contact with the water.
Wave boards: Smaller, lighter, more maneuverable boards for use in breaking waves. Characteristically, sailors on wave boards perform high jumps while sailing against waves, and they ride the face of a wave performing narrow linked turns (bottom turns, cutbacks, and top-turns) in a similar way to surfing. Wave boards usually have a volume between 65 and 105 liters, with a length between 215 and 235 centimeters, and 50 to 60 centimeters in width. A general rule is for a sailor to use a wave board whose volume in liters is about the same as the sailor's weight in kilograms – more volume providing additional flotation for sailing in light winds, and less for high winds, where less volume is needed to achieve planing. In recent years, the average width of wave boards has increased slightly, as the length has shrunk, while the range of volume has been maintained the same more or less—according to board designers this makes wave boards easier to use under a wider range of conditions by sailors of differing abilities. The most common sizes of sails used with wave boards are in the range of 3.4 to 6.0 square meters, depending on the wind speed and the weight of the sailor.
Sails
Modern windsurfing sails are often made of monofilm (clear polyester film), dacron (woven polyester) and mylar. Areas under high load may be reinforced with kevlar.
Two designs of a sail are predominant: camber induced and rotational. Cambered sails have 1–5 camber inducers - plastic devices at the ends of battens which cup against the mast. They help create a rigid aerofoil shape for faster speed and stability, but at the cost of maneuverability and how light the sail feels. The trend is that racier sails have camber inducers while wave sails and most recreational sails do not. The rigidity of the sail is also determined by a number of battens.
Beginners' sails often do not have battens, so they are lighter and easier to use in light winds. However, as the sailor improves, a battened sail will provide greater stability in stronger winds.
Rotational sails have battens which protrude beyond the back aspect of the mast. They flip or "rotate" to the other side of the mast when tacking or jibing, hence the rotation in the name. Rotational sails have an aerofoil shape on the leeward side when powered, but are nearly flat when sheeted out (unpowered). In comparison with cambered sails, rotational designs offer less power and stability when sailing straight, but are easier to handle when maneuvering. Rotational sails are usually lighter and easier to rig.
A windsurfing sail is tensioned at two points: at the tack (by downhaul), and at the clew (by outhaul). There is a set of pulleys for downhauling at the tack, and a grommet at the clew. Most shape is given to the sail by applying a very strong downhaul, which by design bends the mast. The outhaul tension is relatively weak, mostly providing leverage for controlling the sail's angle of attack.
The sail is tuned by adjusting the downhaul and the outhaul tension. Generally, a sail is trimmed more (flatter shape) for stronger winds. More downhaul tension loosens the upper part of the leech, allowing the top of the sail to twist and "spill" wind during gusts, shifting the center of effort (strictly, the center of pressure) down. Releasing downhaul tension shifts the center of effort up. More outhaul lowers the camber/draft, making the sail flatter and easier to control, but less powerful; less outhaul results in more draft, providing more low-end power, but usually limiting speed by increasing aerodynamic resistance.
The disciplines of windsurfing (wave, freestyle, freeride) require different sails. Wave sails are reinforced to survive the surf, and are nearly flat when depowered to allow riding waves. Freestyle sails are also flat when depowered, and have high low-end power to allow quick acceleration. Freeride sails are all-rounders that are comfortable to use and are meant for recreational windsurfing. Race sails provide speed at the expense of qualities like comfort or maneuverability.
The size of the sail is measured in square meters and can be from 3 m2 to 5.5 m2 for wave sails and 6 m2 to 15 m2 for race sails, with ranges for freestyle and freeride sails spanning somewhere between these extremes. Learning sails for children can be as small as 0.7 m2 and race sails up to 15 m2.
Associated Equipment
Mast
Boom
Fin (similar shape to a surfboard fin but is usually stronger for windsurfing)
Universal joint (elastic joints are more common, but some are mechanical)
Harness and Harness lines
Wet suit/dry suit
Footwear
Helmet
Personal flotation device
Travel gear – sail bags, board bags, car racks
Safety gear: line, distress strobe light, whistle, marine VHF radio
Technique
A sailboard is powered and controlled by the coordinated movements of the sail about its uni-joint and of the sailor around the board. This is achieved by balancing the weight of the sailor against the wind pressure in the sail, while adjusting both factors relative to the board. Learning this involves the development of reflexes and "muscle memory" similar to the process of learning to ride a bicycle. These skills are typically and optimally done on large, buoyant boards in light winds on flat water. Depending on wind conditions and the skill or intentions of the rider, at some point the sailboard will begin planing, resulting in a rapid increase in speed. This higher speed requires the learning of new skills as the apparent wind changes and the board becomes steerable like a surfboard.
Learning and Skill Progression
Learning is a strenuous activity with many falls into the water, climbs back onto the board and repeating. The time taken to reach the point of significant enjoyment varies greatly.
Youth
Windsurfing is suitable for children as young as 5, with several board and sail brands producing "Kids Rigs" to accommodate these short and light weight windsurfers. In some countries, organisations exist to provide entry into the sport in a semi-formal or club-style environment (i.e. The RYA's Team 15 scheme). Robert (Robby) Naish took up the fledgling sport of windsurfing at the age of 11, and in 1976 won his first overall World Championship title at the age of 13.
Light winds
The board moves through the water – much like a sailing boat does – using an extendable centreboard (if available) and fin or skeg for stability and lateral resistance. The centreboard is retracted at broad points of sail, again similarly to a sailing boat, to allow for jibing control. In these conditions windsurf boards also tack and jibe like a sailing boat.
Directional control is achieved by moving the rig either forward (turning away from the wind) or aft (turning towards the wind). When jibing, the clew of the sail is let around and allowed to rotate out and around the mast.
Fall recovery: The rider climbs onto the board, grabs the pulling rope (uphaul), makes sure the mast foot is placed between his/her two feet, pulls the sail about one third out of the water, lets the wind turn the sail-board combination till he/she has the wind right in the back, pulls the sail all the way out, places the "mast hand" (hand closest to the mast) on the boom, pulls the mast over the center line of the board, places the "sail hand" (hand furthest from the mast) on the boom, then pulling on it to close the sail and power it.
Strong winds
In planing conditions a harness is typically worn to more efficiently use the rider's weight to counter the force in the sail. As the wind increases, the rider continues to sheet the sail, the fin generates more lift, and the board gains speed, transitioning onto a plane. The volume of board in the water (displacement) decreases, and the rider moves rearward, stepping into the footstraps for improved control. When planing, the board skims on the surface rather than displacing water as it moves. Planing can be achieved at different wind speeds depending on the rider's weight, sail and fin size, wave conditions, and rider ability. With modern equipment planing can normally be achieved at a wind speed of around . The transition from displacement motion to planing requires a jump in energy, but once planing, water resistance decreases dramatically. This means that it is possible to continue to plane, although the wind has dropped below a level that would be required to transition to plane. A board in plane can be much smaller than a board moving by displacement (thereby gaining an advantage in gear weight and board control). Lateral resistance to the wind is provided by the fin alone (generating more lift at higher speeds) and a centreboard is no longer used (smaller boards do not have one). A fin generates lift, transferring a strong load to the board, and so is usually constructed of carbon fiber for accurate shape and strength. A low-pressure area develops on the windward side of the fin, which can lead to cavitation, leading to a sudden loss of lift, called "spin-out" (equivalent to "stalling" in flight terminology). Ideal planing conditions for most recreational riders is of wind, but experts can windsurf in much windier conditions. Planing is considered one of the most exhilarating aspects of the sport.
Steering is mainly achieved by putting rider weight pressure on either the left or the right rail (edge) of the board. Jibing is done at full speed (a so-called "carve jibe", "power jibe" or "planing jibe"), whereby the rider continues to apply pressure on the inside rail of the turn, leaning into the turn much like a snowboarder making a toe-side turn. Pressure is released from the sail as the board speed turns downwind, allowing for the sail to be jibed. Tacking is still possible, but at these conditions has become an advanced maneuver, because it requires quick movements and good balance. A heel-side turn while planing (called a "cut-back") is usually only executed in wave riding.
Water-start: In strong winds it is difficult to uphaul the sail (pulling it out of the water while standing on the board) so waterstarting is necessary. This is done (while water treading) by positioning the mast perpendicular to the wind, lifting the luff out of the water to allow the wind to catch the sail, and then having the sail pull the sailor onto the board. As the sail becomes powered, it is then trimmed to bring the rider, board, and sail back onto a plane. Occasionally a rider may be unable to waterstart if the wind has dropped. If this happens the rider can wait for a gust and "pump" the sail to get back on the board. If this becomes hopeless uphauling the sail will be necessary.
Racers
Long-board classes
Olympic class
Windsurfing has been one of the Olympic sailing events at the Summer Olympics since 1984 for men and 1992 for women. Olympic Windsurfing uses 'One Design' boards, with all sailors using the same boards, daggerboards, fins and sails. The equipment is chosen to allow racing in a wide range of sailing conditions. This is important for the Olympic Games, as events have to take place regardless of whether there is enough wind for planing. The current Olympic class, the Neil Pryde RS:X was used for the first time in the 2008 Summer Olympics and 2012 Summer Olympics. For 2024 the new Olympic Class windsurfer will use advanced foil technology with the radical new iQFoil one design class.
One Design Racing classes
These offer hugely popular class racing around the world thanks to relative low cost, the same gear is competitive for many years with no class changes, added fun of competition that allows intermediates to race on the same gear as the best athletes and thus these are the most social of all racing classes. The most popular one design classes are the original WINDSURFER class, the long running Mistral One Design, the Youth development class Bic-Techno and the rapidly expanding new iQFoil.
Formula class
Formula windsurfing has developed over the last 15 years in order to facilitate high-performance competition in light and moderate winds. Formula is now a class of windsurfing boards controlled by World Sailing that has the principal characteristic of a maximum 1m width. They have a single fin of maximum length 70 cm and carry sails up to 12.5 m2. Class rules allow sailors to choose boards produced by multiple manufacturers, as long as they are certified as Formula boards and registered with ISAF, and use fins and sails of different sizes. With the sail, fin and board choices, the equipment is able to be tailored to suit sailors of all body shapes and formula windsurfing presents one of the fastest course-racing sailing craft on the water. Formula Windsurfing is popular in many locations around the globe with predominantly light winds and flat water.
Large sails in combination with the 'wide-style' design allow planing in very low wind conditions as well as control and usability in high winds and bigger sea conditions. Non-planing sailing is very difficult with this design and racing is only conducted with a strict wind minimum in place. Formula boards are used on "flat water" as opposed to coastal surf, but racing is still held in windy conditions involving swell and chop. In 2008, a Formula Windsurfing Grand-Prix World Tour began, with events in Europe and South America complementing the single-event World Championships as a professional tour for the Formula class.
Formula boards have excellent upwind and downwind ability, but are not as comfortable on a beam reach unless fin sizes are reduced. This explains why the course is usually a box with longer upwind and downwind legs, or just a simple upwind-downwind return course.
Raceboard class
Raceboards are longer windsurf boards with a daggerboard and movable mast rail allowing the sailor to be efficient on all points of sail. Excellent upwind ability is combined with good reaching and even downwind ability typically sailed in an Olympic triangle course. Whilst in decline in manufacture since the advent of shortboard course racing (which evolved into Formula) there remains some models in production and most notably the IMCO One Design remains popular amongst amateur racing clubs.
Short-board classes
Slalom
Slalom is a high-speed race. Typically there are two sorts of slalom courses.
Figure of eight: All of the course should on a beam reach with two floating marks that have to be jibed around.
Downwind: More than two marks are laid and sailors sail a downwind course – jibing around each mark only once.
Slalom boards are small and narrow, and require high winds. Funboard class racing rules require winds of for the slalom event to take place.
Ocean Slalom Marathon
There are 3 major Ocean Slalom Marathons in the world: The Defi-Wind in France, The Lancelin Ocean Classic in Western Australia, and the Hatterass Marathon in the USA.
Super X
This discipline is a cross between freestyle and slalom. Competitors race on a short downwind slalom course, must duck jibe on all turns, and are required to perform several tricks along the way. Competitors are required to wear protective equipment. The Super X discipline was short lived and is now largely unpracticed; it reached its peak in the early 2000s,
Speedsailing
Speedsailing takes place in several forms. The ISWC (International Speed Windsurfing Class) organizes (under the umbrella of the ISAF) competitions in various locations around the world known for conditions suitable for good speeds. The events are made up of heats sailed on a 500m course. The average of each sailor's best 2 speeds on the 500m course, which is typically open for 2 hours per heat, is their speed for that heat. As such it is possible for the sailor with the outright fastest time not to win the heat if his second best time pulls his average down. Points are given for the placings in the heats and the overall event winner is the sailor with the best point score (again not necessarily the fastest sailor). Likewise points are given for places in the events and at the last event a World Speedsurfing Champion is crowned.
On record attempts controlled by the World Speed Sailing Record Council (WSSRC) competitors complete timed runs on a 500m or 1 nautical mile (1,852m) course. The current 500m record (for Windsurfers) is held by French windsurfer Antoine Albeau. The women's 500m Record is held By Zara Davis, from England, also in Luderitz. The Men's nautical mile record is held by Bjorn Dunkerbeck and the women's mile record is held by Zara Davis both set in Walvis Bay Namibia
With the advent of cheap and small GPS units and the website www.gps-speedsurfing.com, Speedsurfers have been able to organise impromptu competitions amongst themselves as well as more formal competitions such as the European Speed Meetings and Speedweeks/fortnights in Australia. With over 5000 sailors registered it is possible for windsurfers all over the world to compare speeds.
Indoor
"In 1990 indoor windsurfing was born with the Palais Omnisports de Paris – Bercy making its spectacular debut. It was during this first indoor event that Britain’s Nik Baker, from the south coast, flourished and went on to add a whopping x6 Indoor World Championships to his name".
Indoor windsurfing competitions are held, especially in Europe, during winter. Powerful fans lined up along the side of a large pool, propel the windsurfers. Indoor competition disciplines include slalom style races and ramp jumping competitions. It is extremely dangerous because the pool is barely one meter deep and is surrounded by concrete.
World Champion Jessica Crisp has had arguably the worst injury in the history of the indoor events when, during a warm up session jumping the ramp, she snapped her leg and had to have emergency surgery in a French hospital. This was at the height of her professional career and fame across Europe.
The most famous indoor champions include Robert Teriitehau, Jessica Crisp, Robby Naish, Nick Baker, Eric Thieme, and Nathalie LeLievre.
Riders
Wavesailing
Wave sailing took off during the rapid development of windsurfing on the Hawaiian islands of Oahu and Maui. It can be seen as comprising two distinct (but related) parts, wave riding and wave jumping.
A typical wave contest will score two jumps going out and two wave rides coming in. A high scoring heat would consist of a double clean forward rotating jump, a high one foot backward rotating jump, a long wave ride with flowing bottom turns, radical top turns, a series of aerials and a 360 aerial manoeuvre on the face of the waves such as a 'goiter', 'taka', wave 360, planing forward or clean flowing back-loop. Depending on the conditions at the location, some competitions will focus more on jumping while others focus more on the wave-riding aspects.
The most famous wave riding locations on earth include: Ho'okipa on the north shore of Maui, Diamond Head on Oahu, Klitmøller in Denmark, Pozo and Tenerife in the Canary Islands, Cabo Verde off the north west coast of Africa, Moulay in Morocco, Margaret River in Western Australia, Pacasmayo in Peru, Topocalma in Chile, and Omaezaki in Japan.
The World Cup Wavesailing competitions crown the professional world champions each year. One of the most prestigious events in the windsurfing world is called The Aloha Classic at Ho'okipa Beach on the north shore of Maui, Hawaii.
The Aloha Classic held at Ho'okipa Beach Park on the north shore of Maui, takes place each year in late October and early November for the best wind and wave conditions and it is common to have 15–20 foot wave faces during the contest. Since 2011 the event has been run by the International Windsurfing Tour (IWT)[3] as the Grand Final of the IWT Wave Tour. The IWT is the Hawaiian-based organisation for the wave riders of the Asia Pacific hemisphere. The Aloha Classic has often been the final event of the Professional Windsurfers Association (PWA)[4] crowning the PWA Wave World Champions.
Wave riding
Wave riding is a form of surfing with the extra speed and power afforded by the sail. It is strongly connected to its roots in surfing in style and culture. It involves the rider performing a series of bottom turns, top turns, and cutbacks whilst riding an unbroken wave back to the shore. Top wave sailors are able to incorporate aerial moves into their wave riding and will use overhanging wave lips to launch themselves out in front of the wave in spectacular giant aerials.
Wave jumping
Wave jumping involves stunts of varying levels of difficulty which are performed after the rider has jumped from the peak of an unbroken wave. These are commonly referred to as aerial moves and include both forward rotation and backward rotations. The rider and his equipment rotate, doing single & double rotations and jumps where the sailor contorts his or her body and equipment. Recent innovations have included combining moves whilst airborne and, for the first time in 2008, one professional sailor, Ricardo Campello, has made attempts at a triple forward loop during a 2008 PWA competition.
Big wave riding
At the most extreme end of the sport is big wave riding which means riders on waves faces over 30 feet high. The most popular place for this is on the north shore of Maui at place called Pe'ahi to the local Hawaiians, and known as JAWS to the rest of the world. The biggest waves here can be up to 60 foot faces. It breaks only in the winter months from late October to March. Other famous big wave locations include Nazaré in Portugal. Famous contemporary big wave riders include Kai Lenny, Marcilio Browne, Robby Swift, Sarah Hauser, Jason Polakow, and Robby Naish. The inaugural Big Wave Challenge annojunced the first ever winners in this category on April 10, 2020.
Storm riding
The most famous storm riding event is known as The Red Bull Storm Chase. It occurs only when there is a massive storm forecast with winds over 60 knots and giant waves over 20 feet. It is an invitational event and is extremely dangerous. The most recent winner was West Australian Jaeger Stone.
Freestyle
Freestyle is a timed event which is judged. The competitor who has the greatest repertoire, or manages to complete most stunts, wins. Freestyle is about show and competitors are judged on their creativity. Both the difficulty and the number of tricks make up the final score. Sailors who perform tricks on both tacks (port and starboard), and perform the tricks fully planing score higher marks. High scoring moves include Shifty (Shaka Pushloop), Double Air-Culo, Air-Kabikuchi, Air-Skopu and double Power-Moves, for example Air-Funnel Burner and Double Culo. The latest freestyle windsurfing is well documented and gets constantly updated on Continentseven. For novice windsurfers, low-wind freestyle tricks are an appropriate start, such as sailing backwards with the fin out of the water, or transitioning from a sailing stance to sitting on the board while continuing to sail.
Big air
Competitors compete to see who can record the highest jump or maneuver. A 3D accelerometer is worn to measure and record heights of the jumps. Xensr is a manufacturer of 3D accelerometers and promoter of the Big Air competition. It is a popular discipline on the Columbia River near the town of Hood River, Oregon, USA.
International stars
Top men
‘’’Matt Schweitzer’’’ (USA): First World Champion (1974), and winner of 18 World Championship level events in subsequent years. Matt is the son of windsurfer inventor Hoyle Schweitzer.
Robby Naish (USA): one of the first windsurfing champions to gain international fame, he dominated the early years of competition in the 1970s and 1980s. World Champion from 1976 to 1979, Overall World Champion from 1983 to 1987, and Wave World Champion in 1988, 1989, and 1991. IWT BIG WAVE All-Time BIGGEST WAVE RIDER Champion 2020 (photo)
Björn Dunkerbeck (ESP): the successor to Naish, he dominated international professional competition from the late 1980s and throughout the 1990s. Twelve-time PWA Overall World Champion in a row. He won the Professional Windsurfers Association (PWA) World Championships for Slalom, Wave, Course Racing and Overall, a record forty one times in total. He is credited in the Guinness Book of World Records as the most successful athlete of all time with 42 World Titles.
Mike Waltz (USA): first to put a windsurfing sail on a surfboard and sail the famed Hookipa beach on Maui in 1979. This shifted the entire sport from the original long boards to the shorter boards ridden today. Mike also hosted Maui's first professional wave sailing and slalom event in 1981, which became the foundation of the windsurfing world tour, and Maui became the mecca for the sport both as a design center and a training ground for professionals.
Anders Bringdal (SWE). Division 2 Heavyweight Champion 1984, Funboard World Champion 1985, Professional windsurfer PBA/PWA 1985 at Sylt. PBA Slalom Champion 1987, PBA Courseracing Champion 1988, Speed World Cup Champion 2009. First man over 50 knots in official timing over 500 metres in Lüderitz 2012.
Arnaud de Rosnay (FRA): Photographer, and windsurfing adventurer. Best known for his open-ocean windsurfing exploits, and numerous long distance crossings in conflict areas. Lost at sea in November 1984 in the Taiwan Strait. He created the first speedsailing event in 1981, a 40 km race in Maui. 80 competitors participated in the first event, Arnaud de Rosnay finishing second behind Robby Naish. He is also credited with the invention of Kite surfing (1980) and land sailing (Speedsail 1977), even crossing a distance of 1380 km in the Sahara in 1979.
Christian Marty (FRA): Airline pilot for Air France. He was the first person to windsurf across the Atlantic Ocean in 1981, from Dakar, Senegal to Kourou, French Guiana. He was later captain of Air France Flight 4590 which crashed after takeoff killing everyone on board and several more people on the ground.
Peter Boyd (USA): Moved to Maui in 1980, and pioneered several windsurfing maneuvers. He was the first to perform an aerial loop, which was considered impossible by many. The maneuver opened the door to a variety of aerial loop variations, including the push loop and double rotations. While innovation was his main focus, Boyd did defeat World champion, Ken Winner several times at International competitions.
Stephan van den Berg (NED), World Champion 1979–1983, gold medal winner first Olympic windsurfing contest in Los Angeles, California in 1984.
Guy Cribb (GBR): four times world championships runner-up in the 1990s. 13 UK champion titles.
Mark Angulo (USA): Early pioneer of many wave sailing moves, including the wave-face 360.
Jason Polakow (AUS): PWA Wave World Champion, 1997, 1998. First windsurfer to ride big wave of Nazare, in Portugal.
Kevin Pritchard (USA): PWA Overall World Champion, 2000. PWA Wave World Champion, 2006. Aloha Classic Wave Champion 2016.
Nik Baker (GBR): Three-time PWA Wave World 2nd Place, six-time Indoor World Champion.
Josh Angulo (USA): Mark's younger brother and early pioneer of Cape Verde.
Tonky Frans (BON): 3rd world freestyle 2009. 1st Midwinters Merit Island Freestyle Competition in 2001.
Jean-Patrick van der Wolde (NED): IFCA Junior World Champion of 2011.
Dave Kalama (USA): Although known for his big wave surfing and stand-up surfing accomplishments, he is an outstanding windsurfer and invented the move known as the Goiter.
Antoine Albeau (FRA): 22 times World Champion in various disciplines: Formula windsurfing, Super X, Freestyle, Slalom, Race, Speed, Overall. Holder of the windsurf speed record 53.27 knots, on the 5th of November 2015.
Josh Stone (USA): freestyle pioneer, inventor of the Spock, PWA Freestyle World Champion in 1999, 2000.
Ricardo Campello (VEN): a freestyle innovator, he created many difficult moves, PWA Freestyle World Champion in 2003, 2004, and 2005.
Kauli Seadi (BRA): pioneered freestyle maneuvers in wave competition. Ranked first in PWA Wave competition in 2005, 2007, 2008.
Gollito Estredo (VEN): 9 time PWA Freestyle World Champion 2005, 2006, 2008, 2009, 2010, 2014, 2015, 2017, 2018, innovator of many new freestyle tricks.
Thomas Traversa (FRA): PWA Wave World Champion 2014, 1st RedBull Storm Chase.
Steven van Broeckhoven(NED): European Freestyle Champion 2010, PWA Freestyle World Champion 2011.
Philip Köster (GER): PWA Wave World Champion 2011, 2012, 2015, and 2019.
Víctor Fernández (ESP): PWA Wave World Champion 2010, 2016, and 2018.
Marcilio Browne (BRA): IWT BIG WAVE Most Radical All Time Champion 2020, PWA Wave World Champion 2013, PWA Freestyle World Champion 2008.
Boujmaa Guilloul (MOR): 1st PWA event Hawaii Pro wave 2004, 2014 1st AWT Pro Fleet - Starboard Severne Aloha Classic, 9th PWA Starboard Severne Aloha Classic, 2010 ranked 20th overall PWA Wave, 2009 8th Cabo Verde Wave, 2008 ranked 19th overall PWA Wave, 2007 ranked 14th Wave, came 5th in Guincho. 1st Aloha Classic 2014, 2nd IWT Wave Overall Pro Men 2015, 1st IWT Wave Overall Pro Men 2016.
Camille Juban (GDE): IWT BIG WAVE All-Time BIGGEST WAVE RIDER Champion 2020 (video), 2 x Aloha Classic Champion 2011 and 2018. 3 time AWT overall Pro Men Wavesailing champion 2012, 2013 and 2015.
Bernd Roediger (USA): 2 times Aloha Classic Champion 2012 (youngest ever winner at 16 years old), 2013.
Frank Ervin: Formula windsurfing lightweight world champion.
Morgan Noireaux (USA): 3 times Aloha Classic Champion 2014, 2015, 2017. IWT overall Pro Men Wavesailing champion 2017.
Antoine Martin (GDE): Aloha Classic Champion 2019, 2 x IWT Wave Champion 2018, 2019, French National Wave Champion 2019.
Top women
Jill Boyer (USA): World Wave Champion 1984.
Julie de Werd (USA): World Wave Champion 1984.
Clare Seeger (GBR): One of the top female windsurfers in the 1980s. She was also No 1 British Champion for 10yrs and was the first Briton to obtain and overall World Title. Clare won numerous events around the World until finally settling in Hawaii. She was one of the first women who did forward loops, push loops and was the first person to do a double back loop at Ho'okipa,Maui, Hawaii.
Lisa Penfield (USA): Freestyle World Champion 1985, multiple Championships from 1981– 1986.
Dana Dawes (USA): World Wave Champion 1986, 1987.
Nathalie Siebel (FRA): World Wave Champion 1986, 1988, 1990, 1992, 1994.
Angela Cocheran (USA): World Wave Champion 1989, 1991.
Natalie Lelievre (FRA): overall World Champion, 1984, 1985. World Wave Champion 1995, 1996, 1997.
Barbara Kendall (NZ): 3 time Olympian representing New Zealand with Gold in Barcelona 1992, Silver in Atlanta 1996, Bronze in Sydney 2000.
Jessica Crisp (AUS): 5 time Olympian representing Australia. PWA Overall World Champion 1994. PWA World Wavesailing Champion 1993.
Karin Jaggi (SUI): multiple PWA World Champion in freestyle, wave, speed competition, 1990s and 2000s. World Wave Champion 1998.
Daida Ruano Moreno (ESP): PWA Wave World Champion, 2000, 2001, 2002, 2003, 2004, 2005, 2008, 2009, 2010, 2011, 2013. Freestyle World Champion 2003–2006. The Most dominant female athlete in the history of wavesailing.
Iballa Ruano Moreno (ESP): PWA Wave World Champion, 1999, 2006, 2007, 2012, 2014, 2015, 2016, 2017, 2018. Twin sister of Daida Moreno.
Sarah-Quita Offringa (ARU): 17-time World Champion (12 Freestyle, 4 Slalom & 1 Wave), PWA World Wave Champion 2019, 2 x Aloha Classic Wave Champion 2016, 2019.
Sarah Hauser (NCL): IWT BIG WAVE All-Time BIGGEST WAVE RIDER Champion 2020 (photo), 2 x Aloha Classic Wave Champion 2017, 2018, 3 x IWT Wave Champion 2015, 2016, 2018.
Related water sports
Other watersport variants using a board and wind power include Kiteboarding and Wingsurfing.
Kiteboarding uses a large kite (around 9 to 20qsm) on 20+m lines for wind power. Due to the strong possible upward lift, smaller boards with no significant buoyancy are used.
Wingsurfing or wing foiling uses a hand-held wing, a smaller version of a kite, to replace the sail. To offset the low wind power resulting from the comparatively small wing size (around 3 to 9 sqm), a Foilboard can be used.
Windfoiling mounts in the fin box a hydrofoil which lifts the board off the water and improves speeds due to reduced drag.
See also
Kite ice skating — ice skater propelled by kite
Land sailing — yacht with wheels
Land windsurfing — on large skateboard, propelled by sail
Wakeboarding — water skiing on a board instead of skis
Waterskiing
References
External links
International Race Calendar Formula Windsurfing including results, equipment list, reports, photos and videos
Official Formula Class Website
International Event Calendar Slalom Racing with results, reports, photos and videos
Windsurf Quest Location Guide and Social Media Site
Quebec Windsurfing Association (Canada)
UK raceboard organization
Continentseven, international windsurfing website
Speedsurfing BLOG for windsurfing
National Watersports Festival
FollowTheWinds, international windsurfing news website
Tricktionary, Windsurfing learning tools
Soulrider, Windsurfing Sessions Database
International Windsurfing Association
American inventions
Sailboat types
Water sports
Surfing
Boardsports
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222367 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Multivalued%20function | Multivalued function | In mathematics, a multivalued function, also called multifunction, many-valued function, set-valued function, is similar to a function, but may associate several values to each input. More precisely, a multivalued function from a domain to a codomain associates each in to one or more values in ; it is thus a serial binary relation. Some authors allow a multivalued function to have no value for some inputs (in this case a multivalued function is simply a binary relation).
However, in some contexts such as in complex analysis (X = Y = C), authors prefer to mimic function theory as they extend concepts of the ordinary (single-valued) functions. In this context, an ordinary function is often called a single-valued function to avoid confusion.
The term multivalued function originated in complex analysis, from analytic continuation. It often occurs that one knows the value of a complex analytic function in some neighbourhood of a point . This is the case for functions defined by the implicit function theorem or by a Taylor series around . In such a situation, one may extend the domain of the single-valued function along curves in the complex plane starting at . In doing so, one finds that the value of the extended function at a point depends on the chosen curve from to ; since none of the new values is more natural than the others, all of them are incorporated into a multivalued function.
For example, let be the usual square root function on positive real numbers. One may extend its domain to a neighbourhood of in the complex plane, and then further along curves starting at , so that the values along a given curve vary continuously from . Extending to negative real numbers, one gets two opposite values for the square root—for example for —depending on whether the domain has been extended through the upper or the lower half of the complex plane. This phenomenon is very frequent, occurring for th roots, logarithms, and inverse trigonometric functions.
To define a single-valued function from a complex multivalued function, one may distinguish one of the multiple values as the principal value, producing a single-valued function on the whole plane which is discontinuous along certain boundary curves. Alternatively, dealing with the multivalued function allows having something that is everywhere continuous, at the cost of possible value changes when one follows a closed path (monodromy). These problems are resolved in the theory of Riemann surfaces: to consider a multivalued function as an ordinary function without discarding any values, one multiplies the domain into a many-layered covering space, a manifold which is the Riemann surface associated to .
Examples
Every real number greater than zero has two real square roots, so that square root may be considered a multivalued function. For example, we may write ; although zero has only one square root, .
Each nonzero complex number has two square roots, three cube roots, and in general n nth roots. The only nth root of 0 is 0.
The complex logarithm function is multiple-valued. The values assumed by for real numbers and are for all integers .
Inverse trigonometric functions are multiple-valued because trigonometric functions are periodic. We have As a consequence, arctan(1) is intuitively related to several values: /4, 5/4, −3/4, and so on. We can treat arctan as a single-valued function by restricting the domain of tan x to – a domain over which tan x is monotonically increasing. Thus, the range of arctan(x) becomes . These values from a restricted domain are called principal values.
The antiderivative can be considered as a multivalued function. The antiderivative of a function is the set of functions whose derivative is that function. The constant of integration follows from the fact that the derivative of a constant function is 0.
Inverse hyperbolic functions over the complex domain are multiple-valued because hyperbolic functions are periodic along the imaginary axis. Over the reals, they are single-valued, except for arcosh and arsech.
The argmax is multivalued, for example
These are all examples of multivalued functions that come about from non-injective functions. Since the original functions do not preserve all the information of their inputs, they are not reversible. Often, the restriction of a multivalued function is a partial inverse of the original function.
Multivalued functions of a complex variable have branch points. For example, for the nth root and logarithm functions, 0 is a branch point; for the arctangent function, the imaginary units i and −i are branch points. Using the branch points, these functions may be redefined to be single-valued functions, by restricting the range. A suitable interval may be found through use of a branch cut, a kind of curve that connects pairs of branch points, thus reducing the multilayered Riemann surface of the function to a single layer. As in the case with real functions, the restricted range may be called the principal branch of the function.
Set-valued analysis
Set-valued analysis is the study of sets in the spirit of mathematical analysis and general topology.
Instead of considering collections of only points, set-valued analysis considers collections of sets. If a collection of sets is endowed with a topology, or inherits an appropriate topology from an underlying topological space, then the convergence of sets can be studied.
Much of set-valued analysis arose through the study of mathematical economics and optimal control, partly as a generalization of convex analysis; the term "variational analysis" is used by authors such as R. Tyrrell Rockafellar and Roger J-B Wets, Jonathan Borwein and Adrian Lewis, and Boris Mordukhovich. In optimization theory, the convergence of approximating subdifferentials to a subdifferential is important in understanding necessary or sufficient conditions for any minimizing point.
There exist set-valued extensions of the following concepts from point-valued analysis: continuity, differentiation, integration, implicit function theorem, contraction mappings, measure theory, fixed-point theorems, optimization, and topological degree theory.
Equations are generalized to inclusions.
Types of multivalued functions
One can distinguish multiple concepts generalizing continuity, such as the closed graph property and upper and lower hemicontinuity. There are also various generalizations of measure to multifunctions.
Applications
Multifunctions arise in optimal control theory, especially differential inclusions and related subjects as game theory, where the Kakutani fixed-point theorem for multifunctions has been applied to prove existence of Nash equilibria (in the context of game theory, a multivalued function is usually referred to as a correspondence). This among many other properties loosely associated with approximability of upper hemicontinuous multifunctions via continuous functions explains why upper hemicontinuity is more preferred than lower hemicontinuity.
Nevertheless, lower semi-continuous multifunctions usually possess continuous selections as stated in the Michael selection theorem, which provides another characterisation of paracompact spaces. Other selection theorems, like Bressan-Colombo directional continuous selection, Kuratowski and Ryll-Nardzewski measurable selection theorem, Aumann measurable selection, and Fryszkowski selection for decomposable maps are important in optimal control and the theory of differential inclusions.
In physics, multivalued functions play an increasingly important role. They form the mathematical basis for Dirac's magnetic monopoles, for the theory of defects in crystals and the resulting plasticity of materials, for vortices in superfluids and superconductors, and for phase transitions in these systems, for instance melting and quark confinement. They are the origin of gauge field structures in many branches of physics.
Contrast with
Bijection
Injective function
Surjective function
See also
Fat link, a one-to-many hyperlink
Interval finite element
Partial function
Vector-valued function
References
Notes
Further reading
C. D. Aliprantis and K. C. Border, Infinite dimensional analysis. Hitchhiker's guide, Springer-Verlag Berlin Heidelberg, 2006
J. Andres and L. Górniewicz, Topological Fixed Point Principles for Boundary Value Problems, Kluwer Academic Publishers, 2003
J.-P. Aubin and A. Cellina, Differential Inclusions, Set-Valued Maps And Viability Theory, Grundl. der Math. Wiss. 264, Springer - Verlag, Berlin, 1984
J.-P. Aubin and H. Frankowska, Set-Valued Analysis, Birkhäuser, Basel, 1990
K. Deimling, Multivalued Differential Equations, Walter de Gruyter, 1992
H. Kleinert, Multivalued Fields in Condensed Matter, Electrodynamics, and Gravitation, World Scientific (Singapore, 2008) (also available online)
H. Kleinert, Gauge Fields in Condensed Matter, Vol. I: Superflow and Vortex Lines, 1–742, Vol. II: Stresses and Defects, 743–1456, World Scientific, Singapore, 1989 (also available online: Vol. I and Vol. II)
D. Repovš and P.V. Semenov, Continuous Selections of Multivalued Mappings, Kluwer Academic Publishers, Dordrecht 1998
E. U. Tarafdar and M. S. R. Chowdhury, Topological methods for set-valued nonlinear analysis, World Scientific, Singapore, 2008
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222368 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/American%20Physical%20Society | American Physical Society | The American Physical Society (APS) is a not-for-profit membership organization of professionals in physics and related disciplines, comprising nearly fifty divisions, sections, and other units. Its mission is the advancement and diffusion of knowledge of physics. The society publishes more than a dozen scientific journals, including the prestigious Physical Review and Physical Review Letters, and organizes more than twenty science meetings each year. APS is a member society of the American Institute of Physics. Since January 2020 the organization is led by chief executive officer Jonathan Bagger.
History
The American Physical Society was founded on May 20, 1899, when thirty-six physicists gathered at Columbia University for that purpose. They proclaimed the mission of the new Society to be "to advance and diffuse the knowledge of physics", and in one way or another the APS has been at that task ever since. In the early years, virtually the sole activity of the APS was to hold scientific meetings, initially four per year. In 1913, the APS took over the operation of the Physical Review, which had been founded in 1893 at Cornell University, and journal publication became its second major activity. The Physical Review was followed by Reviews of Modern Physics in 1929 and by Physical Review Letters in 1958. Over the years, Phys. Rev. has subdivided into five separate sections as the fields of physics proliferated and the number of submissions grew.
In more recent years, the activities of the Society have broadened considerably. Stimulated by the increase in Federal funding in the period after the Second World War, and even more by the increased public involvement of scientists in the 1960s, the APS is active in public and governmental affairs, and in the international physics community. In addition, the Society conducts extensive programs in education, science outreach (specifically physics outreach), and media relations. APS has 14 divisions and 11 topical groups covering all areas of physics research. There are 6 forums that reflect the interest of its 50,000 members in broader issues, and 9 sections organized by geographical region.
In 1999, APS Physics celebrated its centennial with the biggest-ever physics meeting in Atlanta. In 2005, APS took the lead role in United States participation in the World Year of Physics, initiating several programs to broadly publicize physics during the 100th anniversary of Albert Einstein's annus mirabilis. Einstein@Home, one of the projects APS initiated during World Year of Physics, is an ongoing and popular distributed computing project.
Name change proposal
During the summer of 2005, the society conducted an electronic poll, in which the majority of APS members preferred the name American Physics Society. The poll became the motivation for a proposal of a name change promised in the leadership election that year. However, because of legal issues, the planned name change was eventually abandoned by the APS Executive Board.
To promote public recognition of APS as a physics society, while retaining the name American Physical Society, the APS Executive Board adopted a new logo incorporating the phrase "APS Physics." General use of APS Physics to refer to APS or the American Physical Society is encouraged. The new APS Physics logo was designed by Kerry G. Johnson. Marvin Cohen, who was then APS President, said, "I like the logo. At least now when you are in an elevator at an APS meeting and someone looks at your badge, they won't ask you about sports."
APS journals
The American Physical Society publishes 13 international research journals and an open-access on-line news and commentary website Physics.
Physical Review Letters (PRL)
Reviews of Modern Physics (RMP)
Physical Review A (PRA): Atomic, molecular and optical physics.
Physical Review B (PRB): Condensed matter and materials physics.
Physical Review C (PRC): Nuclear physics.
Physical Review D (PRD): Particles, fields, gravitation, and cosmology.
Physical Review E (PRE): Statistical, nonlinear, and soft matter physics.
Physical Review X (PRX): Open access; pure, applied, and interdisciplinary physics.
Physical Review Applied (PRApplied): Experimental and theoretical applications of physics.
Physical Review Fluids (PRFluids): Fluid dynamics.
Physical Review Accelerators and Beams (PRAB): Open access; accelerator science and technology.
Physical Review Physics Education Research (PRPER): Open access; experimental and theoretical research on physics education.
Physical Review Materials (PRMaterials): A broad-scope international journal for the multidisciplinary community engaged in research on materials.
Physical Review Research (PRResearch): Open access; multidisciplinary.
PRX Energy (PRXEnergy): Open access; advances in energy science and technology.
PRX Quantum (PRXQuantum): Open access; advances in quantum information science and technology.
All members of APS receive the monthly publication Physics Today, published by the American Institute of Physics (AIP).
The Society also publishes Inside Science, part of a news service launched in 1999 to place more science stories in the media. Aimed at both introducing the public to new scientific research and at correcting public misconceptions about science, the publication has editorial independence from APS itself.
APS units
The American Physical Society has 47 units (divisions, forums, topical groups and sections) that represent the wide range of interests of the physics community.
Divisions
Astrophysics (DAP)
Atomic, Molecular & Optical Physics (DAMOP): The objective of the division is the promotion of the fundamental research on atoms, simple molecules, electrons and light, and their interactions. Historically, this is the oldest division of the American Physical Society. It was created in 1943. The division manages a number of prestigious awards for AMO scientists at various stages of their careers, such as the Davisson-Germer Prize in Atomic or Surface Physics, Rabi Prize in AMO Physics, Outstanding Doctoral Thesis Research in AMO Physics, Herbert P. Broida Prize, etc. It also organizes annual DAMOP Meetings attended by many leading AMO researchers, both from the United States and abroad.
Biological Physics (DBIO): With over 2,000 members, the division is the second largest learned society in the world devoted to biological physics, following the Biophysical Society. The objective of the division is the advancement and dissemination of knowledge on the broad interface of physics and biology. This includes studying biological phenomena with physics tools and identifying new physics questions within biological contexts. The division supports a program of over 600 (as of 2016) presentations at the annual March Meeting of the APS, on topics ranging from protein biophysics, to neuroscience and evolution. It promotes research and development of biological physics, enhanced the standing of the field, and recognizes important contributions to the field, such as by awarding the Max Delbruck Prize in biological physics.
Chemical Physics (DCP)
Computational Physics (DCOMP): The division has more than 2,000 members, and the objective of the division is the advancement and dissemination of knowledge regarding the use of computers in physics research and education. This includes, among other areas, their application to experiments, theory, and education as well as the application of physics to the development of computer technology. This division provides to its members an opportunity for coordination and a forum for discussion and communication. In addition, the division promotes research and development in computational physics; enhances prestige and professional standing of its members; encourages scholarly publication; and promotes international cooperation in these activities.
Condensed Matter Physics (DCMP)
Fluid Dynamics (DFD)
Gravitational Physics (DGRAV)
Laser Science (DLS)
Materials Physics (DMP)
Nuclear Physics (DNP)
Particles and Fields (DPF)
Physics of Beams (DPB)
Plasma Physics (DPP)
Polymer Physics (DPOLY)
Quantum Information (DQI)
Soft Matter (DSOFT)
Forums
Education (FEd)
Early Career Scientists (FECS)
Graduate Student Affairs (FGSA)
History of Physics (FHP)
Industrial and Applied Physics (FIAP)
International Physics (FIP)
Outreach and Engaging the Public (FOEP)
Physics and Society (FPS)
Sections
Far West Section (FWS)
Four Corners (4CS)
Mid-Atlantic (MAS)
New England (NES)
New York State (NYSS)
Northwest (NWS)
Ohio-Region (OSAPS)
Prairie Section (PSAPS)
Southeastern (SESAPS)
Texas (TSAPS)
Topical groups
APS has the following topical groups:
Energy Research and Applications (GERA)
Few-Body Systems (GFB)
Hadronic Physics (GHP)
Instrument and Measurement Science (GIMS)
Magnetism (GMAG)
Medical Physics (GMED)
Physics Education Research (GPER)
Physics of Climate (GPC)
Plasma Astrophysics (GPAP)
Precision Measurement & Fundamental Constants (GPMFC)
Quantum Information (GQI)
Shock Compression of Condensed Matter (SHOCK)
Statistical and Nonlinear Physics (GSNP)
Programs
Physics Teacher Education Coalition
The Physics Teacher Education Coalition (PhysTEC) is a joint project of the American Physical Society and the American Association of Physics Teachers, which helps universities transform their physics teacher education programs into national models. PhysTEC Supported Sites develop their physics teacher preparation programs by implementing a set of Key Components that project leaders have identified as critical to success in physics teacher preparation. The broader Coalition is a national network of institutions committed to developing and promoting excellence in physics and physical science teacher preparation.
APS Bridge Program
The APS Bridge Program aims to increase the number of underrepresented minority students that earn doctoral degrees in physics. The program names doctoral and master's degree-granting institutions as Bridge Sites and awards them National Science Foundation funding to prepare post-baccalaureate students for doctoral studies through additional coursework, mentoring, research, application coaching, and GRE preparation.
The APS Scholarship for Minority Undergraduate Physics Majors
Formerly called the APS Corporate Sponsored Scholarship Program for Minority Undergraduate Students Who Major in Physics, this scholarship was established in 1980 with the goal of increasing the number of underrepresented minorities receiving bachelor's degrees in physics. The program provides funding and mentoring to talented students.
Conferences for Undergraduate Women in Physics
APS Conferences for Undergraduate Women in Physics (APS CUWiP) are three-day regional conferences for undergraduate physics majors. The conferences aim to help undergraduate women continue in physics by providing them with the opportunity to experience a professional conference, information about graduate school and professions in physics, and access to other women in physics of all ages with whom they can share experiences, advice, and ideas.
Career Center
The APS Careers in Physics website is a gateway for physicists, students, and physics enthusiasts to obtain information about physics jobs and careers. APS Careers in Physics has an award-winning job board, offers professional development advice through its website and blog, and provides links to workshops, grants, and career resources.
New Faculty Workshop
APS co-sponsors a set of workshops for new physics and astronomy faculty with the American Association of Physics Teachers and the American Astronomical Society. These workshops reach nearly half of all new physics and astronomy faculty, and introduce them to current pedagogical practices, results of physics education research, and time management skills to help them begin and improve their academic careers.
CSWP/COM site visits
The APS has had a long-standing interest in improving the climate in physics departments for underrepresented minorities and women. The Committee on the Status of Women in Physics (CSWP) and the Committee on Minorities (COM) both sponsor site visit programs to universities as well as national labs.
Education conferences
APS is a leading voice for physics education and the society sponsors a variety of conferences dedicating to helping physics education leaders stay on top of the trends in the field. Conferences include the annual Physics Department Chair Conference, a Graduate Education in Physics Conference, and a Distance Education & Online Learning in Physics Workshop.
Physics Outreach
The APS Physics Outreach program focuses on "Communicating the excitement and importance of physics to everyone." As part of this effort, it maintains an educational website, PhysicsCentral; offers grants to help APS members develop educational programs; and runs the Historic Physics Sites Initiative, which identifies and commemorates important historic physics sites in the United States.
Prizes and awards
The American Physical Society gives out a number of awards for research excellence and conduct; topics include outstanding leadership, computational physics, lasers, mathematics, and more.
See also
Deutsche Physikalische Gesellschaft
Fellows of the American Physical Society
References
External links
Bulletin of the American Physical Society — freely available scientific abstracts presented at general meetings and various unit meetings of APS Physics.
Finding Aid to the Records of the American Physical Society, 1899–1989 at the Niels Bohr Library & Archives, American Institute of Physics
Finding Aid to the American Physical Society, Division of Fluid Dynamics Archives, 1946–1991, Special Collections, Linderman Library, Lehigh University
1899 establishments in the United States
College Park, Maryland
Non-profit organizations based in Maryland
Physical Society
Scientific organizations established in 1899 | [
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222374 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tyagaraja | Tyagaraja | Tyagaraja (Telugu: త్యాగరాజ) (4 May 1767 – 6 January 1847), also known as Tyāgayya, was a composer and vocalist of Carnatic music, a form of Indian classical music. He was prolific and highly influential in the development of India's classical music tradition. Tyagaraja and his contemporaries, Shyama Shastri and Muthuswami Dikshitar, are regarded as the Trinity of Carnatic music. Tyagaraja composed thousands of devotional compositions, most in Telugu and in praise of Lord Rama, many of which remain popular today. Of special mention are five of his compositions called the Pancharatna Kritis (English: "five gems"), which are often sung in programs in his honour.
Tyagaraja saw the reigns of four kings of the Maratha dynasty — Tulaja II (1763–1787), Amarasimha (1787–1798), Serfoji II (1798–1832) and Sivaji II (1832–1855), although he served none of them.
Personal life and background
Tyāgarāja was born Kakarla Tyagabrahmam in 1767 to a Telugu Vaidiki Mulakanadu Brahmin family in Tiruvarur in present-day Tiruvarur District of Tamil Nadu. There is a school of thought led by musicologist B. M. Sundaram that contests this and proposes Tiruvaiyaru as his birthplace. He is a famous musician and his family name 'Kakarla' indicates that they were originally migrants from the village of the same name in the Cumbum taluk of Prakasam district, Andhra Pradesh. His family belonged to the Smarta tradition and Bharadvaja gotra. Tyagaraja was the third son of his parents, and Panchanada Brahmam and Panchapakesha Brahmam are his elder brothers. He was named Tyagabrahmam/Tyagaraja after Tyagaraja, the presiding deity of the temple at Thiruvarur, the place of his birth. Tyagaraja's maternal uncle was Giriraja Kavi. Giriraja Kavi was a poet and musician. Giriraja was born in Kakarla village, Cumbum taluk in Prakasam district, Andhra Pradesh. He is believed to have belonged to the Mulakanadu sect. Tyagaraja's maternal grandfather was named Kalahastayya, but was frequently addressed as Veena Kalahastayya as he was a noted veena player. Tyagaraja learned to play the veena in his childhood from Kalahastayya. After Kalahastayya's death Tyagaraja found Naradeeyam, a book related to music. Tyagaraja hero-worshipped the celestial sage Narada; a reference to this is Tyagaraja's krithi Vara Nārada (rāga Vijayaśrī, Ādi tāḷam). Legend has it that a hermit taught him a mantra invoking Narada, and Tyagaraja, meditating on this mantra, received a vision of Narada and was blessed with the book Svarārnavam by the sage. During his last days, Tyagaraja took vows of Sannyasa.
Tyagaraja died on a Pushya Bahula Panchami day, 6 January 1847, at the age of 79. His last composition before his death was Giripai Nelakonna (rāga Sahāna, Ādi tāḷam). He was buried at the banks of the Kaveri river at Thiruvaiyaru.
Musical career
Tyāgarāja began his musical training at an early age under Sonti Venkata Ramanayya, a music scholar, after the latter heard his singing and was impressed by the child prodigy. Tyagaraja regarded music as a way to experience God's love. His compositions focused on expression, rather than on the technicalities of classical music. He also showed a flair for composing music and, in his teens, composed his first song, "Namo Namo Raghavayya", in the Desika Todi ragam and inscribed it on the walls of the house. His compositions are mainly of a devotional (bhakti) or philosophical nature. His songs feature himself usually either in an appeal to his deity of worship (primarily the Avatar Rama), in musings, in narratives, or giving a message to the public. He has also composed krithis in praise of Krishna, Shiva, Shakti, Ganesha, Muruga, Saraswati, and Hanuman.
Sonti Venkataramanayya informed the king of Thanjavur of Tyagaraja's genius. The king sent an invitation, along with many rich gifts, inviting Tyagaraja to attend the royal court. Tyagaraja, however, was not inclined towards a career at the court, and rejected the invitation outright. He was said to have composed the krithi Nidhi Chala Sukhama (నిధి చాల సుఖమా) (English: "Does wealth bring happiness?") on this occasion.
He spent most of his time in Tiruvaiyaru, though there are records of his pilgrimages to Tirumala and Kanchipuram. When he was in Kanchipuram, he met Upanishad Brahmayogin at the Brahmendral Mutt at Kanchipuram.
Tyagaraja, who was immersed in his devotion to Rama and led a spartan way of life, did not take any steps to systematically codify his vast musical output. Rangaramanuja Iyengar, a leading researcher on Carnatic music, in his work Kriti Manimalai, has described the situation prevailing at the time of the death of Tyagaraja. It is said that a major portion of his incomparable musical work was lost to the world due to natural and man-made calamities. Usually, Tyagaraja used to sing his compositions sitting before deity manifestations of Lord Rama, and his disciples noted down the details of his compositions on palm leaves. After his death, these were in the hands of his disciples, then families descending from the disciples. There was not a definitive edition of Tyagaraja's songs.
The songs he composed in pure Telugu were widespread in their popularity because of the ease with which they could be sung in those days. Musical experts such as Kancheepuram Nayana Pillai, Simizhi Sundaram Iyer and Veenai Dhanammal saw the infinite possibilities for imaginative music inherent in his compositions and they systematically notated the songs available to them. Subsequently, researchers like K. V. Srinivasa Iyengar and Rangaramanuja Iyengar made an enormous effort to contact various teachers and families who possessed the palm leaves. K. V. Srinivasa Iyengar brought out Adi Sangita Ratnavali and Adi Tyagaraja Hridhayam in three volumes. Rangaramanuja Iyengar published Kriti Mani Malai in two volumes. He also composed songs in Sanskrit.
Furthermore, Musiri Subramania Iyer, the doyen of Bhava Sangitam, had a vast collection of books in his library. T. K. Govinda Rao, his disciple, brought out a volume of Tyagaraja's songs in English and Devanagari script. T. S. Parthasarathy, a leading scholar on Tyagaraja, published the text and meaning of Tyagaraja's songs. There are also many less comprehensive publications in Telugu.
About 700 songs remain of the 24,000 songs said to have been composed by him; however, scholars are skeptical about numbers like these, as there is no biographical evidence to support such claims.
In addition to nearly 700 compositions (kritis), Tyagaraja composed two musical plays in Telugu, the Prahalada Bhakti Vijayam and the Nauka Charitam. Prahlada Bhakti Vijayam is in five acts with 45 kritis set in 28 ragas and 138 verses, in different metres in Telugu. Nauka Charitam is a shorter play in one act with 21 kritis set in 13 ragas and 43 verses. The latter is the most popular of Tyagaraja's operas, and is a creation of the composer's own imagination and has no basis in the Bhagavata Purana. Tyagaraja also composed a number of simple devotional pieces appropriate for choral singing.
The 20th-century Indian music critic K. V. Ramachandran wrote: "Tyagaraja is an indefatigable interpreter of the past... but if with one eye he looks backward, with the other he looks forward as well. Like Prajapati, he creates his own media and adores his Rama not alone with jewel-words newly fashioned, but also with jewel-[like]-music newly created. It is this facet of Tyagaraja that distinguishes him from his illustrious contemporaries." In other words, while Tyagaraja's contemporaries were primarily concerned with bringing to audiences the music of the past, Tyagaraja also pioneered new musical concepts at the same time.
Remembrance
Tyagaraja Aradhana, the commemorative music festival is held every year in Thiruvaiyaru in Thanjavur district of Tamilnadu, during the months of January to February in Tyagaraja's honor. This is a week-long festival of music where various Carnatic musicians from all over the world converge at his resting place. On the Pushya Bahula Panchami, thousands of people and hundreds of Carnatic musicians sing the five Pancharatna Kritis in unison, with the accompaniment of a large bank of accompanists on veenas, violins, flutes, nadasvarams, mridangams and ghatams.
A sports complex in New Delhi, Thyagaraj Sports Complex, was named after him. A crater on the planet Mercury was named after Tyagaraja in 1976.
Popular culture
Films on Tyagaraja (biographical)
As the most famous composer of Telugu kritis or (kirtanas), Tyagaraja, who is fondly remembered as Tyagayya, has caught the imagination of filmmakers in the Telugu film industry. Apart from references to his works, using the kirtanas as songs, two films were made on his life. Chittor V. Nagaiah made a biographical epic on Tyagaraja titled Tyagayya in 1946 which is still treated as a masterpiece of Telugu cinema. In 1981, Bapu–Ramana made Tyagayya with J. V. Somayajulu in the lead role. Another attempt is being made by Singeetam Srinivasa Rao to picturise Tyagaraja's life. Apart from these Bombay Gnanam made a short film known as Endarao Mahanubavulu on Sri Tyagayya
Compositions
The term Pancharatna in Sanskrit means "five gems": The Pancharatnas are known as the five finest gems of Carnatic music. All of the Pancharatnas are set to Adi Talam. So far as Pancharatnas are concerned, a stable text has been handed over by the earlier musicians to the present day. Several musicians have brought out editions of Pancharatnas. However, Veenai Sundaram Iyer's edition is the most detailed and comprehensive. All the compositions of Tyagaraja show the way for the systematic development of the respective ragas. However, in the Pancharatnas, Tyagaraja has given exhaustive treatment as to how to systematically and scientifically develop a raga. The two fundamental conditions that must be satisfied for the systematic development of a raga are the arrangement of the solfa swaras in the natural order of Arohanam and Avarohanam of the Ragas so as to satisfy the sound principles of harmony and continuity. Pancharatnas satisfy these scientific principles. The Pancharatnas are composed in perfect sarvalaghu swaras.
The first Pancharatna is Jagadaanandakaaraka, in the raga Nata . It is composed in lucid and poetic Sanskrit. It praises Lord Rama as the source of all joy in the universe. Originally there were only six Charanams for the song and when the disciples examined the song it contained ninety names of Lord Rama in mellifluous Sanskrit. The disciples requested Tyagaraja to slightly expand the song by adding two charanas containing eighteen more names of Lord Rama. The saint acceded to the request of the disciples and that is the reason why the song Jagadaanandakaaraka contains three mudras containing the name of Tyagaraja while the other four songs contain only one mudra each.
The next is Duduku gala in the raga Gowla set to Aadi Taalam. It is composed in Telugu. In this song, Tyagaraja takes the blame upon himself for all the misdeeds of men and ruminates on who would come and save him from this deplorable situation.
The third is Saadhinchene in the raga Aarabhi, set to Aadi Taalam. It is composed in Telugu. In this song, Tyagaraja lovingly criticizes Lord Krishna for his cleverness in getting what he wants to be done. Saadhinchene is a breathtaking lullaby.
The fourth song, Kana Kana Ruchiraa is in the raga Varaali set to Aadi Taalam. It is composed in Telugu. In this song, Tyagaraja describes the infinite beauty of Lord Rama.
The fifth Pancharatna is Endaro Mahaanubhaavulu in Sri Raaga. It is composed in Telugu. It is said that a great musician from Kerala, Shatkala Govinda Maaraar, visited Tygaraja and performed before him. Tyagaraja was enchanted with his performance and then was born Endaro Mahanubhavulu, the composition of unparallelled rhythmic beauty in Carnatic music.
Other notable compositions by Tyagaraja include Saamajavaragamana in Hindolam raagam, Aadamodigaladhe in Chaarukesi raagam, Raaju vedale in Hanumatodi raagam, Ninne nammi naanura in Todi raagam, Kamalapthakula in Brindavana saranga raagam, Ksheera saagara shayana in Devagaandhaari raagam, Maarubalka kunna vemira ma manoramana in Sriranjani raagam, Sobhillu Saptaswara in Jaganmohini raagam and Nagumomu kanaleni in Aabheri raagam.
See also
Kancherla Gopanna (Bhadrachala Ramadasu)
Purandara Dasa
Annamacharya
Birmingham Thyagaraja Festival
Cleveland Thyagaraja Festival
Notes
References
Further reading
The Spiritual Heritage of Tyagaraja, by C. Ramanujachari with an introduction by Dr. V. Raghavan, Ramakrishna Math, Chennai.
Tyagaraja Kritigal (in Malayalam) by Prof P. R. Kumara Kerala Varma, Dept of Cultural Publications, Govt of Kerala, Trivandrum, 2000.
Tyagaraja Kirtanalu (in Telugu) by Smt Dwaraka Parthasarathy and Sri N.C. Parthasarathy, Tagore Publishing House, Kachiguda, Hyderabad, 1995 (Balasaraswati Book Depot, Kurnool).
Ramachandran, K.V., "The Melakarta: A Critique", The (Madras) Music Academy Platinum Jubilee Commemoration Volume, Vol. I, 1930–1940. (Original publication in the Journal of the Music Academy in 1938.)
Thyagaraju – Rama Darsanamu (In Telugu) by Dr. Mulukutla Brahmananda Sastry (part of the thesis approved by Andhra University, 1985.)
Shree Tyagaraja Keerthnai - Parthasarathy TS ( Tamil ) Paperback – 1 January 1970 by KMBC; 2010th edition (1 January 1970),ASIN : B00CBQBXMU
External links
Website dedicated to Tyagaraja
Thiagaraja A Great Musician - M.S. Ramaswamy Aiyar
1767 births
1847 deaths
Carnatic composers
Telugu people
Performers of Hindu music
People from Tiruvarur district
18th-century Indian composers
19th-century Indian composers
Musicians from Tamil Nadu
People from Thanjavur district | [
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] |
222390 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Table%20of%20prime%20factors | Table of prime factors | The tables contain the prime factorization of the natural numbers from 1 to 1000.
When n is a prime number, the prime factorization is just n itself, written in bold below.
The number 1 is called a unit. It has no prime factors and is neither prime nor composite.
Properties
Many properties of a natural number n can be seen or directly computed from the prime factorization of n.
The multiplicity of a prime factor p of n is the largest exponent m for which pm divides n. The tables show the multiplicity for each prime factor. If no exponent is written then the multiplicity is 1 (since p = p1). The multiplicity of a prime which does not divide n may be called 0 or may be considered undefined.
Ω(n), the big Omega function, is the number of prime factors of n counted with multiplicity (so it is the sum of all prime factor multiplicities).
A prime number has Ω(n) = 1. The first: 2, 3, 5, 7, 11, 13, 17, 19, 23, 29, 31, 37 . There are many special types of prime numbers.
A composite number has Ω(n) > 1. The first: 4, 6, 8, 9, 10, 12, 14, 15, 16, 18, 20, 21 . All numbers above 1 are either prime or composite. 1 is neither.
A semiprime has Ω(n) = 2 (so it is composite). The first: 4, 6, 9, 10, 14, 15, 21, 22, 25, 26, 33, 34 .
A k-almost prime (for a natural number k) has Ω(n) = k (so it is composite if k > 1).
An even number has the prime factor 2. The first: 2, 4, 6, 8, 10, 12, 14, 16, 18, 20, 22, 24 .
An odd number does not have the prime factor 2. The first: 1, 3, 5, 7, 9, 11, 13, 15, 17, 19, 21, 23 . All integers are either even or odd.
A square has even multiplicity for all prime factors (it is of the form a2 for some a). The first: 1, 4, 9, 16, 25, 36, 49, 64, 81, 100, 121, 144 .
A cube has all multiplicities divisible by 3 (it is of the form a3 for some a). The first: 1, 8, 27, 64, 125, 216, 343, 512, 729, 1000, 1331, 1728 .
A perfect power has a common divisor m > 1 for all multiplicities (it is of the form am for some a > 1 and m > 1). The first: 4, 8, 9, 16, 25, 27, 32, 36, 49, 64, 81, 100 . 1 is sometimes included.
A powerful number (also called squareful) has multiplicity above 1 for all prime factors. The first: 1, 4, 8, 9, 16, 25, 27, 32, 36, 49, 64, 72 .
A prime power has only one prime factor. The first: 2, 3, 4, 5, 7, 8, 9, 11, 13, 16, 17, 19 . 1 is sometimes included.
An Achilles number is powerful but not a perfect power. The first: 72, 108, 200, 288, 392, 432, 500, 648, 675, 800, 864, 968 .
A square-free integer has no prime factor with multiplicity above 1. The first: 1, 2, 3, 5, 6, 7, 10, 11, 13, 14, 15, 17 ). A number where some but not all prime factors have multiplicity above 1 is neither square-free nor squareful.
The Liouville function λ(n) is 1 if Ω(n) is even, and is -1 if Ω(n) is odd.
The Möbius function μ(n) is 0 if n is not square-free. Otherwise μ(n) is 1 if Ω(n) is even, and is −1 if Ω(n) is odd.
A sphenic number has Ω(n) = 3 and is square-free (so it is the product of 3 distinct primes). The first: 30, 42, 66, 70, 78, 102, 105, 110, 114, 130, 138, 154 .
a0(n) is the sum of primes dividing n, counted with multiplicity. It is an additive function.
A Ruth-Aaron pair is two consecutive numbers (x, x+1) with a0(x) = a0(x+1). The first (by x value): 5, 8, 15, 77, 125, 714, 948, 1330, 1520, 1862, 2491, 3248 , another definition is the same prime only count once, if so, the first (by x value): 5, 24, 49, 77, 104, 153, 369, 492, 714, 1682, 2107, 2299
A primorial x# is the product of all primes from 2 to x. The first: 2, 6, 30, 210, 2310, 30030, 510510, 9699690, 223092870, 6469693230, 200560490130, 7420738134810 . 1# = 1 is sometimes included.
A factorial x! is the product of all numbers from 1 to x. The first: 1, 2, 6, 24, 120, 720, 5040, 40320, 362880, 3628800, 39916800, 479001600 . 0! = 1 is sometimes included.
A k-smooth number (for a natural number k) has largest prime factor ≤ k (so it is also j-smooth for any j > k).
m is smoother than n if the largest prime factor of m is below the largest of n.
A regular number has no prime factor above 5 (so it is 5-smooth). The first: 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 8, 9, 10, 12, 15, 16 .
A k-powersmooth number has all pm ≤ k where p is a prime factor with multiplicity m.
A frugal number has more digits than the number of digits in its prime factorization (when written like below tables with multiplicities above 1 as exponents). The first in decimal: 125, 128, 243, 256, 343, 512, 625, 729, 1024, 1029, 1215, 1250 .
An equidigital number has the same number of digits as its prime factorization. The first in decimal: 1, 2, 3, 5, 7, 10, 11, 13, 14, 15, 16, 17 .
An extravagant number has fewer digits than its prime factorization. The first in decimal: 4, 6, 8, 9, 12, 18, 20, 22, 24, 26, 28, 30 .
An economical number has been defined as a frugal number, but also as a number that is either frugal or equidigital.
gcd(m, n) (greatest common divisor of m and n) is the product of all prime factors which are both in m and n (with the smallest multiplicity for m and n).
m and n are coprime (also called relatively prime) if gcd(m, n) = 1 (meaning they have no common prime factor).
lcm(m, n) (least common multiple of m and n) is the product of all prime factors of m or n (with the largest multiplicity for m or n).
gcd(m, n) × lcm(m, n) = m × n. Finding the prime factors is often harder than computing gcd and lcm using other algorithms which do not require known prime factorization.
m is a divisor of n (also called m divides n, or n is divisible by m) if all prime factors of m have at least the same multiplicity in n.
The divisors of n are all products of some or all prime factors of n (including the empty product 1 of no prime factors).
The number of divisors can be computed by increasing all multiplicities by 1 and then multiplying them.
Divisors and properties related to divisors are shown in table of divisors.
1 to 100
101 to 200
201 to 300
301 to 400
401 to 500
501 to 600
601 to 700
701 to 800
801 to 900
901 to 1000
See also
Table of divisors
Prime numbers
Elementary number theory
Mathematics-related lists
Mathematical tables
Prime factors | [
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222396 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Annamacharya | Annamacharya | Tallapaka Annamacharya (IAST: taḷḷapāka annamācārya; 22 May 1408 – 4 April 1503), also popularly known as Annamayya, was a 15th-century Hindu saint and the earliest known Indian musician to compose songs called sankirtanas in praise of the Venkateswara, a form of Vishnu. The musical form of the keertana songs that he composed, which are still popular among Carnatic music concert artists, have strongly influenced the structure of Carnatic music compositions. Annamacharya is remembered for his saintly life, and is honoured as a great devotee of Vishnu by devotees and saintly singers.
He is believed to have been the avatar of Nandaka, the sword of Vishnu. He is widely regarded as the Andhra Pada kavitā Pitāmaha (Grandfather of Telugu song-writing).
Personal life
Tallapaka Annamacharya was born on Vaishakha Shuddha Pournami in the year Sarwadhari (22 May 1408) in Tallapaka, Near Rajampet Mandal, a village in present-day Kadapa district of Andhra Pradesh, India. Even though his parents belonged to the Nandavarika Brahmin community of Smarta tradition, he took initiation into Vaishnavism and became a Vaishnava in the Ramanujacharya Sampradaya. His wife, Timmakka, had written Subhadra Kalyanam, and is considered the first female poet in Telugu literature. Their son, Pedda Tirumalacharya, and grandson, Tallapaka Chinnayya, were also composers and poets. The Tallapaka compositions are considered to have dominated and influenced the structure of Carnatic music compositions. Annamacharya lived for 95 years until Phalguna Bahula (Krishna) Dvadasi (12th day after full moon) in the year Dhundhubhi (4 April 1503).
Literary career
Annamayya is said to have composed as many as 32,000 sankeertanas (songs) on the praise of lord Venkateswara of which only about 12,000 are available today. He is also the author of musical treatise called "Sankirthana lakshanamu".
Annamayya considered his compositions as floral offerings to Venkateswara. In the poems, he praises the deity, describes his love for him, argues and quarrels with the Lord, confesses the devotee's failures and apprehensions, and surrenders himself to Venkateshwara. His songs are classified into the Adhyaatma (spiritual) and Sringaara (romantic) sankeertanas genres. His songs in the "Sringaara" genre worship Venkateswara by describing the romantic adventures of Venkateshwara and his consort Alamelu, while others describe the Bhakti of his devotees.
In his later keertanas, he espouses subjects such as morality, dharma and righteousness. He was one of the first few who opposed the social stigma towards the untouchable castes in his era, with his sankeertanas explaining that the relationship between God and human is the same irrespective of the latter's color, caste and financial status, in his songs "Brahmaṃ Okkatē Paraḥbrahmamokkatē" and "ē kulajuḍainanēmi evvaḍainanēmi". His prodigious literary career earned him a place among the all-time greats of Telugu literature.
Legacy
While he enjoyed popularity in his days, his compositions were forgotten for over three centuries. Mentioned in 1849, they were later found engraved on copper plates, hidden for centuries inside the Sri Venkateswara temple at Tirumala, just opposite the Hundi, concealed in a very small room. An English translation of 150 of these verses was published in 2005.
Tirumala Tirupati Devasthanams, also known as TTD, has been endeavoring to preserve the rich heritage of his compositions. In the year 1950, The State Government of Andhra Pradesh created a committee and appointed the legendary musician late Dr. M. Balamuralikrishna as its head. He set music to over 800 compositions of Annamacharya and are still popular among the devotees. He was the Āsthāna Gāyaka of the Tirumala temple at Tirupati for two decades. He is regarded as a legend in rendering devotional music in classical style, especially the Annamacharya Sankirtanas. He was also an acclaimed poet, singer, and a musicologist. In 1979, the legendary singer Smt. M. S. Subbulakshmi's album Balaji Pancharatna Mala came up with Annamacharya keerthanas like Vande Vasudevam, Bhavamulona, Sriman Narayana and many more. This became a hit and took the compositions of Annamacharya to every nook and corner of the country.
Shobha Raju is the first recipient of Tirumala Tirupati Devasthanams scholarship in 1976 to study and set a trend for the propagation of Annamacharya's compositions, and was also chosen as the first exclusive artiste for the propagation of Tallapaka's compositions in 1978. Her first audio album, "Vēnkatēśvara Gīta Mālika" is globally popular among Telugu community. She is the founder of Annamacharya Bhavana Vahini (ABV) in 1983, which is located in Hyderabad, India. She has been awarded Padmashri by Government of India, in 2010 in recognition of her efforts to promote Annamayya Compositions. Sri Garimella Balakrishna Prasad, a Carnatic music exponent and the asthana vidwan of Tirumala Tirupati Devasthanams has set tune to more than six hundred songs written by Annamacharya, gave audio recordings for TTD, published books with musical notations and conducted classes, teaching the songs to make them more popular.
In 1994, reputed Bharathanatyam artist Parvathi Ravi Ghantasala, also the daughter in law of the legendary singer Ghantasala Venkateswara Rao, for the first time produced and presented a mammoth dance production as a tribute to the divine composer titled "Annamaiyah". Rare and popular songs were woven into a story format and music by legendary stalwarts was set to action. This production was inaugurated by the former President of India R. Venkatraman and Bharat Ratna-winning singer M. S. Subbulakshmi and later that year for the Tirumala Brahmotsavam. The production went on to become a sensational hit and more dancers of different forms started choreographing for the saints' composition. Based on popular demand in 2009, a DVD of the production was also launched which included several places visited by the saint himself. The production has traveled across the US, Europe, and Asia and staged over 400 times till now.
A Telugu film named Annamayya was made on him by K. Raghavendra Rao in 1997. It starred Nagarjuna in the lead role as Annamacharya and also featured Suman as Lord Venkateshwara and Bhanupriya as Goddess Padmavathi Devi in important roles. The film became a huge blockbuster and was the highest grosser of the year in Telugu cinema.
Kadayanallur Venkatraman, a brilliant composer has tuned a lot of Annamacharya's kritis with beautiful ragas for M.S.Subbulakshmi, who unveiled these forgotten kritis and brought them to the stage.
In 2017, one of Annamayya's compositions, Brahmam Okate, became a YouTube sensation. As of early-2019, this video alone (produced by Kuldeep M. Pai) has garnered over 11 million views and made the child singers Sooryagayathri and Rahul Vellal household names for their flawless rendering of the classic keerthana. Professional singers P. Unnikrishnan and Sreeranjini Kodampally have their performances of the composition on YouTube.
Famous compositions
This is a partial list of some of the most famous Tallapaka Annamacharya compositions.
Note – (చ =Ca; ఛ=Cha; శ=Śa; ష=Ṣ. For more see Romanization of Telugu)
అన్నమయ్య పాటలు (All Annamayya songs lyrics in Telugu Script)
See also
List of Carnatic composers
Annamacharya sankeertana
References
Further reading
Jackson, William. 'Religious and Devotional Music: Southern Area' (1999). In
External links
Sri Annamacharya Project of North America
Sri Venkateswara Annamacharya Society of America
Carnatic composers
Hindu poets
Telugu poets
History of Andhra Pradesh
Tirumala Venkateswara Temple
Bhakti movement
1408 births
1503 deaths
People from Rayalaseema
People from Kadapa district
15th-century Indian poets
15th-century Indian musicians
Indian male classical musicians
Indian male composers
Musicians from Andhra Pradesh
Poets from Andhra Pradesh
Indian male poets
Kirtan performers | [
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] |
222402 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/TTD | TTD | TTD may refer to:
Places and organizations
Tirumala Tirupati Devasthanams, an independent trust which manages the Sri Venkateswara Temple in Andhra Pradesh, India
Portland-Troutdale Airport, IATA airport code
The Trade Desk, NASDAQ symbol
Entertainment
Tic-Tac-Dough, a game show
Transport Tycoon Deluxe, a computer game
Medicine
Therapeutic Targets Database, a database to provide information about the known and explored therapeutic targets
Trichothiodystrophy, a characteristic of Tay syndrome
Other
Trinidad and Tobago dollar, ISO 4217 currency code
Terence Trent D'Arby, former stage name of singer Sananda Maitreya
Tombstone Tenzan Driver, the name of the finisher of Japanese pro wrestler, Hiroyoshi Tenzan
True time delay, an electrical property of a transmitting apparatus
Top Thrill Dragster, the second tallest and third fastest roller coaster in the world located at Cedar Point | [
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222403 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tirumala%20Tirupati%20Devasthanams | Tirumala Tirupati Devasthanams | Tirumala Tirupati Devasthanams (TTD) is an independent trust which manages the temples including the Tirumala Venkateswara Temple in Andhra Pradesh. The trust oversees the operations and finances of the second richest and the most visited religious center in the world. It is also involved in various social, religious, literary and educational activities. TTD is headquartered at Tirupati and employs about 16,000 people.
Establishment and legislative setting
TTD was established in 1932 as a result of the TTD Act of 1932. According to the act administration of the temple was vested in a committee of seven members and overseen by a paid commissioner appointed by the Madras Government. Advising the committee were two advisory councils – one composed of priests and temple administrators to aid the committee with the operations of the Tirumala temple, and another composed of farmers for advice on Tirumala's land and estate transactions.
The Andhra Pradesh Charitable and Hindu Religious Institution and Endowments Act (1969), sections 85 to 91, expanded the provisions of TTD. The number of trustees was expanded from five to eleven with compulsory representation from certain communities. Apart from the responsibilities defined in the previous act, Devasthanam was obliged to promote the study of Indian languages and propagate Hindu Dharma by research, teaching, training and literature creation.
The A.P. Charitable & Hindu Religious Institutions & Endowments Act (1987) superseded the 1979 act. The Board of Trustees' membership was expanded from a maximum of eleven to fifteen and the hereditary rights of temple priests and their right to garner a share of the hundi proceeds were abolished. After increased pressure from the priests over a long period, the AP government made an amendment to the act in 2006, to discontinue these two controversial clauses. It is mandatory for non-Hindus to sign a declaration form before entering the hill temple, stating that they have faith in the presiding deity, Lord Venkateswara.
Temples under TTD administration
Tirumala Tirupati Devasthanams trust primarily manages the administration of Lord Venkateswara Temple, Tirumala. It also manages many other temples in Tirupati and all around the world. The temples include both historical and new temples which were constructed by TTD itself.
Departments
TTD has almost all the departments that would be in a government, including production (laddus), engineering (dams and roads), water supply, human resources, transport, procurement and marketing, finance and accounting, public relations, information technology, forest and gardens, educational institutions and hospitals, revenue and general administration.
Services
TTD provides various services for pilgrims to Tirumala and Tirupati, including bus services, food and accommodation. It maintains the queue management system, facilitates head tonsure and distribution of laddu. It runs information and ticketing centers in the major towns and cities across the country. It maintains various marriage halls, degree colleges, junior colleges and high schools. Sri Venkateswara Central Library and Research Centre (SVCLRC), established by TTD in 1993, houses approximately 40,000 volumes of books, mainly on religion and philosophy. The Research Wing works towards studying and publishing material related to the Hindu religion, produces authentic papers on original Sanskrit texts, and provide translations of major Hindu works in regional languages, Hindi and English. Dharma Prachara Parishad was established to propagate the Hindu dharma. TTD also helps promote the age-old cultural heritage of India, in the areas of traditional sculpture and architecture, temple renovation and reconstructions and restoration of Hindu sculptures. Complex queueing algorithms and emerging technologies have been evaluated and implemented to manage the huge crowds with Tata Consultancy Services designing and implementing the software and hardware infrastructure for queue management along with other companies.
Annaprasadam
The food offerings as "Annaprasadams" are being undertaken by TTD in a massive way in the Matrusri Tarigonda Vengamamba Annaprasadam Complex, donated by Matsuri Tarigonda Ananta Koti Raju at Tirumala, in all the waiting queue lines and compartments of Vaikuntam Queue Complex I and II, footpath routes etc.
In Tirupati and Tiruchanur also the distribution of free food as "Annaprasadam" is being made to not less than 15,000 devotees.
Donations given by devotees equal nearly 130 million every month. Auctions of human hair fetched a revenue of 150 crores in 2011 and 203 crores in 2012. Temple admission ticket sales fetched a revenue of $25 million in 2007. Laddu, a confectionery, is offered as Lord's prasadam. TTD has procured machines from MICO BOSCH to automate the manufacture of laddus. Sale of laddus fetched a revenue of staggering $10 million in 2007.
Education
Sri Venkateswara Vedic University, Tirumala
Sri Venkateswara Arts College, Tirupati
Sri Venkateswara Institute of Traditional Sculpture and Architecture, Tirupati
Sri Venkateswara College of Music and Dance, Tirupati
Sri Venkateswara Ayurvedic College, Tirupati
Sri Venkateswara Yoga Institute, Tirupati
Sri Venkateswara Polytechnic for the Physically Challenged (SVPPC), Tirupati
Sri Padmavati mahila viswavidyalayam (SPMVV), Tirupati
Sri Venkateswara government polytechnic college, Tirupati
Sri Padmavathi mahila polytechnic college, Tirupati
Sri Venkateswara College, New Delhi
Hospitals
TTD acts as a major stake holder in the following hospitals
Sri Venkateswara Ramnarain Ruia Government General Hospital
Sri Venkateswara Institute of Medical Sciences
Government Maternity Hospital, Tirupati
Sri Venkateswara Gosamrakshana Shala
It is home for cattle received as a donation (Godanam). It was established in the year 1956 by TTD and later renamed to S.V. Gosamrakshana Shala during 2004. It is located at Chandragiri Road, Tirupati. It is maintained by Tirumala Tirupati Devasthanams based on the funds received under Sri Venkateswara Gosamrakshana Shala Trust. Activities of the trust include providing a good environment, management, and food to the cattle. The milk and its products produced here are used by TTD for daily rituals at Sri Venkateswara Temple and other TTD temples.
Free bus services
TTD runs free buses from the Tirupati railway station and bus station to Alipiri and Srivari Mettu, every 30 minutes. Pilgrims who intend to walk up the hills to Tirumala use these buses. TTD also provides free bus services within Tirumala town, which are known as "Dharma Rathams". There are 12 such buses that pass through cottages, choultries, temples and other places in Tirumala, at a frequency of every 3 minutes in the prescribed time slots.
Controversies
Civet
The civet is an endangered animal that first appeared in historic texts during the 12th century. In these texts, it was depicted that kings would be bathed in the oil created from the secretion of these cats, called Punugu oil, for aromatic purposes. In the 14th century the oil became known as a prestigious perfume. In the 21st century, the temple has used this oil to anoint the sacred image of Sri Venkateswara every Friday. Due to the weekly occurrence of this practice, the TTD reared nine of these civets in the Sri Venkateswara dairy farms to easily collect the secretions. In 2002, due to the endangered nature of the animals, this practice came under fire. The topic cropped up again in 2008, this time accompanied by the confiscation of their civets due to the violation of the 1972 Wildlife Protection Act. The temple tried to re-obtain the civets by stating that without these animals it would go against their ageless religious practices. If that plan failed, they had hopes of funding a zoo refuge for these animals and in turn be able to collect their secretions.
Further reading
Growth and Development of Tirumala-Tirupati as a Dimension of Indian Civilization, by Talapaneni Subramanyam Naidu, Anthropological survey of India. Published by Anthropological Survey of India, Ministry of Human Resource Development, Dept. of Culture, Govt. of India, 1990.
A Study of Tirumala-Tirupati Devasthanams Educational Institutions: Higher Education, by P. Krishna Murthy. Published by P. Krishna Murthy, 1984.
Founder history
Ghati Deva Yadavaraya, Veera Narasingadeva Yadavaraya, Veera Rakshasa Yadavaraya and Ranganatha Yadavaraya
Media
Sri Venkateswara Bhakti Channel
Sapthagiri Magazine
See also
Alamelu Mangapuram
Tirumala Brahmotsavalu
References
External links
TTD Temple official website
Hindu organisations based in India
Tirumala Venkateswara Temple
Organisations based in Chittoor
Religious organizations established in 1932
1932 establishments in India | [
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222405 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Linnik%27s%20theorem | Linnik's theorem | Linnik's theorem in analytic number theory answers a natural question after Dirichlet's theorem on arithmetic progressions. It asserts that there exist positive c and L such that, if we denote p(a,d) the least prime in the arithmetic progression
where n runs through the positive integers and a and d are any given positive coprime integers with 1 ≤ a ≤ d − 1, then:
The theorem is named after Yuri Vladimirovich Linnik, who proved it in 1944. Although Linnik's proof showed c and L to be effectively computable, he provided no numerical values for them.
It follows from Zsigmondy's theorem that p(1,d) ≤ 2d − 1, for all d ≥ 3. It is known that p(1,p) ≤ Lp, for all primes p ≥ 5, as Lp is congruent to 1 modulo p for all prime numbers p, where Lp denotes the p-th Lucas number. Just like Mersenne numbers, Lucas numbers with prime indices have divisors of the form 2kp+1.
Properties
It is known that L ≤ 2 for almost all integers d.
On the generalized Riemann hypothesis it can be shown that
where is the totient function,
and the stronger bound
has been also proved.
It is also conjectured that:
Bounds for L
The constant L is called Linnik's constant and the following table shows the progress that has been made on determining its size.
Moreover, in Heath-Brown's result the constant c is effectively computable.
Notes
Theorems in analytic number theory
Theorems about prime numbers | [
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222409 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tirumala | Tirumala | Tirumala is a census town in Chittoor district of the Indian state of Andhra Pradesh. It is one of the suburbs of the Tirupati Urban agglomeration. The town is a part of Tirupati Urban Development Authority and located in Tirupati (rural) mandal of Tirupati revenue division. It is a hill town where Tirumala Venkateswara Temple is located, which is the abode of Lord Venkateswara. The town is strictly vegetarian.
Geography
Tirumala is located above sea level and covers an area of approximately . Surrounding the hills are seven peaks of Seshachalam range, Eastern Ghats namely Seshadri, Neeladri, Garudadri, Anjanadri, Vrushabadri, Narayanadri and Venkatadri. The temple of Sri Venkateswara is on the seventh peak (Venkatadri).
At the point on the Tirupati – Tirumala Ghat road, there is a major discontinuity of stratigraphic significance that represents a period of remarkable serenity in the geological history of the Earth. This is referred to as the Eparchaean Unconformity. This unconformity separates the Nagari Quartzite of the Proterozoic from the granite of the Archean, representing a time gap of 800 Mya. In 2001, the Geological Survey of India (GSI) declared the Eparchaean Unconformity to be one of the 26 "Geological Monuments of India".
Silathoranam, a natural arch and a distinctive geological wonder is located in Tirumala Hills at a distance of from Tirumala Venkateswara Temple. The arch measures in width and metres in height and is eroded out of quartizite of Cuddapah Supergroup of Middle to Upper Proterozoic (1600 to 570 Mya) by weathering agents such as water and wind.
Climate
Tirumala has a tropical wet and dry climate designated Aw under the Köppen climate classification. As the hill shrine is situated amidst the hills, the temperature will go below 10 degrees in winter. Summers are not as hot here, especially compared to Tirupati. The southwest monsoon season starts from June, but rains are not heavy. Occasionally, thunderstorms form and downpours may persist for hours. Pertaining to orographic relief, the northeast monsoon remains active over the region for 2 months. It causes flooding. The highest 24-hour rainfall on record was on 23 November 2005, followed by on 9 November 2015.
Legend
In ancient literature, Tirupati is mentioned as Aadhi Varaha Kshetra. The Puranas associate the site with Lord Varaha, one of the Dashavatara of Lord Vishnu. In Varaha Purana, Venkatadri is believed to be a part of Mount Meru, which was brought on to the earth from Vishnu's abode Vaikuntam by his mount Garuda. The seven peaks represent the seven heads of Adisesha.
Demographics
India census, Tirumala has a population of 7,741. Males constitute 52 percent of the population and females 48 percent. Tirumala has an average literacy rate of 72.8 percent, higher than the national average of 59.5 percent. The male literacy rate is 57.1 percent and the female rate is 42.9 percent. In Tirumala, 11 percent of the population is under six years of age.
Telugu is the major language. Hinduism is the only religion in Tirumala.
Culture
The town of Tirumala is strictly vegetarian. Consumption of non-vegetarian food, alcohol, and tobacco products is strictly prohibited in Tirumala, and smuggling any of these is considered a serious offence at Tirumala. Dhotis and Sarees are the traditional popular attire. The practices of tonsure and using tilaka are popular among devotees of Lord Venkateswara.
Festivals
Sri Venkateswara Brahmotsavams celebrated every year during September/October is the most important festival in Tirumala when it receives lakhs of devotees over a short span of a nine days. The city celebrates all major Hindu festivals including Sankranti, Ugadi etc. Vaikunta Ekadasi, the day on which it is believed that Vaikunta Dwarams will be opened, is celebrated in Tirumala. Rathasapthami is another festival, celebrated during February, when Lord Venkateswara processional deity, (Malayappa) is taken in a procession around the temple on seven different vahanas from early morning to late night.
Cuisine
Tirupati is known for world-famous Tirupati Laddu. It is the prasadam at Venkateswara Temple, Tirumala. Tirupati Laddu had got Geographical indication tag which entitles only Tirumala Tirupati Devasthanams to make or sell it.
Arts, crafts and architecture
Tirumala Tirupati Devasthanams established Sri Venkateswara Museum, one at Tirumala and the other at Tirupati. It has a wonderful collection of Tirupati temple architecture and historical artefacts, such as ancient weaponry, pooja items and idols. It has a comprehensive photo gallery that gives a unique insight into the Tirupati region's culture and traditions. It also boasts a meditation centre.
Landmarks
Venkateswara Temple is an abode of Lord Venkateswara situated in Tirumala. It is also known as Tirumala Temple. Natural Arch is located north of the temple, which measures wide and high and was naturally formed from the quartz. Srivaari Paadamulu (the footprints of Lord) are believed to be the footprints of Lord Venkateswara formed when he first stood on Tirumala Hills. Papavinasanam is a waterfall flowing from a tributary of the Swarnamukhi River. It also has a temple where seven lion-headed channels open from a height for deities to bathe below them. A temple dedicated to goddess Ganga is located near the enclosure. Akaasa Ganga is another natural waterfall in Tirumala.
Transport
Foot Steps
There are two paths to travel on foot from Tirupati to Tirumala. These paths are called Sopanamargas. The Devotees to fulfil their Vow to Lord Venkateswara will take this path to reach Tirumala on foot from Tirupati. Both the paths are completely roofed and passes through seven hills which are part of Seshachalam Hills.
Alipiri Mettu – The first and Ancient path starts from Alipiri and consists of a total 3550 Steps which makes a distance of 11 km. At Alipiri there is a temple dedicated to Lord Venkateswara called Padalamandapam. There are Four Gopurams(Temple Towers) on the way.
Srivari Mettu – It originates at Srinivasa Mangapuram, about from Tirupati. It is long. This trail has 2400 steps and is shorter than Alipiri Metlu path.
Road
Tirumala can be accessed by road from Alipiri. The distance is . There are two roads from Alipiri to Tirumala, one each dedicated to up and down traffic. The state government-owned Andhra Pradesh State Road Transport Corporation (APSRTC) operates frequent Saptagiri and Saptagiri Express buses from Tirupati and Alipiri and also from nearby places. Tirumala Tirupati Devasthanams (TTD) runs free buses for transit within Tirumala.
Rail
The nearest railway station is at Tirupati, about from Tirumala. Tirupati Main is one of the major railway station in the South Central Railway zone of the Indian Railways, providing rail connectivity to major parts of India. It is under the jurisdiction of Guntakal railway division. is another important railway station which lies on the Chennai – Mumbai rail corridor is away from Tirumala.
Airport
The nearest airport is Tirupati Airport, about from Tirumala. It is a domestic airport with direct flights to Hyderabad, Visakhapatnam and New Delhi. The nearest major airport is the Chennai International Airport, located about from Tirumala.
See also
Hindu Temples in Tirupati
List of census towns in Andhra Pradesh
References
External links
Most Visited Holy Place in the World – World Record
Vasista ashramam, Srinivasa Mangapuram, Tirupati Website
Articles containing potentially dated statements from 2004
All articles containing potentially dated statements
Towns in Chittoor district
Tirupati
Hindu holy cities
Hills of Andhra Pradesh
Tourist attractions in Andhra Pradesh
Geography of Chittoor district
Mountains of Andhra Pradesh
Vegetarian towns in India | [
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] |
222410 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Balaji | Balaji | Balaji may refer to
Religion
Venkateswara, one of the incarnations of Vishnu
Balaji Mandir (disambiguation), a list of temples
Organisations
Balaji Wafers, a FMCG group based in Rajkot, Gujarat
Balaji Institute of Modern Management Pune, a business school in Pune, India
Balaji Motion Pictures, a film production house in Mumbai, India
Balaji Telefilms, a film production house in Mumbai, India
People
Balaji, an Indian name (for persons with the name see )
K. Balaji (1934-2009), South Indian producer and actor
Balaji K. Kumar American/Indian film director
Other uses
Balaji (leopard), a leopard in the Sri Venkateswara Zoological Park
Balaji, Iran, a village in West Azerbaijan Province, Iran
Balaji, Gilan, a village in Gilan Province, Iran
Indian surnames | [
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222412 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Numbat | Numbat | The numbat (Myrmecobius fasciatus), also known as the noombat or walpurti, is an insectivorous marsupial. It is diurnal and its diet consists almost exclusively of termites.
The species was once widespread across southern Australia, but is now restricted to several small colonies in Western Australia. It is therefore considered an endangered species and protected by conservation programs. Numbats were recently re-introduced to fenced reserves in South Australia and New South Wales. The numbat is the faunal emblem of Western Australia.
Taxonomy
The numbat genus Myrmecobius is the sole member of the family Myrmecobiidae, one of four families that make up the order Dasyuromorphia, the Australian marsupial carnivores.
The species is not closely related to other extant marsupials; the current arrangement in the order Dasyuromorphia places its monotypic family with the diverse and carnivorous species of Dasyuridae. Genetic studies have shown the ancestors of the numbat diverged from other marsupials between 32 and 42 million years ago, during the late Eocene.
Two subspecies have been described, but one of these—the rusty coloured Myrmecobius fasciatus rufus Finlayson, 1933,—has been extinct since at least the 1960s, and only the nominate subspecies (M. fasciatus fasciatus) remains alive today. The population described by Finlayson occurred in the arid central regions of South Australia, and he thought they had once extended to the coast. The separation to subspecies was not recognised in the national census of Australian mammals, following W. D. L. Ride and others. As its name implies, M. fasciatus rufus had a more reddish coat than the surviving population. Only a very small number of fossil specimens are known, the oldest dating back to the Pleistocene, and no other species from the same family have been identified.
The following is a phylogenetic tree based on mitochondrial genome sequences:
Placement of the family within the order of dasyuromorphs may be summarised as
Order Dasyuromorphia
Family Thylacinidae
Family Dasyuridae (72 species in 20 genera)
Family Myrmecobiidae
Genus Myrmecobius
Species Myrmecobius fasciatus
Family †Malleodectidae
The common names are adopted from the extant names at the time of English colonisation, numbat, from the Nyungar language of southwest Australia, and walpurti, the name in the Pitjantjatjara dialect. The orthography and pronunciation of the Nyungar name is regularised, following a survey of published sources and contemporary consultation that resulted in the name noombat, pronounced noom'bat.
Other names include banded anteater and marsupial anteater.
Description
The numbat is a small, colourful creature between long, including the tail, with a finely pointed muzzle and a prominent, bushy tail about the same length as its body. Colour varies considerably, from soft grey to reddish-brown, often with an area of brick red on the upper back, and always with a conspicuous black stripe running from the tip of the muzzle through the eyes to the bases of the small, round-tipped ears. Between four and eleven white stripes cross the animal's hindquarters, which gradually become fainter towards the midback. The underside is cream or light grey, while the tail is covered with long, grey hair flecked with white. Weight varies between .
Unlike most other marsupials, the numbat is diurnal, largely because of the constraints of having a specialised diet without having the usual physical equipment for it. Most ecosystems with a generous supply of termites have a fairly large creature with powerful forelimbs bearing heavy claws. Numbats are not large, and they have five toes on the fore feet, and four on the hind feet. However, like other mammals that eat termites or ants, the numbat has a degenerate jaw with up to 50 very small, nonfunctional teeth, and although it is able to chew, rarely does so, because of the soft nature of its diet. Uniquely among terrestrial mammals, an additional cheek tooth is located between the premolars and molars; whether this represents a supernumerary molar tooth or a deciduous tooth retained into adult life is unclear. As a result, although not all individuals have the same dental formula, in general, it follows the unique pattern:
Like many ant or termite eating animals, the numbat has a long and narrow tongue coated with sticky saliva produced by large submandibular glands. A further adaptation to the diet is the presence of numerous ridges along the soft palate, which apparently help to scrape termites off the tongue so they can be swallowed. The digestive system is relatively simple, and lacks many of the adaptations found in other entomophagous animals, presumably because termites are easier to digest than ants, having a softer exoskeleton. Numbats are apparently able to gain a considerable amount of water from their diets, since their kidneys lack the usual specialisations for retaining water found in other animals living in their arid environment. Numbats also possess a sternal scent gland, which may be used for marking their territories.
Although the numbat finds termite mounds primarily using scent, it has the highest visual acuity of any marsupial, and, unusually for marsupials, has a high proportion of cone cells in the retina. These are both likely adaptations for its diurnal habits, and vision does appear to be the primary sense used to detect potential predators.
Distribution and habitat
Numbats were formerly widely distributed across southern Australia, from Western Australia to north-western New South Wales. However, their range has significantly decreased since the arrival of Europeans, and the species has survived only in two small patches of land in the Dryandra Woodland and the Perup Nature Reserve, both in Western Australia.
Today, numbats are naturally found only in areas of eucalypt forest, but they were once more widespread in other types of semiarid woodland, spinifex grassland, and in terrain dominated by sand dune. There are estimated to be fewer than 1,000 left in the wild.
After measures aimed at excluding feral cats, the number of numbats trapped during annual population surveys in the Dryandra Woodland had increased to 35 by November 2020, after recording just 10 in 2019 and 5 in 2018. There had not been so many numbats recorded since 36 were recorded in the 1990s.
The species has been successfully reintroduced into three fenced, feral predator-proof reserves in more varied environments; Yookamurra Sanctuary in the mallee of South Australia, Scotia Sanctuary in semi-arid NSW, and Western Australia's Mount Gibson Sanctuary. Reintroduction began at a large fenced reserve in Mallee Cliffs National Park in NSW in December 2020.
Attempted reintroductions of the species to fenced reserves in two other areas – one in the South Australian arid zone, near Roxby Downs, and the other in the northernmost part of its former range, at Newhaven Sanctuary in the Northern Territory – both failed.
There are plans to reintroduce the species to a managed and semi-fenced area of the southern Yorke Peninsula in South Australia, as part of the Marna Banggara (formerly Great Southern Ark) project.
Ecology and habits
Numbats are insectivores and subsist on a diet of termites. An adult numbat requires up to 20,000 termites each day. The only marsupial fully active by day, the numbat spends most of its time searching for termites. It digs them up from loose earth with its front claws and captures them with its long, sticky tongue. Despite its banded anteater name, it apparently does not intentionally eat ants; although the remains of ants have occasionally been found in numbat excreta, these belong to species that themselves prey on termites, so were presumably eaten accidentally, along with the main food. Known native predators include various reptiles and raptors, such as the carpet python, sand goanna, wedge-tailed eagle, collard sparrowhawk, brown goshawk, and the little eagle. They are also preyed upon by invasive red foxes and feral cats.
Adult numbats are solitary and territorial; an individual male or female establishes a territory of up to 1.5 square km (370 acres) early in life, and defends it from others of the same sex. The animal generally remains within that territory from then on; male and female territories overlap, and in the breeding season, males will venture outside their normal home ranges to find mates.
While the numbat has relatively powerful claws for its size, it is not strong enough to get at termites inside their concrete-like mounds, and so must wait until the termites are active. It uses a well-developed sense of smell to locate the shallow and unfortified underground galleries that termites construct between the nest and their feeding sites; these are usually only a short distance below the surface of the soil, and vulnerable to the numbat's digging claws.
The numbat synchronises its day with termite activity, which is temperature dependent: in winter, it feeds from midmorning to midafternoon; in summer, it rises earlier, takes shelter during the heat of the day, and feeds again in the late afternoon. Numbats are able to enter a state of torpor, which may last up to fifteen hours a day during the winter months.
At night, the numbat retreats to a nest, which can be in a log or tree hollow, or in a burrow, typically a narrow shaft 1–2 m long which terminates in a spherical chamber lined with soft plant material: grass, leaves, flowers, and shredded bark. The numbat is able to block the opening of its nest, with the thick hide of its rump, to prevent a predator being able to access the burrow.
Numbats have relatively few vocalisations, but have been reported to hiss, growl, or make a repetitive 'tut' sound when disturbed.
Reproduction
Numbats breed in February and March (late austral summer), normally producing one litter a year. They are able to produce a second if the first is lost. Gestation lasts 15 days, and results in the birth of four young. Unusual for marsupials, female numbats have no pouch, although the four teats are protected by a patch of crimped, golden hair and by the swelling of the surrounding abdomen and thighs during lactation.
The young are long at birth. They crawl immediately to the teats and remain attached until late July or early August, by which time they have grown to . They are long when they first develop fur, the patterning of the adult begins to appear once they reach . The young are left in a nest or carried on the mother's back after weaning, becoming fully independent by November. Females are sexually mature by the following summer, but males do not reach maturity for another year.
Conservation status
At the time of European colonisation, the numbat was found across western, central, and southern regions of Australia, extending as far east as New South Wales and Victorian state borders and as far north as the southwest corner of the Northern Territory. It was at home in a wide range of woodland and semiarid habitats. The deliberate release of the European red fox in the 19th century, however, is presumed to have wiped out the entire numbat population in Victoria, NSW, South Australia and the Northern Territory, and almost all numbats in Western Australia. By the late 1970s, the population was well under 1,000 individuals, concentrated in two small areas not far from Perth, at protected areas of the Dryandra forest and at Perup.
The population recognised and described as a subspecies by Finlayson, M. fasciatus rufus, is presumed to be extinct.
The first record of the species described it as beautiful, and its popular appeal led to its selection as the faunal emblem of the state of Western Australia and initiated efforts to conserve it from extinction.
The two small Western Australia populations apparently were able to survive because both areas have many hollow logs that may serve as refuge from predators. Being diurnal, the numbat is much more vulnerable to predation than most other marsupials of a similar size: its natural predators include the little eagle, brown goshawk, collared sparrowhawk, and carpet python. When the Western Australia government instituted an experimental program of fox baiting at Dryandra (one of the two remaining sites), numbat sightings increased by a factor of 40.
An intensive research and conservation program since 1980 has succeeded in increasing the numbat population substantially, and reintroductions to fox-free areas have begun. Perth Zoo is very closely involved in breeding this native species in captivity for release into the wild. Despite the encouraging degree of success so far, the numbat remains at considerable risk of extinction and is classified as an endangered species.
Since 2006, Project Numbat volunteers have helped to save the numbat from extinction. One of Project Numbat's main objectives is to raise funds that go towards conservation projects, and to raise awareness through presentations held by volunteers at schools, community groups and events.
Numbats can be successfully reintroduced into areas of their former range if protected from introduced predators.
Early records
The numbat first became known to Europeans in 1831. It was discovered by an exploration party exploring the Avon Valley under the leadership of Robert Dale. George Fletcher Moore, who was a member of the expedition, drew a picture in his diary on 22 September 1831, and recounted the discovery:
and the following day:
The first classification of specimens was published by George Robert Waterhouse, describing the species in 1836 and the family in 1841.
Myrmecobius fasciatus was included in the first part of John Gould's The Mammals of Australia, issued in 1845, with a plate by H. C. Richter illustrating the species.
Notes
Citations
Explanatory notes
External links
Arkive – Numbat (Myrmecobius fasciatus)
Project Numbat
Dasyuromorphs
Mammals described in 1836
Marsupials of Australia
Myrmecophagous mammals
Vulnerable fauna of Australia | [
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222414 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bagan | Bagan | Bagan (, ; formerly Pagan) () is an ancient city and a UNESCO World Heritage Site in the Mandalay Region of Myanmar. From the 9th to 13th centuries, the city was the capital of the Bagan Kingdom, the first kingdom that unified the regions that would later constitute Myanmar. During the kingdom's height between the 11th and 13th centuries, more than 10,000 Buddhist temples, pagodas and monasteries were constructed in the Bagan plains alone, of which the remains of over 2200 temples and pagodas survive.
The Bagan Archaeological Zone is a main attraction for the country's nascent tourism industry.
Etymology
Bagan is the present-day standard Burmese pronunciation of the Burmese word Pugan (), derived from Old Burmese Pukam (). Its classical Pali name is Arimaddanapura (, lit. "the City that Tramples on Enemies"). Its other names in Pali are in reference to its extreme dry zone climate: Tattadesa (, "parched land"), and Tampadīpa (, "bronzed country"). The Burmese chronicles also report other classical names of Thiri Pyissaya (; ) and Tampawaddy (; ).
History
9th to 13th centuries
According to the Burmese chronicles, Bagan was founded in the second century AD, and fortified in 849 AD by King Pyinbya, 34th successor of the founder of early Bagan. Mainstream scholarship however holds that Bagan was founded in the mid-to-late 9th century by the Mranma (Burmans), who had recently entered the Irrawaddy valley from the Nanzhao Kingdom. It was among several competing Pyu city-states until the late 10th century when the Burman settlement grew in authority and grandeur.
From 1044 to 1287, Bagan was the capital as well as the political, economic and cultural nerve center of the Bagan Empire. Over the course of 250 years, Bagan's rulers and their wealthy subjects constructed over 10,000 religious monuments (approximately 1000 stupas, 10,000 small temples and 3000 monasteries) in an area of in the Bagan plains. The prosperous city grew in size and grandeur, and became a cosmopolitan center for religious and secular studies, specializing in Pali scholarship in grammar and philosophical-psychological (abhidhamma) studies as well as works in a variety of languages on prosody, phonology, grammar, astrology, alchemy, medicine, and legal studies. The city attracted monks and students from as far as India, Sri Lanka and the Khmer Empire.
The culture of Bagan was dominated by religion. The religion of Bagan was fluid, syncretic and by later standards, unorthodox. It was largely a continuation of religious trends in the Pyu era where Theravada Buddhism co-existed with Mahayana Buddhism, Tantric Buddhism, various Hindu (Saivite, and Vaishana) schools as well as native animist (nat) traditions. While the royal patronage of Theravada Buddhism since the mid-11th century had enabled the Buddhist school to gradually gain primacy, other traditions continued to thrive throughout the Pagan period to degrees later unseen.
The Pagan Empire collapsed in 1287 due to repeated Mongol invasions (1277–1301). Recent research shows that Mongol armies may not have reached Bagan itself, and that even if they did, the damage they inflicted was probably minimal. However, the damage had already been done. The city, once home to some 50,000 to 200,000 people, had been reduced to a small town, never to regain its preeminence. The city formally ceased to be the capital of Burma in December 1297 when the Myinsaing Kingdom became the new power in Upper Burma.
14th to 19th centuries
Bagan survived into the 15th century a human settlement, and as a pilgrimage destination throughout the imperial period. A smaller number of "new and impressive" religious monuments still went up to the mid-15th century but afterward, new temple constructions slowed to a trickle with fewer than 200 temples built between the 15th and 20th centuries. The old capital remained a pilgrimage destination but pilgrimage was focused only on "a score or so" most prominent temples out of the thousands such as the Ananda, the Shwezigon, the Sulamani, the Htilominlo, the Dhammayazika, and a few other temples along an ancient road. The rest—thousands of less famous, out-of-the-way temples—fell into disrepair, and most did not survive the test of time.
For the few dozen temples that were regularly patronized, the continued patronage meant regular upkeep as well as architectural additions donated by the devotees. Many temples were repainted with new frescoes on top of their original Pagan era ones, or fitted with new Buddha statutes. Then came a series of state-sponsored "systematic" renovations in the Konbaung period (1752–1885), which by and large were not true to the original designs—some finished with "a rude plastered surface, scratched without taste, art or result". The interiors of some temples were also whitewashed, such as the Thatbyinnyu and the Ananda. Many painted inscriptions and even murals were added in this period.
20th century to present
Bagan, located in an active earthquake zone, had suffered from many earthquakes over the ages, with over 400 recorded earthquakes between 1904 and 1975. A major earthquake occurred on 8 July 1975, reaching 8 MM in Bagan and Myinkaba, and 7 MM in Nyaung-U. The quake damaged many temples, in many cases, such as the Bupaya, severely and irreparably. Today, 2229 temples and pagodas remain.
Many of these damaged pagodas underwent restorations in the 1990s by the military government, which sought to make Bagan an international tourist destination. However, the restoration efforts instead drew widespread condemnation from art historians and preservationists worldwide. Critics are aghast that the restorations paid little attention to original architectural styles, and used modern materials, and that the government has also established a golf course, a paved highway, and built a watchtower. Although the government believed that the ancient capital's hundreds of (unrestored) temples and large corpus of stone inscriptions were more than sufficient to win the designation of UNESCO World Heritage Site, the city was not so designated until 2019, allegedly mainly on account of the restorations.
Bagan today is a main tourist destination in the country's nascent tourism industry, which has long been the target of various boycott campaigns. Several Burmese publications note that the city's small tourism infrastructure will have to expand rapidly even to meet a modest pickup in tourism in the following years.
On 24 August 2016, a major earthquake hit central Myanmar and again did major damage in Bagan; this time almost 400 temples were destroyed. The Sulamani and Myauk Guni (North Guni) were severely damaged. The Bagan Archaeological Department has started a survey and reconstruction effort with the help of UNESCO experts. Visitors are prohibited from entering 33 damaged temples.
On 6 July 2019, Bagan was officially inscribed as a World Heritage Site by UNESCO, after 24 years since the military government first nominated the city in 1995, during the 43rd session of the World Heritage Committee. This makes Bagan the second World Heritage Site in Myanmar, after the Ancient Cities of Pyu. As part of the criteria for the inscription of Bagan, the government of Myanmar has pledged to relocate existing hotels in the archaeological zone to a dedicated hotel zone by 2028.
Geography
The Bagan Archaeological Zone, defined as the area centred around Old Bagan, consisting of Nyaung U in the north and New Bagan in the south, lies in the vast expanse of plains in Upper Burma on the bend of the Irrawaddy river. It is located south-west of Mandalay and north of Yangon.
Climate
Bagan lies in the middle of the "dry zone" of Burma, the region roughly between Shwebo in the north and Pyay in the south. Unlike the coastal regions of the country, which receive annual monsoon rainfalls exceeding , the dry zone gets little precipitation as it is sheltered from the rain by the Rakhine Yoma mountain range in the west.
Available online climate sources report Bagan climate quite differently.
Cityscape
Architecture
Bagan stands out for not only the sheer number of religious edifices of Myanmar but also the magnificent architecture of the buildings, and their contribution to Burmese temple design. The artistry of the architecture of pagodas in Bagan proves the achievement of Myanmar craftsmen in handicrafts. The Bagan temple falls into one of two broad categories: the stupa-style solid temple and the gu-style (ဂူ) hollow temple.
Stupas
A stupa, also called a pagoda or chedi, is a massive structure, typically with a relic chamber inside. The Bagan stupas or pagodas evolved from earlier Pyu designs, which in turn were based on the stupa designs of the Andhra region, particularly Amaravati and Nagarjunakonda in present-day south-eastern India, and to a smaller extent to Ceylon. The Bagan-era stupas in turn were the prototypes for later Burmese stupas in terms of symbolism, form and design, building techniques and even materials.
Originally, a Ceylonese stupa had a hemispheric body ( "the egg"), on which a rectangular box surrounded by a stone balustrade (harmika) was set. Extending up from the top of the stupa was a shaft supporting several ceremonial umbrellas. The stupa is a representation of the Buddhist cosmos: its shape symbolizes Mount Meru while the umbrella mounted on the brickwork represents the world's axis. The brickwork pediment was often covered in stucco and decorated in relief. Pairs or series of ogres as guardian figures ('bilu') were a favourite theme in the Bagan period.
The original Indic design was gradually modified first by the Pyu, and then by Burmans at Bagan where the stupa gradually developed a longer, cylindrical form. The earliest Bagan stupas such as the Bupaya (c. 9th century) were the direct descendants of the Pyu style at Sri Ksetra. By the 11th century, the stupa had developed into a more bell-shaped form in which the parasols morphed into a series of increasingly smaller rings placed on one top of the other, rising to a point. On top the rings, the new design replaced the harmika with a lotus bud. The lotus bud design then evolved into the "banana bud", which forms the extended apex of most Burmese pagodas. Three or four rectangular terraces served as the base for a pagoda, often with a gallery of terra-cotta tiles depicting Buddhist jataka stories. The Shwezigon Pagoda and the Shwesandaw Pagoda are the earliest examples of this type. Examples of the trend toward a more bell-shaped design gradually gained primacy as seen in the Dhammayazika Pagoda (late 12th century) and the Mingalazedi Pagoda (late 13th century).
Hollow temples
In contrast to the stupas, the hollow gu-style temple is a structure used for meditation, devotional worship of the Buddha and other Buddhist rituals. The gu temples come in two basic styles: "one-face" design and "four-face" design—essentially one main entrance and four main entrances. Other styles such as five-face and hybrids also exist. The one-face style grew out of 2nd century Beikthano, and the four-face out of 7th century Sri Ksetra. The temples, whose main features were the pointed arches and the vaulted chamber, became larger and grander in the Bagan period.
Innovations
Although the Burmese temple designs evolved from Indic, Pyu (and possibly Mon) styles, the techniques of vaulting seem to have developed in Bagan itself. The earliest vaulted temples in Bagan date to the 11th century, while the vaulting did not become widespread in India until the late 12th century. The masonry of the buildings shows "an astonishing degree of perfection", where many of the immense structures survived the 1975 earthquake more or less intact. (Unfortunately, the vaulting techniques of the Bagan era were lost in the later periods. Only much smaller gu style temples were built after Bagan. In the 18th century, for example, King Bodawpaya attempted to build the Mingun Pagoda, in the form of spacious vaulted chambered temple but failed as craftsmen and masons of the later era had lost the knowledge of vaulting and keystone arching to reproduce the spacious interior space of the Bagan hollow temples.)
Another architectural innovation originated in Bagan is the Buddhist temple with a pentagonal floor plan. This design grew out of hybrid (between one-face and four-face designs) designs. The idea was to include the veneration of the Maitreya Buddha, the future and fifth Buddha of this era, in addition to the four who had already appeared. The Dhammayazika and the Ngamyethna Pagoda are examples of the pentagonal design.
Notable cultural sites
Museums
The Bagan Archaeological Museum: The only museum in the Bagan Archaeological Zone, itself a field museum a millennium old. The three-story museum houses a number of rare Bagan period objects including the original Myazedi inscriptions, the Rosetta stone of Burma.
Anawrahta's Palace: It was rebuilt in 2003 based on the extant foundations at the old palace site. But the palace above the foundation is completely conjectural.
3D Documentation with LiDAR
The Zamani Project from the University of Cape Town, South Africa, offered its services towards the spatial documentation of monuments in Bagan in response to the destruction of monuments by an earthquake in August 2016. After reconnaissance visit to Bagan and a subsequent meeting at the UNESCO offices in Bangkok in February 2017, the Zamani Project documented 12 monuments in Bagan using LiDAR, during three field campaigns between 2017 and 2018, including Kubyauk-gyi (Gubyaukgyi) (298); Kyauk-ku-umin (154); Tha-peik-hmauk-gu-hpaya (744); Sula-mani-gu-hpaya (Sulamani) (748) Monument 1053; Sein-nyet-ama (1085); Sein-nyet-nyima (1086); Naga-yon-hpaya (1192); Loka-ok-shaung (1467); Than-daw-kya (1592); Ananda Monastery; and the City Gate of old Bagan (Tharabha Gate).
Transport
Bagan is accessible by air, rail, bus, car and river boat.
Air
Most international tourists fly to the city. The Nyaung U Airport is the gateway to the Bagan region. Several domestic airlines have regular flights to Yangon, which take about 80 minutes to cover the 600 kilometres. Flights to Mandalay take approximately 30 minutes and to Heho about 40 minutes. The airport is located on the outskirts of Nyaung U and it takes about 20 minutes by taxi to reach Bagan.
Rail
The city is on a spur from the Yangon-Mandalay rail line. Myanmar Railways operates a daily overnight train service each way between Yangon and Bagan (Train Nos 61 & 62), which takes at least 18 hours. The trains have a sleeper car and also 1st Class and Ordinary Class seating.
Between Mandalay and Bagan there are two daily services each way (Train Nos 117,118,119 & 120) that take at least 8 hours. The trains have 1st Class and Ordinary Class seating.
Buses and cars
Overnight buses and cars also operate to and from Yangon and Mandalay taking approximately 9 and 6 hours respectively.
Boat
An 'express' ferry service runs between Bagan and Mandalay. Following the Irrawaddy river the fastest ferry takes around 9 hours to travel the 170 kilometres. The service runs daily during peak periods and slower sailings with overnight stops are also available.
Economy
Bagan's economy is based mainly on tourism. Because of boycotts against the previous military government, the Bagan region's tourism infrastructure is still quite modest by international standards. The city has a few international standard hotels and many family-run guesthouses. Bagan is also the center of Burmese lacquerware industry, which to a large degree depends on tourist demand. Much of the lacquerware is destined for souvenir shops in Yangon, and to the world markets. Moreover, the lacquerware-making process itself has become a tourist draw.
Demographics
The population of Bagan in its heyday is estimated anywhere between 50,000 to 200,000 people. Until the advent of tourism industry in the 1990s, only a few villagers lived in Old Bagan. The rise of tourism has attracted a sizable population to the area. Because Old Bagan is now off limits to permanent dwellings, much of the population reside in either New Bagan, south of Old Bagan, or Nyaung-U, north of Old Bagan. The majority of native residents are Bamar.
Administration
The Bagan archaeological zone is part of Nyaung-U District, Mandalay Region.
Sister cities
Luang Prabang, Laos
Siem Reap, Cambodia
Gallery
See also
Index of Buddhism-related articles
Secular Buddhism
Notes
References
Rao, Vinay Kumar. “Buddhist Art of Pagan, 2 Vols.” Published by Agam Kala Publications, New Delhi, 2011. .
External links
Bagan Map. DPS Online Maps.
Bagan Travel Guide
All about Bagan (english version)
Free travel images of Bagan
The Life of the Buddha in 80 Scenes, Ananda Temple Charles Duroiselle, Archaeological Survey of India, Annual Report, Delhi, 1913–14
The Art and Culture of Burma - the Pagan Period Dr. Richard M. Cooler, Northern Illinois University
Asian Historical Architecture: Bagan Prof. Robert D. Fiala, Concordia University, Nebraska
Buddhist Architecture at Bagan Bob Hudson, University of Sydney, Australia
Photographs of temples and paintings of Bagan Part 1 and Part 2
Bagan moving postcards
Township capitals of Myanmar
9th-century establishments in Asia
Populated places established in the 9th century
Pagan Kingdom
Buddhist temples in Myanmar
Populated places in Mandalay Region
Buddhist pilgrimage sites in Myanmar
Buddhist art
Tourist attractions in Myanmar
World Heritage Sites in Myanmar | [
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222417 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/A.%20R.%20Rahman | A. R. Rahman | Allah Rakha Rahman (; born A. S. Dileep Kumar; 6 January 1967) is an Indian film composer, record producer, singer and songwriter who works predominantly in Tamil and Hindi films. In 2010, the Indian government awarded him the Padma Bhushan, the nation's third-highest civilian award. Among Rahman's awards are six National Film Awards, two Academy Awards, two Grammy Awards, a BAFTA Award, a Golden Globe Award, fifteen Filmfare Awards and seventeen Filmfare Awards South.
Rahman initially composed scores for different documentaries and jingles for advertisements and Indian television channels. With his in-house studio Panchathan Record Inn, Rahman's film-scoring career began during the early 1990s with the Tamil film Roja. Following that, he went on to score several songs for Tamil language films, including Ratnam's politically charged Bombay, the urban Kadhalan, Thiruda Thiruda, and S. Shankar's debut film Gentleman. Rahman's score for his first Hollywood film, the comedy Couples Retreat (2009), won the BMI Award for Best Score. His music for Slumdog Millionaire (2008) earned him Best Original Score and Best Original Song at the 81st Academy Awards. He was also awarded Best Compilation Soundtrack Album and Best Song Written for Visual Media at the 2010 Grammy Awards. He is nicknamed "Isai Puyal" (musical storm) and "Mozart of Madras".
Rahman has also become a humanitarian and philanthropist, donating and raising money for a number of causes and charities. In 2006, he was honoured by Stanford University for his contributions to global music. In 2008, he received Lifetime Achievement Award from the Rotary Club of Madras. In 2009, he was included on the Time list of the world's 100 most influential people. In 2013, he introduced 7.1 surround sound technology to South Indian films. In 2014, he was awarded an honorary doctorate from Berklee College of Music. He has also received honorary doctorate from Aligarh Muslim University. In 2017, he made his debut as a director and writer for the film Le Musk.
Early life
Allah Rakha Rahman was born as A. S. Dileep Kumar in Madras, Tamil Nadu, on 6 January 1967. His father, R. K. Shekhar from a Mudaliar family, was a film-score composer and conductor for Tamil and Malayalam films. Rahman began studying piano at age four. He assisted his father in the studio, playing the keyboard.
After his father's death when Rahman was nine years old, the rental of his father's musical equipment provided his family's income.Raised by his mother, Kareema (born Kashturi), Rahman, who was studying in Padma Seshadri Bala Bhavan had to work to support his family. which led to him to routinely miss classes and fail exams. Therefore, the Principal Mrs YGP summoned Rahman and his mother and told them that Rahman should focus on academics irrespective of family circumstances. However, in an interview in 2012, Rahman said that his mother was summoned and was told to take him to the streets of Kodambakkam to beg and not to send him to the school anymore. Rahman attended another school called MCN for a year, and later joined Madras Christian College Higher Secondary School, where he was admitted on his music talent and formed a band with his high school classmates. However, after discussing with his mother, he later dropped out of school to pursue a career as a full-time musician.
Rahman was a keyboard player and arranger for bands such as Roots (with childhood friend and percussionist Sivamani, John Anthony, Suresh Peters, JoJo and Raja) and founded the Chennai-based rock group Nemesis Avenue. He mastered the keyboard, piano, synthesizer, harmonium and guitar, and was particularly interested in the synthesizer because it was the "ideal combination of music and technology".
Rahman began his early musical training under Master Dhanraj, and at age 11 began playing in the orchestra of Malayalam composer (and close friend of his father) M. K. Arjunan. He soon began working with other composers, such as M. S. Viswanathan, Vijaya Bhaskar, Ilaiyaraaja, Ramesh Naidu, Vijay Anand, Hamsalekha and Raj–Koti, accompanied Zakir Hussain, Kunnakudi Vaidyanathan and L. Shankar on world tours and obtained a scholarship from Trinity College London to the Trinity College of Music.
Studying in Madras, Rahman graduated with a diploma in Western classical music from the school. Rahman was introduced to Qadiri tariqa when his younger sister was seriously ill in 1984. His mother was a practising Hindu. At the age of 23, he converted to Islam with other members of his family in 1989, changing his name to Allah Rakha Rahman (A. R. Rahman).
Career
Soundtracks
Rahman initially composed scores for different documentaries and jingles for advertisements and Indian television channels. In 1987 Rahman, then still known as Dileep, composed jingles for a line of watches introduced by Allwyn. He also arranged the jingles for some advertisements that went on to become very popular, including the popular jingle for Titan Watches, in which he used the theme from Mozart's Symphony no.25. In 1992, he was approached by director Mani Ratnam to compose the score and soundtrack for his Tamil film, Roja.
Rahman's film career began in 1992 when he started Panchathan Record Inn, a recording and mixing studio in his backyard. It would become the most-advanced recording studio in India, and arguably one of Asia's most sophisticated and high-tech studios. Cinematographer Santosh Sivan signed Rahman for his second film Yoddha, a Malayalam film starring Mohanlal and directed by Sivan's brother Sangeeth Sivan that released in September 1992.
The following year, Rahman received the National Film Awards (Silver Lotus) award for best music director at the National Film Awards for Roja. The films' score was critically and commercially successful in its original and dubbed versions, led by the innovative theme "Chinna Chinna Aasai". Rahman followed this with successful scores and songs for Tamil–language films for the Chennai film industry, including Ratnam's politically charged Bombay, Thiruda Thiruda and S. Shankar's debut film Gentleman (with its popular dance song, "Chikku Bukku Rayile"), the urban Kadhalan. Rahman collaborated with director Bharathiraaja on Kizhakku Cheemayile and Karuththamma, producing successful Tamil rural folk-inspired film songs; he also composed for K. Balachander's Duet, which had some memorable Saxophone themes. The 1995 film Indira and romantic comedies Mr. Romeo and Love Birds also drew attention.
Rahman attracted a Japanese audience with Muthus success there. His soundtracks are known in the Tamil Nadu film industry and abroad for his versatility in combining Western classical music, Carnatic and Tamil traditional and folk-music traditions, jazz, reggae and rock music. The soundtrack for Bombay sold 15 million copies worldwide, and "Bombay Theme" would later reappear in his soundtrack for Deepa Mehta's Fire and a number of compilations and other media. It was featured in the 2002 Palestinian film Divine Intervention and the 2005 Nicolas Cage film, Lord of War. Rangeela, directed by Ram Gopal Varma, was Rahman's Bollywood debut. Successful scores and songs for Dil Se.. and the percussive Taal followed. Sufi mysticism inspired "Chaiyya Chaiyya" from the former film and "Zikr" from his soundtrack album for Netaji Subhas Chandra Bose: The Forgotten Hero (which featured elaborate orchestral and choral arrangements).
Rahman's soundtrack album for the Chennai production Minsaara Kanavu won him his second National Film Award for Best Music Direction and a South FilmFare Award for Best Music Direction in a Tamil film in 1997, the latter setting a record of six consecutive wins; he later went on to win the award three consecutive additional times. The musical cues in the soundtrack albums for Sangamam and Iruvar used Carnatic vocals, the veena, rock guitar and jazz. During the 2000s, Rahman composed scores and popular songs for Rajiv Menon's Kandukondain Kandukondain, Alaipayuthey, Ashutosh Gowariker's Swades, Rang De Basanti and songs with Hindustani motifs for 2005's Water. Rahman has worked with Indian poets and lyricists such as Javed Akhtar, Gulzar, Vairamuthu and Vaali, and has produced commercially successful soundtracks with directors Mani Ratnam and S. Shankar (Gentleman, Kadhalan, Indian, Jeans, Mudhalvan, Nayak, Boys, Sivaji, Enthiran, I and 2.0).
In 2005 Rahman expanded his Panchathan Record Inn studio by establishing AM Studios in Kodambakkam, Chennai, creating the most cutting-edge studio in Asia. The following year he launched his own music label, KM Music, with his score for Sillunu Oru Kaadhal. Rahman scored the Mandarin-language film Warriors of Heaven and Earth in 2003 after researching and using Chinese and Japanese classical music, and won the Just Plain Folks Music Organization|Just Plain Folks Music Award For Best Music Album for his score for 2006's Varalaru (God Father). He co-scored Shekhar Kapur's second British film, Elizabeth: The Golden Age, in 2007 and received a Best Composer Asian Film Award nomination at the Hong Kong International Film Festival for his Jodhaa Akbar score. Rahman's music has been sampled for other scores in India, appearing in Inside Man, Lord of War, Divine Intervention and The Accidental Husband.
His score for his first Hollywood film, the 2009 comedy Couples Retreat, won the BMI London Award for Best Score. Rahman's music for 2008's Slumdog Millionaire won a Golden Globe and two Academy Awards (a first for an Asian), and the songs "Jai Ho" and "O... Saya" from its soundtrack were internationally successful. His music on 2008's Bollywood Jaane Tu... Ya Jaane Na was popular with Indian youth; that year, his score and songs for Jodhaa Akbar won critical acclaim, a Best Composer Asian Film Award nomination and IIFA awards for best music direction and score.
In 2010, Rahman composed the original score and songs for the romantic Vinnaithaandi Varuvaayaa, the sci-fi romance Enthiran and Danny Boyle's 127 Hours, composing for the Imtiaz Ali musical Rockstar; the latter's soundtrack was a critical and commercial success. In 2012 Rahman composed for Ekk Deewana Tha and the American drama People Like Us, and collaborated with director Yash Chopra on Jab Tak Hai Jaan. all were positively received. By the end of the year his music for Mani Ratnam's Kadal topped the iTunes India chart for December. In 2013, Rahman had two releases: Raanjhanaa and Maryan. Both were successful, with the former nominated for a number of awards and the latter the iTunes India Tamil Album of 2013.
The year 2014 was one of the busiest years for Rahman, with him claiming to have worked in 12 films in various languages. While his first release for the year was the Imtiaz Ali's road movie Highway which garnered positive reviews, his very next release was the performance captured animation film Kochadaiiyaan, a Rajinikanth starrer directed by Soundarya Rajinikanth. The film's soundtrack was long-listed at the forthcoming Academy Awards. His next were the scores for the two back to back Hollywood films, Million Dollar Arm and The Hundred Foot Journey, both of which got into the contended list for the original score category nomination at the Oscars.
Then he composed for the period drama Kaaviya Thalaivan teaming up with director Vasanthabalan for the first time. His next release was Shankar's thriller I and K. S. Ravikumar's period action film Lingaa.
Background scores
His background scores are often characterised by the usage of subtle orchestration and ambient sounds. He often employs contemporary instruments such as Guitars, Cello, Flute, Strings, Keyboard, Finger board, Harpejji, Santoor and traditional Indian instruments such as Shehnai, Sitar, Mrudangam, Veenai & Tabla to create scores.
Some of the films which fetched him appreciations for background scores include Roja, Bombay, Iruvar, Minsara Kanavu, Dil Se.., Taal, Lagaan, The Legend of Bhagat Singh, Swades, Rang De Basanti, Bose: The Forgotten Hero, Guru, Jodhaa Akbar, Raavanan, Vinnaithaandi Varuvaayaa, Rockstar, Enthiran, Kadal, Kochadaiiyaan and I. A. R. Rahman received two Academy Awards for Slumdog Millionaire and two Academy Award nominations for 127 Hours. Recently, his scores for Kochadaiiyaan, Million Dollar Arm and The Hundred-Foot Journey have been nominated in the long list released by Academy of Motion Picture Arts and Sciences. In 2017 his Mersal music's background score has impressed one and all. In 2018, Rahman got national award for the background score of Mom.
Qutub-E-Kripa an ensemble of young musicians of KM Music Conservatory, have been co-credited alongside A. R. Rahman for the background scores of films such as 24, O Kadhal Kanmani, Tamasha, OK Jaanu, Kaatru Veliyidai, Mom, Chekka Chivantha Vaanam, Sarkar and 2.0. They have also scored for the Netflix Show, Daughters of Destiny.
Performing and other projects
Rahman has also been involved in non-film projects. Vande Mataram, an album of original compositions released for India's 50th anniversary of its independence in 1997, is one of India's best-selling non-film albums. He followed it with an album for the Bharat Bala–directed video Jana Gana Mana, a collection of performances by leading exponents and artists of Indian classical music. Rahman has written advertising jingles and orchestrations for athletic events, television and Internet media, documentaries and short films, frequently using the Czech Film Orchestra and the Chennai Strings Orchestra.
In 1999, Rahman partnered with choreographers Shobana and Prabhu Deva and a Tamil film-dancing troupe to perform with Michael Jackson in Munich, Germany at his Michael Jackson and Friends concert. In 2002 he composed the music for his first stage production, Bombay Dreams, which was commissioned by Andrew Lloyd Webber. The Finnish folk-music band Värttinä collaborated with Rahman on the Toronto production of The Lord of the Rings, and in 2004 he composed "Raga's Dance" for Vanessa-Mae's album Choreography (performed by Mae and the Royal Philharmonic Orchestra).
Since 2004 Rahman has performed three successful world tours before audiences in Singapore, Australia, Malaysia, Dubai, the United Kingdom, Canada, the United States and India, and has been collaborating with Karen David on her upcoming studio album. A two-disc CD, Introducing A. R. Rahman (featuring 25 of his Tamil film-score pieces), was released in May 2006 and his non-film album Connections was released on 12 December 2008. Rahman performed at a White House state dinner arranged by US President Barack Obama during an official visit by Indian Prime Minister Manmohan Singh on 24 November 2009.
He is one of over 70 artists on "We Are the World 25 for Haiti", a charity single to raise relief funds in the wake of the 2010 Haiti earthquake. In 2010, Rahman composed "Jai Jai Garvi Gujarat" in honour of the 50th anniversary of the formation of Gujarat State, "Semmozhiyaana Thamizh Mozhiyaam" as part of the World Classical Tamil Conference 2010, and the theme song for the 2010 Commonwealth Games, "Jiyo Utho Bado Jeeto". Rahman began his first world tour, (A. R. Rahman Jai Ho Concert: The Journey Home World Tour) on 11 June 2010 at Nassau Coliseum in New York; 16 cities worldwide were scheduled.
Some of Rahman's notable compositions were performed by the London Philharmonic Orchestra in April 2010. In February 2011 Rahman collaborated with Michael Bolton on Bolton's album, Gems – The Duets Collection,reworking his "Sajna" from Couples Retreat.
On 20 May 2011 Mick Jagger announced the formation of a supergroup, SuperHeavy, with Dave Stewart, Joss Stone, Damian Marley and Rahman; its self-titled album was scheduled for release in September 2011. The album would have Jagger singing on Rahman's composition, "Satyameva Jayate" ("The Truth Alone Triumphs").
In January 2012 the Deutsches Filmorchester Babelsberg announced that it would join KM Music Conservatory musicians for a 100-member concert tour of five Indian cities (Germany and India 2011–2012: Infinite Opportunities), performing Rahman's songs. The marked the centennial of Indian cinema and Babelsberg Studio, the world's oldest film studio.
In Summer 2012 Rahman composed a Punjabi song for the London Olympics opening ceremony, directed by Danny Boyle, part of a medley showcasing Indian influence in the UK. Indian musician Ilaiyaraja's song from the 1981 Tamil-language film Ram Lakshman was also chosen for the medley.
In December 2012 Rahman and Shekhar Kapoor launched Qyuki, a networking site which is a platform for story writers to exchange their thoughts. Cisco invested ₹270 million in the startup, giving it a 17-percent share. Qyuki uses Cisco's cloud infrastructure for the site. On 20 December he released the single "Infinite Love" in English and Hindi, commemorating the last day of the Mayan calendar to spread hope, peace and love. Rahman's 2013 tour, Rahmanishq, was announced on 29 July 2013 in Mumbai. Beginning in Sydney on 24 August, the tour moved to a number of cities in India.
In January 2016, after a long break Rahman performed live in Chennai and for the first time in Coimbatore & Madurai, with a complete Tamil playlist. As the name suggests, Nenje Yezhu (which means rise up) began 2016 with a positive note and with music from the heart. The proceeds of this concert will be used for flood relief in Tamil Nadu and also for creating awareness against cancer, supporting VS Medical Trust outside Chennai.
Rahman released a 19-minute orchestral composition The Flying Lotus in 2017 featuring the demonetisation. This musical piece is an open interpretation of this major stance against black money which also includes Narendra Modi's speech.
On 15 August 2018, Rahman appeared as the host in the 5-episode series of Amazon Prime Video titled "Harmony".
Rahman launched India's first YouTube Original, ARRived, which aims to find the best singing talent from across country. The series has 13 episodes and the first episode was uploaded on 7 November 2018. Rahman is the main judge and he is accompanied by Shaan, Vidya Vox and Clinton Cerejo.
On 16 January 2019, Maruti Suzuki India Limited launched NEXA Music, a platform where 24 artists will be picked and mentored by Rahman and Clinton Cerejo to create international music in India.
Rahman also appeared as a judge on The Voice. The show began airing on 3 February 2019 on StarPlus. Rahman partnered with Marvel to compose a promotional track titled "Marvel Anthem" in Hindi, Tamil and Telugu for Avengers: Endgame (2019). Rahman has sung and composed the track spiced up with rap and heavy percussion. The lyrics are by Nirmika Singh, and MC Heam (rap). The film's team also walked the red carpet and also took a selfie with over 3,500 audience members.
The Irish rock band U2 collaborated with Rahman to release a single, "Ahimsa", in December 2019. The song was named for the Sanskrit word for non-violence, and lyrically was intended to celebrate the ethnical and spiritual diversity in India. Rahman stated that ahimsa requires courage and strength, and that the song is a celebration of non-violence and peace.
Musical style and impact
Skilled in Carnatic music, Western and Hindustani classical music and the Qawwali style of Nusrat Fateh Ali Khan, Rahman is noted for film songs amalgamating elements of these and other genres, layering instruments from different musical idioms in an improvisational style. During the 1980s Rahman recorded monaural arrangements in common with his musical predecessors, K. V. Mahadevan and Vishwanathan–Ramamoorthy. He has also worked as a pianist in Ilaiyaraaja's troupe for hundreds of movies. In later years his methodology changed, as he experimented with the fusion of traditional instruments with new electronic sounds and technology.
Rahman's musical interests and outlook originate in his love of experimentation. His compositions have an auteuristic use of counterpoint, orchestration and the human voice, melding Indian pop music with a unique timbre, form and instrumentation. With this syncretic style and wide-ranging lyrics, the appeal of Rahman's music crosses classes and cultures in Indian society.
His first soundtrack, for Roja, was listed on Time's all-time "10 Best Soundtracks" in 2005. Film critic Richard Corliss said that the composer's "astonishing debut work parades Rahman's gift for alchemizing outside influences until they are totally Tamil, totally Rahman", and his initial global success is attributed to the South Asian diaspora. Music producer Ron Fair considers Rahman "one of the world's great living composers in any medium".
Director Baz Luhrmann said:
Rahman introduced 7.1 surround sound technology to South Indian films. Rahman is one of the best-selling music artists in India, with an estimated 150 million records sold worldwide. On 21 May 2014 Rahman announced that he has partnered with former Black Eyed Peas' Will.i.am to recreate an early popular track 'Urvashi Urvashi'. Track is 'Birthday'.
Personal life
Rahman is married to Saira Banu (not to be confused with actress Saira Banu); they have three children: Khatija, Rahima and Ameen. Ameen has sung "NaNa" from Couples Retreat, and Khatija has sung "Pudhiya Manidha" from Enthiran. Composer G. V. Prakash Kumar is the son of Rahman's elder sister, A. R. Reihana. Rahman's younger sister, Fathima, heads his music conservatory in Chennai. The youngest, Ishrath, has a music studio. A.R.Rahman is the co-brother of film actor Rahman.
Born Hindu, Rahman converted to Islam when he was in his 20s. After the early death of his father, his family experienced difficult times; Sufism influenced his mother, who was a practising Hindu and, eventually, his family. During the 81st Academy Awards ceremony Rahman paid tribute to his mother: "There is a Hindi dialogue, mere pass ma hai, which means 'even if I have got nothing I have my mother here'." He said, "Ella pughazhum iraivanukke" ("All praise to God" in Tamil, a translation from the Quran) before his speech.
Philanthropy
Rahman is involved with a number of charitable causes. In 2004 he was appointed as the global ambassador of the Stop TB Partnership, a WHO project. Rahman has supported Save the Children India and worked with Yusuf Islam on "Indian Ocean", a song featuring a-ha keyboard player Magne Furuholmen and Travis drummer Neil Primrose. Proceeds from the song went to help orphans in Banda Aceh who were affected by the 2004 Indian Ocean Tsunami. He produced the single "We Can Make It Better" by Don Asian with Mukhtar Sahota. In 2008 Rahman opened the KM Music Conservatory with an audio-media education facility to train aspiring musicians in vocals, instruments, music technology and sound design. The conservatory (with prominent musicians on staff and a symphony orchestra) is located near his studio in Kodambakkam, Chennai and offers courses at several levels. Violinist L. Subramaniam is on its advisory board. Several of Rahman's proteges from the studio have scored feature films. In 2009, he founded Sunshine Orchestra with a vision to introduce India's first symphony orchestra where economically and socially deprived children get free music education by the KM Music Conservatory. He composed the theme music for a 2006 short film for The Banyan to aid poor women in Chennai.
In 2008 Rahman and noted percussionist Sivamani created a song, "Jiya Se Jiya", inspired by the Free Hugs Campaign and promoted it with a video filmed in a number of Indian cities for a cause. In 2017, he announced one heart foundation which would support people from music industry. Rahman announced Ta Futures, a collaborative culture project that would curate and celebrate the sounds of Tamil Nadu.
In 2019, Rahman performed a Sufi Benefit Concert at the annual New York gala of Pratham, one of the largest non-governmental organisations in India, which focuses on the provision of quality education to India's underprivileged children. Rahman and his ensemble performed the full dinner concert on a pro-bono basis. Afterward, Rahmam wrote on Twitter that his "long time dream of performing #Sufimusic for human causes came true" and thanked attendees for their respect and generosity.
Discography
Filmography
Director
Actor
Producer and writer
Performer
One Heart (2017)
Awards
A six-time National Film Award winner and recipient of six Tamil Nadu State Film Awards, he has fifteen Filmfare Awards and sixteen Filmfare Awards South for his music. Rahman has received a Kalaimamani from the Government of Tamil Nadu for excellence in the field of music, musical-achievement awards from the governments of Uttar Pradesh and Madhya Pradesh and a Padma Shri from the Government of India.
In 2006, he received an award from Stanford University for his contributions to global music. The following year, Rahman entered the Limca Book of Records as "Indian of the Year for Contribution to Popular Music". He received the 2008 Lifetime Achievement Award from the Rotary Club of Madras. In 2009, for his Slumdog Millionaire score, Rahman won the Broadcast Film Critics Association Award, the Golden Globe Award for Best Original Score, the BAFTA Award for Best Film Music and two Academy Awards (Best Original Score and Best Original Song, the latter shared with Gulzar) at the 81st Academy Awards.
He has received honorary doctorates from Middlesex University, Aligarh Muslim University, Anna University in Chennai and Miami University in Ohio. The composer has won two Grammy Awards: Best Compilation Soundtrack Album and Best Song Written for Visual Media. Rahman received the Padma Bhushan, India's third-highest civilian honour, in 2010.
His work in 127 Hours won him Golden Globe, BAFTA, and two Academy Award nominations (Best Original Music Score and Best Original Song) in 2011. Rahman is an Honorary Fellow of the Trinity College of Music.
On 24 October 2014 Rahman was awarded an honorary doctorate from Berklee College of Music during a concert paying tribute to his music featuring an international cast of students. Upon receiving his award he commented that being honoured by Berklee illustrates how his life has come full circle, as at the start of his career, he had planned to study at Berklee before being offered the opportunity to score Roja. During his 7 May 2012 acceptance speech of his honorary doctorate from Miami University in Ohio, Rahman mentioned that he received a Christmas card from the family of the President of the United States and an invitation to dinner at the White House. A street was named in his honour in Markham, Ontario, Canada in November 2013.
On 4 October 2015, the government of Seychelles named A. R. Rahman Cultural Ambassador for Seychelles in appreciation of the "invaluable services contributed to enhance Seychelles' Arts and Culture development."
In January 2018, He has been appointed as the Brand Ambassador of the Sikkim government. A.R. Rahman will promote and project the state's achievements nationally and globally. Rahman was honoured with the Pride of Indian Music award at the first Zee Cine Awards Tamil, held on 4 January 2020 in Chennai.
The UK-based world-music magazine Songlines named him one of "Tomorrow's World Music Icons" in August 2011. For years, he has been regularly listed one among The 500 Most Influential Muslims in the world.
Currently, he is also on the Board of Advisors of India's International Movement to Unite Nations (I.I.M.U.N.).
99 Songs
99 Songs is a musical romance film co-written and produced by A. R. Rahman, who thus makes his debut in both roles, apart from composing the original score and songs.
99 Songs is the first Indian soundtrack album to use Dolby Atmos technology, and Rahman became the first Indian artist to create music album of the film in this technology. The film stars debutants Ehan Bhat and Edilsy Vargas, alongside Aditya Seal, Lisa Ray and Manisha Koirala among others portray supporting characters. The film is a sensual story about art and self-discovery of a struggling singer who wants to be a successful music composer.
The background music and soundtrack for the film was composed by A. R. Rahman.
The full soundtrack was released by Sony Music India on 20 March 2020., which consist of 14 songs included The Oracle (song), Humnawaa & more, each in Hindi, Tamil and Telugu languages & The album received highly positive reviews from critics.
A. R. Rahman said in an interview with Anupama Chopra:There are two things could happen. One saying this is going to be a new wave in Hindi cinema or (smile) they will just throw it in my face
Biographies
See also
AR Rahman Foundation
KM Music Conservatory
List of films directed by Mani Ratnam featuring A. R. Rahman
List of Indian winners and nominees of the Academy Awards
Qutub-E-Kripa
Sunshine Orchestra
Panchathan Record Inn and AM Studios
References
Bibliography
External links
[ A. R. Rahman] at AllMusic
[ A. R. Rahman] at Billboard.com
A.R. Rahman Interview NAMM Oral History Program (2013)
Living people
1967 births
Alumni of Trinity College of Music
Best Original Music BAFTA Award winners
Best Music Direction National Film Award winners
Best Background Score National Film Award winners
Best Original Song Academy Award-winning songwriters
Best Original Music Score Academy Award winners
Indian Tamil people
Tamil musicians
Tamil singers
Tamil playback singers
Bollywood playback singers
Columbia Records artists
Filmfare Awards winners
Filmfare Awards South winners
Golden Globe Award-winning musicians
Grammy Award winners
Indian Muslims
Indian male playback singers
Islam in Tamil Nadu
Converts to Islam
Converts to Islam from Hinduism
Indian Sufis
Singers from Chennai
People from Tamil Nadu
Recipients of the Padma Bhushan in arts
Recipients of the Padma Shri in arts
Tamil film score composers
Tamil Nadu State Film Awards winners
Telugu playback singers
Zee Cine Awards winners
Telugu film score composers
Indian Academy Award winners
Jingle composers
Indian male film score composers
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222422 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dasyuromorphia | Dasyuromorphia | Dasyuromorphia (, meaning "hairy tail" in Greek) is an order comprising most of the Australian carnivorous marsupials, including quolls, dunnarts, the numbat, the Tasmanian devil, and the thylacine. In Australia, the exceptions include the omnivorous bandicoots (order Peramelemorphia) and the marsupial moles (which eat meat but are very different and are now accorded an order of their own, Notoryctemorphia). Numerous South American species of marsupials (orders Didelphimorphia, Paucituberculata, and Microbiotheria) are also carnivorous, as were some extinct members of the order Diprotodontia, including extinct kangaroos (such as Ekaltadeta and Propleopus) and thylacoleonids, and some members of the partially extinct clade Metatheria and all members of the extinct superorder Sparassodonta.
The order contains four families: one with just a single living species (the numbat), two with only extinct species (including the thylacine and Malleodectes), and one, the Dasyuridae, with 73 extant species.
Characteristics
Unlike herbivores, which tend to become highly specialized for particular ecological niches and diversify greatly in form, carnivores tend to be broadly similar to one another, certainly on the level of gross external form. Just as Northern Hemisphere carnivores like cats, mongooses, foxes and weasels are much more alike in structure than, for example, camels, goats, pigs and giraffes, so too are the marsupial predators constrained to retain general-purpose, look-alike forms—forms which mirror those of placental carnivores. The names given to them by early European settlers reflect this: the thylacine was called the Tasmanian tiger or Tasmanian wolves, quolls were called native cats or native foxes, and so on.
The primary specialisation among marsupial predators is that of size: prior to the massive environmental changes that came about with the arrival of humans about 50,000 years ago, there were several very large carnivores, none of them members of the Dasyuromorphia and all of them now extinct. Those that survived into historical times ranged from the wolf-sized thylacine to the tiny long-tailed planigale which at 4 to 6 grams is less than half the size of a mouse. Most, however, tend towards the lower end of the size scale, typically between about 15 or 20 grams and about 2 kilograms, or from the size of a domestic mouse to that of a small domestic cat.
Classification
To provide context, the table below also shows the other major branches of the Australasian marsupial tree.
Order Microbiotheria: (1 species, the monito del monte of South America)
Order Dasyuromorphia
Family †Thylacinidae
†Thylacine (Thylacinus cynocephalus)
Family Dasyuridae (72 species in 20 genera)
Subfamily Dasyurinae: quolls, kowari, mulgara, little red kaluta, dibblers, phascogales, antechinuses, pseudantechinuses, and the Tasmanian devil
Subfamily Sminthopsinae: dunnarts, kultarr, planigales and ningaui
Family Myrmecobiidae
Numbat (Myrmecobius fasciatus)
Family †Malleodectidae
Genus †Malleodectes
Order Peramelemorphia (21 species: rainforest bandicoots, bandicoots, and bilbies)
Order Notoryctemorphia (two species of marsupial moles)
Order Diprotodontia (about 137 species in 11 families, including the koala, wombats, possums, potoroos, kangaroos, wallabies and others)
References
External links
Dasyuromorphia on Animal Diversity Web
Mammal orders
Extant Chattian first appearances
Taxa named by Theodore Gill | [
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222423 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Katar%20%28dagger%29 | Katar (dagger) | The katar is a type of push dagger from the Indian subcontinent. The weapon is characterized by its H-shaped horizontal hand grip which results in the blade sitting above the user's knuckles. Unique to the Indian subcontinent, it is the most famous and characteristic of Indian daggers. Ceremonial katars were also used in worship.
Etymology
Having originated in South India, the weapon's earliest name-form was likely the Tamil (). It is alternatively known in Tamil as () which means "stabbing blade". This was adapted into Sanskrit as () or . Due to the schwa deletion in Indo-Aryan languages however, the word often came to be rendered as "katar" in modern Hindi and by extension in colonial transliterations.
Other regional names for the weapon include () in Kannada, () in Telugu, () in Malayalam, () in Marathi, , () in Panjabi, and () or in Hindi.
History
The katar was created in Southern India, its earliest forms being closely associated with the 14th-century Vijayanagara Empire. It may have originated with the mustika, a method of holding a dagger between the middle and index finger still used in kalaripayattu and gatka today. The real name of this is "Kidaari" is from the ancient Tamil warfare class of weapons. Kidaari derived from the term "Kedayam Ari" meaning the "Shield Splitter" in Tamil. The name indicates this weapon being used to break shields and armor. The weapon was used by many ethnic Tamil infantry units aka "Kaalatpadai". This falls under the "mushtikai" class of Indian weapon system. "Mushti" means the fingers closed and "kai" means arm.
A Tamil king would be gifted with a golden Kidari as a token of loyalty from the Kaalatpadai General. It was worn as a symbol of respect by the king to the soldiers who lay down their lives for him in war without any hesitation. Later Chhatrpati Shivaji Maharaj was gifted with a Kidaari during his conquest to Tamil Nadu. A specific type of dagger might have been designed for this, as maustika is described vaguely as a "fist dagger" in the arsenal list of Abu'l-Fazl ibn Mubarak. One of the most famous groups of early katar come from the Thanjavur Nayak kingdom of the 17th century. Katar dating back to this period often had a leaf- or shell-like knucklebow curving up from the top of the blade to protect the back of the hand. This form is today sometimes called a "hooded katara" but the knuckleguard was discarded altogether by the later half of the 17th century. As the weapon spread throughout the region it became something of a status symbol, much like the Southeast Asian kris or the Japanese katana. Princes and nobles were often portrayed wearing a katar at their side. This was not only a precaution for self-defense, but also meant to show their wealth and position. Upper-class Rajputs and Mughals would even hunt tigers with a pair of katar. For a hunter to kill a tiger with such a short-range weapon was considered the surest sign of bravery and martial skill.
Some modern katar designs may include single-shot pistols built into either side of the weapon. In the 18th century, some traditional katar were refurbished with this innovation. The pistols are meant to deal the killing blow after the weapon has been thrust into the enemy. The katar ceased to be in common use by the 19th century, though they were still forged for decorative purposes. During the 18th and 19th century, a distinctive group of katar were produced at Bundi in Rajasthan. They were ornately crafted and their hilts were covered in gold foil. These katar were shown at the Great Exhibition of 1851 in Crystal Palace, London. Since then, the weapon has sometimes been mistakenly referred to in English as a "Bundi dagger".
Appearance
The basic katar has a short, wide, triangular blade. Its peculiarity lies in the handle which is made up of two parallel bars connected by two or more cross-pieces, one of which is at the end of the side bars and is fastened to the blade. The remainder forms the handle which is at right angle to the blade. Some handles have long arms extending across the length of the user's forearm. The handle is generally of all-steel construction and is forged in one piece together with the blade.
The blade, typically measuring in length, is usually cut with a number of fullers. Most katar have straight blades, but in south India they are commonly wavy. South Indian blades are often made broad at the hilt and taper in straight lines to the point, and elaborately ribbed by grooves parallel to the edges. Occasionally the blades are slightly curved, making them suited for slashing attacks. Some blades are forked into two points, which would later develop into the scissors katar.
The force of a katar thrust could be so great that many blades were thickened at the point to prevent them from bending or breaking. This also strengthened their use against mail. All katar with thickened tips are commonly described as "armour-piercing", but it is likely that only narrow and slender blades made this function possible. Such a weapon was capable of piercing textile, mail, and even plate armor. This quality was preferred for warfare, where an opponent was more likely to be armor-clad, as opposed to single combat.
The Indian nobility often wore ornamental katar as a symbol of their social status. The hilts may be covered in enamel, gems, or gold foil. Similarly, figures and scenes were chiselled onto the blade. Sheaths, generally made from watered steel, were sometimes pierced with decorative designs. The heat and moisture of India's climate made steel an unsuitable material for a dagger sheath, so they were covered in fabric such as velvet or silk. Some katar served as a sheath to fit one or two smaller ones inside.
Techniques
Because the katar's blade is in line with the user's arm, the basic attack is a direct thrust identical to a punch, although it could also be used for slashing. This design allows the fighter to put their whole weight into a thrust. Typical targets include the head and upper body, similar to boxing. The sides of the handle could be used for blocking but it otherwise has little defensive capability. As such, the wielder must be agile enough to dodge the opponent's attacks and strike quickly, made possible because of the weapon's light weight and small size. Indian martial arts in general make extensive use of agility and acrobatic maneuvers. As far back as the 16th century, there was at least one fighting style which focused on fighting with a pair of katar, one in each hand.
Aside from the basic straight thrust, other techniques include the reverse flipped pierce, inwards side slashing, outwards side slashing, cobra coiled thrust, and tiger claw pierce performed by jumping towards the opponent.
Popular Culture
On the 1994 version of The Jungle Book, Captain Boone shows Mowgli a katar dagger with 3 split blades.
On Deadliest Warrior, a Rajput uses a katar dagger to wound a Roman centurion before killing him with a khanda.
See also
Pata (sword)
Aruval
Urumi
Chakram
References
External links
Björn-Uwe Abels, A contribution to the development of the Indian punch-dagger, called Katar or Jamdhar, Waffen- und Kostümkunde 2012, 145–158 (in German with an English summary).
Indian melee weapons
Weapons of India
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] |
222425 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bill%20Fitch | Bill Fitch | William Charles Fitch (May 19, 1932 – February 2, 2022) was an American professional basketball coach in the National Basketball Association (NBA). He developed multiple teams into playoff contenders and won an NBA championship with the Boston Celtics in 1981. Before entering the professional ranks, he coached college basketball at the University of Minnesota, Bowling Green State University, the University of North Dakota, and his alma mater, Coe College. Fitch's teams twice qualified for the NCAA tournament. He won the Chuck Daly Lifetime Achievement Award in 2013, and was elected to the Naismith Memorial Basketball Hall of Fame in 2019.
College coaching career
Fitch coached at four universities: the University of Minnesota, Bowling Green State University, the University of North Dakota, and his alma mater, Coe College.
He led North Dakota to three NCAA Division II Men's Basketball Tournaments, including a Final Four appearance in 1966. At his only season with Bowling Green, the Falcons reached the 1968 NCAA University Division Basketball Tournament after winning the Mid-American Conference title with an 18–7 record and 10–2 in conference play. At his two seasons at Minnesota, Fitch coached the Golden Gophers to 12–12 and 13–11.
Pro coaching career
During his 25-year pro coaching career, Fitch was often hired in an attempt to improve failing teams. Although Fitch currently ranks tenth among NBA coaches in all-time number of victories (with 944), he is also ranked second in all-time losses (with 1,106) behind Lenny Wilkens. In 1996, Fitch was named one of the Top 10 Coaches in NBA History. In 2016, Fitch was honored with an honorary bench by the Hall of Fame, which surrounds a statue of James Naismith along with other granite benches in honor of great coaches, all made possible through a $150,000 donation by Rick Carlisle.
Cleveland Cavaliers
Fitch was the first head coach hired by the expansion Cleveland Cavaliers on March 19, 1970 for their inaugural 1970–71 season. In that season, the Cavaliers went 15–67. The Cavaliers did not have a season as bad as that one until the 1981–82 season, which also garnered 15 wins. The team gradually rose in wins for the next two years, winning 32 in his third season, although they slipped slightly the following year. In his first four years, they finished last each time in the Central Division.
His fifth season (1974–75) resulted in marked improvement as the Cavs won 40 games while finishing third, their first season without a last-place finish. By this point, the team had a clear leader in its #1 draft pick from 1971, Austin Carr. He had become the leading scorer for the team, but a serious knee injury curtailed Cleveland's hopes for a playoff berth.
The following season of 1975–76 was the pinnacle of his career with Cleveland. The team, now fabled as "The Miracle of Richfield", was led by team captain Carr, scoring small forward Campy Russell, shooting guard Bobby "Bingo" Smith, and a supporting cast of largely unknown players such as starting center Jim Chones, and an aging Nate Thurmond. The team won 49 games (a team record for 13 seasons) and the Central Division title. They defeated the Washington Bullets in seven games to advance to the Conference Finals, where they were defeated in six games by the Boston Celtics, with Chones being sidelined by a broken foot in practice two days before the conference finals. The Cavaliers did not win another playoff series until 1992. Fitch was awarded the NBA Coach of the Year Award at the end of the season.
Fitch led the team to two more playoff berths, although they did not win either series. After a 30–52 record for the 1978–79 season, he resigned on May 21, 1979.
Boston Celtics
On May 23, 1979, Fitch was hired by the Boston Celtics, taking over for Dave Cowens, who had coached them to a 29–53 record as a player-coach the previous season. His first season in 1979–80 was also the first for Larry Bird. A former drill instructor in the U. S. Marine Corps, the coach was lauded by Bird for his intense practices and discipline. Fitch helped lead the Celtics to 61 wins along with an Atlantic Division title. In the playoffs that year, the Celtics were defeated in the Conference Finals to the Philadelphia 76ers in five games. Fitch won his second Coach of the Year Award after the season.
In his second season, the Celtics drafted Kevin McHale and acquired Robert Parish, both through a trade with the Golden State Warriors. Fitch's team won 62 games along with a second Atlantic title. They went on to beat the Houston Rockets in six games to win the 1981 NBA Finals, Boston's first title since 1976.
Fitch led the Celtics to a third consecutive Atlantic Division title in 1981–82 while winning 63 games, although the team lost in the Conference Finals to the 76ers in seven games. The 1982–83 team dropped in wins (from 63 to 56) while finishing second in the Atlantic Division, and were defeated by the Milwaukee Bucks in four games. On May 27, 1983, he resigned from the Celtics. Fitch cited Harry T. Mangurian Jr.'s announcement that he was selling the team due to difficulties with Delaware North (the owners of the Boston Garden) as the last straw, despite Fitch having three years left on his contract.
Houston Rockets
On June 1, 1983, Fitch was hired by the Houston Rockets, taking over for Del Harris, who had managed the team to 14 wins the previous season. The 1983–84 Houston Rockets season also happened to be the first season with Ralph Sampson on the team. The team won 29 games that season. The next season was the season in which the Rockets drafted Hakeem Olajuwon, and the team responded with 48 wins and a playoff berth, although they were beaten in five games by the Utah Jazz. His third season was his best season with the team as they won the Midwest Division title along with the Western Conference title after beating the Los Angeles Lakers in five games. They met Fitch's old team, the Celtics. Boston beat the team in six games to win the Finals. Fitch's following two seasons led to playoff berths, although they did not advance past the Conference Semi-finals. Fitch was fired on June 6, 1988.
New Jersey Nets
On August 21, 1989, Fitch was hired by the New Jersey Nets, replacing Willis Reed, who had gone 26–56 the previous season. The team acquired Sam Bowie on draft day in order to try and start a rebuilding process, although the team went 17–65 for the season, the fewest wins for the Nets since joining the NBA. Fitch gradually raised the team up, acquiring Derrick Coleman, Dražen Petrović, and Terry Mills helping the team qualify for a playoff berth in the 1991–92 New Jersey Nets season. The team went to the playoffs with a losing record of 40–42, sixth-best in the 14 team Eastern Conference. They lost in the First Round to Fitch's old team, the Cavaliers in four games. On May 12, 1992, he resigned as coach of the team.
Los Angeles Clippers
On July 28, 1994, Fitch was hired by the Los Angeles Clippers, replacing Bob Weiss, who had gone 27–55 the previous year. In four seasons with the team, he could not reverse the tide of a franchise that had gone on a downward spiral since making the playoffs in consecutive seasons in 1992 and 1993. However, he led them to a playoff berth once, doing so in the 1996–97 season (the last playoff berth for the team until 2006), although they were swept in the First Round by the Jazz. They made the playoffs despite going 36–46, qualifying by just two games. The following season was a disaster, with the team finishing 17–65, the worst season since finishing with that same record in the 1994–95 season. Two days after the season ended, Fitch was fired on April 20, 1998. Fitch's most losses record in NBA history with 1,106 losses a record stood for five years until Lenny Wilkens broke his mark during the 2002–03 season while coaching for the Toronto Raptors. Wilkens' NBA coaching career finished with 1,155 losses after he announced his retirement from coaching on January 22, 2005.
Personal life and death
Fitch was born in Davenport, Iowa, on May 19, 1932. Prior to his NBA coaching career, Fitch was a drill instructor in the U.S. Marine Corps. He attended Coe College, where he played basketball and baseball and graduated in 1954 with a degree in physical education.
Fitch died in Lake Conroe, Texas, on February 2, 2022 at the age of 89.
Head coaching record
NBA
|-
| style="text-align:left;"|Cleveland
| style="text-align:left;"|
|82||15||67||.183|| style="text-align:center;"|4th in Central||—||—||—||—
| style="text-align:center;"|Missed Playoffs
|-
| style="text-align:left;"|Cleveland
| style="text-align:left;"|
|82||23||59||.280|| style="text-align:center;"|4th in Central||—||—||—||—
| style="text-align:center;"|Missed Playoffs
|-
| style="text-align:left;"|Cleveland
| style="text-align:left;"|
|82||32||50||.390|| style="text-align:center;"|4th in Central||—||—||—||—
| style="text-align:center;"|Missed Playoffs
|-
| style="text-align:left;"|Cleveland
| style="text-align:left;"|
|82||29||53||.354|| style="text-align:center;"|4th in Central||—||—||—||—
| style="text-align:center;"|Missed Playoffs
|-
| style="text-align:left;"|Cleveland
| style="text-align:left;"|
|82||40||42||.488|| style="text-align:center;"|3rd in Central||—||—||—||—
| style="text-align:center;"|Missed Playoffs
|-
| style="text-align:left;"|Cleveland
| style="text-align:left;"|
|82||49||33||.598|| style="text-align:center;"|1st in Central||13||6||7||.462
| style="text-align:center;"|Lost in Conf. Finals
|-
| style="text-align:left;"|Cleveland
| style="text-align:left;"|
|82||43||39||.524|| style="text-align:center;"|4th in Central||3||1||2||.333
| style="text-align:center;"|Lost in First round
|-
| style="text-align:left;"|Cleveland
| style="text-align:left;"|
|82||43||39||.524|| style="text-align:center;"|3rd in Central||2||0||2||.000
| style="text-align:center;"|Lost in First round
|-
| style="text-align:left;"|Cleveland
| style="text-align:left;"|
|82||30||52||.366|| style="text-align:center;"|4th in Central||—||—||—||—
| style="text-align:center;"|Missed Playoffs
|-
| style="text-align:left;"|Boston
| style="text-align:left;"|
|82||61||21||.744|| style="text-align:center;"|1st in Atlantic||9||5||4||.556
| style="text-align:center;"|Lost in Conf. Finals
|- ! style="background:#FDE910;"
| style="text-align:left;"|Boston
| style="text-align:left;"|
|82||62||20||.756|| style="text-align:center;"|1st in Atlantic||17||12||5||.706
| style="text-align:center;"|Won NBA Championship
|-
| style="text-align:left;"|Boston
| style="text-align:left;"|
|82||63||19||.768|| style="text-align:center;"|1st in Atlantic||12||7||5||.583
| style="text-align:center;"|Lost in Conf. Finals
|-
| style="text-align:left;"|Boston
| style="text-align:left;"|
|82||56||26||.683|| style="text-align:center;"|2nd in Atlantic||7||2||5||.286
| style="text-align:center;"|Lost in Conf. Semi-finals
|-
| style="text-align:left;"|Houston
| style="text-align:left;"|
|82||29||53||.354|| style="text-align:center;"|6th in Midwest||—||—||—||—
| style="text-align:center;"|Missed Playoffs
|-
| style="text-align:left;"|Houston
| style="text-align:left;"|
|82||48||34||.585|| style="text-align:center;"|2nd in Midwest||5||2||3||.400
| style="text-align:center;"|Lost in First round
|-
| style="text-align:left;"|Houston
| style="text-align:left;"|
|82||51||31||.622|| style="text-align:center;"|1st in Midwest||20||13||7||.650
| style="text-align:center;"|Lost in NBA Finals
|-
| style="text-align:left;"|Houston
| style="text-align:left;"|
|82||42||40||.512|| style="text-align:center;"|3rd in Midwest||10||5||5||.500
| style="text-align:center;"|Lost in Conf. Semi-finals
|-
| style="text-align:left;"|Houston
| style="text-align:left;"|
|82||46||36||.561|| style="text-align:center;"|4th in Midwest||4||1||3||.250
| style="text-align:center;"|Lost in First round
|-
| style="text-align:left;"|New Jersey
| style="text-align:left;"|
|82||17||65||.207|| style="text-align:center;"|6th in Atlantic||—||—||—||—
| style="text-align:center;"|Missed Playoffs
|-
| style="text-align:left;"|New Jersey
| style="text-align:left;"|
|82||26||56||.317|| style="text-align:center;"|5th in Atlantic||—||—||—||—
| style="text-align:center;"|Missed Playoffs
|-
| style="text-align:left;"|New Jersey
| style="text-align:left;"|
|82||40||42||.488|| style="text-align:center;"|3rd in Atlantic||4||1||3||.250
| style="text-align:center;"|Lost in First round
|-
| style="text-align:left;"|L.A. Clippers
| style="text-align:left;"|
|82||17||65||.207|| style="text-align:center;"|7th in Pacific||—||—||—||—
| style="text-align:center;"|Missed Playoffs
|-
| style="text-align:left;"|L.A. Clippers
| style="text-align:left;"|
|82||29||53||.354|| style="text-align:center;"|7th in Pacific||—||—||—||—
| style="text-align:center;"|Missed Playoffs
|-
| style="text-align:left;"|L.A. Clippers
| style="text-align:left;"|
|82||36||46||.439|| style="text-align:center;"|5th in Pacific||3||0||3||.000
| style="text-align:center;"|Lost in First round
|-
| style="text-align:left;"|L.A. Clippers
| style="text-align:left;"|
|82||17||65||.207|| style="text-align:center;"|7th in Pacific||—||—||—||—
| style="text-align:center;"|Missed Playoffs
|- class="sortbottom"
| style="text-align:left;"|Career
| ||2,050||944||1,106||.460|| ||109||55||54||.505
Source:
References
External links
BasketballReference.com: Bill Fitch
1932 births
2022 deaths
American men's basketball coaches
American men's basketball players
Basketball coaches from Iowa
Basketball players from Iowa
Boston Celtics head coaches
Bowling Green Falcons men's basketball coaches
Cleveland Cavaliers head coaches
Coe Kohawks baseball players
Coe Kohawks men's basketball coaches
Coe Kohawks men's basketball players
College men's basketball head coaches in the United States
Creighton Bluejays baseball coaches
Creighton Bluejays men's basketball coaches
Houston Rockets head coaches
Los Angeles Clippers head coaches
Military personnel from Iowa
Minnesota Golden Gophers men's basketball coaches
Naismith Memorial Basketball Hall of Fame inductees
National Basketball Association championship-winning head coaches
New Jersey Nets head coaches
North Dakota Fighting Hawks men's basketball coaches
Sportspeople from Cedar Rapids, Iowa
Sportspeople from Davenport, Iowa
United States Marines | [
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222426 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Legislative%20assembly | Legislative assembly | Legislative assembly is the name given in some countries to either a legislature, or to one of its houses.
The name is used by a number of countries, including member-states of the Commonwealth of Nations and other countries. It is also used by their sub-national divisions, such as the Indian states and union territories, Australian states and Canadian provinces.
Legislative assemblies in the Commonwealth
Legislative assemblies in modern-day Commonwealth countries, either as national or sub-national parliaments, are in most cases an evolution of one of the legislative chambers of the previous colonial parliaments, whether the full legislature or a lower house. In a number of jurisdictions, the name House of Assembly is used instead. It is one of the main names used in everyday speech for parliament in many countries.
Australia
The lower houses of the parliaments of the Australian states are called Legislative Assemblies. In South Australia and Tasmania, they are referred to as the House of Assembly. The only state with a sole chamber is the state of Queensland as it has abolished the former Legislative Council (upper house) of its parliament, leaving the Legislative Assembly as the sole chamber. There has been a push to reinstate the Legislative Council (upper house) in Queensland to be in line with other states. The parliaments of the Australian territories only have a sole chamber like Queensland, which is the Legislative Assembly. The unicameral legislature of the Australian Capital Territory is the Australian Capital Territory Legislative Assembly. Members of the Legislative Assembly/House of Assembly are referred to as MLAs (NSW, VIC, QLD, WA, ACT, NT) or MHAs (SA, TAS).
Canada
In Canada, seven of the ten provinces and all three of the territories style their legislatures as legislative assemblies. All are unicameral. Manitoba was the first to abolish its Legislative Council in 1876. British Columbia and Newfoundland and Labrador abolished their Councils before becoming provinces. There was no Council for Alberta when it was created in 1905.
The Legislative Assembly of Quebec was renamed the Quebec National Assembly as part of the abolition of the Legislative Council of Quebec on December 31, 1968.
India
In India, the lower house or only house of each constituent state are State legislative assemblies of India. The same name is also used for the only house of the legislatures for three of the Union territories, Delhi, Jammu and Kashmir and Puducherry. The upper house in states with a bicameral legislature are State legislative councils of India, or Vidhan Parishad. Members of the former are called MLAs, and those of the latter MLCs.
Other Commonwealth countries and British Overseas Territories
State legislative assemblies of Malaysia
Legislative Assembly of Samoa
Legislative Assembly of Tonga
Legislative Assembly of the Falkland Islands
Former legislative assemblies
In Mauritius, the unicameral parliament was known as the legislative assembly until 1992, when, following the establishment of a republic, it was renamed the National Assembly
Legislative Assembly of Lower Canada (1791–1838)
Legislative Assembly of Upper Canada (1791–1841)
Legislative Assembly (British Guiana) (1961–1964)
Central Legislative Assembly of British India–1947
Legislative assemblies outside the Commonwealth
Legislative Assembly is the name given to some national legislatures (or one of the houses of the national legislature) of the sovereign nations of:
Plurinational Legislative Assembly of Bolivia
Legislative Assembly of Costa Rica
Legislative Assembly of El Salvador
Former assemblies include:
National Legislative Assembly of Thailand (2014)
National Legislative Assembly (South Sudan)
Legislative Assembly of Kyrgyzstan
Legislative Assembly of Revolutionary France
Legislative bodies of the United States include:
North Dakota Legislative Assembly
Oregon Legislative Assembly
Legislative Assembly of Puerto Rico
The legislatures of the States of Brazil are called "legislative assembly", as are the legislatures of the two insular autonomous regions of Portugal, Azores (the Legislative Assembly of the Azores) and Madeira (the Legislative Assembly of Madeira). In Mexico, the legislative branch of government of Mexico City is the Legislative Assembly of Mexico City.
The Legislative Assembly of Macau is the organ of the legislative branch of the Macau Special Administrative Region.
See also
Council
Legislative council
House of Assembly
Member of the Legislative Assembly
Commonwealth of Nations
Legislatures | [
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222427 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Crypto-anarchism | Crypto-anarchism | Crypto-anarchism or cyberanarchism is a political ideology focusing on protection of privacy, political freedom and economic freedom, the adherents of which use cryptographic software for confidentiality and security while sending and receiving information over computer networks. In his 1988 "Crypto Anarchist Manifesto", Timothy C. May introduced the basic principles of crypto-anarchism, encrypted exchanges ensuring total anonymity, total freedom of speech, and total freedom to trade.
Terminology
"Crypto-" comes from the Ancient Greek κρυπτός kruptós, meaning "hidden" or "secret".
Motives
One motive of crypto-anarchists is to defend against surveillance of computer networks communication. Crypto-anarchists try to protect against government mass surveillance, such as PRISM, ECHELON, Tempora, telecommunications data retention, the NSA warrantless surveillance controversy, Room 641A, the FRA and so on. Crypto-anarchists consider the development and use of cryptography to be the main defense against such problems.
Anonymous trading
Bitcoin is a currency generated and secured by peer-to-peer networked devices that maintain a communal record of all transactions within the system that can be used in a crypto-anarchic context. Adrian Chen, writing for The New York Times, says the idea behind bitcoin can be traced to The Crypto Anarchist Manifesto. Silk Road was an example of an illegal drug market on which bitcoin was the only accepted currency.
Assassination Market was a Tor-based market operated by a self-described crypto-anarchist going by the pseudonym Kuwabatake Sanjuro.
In The Cyphernomicon, Timothy C. May suggests that crypto-anarchism qualifies as a form of anarcho-capitalism:
Another quote in the cyphernomicon defines crypto-anarchism. Under the title "What is Crypto Anarchy?", May writes:
See also
Cypherpunk
Darknet
Darknet market
Jim Bell
Technolibertarianism
Notes
Works cited
Further reading
Computer law
Applications of cryptography | [
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222428 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/H%C5%8Dnen | Hōnen | was the religious reformer and founder of the first independent branch of Japanese Pure Land Buddhism called . He is also considered the Seventh Jōdo Shinshū Patriarch.
Hōnen became a Tendai initiate at an early age, but grew disaffected and sought an approach to Buddhism that anyone could follow, even during the perceived Age of Dharma Decline. After discovering the writings of the Chinese Buddhist Shandao, he undertook the teaching of rebirth in the pure land of Amitābha through nianfo or "recitation of the Buddha's name".
Hōnen gathered a wide array of followers and critics. Emperor Tsuchimikado exiled Hōnen and his followers in 1207 after an incident regarding two of his disciples in addition to persuasion by influential Buddhist communities. Hōnen was eventually pardoned and allowed to return to Kyoto, where he stayed for a short time before his death.
Biography
Early life
Hōnen was born to a prominent family in the city of Kume in Mimasaka Province. His father was Uruma no Tokikuni, a province official who headed up policing in the area. His mother was of the Hada clan, whose ancestry could be traced back to the silk merchants of China. Hōnen was originally named Seishimaru after the bodhisattva Seishi (Sanskrit Mahāsthāmaprāpta). In 1141 Hōnen's father was assassinated by Sada-akira, an official sent by Emperor Horikawa to govern the province. It is believed that Tokikuni's last words to his son were "Don't hate the enemy but become a monk and pray for me and for your deliverance."
Fulfilling his father's wishes for him, Hōnen was initiated into his uncle's monastery at the age of nine. From then on, Hōnen lived his life as a monk, and eventually studied at the primary Tendai temple at Mount Hiei near Kyoto. Clerics at Mt. Hiei took the bodhisattva vows and then undertook 12 years of training at Mt. Hiei, a system developed by the Tendai founder, Saichō.
While at Mt. Hiei, Hōnen studied under Genkō (源光), Kōen (皇円) and later, with Eikū (叡空). Under Kōen he was officially ordained as a Tendai priest, while under Eikū he received the name Hōnen-bō Genkū (法然房源空). In speaking of himself, Hōnen often referred to himself as Genkū, as did his close disciples.
Departure from Mt. Hiei
While studying on Mt. Hiei, Hōnen devoted his time to finding a way to bring salvation to all beings through Buddhism, but was not satisfied with what he found at Mt. Hiei. At the age of 24, Hōnen then went to study at the city of Saga, then Nara, and stayed at such temples at Kōfuku-ji and Tōdai-ji. Still not satisfied, he returned to the libraries of Mt. Hiei and studied further.
During this period, Hōnen read a Pure Land Buddhist text called the Commentaries on the Amitayurdhyana Sutra () authored by the Chinese Pure Land master Shandao (613-681), notably the statement, "Only repeat the name of Amitabha with all your heart. Whether walking or standing, sitting or lying, never cease the practice of it even for a moment. This is the very work which unfailingly issues in salvation, for it is in accordance with the Original Vow of that Buddha." This commentary persuaded Hōnen to believe that nianfo, called nembutsu in Japanese, was all one needed to enter Amitābha's pure land. Previously, nianfo was recited along with other practices, but Shandao was the first to propose that only nianfo was necessary. This new appreciation and understanding prompted Hōnen to leave Mt. Hiei and the Tendai tradition in 1175.
Beginnings of a New Sect
Hōnen relocated to the district of Ōtani in Kyoto, where he started addressing crowds of men and women, establishing a considerable following. Hōnen attracted fortune-tellers, ex-robbers, samurai and other elements of society normally excluded from Buddhist practice. Hōnen was a man of recognition in Kyoto, and many priests and nobleman allied with him and visited him for spiritual advice. Among them was an imperial regent named Kujō Kanezane (1149–1207). The increasing popularity of his teachings drew criticism from noted contemporaries as Myōe and Jōkei among others, who argued against Hōnen's sole reliance on nembutsu as a means of rebirth in a pure land. Additionally, some disciples interpreted Hōnen's teachings in unexpected ways, leading to disreputable behavior, criticism of other sects, or other forms of antinomianism.
In 1204, the monks at Mt. Hiei implored the head priest to ban the teachings of exclusive nembutsu and to banish any adherents from their principality. In 1205 the temple of Kōfuku-ji, located in Nara, implored Emperor Toba II to sanction Hōnen and his followers. The temple provided the emperor with nine charges alleging unappeasable differences with the so-called eight schools. Hōnen's detractors cited examples of his followers, such as Gyoku and Kōsai, who committed vandalism against Buddhist temples, intentionally broke the Buddhist precepts, or caused others to intentionally turn away from established Buddhist teachings.
Richard Bowring condenses these charges into two general forms. First is the nature of a single practice. Hōnen's emphasis on the single practice of nembutsu denied the usefulness of all other Buddhist practices. The sole emphasis on Amitābha was also coupled with discouraging the traditional worship of the kami. The second charge was that Hōnen placed the most lowly layperson on equal footing with the wisest monk, rendering the entire monastic establishment as useless.
In response, Hōnen censured Kōsai's single-nembutsu teaching and his followers agreed to sign the , which called for restraint in moral conduct and in interactions with other Buddhist sects.
The clamour surrounding Hōnen's teachings dissipated for a time until 1207 when Toba II implemented a ban against exclusive nembutsu, stemming from an incident where two of Hōnen's most prominent followers were accused of using nembutsu practice as a coverup for sexual liaisons. As part of the ban, Hōnen and some of his disciples, including Shinran, were exiled, while the priests responsible for the conversion, Juren and Anrakubo, were executed. Hōnen is said to have responded:
Exile and the Final Years
Hōnen was exiled to Tosa, but the movement in Kyoto had not thoroughly gone away. While in exile, Hōnen spread the teachings to the people he met - fishermen, prostitutes, and the peasantry. In 1211 the nembutsu ban was ultimately lifted, and Hōnen was permitted to return to Kyoto. In 1212, the following year, Hōnen died in Kyoto, but was able to compose the a few days before he died.
Character
Analysis of various historical documents by the Jodo Shu Research Institute suggests several obvious characteristics of Hōnen's personality:
a strict master
introspective and self-critical
a bold innovator
a critic of scholasticism
a man more concerned with solving the problems of daily life rather than worrying about doctrinal matters
On the latter point Hōnen expressed unusual concern over the spiritual welfare of women. In teaching to them, regardless of social status (from aristocracy to prostitutes), he particularly rejected the significance of menstruation; which wider Japanese religious culture considered to cause spiritual defilement. As a consequence the role of women in the Jōdo-shū sects has often been greater than in some other Japanese Buddhist traditions.
About himself Hōnen reportedly said:
Doctrine
Writings
Hōnen's main document expounding his Pure Land doctrine is the Senchaku Hongan Nenbutsushū written in 1198 at the request of his patron Lord Kujō Kanezane (1148–1207). The document was not widely distributed by Hōnen's request until after his death. The only other document from Hōnen is his last testament, the Ichimai-kishōmon (一枚起請文) or "One-Sheet Document". Most of Hōnen's teachings are recorded by his disciples, or recorded later by Buddhist historians in the 14th century.
Quotation
Hōnen's teachings are briefly summarized in his final work, the One-Sheet Document:
Hōnen's practical advice on practicing the nembutsu can be summed up in these two statements:
Disciples
By 1204 Hōnen had a group of disciples numbering around 190. This number is derived from the number of signatures found on , a guideline for rules of conduct in the Jōdo Shū community to assuage concerns by other groups. Key disciples who signed the pledge include:
Benchō (1162–1238), founder of the main Chinzei branch of Jōdo-shū. Often called Shōkō. Exiled in 1207 to Kyushu.
Genchi (1183–1238), Hōnen's personal attendant, and close friend of Benchō.
Shōkū (1147–1247), founder of the Seizan branch of Jōdo-shū. Not exiled.
Shinran (1173–1263), founder of the Jōdo Shinshū branch of Pure Land Buddhism. Exiled to Echigo Province in 1207.
Ryūkan (1148–1227), founder of the many-recitation or Tanengi branch of Jōdo-shū.
Chōsai (1184–1266), founder of the Shōgyōhongangi branch of Jōdo-shū which believed that all Buddhist practices can lead to rebirth in the Pureland.
Kōsai (1163–1247), promoted the controversial Ichinengi, or "single-recitation" teaching of Jōdo-shū. Expelled from Honen's community before the exile of 1207.
Gyōkō (?), another proponent of Ichinengi doctrine. Exiled to Sado in 1207.
Rensei (1141–1208), formerly a notable samurai named Kumagai no Jirō Naozane who had fought at the Battle of Ichi-no-Tani and killed the Heike leader Taira no Atsumori
Kansai (1148–1200).
Shinkū (1146–1228).
Anrakubō (? -1207), executed during the purge of 1207.
Jūren (?), executed along with Anrakubō in 1207.
A number of disciples went on to establish branches of Pure Land Buddhism, based on their interpretations of Honen's teachings.
Notes
References
Dobbins, James C. (1989). Jodo Shinshu: Shin Buddhism in Medieval Japan. Bloomington, Illinois: Indiana University Press. ; OCLC 470742039
Hônen : "Le gué vers la Terre Pure", Senchaku-shû, traduit du sino-japonais, présenté et annoté par Jérôme Ducor. Collection "Trésors du bouddhisme". Paris, Librairie Arthème Fayard, 2005.
Takahashi Koji. Senchakushu no seikaku ni tsuite: tokuni hi ronriteki ichimen o chushin to shite. in Jodokyo no shiso to bunka, Etani Festschrift (Kyoto: Dohosha, 1972)
Augustine, Morris J., Kondō, Tesshō, trans. (1997). "Senchaku hongan nembutsu shū": a collection of passages on the nembutsu chosen in the original vow compiled by Genkū (Hōnen), Berkeley, Calif.: Numata Center for Buddhist Translation and Research.
Jokai Asai (2001). Exclusion and Salvation in Honen's Thought: Salvation of Those Who Commit the Five Grave Offenses or Slander the Right Dharma, Pacific World Journal, Third Series, Number 3, 125-156. Archived from the original
Sho-on Hattori, A Raft from the Other Shore: Honen and the Way of Pure Land Buddhism, Jodo Shu Press, Tōkyō, 2001,
Sōhō Machida, Renegade monk : Hōnen and Japanese Pure Land Buddhism, University of California Press, Berkeley, 1999,
Jonathan Watts, Yoshiharu Tomatsu, Traversing the Pure Land Path: A Lifetime of Encounters with Honen Shonin, Jodo Shu Press, Tōkyō, 2005,
External links
Honen Shonin’s Religious and Social Significance in the Pure Land Tradition by Alfred Bloom
Kyoto National Museum: The Illustrated Biography of Priest Honen
法然上人全集
法然上人とは
法然上人資料室
法然上人関係文献
12th-century Buddhist monks
13th-century Buddhist monks
1133 births
1212 deaths
Japanese Buddhist clergy
Buddhist patriarchs
Pure Land Buddhism
Jōdo-shū
Shinran
Founders of Buddhist sects
Heian period Buddhist clergy
Kamakura period Buddhist clergy
Jōdo Shin patriarchs | [
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222430 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Algarve | Algarve | Algarve (, , ; from ) is the southernmost NUTS II region of continental Portugal. It has an area of with 467,495 permanent inhabitants, and incorporates 16 municipalities (concelhos or municípios in Portuguese).
The region has its administrative centre in the city of Faro, where both the region's international airport (IATA: FAO) and public university, the University of Algarve, are located. The region coincides with Faro District and is subdivided into two zones, one to the West (Barlavento) and another to the East (Sotavento). Tourism and related activities are extensive and make up the bulk of the Algarve's summer economy. Production of food, which includes fish and other seafood as well as different types of fruit and vegetables such as oranges, figs, plums, carob pods, almonds, avocados, tomatoes, cauliflowers, strawberries and raspberries, are also economically important in the region.
Although Lisbon surpasses Algarve in terms of tourism revenue, the Algarve is still, overall, considered to be the biggest and most important Portuguese tourist region, having received an estimated total of 7.1 million tourists in 2017. Its population triples in the peak holiday season due to seasonal residents. Due to the high standards of quality of life, mainly regarding safety and access to public health services, as well as due to cultural factors and considerably good weather conditions, the Algarve is becoming increasingly sought after, mostly by central and northern Europeans, as a permanent place to settle. Several studies and reports have concluded that the Algarve is among the world's best places to retire.
Algarve is the fourth most developed Portuguese region — in 2019, it was placed fourth out of seven regions with a human development index (HDI) of 0.847 (Portugal's HDI average was 0.864 in 2019). With a GDP per capita at 85.2% of the European Union average, it has the second highest purchasing power in the country, standing only behind Lisbon Metropolitan Area.
History
Pre-Roman times
Human presence in southern Portugal dates back to the Paleolithic and Neolithic periods. The presence of megalithic stones in the area of Vila do Bispo, Lagos, Alcoutim and elsewhere in the region attests to this presence.
At around the year 1000 BC, the Phoenicians founded the city of Cádiz, and, subsequently, coastal ports along the Algarve coast. Olissipo (Lisbon) is believed to be of Phoenician origin. By the time of the Carthaginians, Portus Hannibalis – located in what is today either the city of Portimão or the town of Alvor in Algarve - is named after Hannibal Barca.
The Cynetes, as they were known in Greek, Conii, in Latin, were established by the sixth century BC in the region of the Algarve (called Cyneticum). Their ethnic and linguistic origins remain widely disputed, although, due to geographical proximity, it is possible that they were related both to Tartessos and the Celtici, seeing that Conii, the likely designation they used to describe themselves, is derived of the Proto-Celtic kwon ('dog'). These Indo-European tribes, Celtic or pre-Celtic, created a settlement in Lacóbriga (today's Lagos) in the year 1899 BC.
Roman period
The Algarve region came under Roman control after Fabius Maximus Servilianus defeated the Lusitanians and the Turduli in the context of the Lusitanian War, as was the case of much of the Iberian Peninsula, which was absorbed into the Roman Republic in the second century BC. Cyneticum (in reference to the Cynetes who inhabited the region), as it was then called, became integrated into Hispania Ulterior and into Lusitania afterwards, being under Roman influence for around 600 years (from 200 BC till 410 AD), having thus adopted Latin as the official language, as well as Roman cultural, political, architectonic, religious and economic tenets.
Seeing that during this time traveling through the land was dangerous, its geography meant that Cyneticum was of crucial importance as a passageway between the Mediterranean and the Atlantic Ocean, connecting countless Roman ports to several provinces, mainly in other parts of Hispania, Gaul and Britannia. This meant that the region experienced a great level of prosperity accrued through an expansion of its trading and commercial capabilities, mainly from the production and commercialization of olive oil and garum, products very much sought after throughout the Roman Empire.
As Christianity rose in popularity, becoming the official religion of the Roman Empire under Constantine the Great, Cyneticum, following the same tendency of the rest of the Roman provinces, made the transition from a polytheistic society into a monotheistic one. The region made a gradual changeover into Christianity, as Pagan and Animistic religions became obsolete under this new cultural influence. Roman Emperor Theodosius I, himself a native of the Iberian Peninsula, would come to prohibit Paganism in 381. The Roman Temple of Milreu, originally dedicated to Venus, transformed later on into a Paleochristian temple, is an example of the religious changes that took place in this period.
Many Roman ruins, both in the form of temples, countryside villas (of which more than 30 were found in the Algarve), public baths, bridges, salting and fish-processing facilities and mosaics are widespread all over the region, notably in Vila do Bispo, Lagos, Portimão, Quarteira, Faro, Olhão, Tavira and in other areas, illustrating the strong contributions that Roman culture as a whole made to the Algarve.
Medieval period
After the fall of the Western Roman Empire, the Visigoths, a Germanic tribe originally from Scandinavia but who had spread into Eastern Europe, occupied the Iberian Peninsula around the year 500. With the death of Amalaric in 531, the original dynastic shape of the Visigoths came to an end, and out of the fusion of the Roman and Germanic components a new Iberian identity came into being. The Visigothic Kingdom was thus founded in 542, with Toledo as its capital. Practicing Arianism at first, a big portion of the Visigoths eventually adopted Catholicism to secure their position in the region. In 552, the Algarve was conquered by the Byzantine Empire and, in 571, Liuvigild managed to secure the region for the Visigothic Kingdom once again, which lasted until the year 711, and comprised most of the Iberian Peninsula and parts of modern France.
When the Moors conquered Lagos in 716, it was renamed Zawaia. Faro, which the Christian residents had called Santa Maria, was renamed Faraon, which means "settlement of the knights". Due to the conquest of the Iberian Peninsula, the region was called Gharb Al-Andalus: Gharb means "the west", while al-Andalus is the Arabic name for the Iberian Peninsula. As the westernmost region to be conquered by the Moors, the coveted lands of Algarve, in this corner of Europe, became for a while the end goal of the Muslim Empire's expansionist policy. With the advent of Moorish rule in the eighth century, Faro, called Ossonoba by then, retained its status as the most important town in the southwest corner of the Iberian Peninsula. In the 9th century, after a revolt led by Yahia Ben Bakr who was succeeded in office by his son, Bakr Ben Yahia, it became the capital of a short-lived autonomous princedom and was fortified with a ring of defensive walls. At this time, in the 10th century, the name Santa Maria began to be used instead of Ossonoba. By the 11th century, the town was known as Santa Maria Ibn Harun. During the Moorish era (9-12th century), Silves was a major stronghold, and the town prospered greatly as the capital of the region. In the mid-13th century, during the Reconquista, the Kingdom of Portugal took over the region in a series of successful military campaigns against the Moors. Al-Gharb became the Kingdom of Algarve, and the non-assimilated Muslim Moors who didn't flee the region would be expelled in 1496 not only in Algarve but in all of Portugal. As the southernmost region to be conquered by the Portuguese, the coveted territory had become for a while the end goal of the Kingdom of Portugal's expansionist policy known as Reconquista and by itself one of the reasons behind the foundation of Portugal. There were subsequent Moorish attempts to recapture the region, without success.
King Afonso III of Portugal started calling himself King of Portugal and the Algarve. The most outstanding fact of his reign was indeed the definitive conquest of Algarve. Silves was taken from its last Muslim ruler Ibn Afan by Paio Peres Correia, Grand-Master of the Order of Santiago in 1242 and Tavira was also taken in the same year after Alentejo and most of the coast of Algarve (then part of a historical region called Gharb al-Andalus by the Muslims of Iberian Peninsula) had already fallen in 1238. In March 1249 the city of Faro was conquered. From this date, Afonso III became the first Portuguese king to use the title King of Portugal and the Algarve. The friars of Sant'Iago and Calatrava played a decisive role, and were entrusted with the task of concluding the conquest. The conquest of the Algarve led, however, to serious disagreements with the Kingdom of Castile. Peace was initially achieved with the marriage of King Afonso III to Beatrice of Castile, illegitimate daughter of King Alfonso X of Castile (after the pope had annulled the marriage to Matilda II because she was sterile), but the problem was only definitively solved by the Treaty of Badajoz, of 16 February 1267. By this treaty it was defined that the Guadiana river, from the confluence of the Caia until the mouth, would be the Portugal-Castile border.
After 1471, with the conquest of several territories in the Maghreb – the area considered an extension of the Algarve – Afonso V of Portugal began fashioning himself "King of Portugal and the Algarves", referring to the European and African possessions (Algarves is the plural word of Algarve and means the Algarve plus all the overseas territories that Portugal would conquer abroad further south). The over five centuries-long Moorish rule over the Algarve (and Alentejo), left their mark and added to a unique blend of architectonic, gastronomical and artistic features like the traditional Algarve corridinho, a folk dance found in this southernmost region of Portugal. In the 15th century, Prince Henry the Navigator based himself near Lagos and conducted various maritime expeditions which established the colonies that comprised the Portuguese Empire. Also from Lagos, Gil Eanes set sail in 1434 to become the first seafarer to round Cape Bojador in West Africa. The voyages of discovery brought Lagos fame and fortune. Trade flourished and Lagos became the capital of the historical province of Algarve in 1577 and remained so until the fabled 1755 Lisbon earthquake.
Modern times
After the destructive effects of an earlier major earthquake in 1722, the 1755 earthquake damaged many areas in Algarve and an accompanying tsunami destroyed or damaged coastal fortresses, while coastal towns and villages were heavily damaged except Faro, which was protected by the sandy banks of Ria Formosa lagoon. In Lagos, the waves reached the top of the city walls. For many Portuguese coastal regions, including the Algarve, the destructive effects of the tsunami were more disastrous than those of the earthquake itself.
Prior to the independence of Brazil, "United Kingdom of Portugal, Brazil, and the Algarves" (1815–1822) was an official designation for Portugal which also alluded to the Algarve. After the independence of Brazil in 1822, Portuguese monarchs continued to use the title of "King of Portugal and the Algarves" until the proclamation of the First Portuguese Republic in 1910.
In 1807, while Jean-Andoche Junot led the first Napoleonic invasion in the north of Portugal, the Algarve was occupied by Spanish troops under Manuel Godoy. Beginning in 1808, and after subsequent battles in various towns and villages, the region was the first to drive out the Spanish occupiers. During the Portuguese Civil War (1828–1834), several battles took place in the region, especially the battle of Cape St. Vicente and the battle of Sant’Ana, between liberals and Miguelites (antiliberal absolutists). Remexido was the guerrilla Algarvian leader who stood with the Miguelite absolutists for years, until he was executed in Faro in 1838. As the first canned fish undertaking in the country, the Vila Real de Santo António plant of the company Conservas Ramirez (founded in 1853) became the cradle of the sector in Portugal. Vila Real de Santo António and other places in coastal Algarve thrived on the growth of the fishing industry, which included the processing of species of tuna and sardine.
Cork as a material used by people is a very old product. Throughout times, Portugal became the world's largest producer of cork, with the Algarve and some areas of the neighboring Portuguese region of Alentejo producing world-renowned high-quality cork (50% of the world's cork production comes from Portugal, and cork is one of the country's main exports in modern times, but large-scale use of the material by the Portuguese goes back to the 14th century, when Portuguese explorers used cork in the construction of their ships because one of the properties of cork is that it does not rot). At one time, between the late 19th century and the beginning of the 20th century, São Brás de Alportel, in Sotavento Algarvio, was the center of cork production in the Algarve, with 80 factories in operation, but gradually the industry moved to the center and northern regions of Portugal, and only a few cork factories remained in São Brás de Alportel municipality. Starting in the late 19th century, Silves Municipality, in Barlavento Algarvio, used to be another area with a large production of the valuable cork and that industry would prosper until the 1930s (by 2010, the cork industry had disappeared in the area but Silves had a museum showing how cork was harvested and processed in the old days when it was a major center of that industry, a museum opened in 1999 that in 2001 won the prestigious award for Best Museum of Industry in Europe). The establishment of the First Portuguese Republic in 1910 marked the end of the almost nominal Kingdom of Portugal and the Algarve.
By the 1950s, as air traveling became more accessible, the Mediterranean Basin increasingly developed into a hot-spot for international tourism. Regions such as the Algarve benefited economically from this trend.
In the Algarve, from 1962 to 1966 and beyond, the mutation of tourism is visible in the new tourist accommodation developments. Hotels play a secondary role, in favor of apartment buildings, extended villas (some with golf course, many with swimming pool) and village complexes. After years of planning and construction work in progress, the Faro International Airport was inaugurated on July 11, 1965, by the President of the Republic Américo Tomás. The access road, between the national road EN125 and the newly built airport, was also opened to the public at the same time. However, tourism services were unprepared for this rapid change. The formation of an accommodation supply outside the framework of tourism legislation and the incapacity of public regulation of the tourism supply begins and would be a reality until the 1990s. This somewhat chaotic tourism boom made the tourist industry the biggest contributor to the economy of Algarve and the largest employer in the region. Starting as a fast-paced tourism urbanization hotspot between the 1960s and 1990s, the Algarve had morphed itself into a seasonal metropolis by the 2010s.
During this process, the Algarve has remained anyway a fairly exotic region for Portuguese citizens from other regions in mainland Portugal due to its Mediterranean climate, unique foods, architecture and geographical location - in modern times many Portuguese residing in other parts of the country traditionally spend their summer break or own a holiday home in Algarve. The state-run University of Algarve was founded in January 1979 and for the Fall 2021 semester had about 9,000 students enrolled. Its medical school opened in 2009. In 1991, the construction of the A22 motorway (also known as Via Infante de Sagres, named so after Henry the Navigator) which crosses the Algarve from west to east began and by 2003 it was fully completed. It connects Lagos in western Algarve to the Guadiana International Bridge over the Portugal-Spain international river border in eastern Algarve.
Geography
The Algarve is located in the southernmost area of continental Portugal and the southwesternmost area of the Iberian Peninsula and mainland Europe, covering an area of . It borders to the north with the Alentejo region (Alentejo Litoral and Baixo Alentejo), to the south and west with the Atlantic Ocean, and to the east the Guadiana River marks the border with Spain. The highest point is located northwest in the Monchique mountains, with a maximum altitude of on Pico da Fóia.
The western part of the Algarve is known as Barlavento and the east as Sotavento. The name is undoubtedly due to the prevailing wind on the south coast of the Algarve but the historical origin of these divisions is uncertain and quite remote. Barlavento and Sotavento both have eight municipalities and one main city (Faro in Sotavento and Portimão in Barlavento).
The region is also home to the Ria Formosa Lagoon, a nature reserve of over and a stopping place for hundreds of different species of birds. This system of barrier islands communicates with the sea through six inlets. The length of the south-facing coastline is roughly . Beyond the westernmost point of Cape St. Vincent it stretches a further to the north. The coastline is notable for picturesque limestone caves and grottoes by the sea, particularly around Lagos, Portimão, Lagoa and Albufeira, which are accessible by powerboat.
Researchers agree that the Lisbon metropolitan area and the Algarve are the two regions in mainland Portugal most at risk of experiencing earthquakes and tsunamis strong enough to cause catastrophic loss of human life and infrastructure. Two earthquakes in the 18th century were the last time such catastrophic events occurred in Algarve - the 1722 Algarve earthquake and the 1755 Lisbon earthquake.
Climate
The Algarve as a whole is one of the warmest places of Southern Europe, with an Atlantic influenced Mediterranean climate, it has mild wet winters and warm to very hot, dry summers. It is overall the sunniest region in Europe, with annual sunshine values ranging from 2600 h in the Monchique Range, to values well above 3100 h on the southern coast.
Generally, winter sees only subtle differences in daily maxima along the coast, mostly between , though temperatures as high as have been recorded. Conversely, overnight lows are higher in the west, with Sagres and Vila do Bispo averaging , whilst to the east, averages are lower and is more common. Temperatures very rarely fall below freezing (< ). On the interior, nights are usually cooler, averaging .
Summer sees its highest average temperatures in the east, where the maxima ranges from in the coast and in the interior. Daily temperatures in the Vicentine Coast are much cooler, usually maxima, consequence of the strong upwelling western Portugal experiences. The Algarvian interior can get very hot in the summer, temperatures above are not uncommon. Overnight lows are often independent on the location, around in most of the Algarve.
The Algarve gets between of precipitation per year on average. December is the wettest month and July is the driest. The overall precipitation is determined mostly by the precipitation received in the winter (summers are very dry in most of the region). It has its highest values in the mountainous interior, and its lowest on the far east (in the Guadiana Valley) and the southwest (Sagres Point and Cape St. Vincent).
Sea-surface temperatures in the Algarve are generally cool, though milder than the remaining west-facing coasts of Portugal. Around the Sagres Point, the upwelling phenomena further decreases surface ocean temperatures. In the winter, both western and southern coasts average sea-surface temperatures of around . In the summer, it rises to around , with their highest in September, however, southern coastal waters near the Gulf of Cádiz tend to receive outflows of warm Mediterranean water, and as such, present slightly higher temperatures on average than the western Vicentine Coast.
Human geography
About 450,000 permanent inhabitants (90 residents per km2) live in the area, although this figure increases to over a million people at the height of summer, due to an influx of tourists. The Algarve has several cities, towns, and villages; the region's capital is the city of Faro, while other cities include Albufeira, Lagoa, Lagos, Loulé, Olhão, Portimão, Quarteira, Silves, Tavira, and Vila Real de Santo António, in addition to various summer retreats such as Vilamoura, Praia da Rocha, Armação de Pêra, Alvor, Monte Gordo, Alcoutim, and Sagres.
Before 2004, the Faro District was the administrative unit governing the Algarve. In 2004, the Greater Metropolitan Area of the Algarve was formed, which was converted into an intermunicipal community in 2008. Algarve is also a NUTS II and NUTS III statistical region. The intermunicipal community of Algarve is subdivided into 16 municipalities:
Between 2001 and 2020, Algarve was the only Portuguese region where an increase in the number of newborns was reported (4,164 babies in 2001; 4,323 babies in 2020; a rise of 3.8%). 25% of those newborns had a foreign mother. Mostly Brazilian mothers, but also a rising number of Indian, Nepalese and Pakistani mothers together with a sizable, already established former trend of Romanian, Ukrainian and Moldovan mothers.
Economy
Algarve's human development index (HDI) stands at 0.847 (2019) while Portugal's HDI average is 0.864 (2019) and Lisbon Metropolitan Area's is 0.901 (2019) — it is the 4th most developed region of Portugal out of seven regions. However, with a GDP per capita at 85.2% of the European Union average, Algarve has the second highest purchasing power in the country, standing only behind Lisbon Metropolitan Area. Agricultural products of the region include fig, almond, orange, carob, olive, avocado and cork oak. Horticulture is important and the region's landscape is known for the large areas of land covered with greenhouses which are used to that end. Several types of fruit and veggies such as tomatoes, cauliflowers, strawberry and raspberry, are commercially grown and exported. Fishing and aquaculture are important activities in the coastal area of Algarve, with sardines, squids, soles, cyprinids, gilt-head bream, and various seafood, including oysters and the grooved carpet shell, being the major products. The Algarve's wines are also renowned. Four wines in the region have Protected Designation of Origin (Denominação de Origem Controlada – DOC): Lagoa DOC, Lagos DOC, Portimão DOC, and Tavira DOC. Food processing, including value added products (traditional, local raw agricultural products that have been modified or enhanced to have a higher market value than before) such as innovative fig, orange, almond and carob-based products, cement (CIMPOR has a major cement plant in Loulé) and construction are the main industries. Cork, having a long-standing industrial tradition in Silves and São Brás de Alportel municipalities since the 19th century, is used as a material for the production of several items by industries that make products ranging from cork stoppers to fashionware. Pelcor, headquartered in São Brás de Alportel, is the first luxury brand of fashion and lifestyle accessories in cork skin combining design, innovation and sustainability.
Tourism-related activities are extensive and make up the bulk of the Algarve's economy during summer. The Algarve's economy has always been closely linked to the sea, and fishing has been an important activity since ancient times. Long-established fish canning factories persist like those of Conservas Ramirez and Conserveira do Sul. Only since the 1960s has the region embraced tourism, which has become its most important economic activity. Faro International Airport located 4 km from downtown Faro, the administrative center of the region of Algarve in Portugal, was constructed during the 1960s and inaugurated in 1965. In 2019, the airport reached a record-breaking 9 million passengers handled a year.
With the increase in life quality and purchasing power of Algarve's population, many shopping malls have been constructed since the 1990s and 2000s. An Ikea, the first in the Algarve, opened in Loulé, at the time one of the only five in Portugal. In 2017, the Algarve was the Portuguese region that experienced the biggest economic growth, an increase of 4.6% of its GDP.
Development
The Algarve has been experiencing a strong development since the beginning of the 1960s, initially due to the need to accommodate its foreign visitors. The region started the construction of better infrastructure, mainly roads, sanitation, power grids, telecommunications, hospitals, and housing. Private investors, with the support of municipalities, also began the construction of a variety of hotels, resorts, golf courses (which are considered to be some of the best in Europe), and villas.
All this led to a large development in the region, especially for the locals, who had previously lived in harsher circumstances. Today, the Algarve is amongst the regions in Portugal with the best quality of life. Due to the austerity measures introduced in 2011, tolls were placed on the main motorway that crosses the region (the A22 motorway which is also officially known as "Via do lnfante") to offset the expense of its maintenance. The University of Algarve, a state-run university founded in 1979, has been an important source of innovation and entrepreneurship for the whole region and plays a role as a major driving force of economic growth and development in Algarve.
Tourism and attractiveness for expats
In the 1960s, the Algarve became a popular destination for tourists, mainly from the United Kingdom which still is the origin of the largest group of foreigners in Algarve. It has since become a common destination for people from Germany, the Netherlands, Ireland, France, Sweden and Italy, not only as tourists who visit Algarve but also as residing expats who settle in the region and buy property there. The Algarve's mild climate and hours of sunshine per year have attracted interest from Portuguese and other European people wishing to have a holiday home or residence in the region. Being a region of Portugal, and therefore in the European Union, any EU citizen has the right to freely buy property and reside with little formality in the Algarve. Algarve-based publications and newspapers are written in English specifically for this community.
The Brazilian community in Algarve is the second largest expat community in the region after the British, followed by important numbers of Ukrainian, Romanian, Moldovan, Indian, Nepalese, Sinhalese and Pakistani people who arrived there to work in retail, hospitality industry, construction, agriculture and manufacturing. In the late 2010s, the Algarve saw a high increase in Canadian, American and Australian tourists too. In Algarve, the expatriate population from high income economies include a large number of pensioners, namely from countries like the UK, Ireland, Germany, France, Netherlands, Sweden and the US. Portuguese people from other parts of the country also visit the region in large numbers, especially in the peak of the summer (July and August) and a sizable number of Portuguese citizens residing in other Portuguese regions, including retired people, own a holiday home in Algarve. Several international studies have concluded that the Algarve is among the world's best places to retire.
Tourist attractions in the region include its beaches, Mediterranean climate, safety, cuisine, and relatively low prices. Well-known beaches in Algarve include Praia da Luz, Praia da Rocha, Marinha Beach, Armação de Pêra, Praia dos Pescadores, Quarteira, Vale do Lobo, Fuzeta, Barril Beach, Manta Rota and Monte Gordo. A well-known spa town is Caldas de Monchique. In addition to its natural features and beaches, Algarve has invested in the creation of a network of golf courses.
The Algarve is also popular for religious tourism, notably pilgrimages to the Sanctuary of Our Lady of Piety (best known as the Sovereign Mother), a Marian shrine dedicated to the patron saint of Loulé, that attract thousands of pilgrims of the Catholic faith to the city, or minor pilgrimages of faithful Catholics to the site of putative apparitions of Our Lady Mother of Goodness which had supposedly occurred in 1999 near the village of São Marcos da Serra.
Tourism plays an important role in the economy of the Algarve. A large number of seasonal job opportunities are tourism-related and are fulfilled by thousands of locals and immigrants. Due to its seasonal nature, most of the economy relies on the good weather available mostly for only about 5–6 months (characterized by a prolonged lack of rain and temperatures above 25 °C throughout the day), meaning that many Algarvians go unemployed during the low season. Nonetheless, due to the very high monetary income that the high season brings, most people in the Algarve are still able to have comfortable lives even while unemployed. Delivery of superior touristic services and products in a convenient and engaging way, also known as luxury tourism, is also found in several areas across Algarve. The Golden Triangle, a first among such affluent areas, is located outside of Faro, capital of Algarve, being known for its luxury resorts and Michelin star restaurants. According to World Travel Awards, the Algarve was Europe's leading golf destination in 2013 and 2014. Over 25 top-class courses are located in Algarve, most of which were designed by legendary names such as Nick Faldo, Seve Ballesteros, Jack Nicklaus, and Christy O'Connor, Jr. In 2018, the region's income from tourism was over a billion euros; the number of visitors totaled 4.2 million. Tourism contributed €1.08 billion to the economy in that year.
Accommodation
Accommodation in Algarve ranges from high-rise resorts in places such as Albufeira, Vilamoura, Praia da Rocha and Armação de Pêra to apartment rental, bed and breakfast, hostels and traditional guesthouses located in small towns and villages, both inland and alongside Algarve coast. Over the years, tourists with less acquisitive power started to visit Algarve in large numbers and steering away from expensive resorts, opting instead for more affordable touristic establishments such as vacation rentals, guesthouses and hostels. Besides affordability, a higher flexibility in rules and conditions, good overall location, as well as a greater hospitality and interaction with guests, are often cited as some of the appealing factors of these accommodations. Throughout the Algarve, local accommodation, as its colloquially known, employs over 20 thousand people in more than 32 thousand legal establishments and generates an estimated 980 million Euros yearly. The vast majority of tourists who seek this type of accommodation are British, Portuguese and French, but an exponential increase in tourists from Germany, Spain and Brazil has also been seen.
Criticism
The Mediterranean extended tourist basin was formed, beginning in the 1950s, by the rapid and simultaneous development of several tourist areas, each formed around the arrival airport of charter flights, which made it accessible to the Western and Northern European middle classes. Air accessibility, more free time, and disposable income offered a new geography, size, and diversity, in the search of the trip to a resort during leisure time. The boundaries of the basin extended westward and southwestward to Algarve and the southwestern coast of Andaluzia in the Iberian Peninsula, the Moroccan coast and the Atlantic Islands, and eastward to the Black Sea and the Red Sea. The Algarve was one of these tourist areas, influenced by the land structure, absence of a strong regional bourgeoisie and incipient public regulation as compared with the most advanced economies of the time. Although international tourism and a generally high receptivity to globalism, economic globalization and foreign direct investment have brought a relatively high level of prosperity and development to the region, many personalities criticize the environmental impacts, the high cost of living and the eradication of Algarve's cultural and traditional characteristics that such outside influence has brought. Algarve native Fernando Silva Grade (1955-2019), a nationally renowned plastic artist and activist with a licentiate degree in biology awarded by the University of Lisbon in 1983, in his 2014 book O Algarve Tal como o Destruímos (loose translation: The Algarve as we destroyed it), vehemently opposed the proliferation of the mass tourism and construction sectors, which, in his opinion, eroded large portions of a world unique coastline, degraded and destroyed Algarve's traditional architecture, along with the peaceful and slow-paced way of life that were once ubiquitous throughout the region. He further went on to criticize the inapt attitudes of politicians and city halls which continuously fail to preserve this legacy.
Other critics underline the over-dependency of Algarve on tourism and the "sun and beach" modality of tourism in particular, the one mostly advertised by local and national authorities and, thus, most widespread. They accentuate the saturation of beach-side resorts that leave other types of tourist establishments, such as the ones dedicated to nature and health, with little occupancy. These critics also stress that overcrowdedness, filthiness and pollution are the consequences of this lack of diversity in Algarve's tourism industry. In addition, due to international mass tourism, some areas of Algarve are drug dealing and prostitution hotspots, including luxury prostitution and male prostitution, performed mostly by foreign sex workers.
The England-inspired, England-reliant tourist product of Algarve since the 1960s is a source of criticism in Portugal to the point that the Algarve region has been compared to a colony of the English. Portuguese tourists perceive their status as tourists in the Portuguese region of Algarve as being constantly challenged by the extreme Anglophilia of the Algarvian people and its tourist offer.
Culture
The region of Algarve has a rich ethnographic heritage, with centuries-old customs, traditions and historical heritage. The Algarve is a cultural and historical point of interest all year round, but at particular times, such as Easter, Christmas, or even Spring, together with its gastronomic delicacies, the Algarve region has an old, multifaceted legacy that also shaped its regional cultural identity within Portugal. The Algarve is a place that gathers many settlements, from prehistoric times, to Phoenician, Roman, Visigothic, Arab and Christian Reconquista times, there are several testimonies that left a little piece of themselves, to form the Algarve of today. Since the menhirs and megalithic monuments like the Megalithic Monuments of Alcalar and the Menhirs of Lavajo that prove the presence of the first humans of its history, also the Romans left the testimonies of their presence and culture. The Roman Ruins of Milreu in Estói, the Roman ruins of Cerro da Vila in Vilamoura or the Roman ruins of Quinta da Abicada in Mexilhoeira Grande, are good examples of Roman vestiges in Algarve, being some of them equipped with a dedicated interpretive center to tell their story. The Islamic occupation period from which a great heritage remains, present in various aspects of the Algarve culture beginning with the name of the region since the word "Algarve" goes back to the Arabic word "al-Gharb" meaning West, including castles and fortresses, vestiges of a unique ribat, the Ribat of Arrifana, as well as alcarias, and some churches that were adapted from ancient mosques, in addition to strong influences in popular architecture, also left its mark. Vila Real de Santo António, to the far east of the region, near Spain, is the best Algarve example of the strong legacy that the Marquis of Pombal left in Portuguese urban planning after the great earthquake of 1755.
The Algarve dialect is a dialect of European Portuguese as spoken in the Algarve. The Algarve dialect, very closely related to Alentejan Portuguese, is much more than a mere accent; it expresses a way of life, with its traditional sayings, its well-known and highly colorful curses, idioms, proverbs, and expressions. It bears the influences of Arabic, archaic Portuguese and the southern variant of Castillian. Until the end of the 20th century it was pervasive but afterwards it became less common among younger, highly educated Algarveans who live near the coastal strip and the main urban centers. In any case, a majority of people in some places of Algarve besides the sparsely populated, ageing hilly interior, like areas of Lagos, Portimão, Albufeira, Loulé, Faro, Olhão, Tavira and Vila Real de Santo António coastal municipalities, still speak the dialect employing its characteristic, strong accent on a daily basis.
The most striking symbol of traditional Algarve architecture is undoubtedly the chimney, which reflected the individuality of the owner of the house and showed off his possessions. No two chimneys were alike, and the more intricate the design, the more expensive the work. Examples of these symbols of popular art and technical skill can be seen in the Algarve's rural hinterland, in the most affluent dwellings. The platibanda (platband) is another characteristic feature of the Algarve's architectural heritage. It is an elegant decorative strip that lines the facades and hides the roof or cladding, ornamented with geometric shapes and colors. It contrasts with the white of the whitewash and matches the colored bars that frame doors and windows. The four-sloped, or scissor truss are typical of aristocratic cities, and denote a strong Eastern aesthetic influence, which traveled along with silks and spices.
They are associated with Tavira, the princess of the Gilão, a well-preserved architectural gem and once a port of great strategic importance. They also exist in Faro, but their presence is residual today. In the western Algarve the winds blow from the Atlantic coast and, in its interior, there is the mountain climate. Here the houses are generally simpler, less sophisticated, built in masonry of mud or stone, and unadorned, only whitewashed. These simple rural houses are also found, in their charming simplicity, in the Caldeirão mountain range. On the coast, it is frequent the construction of açoteias, roof terraces of Arabic inspiration that were used to watch the sea, waiting for the boats returning from their fishing trips. It was also in these private spaces that fruit and fish were dried, and that people rested on hot summer nights. Olhão is the ex-libris of this architecture of pure and clean lines, deserving the nickname of cubist city, with its buildings clustered in cubes in a sinuous plan, direct influence of the architecture of Morocco.
Corridinho is the traditional dance of the Algarve bearing some resemblance to the polka and mazurka. The corridinho is a form of Portuguese folk dance whose the origin is unclear and believed older, although it gained popularity in the 1800s.
The Algarve is also famous for its pottery and ceramics, particularly hand-painted pottery and azulejos, which are painted, tin-glazed ceramic tiles. Numerous ceramics and pottery outlets are open throughout the Algarve, including a number of potteries established by foreign artists interested in the old tradition of Algarve pottery. For working potteries and ceramics workshops, the main (or best-known) pottery centers are located in Almancil, Loulé, Porches and Silves, but many other Algarve ceramic and pottery workshops and shops are found across the entire Algarve region. Other representative handicraft activities of the Algarve are the "empreita", a braid of fine palm leaf rolled up in the most diverse shapes, and the basketry, resulting from the technique of weaving the cane and the wicker, with such perfection that makes the Algarve basketry famous in the Portuguese south.
The Algarve gastronomy dates back to the historical times of the Roman and Arabic presence, constituting, along with the climate of the region, one of the main points of tourist interest. The ingredients used reflect the fresh flavors of the sea and the pleasant and strong aromas of the countryside. From the "arroz de lingueirão" rice with razor clams from Faro, the grilled sardines from Portimão to the sweets "Dom Rodrigos" from Lagos, there are dishes and delicacies for all tastes. The town of Monchique stands out in this chapter because it is known for its pork production, proof of which are the well-known sausages made with pork meat (sausage, morcela black pudding, farinheira and chouriço) and presunto hams, exhibited annually at the Feira dos Enchidos and Feira do Presunto, respectively. The typical aguardente de medronho (arbutus berry brandy) produced in this region both artisanally and industrially, is also a very well known fruit brandy in the region. The liqueurs made with regional products are also sought after. Those include ginjinha (sour cherry liqueur) and amêndoa amarga (bitter almond liqueur).
Old fig and almond-based sweets and desserts as well as newer carob-based products; a plethora of fish and seafood dishes near the coast; and pork and chicken dishes from inland Algarve, are among the most typical elements of its regional cuisine. Cataplana; frango de churrasco like that known as frango de churrasco à la Guia; caldeirada; Portuguese tuna steak 'Algarve style'; a variety of seafood dishes which may contain various shellfish like clams, mussels, crab and shrimp; grilled sardines; Algarve style stuffed and fried squid; marzipan; and xarém are some of the typical regional culinary specialties in Algarve. Carne de porco à alentejana, which is named after the neighboring region of Alentejo, is speculated by some to have its roots in Algarve region because the clams are much more popular as food in seaside cities, towns and villages like those of Algarve rather than in places far from the ocean. It may be an example of fusion cuisine between pork dishes of inner Alentejo where pig farming is extensive and seafood dishes of coastal Algarve where shellfish abound.
Although Loulé hosts the largest carnival in the Algarve, every town and village in the Algarve has its own party. It usually starts with a children's parade through the streets on the first day, where the little ones march, walk or dance in dresses and masks. People gather in the streets to cheer on the children. In most villages there are dances every night in the village halls. The dancing starts early and ends late, with no breaks in the local carnival music that entertains people of all ages. Cities and towns also organize street parties, with local dancers, some as young as 6 years old, dressed up in their national costumes, entertaining everyone with their traditional instruments and complicated dance steps.
Others organize parades with music, fanfares, floats, and local groups dressed up in all kinds of costumes - from the simplest to the most elaborate. Everyone joins in clapping and stamping their feet, always celebrating and cheering. Candy and streamers are thrown towards the crowd that stretches along the streets, reminding them that this is a time for feasting and celebration. In western Algarve, the Barlavento, Odiáxere is a place to visit - there are 5 days of entertainment, parades and music. Lagos and Sagres also offer lots of entertainment during the festivities. In the Central and Eastern Algarve, the Sotavento - besides the big event in Loulé - Quarteira, São Brás, Olhão, Moncarapacho, Tavira and Vila Real de Santo António all organize festivals and corsos in their own way, smaller in size but equally lively and joyful. Although the festivities in the Algarve are now heavily based on the samba style of Brazilian Carnival, the old tradition of playing pranks is still present. Stylishly dressed student girls tour shopping malls, bars, cafes and the streets, singing their satirical songs about the government, politicians and world events.
Fauna and flora
The coastal seafaring people of Algarve bred the Portuguese Water Dog. From there the breed expanded to all around Portugal's coast, where they were taught to herd fish into fishermen's nets, retrieve lost tackle or broken nets, and act as couriers from ship to ship, or ship to shore. This dog breed is now a distinctive dog breed of both Portugal and Algarve region in particular.
A wild cat formerly at risk of extinction, the Iberian Lynx (Lynx pardinus) used to populate five distinct areas in Portugal: the Algarve region, Serra da Malcata (Centro Region), Serra de São Mamede (Alentejo Region), Vale do Guadiana (the Portuguese section of Guadiana River) and Vale do Sado (Sado River). The southern strip of Portugal, the Algarve region, was the area with the greatest concentration, occupying an area of about 650 square kilometres between the Monchique, Caldeirão and Espinhaço de Cão mountain ranges. In the early 21st century there was a move to reintroduce them in Portugal by breeding them in captivity, from animals brought from Spain.
A paradise for bluefin tuna fishing, the Algarve in Portugal witness each year the migration of bluefin tuna that runs in front of the coasts of Olhão. The sea waters in this region are also populated by various whales, dolphins and porpoises at different times throughout the year. The most common species are the common dolphin (Delphinus delphis) and bottlenose dolphin (Tursiops truncatus). On the Ria Formosa Natural Park one can find unique species in Portugal and most of Europe such as the chameleon, a reptile that in Portugal only exists in the Algarve, and one of the largest populations of seahorses in the world.
The Algarve is divided into three regions: the Litoral - the southern coast with its beaches; the Barrocal - the northern interior and the Serra de Monchique in the northwest and the Serra do Caldeirão in the northeast. The vegetation of the northern Algarve is divided into forests, hilly terrain, scrubland, fertile land and pastures with mountain springs and streams, lakes and waterfalls.
The south is dominated by the typical vegetation of Ria Formosa lagoon and dune system. Regarding flora in the south of Algarve, there are two main features: on one hand, the marshes - areas submerged by high tide and uncovered at low tide - with its halophytic vegetation (vegetation that tolerates high saline levels, lack of soil oxygen and long periods of emersion).
On the other hand, the dune flora - species adapted to strong winds, excessive salinity and high permeability of the soils - which presents species as the Ammophila arenaria, the Armeria maritima, the Aster tripolium, the Pancratium maritimum and the Otanthus maritimus. At the mouth of the Espiche River near Armação de Pera and Albufeira an area of wetland called the Salgados Lagoon fed by the waters of that river is found. The Salgados Lagoon has been classified as an IBA (Important Bird Area). Further west, near Alvor, one can find the Ria de Alvor (Alvor Estuary) located between the towns of Lagos and Portimão, covering 1,700 hectares with a mix of habitats of brushwood, forest and agricultural land, comprising the estuary, dunes, marshes and salt-pans. On the west and southwestern tip of coastal Algarve, there is the Southwest Alentejo and Vicentine Coast Natural Park, another natural park of Algarve which extends further north along the Portuguese coast to the Alentejo region.
Cultivars like the Prunus dulcis, Ficus carica and Citrus × sinensis are regarded as typical in the region and are widespread across the Algarve landscape but the most relevant wild tree and shrub species of Algarve include:
Cork Oak (Quercus suber): In the past, it was one of the dominant species of flora in the Algarve region. More common in the Caldeirão and Monchique mountains, it was also present on the coast of the eastern Algarve. Rare or absent in the Northeast Algarve and Lower Guadiana (municipalities of Alcoutim and Castro Marim), and the Algarve Barrocal. The number of specimens of the species has fallen dramatically due to fires, prolonged periods of drought and the "cork oak disease". Historically, it has been economically important for cork extraction activity.
Holm Oak (Quercus rotundifolia): Dominates the tree stratum in the Algarve Barrocal, Northeast and Baixo Guadiana (concelhos of Alcoutim and Castro Marim). Common in the Caldeirão mountain range, especially in the easternmost parts of the range. The species was cultivated to harvest acorns. Its wood was highly prized.
Monchique Oak (Quercus canariensis): Its presence is recorded in the Serra de Monchique and in the municipality of Odemira, but it is possible that in the past it was present in the Serra do Caldeirão. It is almost extinct in Portugal due to forest fires and the expansion of eucalyptus and maritime pine.
Chestnut Tree (Castanea sativa): In the past, there was a large chestnut grove in the Monchique mountains. It was the first chestnut to reach the markets. It has also been recorded that this species was present in the hills of Tavira in the 18th century. Considering the existence of chestnut groves in the Serra de Aracena, it is possible that centuries ago chestnut trees were common in the wetter areas of the Algarve hills.
Carob Tree (Ceratonia siliqua): It is debatable whether this is an introduced or an indigenous species. The species is cultivated on the coast and in the barrocal. When conditions are favorable, it can reach large dimensions. In the nineteenth century and the first half of the twentieth century, the carob tree began to be cultivated in the highlands but productivity in that sub-region is very low. Portugal is the largest producer of carob pods and the region of Algarve is by far the greatest producer of this product.
Poplar (Populus alba): It is probably the most common poplar in the Algarve. It occurs on the coast, especially in the eastern Algarve, forming galleries in water courses or groves in valleys. Great ornamental value, in favorable conditions can reach large dimensions.
Oak-Bark (Quercus faginea alpestris): This tree is very rare in the region due to anthropogenic action. It may have been common in the past, in the barrocal and the mountains of the windward side (Barlavento).
Black oak (Quercus pyrenaica): It is likely that this species was present in the highest and coldest points of the Algarve hills. The black oak occurs in Andalusia, in Spain, at lower latitudes. The natural occurrence of the black oak in Portugal is recorded in Baixo Alentejo, near the Monchique mountains.
Strawberry Tree (Arbutus unedo): This shrub is common in the mountains of the municipalities of Tavira, São Brás de Alportel, Loulé, Silves and Monchique. Absent in the Northeast Algarve. Under favorable conditions can reach 15 meters. It is often associated with species of the genus Quercus, but in the past there may have been woods consisting only of strawberry trees. It is the source of medronho, a traditional fruit brandy.
Alder (Alnus glutinosa): It occurs in riparian galleries, in permanent watercourses. It can reach 30 meters. A rare species in the Algarve, the alder can be found in the Serra de Monchique.
Ash (Fraxinus angustifolia): It occurs especially in the eastern Algarve, especially in the valleys of the Almargem, Asseca and Beliche streams. It is possible that in the past it formed dense forests around the region's large streams. Due to the recent abandonment of agriculture, the species is regenerating in some parts of the Algarve region.
Loendro (Nerium oleander): Forms galleries in temporary watercourses in the mountains, especially in the eastern Algarve. Very common shrub in the region.
Myrtle (Myrtus communis): Shrub or small tree, with medicinal interest. It occurs in some parts of the eastern mountains, but it could have been much more common in the past. As with other species of the eastern hills, the myrtle was removed due to the wheat harvest. Many specimens were also lost in 21st century's wildfires.
Wild Olive (Olea europaea sylvestris): A medium-sized shrub or tree (up to 15 m), common on abandoned agricultural land on the coast or in the Barrocal. It can reach 2000 years of longevity.
Terebinth (Pistacia terebinthus): Small tree or shrub. Rare, only occurs in the Eastern Algarve.
Poplar (Populus nigra): Less common than Populus alba. A few isolated specimens occur scattered throughout the Algarve region, near the main streams.
Aroeira (Pistacia lentiscus): Shrub or rarely small tree, it occurs in bushes, in warmer areas of the barrocal and the coast of Algarve. A very common species in the region.
Wild pear (Pyrus bourgaeana): Shrub or small tree. This species is often associated with the cork oak and the holm oak in the Serra do Caldeirão.
Education
State-run and private education institutions cover all the educational needs of Algarve's population from kindergarten to university education. Primary and secondary education schools from grade 1 to grade 12, including a number of international schools (examples include Aljezur International School, Deutsche Schule Algarve, International School São Lourenço, Nobel International School Algarve, Vale Verde International School and Vilamoura International School), as well as a wide network of state-run and private kindergartens, can be found across Algarve and in particular at the most densely populated littoral strip. The University of Algarve, headquartered in Faro, with an extension in Portimão, is a public university which awards undergraduate, integrated master, master and doctorate degrees in fields ranging from biomedical sciences, landscape architecture, agronomy or marine biology to economics, psychology, sociology or languages, literatures and cultures. The population of Algarve is also served by two private higher education institutions (Instituto Piaget in Silves and Instituto Superior Manuel Teixeira Gomes in Portimão).
Sports
Sports clubs in the Algarve include several football teams (S.C. Olhanense, Portimonense S.C., S.C. Farense, Imortal de Albufeira, Louletano D.C., etc.) which play in the Portuguese football league system. S.C. Farense and Portimonense S.C. are the most successful football clubs in the Algarve and usually compete in one of the two main top-tier professional football leagues in Portugal. The Algarve Cup, an invitational tournament for national teams in women's association football hosted by the Portuguese Football Federation (FPF) is held annually in the Algarve since 1994.
Cycling is a popular sport in Portugal and the region of Algarve has long-established, noteworthy professional cycling teams which compete in the Volta a Portugal and other major cycling events. The Volta ao Algarve is the oldest and most popular road bicycle racing competition in Algarve region. The most successful of those professional cycling teams of Algarve in the UCI Continental Tour are Louletano–Loulé Concelho and Atum General–Tavira–Maria Nova Hotel.
The Almond Blossom Cross Country (Portuguese: Cross Internacional das Amendoeiras em Flor) is an annual international cross country running competition first organized in 1977 which takes place in Albufeira, in early March. It is one of the IAAF permit meetings which serve as qualifying events for the IAAF World Cross Country Championships.
There are numerous open-water swimming events throughout the year as well as tennis. The Algarve is also home to some of the world's most renowned golf-courses.
Algarve International Circuit, a motorsport venue, is located in the region.
Due to the strong Nortada winds blowing through the South coast of Portugal, Algarve is a summer holiday destination for windsports. Sailing, windsurfing and especially kitesurfing have a large and growing community in the Algarve. The nature of the Algarve coastline offers a mix of flat water lagoons such as those of the Ria Formosa Nature Park, or the waves of Sagres and the South-west coast.
There are many kitesurfing spots dotted all along the Algarve coastline.
Notable natives and inhabitants
Examples of noteworthy people linked to the Algarve region include:
Abu-l-Qasim Ahmad ibn al-Husayn ibn Qasi (governor of Silves for the Almohads)
Alberto Iria (historian, a specialist in the history of Algarve)
Aníbal Cavaco Silva (former Portuguese president and prime minister)
Adelino da Palma Carlos (former Portuguese prime minister)
António Calvário (singer)
Aurea (soul singer originally from Santiago do Cacém, Alentejo, who grew up in Algarve)
Bakr Ben Yahia (son of Yahia Ben Bakr, he was an important Iberian crypto-Jew living as a Christian who held political office and executed important construction in Faro)
Bartolomeu Dias (navigator)
Bonnie Tyler (singer)
Brites de Almeida (legendary baker of Aljubarrota)
Carlos Brito (politician and writer)
Carlos Quintas, Portuguese stage and television actor and singer.
Cliff Richard (singer)
Clive Dunn, British film and television actor (Dad's Army), from the 1980s until his death in 2012
Dânia Neto (actress)
David Cristina (humorist, stand-up comedian, radio and television personality, entrepreneur, corporate executive and investment consultant)
Diogo Piçarra (singer)
Diogo Rodrigues (explorer of the Indian Ocean)
Estácio da Veiga (archeologist and writer, known for having discovered several important archaeological sites in the Algarve)
Francisco Barreto (soldier and explorer; an officer in Morocco, viceroy of Portuguese India, he was tasked with an expedition to southeast Africa in search of legendary gold mines.)
Gil Eannes (navigator)
Jill Adams (British actress, hotel owner)
João Arménio Correia Martins (scientist in computational mechanics, developed the compliance friction law)
João de Deus (priest and legal scholar)
João de Deus (poet and editor)
João Moutinho (football player)
João Vaz Corte-Real (claimed by some accounts to have been a pre-Columbian explorer of a land called New Land of the Codfish, possibly part of North America)
John Jacob Lavranos (Greek/South African insurance broker and botanist, with a special interest in succulents)
José Mendes Cabeçadas (revolutionary, politician and former Portuguese president and prime minister)
Júlio Dantas (writer, doctor)
Júlio Resende (pianist and composer)
Katherine Swift (Irish artist and ceramicist. Worked at Porches Pottery and founded Estudio Destra in Silves.)
Laura Ayres (virologist)
Lídia Jorge (writer)
Louis van Gaal (Dutch football coach and former player, current manager of the Dutch National Team)
Manuel Mendes, a businessman originally from Algarve who is the father of Shawn Mendes, a Canadian singer-songwriter of Portuguese descent.
Madragana (mistress to king Afonso III of Portugal)
Manuel Teixeira Gomes (former Portuguese president and writer)
Maria Alves da Silva Cavaco Silva (wife of Aníbal Cavaco Silva, the 19th President of the Portuguese Republic and, as such, the First Lady of Portugal from 2006 until 2016)
Maria Barroso (actress, wife of former Portuguese president and prime minister Mário Soares)
Mário Centeno, (Portuguese Minister of Finance since 2015, president of the Eurogroup and chairman of the Board of Governors of the European Stability Mechanism)
Maria Keil (visual artist)
Muhammad ibn Ammar (a poet from Silves)
Nuno Guerreiro (singer, lead vocalist of Ala dos Namorados).
Nuno Júdice (poet)
Patrick Swift (Irish artist, lived in Algarve from 1962 until his death in 1983, founded Porches Pottery/Olaria Algarve)
Raul Pires Ferreira Chaves (a civil engineer and inventor)
Remexido, a civil servant and wealthy land tenant who became a guerrilla leader in the Algarve, defending the rights of king Miguel to the Portuguese throne and the antiliberal status quo of the absolute monarchy
Ronald Koeman (Dutch former football player, Coach)
Sara Martins (Portuguese-born French actress of Cape Verdean descent originally from Algarve)
Yahia Ben Bakr, an important Iberian Christian of Jewish origin living under Muslim domination in Gharb al-Andalus who was a member of a family of muladís who revolted in the year 879 against the power of the Emir of Cordoba, remaining independent for about 50 years
Gallery
See also
Kingdom of the Algarve
Algarve VR
References
External links
Tourism Region of Algarve
Intermunicipal communities of Portugal
NUTS 2 statistical regions of Portugal
Provinces of Portugal (1936–1976)
Regions of Portugal
Portugal geography articles needing translation from French Wikipedia | [
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222431 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Khmer%20Empire | Khmer Empire | The Khmer Empire (), or the Angkorian Empire (), are the terms that historians use to refer to Cambodia from the 9th century to the 15th century when the nation was a Hindu-Buddhist empire in Southeast Asia. The empire grew out of the former civilizations of Funan and Chenla, at times ruled over and/or vassalised most of mainland Southeast Asia and parts of Southern China, stretching from the tip of the Indochinese Peninsula northward to modern Yunnan province, China, and from Vietnam westward to Myanmar. At its peak, the Khmer Empire was larger than the Byzantine Empire (Eastern Roman Empire) which existed around the same time.
Perhaps its most notable legacy is the site of Angkor, in present-day Cambodia, the Khmer capital during the empire's zenith. The majestic monuments of Angkor, such as Angkor Wat and Bayon, bear testimony to the Khmer Empire's immense power and wealth, impressive art and culture, architectural technique, aesthetics achievements, and the variety of belief systems that it patronised over time. Satellite imaging has revealed that Angkor, during its peak in the 11th to 13th centuries, was the largest pre-industrial urban centre in the world.
The beginning of the era of the Khmer Empire is conventionally dated to 802, when King Jayavarman II declared himself chakravartin ("universal ruler", title equivalent to "emperor") on Phnom Kulen. The empire ended with the Siege of Angkor by the Siamese Ayutthaya Kingdom in 1431.
Etymology
Modern scholars often refer to the empire as the Khmer Empire, or the Angkorian Empire, the latter of which has its named derive from the former capital city of Angkor.
The empire referred to itself as Kambuja (; Old Khmer: កម្វុជ; ) or Kambujadeśa (; Old Khmer: កម្វុជទេឝ; ) which were ancient terms for Cambodia.
Historiography
The history of Angkor as the central area of settlement of the historical kingdom of Kambujadesa is also the history of the Khmer kingdom from the 9th to the 13th centuries.
From Kambuja itself—and so also from the Angkor region—no written records have survived other than stone inscriptions. Therefore, the current knowledge of the historical Khmer civilisation is derived primarily from:
Archaeological excavation, reconstruction and investigation
Stone inscriptions (the most important of which are foundation steles of temples), which report on the political and religious deeds of the kings
Reliefs in a series of temple walls with depictions of military marches, life in the palace, market scenes, and the daily life of the population
Reports and chronicles of Chinese diplomats, traders and travellers.
History
Formation and growth
Jayavarman II – the founder of Angkor
According to Sdok Kok Thom inscription, circa 781 Indrapura was the first capital of Jayavarman II, located in Banteay Prey Nokor, near today's Kampong Cham. After he eventually returned to his home, the former kingdom of Chenla, he quickly built up his influence, conquered a series of competing kings, and in 790 became king of a kingdom called Kambuja by the Khmer. He then moved his court northwest to Mahendraparvata, far inland north from the great lake of Tonlé Sap.
Jayavarman II (802–835) is widely regarded as a king who set the foundations of the Angkor period in Cambodian history, beginning with a grandiose consecration ritual that he conducted in 802 on the sacred Mount Mahendraparvata, now known as Phnom Kulen, to celebrate the independence of Kambuja from a place inscriptions call "Java" At that ceremony Prince Jayavarman II was proclaimed a universal monarch (Cambodian: Kamraten jagad ta Raja) or God King (Sanskrit: Deva Raja). or "The Lords of Mountains", hence the concept of Deva Raja or God King was ostensibly imported from Java.
He declared himself Chakravartin in a ritual taken from the Hindu tradition, thereby not only becoming the divinely appointed and therefore uncontested ruler, but also simultaneously declaring the independence of his kingdom from Java. According to some sources, Jayavarman II had resided for some time in Java during the reign of Sailendras, or "The Lords of Mountains", hence the concept of Deva Raja or God King was ostensibly imported from Java. At that time, Sailendras allegedly ruled over Java, Sumatra, the Malay Peninsula and parts of Cambodia, around the Mekong delta.
The first pieces of information on Jayavarman II came from the K.235 stone inscription on a stele in Sdok Kok Thom temple, Isan region, dating to 1053. It recounts two and a half centuries of service that members of the temple's founding family provided for the Khmer court, mainly as chief chaplains of the Shaivite Hindu religion.
Historians debate whether "Java" means the Indonesian island of Java, Champa or a different location. According to an older established interpretation, Jayavarman II was a prince who lived at the court of Sailendra in Java and brought back to his home the art and culture of the Javanese Sailendran court to Cambodia. This classical theory was revisited by modern scholars such as Claude Jacques and Michael Vickery, who noted that Khmer used the term chvea to describe the Chams, their close neighbours. Moreover, Jayavarman's political career began at Vyadhapura (probably Banteay Prey Nokor) in eastern Cambodia, which makes the scenario of longtime contacts with the Chams (even through skirmishes, as the inscription suggests) more probable than the scenario of a long stay in distant Java. Finally, many early temples on Phnom Kulen show both Cham (e.g. Prasat Damrei Krap) and Javanese influences (e.g. the primitive "temple-mountain" of Aram Rong Cen and Prasat Thmar Dap), even if their asymmetric distribution seems typically Khmer.
In the following years, he extended his territory and, later in his reign, moved from Mahendraparvata and established his new capital of Hariharalaya near the modern Cambodian town of Rolous. He thereby laid the foundation of Angkor, which was to arise some 15 km to the northwest. Jayavarman II died in the year 835 and he was succeeded by his son Jayavarman III. Jayavarman III died in 877 and was succeeded by Indravarman I.
The successors of Jayavarman II continually extended the territory of Kambuja. Indravarman I (reigned 877–889) managed to expand the kingdom without wars and initiated extensive building projects, which were enabled by the wealth gained through trade and agriculture. Foremost were the temple of Preah Ko and irrigation works. Indravarman I developed Hariharalaya further by constructing Bakong circa 881. Bakong in particular bears striking similarity to the Borobudur temple in Java, which strongly suggests that it served as the prototype for Bakong. There must have been exchanges of travelers, if not missions, between the Khmer kingdom and the Sailendras in Java, transmitting to Cambodia not only ideas, but also technical and architectural details.
Yasodharapura – the first city of Angkor
Indravarman I was followed by his son Yasovarman I (reigned 889 – 915), who established a new capital, Yasodharapura – the first city of Angkor. The city's central temple was built on Phnom Bakheng, a hill which rises around 60 m above the plain on which Angkor sits. Under Yasovarman I the East Baray was also created, a massive water reservoir of 7.1 by 1.7 km.
At the beginning of the 10th century, the kingdom split. Jayavarman IV established a new capital at Koh Ker, some 100 km northeast of Angkor, called Lingapura. Only with Rajendravarman II (reigned 944–968) was the royal palace returned to Yasodharapura. He took up again the extensive building schemes of the earlier kings and established a series of temples in the Angkor area, not the least being the East Mebon, a temple located on an artificial island in the center of the East Baray, and several Buddhist temples, such as Pre Rup, and monasteries. In 950, the first war took place between Kambuja and the kingdom of Champa to the east (in the modern central Vietnam).
The son of Rajendravarman II, Jayavarman V, reigned from 968 to 1001. After he had established himself as the new king over the other princes, his rule was a largely peaceful period, marked by prosperity and a cultural flowering. He established a new capital slightly west of his father's and named it Jayendranagari; its state temple, Ta Keo, was to the south. At the court of Jayavarman V lived philosophers, scholars, and artists. New temples were also established: the most important of these are Banteay Srei, considered one of the most beautiful and artistic of Angkor, and Ta Keo, the first temple of Angkor built completely of sandstone.
A decade of conflict followed the death of Jayavarman V. Three kings reigned simultaneously as antagonists until Suryavarman I (reigned 1006 – 1050) gained the throne. Suryavarman I established diplomatic relations with the Chola dynasty of south India. Suryavarman I sent a chariot as a present to the Chola Emperor Rajaraja Chola I. His rule was marked by repeated attempts by his opponents to overthrow him and by military conquests. Suryavarman was successful in taking control of the Khmer capital city of Angkor Wat.
At the same time, Angkor Wat came into conflict with the Tambralinga kingdom of the Malay peninsula. In other words, there was a three-way conflict in mainland Southeast Asia. After surviving several invasions from his enemies, Suryavarman requested aid from the powerful Chola Emperor Rajendra Chola I of the Chola dynasty against the Tambralinga kingdom. After learning of Suryavarman's alliance with Rajendra Chola, the Tambralinga kingdom requested aid from the Srivijaya King Sangrama Vijayatungavarman.
This eventually led to the Chola Empire coming into conflict with the Srivijaya Empire. The war ended with a victory for the Chola dynasty and of the Khmer Empire, and major losses for the Srivijaya Empire and the Tambralinga kingdom. This alliance also had religious nuance, since both Chola and Khmer empire were Hindu Shaivite, while Tambralinga and Srivijaya were Mahayana Buddhist. There is some indication that before or after these incidents Suryavarman I sent a gift, a chariot, to Rajendra Chola I to possibly facilitate trade or an alliance. Suryavarman I's wife was Viralakshmi, and following his death in 1050, he was succeeded by Udayadityavarman II, who built the Baphuon and West Baray. In 1074, conflict arose between Harshavarman III and the Champa King Harivarman IV.
Golden age of Khmer Civilization
Suryavarman II – Angkor Wat
The 12th century was a time of conflict and brutal power struggles. Under Suryavarman II (reigned 1113–1150) the kingdom united internally and the large temple of Angkor was built in a period of 37 years: Angkor Wat, dedicated to the god Vishnu.
In the east, his campaigns against Champa, and Dai Viet, were unsuccessful, though he sacked Vijaya in 1145 and deposed Jaya Indravarman III. The Khmers occupied Vijaya until 1149, when they were driven out by Jaya Harivarman I. Suryavarman II sent a mission to the Chola dynasty of south India and presented a precious stone to the Chola emperor Kulottunga Chola I in 1114.
Another period followed in which kings reigned briefly and were violently overthrown by their successors. Finally, in 1177 the capital was raided and looted in a naval battle on the Tonlé Sap lake by a Cham fleet under Jaya Indravarman IV, and Tribhuvanadityavarman was killed.
Jayavarman VII – Angkor Thom
King Jayavarman VII (reigned 1181–1219) was generally considered Cambodia's greatest king. He had already been a military leader as a prince under the previous kings. After the Cham had conquered Angkor, he gathered an army and regained the capital. He ascended the throne and continued the war against the neighbouring eastern kingdom for another 22 years, until the Khmer defeated Champa in 1203 and conquered large parts of its territory. According to Chinese sources, Jayavarman VII added Pegu to the territory of the Khmer Empire in 1195.
Jayavarman VII stands as the last of the great kings of Angkor, not only because of his successful war against the Cham, but also because he was not a tyrannical ruler in the manner of his immediate predecessors. He unified the empire and carried out noteworthy building projects. The new capital, now called Angkor Thom (literally: "Great City"), was built. In the centre, the king (himself a follower of Mahayana Buddhism) had constructed as the state temple the Bayon, with towers bearing faces of the boddhisattva Avalokiteshvara, each several metres high, carved out of stone. Further important temples built under Jayavarman VII were Ta Prohm for his mother, Preah Khan for his father, Banteay Kdei, and Neak Pean, as well as the reservoir of Srah Srang. An extensive network of roads was laid down connecting every town of the empire, with rest-houses built for travelers and a total of 102 hospitals established across his realm.
Jayavarman VIII – the last blooming
After the death of Jayavarman VII, his son Indravarman II (reigned 1219–1243) ascended the throne. Like his father, he was a Buddhist, and he completed a series of temples begun under his father's rule. As a warrior he was less successful. In the year 1220, under mounting pressure from increasingly powerful Đại Việt, and its Cham alliance, the Khmer withdrew from many of the provinces previously conquered from Champa. In the west, his Thai subjects rebelled, establishing the first Thai kingdom at Sukhothai and pushing back the Khmer. In the following 200 years, the Thais would become the chief rivals of Kambuja.
Indravarman II was succeeded by Jayavarman VIII (reigned 1243–1295). In contrast to his predecessors, Jayavarman VIII was a follower of Hindu Shaivism and an aggressive opponent of Buddhism, destroying many Buddha statues in the empire and converting Buddhist temples to Hindu temples. From the outside, the empire was threatened in 1283 by the Mongols under Kublai Khan's general Sogetu (sometimes known as Sagatu or Sodu), who was the governor of Guangzhou, China. The king avoided war with his powerful opponent, who ruled all of China, by paying annual tribute, starting in 1285. Jayavarman VIII's rule ended in 1295 when he was deposed by his son-in-law Srindravarman (reigned 1295–1309). The new king was a follower of Theravada Buddhism, a school of Buddhism that had arrived in southeast Asia from Sri Lanka and subsequently spread through most of the region.
In August 1296, the Chinese diplomat Zhou Daguan arrived at Angkor and recorded, "In the recent war with the Siamese, the country was utterly devastated." He remained at the court of King Srindravarman until July 1297. He was neither the first nor the last Chinese representative to visit Kambuja. His stay is notable, however, because Zhou Daguan later wrote a detailed report on life in Angkor. His portrayal is today one of the most important sources of understanding historical Angkor. Alongside descriptions of several great temples (the Bayon, the Baphuon, Angkor Wat) – his account informs us that the towers of the Bayon were once covered in gold – the text also offers valuable information on the everyday life and the habits of the inhabitants of Angkor.
Decline
By the 14th century, the Khmer empire suffered a long, arduous, and steady decline. Historians have proposed different causes for the decline: the religious conversion from Vishnuite-Shivaite Hinduism to Theravada Buddhism that affected social and political systems, incessant internal power struggles among Khmer princes, vassal revolt, foreign invasion, plague, and ecological breakdown.
For social and religious reasons, many aspects contributed to the decline of the Khmer empire. The relationship between the rulers and their elites was unstable – among the 27 Angkorian rulers, eleven lacked a legitimate claim to power, and civil wars were frequent. The Khmer empire focused more on the domestic economy and did not take advantage of the international maritime network. In addition, the input of Buddhist ideas conflicted and disturbed the state order built under the predominant Hinduism.
Conversion of faith
The last Sanskrit inscription is dated 1327 and describes the succession of Indrajayavarman by Jayavarmadiparamesvara. Historians suspect a connection with the kings' adoption of Theravada Buddhism: they were therefore no longer considered "devarajas", and there was no need to erect huge temples to them, or rather to the gods under whose protection they stood. The retreat from the concept of the devaraja may also have led to a loss of royal authority and thereby to a lack of workers. The water-management apparatus also degenerated, meaning that harvests were reduced by floods or drought. While previously three rice harvests per year were possible – a substantial contribution to the prosperity and power of Kambuja – the declining harvests further weakened the empire.
Looking at the archaeological record, however, archaeologists noticed that not only were the structures ceasing to be built, but the Khmer's historical inscription was also lacking from the period of 1300–1600. With this lack of historical content, there is unfortunately very limited archaeological evidence to work with. Archaeologists have been able to determine that the sites were abandoned and then reoccupied later by different people.
Foreign pressure
The western neighbour of the Khmer, the first Thai kingdom of Sukhothai, after repelling Angkorian hegemony, was conquered by another stronger Thai kingdom in the lower Chao Phraya Basin, Ayutthaya, in 1350. From the fourteenth century on, Ayutthaya became Angkor's rival. Angkor was besieged by the Ayutthayan king Uthong in 1352, and following its capture the next year, the Khmer monarch was replaced with successive Siamese princes. Then in 1357, the Khmer king Suryavamsa Rajadhiraja regained the throne. In 1393, the Ayutthayan king Ramesuan besieged Angkor again, capturing it the next year. Ramesuan's son ruled Khmer a short time before being assassinated. Finally, in 1431, the Khmer king Ponhea Yat abandoned Angkor as indefensible, and moved to the Phnom Penh area.
The new centre of the Khmer kingdom was in the southwest, at Oudong in the region of today's Phnom Penh. However, there are indications that Angkor was not completely abandoned. One line of Khmer kings may have remained there, while a second moved to Phnom Penh to establish a parallel kingdom. The final fall of Angkor would then be due to the transfer of economic – and therewith political – significance, as Phnom Penh became an important trade centre on the Mekong. Besides, severe droughts and ensuing floods were considered one of the contributing factors to its fall. The empire focused more on regional trade after the first drought.
Ecological breakdown
Ecological failure and infrastructural breakdown is a new alternative theory regarding the end of the Khmer Empire. Scientists working on the Greater Angkor Project believe that the Khmers had an elaborate system of reservoirs and canals used for trade, transportation, and irrigation. The canals were used for harvesting rice. As the population grew there was more strain on the water system. During the fourteenth and fifteenth centuries, there were also severe climatic changes impacting the water management system.
Periods of drought led to decreases in agricultural productivity, and violent floods due to monsoons damaged the infrastructure during this vulnerable time. To adapt to the growing population, trees were cut down from the Kulen hills and cleared out for more rice fields. That created rain runoff carrying sediment to the canal network. Any damage to the water system would have enormous consequences.
Plague
The plague theory, which suggests a severe epidemic outbreak might have hit the heavily populated Angkor and contributed to the fall of the empire, has been reconsidered. By the 14th century, the Black Death had affected Asia, as the plague first appeared in China around 1330 and reached Europe around 1345. Most seaports along the line of travel from China to Europe felt the impact of the disease, which might have had a severe impact on life throughout Southeast Asia. Possible diseases include bubonic plague, smallpox and malaria.
Angkor after the 15th century
In any event, there is evidence for a further period of use of Angkor. Under the rule of King Barom Reachea I (reigned 1566–1576), who temporarily succeeded in driving back the Thai, the royal court was briefly returned to Angkor. Inscriptions from the 17th century testify to Japanese settlements alongside those of the remaining Khmer. The best-known inscription tells of Ukondayu Kazufusa, who celebrated the Khmer New Year there in 1632. However, in following decades the Japanese community was absorbed into the local Khmer community, owing to the lack of new Japanese arrivals and very little possibility of renewing their community.
Culture and society
Much of what is known of the ancient Khmer society comes from the many bas-reliefs and also the first-hand Chinese accounts of Zhou Daguan, which provide information on 13th-century Cambodia and earlier. The bas-reliefs of Angkor temples, such as those in Bayon, describe everyday life of the ancient Khmer kingdom, including scenes of palace life, naval battles on the river or lakes, and common scenes of the marketplace.
Economy and agriculture
The ancient Khmers were a traditional agricultural community, relying heavily on rice farming. The farmers, who formed the majority of kingdom's population, planted rice near the banks of the lake or river, in the irrigated plains surrounding their villages, or in the hills when lowlands were flooded. The rice paddies were irrigated by a massive and complex hydraulics system, including networks of canals and barays, or giant water reservoirs. This system enabled the formation of large-scale rice farming communities surrounding Khmer cities. Sugar palm trees, fruit trees, and vegetables were grown in the orchards by the villages, providing other sources of agricultural produce such as palm sugar, palm wine, coconut, various tropical fruits, and vegetables.
Located by the massive Tonlé Sap lake, and also near numerous rivers and ponds, many Khmer people relied on fresh water fisheries for their living. Fishing gave the population their main source of protein, which was turned into prahok — dried or roasted or steamed fish paste wrapped in banana leaves. Rice was the main staple along with fish. Other sources of protein included pigs, cattle, and poultry, which were kept under the farmers' houses, which were on stilts to protect them from flooding.
The marketplace of Angkor contained no permanent buildings; it was an open square where the traders sat on the ground on woven straw mats and sold their wares. There were no tables or chairs. Some traders might be protected from the sun with a simple thatched parasol. A certain type of tax or rent was levied by officials for each space occupied by traders in the marketplace. The trade and economy in the Angkor marketplace were mainly run by women.
Zhou Daguan's description of the women of Angkor:
The role of women in the trade and economy of the Khmer Empire suggests that they enjoyed significant rights and freedom. Their practice of marrying early may have contributed to the high fertility rate and huge population of the kingdom.
Society and politics
The Khmer empire was founded upon extensive networks of agricultural rice farming communities. A distinct settlement hierarchy is present in the region. Small villages were clustered around regional centres, such as the one at Phimai, which in turn sent their goods to large cities like Angkor in return for other goods, such as pottery and foreign trade items from China. The king and his officials were in charge of irrigation management and water distribution, which consisted of an intricate series of hydraulics infrastructure, such as canals, moats, and massive reservoirs called barays.
Society was arranged in a hierarchy reflecting the Hindu caste system, where the commoners – rice farmers and fishermen – formed the large majority of the population. The kshatriyas – royalty, nobles, warlords, soldiers, and warriors – formed a governing elite and authorities. Other social classes included brahmins (priests), traders, artisans such as carpenters and stonemasons, potters, metalworkers, goldsmiths, and textile weavers, while on the lowest social level were slaves.
The extensive irrigation projects provided rice surpluses that could support a large population. The state religion was Hinduism but influenced by the cult of Devaraja, elevating the Khmer kings as possessing the divine quality of living gods on earth, attributed to the incarnation of Vishnu or Shiva. In politics, this status was viewed as the divine justification of a king's rule. The cult enabled the Khmer kings to embark on massive architectural projects, constructing majestic monuments such as Angkor Wat and Bayon to celebrate the king's divine rule on earth.
The King was surrounded by ministers, state officials, nobles, royalties, palace women, and servants, all protected by guards and troops. The capital city of Angkor and the Khmer royal court are famous for grand ceremonies, with many festivals and rituals held in the city. Even when travelling, the King and his entourages created quite a spectacle, as described in Zhou Daguan's account:
Zhou Daguan's description of a royal procession of Indravarman III:
Zhou Daguan's description of the Khmer king's wardrobe:
Khmer kings were often involved in series of wars and conquests. The large population of Angkor enabled the kingdom to support large free standing armies, which were sometimes deployed to conquer neighbouring princedoms or kingdoms. Series of conquests were led to expand the kingdom's influence over areas surrounding Angkor and Tonle Sap, the Mekong valley and delta, and surrounding lands. Some Khmer kings embarked on military conquests and war against neighbouring Champa, Dai Viet, and Thai warlords. Khmer kings and royal families were also often involved in incessant power struggle over successions or rivalries over principalities.
Military
According to the Chinese traveler Zhou Daguan, who stayed in Yaśodharapura between 1296 and 1297, the Sukhothai Kingdom laid waste to Khmer lands in repeated wars. According to Zhou, the Khmer soldiers fought naked and barefoot, wielding only lance and shield. They did not use bows and arrows (though, in some instances, they used them in naval warfare), trebuchets, body armor, or helmets. When Sukhotai attacked, ordinary people were ordered to face them without strategy or preparation. The Khmer had double bow crossbows mounted on elephants, which Michel JacqHergoualc’h suggests were elements of Cham mercenaries in Jayavarman VII's army.
In terms of fortifications, Zhou described Angkor Thom's walls as being 10 kilometers long in circumference with five gateways, each with two gates, surrounded by a large moat spanned by bridges. The walls, which formed an exact square, were made of stone and so tightly packed that no weeds grew from them. The walls were around 6–7 meters in height and sloped from the inside, thick enough to contain chambers, but with no battlements and only a single stone tower on each of the four sides. Guards operated them, but dogs were not allowed on the walls. According to an oral tradition told to Henri Mouhot, the Khmer empire had a standing army of 5-6 million soldiers.
Culture and way of life
Zhou Daguan's description of Khmer houses:
Houses of farmers were situated near the rice paddies on the edge of the cities. The walls of the houses were made of woven bamboo, with thatched roofs, and they were on stilts. A house was divided into three rooms by woven bamboo walls. One was the parents' bedroom, another was the daughters' bedroom, and the largest was the living area. Sons slept wherever they could find space. The kitchen was at the back or in a separate room. Nobles and kings lived in the palace and much larger houses in the city. They were made of the same materials as the farmers' houses, but the roofs were wooden shingles and had elaborate designs as well as more rooms.
The common people wore a sampot where the front end was drawn between the legs and secured at the back by a belt. Nobles and kings wore finer and richer fabrics. Along with depictions of battle and the military conquests of kings, the basreliefs of Bayon depict the mundane everyday life of common Khmer people, including scenes of the marketplace, fishermen, butchers, people playing a chess-like game, and gambling during cockfighting.
Religion
The main religion was Hinduism, followed by Buddhism in popularity. Initially, the kingdom revered Hinduism as the main state religion. Vishnu and Shiva were the most revered deities, worshipped in Khmer Hindu temples. Temples such as Angkor Wat are actually known as Phitsanulok (Vara Vishnuloka in Sanskrit) or the realm of Vishnu, to honor the posthumous King Suryavarman II as Vishnu.
Hindu ceremonies and rituals performed by Brahmins (Hindu priests), usually only held among the ruling elites of the king's family, nobles, and the ruling class. The empire's official religions included Hinduism and Mahayana Buddhism until Theravada Buddhism prevailed, even among the lower classes, after its introduction from Sri Lanka in the 13th century.
Art and architecture
Zhou Daguan's description on the Angkor Royal Palace:
The Khmer empire produced numerous temples and majestic monuments to celebrate the divine authority of Khmer kings. Khmer architecture reflects the Hindu belief that the temple was built to recreate the abode of Hindu gods, Mount Meru, with its five peaks and surrounded by seas represented by ponds and moats. The early Khmer temples built in the Angkor region and the Bakong temple in Hariharalaya (Roluos) employed stepped pyramid structures to represent the sacred temple-mountain.
Khmer art and architecture reached their aesthetic and technical peak with the construction of the majestic temple Angkor Wat. Other temples are also constructed in the Angkor region, such as Ta Phrom and Bayon. The construction of the temple demonstrates the artistic and technical achievements of the Khmer Empire through its architectural mastery of stone masonry.
List of architectural styles during Angkor period:
Relations with regional powers
During the formation of the empire, the Khmer had close cultural, political, and trade relations with Java and with the Srivijaya empire that lay beyond Khmer's southern seas. In 851 a Persian merchant named Sulaimaan recorded an incident involving a Khmer king and a Maharaja of Zabaj. He described the story of a Khmer king who defied the power of Maharaja of Zabaj. It was said that the Javanese Sailendras staged a surprise attack on the Khmers by approaching the capital from the river. The young king was later punished by the Maharaja, and subsequently the kingdom became a vassal of the Sailendra dynasty.
Zabaj is the Arabic form of Javaka and might refer to Java or Srivijaya. The legend probably describes the predecessor or initial stage of the Khmer kingdom under Javanese dominion. The Legend of the Maharaja of Zabaj was later published by the historian Masoudi in his 947 book, "Meadows of Gold and Mines of Gems." The Kaladi inscription of Java (c. 909 CE) mentioned Kmir (Khmer people or Cambodian) together with Campa (Champa) and Rman (Mon) as foreigners from mainland Southeast Asia who frequently came to Java to trade. The inscription suggests a maritime trade network had been established between Kambuja and Java (Mdang kingdom).
In 916 CE Arab historian Abu Zaid Hasan, recorded in a lengthy chronicle that the young, inexperienced king of Khmer, is hostile to Java. When the hostility becomes state policy and is known publicly, the King of Java attacked and captured the Khmer king. He was beheaded and the head brought to Java. The King of Java ordered the Minister of Khmer Empire to seek the successor. After being cleaned and embalmed, the head of the king was put in a vase and sent to the new Khmer king.
Throughout its history, the empire also was involved in series of wars and rivalries with the neighbouring kingdoms of Champa, Tambralinga, and Đại Việt — and later in its history with Siamese Sukhothai and Ayutthaya. The Khmer Empire's relations with its eastern neighbour Champa was exceptionally intense, as both sides struggled for domination in the region. The Cham fleet raided Angkor in 1177, and in 1203 the Khmer managed to push back and defeat Champa.
Arab writers of the 9th and 10th century hardly mention the region for anything other than its perceived backwardness, but they considered the king of Al-Hind (India and Southeast Asia) one of the four great kings in the world. The ruler of the Rashtrakuta Dynasty is described as the greatest king of Al-Hind, but even the lesser kings of Al-Hind including the kings of Java, Pagan Burma, and the Khmer kings of Cambodia are invariably depicted by the Arabs as extremely powerful and as being equipped with vast armies of men, horses, and often tens of thousands of elephants. They were also known to have been in possession of vast treasures of gold and silver. The Khmer rulers established relations with the Chola dynasty of South India.
The Khmer Empire seems to have maintained contact with Chinese dynasties; spanning from the late Tang period to the Yuan period. The relations with the Yuan dynasty was of great historical significance, since it produced The Customs of Cambodia (), an important insight into the Khmer Empire's daily life, culture and society. The report was written between 1296 and 1297 by the Yuan Chinese diplomat Zhou Daguan, sent by Temür Khan of Yuan dynasty to stay in Angkor.
Beginning in the 13th century, Khmer's relations with the Siamese were difficult and bitter, resulting in rivalry and hostility for centuries. The Siamese residents of Sukhothai revolted against their Khmer overlords and declared independence from the Khmer Empire in 1238. In August 1296, Zhou Daguan recorded that in the recent war with the Siamese, the country was utterly devastated. This report confirmed that by the late 13th century, the Siamese warlords had revolted and disrupted the Khmer empire's hegemony, starting Siam's rise. By the 14th century, the Siamese Ayutthaya Kingdom became the Khmer empire's formidable rival, as Angkor was besieged and captured twice by Ayutthayan Siamese invaders in 1353 and 1394.
In the 1300s, the Lao prince Fa Ngum was exiled to lived in the royal court of Angkor. His father-in-law, the King of Cambodia, gave him a Khmer army to create a buffer state in what is now Laos. Fa Ngum conqured local principalities and established the Kingdom of Lan Xang. With the assistance of Khmer scholars, Fa Ngum introduced Theravada Buddhism and the culture of the Khmer Empire to the region.
A Javanese source, the Nagarakretagama canto 15, composed in 1365 in the Majapahit Empire, claimed Java had established diplomatic relations with Kambuja (Cambodia) together with Syangkayodhyapura (Ayutthaya), Dharmmanagari (Negara Sri Dharmaraja), Rajapura (Ratchaburi) and Singhanagari (Songkla), Marutma (Martaban or Mottama, Southern Myanmar), Champa and Yawana (Annam). This record describes the political situations in Mainland Southeast Asia in the mid-14th century; although the Cambodian kingdom still survived, the rise of Siamese Ayutthaya had taken its toll. Finally, the empire fell, marked by the abandonment of Angkor for Phnom Penh in 1431, caused by Siamese pressure.
List of rulers
Gallery of temples
See also
Post-Angkor Period
List of kings of Cambodia – Chronological listing with reign, title and posthumous title(s), where known
References
Bibliography
Vittorio Roveda: Khmer Mythology, River Books,
David P. Chandler: A History of Cambodia, Westview Press,
Henri Mouhot: Travels in Siam, Cambodia, Laos, and Annam, White Lotus Co, Ltd.,
Benjamin Walker, Angkor Empire: A History of the Khmer of Cambodia, Signet Press, Calcutta, 1995.
I.G. Edmonds, The Khmers of Cambodia: The story of a mysterious people
Former countries in Cambodian history
Former empires in Asia
States and territories disestablished in 1432
802 establishments
1432 disestablishments in Asia
History of Cambodia
Historical Hindu empires
Indianized kingdoms
Former countries in Southeast Asia
1st millennium in Cambodia
2nd millennium in Cambodia
Former monarchies of Southeast Asia | [
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222432 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Star%20Trek%3A%20Starfleet%20Command | Star Trek: Starfleet Command | Star Trek: Starfleet Command is a computer game based on the table-top wargame Star Fleet Battles. It was developed by 14° East and Quicksilver Software and published by Interplay Entertainment. It was released in 1999 for Microsoft Windows. It simulates starship operations, ship-to-ship combat, and fleet warfare in the Star Trek universe. An expanded version was released in 2000 titled Star Trek: Starfleet Command - Gold Edition. It includes the latest patch and all the missions that were downloadable from the official website.
Gameplay
Gameplay consists of maneuvering one's ship to approach enemy ships and assault them in the areas where various systems and ship's shields are vulnerable. It also consists of achieving various other objectives specified in mission assignment, which are provided at the beginning of each scenario. Depending on the specific assignment, this can include interacting with various ships, aliens, planetary bodies, and other objects in space.
Plot
Though the game has no central story-mode campaign, players may play as a member of one of six stellar powers, each one having at least one elite organization that, when joined, will trigger special missions that tell various stories. Though having unique stories, each race's special missions all contribute expository information on the fate of a race known as the Organians and the effect that their departure from known space has since caused.
Reception
The game received "favorable" reviews according to the review aggregation website GameRankings. John Lee of NextGen called it "a complex real-time strategy game with a steep learning curve, but it's eminently rewarding."
According to Erik Bethke, sales of the game surpassed 350,000 copies after a year on shelves "without counting the Gold Edition and the Neutral Zone expansion." It was Interplay's best-selling game through direct sales, above Baldur's Gate.
The staff of Computer Games Strategy Plus nominated the game for their 1999 "Real-Time Strategy Game of the Year" award, which ultimately went to Age of Empires II: The Age of Kings. They wrote that the game "avoided the curse of the Star Trek game and produced a game of remarkable depth coupled with simple mechanics."
In 2016, Tom's Guide ranked the game as one of the top ten Star Trek games. A year later, PC Gamer ranked it among the best Star Trek games. Three years afterward, Screen Rant ranked it as the 4th best Star Trek game.
See also
Star Trek: Starfleet Command: Orion Pirates
Star Trek: Starfleet Command II: Empires at War
Star Trek: Starfleet Command III
References
External links
1999 video games
Interplay Entertainment games
Multiplayer online games
Quicksilver Software games
Real-time tactics video games
Space MOGs
Star Fleet Universe
Starfleet Command
Video games based on board games
Starfleet Command
Video games developed in the United States
Windows games
Windows-only games | [
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] |
222434 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Table%20of%20divisors | Table of divisors | The tables below list all of the divisors of the numbers 1 to 1000.
A divisor of an integer n is an integer m, for which n/m is again an integer (which is necessarily also a divisor of n). For example, 3 is a divisor of 21, since 21/7 = 3 (and 7 is also a divisor of 21).
If m is a divisor of n then so is −m. The tables below only list positive divisors.
Key to the tables
d(n) is the number of positive divisors of n, including 1 and n itself
σ(n) is the sum of the positive divisors of n, including 1 and n itself
s(n) is the sum of the proper divisors of n, including 1, but not n itself; that is, s(n) = σ(n) − n
a deficient number is greater than the sum of its proper divisors; that is, s(n) < n
a perfect number equals the sum of its proper divisors; that is, s(n) = n
an abundant number is lesser than the sum of its proper divisors; that is, s(n) > n
a highly abundant number has a sum of proper divisors greater than any lesser number's sum of proper divisors; that is, s(n) > s(m) for every positive integer m < n. Counterintuitively, the first seven highly abundant numbers are not abundant numbers.
a prime number has only 1 and itself as divisors; that is, d(n) = 2. Prime numbers are always deficient as s(n)=1
a composite number has more than just 1 and itself as divisors; that is, d(n) > 2
a highly composite number has more divisors than any lesser number; that is, d(n) > d(m) for every positive integer m < n. Counterintuitively, the first two highly composite numbers are not composite numbers.
a superior highly composite number has more divisors than any other number scaled relative to some positive power of the number itself; that is, there exists some ε such that for every other positive integer m. Superior highly composite numbers are always highly composite numbers
a weird number is an abundant number that is not semiperfect; that is, no subset of the proper divisors of n sum to n
1 to 100
101 to 200
201 to 300
301 to 400
401 to 500
501 to 600
601 to 700
701 to 800
801 to 900
901 to 1000
See also
Table of prime factors
External links
Divisor function
Elementary number theory
Divisors
Divisors
Numbers | [
-0.3004845082759857,
0.3998832702636719,
-0.13282963633537292,
-0.19149784743785858,
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0.6047341227531433,
0.5708149075508118,
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1.0834174156188965,
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0.29937389492988586,
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0.49341467022895813,
0.1772669553756714,
0.19100026786327362,
0.01453295536339283,
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0.0885428935289383,
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0.06834294646978378,
0.45152878761291504,
0.19508302211761475,
0.11213090270757675,
1.1206423044204712,
-0.21117234230041504,
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-0.07869725674390793,
-0.5334360003471375,
0.9984840154647827,
0.19980694353580475,
0.25104954838752747,
0.8055562973022461,
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0.08444226533174515,
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0.32972562313079834,
0.43869704008102417,
0.08664830029010773,
0.3267759680747986,
0.20125554502010345,
-0.4043949842453003,
0.5103234648704529,
-0.769467830657959,
-0.23381707072257996,
0.38827675580978394,
-0.1951926201581955,
-0.37550920248031616,
-0.22714535892009735,
0.29677751660346985,
-0.3531486690044403,
-0.5441060662269592,
-0.35102635622024536,
-0.3389589786529541,
0.2259576916694641,
0.17750397324562073,
0.2515985369682312,
-0.45416581630706787,
-0.27565282583236694,
-0.02838500589132309,
0.21492068469524384,
-0.2689007520675659,
1.0031042098999023,
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0.21510648727416992,
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-0.6394712924957275,
-0.3492816686630249,
-0.965883731842041,
0.21146976947784424,
0.9020226001739502,
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0.36483079195022583,
-0.8163418173789978,
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0.1833447813987732,
0.7624826431274414,
0.09284746646881104,
-0.34478387236595154,
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0.3641222417354584,
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0.011267166584730148,
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0.6036021709442139,
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-0.30357953906059265,
0.17006921768188477,
0.17451000213623047,
-0.19254040718078613,
-0.07367116212844849,
-0.32077622413635254,
-0.5627814531326294,
-0.4595862925052643,
-0.09795644879341125,
0.12819689512252808,
-0.11829289048910141,
-0.4857019782066345,
0.16691723465919495,
-0.4584123194217682,
0.3792250156402588,
-5.265153408050537,
0.07640781998634338,
-1.074196219444275,
0.33480027318000793,
-0.2996711730957031,
-0.1797492802143097,
0.1904599666595459,
-0.13077108561992645,
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-1.0258084535598755,
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0.6613848209381104,
0.20219792425632477,
-0.06251152604818344,
0.7383723258972168,
0.026454925537109375,
0.7789912223815918,
0.8079633712768555,
0.37555068731307983,
-0.0231047123670578,
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0.01404908299446106,
0.1033065915107727,
0.5277830362319946,
0.04000278562307358,
0.3808498978614807,
-0.556066632270813,
-0.3439931869506836,
-0.26102638244628906,
-0.33131709694862366,
-0.12331279367208481,
-0.7488346099853516,
-0.344174861907959,
0.48164722323417664,
0.6494872570037842,
-0.5442728400230408,
0.45256751775741577,
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0.8961864113807678,
0.2046045958995819,
-0.08568740636110306,
0.8332614302635193,
0.4176985025405884,
-0.4316425621509552,
0.022679327055811882,
-0.1716132014989853,
1.001779556274414,
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0.1791311502456665,
0.34943777322769165,
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0.061447788029909134,
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0.2117055058479309,
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0.3292670249938965,
0.9331814050674438,
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0.4834319055080414,
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0.05017178878188133,
0.42829713225364685,
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0.2745705246925354,
0.37781742215156555,
0.11424092203378677,
0.48348405957221985,
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0.5162495970726013,
0.045000530779361725,
0.11534740030765533,
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0.02373703569173813,
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0.4421635866165161,
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0.48844513297080994,
0.3310643136501312,
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0.9565463662147522,
0.11762738227844238,
0.5184166431427002,
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0.24789947271347046,
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0.7246040105819702,
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1.092928171157837,
0.175124391913414,
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0.3412710428237915,
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0.8347868919372559,
0.6877353191375732,
0.1809270679950714,
0.1419672816991806,
0.46917060017585754,
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0.34748390316963196,
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0.4116872549057007,
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1.0098216533660889,
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222437 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Taha%20al-Hashimi | Taha al-Hashimi | Taha al-Hashimi (Arabic: طه الهاشمي ;1961–1888) served briefly as prime minister of Iraq for two months, from February 1, 1941, to April 1, 1941. He was appointed prime minister by the regent, 'Abd al-Ilah, following the first ouster of the pro-Axis government of Rashid Ali al-Kaylani during World War II. When Abdul-Illah fled the country, fearing an assassination attempt, Hashimi resigned, and the government reverted to Kaylani. His younger brother, Yassin, had been Iraqi Prime Minister in 1924 & 1936.
1888 births
1961 deaths
People from Baghdad
Ottoman Military Academy alumni
Ottoman Military College alumni
Ottoman Army officers
Prime Ministers of Iraq
Leaders ousted by a coup
French–Arabic translators
Iraqi translators
20th-century translators | [
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222438 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Basque%20nationalism | Basque nationalism | Basque nationalism (, , ) is a form of nationalism that asserts that Basques, an ethnic group indigenous to the western Pyrenees, are a nation, and promotes the political unity of the Basques, today scattered between Spain and France. Since its inception in the late 19th century, Basque nationalism has included separatist movements.
Basque nationalism, spanning three different regions in two states (the Basque Autonomous Community and Navarre in Spain, and the French Basque Country in France) is "irredentist in nature" as it favours political unification of all the Basque-speaking provinces.
History
Fueros and Carlism
Basque nationalism is rooted in Carlism and the loss, by the laws of 1839 and 1876, of the Ancien Régime relationship between the Spanish Basque provinces and the crown of Spain. During this period, the reactionary and the liberal brand of the pro-fueros movement pleaded for the maintenance of the fueros system and territorial autonomy against the centralizing pressures from liberal or conservative governments in Madrid. The Spanish government suppressed the fueros after the Third Carlist War.
The fueros were the native decision making and justice system issued from consuetudinary law prevailing in the Basque territories and Pyrenees. They are first recorded in the Kingdom of Navarre, confirming its charter system also across the western Basque territories during the High Middle Ages. In the wake of Castile's conquest of Gipuzkoa, Álava and Durango (1200), the fueros were partially ratified by the kings of Castile and acted as part of the Basque legal system dealing with matters regarding the political ties of the Basque districts with the crown. The Fueros guaranteed the Basques a separate position in Spain with their own tax and political status. While its corpus is extensive, prerogatives contained in them set out for one that Basques were not subject to direct levee to the Castilian army, although many volunteered.
Sabino Arana
The native Basque institutions and laws were abolished in 1876 after the Third Carlist War (called the Second in the Basque context), and replaced by the Basque Economic Agreements. The levelling process with other Spanish regions disquieted the Basques. According to Sabino Arana's views, the Biscayan (and Basque) personality was being diluted in the idea of an exclusive Spanish nation fostered by centralist authorities in Madrid. Arana was inspired by his brother Luis, a co-designer of the Basque flag ikurriña (1895), and a major nationalist figure after Sabino's death (1903).
Arana felt that not only the Basque personality was endangered but also its former religious institutions, like Church or the Society of Jesus, which still often spoke in Basque to its parishioners, unlike school or administration. Sabino characterized Catholicism as a sort of shelter for Basque personality. This became a point of contention with other personalities holding like views and clustering around Arana's manifesto Bizkaya por su independencia (1892). Later industrialist and prominent Basque nationalist Ramon de la Sota dismissed Sabino's positions of Catholicism as inherent to the national issue.
In 1893, the Gamazada popular uprising erupted in Navarre against the breach by the Spanish government of several foundations of the treaties ending the Carlist Wars (1841, 1876). Arana eagerly supported the Navarrese outbreak by travelling to the territory and participating. The widespread protest in Navarre sparked solidarity in Biscay. In 1893, after a support meeting held in Gernika attended by pro-fueros personalities, a group led by Arana overtly blamed Spain for the current state of matters, going on to set a Spanish flag ablaze. This rebellion, called the Sanrocada, is held as the beginning of political Basque nationalism.
In 1895, the Basque Nationalist Party was founded around Arana (PNV in its Spanish acronym, EAJ in Basque). His nationalism shifted from a focus on Biscay to the rest of Basque territories. The program of Arana was specified as follows:
By the end of the 19th century, Arana differed clearly from the Carlists, his initial background. He accompanied his views with an ideology centred on the purity of the Basque race and its alleged moral supremacy over other Spaniards (a derivation of the system of limpieza de sangre of Modern-Age Spain), and deep opposition to the mass-immigration of other Spaniards to the Basque Country. The immigration had started after the boom of manufacturing related to the ore exportation to England and privatization of communal lands and exploitations (mines) as the fueros were lost.
Arana died in 1903 months after releasing a controversial manifesto renouncing his former tenets while in prison for supporting Cuban independence, and just months after the Basque leader congratulated US president Theodore Roosevelt for its support to Cuba. The nature of that document is still subject to discussion. Luis Arana took the reins of the Basque Nationalist Party.
In the early 20th century, Basque nationalism, developed from a nucleus of enthusiasts (non-native Basque speakers themselves) in Bilbao to incorporate the agrarian Carlists in Biscay, and Gipuzkoa. The seeds of Seminal Basque nationalism bloomed also in Navarre and Álava early on (Aranzadi, Irujo, Agirre, etc.) on the heat of the Gamazada (1893-1894).
Modern history
The movement survived without major problems the dictatorship of Miguel Primo de Rivera under the guise of cultural and athletic associations. The Basque Nationalist Party split in the early 20s, and Comunión Nacionalista Vasca was created. Basque nationalists allied with Carlism in support of the Catholic Church as a barrier against leftist anti-clericalism in most of the Basque provinces, although alliances started to change with the coming of the Second Spanish Republic (1931).
By the start of the Second Spanish Republic, a small cluster of secularist Basque nationalists had sown the seeds of the EAE-ANV, while PNV clung to its traditionalist Catholicism. However, failure by a Carlist faction to back up the Basque statute in 1932 and the radicalization of their anti-Republican discourse, opened the Basque nationalists to new alliances with Republican and leftist parties, gradually shifting to a Christian-Democrat position willing to some sort of compromise with the left.
In 1936, the main part of the Christian-Democrat PNV sided with the Second Spanish Republic in the Spanish Civil War. The promise of autonomy was valued over the ideological differences, especially on the religious matter, and PNV decided to support the legal republican government. After stopping the far-right military rebels in Intxorta (Biscay-Gipuzkoa border), autonomy was achieved in October 1936. A republican autonomous Basque government was established, with José Antonio Agirre (PNV) as Lehendakari (president) and ministers from the PNV and other republican parties (mainly leftist Spanish parties).
However, in 1937, roughly halfway through the war, Basque troops, then under control of the Autonomous Basque Government surrendered in an action brokered by the Basque church and the Vatican in Santoña to the Italian allies of General Franco on condition that the Basque heavy industry and economy was left untouched.
For many leftists in Spain, the surrender of Basque troops in Santoña (Santander) is known as the Treason of Santoña. Many of the nationalist Basque soldiers were pardoned if they joined the Francoist army in the rest of the Northern front. Basque nationalists submitted, went underground, or were sent to prison, and the movement's political leaders fled. Small groups escaped to the Americas, France and Benelux, of which only a minority returned after the restoration of democracy in Spain in the late seventies, or before.
During World War II, the exiled PNV government attempted to join the Allies and settled itself in New York to gain American recognition and support, but soon after the war finished, Franco became an American ally in the context of the Cold War, depriving the PNV of any chance of power in the Basque Country.
Basque nationalist organizations
Political parties and coalitions
Amaiur, political coalition formed for the 2011 Spanish general election.
Aralar, leftist political party
Batasuna, leftist political party, illegal in Spain on grounds of links with the armed organization ETA. It was known previously as Herri Batasuna and Euskal Herritarrok.
Batzarre, a political party in Navarre
Comunión Nacionalista Vasca, former political party
EH Bildu, political coalition formed in 2011
Euskadiko Ezkerra, former leftist political party
Euskal Ezkerra, a splinter of Euskadiko Ezkerra
Eusko Abertzale Ekintza, leftist political party
Eusko Alkartasuna, Social-Democratic political party
Nafarroa Bai, Navarrese political party (coalition between some Basque nationalist political parties)
Basque Nationalist Party, Christian-Democrat political party
Sortu, political party
Zutik, leftist party
Organizations
Askatasuna, support for ETA prisoners
Basque Workers' Solidarity, trade union
Enbata
ETA, separatist armed organization operating mainly in the Spanish Basque Country
Etxerat, relatives' and friends' support group of individuals subjected to state repression
ESAIT, support for the Basque National teams in different sports
Gestoras pro-Amnistía, support for ETA prisoners
Herria 2000 Eliza, Catholic movement
Ikasle Abertzaleak, Group of Basque nationalist students
Iparretarrak, violently clandestine organization operating in the French part of the Basque Country
Irrintzi, armed organization of the French Basque Country
Jagi-Jagi, former magazine
LAB, leftist trade union
Senideak, relatives of Basque activists (mostly ETA members) in prison
Segi, Batasuna's youth group
Udalbiltza, assembly of city councillors
Gazte Abertzaleak, the youth group of the Spanish Basque political party Eusko Alkartasuna, left of the PNV but not aligned with ETA or Batasuna
See also
Athletic Bilbao
Basque Republic
Carlism
Eusko Abendaren Ereserkia
José Antonio Aguirre
Iñaki Kijera Zelarain
Ikurriña
Politics of France
Politics of Spain
Sabino Arana
References
Bibliography
External links
Barbara Loyer, "Basque nationalism undermined by ETA," Le Monde Diplomatique (1998) | [
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222439 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Star%20Fleet%20Battles | Star Fleet Battles | Star Fleet Battles (SFB) is a tactical board wargame set in an offshoot of the Star Trek setting called the Star Fleet Universe. Originally created in 1979 by Stephen V. Cole, it has had four major editions. The current edition is published by Amarillo Design Bureau as Star Fleet Battles, Captain's Edition.
Star Fleet Battles is a ship-to-ship warfare simulation game, which uses cardboard counters to represent the ships, shuttles, seeking weapons, terrain, and information on a hexagonal map. It is a game system for two or more players (there are some solitaire scenarios). Typically, a player will have one ship in a game, though they can control an entire fleet, if they can keep track of the paperwork and options involved; multiple players can play as teams, with each team splitting up the work of running a squadron or fleet, or a 'free-for-all' fight can be run. Ships represented in the game are typically starships from such classic Star Trek powers as the Federation, Romulan Star Empire, Klingon Empire, or purely Star Fleet Universe creations such as the Hydran Kingdom or Interstellar Concordium.
The game system uses an impulse-based turn system, which is a departure from the traditional I-Go You-Go alternating system used by most wargames. A ship's speed determines how often and when it can move based on a 32 impulse movement chart. Generally, a unit only moves one hex at a time, making 32 the maximum 'speed' in the game. Similar systems are used in games such as Steve Jackson's Car Wars (which uses a 5 phase system) and is designed to more realistically simulate unit movement in an environment where the units can move a great distance in the time needed for non-movement functions (like weapons fire) to occur.
Overview
Star Fleet Battles was based on the Star Trek universe as of 1979 and includes elements of Star Trek: The Original Series and Star Trek: The Animated Series. Federation elements were heavily based on concepts from The Star Trek Star Fleet Technical Manual. Unlike the mainstream Star Trek universe, Star Fleet Battles seems to consider some, but not all of The Animated Series, as being a canon material source, thus leading to the inclusion of aliens such as the Kzinti.
Since the first publication of the game, Star Fleet Battles and the Star Trek universe have diverged considerably as the authors of the game and those of the films and television series have basically ignored each other. The resulting divergent world of Star Fleet Battles is known as the "Star Fleet Universe".
There are several notable games set in this universe, including the video game series Starfleet Command (which combines parts of SFU with parts of canon Star Trek), the role-playing game setting Prime Directive, (currently available for the GURPS and d20 systems), the card game Star Fleet Battle Force, and the strategy game Federation and Empire, as well as the recently released Federation Commander.
The license Star Fleet Battles operates under does not allow for direct reference to the characters and detailed events of the Original Series. As such, official material does not include references to Kirk, Spock or use the USS Enterprise directly, though the latter is included in ship listings. This has not prevented oblique references, such as a comment about the first Gorn-Federation meeting as involving “two young captains who fired first, and faced embarrassing questions later.” Other references are monster scenarios loosely based on the planet killer from "The Doomsday Machine" and the space amoeba from "The Immunity Syndrome".
History
Pocket Edition
Star Fleet Battles was originally published as a 'pocket-game' in a ziplock bag as "Task Force Game #4" by Task Force Games in 1979. Steve Cole later recalled:
The design of Star Fleet Battles began during 1975... Jim Brown... and I were playing a lot of Jutland.... One afternoon I was studying the Jutland battle that was in progress on my floor (left from the previous evening) when the [Star Trek] re-run of the day came on. I began to consider the possibility of doing a space game on the Jutland system. JagdPanther was in operation at the time, and I had vague thoughts that I could somehow get a license for the game.
By the time Jim came by to collect me for dinner, I had a Federation CA and a Klingon D7 fighting it out. In the brief space of an hour long re-run, I had two SSD's, the proportional movement system, and the charts for phasers and disruptor bolts. All were to change drastically within a week and were to continue evolving for five years, but the start was made.
The company JagdPanther closed down before SFB was finished, but the game was not forgotten, and when Steve Cole and Allen Eldridge decided to start a new company (Task Force Games) Star Fleet Battles was one of several half-finished designs proposed to be published by them.
While the initial format was small, and the number of ships limited, the game was still not simple. This was dictated in part by a desire to do the "definitive Star Fleet game". This meant that it included as much detail as possible from all the source material available. In the mid-70s, this meant the original two series and a number of fan publications. Except for The Original Series itself, none of these materials are considered canon today, but at the time, they were all considered fairly authoritative, especially the Star Fleet Technical Manual by Franz Joseph, which had originally been blessed by Gene Roddenberry, and from whom Steve Cole got the license to do a Star Trek game.
Elements of these almost forgotten fan productions shaped many aspects of the game. The Technical Manual itself decided the main functions of the Federation Heavy Cruiser, and what other Federation ships looked like. A set of blueprints (probably those drawn by Michael McMaster in 1975) showed the Klingon D7 as having more phasers than the Heavy Cruiser, and disruptors mounted on the engines. The latter became a common feature of Klingon shipbuilding, and the former led to the idea of less powerful phasers for the Klingons. The same blueprints also stated that an older, slightly inferior version of the D7, the D6, was what was sold to the Romulans, and the D7/D6 dichotomy has been at the heart of the Klingon fleet in the game ever since. Two of the novels gave mention of a phaser being mounted on shuttlecraft. This was included, as much to give a reason to use shuttles as anything else. This proved to be the wedge that allowed the introduction of fighters to the game; a feature popular with many players, but also led many to believe that Star Fleet Battles was no longer Star Trek.
Designer's Edition
Later in 1979, Star Fleet Battles was re-released in a boxed set known as the Designer's Edition. The original plan had been to produce "three interlocking games, all to be published in the 'pocket' format. When 'completed' this trilogy would cover the entire system."
However, the real reason for this plan was that it had been impossible to acquire boxes at an affordable price. When a source of boxes was found, it was decided to do a revised, expanded version instead. The box contained about twice as many ships and scenarios as the original Pocket Edition, and was expanded upon itself by three expansions in the same zip-lock format as the original (named Star Fleet Battles Expansion #1, Expansion #2, and Expansion #3), all of which were reviewed in issues of The Space Gamer.
These expansions rapidly added many new ships and concepts to the system which are parts of it to this day: The Hydrans, Andromedans and Lyrans were introduced as new empires that fielded novel technologies peculiar to themselves. All the races were issued a full complement of ship classes, particularly dreadnoughts, fleet tugs and scouts, which in the Designer Edition only the Federation and Klingons deployed. Notably, only the Klingon Empire built the superheavy 'Battleship' B10 class (in the Captain's Edition Module R5 the other races were presented with conjectural i.e. non-historical battleship designs). Heavy cruisers, the starship class the game was based on, were supplemented by 'wartime construction cruisers' (simply called 'war cruisers'), relatively inexpensive substitutes built on light cruiser hulls yet packing the firepower of their larger stablemates. All fleets deployed 'Command Cruisers' which were heavy cruisers with additional weapons and power, and some races deployed 'Leader' versions of smaller classes, such as destroyers or frigates. Carrier starships with attack shuttles (usually called fighters) became common throughout the Alpha Quadrant; in the Designer Edition the Attack Shuttle Carrier was unique to the Kzinti Hegemony. In the final years of the General War so-called 'Pseudo-Fighters' (later renamed 'fast patrol' ships; but retaining the 'PF' designation) were expendable 'attrition units' (like attack shuttles/fighters but larger with their own ship system displays) that operated from tenders, bases, or planets and hunted in flotillas of six. 'X-ships' or 'up-rated cruisers' featured altogether new technologies (like fast-loading torpedoes, overloaded phasers, oversize warp engines and high-capacity battery reserve power) based on the new versions of the Enterprise and Klingon battlecruisers seen in Star Trek: The Motion Picture.
All races built 'Battle Stations', which were upgrades to the Base Stations deployed on territorial borders that were presented in the Pocket Edition (for their Starbases, each race used a modified generic SSD in the Designer Edition). Each race also received auxiliary units that used generic SSDs, such as police ships, freighters, Q-ships, Fleet Repair Docks and minelayers, for which comprehensive mine warfare rules were introduced. Until that point, the only mines were the Romulan-unique “nuclear space mine” (NSM) and the smaller “transporter bomb” (T-bomb) used by all races.
Many things were re-written, and each expansion included new elements that impacted how previous rules interacted, demanding a great deal of errata and making the entire system something of a jumble. "It was clear that issuing yet another 'expansion kit' that devoted half of its space to correcting previous products was not the answer."
Commander's Edition
Commander's Edition was, effectively, a ground-up rewrite of the rules. The old rule-number system was discarded in favor of a completely new alpha-numeric system. The three Expansions were scrapped and re-packaged. However, other than the new (bigger) reorganized rulebook, the initial 1983 release of the boxed set was mostly unchanged from the Designer's Edition, including the box (later printings labeled it Star Fleet Battles: Volume I). The separate Star Fleet Battles Commander's Rulebook was also available for previous owners of Star Fleet Battles.
Most of the material (including the new empires) from the Expansions was reorganized and released as Volume II. The bulk of the fighter rules were in Supplement #1, X-ships (now redone not to be based on ST:TMP and divided into two "generations") were in Supplement #2, and PFs (now renamed as Fast Patrol ships) were in Supplement #3.
From there, Commander's Edition came out with new products for the next half-decade or so. Two Reinforcements packs allowed the purchase of extra counters. Volume III added the Interstellar Concordium and the Neo-Tholians, as well as new ships and new concepts (such as heavy fighters). Nexus magazine was launched as a house organ for Task Force Games, and featured a regular SFB section which presented new material like scenarios, rules errata, and input and feedback from players. Similar material was also published in ADB's in-house (but widely distributed) Starletter newsletter from 1982.
Of lasting importance was the launch of Captain's Log, a continuing semi-periodical journal dedicated to Star Fleet Battles that is still running. It was noteworthy that the game developers at ADB were very receptive to input and feedback from SFB gamers. For instance there were complaints that the Hydran Fusion Beam was too weak, and so the game designers changed the rules so that charged Fusion Beams could be held over from turn to turn. Another example was the many complaints that Plasma Torpedoes were too unwieldy to use as seeking weapons, and so the rules were amended to allow Plasma Torpedoes to fire as direct-fire weapons (the Plasma Bolt).
The 'Commander's SSD' (Ship System Display) was introduced. SSDs had just been a half-sheet diagram of the ship's systems. Some combined ship classes that were differentiated using shaded boxes which were to be ignored to represent the smaller ship class (for instance the Klingon D6 and D7 cruisers were presented on the same SSD sheet with shaded boxes indicating the phasers and shield boxes that the D6 lacked). The new Commander's style SSDs (which did not appear in Volume I or II) took a full sheet and included extra record-keeping information, such as tracks for drone ammo and shuttles, and firing charts for all the weapons on the ship. A line of nine Commander's SSD Books were produced, the first few of which were mostly involved presenting new-style SSDs for the older ships, the last several of which had all new material.
During this entire period, there had been a constant stream of Errata, and later Addenda (which amounted to the same thing). For a long time, the vast majority of the mail received was from the top few fanatical SFB players, who constantly campaigned for new rules, rules fixes, and rules changes. This became a source of discontent for most of the rest of the players, who did not appreciate a game that changed every few months, and needed a sheaf of notes along with the voluminous rules. However, it was generally believed nearly impossible to repair the damage by properly re-writing and re-integrating such a large and complex system into a new edition before doomsday, especially without bringing the product line to a halt while only new versions of old products were released.
Doomsday
For a long time the 'Doomsday Edition' was a private joke amongst the staff that worked on SFB. Then it became a public one. Finally, it became an actual project in 1987, and the 'Doomsday Edition' was released as Star Fleet Battles, Captain's Edition in 1990.
The long gestation, however, did give us time to plan an all-new edition. The publisher insisted that we should reorganize the game system into entirely new products. This was necessary to present the material to an entirely new generation of gamers in a more logical format (and to make dealers notice that it was a new edition).
The changes were sweeping. There were two boxed sets (in a smaller format than former boxes), the first of which, Basic Set, was roughly the same as Volume I. The second, Advanced Missions was different in that it only introduced new rules and ship types (more ships than any other single product in fact), but stayed with the same selection of basic empires as the first box. Nearly everything else is labeled Module x, where x is a letter (and number, in a series), along with a name, and comes as a booklet of rules and a booklet of SSDs, with a sheet of counters and a color wrapper as the cover. The new empires of Volume II and III were presented in Module C1 and C2.
Captain's Log #8 devoted a substantial amount of space to explanations of exactly what the new edition meant, and how the new products would work. The release of 'Doomsday' was split into five phases:
Phase I was the Basic Set itself, which had been released before Captain's Log #8.
Phase II included Advanced Missions, C1, and C2. It also included several limited-run products that were meant purely to ease the transition for older players. The main one had the rulebooks from all the Phase I and Phase II products, so veteran players could get all the new rules without having to re-purchase the other parts. These were released in late 1990 and early 1991.
Phase III was Module J and K, effectively updates of Supplement #1 and #3. Both of these were released in 1991.
Phase IV updated the Commander's SSD Books into Modules R1-4. The twelve empires of the previous edition were divided into three groups of four, and their remaining ships were put into R2-4; R1 had generic units and play aids. These were released in 1992. R1 was actually the last one released, and came after the first of the new Captain's Edition products.
Phase V was a promise to continue developing new products once the transition to Captain's Edition was complete.
And the biggest change was: "We'll explain everything, but we won't change anything!" Doomsday promised an end to addenda. Loopholes might be closed, new things might still be added, but no previous rule would change as a result.
Interregnum
The new edition was a success, but could not stop the march of time. Wargaming as a whole had been on the decline since about 1980, and Task Force Games joined the list of established gaming companies that did not survive the '90s. The decline of TFG was gradual, and SFB suffered long before the company actually folded:
Ultimately, however, the publisher was battered by market forces, a few bad decisions, and perhaps a lack of focus. The game system more or less disappeared from the market by the end of 1996 when ADB was unable to design new games without being paid for the previous ones. Two years of tedious negotiations were completed in January 1999 and Amarillo Design Bureau, Inc. was born.
Since very early on, the publishing duties and design duties had actually been split, with the Amarillo Design Bureau (ADB) handling all of the product design, while TFG had published, and indicated what they wanted to produce. The end of TFG put everything under one house again, and ADB, Inc. spent some time picking up the pieces of nearly three years without SFB. The first order of business, in fact, was to reprint Basic Set and Advanced Missions which had been out of stock for about three years at this point. While they were at it, all the errata and questions were evaluated, and many sections of the rules were re-written in an effort to make the game clearer. These editions featured new cover colors and a '1999' legend at the bottom of the cover to show when they were printed.
The time period between the last products from TFG, and ADB's announcement that they had re-secured the rights to the system were not entirely without new material. Bruce Graw published Star Fleet Times as an SFB newsletter about ten times a year, mostly during what was afterward called 'The Interregnum'. Its run ended with issue 50 in 2000, as it was considered that the internet served the same purpose (a regular way for the fans to keep in touch) much more efficiently.
SFBOL and Print On Demand
Since then, ADB, Inc. has gotten everything back in print, released a number of new products, and has seen the number of SFB players slowly grow again. This is in part due to the fact that it has a strong on-line community, encouraged by the company forum, and the existence of SFBOL.
Star Fleet Battles On-Line is a software client that allows a person to play SFB against other people on the internet. While it does still require a personal understanding of the rules to play, the client does contain all the record-keeping functions of the game, and provides for some easier handling of places that require 'simultaneous' decisions (which have always been difficult in normal face-to-face play).
Star Fleet Battles On-Line was originally developed by Gregg Dieckhaus and Paul Scott of Online Game Systems and is currently maintained and supported by Franz Games, LLC
In the meantime, ADB continues to try to serve the SFB community with new products, and new ways to manufacture and distribute products. Currently, they only have to go to a regular printing company for counters and color covers. These are then stockpiled, and when an order comes in, in-house (black-and-white) printers run the interiors, and other in-house machines do the binding and trimming. This 'print on demand' process allows greater freedom in product releases, and warehouse storage, and all recent products use this system.
Star Fleet Universe
Star Fleet Battles has its own background universe giving the stories of ships and empires. This started as the distillation of Star Trek lore at the time of SFB's creation, but soon started adding its own touches to fill in perceived gaps. The 'SFU' now diverges sharply from canon Star Trek, as the producers ignored anything from fan productions, and SFB's own license does not allow them to use any new material from more recent TV or film series. The SFU has re-interpreted several things, and in some places only bears a passing resemblance to the show that gave it birth. The SFU now has a history that covers (in various products) a span of about 130 years.
Settings
While everything published for the SFU takes place in the same continuity (other than alternate timeline scenarios), the lore is divided across several settings that have little to no contact with each other. The vast majority of products published for Star Fleet Battles is set in the 'Alpha-Octant' (sometimes called 'Alpha-Sector', but that is actually just a part of the area covered), which includes all the races known from The Original Series. Other settings include:
The Early Years - The era covering the emergence of the various Alpha Octant empires in the dawn of tactical warp starships, including two races (mostly) exclusive to this era, the Carnivons and Paravians. Other settings have subsequently included equivalent Early Years data, such as that seen for the Magellanic races.
Omega (generally called 'Omega Sector', more properly 'Omega-Octant'): an area just as large as the Alpha-Octant in the Milky Way Galaxy, but with a more varied history, and separated from Alpha by a large void.
Magellanics: The Small Magellanic Cloud has long been known as the place that the Andromedans staged their invasion of the galaxy from; the recently released Module C5 presents the history of the indigenous races of the SMC and the initial Andromedan conquest of them.
Triangulum: an entirely new area, the Triangulum Galaxy, which has only been featured in the Module E2 playtest pack so far.
Nature of the Galaxy
In the Star Fleet Universe, the Milky Way Galaxy is divided up into 24 sectors, each named for the letters of the Greek alphabet. Each sector extends from the galactic rim, and inwards to where star density and radiation problems cause ion storms, precluding travel. There are five 'void' sectors (Epsilon, Iota, Pi, Upsilon and Omega), where star and planet density is low, and which tend to generate large ion storms and radiation clouds, restricting travel from one set of sectors to another. This leads to the sectors in between to be grouped together in (generally) sets of three, termed 'octants', as three sectors are one eighth of the rim of the galaxy, and which are sometimes inaccurately referred to as 'sectors' themselves.
The Storm Zone is unoccupied, as even bases cannot exist there due to the severity of the storms, and ships cannot penetrate the Radiation Zone. The Core of the galaxy has never been explored.
The five areas into which the Voids separate the inhabitable portions of the galaxy are the Alpha Octant, the Sargasso Octant, the Xorkaelian Empire, the Sigma Octant, and the Omega Octant.
Alpha Octant
The Alpha Octant is the primary setting of the Star Fleet Universe, being home to the United Federation of Planets, the Klingon Empire, the Romulan Star Empire, and all the other empires inherited from other Star Trek settings. It extends from the Alpha Sector to the Delta Sector, but only Alpha, Beta and Gamma (more specifically, the area covered by the Federation and Empire) have been extensively explored by the major powers of the region.
Omega Octant
The Omega Octant runs from the Void in the Omega Sector through the Psi, Chi and Phi Sectors (though Phi is mostly off the detailed Omega map, as Delta is in the Alpha Octant), and is detailed in a series of Star Fleet Battles modules (and a playtest pack for Federation Commander). Over two dozen empires have operated in this region; some remain a factor in the Octant throughout the modern era, others rise at an early time only to be crushed or sidelined, while still others only enter the scene at a later point in history. Notable powers include the Mæsron Alliance (a union of several species, like the Federation and ISC; its rise, collapse and renaissance helped define the Octant's history), the Trobrin Empire (composed of silicon-based life forms, who consider a 'Silicate Plan' to rule the galaxy as their only insurance against domination by 'carbonites'), the Probr Revolution (a species of genetically uplifted salamanders with an anarchist bent, who rose against their creators, then used their technology to forge their own empire), the Drex Unity (A civilization of artificial intelligence who dedicate themselves by defend their creator's homeworlds against any threat), the Sigvirion Expansion (a species of living viruses that take over and use other species as their hosts), and the Federal Republic of Aurora (a collection of exiles from several Alpha Octant empires, involuntarily transferred to the Omega Octant and forced to find their own way amidst the warring factions of Omega).
Other galaxies
Andromeda Galaxy
So far, only one empire has been revealed as originating from M31, but it has made quite an impact on the Star Fleet Universe...
Andromedan Invaders
The Andromedans (who were backtracked to a galaxy visible in the Andromeda constellation from Earth) were first contacted in the Alpha Octant in Y166, and in the Omega Octant in Y167; though they had already made their presence felt in the Lesser Magellanic Cloud. In Y188, they launched an all out attack on the Milky Way. They utilise technology unlike any used by known Galactic or Magellanic races, such as Power Absorbers instead of shields, which allow them to use incoming attacks to help power their ships, as well as the devastating Tractor-Repulsor Beam, which can rip enemy vessels apart.
Small Magellanic Cloud
The Small Magellanic Cloud (referred to in-setting as the Lesser Magellanic Cloud) is composed of three main regions: the densely populated Core (shrouded by a dense radiation shell), a ring of provinces with "standard" stellar densities, and an outer Fringe region where stars and planets are much fewer and further between. Beyond the Fringe worlds lies the Chomak Cluster, a collection of stars only recently (in astronomical terms) captured by the Cloud's gravitational field.
Module C5 for SFB presented five of the Magellanic empires: the Baduvai Imperium, the Eneen Protectorates, the Maghadim Hives, the Uthiki Harmony and the Jumokian Resistance. Others, such as the ancient Chomak Community and the reclusive Yrol Septs, await publication.
In the decades prior to the Andromedan arrival, several wars were waged between the three Magellanic Powers (Baduvai, Eneen and Maghadim), most notably for control of the strategically vital Neutral Worlds. Unfortunately for these empires, the Andromedans eventually sought to conquer the Cloud outright, in order to claim it as an advanced base of operations for their full-scale invasion of the Milky Way Galaxy. In the face of this common threat, the rival powers formed the Triple Pact: a desperate, and ultimately doomed, joint bid for survival. Once Operation Unity succeeded in subduing the Andromedans, the surviving Magellanic forces (which had held out in exile among the Fringe worlds) took to re-building their fallen empires, though it would take a long time for any of them to approach their former glory.
M81 Galaxy
The original location of the Tholian Will was M81, a galaxy outside the Local Group. Before the Seltorian revolt, it was controlled completely by the Tholians, with the exception of isolated nebulae from which the Nebuline species helped support M81 piracy. In addition, this galaxy was once home to the Bolosco Merchant Guilds, later found in the Omega Octant.
The Seltorian Tribunal After their successful revolt, the Seltorians kept the same basic political structure as the Tholian Will in place, just with themselves in charge. Fearful of an eventual Tholian return, they have sent out large nest ships as mobile bases of operation against any remnants of the Tholians they locate. It is unknown just how many expeditions were sent out, but it is known that one did go to the Andromeda Galaxy (and presumably did not fare well), as well as to the Milky Way.
The Iridani Cluster
Adjacent to the Omega Octant of the Milky Way Galaxy, the Iridani Cluster is home to one rather adventurous space-faring race presented in the SFB Omega-series modules...
The Iridani Questors Otter-like party goers, the Iridani frequently travel to neighbouring galaxies, such as the Milky Way (most notably among the Omega races) and the Small Magellanic Cloud, in single ships (or sometimes in squadrons) performing "Knightly" quests. Their Cluster was conquered by the Andromedans in the Y190s, but there were so many Iridani in the Milky Way that their fleet was able to band together for the greatest Quest of all: the liberation of their home worlds.
Triangulum Galaxy
The empires of the Triangulum Galaxy come in two distinct flavors, with a handful of older realms dealing with the consequences of several newly emergent species making their mark on M33. Three of these powers (the Helgardian Protectorate, the Arachnid Worlds of Unions and the Mallaran Empire) were presented in playtest form in SFB Module E2, while the Imperium was previewed in Captain's Log #23. Many other empires are noted as being present in this setting, including the Human Republic (founded by a Terran colony caravan which was displaced from the Milky Way in -Y12). The Triangulum setting awaits formal publication in a "full" published module.
Game system
Gameplay and mechanics
The Star Fleet Battles game system rests on several fundamental ideas, out of which the rest of the system grows. Part of the perceived difficulty of the game is that all of these are more complicated to explain than to use.
First, the movement system (and turn structure with it) departs from the traditional 'everyone takes a turn in order' structure used in the vast majority of games. Instead a proportional movement system is used, where a little bit of the total movement (termed an impulse, 32 of which comprise each game turn) for all players is resolved simultaneously, so that each can see what is happening and respond to it. This avoids the usual problems with moving long distances without any fire or reactions happening, and keeps in mind that everything is moving at the same time. This system produces two important and well-known effects for movement: on impulse #1 of the game turn no units move (starships are restricted to speed 31 or less) and on impulse #32 (the last) all units move. The former instance means that speed-32 seeking weapons one hex from their targets hit automatically without possibility of interception, targets at the range limit of overloaded torpedoes (8 hexes) cannot escape before taking fire, and no ships have opportunity to turn fresh shields toward attackers before they can fire weapons. The latter instance means that even the slowest units in play make a move on the turn's final impulse.
Second, it is assumed that while faster than light starships produce prodigious amounts of energy just for the needs of propulsion, there is not enough energy available to perform every possible function simultaneously. Therefore, each ship has to fill out an Energy Allocation form at the beginning of a turn, and 'pay' for all the functions (such as movement, shields and weapons) that it can then use during the turn. This procedure forces players to plan their actions for the following game turn, because systems left unpowered during the Energy Allocation Phase cannot be used during the turn (there is a rule for Reserve Power which a player can use to power up a ship system mid-turn, but this power comes from the ship's batteries which are few).
And third, each ship has a display of systems (a Ship Systems Display, or SSD) that acts as a schematic diagram of a particular ship in play. Each class in the game has an individualized SSD, and most expansions revolve around providing new classes and 'variants' of ships to the game, with new SSDs. These displays consist of check-off boxes for all the ship's structure and systems (shields in all six directions, systems and hull damage, how much power the engines produce, how many transporters there are, etc. checked off when damaged) in the general layout of the ship, along with general reference information for that ship (tracks to check off use for weapons in limited supply like drones, shuttles, probes, plus weapons fire resolution tables, firing arcs, and miscellaneous ship data).
Fourth, it differs from many wargames in that each unit is not simply a set of offensive and defensive numerical ratings; rather, each ship has a variety of individual weapons and resources, each employing their own tactics and counter-tactics. Thus players are able to utilize, e.g., boarding parties, shuttles, tractor beams, electronic countermeasures, etc., permitting many more tactics than in the average wargame, requiring much more documentation. It is this which allows the game to become a science-fiction experience, and puts it in concert with many literary elements of Star Trek.
Fifth, the game system is richly detailed and demanding of the players in terms of what might be called "situational awareness", particularly in directionality and proximity. Every ship/unit must maintain a definite "facing" (heading on the game map's hexagonal grid) which can only be changed sixty degrees or less at a time under strict rules (turn modes and the "sideslip" move). There are more drastic movement options available (Warp Tactical Maneuvering and the High Energy Turn or HET) but they are limited by restrictions and risks of mishap (such as the always-dreaded Breakdown penalty). Adding complexity is the fact that the defensive shields of starships are spread around their six hex sides, most usually in an uneven pattern with the front (or number one) shield having most of the ship's shield boxes. Each hexside around the ship towards its rear usually has fewer boxes for absorbing damage before incoming weapons fire begins scoring "internal hits" on the starship proper. Furthermore, all weapons (except drones) have a prescribed arc of fire and each type of weapon (except the drone) has its own peculiar "bands" of effectiveness within which its hit probabilities and damage ratings vary. This last feature of the game system is particularly stark with its provision for "overloaded" torpedo weapons, in which hit probabilities for targets at ranges greater than 8 dwindle to zero (overloaded torpedoes burn out past this range) and the damage scored becomes decisive (overloaded torpedoes score double damage, except for Hydran torpedoes and the ISC plasmatic pulsars which score half-again damage).
The interplay between directional limitations for ship maneuvering, shield protection, and weapons fire makes for a practically infinite number of tactical permutations from which the ship captains can decide. Each maneuvers to present his strongest shields to his most dangerous adversaries, while at the same time seeking to generate firing opportunities for his most powerful armaments against his most vulnerable or threatening opponents. When more advanced decision options are added to the basic game system (for example, mid-turn speed changes and reserve battery power for "trick" moves such as "anchoring" an enemy by tractor beam) the gaming situation can become very intricate. Environmental factors like asteroid fields, planetary atmospheres, and minefields further diversify the gaming possibilities. Finally, multi-starship scenarios (and also those involving starbases, battle stations, or civilian convoys) can complexify the gaming experience to suit the tastes of the most sophisticated wargamer.
Rules
Since the introduction of Commander's Edition the rules have been organized with lettered major chapters, followed by a number to indicate a major rule. Then follows a decimal, and a series of numbers indicating the breakdown into subsections. (For instance, (D6.683) is the third subsection of (D6.68) Disrupted Fire Control, which is the eighth subsection of (D6.6) Active Fire Control, which is the sixth section of (D6.0) Fire Control Systems, which is the sixth rule in (D0.0) Combat.) Chapter R is an exception; as it is a listing of every ship type in the game, the number after the decimal is a sequental number identifier. e.g., (R2.12) is the Police Cutter, the eleventh Federation ship in the game (as (R2.1) is background information). Occasionally, a chapter might have sub-chapters, which are indicated with two letters.
All of this is complicated, but is a consequence of the exceptionally wide-ranging nature of the rules, and the need to identify exactly what will happen under usually-obscure circumstances. To aid in this, a fair amount of the rules are actually dedicated to cross-referencing other rules sections. As it is, the designers made an effort to ensure that there are not any 'unaddressed interactions' between different rules, if there is a possible interaction, it is covered. The result is that many newer players can be intimidated by the sheer bulk of the rulebook.
As all the rules numbers were kept strictly intact from Commander's to Captain's Edition SFB, the presentation of rule numbers occasionally jump around in current products, as they are presented in the products that make the most sense, rather than in the order in which they were introduced in Commander's Edition.
Formats for gameplay
There are three basic ways to play Star Fleet Battles.
The first, most casual, and most usual way the game is played among individual gamers not involved in regular group play is what's called the "Pick-up game". Each starship class (nonship units also) in SFB has what's called a Basic Point Value, or BPV. This is considered the "cost" of the ship, besides its value in combat. In the pick-up game each player or team is allotted a certain number of BPV (casually referred to as "points") to "buy" the starships and nonship units they will play. There are also optional items of equipment available that can also be purchased and added to the player's order of battle (including ship "refits" and sundries such as improved drones or fire control, mines, extra boarding parties, multirole shuttles or fighters, etc.). Availability of optional items is usually restricted by race/empire and the historical year of the battle's setting. Gaming commences when all players have "spent" all their BPV and gathered the required game materials to deploy their chosen battleforces. All players must agree on entry conditions for their forces (weapons status, hex(es) of first appearance, presence of "terrain" such as asteroid fields or minefields) and the "ground rules" that will be in effect during play (mainly which optional rules will or will not be used such as electronic warfare, mid-turn speed changes, cloaking devices, or the use of "transporter bombs" and mines). Several types of plotted movement systems are available in the SFB rules but most player groups in the pick-up game opt for the "free" movement method in which players proceed through the game turn without a prepared movement plot. Instead they decide how their units will move one impulse at a time. Typically victory in the pick-up game demands simple destruction of the enemy force(s) but players may devise other victory conditions by mutual consent.
The second way to play SFB is with the scenarios published either in the latter parts of the game rulebooks or the supplementary SFB publications from ADB (such as Captain's Log). The advantages to scenario play include assured game balance (they are thoroughly playtested by ADB) and speed of setup (nearly all possible play options are specified). Many of the published scenarios offer unique and fascinating conditions of victory that need not require destruction of the opponent, such as the rescue of a disabled starship or units stranded on a planet, the seizure of cargo from a contested unit or location, or merely the successful disengagement of some particularly valuable unit or units from the mapboard. A special category of scenario involves a "space monster" that is controlled by automatic rules, and is so suited for solitaire play.
The third way SFB can be played is the "campaign game", or simply a campaign. This mode of play involves a number of SFB tactical games that are played sequentially in order to simulate an entire war or theater of war between two or more game races (Federation, Kzinti, etc.) or teams. There is a "strategic" level game map which lays out the territories and borders/fronts of the races/teams, and indicates the economic and military resources controlled by each (homeworlds/capitals, planets, starbases, shipyards, etc.). In complex campaigns there are usually also separate records kept of national resources. Ships and other units are gathered into "fleets" and moved on the strategic gameboard until the opposing forces come into contact (almost always by moving into a single "battle hex") and then combat commences in the form of the so-generated SFB combat scenario. Ships destroyed in one game are unavailable for later battles, damaged ships are repaired, fighters and drones and other "expendables" replenished, etc. between battles. The vanquished forces of each battle are usually required to retreat, and the victor(s) are free to advance or withdraw at will. Play continues until one side is destroyed or conquered.
Gamers are free to devise their own system for organizing campaigns. ADB published a game reference specifically for various ways/methods of organizing player-generated campaigns. There may be as many "empires" or nations as players, or they may form up into teams, or a single player may be responsible for different races on different fronts (depending on how much recordkeeping and gameplay he is willing to handle). The players will need to devise their system for strategic movement and some sort of economic system for generating resources for starship construction/deployment. They will also need to agree to such things as what timeframe (year) the campaign is set in (this determines what technologies are available for play), how planets are captured, how bases are constructed, etc.
A more structured way to organize a campaign is to use the system offered by Star Fleet Battle's companion game at the galactic-strategic level, Federation and Empire. In effect, F&E becomes a scenario generator for SFB. This way the gamers don't need to "reinvent the wheel", and still can retain the freedom to modify the strategic system as they choose (by mutual consent). For instance, they may replay the General War, or instead play a "free for all" in which each race/empire may ally or team up with or against any race(s) of their choosing.
There is a different kind of campaign game that does not use a strategic gameboard per se. One was published in the Designer's Edition called the "Captain's Game". There was also such a campaign published as "Operation Unity", the push by the Galactic Powers to destroy the Andromedan starbase in the Lesser Magellanic Cloud. In this type of campaign there are a number of SFB tactical gameboards connected edge-to-edge a certain number of maps wide. These represent a "border" between two neighboring races/empires. The rules specify an order of battle for each side, and how they are to be deployed on each gamemap. A battle is fought on each map, and the victor advances to the next game map closer to his opponent's home starbase (or planet). Between rounds ships are repaired and replenished as usual. The game ends when one player advances to his opponent's home gameboard and vanquishes the enemy starbase (or if the enemy fleet is destroyed).
Modules
This is a list of all products released for Captain's Edition SFB, including a few permanently out-of-print ones, but excluding ones that have been replaced by later products, with the dates of all revisions of the product.
Basic Set (1990) (1994) (1999) (2005) (2012) (SSD Book 2011): Needed for all other sets. Boxed set. Basic and intermediate rules, with a few advanced concepts. Has Federation, Klingons, Romulans, Kzintis, Gorns, Tholians, and Orion Pirates.
Advanced Missions (1990) (1999) (2012) (SSD Book 2014): Introduces various advanced rules and ships for all empires in Basic Set. Boxed set.
Module A+: Captain's Yeoman: Play aids. Originally Module A: Battlecards, published slightly before 'Doomsday'.
Module B: Maps with pre-printed terrain on them (asteroid fields, gas giants...). Out of print.
Module C1: New Worlds I (1991) (1994) (1999): Rules and ships for three empires from previous editions: Hydrans, Lyrans, and WYN.
Module C2: New Worlds II (1991) (1994) (1999): Rules and ships for three empires from previous editions: Andromedans, ISC, and Neo-Tholians.
Module C3: New Worlds III (1993) (2004): Rules and ships for new empires: Andromedans (bases), WYN ('fish' ships), Seltorians, and LDR.
Module C3A: Andromedan Threat File (2011): Speculations of the Andromedan capabilities by the various Galactic intelligence agencies.
Module C4: Fleet Training Centers (1995): Rules and ships for 'simulator empires'. These have no part in actual SFU history, but were published for new tactical challenges.
Module C5: The Magellanic Cloud (2006): A new setting with new empires for SFB, all based in the Small Magellanic Cloud.
Module D3: Booms and Saucers (1993): SSDs for separated Federation saucers and Klingon booms.
Module E2: Triangulum Galaxy: Playtest/preview pack for a new setting with new empires.
Module F1: The Jindarians (1995) (2005): Presents a single new Alpha-octant empire.
Module F2: The Vudar Enclave (2005): Presents a single new Alpha-octant empire.
Module G3: Master Annexes (2009): All the annexes (listings that give miscellaneous ship capabilities), updated for all products through the end of 2008, and contains some BPV adjustments.
Module G3A: Supplementary Annexes (2009): Additional annexes not in Module G3.
Module H1: Megahex (2005): Color 1" ship counters. The first two sheets are the same sheets that come with Federation Commander: Klingon Attack, Klingon Border, Romulan Attack and Romulan Border.
Module J: Fighters (1991) (1994) (2020): Rules that detail the use of fighters, particularly in combat against other fighters.
Module J2: Advanced Fighters (2002): Presents new carrier types, and several advanced options for use with fighters.
Module K: Fast Patrol Ships (1991) (2000): All the rules needed for the operations of PFs, short-range, diminutive ships and their tenders.
Module M: Marines (1995) (2008): Advanced boarding party and ground combat rules. Presented all as one perfect-bound book. 2008 edition features separate rule and diagram books.
Module P: The Galactic Smorgasbord (1995): A medley of preview/playtest scenarios from planned upcoming modules.
Module R1: Bases & Auxiliaries (1992): Extra ships, and player reference.
Module R2: Federation, Kzinti, Andro, Orion (1992): Extra ships from previous editions.
Module R3: Klingon, Hydran, Lyran, WYN (1992) (2000): Extra ships from previous editions.
Module R4: Romulan, Gorn, Tholian, ISC (1992) (2001) (2002) (SSD Book 2010): Extra ships from previous editions.
Module R4T: The Tholian Will (2021): Extra Tholian ships.
Module R5: Battleships (1992) (1994): New heavy ships for most empires. First all-new Captain's product.
Module R6: The Fast Warships (1995) (2000): New ship types for most empires.
Module R7: Dreadnoughts at War (1999): New ship types for most empires.
Module R8: System Defense Command (2004): Old ship types upgraded to newer technology for local defense.
Module R9: The Ships That Never Were (2004): (And a few that were that shouldn't have been.)
Module R10: The New Cruisers (2003): Variants for all the New Heavy Cruisers.
Module R11: Support Ships (2007): Mostly non-front line, or 'support echelon' ships, but with a good number of combat ships as well.
Module R12: Unusual Ships (2010): Over 100 ships. The good, the bad, and the just plain weird.
Module S1: Scenario Book One (1992): Book full of scenarios, mostly adapted from earlier editions. Contains asteroid map from Module B.
Module S2: Scenario Book Two (1994): Book full of scenarios, generally all-new. Contains 'Asteroid field' map from Module B.
Module T: Tournament Battles (2000): Contains a guide to running sanctioned tournaments, which rules are used in tournaments, and SSDs for the balanced tournament cruisers.
Module TR: Tournament Reference (2001): Gives all of the empire, weapon, and technology rules needed strictly for tournament play. (Also requires Basic set.)
Module W: Space Battle Maps (2001): Large map with 1.25" hexes, and color cutouts for use as terrain.
Module X1: X-Ships (1994): Rules for late-era advanced ships.
Module X1R: X-Ship Reinforcements (2008): More X-Ships and associated support vessels.
Module Y1: The Early Years (2000): Rules for early era ships from the dawn of tactical warp drive.
Module Y2: Early Years Reinforcements (2008): Additional rules and ships from the dawn of tactical warp drive.
Module Y3: The Early Years III (2010): Still more rules and ships from the Early Years Era.
Module YG3: Early Years Annexes (2010): Annexes for the Early Years modules (Y1, Y2, and Y3).
Module Ω1: The Omega Sector (1999): First in a series detailing a separate setting for SFB.
Module Ω2: Omega Reinforcements (2000)
Module Ω3: The Omega Wars (2000)
Module Ω4: The Omega Rebellion (2002)
Module Ω5: Omega Flotillas (2008)
Omega Master Rulebook (2007): Compete, updated combined rulebook containing all the rules from Omega Modules one through four. Also included all material from Captain's Logs as well as new material including a complete and updated Sequence of Play.
Tactics Manual (1991) (2000): Discussions on how to play the game well, covering general concepts and tactics for individual empires.
Campaign Designer's Handbook: A 'how to' book for setting up a campaign system for SFB.
Master Rule Book
Recently, ADB has started releasing a set of 'Master' products. These are intended as a compilation of all the system into a single source, instead of needing to either constantly refer to different products, or tear them apart to integrate them by hand. Existing products are:
Master Rule Book (2004): Has all the rules from Basic Set, Advanced Missions, C1, C2, C3, J, J2, K, M, X, and Y1. It is the most up-to-date and comprehensive version of the rules available, but does not include ship descriptions, scenarios or annexes. Until the rest of the system is available, this is not suitable for a new player unless they have a friend who has those things available already. Replacement pages are occasionally made available, and the set is currently (April 2006) on Revision B. As this is a print on demand item, new orders are new printings with all available updates (2012).
Module G3: Master Annexes (2009): This module contains annexes with information for all Alpha-Octant empires in every product published through the end of 2008 (including Captain's Logs).
Also planned are the Master Ship Book, a compilation of all the Alpha-Octant ship listings; the Master SSD Book(s); and the Master Scenario Book. A full set of all these products should provide everything needed other than maps and counters.
List of mods
Star Fleet Battles - Captain's Edition Basic Set 5501
Star Fleet Battles - Campaign Designer's Handbook 5715
Star Fleet Battles - Advanced Missions 5502
Star Fleet Battles - Captain's Yeoman - Captains Module A+ 5625x
Star Fleet Battles - Module B: Terrain Maps TFG3031
Star Fleet Battles - Module A: Battle Cards TFG3030
Star Fleet Battles - Module C1: New Worlds 1 5601
Star Fleet Battles - Module C2: New Worlds 2 5602
Star Fleet Battles - Module C3: New Worlds 3 5603
Star Fleet Battles - Module C3A: Andromedan Threat File 5635
Star Fleet Battles - Module C4: Fleet Training Centers 5616
Star Fleet Battles - Module C5: The Magellanic Cloud 5618
Star Fleet Battles - Module C6: Lost Empires June-2013
Star Fleet Battles - Module D1: Veterans Master Ship Chart TFG3551
Star Fleet Battles - Module D2: Tournament Tactics TFG3552
Star Fleet Battles - Module D3: Booms & Saucers TFG3553
Star Fleet Battles - Module E2: The Triangulum Galaxy 7102
Star Fleet Battles - Module E3: Borak Star League 7103
Star Fleet Battles - Module E4: The Peladine 7104
Star Fleet Battles - Module F1: The Jindarians 5614
Star Fleet Battles - Module F2: The Vudar Enclave 5629
Star Fleet Battles - Module G1: Master Annex File TFG5752
Star Fleet Battles - Module G2: Master Annexes
Star Fleet Battles - Module G3: Master Annex File 5423
Star Fleet Battles - Module G3A: Supplementary Annexes 5424
Star Fleet Battles - Module H1: Megahex 4501
Star Fleet Battles - Module H2: Megahex
Star Fleet Battles - Module J: Fighters 5604
Star Fleet Battles - Module J2: Advanced Fighters 5619
Star Fleet Battles - Module K: Fast Patrol Ships 5605
Star Fleet Battles - Module M: Star Fleet Marines 5615
Star Fleet Battles - Module MO01 Captains Master Ship Chart MO01
Star Fleet Battles - Module MO02 Captains Commando Manual MO02
Star Fleet Battles - Module MO03 Captains Starship Registry MO03
Star Fleet Battles - Module Omega 1: The Omega Sector 5661
Star Fleet Battles - Module Omega 2: Omega Reinforcements 5662
Star Fleet Battles - Module Omega 3: The Omega Wars 5663
Star Fleet Battles - Module Omega 4: The Omega Rebellion 5664
Star Fleet Battles - Module Omega 5: Omega Flotillas 5665
Star Fleet Battles - Omega Sector Master Rulebook 5670
Star Fleet Battles - Module P1: Frax 3501
Star Fleet Battles - Module P2: X-Ships 3502
Star Fleet Battles - Module P3: Scenarios - 1 3503
Star Fleet Battles - Module P4: Marines! 3504
Star Fleet Battles - Module P5: Lyran Democratic Republic 3505
Star Fleet Battles - Module P6: The Galactic Smorgasbord 5751
Star Fleet Battles - Module R1: Bases & Auxiliaries 5606
Star Fleet Battles - Module R2: Reinforcements 1 5607
Star Fleet Battles - Module R3: Reinforcements 2 5608
Star Fleet Battles - Module R4: Reinforcements 3 5609
Star Fleet Battles - Module R5: Battleships 5610
Star Fleet Battles - Module R6: Fast Warships 5617
Star Fleet Battles - Module R7: Dreadnoughts at War 5621
Star Fleet Battles - Module R8: System Defense Command 5627
Star Fleet Battles - Module R9: The Ships That Never Were 5628
Star Fleet Battles - Module R10: The New Cruisers 5626
Star Fleet Battles - Module R11: Support Ships 5630
Star Fleet Battles - Module R12: Unusual Ships 5633
Star Fleet Battles - Module R107: The Nicozian Concordance 7107
Star Fleet Battles - Module S1: Scenario Book #1 5704
Star Fleet Battles - Module S2: Scenario Book #2 5707
Star Fleet Battles - Module T: Tournament War 2000 5622
Star Fleet Battles - Module TR: Tournament Reference 5624
Star Fleet Battles - Module W: Space Battle Maps 0020
Star Fleet Battles - Module X1: The X-Ships 5612
Star Fleet Battles - Module X1R: X-Ship Reinforcements 5631
Star Fleet Battles - Module Y1: The Early Years 5623
Star Fleet Battles - Module Y2: Early Years II 5632
Star Fleet Battles - Module Y3: Early Years III 5635
Star Fleet Battles - Module YG3: Early Years Annexes 5425
Star Fleet Battles - Deluxe Space Battle Maps 5310
Star Fleet Battles - Silver Anniversary Master Rulebook 5412
Star Fleet Battles - Stellar Shadow Journal #1 3601
Star Fleet Battles - Tactics Manual 5703
Star Fleet Battles - Cadet Training Manual TFG3100
Star Fleet Battles - Basic Set Map 5501-7
Star Fleet Battles - Basic Set IMP/DAC/EAF 5501-4
Star Fleet Battles - Federation Master Starship Book 5432
Star Fleet Battles - Klingon Master Starship Book 5433
Star Fleet Battles - Romulan Master Starship Book 5434
Star Fleet Battles - Kzinti Master Starship Book 5435
Star Fleet Battles - Gorn Master Starship Book 5436
Star Fleet Battles - Tholian Master Starship Book
Star Fleet Battles - Hydran Master Starship Book 5439
Star Fleet Battles - Lyran Master Starship Book 5441
Star Fleet Battles - Lyran Democratic Republic Master Starship Book 5444
Reception
In the September 1979 edition of Dragon (Issue 29), Tim Kask did not recommend it for neophytes due its complexity. "There are quite a few rules to absorb and master, but it appears that it will be worth the effort... The game holds a lot of promise."
In the November–December 1979 issue of The Space Gamer (Issue No. 25), Kenneth W. Burke wrote that the game was too complex to be playable. "I give Star Fleet Battles a 'need for improvement' rating. In their desire to make an 'accurate' Star Trek wargame, its designers inadvertently let playability fly out the window."
Two years later, in The Space Gamer No. 38, William A. Barton gave a thumbs up to the Star Fleet Battles Designer's Edition, but also cautioned that the complex game was not for the faint-hearted. "I'd have to give my whole-hearted recommendation to Star Fleet Battles. I find it a most satisfying game. I would, however, caution Trekkers who are inexperienced at simulations gaming to start with a less complex space combat game before trying SFB. But those of you who are old hands, if you haven't yet taken on the helm of the U.S.S. Enterprise or one of its sister ships, then boldly go to your local game store and pick up a copy."
In the May 1981 edition of Ares (Issue 8), Steve List recommended the game, saying, "Despite the minute details with which the player has to contend, this is neither a difficult game to learn (mastering it is another matter) or play as long as the player doesn't try to handle too many ships at once."
John Lambshead reviewed Star Fleet Battles for White Dwarf #27, giving it an overall rating of 8 out of 10, and stated that "I have no hesitation in recommending this game. The only word of warning I would give is that it may be a little complex for beginners or younger gamers (who might usefully look at TFG'''s simpler game on a similar subject Starfire)."
In the June 1996 edition of Dragon (Issue 230), Rick Swan thought the 4th edition was a worthy addition to the Star Fleet Battles line, saying that despite its complexity, it was "an experience without parallel, one that can easily become an obsession."
In his 2007 essay, Bruce Nesmith stated "No other game in hobby game history so completely captures the feel of ship-to-ship combat in space than Star Fleet Battles. The fact that it does so in the Star Fleet Universe is icing on the cake."
AwardsStar Fleet Battles was inducted into the Academy of Adventure Gaming, Arts, & Design Hall of Fame in 2005, with the citation that "Star Fleet Battles literally defined the genre of spaceship combat games in the early 1980s, and was the first game that combined a major license with 'high re-playability'."
See also
Galac-Tac Starweb''
Notes
External links
ADB's Star Fleet Universe Home Page
ADB's Star Fleet Battles Home Page
SFB online resources for playing online version
List of online SFB player resources
ADB's Discussion Board Star Fleet Battles section
Board games based on Star Trek
Board games introduced in 1979
Science fiction board wargames
Space opera board games
Starship simulators based on Star Trek
Task Force Games games | [
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222441 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mani%20Ratnam | Mani Ratnam | Gopala Ratnam Subramaniam (born 2 June 1956), known professionally as Mani Ratnam, is an Indian film director, screenwriter, and producer who predominantly works in Tamil cinema. Ratnam has won six National Film Awards, four Filmfare Awards, six Filmfare Awards South, and numerous awards at various film festivals across the world. In 2002, the Government of India honoured him with the Padma Shri, acknowledging his contributions to film.
Despite being born into a film family, Mani Ratnam did not develop any interest in films when he was young. Upon completion of his post graduation in management, he started his career as a consultant. He entered the film industry through the 1983 Kannada film Pallavi Anu Pallavi. The failure of his subsequent films would mean that he was left with fewer offers. However, his fifth directorial outing, Mouna Ragam (1986), established him as a leading filmmaker in Tamil cinema. He followed that with Nayakan (1987). Mani Ratnam is well known for his "Terrorism trilogy" consisting of Roja (1992), Bombay (1995), and Dil Se.. (1998).
He is married to actress Suhasini and has a son with her.
Early life
Mani Ratnam was born on 2 June 1956 in Madurai, Tamil Nadu as the second child of a family that was closely associated with film production. His father S. Gopala Ratnam was a film distributor who worked for Venus Pictures, and his uncle "Venus" Krishnamurthy was a film producer. His elder brother G. Venkateswaran would go on to produce some of Mani's films. His younger brother is G. Srinivasan, who like Venkateswaran would also co-produce some of his films. Mani Ratnam grew up in Madras (now Chennai), along with his siblings and cousins. Despite being a film family, the children were not allowed to watch films as the elders considered them taboo. "As a youngster, films seemed like a waste of time", he claimed in a 1994 interview; however, he started watching films more actively when he was studying in the Besant Theosophical School. During this time, he developed an admiration towards actors like Sivaji Ganesan and Nagesh; watching all their films. When he discovered the legendary director K. Balachander, he became his fan. Upon completing his schooling, he graduated with a degree in commerce from the Ramakrishna Mission Vivekananda College, affiliated to the Madras University. Later, he did his Master of Business Administration (MBA) in finance from Jamnalal Bajaj Institute of Management Studies, Bombay. After finishing his post-graduation in 1977, he was employed in a firm in Madras as a management consultant, and continued to work there for sometime.
Personal life
Ratnam married actress Suhasini on 26 August 1988. The couple have a son, Nandan, who was born in 1992. The family resides in Alwarpet, Chennai, where he runs his production company, Madras Talkies.
In 1995, Mani Ratnam was injured after homemade bombs were thrown at his home.
An FIR was filed on Mani Rathnam and 49 others in 2019 when they wrote to Modi listing statistics and expressing concern over the rise of communal violence against minorities including Muslims, Christians and Dalits since Modi's Bharatiya Janata Party (BJP) took power in 2014.
Film career
Beginnings: 1977–1983
Mani Ratnam was not satisfied with his job as a consultant as he found it to be a mere extension of his academics. During this time his friend Ravi Shankar, son of director B. R. Panthulu, was in the process of making his first film. Mani Ratnam, Ravi Shankar and another friend, Raman son of filmmaker S. Balachander, worked on the script of the film. Mani Ratnam took a sabbatical from his job in order to ensure his participation in the making of the film. Being inexperienced, the makers were largely dependent upon the American Cinematographer magazine. The principal cast included Vishnuvardhan, Srinath, Ambarish, Lakshmi, and Roja Ramani. When the filming was about to begin in Kolar, Karnataka, Mani Ratnam left his consulting job and joined the crew. The film, however, did not take off and was eventually shelved. Nevertheless, he was firm in his idea of becoming a film-maker. Although not impressed with many of the films made in Tamil cinema, he was "amazed" at Bharathiraja's 16 Vayathinile (1977), K.Balachander's Apoorva Raagangal (1975), and Mahendran's Mullum Malarum (1978) and Uthiripookkal (1979). During this time, he befriended a group of people namely P. C. Sreeram, Santhana Bharathi, and P. Vasu, who shared his interest of entering into the film industry.
With a script in hand, Mani Ratnam had an idea to either get a producer for his film or to narrate the script to a "celebrated" film-maker, so that he could get a chance to work along with them and get to know about the various aspects involved in film-making. He chose three directors—Balachander, Bharathiraja, and Mahendran. As the attempts to meet and convince all the three proved to be unsuccessful, he decided to look out for a producer. In the process, he along with P. C. Sreeram—who would collaborate with him in most of his future projects—met around 20 people; however, all the efforts turned out to be unsuccessful.
Early years and struggle: 1983–1986
Mani Ratnam developed a script—originally written in English—into a film and named it Pallavi Anu Pallavi. His uncle Krishnamurthy agreed to produce the film but imposed a condition that it should be made under a limited budget in Kannada, to which he agreed. He persuaded Balu Mahendra to do the cinematography as he found the latter's work to be very impressive. He managed to get other crew members B. Lenin (for editing), Thota Tharani (for art direction) and Ilaiyaraaja (for music composer music), all leading craftsmen in their respective fields. For the male lead, he cast Anil Kapoor after watching his performance in the Telugu film Vamsa Vruksham (1980). Lakshmi was signed up as the female lead. The film explored the relationship between a young man and an older woman. Although an average grosser at the box-office, the film fetched Mani Ratnam the Best Screenplay Award from the Karnataka State Government for the year 1983. After watching Pallavi Anu Pallavi, N. G. John offered him a chance to direct a film in Malayalam. Scripted by T. Damodaran, Unaru was about the corruption in labour unions of Kerala. The film was completed within two months and released in April 1984. Mani Ratnam attributed the failure of the film to the conflict of interests that he and the producer had. Following this, he entered Tamil cinema when G. Thyagarajan of Sathya Jyothi Films offered him a chance to direct Pagal Nilavu (1985). The film had Murali and Revathi playing lead roles. It was different from his previous two films in that it included dance sequences and a "comedy track". The same year, he directed another Tamil film Idaya Kovil, a romantic drama. He remodeled a ready made script on the lines of Charlie Chaplin's Limelight (1952). Despite being unsatisfied with the final product, the film was a major box-office success. The phase between 1983 and 1986 was the toughest of his career with only Pallavi Anupallavi feeling satisfactory; the other three completed with a lot of "compromises".
Breakthrough: 1986–1991
In 1986, Mani directed the Tamil romantic drama Mouna Ragam, which starred Revathi and Mohan. The film was critically acclaimed for portraying urban Tamils in a "realistic" manner. Specifically, it told the story of the friction between a newly-wed couple. The score by Ilaiyaraaja was appreciated and became popular upon release. Mouna Raagam was subsequently dubbed into Telugu under the same title and became a hit in Andhra Pradesh as well. The film elevated Mani's status as a director, and won the National Film Award for Best Feature Film in Tamil at the 34th National Film Awards. He won his first Filmfare Award for directing the film.
In 1987, Mani directed Nayakan starring Kamal Haasan, and the film became a huge success and brought him recognition at the national level. Inspired by the 1972 American crime film, The Godfather, the film was based on the real-life story of underworld don Varadarajan Mudaliar, and tells the story of an orphaned slum-dweller and his rise to top of the Bombay underworld hierarchy. It was included in Time magazine's All-Time 100 Greatest Movies in 2005. Satyajit Ray's The Apu Trilogy and Guru Dutt's Pyaasa are the only other Indian films that have appeared in the list. Indian critics dubbed the film as India's answer to The Godfather. Nayakan was both commercially successful and critically acclaimed winning three National Awards—Best Actor, Best Cinematography and Best Art Direction—at the 35th National Film Awards. The film was India's official entry to the Oscars for Best Foreign Language Film at the 60th Academy Awards, but was not nominated.
Following these two commercial successes, Mani wrote and directed Agni Natchathiram in 1988. The film deals with the story of step-brothers played by Prabhu and Karthik and is notable for its use of new techniques in camera framework, especially during the songs. The film had a successful run in the box office.
In 1989, Telugu actor Nagarjuna requested Mani Ratnam to direct a Telugu film with him in the lead role, which Ratnam agreed to after initial reluctance. It remains the only Telugu film directed by Ratnam. The film Geethanjali which had Nagarjuna and Girija Shettar in the lead, told the story of an ill-fated couple, both of whom are suffering from terminal diseases. Geethanjali was critically acclaimed and won the National Film Award for Best Popular Film Providing Wholesome Entertainment in 1990. In addition, it won the Best Director and Nandi Award for Best Story Writer for Mani. Mani maintained a momentum of making emotional stories of under-served people through the film Anjali in 1990, which starred Baby Shamili as the central character. The film which also had Raghuvaran and Revathy, told the story of an autistic child who changed the lives of people around her. The film proved to be a commercial success and was nominated as India's official entry to the Oscars in the Best Foreign Language Film category at the 63rd Academy Awards. Following Anjali's release, Mani later made another underworld-themed Tamil film, Thalapathi (1991), starring Rajinikanth and Mammootty. The film was loosely based on Mahabharata, dealt with the friendship between Karna and Duryodhana portrayed by Rajinikanth and Mammmooty respectively. The film met with both critical acclaim and commercial success upon release. Ilaiyaraaja's musical score and Mani's work were highly appreciated as they both went on to win the Music Director and Best Director awards respectively at the 39th Filmfare Awards.
National acclaim: 1992–99
With Thalapathy, Mani ended his long-term association with music director Ilaiyaraaja, bringing in debutant music director A. R. Rahman to score his Tamil classic Roja (1992). The venture was successful, earning Mani various awards. Roja, a romantic film, was about terrorism in the Kashmir region. Starring Arvind Swamy and Madhoo, it was nominated for the Golden St. George Award at the 18th Moscow International Film Festival. It became highly popular, gaining an iconic status in Indian cinema and was dubbed into other languages and met similar success in other regions. Mani took a more light-hearted approach with his next film—Thiruda Thiruda (1993). Scripted by Ram Gopal Varma, the film was a fun filled caper, which was a departure from Mani's previous style and fared moderately well at the box office. Thiruda Thiruda was premiered at the Toronto International Film Festival in 1994.
Mani again teamed up with Ram Gopal Varma to provide the screenplay for the latter's Telugu film Gaayam, a socio-politico film loosely based on The Godfather. In 1995, Mani returned to Tamil language drama through Bombay starring Arvind Swamy and Manisha Koirala, which told the story of a Hindu-Muslim couple in the midst of the 1993 religious Bombay riots and bombings. It was also the first Indian film to focus on marriage between Hindu and Muslim people. The film met with controversy and censorship upon release. It was subsequently dubbed into Hindi where it gained commercial success and appreciation by critics. It won a number of awards, such as Nargis Dutt Award for Best Feature Film on National Integration, Political Film Society Awards|Special Award from the Political Film Society, In the Spirit of Freedom Award at the Jerusalem International Film Festival and the Gala Award at the Edinburgh International Film Festival.
Mani produced his wife's directorial debut film, Indira, and then directed the critically successful Iruvar with Mohanlal, Aishwarya Rai, Tabu and Prakash Raj in the lead. Iruvar was awarded the Best Film at the "Festival of the Auteur Films" at the FEST film festival held in Belgrade. In 1998 came the third part of his "terrorism trilogy", named Dil Se.. and starring Shahrukh Khan and Manisha Koirala, with the latter fabricating the second collaboration. It showed the relationship between a young man and a dangerous, disturbed woman. Although they fall in love, she is unable to take the romance further due to her bleak past. The soundtrack album, again composed by A. R. Rahman, gained mass appeal and gave Rahman his next Filmfare Award for Best Music Direction in 1999. Unlike his previous two projects, Dil Se.. opened with little note among film critics and performed poorly in the domestic market, despite being a success overseas. It was screened in many international film festivals, and won the Netpac award (Ex-Aqueo) in the Berlin International Film Festival. The film over the years has achieved cult classic status.
In 2000, Mani directed the romantic drama Alaipayuthey that starred R. Madhavan and Shalini. The film focussed on marriage and explored relationships and their consequences, and garnered critical recognition. It was also screened at the Berlin International Film Festival.
Along with Vasanth, he was instrumental in organizing Netru, Indru, Naalai, a stage musical that marked the first theatre production, with numerous other artistes, to aid The Banyan, an organization that rehabilitates women and children with mental illness.
Kannathil Muthamittal and onwards: 2002–2013
Mani's next film, Kannathil Muthamittal, dealt with the story of a child of Sri Lankan Tamil parentage adopted by Indian parents, who wishes to meet her biological mother during the Sri Lankan Civil War. The film was critically acclaimed and commercially successful, winning six National Film Awards, Filmfare Award for Best Direction in Tamil, In the Spirit of Freedom Award at the Jerusalem Film Festival, and an award at the Indian Film Festival of Los Angeles. In 2004, he made Aayutha Ezhuthu, which tells the story of how one incident sends the lives of three youths on a collision course and received positive reviews. Mani made the film simultaneously in Hindi as Yuva, his second venture into Bollywood. Ajay Devgn, Abhishek Bachchan, and Vivek Oberoi replaced Surya Sivakumar, R. Madhavan, and Siddharth, respectively in the Hindi version. Unlike Yuva, Aayutha Ezhuthu was appreciated by critics. Mani suffered his first heart attack while shooting Aayutha Ezhuthu.
In 2007, Mani made Guru, a biographical film based on the life of Dhirubhai Ambani, a business magnate from India. The film starred Abhishek Bachchan and Aishwarya Rai. The film, set in the early 1950s, became a box office success and received critical acclaim. Guru was screened at the Tous Les Cinemas du Monde (World Cinema) section of the 2007 Cannes Film Festival. In 2010, Mani worked on a bilingual film, titled Raavanan in Tamil where in the film look was unveiled at 2010 Cannes Film Festival, as part of its marketing campaign. and Raavan in Hindi. The Tamil version was dubbed into Telugu and titled Villain. The film was released worldwide on 18 June 2010.
The film is loosely based on the Hindu epic Ramayana; its narrative occurs over 14 days when a revolutionist named Veera, who lives in a forest, kidnaps a policeman's wife to avenge his sister's death. The Tamil version received positive reviews from the critics compared to its other versions. The New York Times called the movie a "critics' pick". However, the reviewers of the Hindi version panned the film; Rajeev Masand said it was "a crushing bore of a film, a disappointment on virtually every count" The Tamil version was declared a box office success.
Mani's film, Kadal was released worldwide on 1 February 2013 to mixed reviews from critics and became a box office failure. Later the distributor of the film filed a police complaint against Mani on account of the huge losses suffered by him.
Comeback: 2015–present
His next film, romantic drama O Kadhal Kanmani starring Dulquer Salmaan and Nithya Menen as the lead pair, was released in April 2015. The cinematography and editing of the film was handled by P.C. Sreeram and A. Sreekar Prasad respectively, while music was scored by A. R. Rahman. The film depicted the life of a young couple in a live-in relationship in Mumbai, and was said to be a "reflection of the modern mindset of urban India", dealing with issues such as marriage and traditional values. Made at a small budget of 6 crores, the film achieved widespread critical acclaim and commercial success.
His next was Kaatru Veliyidai, starring Karthi, Aditi Rao Hydari and RJ Balaji. The film, set in 1999 during the Kargil War, followed a pilot who, during his time as a prisoner of war, reflects on his failed love life. Kaatru Veliyidai was released in April 2017 to mixed reviews and received an average box office return.
After Kattru Veliyadai, Ratnam's next film was the crime thriller Chekka Chivantha Vaanam, starring Arvind Swami, Silambarasan, Arun Vijay and Vijay Sethupathi as the lead actors, while Jyothika, Aishwarya Rajesh, Aditi Rao Hydari and Dayana Erappa, Prakash Raj, Thiagarajan, and Mansoor Ali Khan rounded out the supporting cast. The film followed three children as they battled for complete power of their crime family following their father's unexpected demise. Chekka Chivantha Vaanam opened in September 2018 to positive reviews and was a box office success. His next project is confirmed to be Ponniyin Selvan, based on the Indian epic written by Kalki Krishnamurthy. The film thus far has an ensemble cast consisting of Vikram, Karthi, Jayam Ravi, Jayaram, Aishwarya Rai, Aishwarya Lekshmi, Trisha, Lal, Ashwin Kakumanu, Prabhu, Sarathkumar, Sobhita Dhulipala, Vikram Prabhu and many more plays prominent roles. The venture is jointly produced by Mani Ratnam and Subaskaran under their banners Madras Talkies and Lyca Productions, the music is composed by A. R. Rahman, while Ravi Varman is the cinematographer and Sreekar Prasad is the editor. Ponniyin Selvan is releasing in Two-parts and the first part to be released in 2022.
Filmography
Craft, style, and technical collaborations
Mani Ratnam grew up watching the films of K. Balachander, Guru Dutt and Sivaji Ganesan. He is greatly influenced by the film-making styles of Akira Kurosawa, Martin Scorsese, Krzysztof Kieślowski, Ingmar Bergman and Mahendran.
Unlike most of his contemporaries, Mani Ratnam did not assist anybody in film-making prior to entering the industry. A majority of his films are characterized by a string of socio-political themes. Because of his idea of combining art and commercial elements, most of his films garnered both critical acclaim and commercial success. Nayakan, Bombay and Iruvar were inspired from real-life incidents, while Thalapathi and Raavan were based on Indian epics.
Mani Ratnam handled screenplays for a majority of his films. Lauded for his casting in each of his films, he claimed in an interview that "I am not a director who performs and shows. I discuss the role, the scene with my actors and let them bring life to it". Right from the beginning of his career, his works were noted for their technical expertise in areas such as cinematography, art direction, editing and background score. For his debut film, he managed to handpick Balu Mahendra, Thotta Tharani, B. Lenin, and Ilaiyaraaja, leading craftsmen in their respective fields. As his career progressed, he worked with his childhood friend P. C. Sreeram and continued his collaborations with him until Geethanjali. In 1991 for his film Thalapathi, he chose Santosh Sivan and Suresh Urs—both newcomers to the Tamil film industry—to do cinematography and editing respectively. Both would later become a part of his regular crew. While working on Raavan, Santosh Sivan noted "any cameraman can hone his skills just working with Mani" and described Mani Ratnam's films as difficult to film. From his debut project till Thalapathi, Ilaiyaraaja was his regular composer. For his next film Roja (1992), he collaborated with debutant A. R. Rahman, who has been his regular composer for all his films till date. Among cinematographers, he has also worked with Madhu Ambat, Rajiv Menon, Ravi K. Chandran, V. Manikandan and Ravi Varman while switching between Sreeram and Santosh Sivan otherwise. Since Alaipayuthey, Sreekar Prasad has been his regular film editor.
Awards and honours
Mani is well recognized outside India with a retrospective of his films held at various film festivals around the world such as Toronto International Film Festival, Busan International Film Festival, Tokyo Filmex and Birmingham International Film Festival. His films are being screened regularly at many film festivals such as Venice Film Festival, Rotterdam Film Festival, Montreal Film Festival and Palm Springs International Film Festival.
The Government of India honoured Mani with Padma Shri in 2002. He has won several National Film Awards, Filmfare Awards, Filmfare Awards South and state awards. Apart from these awards, many of his films have been screened at various film festivals and have won numerous accolades. Geethanjali, directed by him won the Golden Lotus Award for Best Popular Film at the 37th National Film Awards. Other films like Mouna Ragam, Anjali, and Kannathil Muthamittal have won the Best Regional Film awards at the National Film Awards. Two of his films, Roja and Bombay have won the Nargis Dutt Award for Best Feature Film on National Integration. The former was also nominated for Best Film category at the 18th Moscow International Film Festival. In 2010, Mani was honoured with Jaeger-Lecoultre Glory to the Filmmaker at the 67th Venice International Film Festival. In July 2015, he was honoured with the Sun Mark Lifetime Achievement Award at the Bagri Foundation London Indian Film Festival for his esteemed contribution to international cinema. Around the same time, the Museum of the Moving Image, New York City, paid a special tribute to Mani. His films Roja, Bombay, and Dil Se were screened at the museum as a retrospective.
See also
List of films directed by Mani Ratnam featuring A. R. Rahman
Mani Ratnam's Trilogy
Notes
Bibliography
Further reading
External links
Artists from Madurai
21st-century Indian film directors
1956 births
Living people
Indian atheists
University of Madras alumni
Jamnalal Bajaj Institute of Management Studies alumni
Tamil film directors
Tamil-language film directors
Tamil screenwriters
Film producers from Chennai
Film directors from Chennai
Indian male screenwriters
Hindi-language film directors
National Film Award (India) winners
Filmfare Awards winners
Recipients of the Padma Shri in arts
Tamil Nadu State Film Awards winners
Filmfare Awards South winners
Telugu screenwriters
Malayalam film directors
20th-century Indian film directors
Screenwriters from Tamil Nadu
Directors who won the Best Popular Film Providing Wholesome Entertainment National Film Award
Producers who won the Best Film on National Integration National Film Award
Directors who won the Best Film on National Integration National Film Award | [
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222445 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rob%20Lowe | Rob Lowe | Robert Hepler Lowe (; born March 17, 1964) is an American actor, producer, director, and podcaster. He made his acting debut at the age of 15 with ABC's short-lived sitcom A New Kind of Family (1979–1980). Following numerous television roles in the early 1980s, he came to prominence as a teen idol and member of the Brat Pack with roles in films like The Outsiders playing sodapop Curtis (1983), Class (1983), The Hotel New Hampshire (1984), Oxford Blues (1984), St. Elmo's Fire (1985), About Last Night... (1986), and Square Dance (1987). The success of these films established him as a Hollywood star.
By the turn of the millennium, his career saw a resurgence when he ventured back into television, making his breakthrough as Sam Seaborn on the NBC political drama The West Wing (1999–2003), for which he received nominations for a Primetime Emmy Award and two Golden Globe Awards. His other television roles include Robert McCallister on the ABC drama Brothers & Sisters (2006–2010), Chris Traeger on the NBC sitcom Parks and Recreation (2010–2014, 2015), Ethan Willis on the CBS medical drama Code Black (2016–2018), and as Captain Owen Strand on the critically praised Fox drama 9-1-1: Lone Star (2020–present). In 2018, he made his directorial debut with the television film The Bad Seed, a remake of the 1956 film of the same name.
Early life
Lowe was born in Charlottesville, Virginia, to Barbara (nee Hepler), a teacher, and Charles 'Chuck' Davis Lowe, a trial lawyer. His parents divorced when Lowe and his younger brother Chad Lowe were young. Lowe was baptized into the Episcopal church. He is of German, English, Irish, Scottish and Welsh ancestry. On the show Who Do You Think You Are?, Lowe found out that one of his ancestors, Christopher East, was a Hessian soldier. His ancestor was fighting under the command of Colonel Johann Gottlieb Rall and was captured at the American victory at Trenton, New Jersey, on the morning of December 26, 1776. As an American POW, his ancestor was given a choice, and took the option to stay in the United States.
Lowe grew up in Dayton, Ohio, in a "traditional American setting." He attended Oakwood Junior High School before moving to the Point Dume area of Malibu, California, with his mother and brother. In California, he attended Santa Monica High School, where he met Charlie Sheen. In his autobiography Stories I Only Tell My Friends, he wrote regarding Sheen, "We were both nerds [...] he wanted to be a baseball player."
Career
1970s
Lowe got his first professional acting gig in 1976 when he was 12 and still living in Dayton. He played an errand boy in a production of “Sherlock Holmes” at the Wright State University summer theater. He landed the part by calling every local theater and asking each if there was a part for a kid in a play. Wright State had one, and Lowe was paid $150 for the role. In 1979, Lowe landed the part of Tony Flanagan in the short-lived television comedy A New Kind of Family.
1980s
One of Lowe's earliest roles came in the 1983 TV film Thursday's Child, for which he received his first Golden Globe Award nomination for Best Supporting Actor in a Series, Miniseries, or Television Film. He also appeared in the music video for The Go-Go's song, "Turn to You." His breakthrough role was his big-screen debut in 1983, when he and Emilio Estevez were cast in Francis Ford Coppola's The Outsiders. Lowe played the role of Sodapop Curtis, the brother of the main characters Ponyboy Curtis (C. Thomas Howell) and Darrel Curtis (Patrick Swayze). In 1984, he starred opposite Jodie Foster in Tony Richardson's The Hotel New Hampshire. Lowe and Estevez reunited in St. Elmo's Fire, making them the two more prominent actors from the group known as the Brat Pack. About Last Night... followed, with Demi Moore (who had starred alongside Lowe in St. Elmo's Fire). He then received his second Golden Globe Award nomination for Best Supporting Actor for his role as the mentally disabled Rory in Square Dance (1987). In August 1987 he performed on stage, playing Baron Tusenbach in Chekov's The Three Sisters at The Williamstown Theatre Festival. He recalled meeting Paul Newman there, and that the older actor encouraged him to work in the theatre in 1993 when filming a British TV production of the Tennessee Williams play Suddenly, Last Summer with (the now) Dame Maggie Smith and Natasha Richardson.
1990s
Lowe had appeared in 1994's The Stand, based on Stephen King's book of the same name.
He played Sam Seaborn in the television series The West Wing from 1999 to 2003 (and briefly in 2006). His performance in the show garnered Lowe a Primetime Emmy Award nomination and two Golden Globe Award nominations for Best Actor in a Drama Series. Lowe was drawn to the role because of his personal love of politics, and his longstanding friendship with Martin Sheen, who was cast as President Josiah Bartlet.
When the show premiered, Lowe was considered the lead, and the pilot centered on his character. But as the cast of the show—including Allison Janney, Richard Schiff, Janel Moloney, Dulé Hill, John Spencer, Bradley Whitford, Martin Sheen (who was initially scripted as a small role) and Stockard Channing (whose First Lady was initially scripted as a guest role)— were all well-known actors, eventually Lowe's character was no longer the show's main focus. Lowe and series creator Aaron Sorkin soon found themselves at odds over the network's meddling with the show, most notably the network demanding changes in Lowe's character. Eventually, Lowe left the series, not long before Sorkin and director/executive producer Thomas Schlamme unceremoniously quit over a dispute with NBC.
During the final season of The West Wing, Lowe returned to his role of Sam Seaborn, appearing in two of the final four episodes. In 2011, Lowe stated on The Oprah Winfrey Show that he left the show because he did not feel he was being respected, when the other lead characters received a raise and he did not.
2000s
After leaving The West Wing, Lowe was the star and executive producer of a failed NBC drama, The Lyon's Den (2003). In 2004, he tried again in a series entitled Dr. Vegas, but it also was quickly canceled.
Lowe passed on the role of Derek Shepherd of Grey's Anatomy, which eventually went to Patrick Dempsey.
Despite his two canceled TV series and flops like View From the Top and the made-for-TV movie Perfect Strangers during his post–West Wing run, Lowe found success in the TV miniseries genre. In 2004 Lowe starred in the TNT remake of the Stephen King miniseries Salem's Lot, which was the highest-rated cable program of that summer and the highest ratings TNT original programming had at the time.
In 2005, he starred as Lieutenant Daniel Kaffee in Sorkin's London West End production of A Few Good Men, the first time the two had worked together since The West Wing. Although Lowe had expressed unhappiness about his decreased role on that show at the time of his departure, he has now repeatedly said that any animosity between them is over and that he was pleased to be working once more with Sorkin.
That same year, Lowe starred in the miniseries Beach Girls on the Lifetime network, based on the Luanne Rice novel of the same name. The series premiere received the highest ratings for a movie premiere in Lifetime history. Later, Lowe filmed his supporting role as a movie agent in the 2006 independent film Thank You for Smoking.
In 2006 he filmed The Perfect Day for TNT, in which he took a pay cut to film in New Orleans in order to help the Hurricane Katrina-ravaged area. That same year, Lowe filmed Stir of Echoes: The Homecoming, the sequel to the 1999 Kevin Bacon thriller Stir of Echoes.
In 2006, it was announced that Lowe would join the cast of Brothers & Sisters for a guest run of several episodes. In January 2007, ABC announced that Lowe would be staying on Brothers and Sisters as a "special guest star" for the rest of Season 1 after Lowe's initial appearance on the show in November 2006 brought the best ratings and demographic showing for the show since its premiere. Soon after ABC announced an early Season 2 renewal for Brother & Sisters in March 2007, Lowe announced he would be returning for the show's second season. He continued to appear in the series until the end of the 2009–10 season. Then, Lowe announced he would leave, unhappy with the stories and his lack of screen time in the fourth season. In an episode broadcast on May 16, 2010, his character was part of a multi-vehicle crash involving a large truck and was put into a coma. The storyline was wrapped up in the first episode of the fifth season; Lowe did not appear in the episode.
In June 2006, he was the guest host for an episode in the third series of The Friday Night Project for the United Kingdom's Channel 4. Lowe has also appeared in a televised advertisement for 'Visit California' and other celebrities, including Governor Arnold Schwarzenegger. (In the advertisement campaign, he was usually pictured in a white tee-shirt printed with the California state flag.)
Lowe had a supporting role in the 2009 movie The Invention of Lying and a leading role in Too Late to Say Goodbye.
2010s
In 2010, he appeared in the biography of the Brat Packers called: Brat Pack: Where Are They Now? He also appeared on The Tonight Show with Conan O'Brien. Lowe is currently teaming up with 44 Blue to produce a reality series entitled Potomac Fever about young adults living in Washington, D.C.
In July 2010, it was announced that Lowe would be providing the voice for the superhero Captain Marvel in the animated series, Young Justice. It was also announced in July 2010 that Lowe would become a series regular on the series Parks and Recreation. He portrayed Chris Traeger, the relentlessly upbeat city manager of the fictional town of Pawnee, Indiana, for four seasons, before his character was written out of the show in 2014. He was so pleased with the show and his guest appearances on season 2 that he agreed to become a full-fledged cast member from there on out. He reprised the role in the 2015 series finale, “One Last Ride”, and in the 2020 special episode “A Parks and Recreation Special”.
In 2011, Lowe guest starred in a recurring role on Showtime's comedy Californication. Lowe featured as the troubled but in-demand actor Eddie Nero – a character based upon "about ten people", according to Lowe but somewhat contradicted by sources at Showtime itself – employed to portray Hank in a film version of his book, Fucking and Punching.
In 2011, Lowe wrote a memoir titled Stories I Only Tell My Friends, which was released in May 2011. During his promotional tour for Stories I Only Tell My Friends, Lowe told Australian radio show The Kyle & Jackie O Show that during his five-day press visit to Australia in 1990, he was so badly affected by the overuse of painkillers that the only two things he remembers from the trip were being at the Sydney Zoo and getting a tattoo, although he states in his book that he does not remember getting the tattoo. In 2014, Lowe wrote a second book titled Love Life, which was released in April that year. He uses stories and observations from his life in a poignant and humorous series of true tales about men and women, art and commerce, fathers and sons, addiction and recovery, and sex and love.
In 2014, Lowe starred in a pilot for the single-camera comedy The Pro as Ben Bertrahm, a former professional tennis player. The pilot was not picked up for series. He also narrated The '90s: The Last Great Decade? on the National Geographic Channel, which aired in July of that year. In 2015, Lowe starred in the satirical thriller Pocket Listing
Lowe has been a commercial spokesman for DirecTV since fall 2014. Commercials featuring Lowe contrast him with some alternate, less appealing form of Lowe, who instead has cable. The advertisements were pulled in April 2015 after the National Advertising Division, acting on a complaint by Comcast, found DirecTV's claims about its customer satisfaction, quality, and ranking to be less than truthful.
In February 2015, Fox announced they had greenlit a pilot for the comedy The Grinder starring Lowe and Fred Savage, and directed by Jake Kasdan. The series, in which Lowe starred as a washed-up actor starting a new career as a lawyer, was cancelled after one season.
In November 2015, Lowe voiced Simba in the television pilot movie The Lion Guard: Return of the Roar. Lowe continued to voice Simba for its subsequent series The Lion Guard.
In December 2015, Lowe was honored with a star on the Hollywood Walk of Fame. His star is located in front of the Musso, and Frank Grill on Hollywood Boulevard.
In 2015, Lowe launched Profile™, a men's skincare product line. The line features a collection of five antiaging products specially formulated for men. It is currently sold at Nordstrom stores and online. The product collection includes a cleanser, a shave gel, an aftershave serum, a moisturizer, and an eye serum in the price range of $24.50 to $59.50. In 2016, Lowe launched a fragrance product line called 18 Amber Wood with the Profile™ brand.
On August 27, 2016, a Comedy Central Roast TV special was recorded and aired on September 5, 2016, with Rob Lowe as the Roastee and David Spade as Roast Master. Amongst the Roasters were Jewel, Nikki Glaser, Ralph Macchio, Pete Davidson, Peyton Manning, Rob Riggle, Jimmy Carr, Ann Coulter and the "Roast Master General" Jeff Ross.
On April 21, 2017, KFC released a campaign featuring Lowe as astronaut Colonel Sanders giving a JFK speech spoof/homage about launching the Zinger chicken sandwich into space. Lowe said in a statement that when he was a child, his grandfather took him to meet Harland Sanders.
In late autumn 2017, Lowe began a reality series with his two sons, 24-year-old Matthew and 22-year-old Jon Owen, on A&E titled The Lowe Files. With the exception of the hour-long pilot, the series features 30-minute road trips with the Lowe boys, and occasional TV guest stars known in the field, investigating common urban myths and legends that Rob has loved since he was a young boy and has shared with his boys throughout their growth. Some of the topics being explored are Bigfoot/Sasquatch, the alleged unidentified "submerged" objects that may have a base off the coast from Los Angeles, alien abduction, and ghosts and their direct responses to stimuli. The series debuted on August 2, 2017.
On January 3, 2018, Atkins Nutritionals announced Lowe as a new brand spokesperson. Due to his "low carb lifestyle", Lowe was selected for a series of multimedia ads that were still airing throughout 2019.
In October 2018, it was announced that Lowe would star in an ITV series, Wild Bill, about an American policeman who moves to Boston, Lincolnshire with his daughter. While the show was cancelled by ITV after one season, there were hopes it would be picked up by Netflix or Hulu at a future date.
On March 19, 2019, Lowe began hosting the Fox competition series Mental Samurai where he also serves as a producer.
2020s
Lowe began hosting a podcast called Literally! With Rob Lowe on the summer of 2020. Guests included Chris Pratt and Conan O'Brien. In September 2021 Lowe launched a second podcast, a Parks and Recreation recap show called Parks and Recollection, alongside Parks and Rec writer and producer Alan Yang.
On May 12, 2019, it was announced that a spin-off the 9-1-1 series titled 9-1-1: Lone Star was ordered to series with Lowe in the starring role of Owen Strand. The series premiered on January 19, 2020, to generally favorable reviews and was renewed for a second season which premiered on January 18, 2021.
On August 6, 2021, Deadline revealed that Lowe will star and executive produce the Netflix movie Dog Gone.
Personal life
Family and relationships
Lowe has been married to makeup artist Sheryl Berkoff since 1991. They met on a blind date in 1983, and again on the set of Lowe's movie Bad Influence. The couple have two sons: Matthew Edward Lowe (b. 1993) and John Owen Lowe (b. 1995).
Sex tape
In 1988, Lowe, who was 24 years old at the time, was involved in a sex scandal over a videotape of him having sex with a 16-year-old girl that he had met in a nightclub. They were videotaped the night before the Democratic National Convention in Atlanta, Georgia. As the age of consent in Georgia was 14 at the time (until 1995 when it was raised to 16), both were of legal age to engage in sexual activity, although 18 was the legal age to be involved in such a recording. At the time, Lowe was campaigning for Michael Dukakis. Eventually, his career rebounded and Lowe mocked his own behavior during two post-scandal appearances as host of Saturday Night Live.
Sobriety
Lowe began drinking heavily as a teenager. His early fame allowed him to lead a hard-partying lifestyle that was covered extensively in the tabloids. In 1990, two years following the sex tape scandal, Lowe decided to quit drinking and completed an extensive alcohol rehabilitation program. He has maintained sobriety ever since, saying it was the best decision of his life.
Nanny lawsuit cases
In April 2008, Lowe filed separate lawsuits against three former employees, accusing them of breach of contract, defamation, and intentional infliction of emotional distress. Lowe accused an ex‑nanny of engaging in a scheme to hurt him and his wife by spreading "malicious lies". Another former nanny was accused of falsely claiming to have had a personal and intimate relationship with Lowe, and also repeatedly expressing romantic interest in Lowe, claiming Lowe sexually harassed her and that Sheryl Lowe was an abusive employer. Lowe also claimed a former chef engaged in sex on their bed when the family was out of town, stole prescription drugs from the Lowes, broke several security cameras, overcharged them for food, and allegedly made statements to various people that Sheryl was heartless, cold and unclean.
Jessica Gibson, Lowe's 24-year-old former nanny, made 12 allegations against Lowe involving sexual harassment claims and labor-code violations. On June 19, 2008, Santa Barbara, California, Superior Court Judge Denise de Bellefeuille dismissed two allegations regarding labor-code violations due to lack of legal basis. The legal battle ended in May 2009. The press reported that court records showed that lawsuits filed by both nannies and Lowe were dismissed in Santa Barbara. Attorneys for both women and Lowe sought the dismissals.
Philanthropy
Lowe was the first male spokesman for the 2000 Lee National Denim Day fundraiser, which raises money for breast cancer research and education. His grandmother and great-grandmother both suffered from breast cancer, and his mother died of the disease in late 2003.
Lowe is a founder of the Homeowner's Defense Fund, a Santa Barbara County non-profit, non-partisan organization dedicated to local control of land-use planning and transparency in government. The average price of tract homes in Santa Barbara in early 2006 was US$1,100,000, which motivated some to propose denser housing on existing lots. While in favor of increasing housing density, Lowe sought to build a mansion for himself on an empty lot in Montecito, California. His protest over the appearance of the address of the empty lot in the Santa Barbara News-Press precipitated a mass resignation of senior employees at that newspaper on July 6, 2006.
Filmography
Film
Television films
Television series
Music videos
Video games
Awards and nominations
In December 2017, Lowe was chosen to receive the Horatio Alger Award for 2018. The Horatio Alger Association of Distinguished Americans recognizes people who have overcome personal challenges to achieve personal and professional success.
References
External links
1964 births
20th-century American male actors
21st-century American male actors
American people of English descent
American people of German descent
American people of Irish descent
American people of Scottish descent
American people of Welsh descent
American Episcopalians
American male film actors
People from Charlottesville, Virginia
Male actors from Virginia
Male actors from Dayton, Ohio
People from Malibu, California
Male actors from Santa Monica, California
21st-century American memoirists
American male stage actors
American male television actors
American male voice actors
American men podcasters
American podcasters
Living people
Writers from Virginia
Writers from Dayton, Ohio
Golden Raspberry Award winners
20th-century American Episcopalians | [
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222448 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Six%20Sigma | Six Sigma | Six Sigma (6σ) is a set of techniques and tools for process improvement. It was introduced by American engineer Bill Smith while working at Motorola in 1986. A six sigma process is one in which 99.99966% of all opportunities to produce some feature of a part are statistically expected to be free of defects.
Six Sigma strategies seek to improve manufacturing quality by identifying and removing the causes of defects and minimizing variability in manufacturing and business processes. This is done by using empirical and statistical quality management methods and by hiring people who serve as Six Sigma experts. Each Six Sigma project follows a defined methodology and has specific value targets, such as reducing pollution or increasing customer satisfaction.
The term Six Sigma originates from statistical modeling of manufacturing processes. The maturity of a manufacturing process can be described by a sigma rating indicating its yield or the percentage of defect-free products it creates—specifically, to within how many standard deviations of a normal distribution the fraction of defect-free outcomes corresponds.
History
Motorola pioneered Six Sigma, setting a "six sigma" goal for its manufacturing business. It registered Six Sigma as a service mark on June 11, 1991 ; on December 28, 1993, it registered Six Sigma as a trademark. In 2005 Motorola attributed over $17 billion in savings to Six Sigma.
Honeywell and General Electric were also early adopters of Six Sigma. As GE's CEO, in 1995 Jack Welch made it central to his business strategy, and in 1998 it announced $350 million in cost savings thanks to Six Sigma, which was an important factor in the spread of Six Sigma (this figure later grew to more than $1 billion). By the late 1990s, about two-thirds of the Fortune 500 organizations had begun Six Sigma initiatives with the aim of reducing costs and improving quality.
In , some practitioners have combined Six Sigma ideas with lean manufacturing to create a methodology named Lean Six Sigma. The Lean Six Sigma methodology views lean manufacturing, which addresses process flow and waste issues, and Six Sigma, with its focus on variation and design, as complementary disciplines aimed at promoting "business and operational excellence".
In 2011, the International Organization for Standardization (ISO) has published the first standard "ISO 13053:2011" defining a Six Sigma process. Other standards have been created mostly by universities or companies with Six Sigma first-party certification programs.
Etymology
The term Six Sigma comes from statistics, specifically from the field of statistical quality control, which evaluates process capability. Originally, it referred to the ability of manufacturing processes to produce a very high proportion of output within specification. Processes that operate with "six sigma quality" over the short term are assumed to produce long-term defect levels below 3.4 defects per million opportunities (DPMO). The 3.4 dpmo is based on a "shift" of ± 1.5 sigma explained by Mikel Harry. This figure is based on the tolerance in the height of a stack of discs.
Specifically, say that there are six standard deviations—represented by the Greek letter σ (sigma)—between the mean—represented by μ (mu)—and the nearest specification limit. As process standard deviation goes up, or the mean of the process moves away from the center of the tolerance, fewer standard deviations will fit between the mean and the nearest specification limit, decreasing the sigma number and increasing the likelihood of items outside specification. According to a calculation method employed in process capability studies, this means that practically no items will fail to meet specifications.
One should also note that the calculation of Sigma levels for a process data is independent of the data being normally distributed. In one of the criticisms of Six Sigma, practitioners using this approach spend a lot of time transforming data from non-normal to normal using transformation techniques. It must be said that Sigma levels can be determined for process data that has evidence of non-normality.
Doctrine
Six Sigma asserts that:
Continuous efforts to achieve stable and predictable process results (e.g., by reducing process variation) are of vital importance to business success.
Manufacturing and business processes have characteristics that can be defined, measured, analyzed, improved, and controlled.
Achieving sustained quality improvement requires commitment from the entire organization, particularly from top-level management.
Features that set Six Sigma apart from previous quality-improvement initiatives include:
Focus on achieving measurable and quantifiable financial returns
Emphasis on management leadership and support
Commitment to making decisions on the basis of verifiable data and statistical methods rather than assumptions and guesswork
In fact, lean management and Six Sigma share similar methodologies and tools, including the fact that both were influenced by Japanese business culture. However, lean management primarily focuses on eliminating waste through tools that target organizational efficiencies while integrating a performance improvement system, while Six Sigma focuses on eliminating defects and reducing variation. Both systems are driven by data, though Six Sigma is much more dependent on accurate data.
Six Sigma's implicit goal is to improve all processes but not necessarily to the 3.4 DPMO level. Organizations need to determine an appropriate sigma level for each of their most important processes and strive to achieve these. As a result of this goal, it is incumbent on management of the organization to prioritize areas of improvement.
Methodologies
Six Sigma projects follow two project methodologies, inspired by W. Edwards Deming's Plan–Do–Study–Act Cycle, each with five phases.
DMAIC ("duh-may-ick", ) is used for projects aimed at improving an existing business process
DMADV ("duh-mad-vee", ) is used for projects aimed at creating new product or process designs
DMAIC
The DMAIC project methodology has five phases:
Define the system, the voice of the customer and their requirements, and the project goals, specifically.
Measure key aspects of the current process and collect relevant data; calculate the "as-is" process capability
Analyze the data to investigate and verify cause and effect. Determine what the relationships are, and attempt to ensure that all factors have been considered. Seek out the root cause of the defect under investigation.
Improve or optimize the current process based upon data analysis using techniques such as design of experiments, poka yoke or mistake proofing, and standard work to create a new, future state process. Set up pilot runs to establish process capability.
Control the future state process to ensure that any deviations from the target are corrected before they result in defects. Implement control systems such as statistical process control, production boards, visual workplaces, and continuously monitor the process. This process is repeated until the desired quality level is obtained.
Some organizations add a Recognize step at the beginning, which is to recognize the right problem to work on, thus yielding an RDMAIC methodology.
DMADV
Also known as DFSS ("Design For Six Sigma"), the DMADV methodology's five phases are:
Define design goals that are consistent with customer demands and the enterprise strategy.
Measure and identify CTQs (characteristics that are Critical To Quality), measure product capabilities, production process capability, and measure risks.
Analyze to develop and design alternatives
Design an improved alternative, best suited per analysis in the previous step
Verify the design, set up pilot runs, implement the production process and hand it over to the process owner(s).
Professionalization
One key innovation of Six Sigma involves professionalizing quality management. Prior to Six Sigma, quality management was largely relegated to the production floor and to statisticians in a separate quality department. Formal Six Sigma programs adopt an elite ranking terminology similar to martial arts systems like judo to define a hierarchy (and career path) that spans business functions and levels.
Six Sigma identifies several roles for successful implementation:
Executive Leadership includes the CEO and other members of top management. They are responsible for setting up a vision for Six Sigma implementation. They also empower other stakeholders with the freedom and resources to transcend departmental barriers and overcome resistance to change.
Champions take responsibility for Six Sigma implementation across the organization. The Executive Leadership draws them from upper management. Champions also act as mentors to Black Belts.
Master Black Belts, identified by Champions, act as in-house coaches on Six Sigma. They devote all of their time to Six Sigma, assisting Champions and guiding Black Belts and Green Belts. In addition to statistical tasks, they ensure that Six Sigma is applied consistently across departments and job functions.
Black Belts operate under Master Black Belts to apply Six Sigma to specific projects. They also devote all of their time to Six Sigma. They primarily focus on Six Sigma project execution and special leadership with special tasks, whereas Champions and Master Black Belts focus on identifying projects/functions for Six Sigma.
Green Belts are the employees who take up Six Sigma implementation along with their other job responsibilities, operating under the guidance of Black Belts.
According to proponents, special training is needed for all of these practitioners to ensure that they follow the methodology and use the data-driven approach correctly.
Some organizations use additional belt colors, such as "yellow belts", for employees that have basic training in Six Sigma tools and generally participate in projects, and "white belts" for those locally trained in the concepts but do not participate in the project team. "Orange belts" are also mentioned to be used for special cases.
Certification
General Electric and Motorola developed certification programs as part of their Six Sigma implementation. Following this approach, many organizations in the 1990s started offering Six Sigma certifications to their employees. In 2008 Motorola University later co-developed with Vative and the Lean Six Sigma Society of Professionals a set of comparable certification standards for Lean Certification. Criteria for Green Belt and Black Belt certification vary; some companies simply require participation in a course and a Six Sigma project. There is no standard certification body, and different certifications are offered by various quality associations for a fee. The American Society for Quality, for example, requires Black Belt applicants to pass a written exam and to provide a signed affidavit stating that they have completed two projects or one project combined with three years' practical experience in the body of knowledge.
Tools and methods
Within the individual phases of a DMAIC or DMADV project, Six Sigma uses many established quality-management tools that are also used outside Six Sigma. The following table shows an overview of the main methods used.
Software
Role of the 1.5 sigma shift
Experience has shown that processes usually do not perform as well in the long term as they do in the short term. As a result, the number of sigmas that will fit between the process mean and the nearest specification limit may well drop over time, compared to an initial short-term study. To account for this real-life increase in process variation over time, an empirically based 1.5 sigma shift is introduced into the calculation. Mikel Harry, the creator of Six Sigma, based the 1.5 sigma shift on the height of a stack of discs. He called this "Benderizing". He claimed that based on his stack, all processes shift 1.5 sigma every 50 samples. According to this idea, a process that fits 6 sigma between the process mean and the nearest specification limit in a short-term study will in the long term fit only 4.5 sigma – either because the process mean will move over time, or because the long-term standard deviation of the process will be greater than that observed in the short term, or both.
Hence the widely accepted definition of a six sigma process is a process that produces 3.4 defective parts per million opportunities (DPMO). This is based on the fact that a process that is normally distributed will have 3.4 parts per million outside the limits, when the limits are six sigma from the "original" mean of zero and the process mean is then shifted by 1.5 sigma (and therefore, the six sigma limits are no longer symmetrical about the mean). The former six sigma distribution, when under the effect of the 1.5 sigma shift, is commonly referred to as a 4.5 sigma process. The failure rate of a six sigma distribution with the mean shifted 1.5 sigma is not equivalent to the failure rate of a 4.5 sigma process with the mean-centered on zero. This allows for the fact that special causes may result in a deterioration in process performance over time and is designed to prevent underestimation of the defect levels likely to be encountered in real-life operation.
The role of the sigma shift is mainly academic. The purpose of six sigma is to generate organizational performance improvement. It is up to the organization to determine, based on customer expectations, what the appropriate sigma level of a process is. The purpose of the sigma value is as a comparative figure to determine whether a process is improving, deteriorating, stagnant or non-competitive with others in the same business. Six Sigma (3.4 DPMO) is not the goal of all processes.
Sigma levels
The table below gives long-term DPMO values corresponding to various short-term sigma levels.
These figures assume that the process mean will shift by 1.5 sigma toward the side with the critical specification limit. In other words, they assume that after the initial study determining the short-term sigma level, the long-term Cpk value will turn out to be 0.5 less than the short-term Cpk value. So, now for example, the DPMO figure given for 1 sigma assumes that the long-term process mean will be 0.5 sigma beyond the specification limit (Cpk = –0.17), rather than 1 sigma within it, as it was in the short-term study (Cpk = 0.33). Note that the defect percentages indicate only defects exceeding the specification limit to which the process mean is nearest. Defects beyond the far specification limit are not included in the percentages.
The formula used here to calculate the DPMO is thus
Six Sigma in practice
Six Sigma mostly finds application in large organizations. According to industry consultants like Thomas Pyzdek and John Kullmann, companies with fewer than 500 employees are less suited to Six Sigma or need to adapt the standard approach to making it work for them. Six Sigma, however, contains a large number of tools and techniques that work well in small to mid-size organizations. The fact that an organization is not big enough to be able to afford black belts does not diminish its ability to make improvements using this set of tools and techniques. The infrastructure described as necessary to support Six Sigma is a result of the size of the organization rather than a requirement of Six Sigma itself.
Manufacturing
After its first application at Motorola in the late 1980s, other internationally recognized firms currently recorded high number of savings after applying Six Sigma. Examples include Johnson & Johnson, with $600 million of reported savings, Texas Instruments, which saved over $500 million as well as Telefónica, which reported €30 million in savings in the first 10 months; Sony and Boeing also reported successfully reducing waste.
Engineering and construction
Although companies have considered common quality control and process improvement strategies, there's still a need for more reasonable and effective methods as all the desired standards and client satisfaction have not always been reached. There is still a need for an essential analysis that can control the factors affecting concrete cracks and slippage between concrete and steel. After conducting a case study on Tinjin Xianyi Construction Technology, it was found that construction time and construction waste were reduced by 26.2% and 67% accordingly after adopting Six Sigma. Similarly, Six Sigma implementation was studied at one of the largest engineering and construction companies in the world: Bechtel Corporation, where after an initial investment of $30 million in a Six Sigma program that included identifying and preventing rework and defects, over $200 million were saved.
Finance
Six Sigma has played an important role by improving the accuracy of allocation of cash to reduce bank charges, automatic payments, improving the accuracy of reporting, reducing documentary credit defects, reducing check collection defects, and reducing variation in collector performance.
For example, Bank of America announced in 2004 that Six Sigma had helped it increase customer satisfaction by 10.4% and decrease customer issues by 24%; similarly, American Express eliminated non-received renewal credit cards. Other financial institutions that have adopted Six Sigma include GE Capital and JPMorgan Chase, where customer satisfaction was the main objective.
Supply chain
In the supply-chain field, it is important to ensure that products are delivered to clients at the right time while preserving high-quality standards. By changing the schematic diagram for the supply chain, Six Sigma can ensure quality control on products (defect-free) and guarantee delivery deadlines, the two main issues in the supply chain.
Healthcare
This is a sector that has been highly matched with this doctrine for many years because of the nature of zero tolerance for mistakes and potential for reducing medical errors involved in healthcare. The goal of Six Sigma in healthcare is broad and includes reducing the inventory of equipment that brings extra costs, altering the process of healthcare delivery in order to make it more efficient and refining reimbursements. A study at the MD Anderson Cancer Center, which recorded an increase in examinations with no additional machines of 45% and a reduction in patients' preparation time of 40 minutes; from 45 minutes to 5 minutes in multiple cases.
Lean Six Sigma was adopted in 2003 at Stanford hospitals and was introduced at Red Cross hospitals in 2002.
Criticism
While there are many advocates for a Six Sigma approach for the reasons stated above, not all projects are successful: in 2010, the Wall Street Journal reported that more than 60% of projects fail. A review of academic literature found 34 common failure factors in 56 papers on Lean, Six Sigma, and LSS from 1995-2013. Among them are (summarized):
Lack of top management attitude, commitment, and involvement; lack of leadership and vision
Lack of training and education; lack of resources (financial, technical, human, etc.)
Poor project selection and prioritization; weak link to strategic objectives of the organization
Resistance to culture change; Poor communication; Lack of consideration of the human factors
Lack of awareness of the benefits of Lean/Six Sigma; Lack of technical understanding of tools, techniques, and practices
Others have provided other criticisms.
Lack of originality
Quality expert Joseph M. Juran described Six Sigma as "a basic version of quality improvement", stating that "there is nothing new there. It includes what we used to call facilitators. They've adopted more flamboyant terms, like belts with different colors. I think that concept has merit to set apart, to create specialists who can be very helpful. Again, that's not a new idea. The American Society for Quality long ago established certificates, such as for reliability engineers."
Inadequate for complex manufacturing
Quality expert Philip B. Crosby pointed out that the Six Sigma standard does not go far enough—customers deserve defect-free products every time. For example, under the Six Sigma standard, semiconductors, which require the flawless etching of millions of tiny circuits onto a single chip are all defective.
Role of consultants
The use of "Black Belts" as itinerant change agents has fostered an industry of training and certification. Critics have argued there is overselling of Six Sigma by too great a number of consulting firms, many of which claim expertise in Six Sigma when they have only a rudimentary understanding of the tools and techniques involved or the markets or industries in which they are acting.
Potential negative effects
A Fortune article stated that "of 58 large companies that have announced Six Sigma programs, 91% have trailed the S&P 500 since". The statement was attributed to "an analysis by Charles Holland of consulting firm Qualpro (which espouses a competing quality-improvement process)". The summary of the article is that Six Sigma is effective at what it is intended to do, but that it is "narrowly designed to fix an existing process" and does not help in "coming up with new products or disruptive technologies."
Over-reliance on statistics
More direct criticism is the "rigid" nature of Six Sigma with its over-reliance on methods and tools. In most cases, more attention is paid to reducing variation and searching for any significant factors, and less attention is paid to developing robustness in the first place (which can altogether eliminate the need for reducing variation). The extensive reliance on significance testing and use of multiple regression techniques increase the risk of making commonly unknown types of statistical errors or mistakes. A possible consequence of Six Sigma's array of p-value misconceptions is the false belief that the probability of a conclusion being in error can be calculated from the data in a single experiment without reference to external evidence or the plausibility of the underlying mechanism. One of the most serious but all-too-common misuses of inferential statistics is to take a model that was developed through exploratory model building and subject it to the same sorts of statistical tests that are used to validate a model that was specified in advance.
Another comment refers to the oft-mentioned Transfer Function, which seems to be a flawed theory if looked at in detail. Since significance tests were first popularized many objections have been voiced by prominent and respected statisticians. The volume of criticism and rebuttal has filled books with language seldom used in the scholarly debate of a dry subject. Much of the first criticism was already published more than 40 years ago (see ).
In a 2006 issue USA Army Logistician an article critical of Six Sigma noted: "The dangers of a single paradigmatic orientation (in this case, that of technical rationality) can blind us to values associated with double-loop learning and the learning organization, organization adaptability, workforce creativity and development, humanizing the workplace, cultural awareness, and strategy making."
Nassim Nicholas Taleb considers risk managers little more than "blind users" of statistical tools and methods. He states that statistics is fundamentally incomplete as a field as it cannot predict the risk of rare events—something Six Sigma is especially concerned with. Furthermore, errors in prediction are likely to occur as a result of ignorance of or distinction between epistemic and other uncertainties. These errors are the biggest in time variant (reliability) related failures.
1.5 sigma shift
The statistician Donald J. Wheeler has dismissed the 1.5 sigma shift as "goofy" because of its arbitrary nature. Its universal applicability is seen as doubtful.
The 1.5 sigma shift has also become contentious because it results in stated "sigma levels" that reflect short-term rather than long-term performance: a process that has long-term defect levels corresponding to 4.5 sigma performance is, by Six Sigma convention, described as a "six sigma process". The accepted Six Sigma scoring system thus cannot be equated to actual normal distribution probabilities for the stated number of standard deviations, and this has been a key bone of contention over how Six Sigma measures are defined. The fact that it is rarely explained that a "6 sigma" process will have long-term defect rates corresponding to 4.5 sigma performance rather than actual 6 sigma performance has led several commentators to express the opinion that Six Sigma is a confidence trick.
Stifling creativity in research
According to John Dodge, editor in chief of Design News, the use of Six Sigma is inappropriate in a research environment. Dodge states "excessive metrics, steps, measurements and Six Sigma's intense focus on reducing variability water down the discovery process. Under Six Sigma, the free-wheeling nature of brainstorming and the serendipitous side of discovery is stifled." He concludes "there's general agreement that freedom in basic or pure research is preferable while Six Sigma works best in incremental innovation when there's an expressed commercial goal."
A BusinessWeek article says that James McNerney's introduction of Six Sigma at 3M had the effect of stifling creativity and reports its removal from the research function. It cites two Wharton School professors who say that Six Sigma leads to incremental innovation at the expense of blue skies research. This phenomenon is further explored in the book Going Lean, which describes a related approach known as lean dynamics and provides data to show that Ford's 6 Sigma program did little to change its fortunes.
Lack of documentation
One criticism voiced by Yasar Jarrar and Andy Neely from the Cranfield School of Management's Centre for Business Performance is that while Six Sigma is a powerful approach, it can also unduly dominate an organization's culture; and they add that much of the Six Sigma literature – in a remarkable way (six-sigma claims to be evidence, scientifically based) – lacks academic rigor:
See also
– a philosophical focus on continuous improvement of processes
References
Further reading
Hahn, G. J., Hill, W. J., Hoerl, R. W. and Zinkgraf, S. A. (1999) The Impact of Six Sigma Improvement-A Glimpse into the Future of Statistics, The American Statistician, Vol. 53, No. 3, pp. 208–215.
1986 introductions
Business terms
Quality control tools | [
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222452 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kaiserslautern%20%28district%29 | Kaiserslautern (district) | Kaiserslautern is a district (Kreis) in the south of Rhineland-Palatinate, Germany. Neighboring districts are (from west clockwise) Kusel, Saarpfalz-Kreis, Donnersbergkreis, Bad Dürkheim and Südwestpfalz. The city of Kaiserslautern is almost fully enclosed by, but not belonging to the district.
History
The district of Kaiserslautern was established in 1939. Minor changes of the borders occurred in 1969 and 1972.
Geography
The district includes parts of the Palatinate Forest (Pfälzer Wald) in the east and the North Palatine Hills (Nordpfälzer Bergland) in the west, as well as the lowlands between them.
Partnerships
Since 1962 the district has had a partnership with Lancaster County, Pennsylvania. As part of the partnership of Rhineland-Palatinate with Rwanda, the district has had a partnership with the municipality of Musasa since 1983. In 2002, a partnership with the Polish district of Olesno was started.
Coat of arms
The eagle on the top of the coat of arms represents the several imperial estates in the district. The lion on the left is the lion of the Electorate of the Palatinate, the fish in the middle is taken from the coat of arms of the city of Kaiserslautern. The bezants (coins) on the right represent the Lords of Sickingen and their estate.
Towns and municipalities
References
External links
Official website (German)
Districts of Rhineland-Palatinate | [
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222453 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geoffrey%20Perkins | Geoffrey Perkins | Geoffrey Howard Perkins (22 February 1953 – 29 August 2008) was a British comedy producer, writer and performer. Best known as the BBC head of comedy (1995–2001), he produced the first two radio series of The Hitchhiker's Guide to the Galaxy and is one of the people credited with creating the bizarre panel game Mornington Crescent for I'm Sorry I Haven't a Clue. In December 2008 he posthumously received an Outstanding Contribution to Comedy Award.
Early life
Perkins attended the Harrow County Grammar School, alongside Nigel Sheinwald, Michael Portillo and Clive Anderson, with whom he ran the debating society. Taking an early interest in drama, in 1970 he worked with Clive Anderson to write a charity revue called Happy Poison.
Perkins read English at Lincoln College, Oxford and while there wrote for and directed The Oxford Revues of 1974 and 1975. After his time at Oxford, Perkins joined the Ocean Transport and Trading Company, where he was put to work studying waste timber in Liverpool. He did not last long in the field of commercial shipping. In 1977, drawing on his work for the Oxford Revue, Perkins joined "BBC Radio's light entertainment department [alongside] Cambridge graduates such as John Lloyd and Griff Rhys Jones.
Radio career
Tasked by department head David Hatch, Perkins helped to revitalise the comedy panel show I'm Sorry I Haven't a Clue (launched five years earlier), introducing the incomprehensible Mornington Crescent game which would become an enduring success.
The Hitchhiker's Guide to the Galaxy
Perkins produced the first series of Douglas Adams' The Hitchhiker's Guide to the Galaxy in 1977 for BBC Radio 4, taking over from pilot-producer Simon Brett. Perkins assisted the notoriously slow writer in finishing the scripts, before John Lloyd was drafted in to write large sections of the later episodes. Perkins also drew on the resources of the Radiophonic Workshop to help create the groundbreaking audio effects for the series.
In 1986, Perkins married Lisa Braun, who was BBC studio manager on Hitchhiker's Guide.
Radio Active
In 1980, Perkins co-wrote and featured in the radio sketch show Radio Active, revised and adapted from the early Oxford Revue shows, and initially based around the comedy parody group The Hee Bee Gee Bees, consisting of Philip Pope, Angus Deayton and Michael Fenton Stevens. Prior to its leap from the revue to the radio, the production toured and appeared at the Edinburgh Festival Fringe, after which it was picked up by BBC Radio 4 for a pilot called The Oxford Revue Presents Radio Active. Radio Active, "which poked fun at the amateurishness of some local radio broadcasting," went on to run for seven series, and won a Sony Award. Perkins featured as a character called Mike Flex, a young cocky disc jockey.
Perkins, with Deayton, wrote much of the series and later saw it transferred to BBC2 television as the Grand Prix and Silver Rose of Montreux-winner KYTV.
Later radio work
Perkins, with Radio Active colleague and co-writer Deayton, later produced The Uncyclopaedia of Rock for Capital Radio, winning the Monaco Radio Award for the show, and penning a 1987 tie-in book with Deayton and Jeremy Pascall.
In 2005 he cameoed in the fourth radio series of Hitchhiker's (The Quandary Phase), as the producer of the radio show Arthur Dent worked on. Essentially playing a fictional version of himself from the first series with a fictional version of writer Douglas Adams.
Television career
Hat Trick
Perkins left the BBC in 1988, to become a director of Hat Trick Productions, an independent television and radio production company. Hat Trick's produced comedy programmes for the BBC, ITV and Channel 4. The first main production of Perkins was Spitting Image where he met Ben Elton, and Harry Enfield whom he got to develop the character of Douglas Hurd by suggesting he adapt it along the lines of Frank Oz's character Fozzie Bear. As a result, Perkins developed shows for both performers, in the form of Elton's hosted Saturday Live and sketch show The Man from Auntie; and Enfield's Harry Enfield's Television Programme. Perkins also developed Have I Got News For You, Whose Line Is It Anyway?, Drop The Dead Donkey and Father Ted for Hat Trick, many of which won awards including Baftas.
BBC Head of Comedy
In 1995, he resigned from Hat Trick and returned to the BBC as BBC Television's Head of Comedy, requesting his contract stipulated "his continued role as a programme producer," as well as overseeing the department. He stayed in this role until 2001, growing increasingly dissatisfied at "official BBC snootiness about comedy".
Perkins meticulously read 30 new scripts every week, but "found himself culturally marginalised at the BBC," saying:
"Unfortunately, the term sitcom implies a great disdain. People say it with a curl of their lips."
Under Director General John Birt, Perkins also felt "hamstrung by the inevitable bureaucracy," which not only hindered programme-making, but saw Perkins spending "more time on budgets" than more creative pursuits.
Perkins felt that the changes in how the BBC was run
During Perkins' time as Head of Comedy, the BBC produced such hits including Coupling, The Thin Blue Line, Jonathan Creek, The Fast Show, The Royle Family and My Family. Perkins also persuaded David Jason and Nicholas Lyndhurst to star in a new series of Only Fools and Horses, the first of which was screened at Christmas 2001.
Tiger Aspect
Having left the BBC, Perkins became a creative director and executive producer for independent production company Tiger Aspect in late 2001. In this role, he was able to pursue a more hands-on role in the "creative side of programme-making."
For Tiger Aspect, Perkins produced programmes including The Catherine Tate Show for the BBC, and Benidorm for ITV.
Television writing and acting credits
Perkins' writing credits for television include The World According To Smith & Jones, KYTV, Harry Enfield's Television Programme, Harry Enfield and Chums and Coogan's Run.
In addition to starring in KYTV, Perkins appeared in small cameo roles in several of the comedy programmes he produced, including Father Ted, Operation Good Guys, One Foot in the Grave and The Catherine Tate Show. He also hosted the panel game Don't Quote Me, made by Open Media for Channel 4 in 1990.
Final years
In 2006, Harry Enfield was told by Controller of BBC One Peter Fincham that he was too old to make another comedy sketch series. Enfield approached Perkins with his ideas, which Perkins helped Enfield develop into the first series of Harry and Paul, starring Enfield and Paul Whitehouse, shown in April 2007.
Perkins died on 29 August 2008 and was initially thought to have died from injuries after an accident involving a lorry in Marylebone High Street, London. However, a coroner's inquest in April 2009 determined that Perkins had suffered from an undiagnosed case of channelopathies, which caused his heart to stop suddenly. The jury decided that Perkins had probably already died when he fell under the wheels of the lorry, and the coroner recorded that he died from "natural causes".
On 5 September 2008 Perkins' last production for the BBC and Tiger Aspect – the second series of the re-titled Harry and Paul – was broadcast, a week after his death. The first episode was dedicated to his memory, and instead of the usual closing credits, featured a short tribute to him and concluded with an out-take of Perkins forgetting his lines in a sketch absent from the transmitted series.
On 8 November 2008, BBC Two aired an evening of programmes in tribute to Perkins, comprising episodes of The Catherine Tate Show, Father Ted (a Channel 4 programme which the BBC was given special permission to broadcast as part of the tribute) and The Fast Show, together with a special edition of Comedy Connections about Perkins' career in comedy.
He was posthumously awarded the Outstanding Contribution to Comedy award at the British Comedy Awards on 6 December 2008.
The recipients of both the BAFTAs awarded on 27 April 2009 to Harry and Paul for Best Comedy Programme and to The IT Crowd for Best Situation Comedy dedicated their awards to Perkins.
References
External links
Geoffrey Perkins - Obituary and public tribute
Obituary in The Times
Obituary in The Telegraph
1953 births
2008 deaths
20th-century English male actors
21st-century English male actors
Alumni of Lincoln College, Oxford
BBC people
BBC radio producers
English comedy writers
English male television actors
English television executives
English television writers
People educated at Harrow High School
Road incident deaths in London
Hat Trick Productions
British male television writers
20th-century English screenwriters
20th-century English businesspeople | [
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222456 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ta%20Mok | Ta Mok | Ta Mok (; born Chhit Choeun (); 1924 – 21 July 2006) also known as Nguon Kang, was a Cambodian military chief and soldier who was a senior figure in the Khmer Rouge and the leader of the national army of Democratic Kampuchea. He was best known as "Brother Number Four" or "the Butcher". He was captured along the Thailand-Cambodia border in March 1999 by Cambodian government forces while on the run with a small band of followers and was held in government custody until his death in 2006 while awaiting his war crime trial.
Early life
The eldest of seven children, he is believed to have been born into a prosperous country family from Pra Keap village, Trapeang Thom commune, Tram Kak district, Takeo Province, and was of Chinese-Cambodian descent. He became a Buddhist monk in the 1930s but left the order at the age of 16.
Ta Mok took part in the resistance against French colonial rule and then the anti-Japanese resistance during the 1940s. He was training to become a Bhikkhu in Pali, Cambodia when he joined the anti-French Khmer Issarak in 1952. He soon left Phnom Penh and joined the Khmer Rouge/Communist Party of Kampuchea (CPK).
In Khmer Rouge
By the late 1960s he was a general and the Khmer Rouge's chief-of-staff. He was also a member of the Standing Committee of the Khmer Rouge's Central Committee ("Party Centre") during its period in power. He became very powerful within the party, especially in the south-west zone. He was named by Pol Pot as leader of the national army of Democratic Kampuchea. He lost the lower part of one leg in fighting around 1970 during Cambodia civil war.
Ta Mok orchestrated several massacres within the territories that he captured from 1973, beginning before the final, complete seizure of power by the Khmer Rouge on 17 April 1975. For example, his and Ke Pauk's soldiers had 20,000 civilians murdered or forced into slave labour after capturing Oudong in March 1974.
He was also responsible for directing the massive purges that characterised the short-lived Democratic Kampuchea (1975–1979), including the mass killing of 30,000 people in the Angkor Chey district, earning him the nickname Butcher.
After the fall of the Khmer Rouge
After the regime was overthrown in 1979, Ta Mok remained a powerful figure, controlling the northern area of the Khmer Rouge's remaining territory from his base at Anlong Veng in the Dângrêk Mountains. It is estimated that some 3,000 to 5,000 combatants remained loyal to Pol Pot and were directed by Ta Mok.
In 1997, after a split in the party, Ta Mok seized control of one faction and named himself supreme commander. Pol Pot then fled the Khmer Rouge's northern stronghold, but was later arrested and sentenced to lifelong house arrest. In April 1998, after a new government attack, Ta Mok fled into the forest and took Pol Pot with him. A few days later, on 15 April 1998, Pol Pot died in custody.
On 25 July 1997, Ta Mok and Pol Pot were interviewed separately by Nate Thayer. Unrepentant, Mok chuckled as he debated whether the KR had killed millions of people or just "hundreds of thousands," claiming that he had only killed Vietnamese.
In 1998, after several key defections, Ta Mok was forced to flee to Anlong Veng. On 6 March 1999, the general was captured by the Cambodian army near the Thai border and brought to Phnom Penh, where he joined former comrade Khang Khek Ieu ("Comrade Duch") at the Military Prosecution Department Detention Facility. Ta Mok was the last leading member of the Khmer Rouge to remain at large in Cambodia; other senior figures had died or already made immunity deals with the government of Hun Sen, including Nuon Chea, Khieu Samphan and Ieng Sary.
In prison his detention period was repeatedly extended without his being brought to trial. Under Cambodian law his trial should have begun within six months of his arrest. First charged with membership of an outlawed group and tax evasion, in February 2002 he was charged with crimes against humanity. In poor health, suffering especially from respiratory problems, Ta Mok's only releases from solitary confinement were for hospital visits. On 21 July 2006, due to heart complications caused by the stress of the upcoming trial, he died in a military hospital after falling into a coma.
References
Further reading
External links
1924 births
2006 deaths
People from Takéo province
Cambodian politicians of Chinese descent
Cambodian communists
Cambodian criminals
Warlords
Khmer Rouge party members
Cambodian politicians with physical disabilities
People indicted by the Khmer Rouge Tribunal
Cambodian prisoners and detainees
Prisoners and detainees of Cambodia
Communist Party of Kampuchea politicians
Cambodian people who died in prison custody
Prisoners who died in Cambodian detention
Former Buddhists
Cambodian atheists
Genocide perpetrators | [
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222458 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sequent%20Computer%20Systems | Sequent Computer Systems | Sequent Computer Systems was a computer company that designed and manufactured multiprocessing computer systems. They were among the pioneers in high-performance symmetric multiprocessing (SMP) open systems, innovating in both hardware (e.g., cache management and interrupt handling) and software (e.g., read-copy-update).
Through a partnership with Oracle Corporation, Sequent became a dominant high-end UNIX platform in the late 1980s and early 1990s. Later they introduced a next-generation high-end platform for UNIX and Windows NT based on a non-uniform memory access architecture, NUMA-Q. As hardware prices fell in the late 1990s, and Intel shifted their server focus to the Itanium processor family, Sequent joined the Project Monterey effort in October 1998. which aimed to move a standard Unix to several new platforms.
In July 1999 Sequent agreed to be acquired by IBM. At the time, Sequent's CEO said its technology would "find its way through IBM's entire product field" and IBM announced it would "both sell Sequent machines, and fold Sequent's technology...into its own servers", but by May 2002 a decline in sales of the models acquired from Sequent, among other reasons, led to the retirement of Sequent-heritage products.
Vestiges of Sequent's innovations live on in the form of data clustering software from PolyServe (subsequently acquired by HP), various projects within OSDL, IBM contributions to the Linux kernel, and claims in the SCO v. IBM lawsuit.
History
Originally named Sequel, Sequent was formed in 1983 when a group of seventeen engineers and executives left Intel after the failed iAPX 432 "mainframe on a chip" project was cancelled; they were joined by one non-Intel employee. They started Sequent to develop a line of SMP computers, then considered one of the up-and-coming fields in computer design.
Balance
Sequent's first computer systems were the Balance 8000 (released in 1984) and Balance 21000 (released in 1986). Both models were based on 10 MHz National Semiconductor NS32032 processors, each with a small write-through cache connected to a common memory to form a shared memory system. The Balance 8000 supported up to 6 dual-processor boards for a total maximum of 12 processors. The Balance 21000 supported up to 15 dual-processor boards for a total maximum of 30 processors.
The systems ran a modified version of 4.2BSD Unix the company called DYNIX, for DYNamic unIX. The machines were designed to compete with the DEC VAX-11/780, with all of their inexpensive processors available to run any process. In addition the system included a series of libraries that could be used by programmers to develop applications that could use more than one processor at a time.
Symmetry
Their next series was the Intel 80386-based Symmetry, released in 1987. Various models supported between 2 and 30 processors, using a new copy-back cache and a wider 64-bit memory bus. 1991's Symmetry 2000 models added multiple SCSI boards, and were offered in versions with from one to six Intel 80486 processors. The next year they added the VMEbus based Symmetry 2000/x50 with faster CPUs.
The late 1980s and early 1990s saw big changes on the software side for Sequent. DYNIX was replaced by DYNIX/ptx, which was based on a merger of AT&T Corporation's UNIX System V and 4.2BSD. And this was during a period when Sequent's high-end systems became particularly successful due to a close working relationship with Oracle, specifically their high-end database servers. In 1993 they added the Symmetry 2000/x90 along with their ptx/Cluster software, which added various high availability features and introduced custom support for Oracle Parallel Server.
In 1994 Sequent introduced the Symmetry 5000 series models SE20, SE60 and SE90, which used 66 MHz Pentium CPUs in systems from 2 to 30 processors. The next year they expanded that with the SE30/70/100 lineup using 100 MHz Pentiums, and then in 1996 with the SE40/80/120 with 166 MHz Pentiums. A variant of the Symmetry 5000, the WinServer 5000 series, ran Windows NT instead of DYNIX/ptx.
NUMA
Recognizing the increase in competition for SMP systems after having been early adopters of the architecture, and the increasing integration of SMP technology into microprocessors, Sequent sought its next source of differentiation. They began investing in the development of a system based on a cache-coherent non-uniform memory architecture (ccNUMA) and leveraging Scalable Coherent Interconnect. NUMA distributes memory among the processors, avoiding the bottleneck that occurs with a single monolithic memory. Using NUMA would allow their multiprocessor machines to generally outperform SMP systems, at least when the tasks can be executed close to their memory — as is the case for servers, where tasks typically do not share large amounts of data.
In 1996 they released the first of a new series of machines based on this new architecture. Known internally as STiNG, an abbreviation for Sequent: The Next Generation (with Intel inside), it was productized as NUMA-Q and was the last of the systems released before the company was purchased by IBM for over $800 million.
IBM then started Project Monterey with Santa Cruz Operation, intending to produce a NUMA-capable standardized Unix running on IA-32, IA-64 and POWER and PowerPC platforms. This project later fell through as both IBM and SCO turned to the Linux market, but is the basis for "the new SCO"'s SCO v. IBM Linux lawsuit.
IBM purchase and disappearance
With their future product strategy in tatters, it appeared Sequent had little future standing alone, and was purchased by IBM in 1999 for $810 million. IBM released several x86 servers with a NUMA architecture. The first was the x440 in August, 2002 with a follow-on x445 in 2003. In 2004, an Itanium-based x455 was added to the NUMA family. During this period, NUMA technology became the basis for IBM's extended X-Architecture (eXA, which could also stand for enterprise X-Architecture). As of 2011, this chipset is now on its fifth generation, known as eX5 technology. It now falls under the brand IBM System x.
According to a May 30, 2002 article in the Wall Street Journal (WSJ) entitled "Sequent Deal Serves Hard Lesson for IBM":
When IBM bought Sequent, ...it [Sequent] lacked the size and resources to compete with Sun and Hewlett-Packard Co. in the Unix server market....
In 1999, IBM had problems of its own with an aged and high-priced line of servers, particularly for its version of Unix known as AIX. It also faced huge losses in personal computers and declining sales in its cash-cow mainframe line.
Detailed model descriptions
The following is a more detailed description of the first two generations of Symmetry products, released between 1987 and 1990.
Symmetry S-series
Symmetry S3 The S3 was the low-end platform based on commodity PC components running a fully compatible version of DYNIX 3. It featured a single 33 MHz Intel 80386 processor, up to 40 megabytes of RAM, up to 1.8 gigabytes of SCSI-based disk storage, and up to 32 direct-connected serial ports.
Symmetry S16 The S16 was the entry-level multiprocessing model, which ran DYNIX/ptx. It featured up to six 20 MHz Intel 80386 processors, each with a 128 kilobyte cache. It also supported up to 80 MB of RAM, up to 2.5 GB of SCSI-based disk storage, and up to 80 direct-connected serial ports.
Symmetry S27 The S27 ran either DYNIX/ptx or DYNIX 3. It featured up to ten 20 MHz Intel 80386 processors, each with a 128 KB cache. It also supported up to 128 MB of RAM, up to 12.5 GB of disk storage, and up to 144 direct-connected serial ports.
Symmetry S81 The S81 ran either DYNIX/ptx or DYNIX 3. It featured up to 30 20 MHz Intel 80386 processors, each with a 128 KB cache. It also supported up to 384 MB of RAM, up to 84.8 GB of disk storage, and up to 256 direct-connected serial ports.
Symmetry 2000 series
Symmetry 2000/40 The S2000/40 was the low-end platform based on commodity PC components running a fully compatible version of DYNIX/ptx. It featured a single 33 MHz Intel 80486 processor, up to 64 megabytes of RAM, up to 2.4 gigabytes of SCSI-based disk storage, and up to 32 direct-connected serial ports.
Symmetry 2000/200 The S2000/200 was the entry-level multiprocessing model, which ran DYNIX/ptx. It featured up to six 25 MHz Intel 80486 processors, each with a 512 kilobyte cache. It also supported up to 128 MB of RAM, up to 2.5 GB of SCSI-based disk storage, and up to 80 direct-connected serial ports.
Symmetry 2000/400 The S2000/400 ran either DYNIX/ptx or DYNIX 3. It featured up to ten 25 MHz Intel 80486 processors, each with a 512 KB cache. It also supported up to 128 MB of RAM, up to 14.0 GB of disk storage, and up to 144 direct-connected serial ports.
Symmetry 2000/700 The S2000/700 ran either DYNIX/ptx or DYNIX 3. It featured up to 30 25 MHz Intel 80486 processors, each with a 512 KB cache. It also supported up to 384 MB of RAM, up to 85.4 GB of disk storage, and up to 256 direct-connected serial ports.
See also
NCR Voyager (early 486/Pentium SMP systems)
References
External links
Project Blue-Away, a Sun Microsystems project announced in February 2002 targeting NUMA-Q customers
IBM lays off 200 Portland employees, a January 2002 article, also from Portland Business Journal
Out of Sequence, a September 1999 article from Willamette Week
1983 establishments in Oregon
1999 disestablishments in Oregon
1999 mergers and acquisitions
American companies established in 1983
American companies disestablished in 1999
Beaverton, Oregon
Computer companies established in 1983
Computer companies disestablished in 1999
Defunct companies based in Oregon
Defunct computer companies of the United States
Defunct computer hardware companies
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] |
222461 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Whore%20%28disambiguation%29 | Whore (disambiguation) | A whore is a person who works in the business of prostitution.
Whore(s) may also refer to:
Film, television, and theatre
Whore (1991 film), a British-American film directed by Ken Russell
The Whores, a 1994 Italian film directed by Aurelio Grimaldi
Whore (2004 film), a Spanish film directed by María Lidón
Whore (2008 film), an American film directed by Thomas Dekker
The Whore (2009 film), a Norwegian film directed by Reinert Kiil
The Whore (2010 film), a German television film directed by Hansjörg Thurn
"Whore" (Spartacus: Blood and Sand), a television episode
Whores (play), a 2005 play by Lee Blessing
Music
Whores (band), an American noise rock band
Whore (album) or the title song, by Dalbello, 1996
"Whore" (song), by In This Moment, 2013
"Whore", a song by Get Scared from Best Kind of Mess, 2011
See also
Whore of Babylon | [
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222465 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dasyuridae | Dasyuridae | The Dasyuridae are a family of marsupials native to Australia and New Guinea, including 69 extant species divided into 21 genera. Many are small and mouse-like or shrew-like, giving some of them the name marsupial mice or marsupial shrews, but the group also includes the cat-sized quolls, as well as the Tasmanian devil. They are found in a wide range of habitats, including grassland, underground, forests, and mountains, and some species are arboreal or semiaquatic. The Dasyuridae are often called the 'marsupial carnivores', as most members of the family are insectivores.
Characteristics
Most dasyurids are roughly the size of mice, but a few species are much larger. The smallest species is the Pilbara ningaui, which is from in length, and weighs just , while the largest, the Tasmanian devil, is long, and weighs from . The smaller dasyurids typically resemble shrews or mice in appearance, with long tails and narrow, pointed noses. The larger species bear a resemblance to such placental carnivores as mongooses or mustelids.
Many features of dasyurids are considered primitive, that is, they resemble the features of the earliest marsupials, from which other species, such as kangaroos and bandicoots, later diverged. For example, all of the toes in dasyurids are separate, whereas in many other marsupials, the second and third toes are fused. Similarly, many species lack a full marsupial pouch, instead having a simple fold of skin surrounding the teats to provide some protection to the developing young. The dentition of dasyurids is also considered primitive, and differs from that of other marsupials, with a dental formula of: . Their dentition is similar to many carnivores, characterized by bladelike incisors, large, sharp canines, and upper molars modified with large, sharp cusps.
Dasyurids are primarily insectivorous, but they will also eat small lizards, fruit, and flowers. One of the few exceptions to this rule is the Tasmanian devil, which subsists mainly on vertebrate carrion. They have relatively simple digestive tracts, as is typical of insectivores and other carnivores.
Gestation lasts from 12–16 days, and results in the birth of from two to 12 young, depending on species. Smaller species typically breed at least twice a year, while the larger forms tend to breed just once. The length of lactation reflects this, with young dunnarts, for example, being weaned after 60–70 days, but young quolls only after 8–9 months. Most dasyurid species are sexually mature at one year of age, but, again, the quolls and Tasmanian devil, being larger, take longer to mature and do not reach full adulthood for about two years.
Adult dasyurids are typically solitary, or travel in small groups of two to three individuals.
Classification
Family Dasyuridae
Genus Ganbulanyi†
Genus Glaucodon†
Subfamily Barinyainae†
Genus Barinya†
Subfamily Dasyurinae
Tribe Dasyurini
Genus Dasycercus
Brush-tailed mulgara, Dasycercus blythi
Crest-tailed mulgara, Dasycercus cristicauda
Genus Dasykaluta
Little red kaluta, Dasykaluta rosamondae
Genus Dasyuroides
Kowari, Dasyuroides byrnei
Genus Dasyurus: quolls
New Guinean quoll, Dasyurus albopunctatus
Western quoll, Dasyurus geoffroii
Northern quoll, Dasyurus hallucatus
Tiger quoll, Dasyurus maculatus
Bronze quoll, Dasyurus spartacus
Eastern quoll, Dasyurus viverrinus
Genus Myoictis
Woolley's three-striped dasyure, Myoictis leucera
Three-striped dasyure, Myoictis melas
Wallace's dasyure, Myoictis wallacii
Tate's three-striped dasyure, Myoictis wavicus
Genus Neophascogale
Speckled dasyure, Neophascogale lorentzi
Genus Parantechinus
Dibbler, Parantechinus apicalis
Genus Phascolosorex
Red-bellied marsupial shrew, Phascolosorex doriae
Narrow-striped marsupial shrew, Phascolosorex dorsalis
Genus Pseudantechinus
Sandstone false antechinus, Pseudantechinus bilarni
Fat-tailed false antechinus, Pseudantechinus macdonnellensis
Alexandria false antechinus, Pseudantechinus mimulus
Ningbing false antechinus, Pseudantechinus ningbing
Rory Cooper's false antechinus, Pseudantechinus roryi
Woolley's false antechinus, Pseudantechinus woolleyae
Genus Sarcophilus
Tasmanian devil, Sarcophilus harrisii
Tribe Phascogalini
Genus Antechinus
Tropical antechinus, Antechinus adustus
Agile antechinus, Antechinus agilis
Silver-headed antechinus, Antechinus argentus
Black-tailed antechinus, Antechinus arktos
Fawn antechinus, Antechinus bellus
Yellow-footed antechinus, Antechinus flavipes
Atherton antechinus, Antechinus godmani
Cinnamon antechinus, Antechinus leo
Mainland dusky antechinus, Antechinus mimetes
Swamp antechinus, Antechinus minimus
Buff-footed antechinus, Antechinus mysticus
Brown antechinus, Antechinus stuartii
Subtropical antechinus, Antechinus subtropicus
Tasmanian dusky antechinus, Antechinus swainsonii
Tasman Peninsula dusky antechinus, Antechinus vandycki
Genus Micromurexia
Micromurexia hageni
Micromurexia xenochromus
Genus Murexia
Habbema dasyure, Miurexia habbema
Short-furred dasyure, Murexia longicaudata
Black-tailed dasyure, Murexia melanurus
Long-nosed dasyure, Murexia naso
Broad-striped dasyure, Murexia rothschildi
Genus Phascogale
Red-tailed phascogale, Phascogale calura
Northern brush-tailed phascogale, Phascogale pirata
Brush-tailed phascogale, Phascogale tapoatafa
Subfamily Sminthopsinae
Tribe Planigalini
Genus Planigale
Paucident planigale, Planigale gilesi
Long-tailed planigale, Planigale ingrami
Common planigale, Planigale maculata
New Guinean planigale, Planigale novaeguineae
Narrow-nosed planigale, Planigale tenuirostris
Tribe Sminthopsini
Genus Antechinomys
Kultarr, Antechinomys laniger
Genus Ningaui
Wongai ningaui, Ningaui ridei
Pilbara ningaui, Ningaui timealeyi
Southern ningaui, Ningaui yvonnae
Genus Sminthopsis
†S. floravillensis Archer, 1982
S. crassicaudata species-group
Fat-tailed dunnart, Sminthopsis crassicaudata
S. macroura species-group
Kakadu dunnart, Sminthopsis bindi
Carpentarian dunnart, Sminthopsis butleri
Julia Creek dunnart, Sminthopsis douglasi
Froggatt's dunnart, Sminthopsis froggatti
Stripe-faced dunnart, Sminthopsis macroura
Stalker's dunnart, Sminthopsis stalkeri
Red-cheeked dunnart, Sminthopsis virginiae
S. granulipes species-group
White-tailed dunnart, Sminthopsis granulipes
S. griseoventer species-group
Kangaroo Island dunnart, Sminthopsis aitkeni
Boullanger Island dunnart, Sminthopsis boullangerensis
Grey-bellied dunnart, Sminthopsis griseoventer
S. longicaudata species-group
Long-tailed dunnart, Sminthopsis longicaudata
S. murina species-group
Chestnut dunnart, Sminthopsis archeri
Little long-tailed dunnart, Sminthopsis dolichura
Sooty dunnart, Sminthopsis fulginosus
Gilbert's dunnart, Sminthopsis gilberti
White-footed dunnart, Sminthopsis leucopus
Slender-tailed dunnart, Sminthopsis murina
S. psammophila species-group
Hairy-footed dunnart, Sminthopsis hirtipes
Ooldea dunnart, Sminthopsis ooldea
Sandhill dunnart, Sminthopsis psammophila
Lesser hairy-footed dunnart, Sminthopsis youngsoni
References
External links
Dasyuromorphs
Mammal families | [
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222467 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Strategy%20%26%20Tactics | Strategy & Tactics | Strategy & Tactics (S&T) is a wargaming magazine now published by Decision Games, notable for publishing a complete new wargame in each issue.
Beginnings
Strategy & Tactics got its start in January 1967 under the auspices of its original editor, Chris Wagner, offering what he saw as a better alternative to Avalon Hill's gaming magazine, The General. Strategy & Tactics began life as a wargaming fanzine published by Wagner (then a staff sergeant with the US Air Force in Japan), at first in Japan, then moving to the United States with Wagner.
Graphic designer Redmond Simonsen was hired to improve the quality of the magazine. When subscribership stagnated, debts began to accrue. Jim Dunnigan created SPI in order to save Strategy & Tactics. Dunnigan had been a contributor to the magazine since Strategy & Tactics #2 (February 1967), and when Wagner was having financial difficulties with the magazine he sold Dunnigan the rights for $1. A persistent rumour that Dunnigan had purchased S&T from Wagner for one dollar, and that furthermore the dollar was not paid until much later was confirmed by Wagner during an interview printed in S&T issue #83 (The Kaiser's Battle).
Dunnigan era
Dunnigan set up shop in a windowless basement in New York City's Lower East Side, and published his first issue from there, Strategy & Tactics #18 (September 1969); starting with that issue, every issue included a new wargame. Albert Nofi became an associate editor in 1969. The first game published in issue #18 was Crete. Not only did this represent a break from the cautious policy of Avalon Hill (pioneer company in modern commercial wargaming and the leading company in the fledgling wargaming industry) in publishing only one or two games per year (for fear of new games cannibalizing sales of old ones), but the need for new game designs spurred research into many of the lesser-known corners of military history. Despite the diversity in themes, the style of the games was fairly consistent. They predominantly used a hexgrid for the maps and many rule concepts such as zones of control were repeated in many games.
In addition to the games, the magazine featured many articles on military history, many of them notable for applying modern quantitative analysis to battles that had traditionally been described in a narrative "heroic" style.
Avalon Hill continued to produce more than just wargames, priding itself on other themes, such as party games, sports titles, and children's games. Dunnigan's focus remained primarily on military history, and he felt that there was a market for detailed historical articles as an accompaniment to detailed and accurate games. (A single experiment in using the S&T game format to explore the use of strategy and tactics in professional sports, Scrimmage, in issue #37, was not repeated.) S&T now embarked on providing six new games a year, and at a much lower cost per game than was to be found elsewhere, with the magazine itself almost being a bonus. There was no middleman in the form of a local games store; subscribers got their games delivered right to their homes. Circulation of the magazine was substantial and games that might not otherwise sell went to subscribers automatically, eclipsing expected independent sales of most titles. SPI also benefited from having the magazine as an advertising vehicle for boxed (i.e. non-magazine) games, sold directly or through local games stores.
In 1972, Strategy & Tactics spun off Moves magazine, which focused more on the play of the games.
S&T's circulation exceeded that of Avalon Hill's The General by the mid 1970s, improving its physical appearance dramatically under the guidance of Redmond Simonsen. (SPI's non-magazine games were improving by leaps and bounds also – their first games were made in black and white on regular paper; counters were simple coloured paper that had to be cut out and glued to cardboard by the purchaser. Rules were not done in booklet form, but on large sheets of paper folded to letter-size as a cost-savings measure. There were no costs incurred, then, for cutting, collating or binding – nor for boxes or counter trays.) As die-cut counters, printed on both sides in full colour, became the norm, they were included in the magazine games, as were two color and finally full color maps.
S&T eventually made its magazine games available for purchase in stores with standard boxes, dice and counter trays, and also sold boxes and counter trays separately for the convenience of subscribers who wanted to store their subscriber game components in something other than the envelope the magazine had been delivered in.
By the mid 1970s, SPI's annual income rose to the six-figure range, with paid staff numbering as many as 40 people, and with 40+ games being produced through both the magazine and boxed sales annually. Competition began to spring up, with many new companies appearing in the mid- to late-1970s. Wargaming was reaching its high-water mark, just as the release of Squad Leader by Avalon Hill took the wargaming world by storm (eventually resulting in an unprecedented 200,000 copies sold). Such faith was placed in the future of the industry that a Game Designer's Guild was even created, in the hope that it just might be possible to earn a comfortable living providing wargames to the public.
Dunnigan's departure
However, despite annual income declared at two million dollars, SPI's sales declined, and while monetary income remained constant, increasing inflation eroded the company's profits. Dunnigan's departure in the late 1970s led to internal struggle at SPI in 1980; chief among SPI's problems was poor marketing. Howie Barasch's departure as marketing manager in the late 1970s was never properly rectified and the founder of S&T, Chris Wagner, who was now a management consultant, was brought back into the fold to address SPI's marketing problems. He found that many sales representatives, previously independently commissioned by SPI, had no idea they were still representing the company and some didn't even realize the company was still in operation, as no one had been in touch with them for several years.
In 1980 Strategy & Tactics spun off Ares magazine, which was focused on science-fiction and fantasy.
TSR
Financial mismanagement also cost SPI money, and a recession didn't help matters. Negotiations began with Avalon Hill and then TSR, Inc. for a buy-out.
By the time of the buyout in 1982, SPI was selling, it is estimated, some 60-70% of all wargames in the world. Avalon Hill remained a bigger company, but only because it sold many more sports and general interest games than wargames. By this point, S&T boasted 30,000 subscribers and the magazine was truly the flagship of SPI.
The popularity of S&T reached the point where SPI began publishing a second magazine, Moves, that consisted primarily of articles on winning strategies for playing SPI games and additional scenarios for them. A third magazine, Ares, devoted to science-fiction and fantasy games and including one in each issue, was also published for a time.
One innovation of S&T was its feedback system, in which readers could answer various multiple-choice questions on a return card, whose data would then be entered into a Burroughs minicomputer for analysis. Thus S&T always had good information about which games readers were looking for.
When TSR purchased SPI in 1982, the company did not honor lifetime subscriptions to Strategy & Tactics. SPI unfortunately had no assets to its name when the takeover occurred, but there were over 1,000 subscribers who had made a significant payment (in c. 1978 terms) for a "lifetime subscription" to S&T, meaning that they were entitled to all future issues without any further payment. These subscribers were informed that their subscriptions would not be honored. People who had placed pre-release, paid, orders for certain games that had been in development were informed that they would receive neither the game they had paid for nor a refund of the money they had paid for it. TSR saved money in the short term, but alienated its best customers.
SPI's design staff moved on to Avalon Hill, where they set up a subsidiary company based in New York called Victory Games. It produced many unique and popular titles, which by the late 1980s were outselling even Avalon Hill games. TSR continued making games, hoping to recoup its investment in SPI (another reason was the enthusiasm of some staff members for wargaming), but despite a healthier distribution chain than SPI had enjoyed, its wargame line was never successful. S&T Magazine was eventually sold to 3W, a small company which published The Wargamer magazine, a direct competitor. By this time, other companies were also stepping up production, and a splintered market ensured that the days of selling 50,000 copies or more of a title were gone. Publishers became happy to sell 10,000 copies, with 20,000 being considered phenomenal.
TSR produced issue #91 (Winter 1983) to #111 (1987) and then sold the rights to 3W.
3W and Decision Games
3W published the magazine from #112 (June 1987) to #139. It was during this decline that 3W continued its publication of S&T, and James Dunnigan returned for a brief stint as editor of the magazine (Keith Poulter was the editor from issues #112 to #119, Ty Bomba from #120 to #129, James Dunnigan from #130 to #139). Although circulation began to increase again, subscriptions never recovered fully, and most sales were through game stores and not subscriptions, which meant third party retailers cut into profits. Sales were also no longer guaranteed.
3W's Keith Poulter got out of the business, and in 1991 Strategy & Tactics was sold to Decision Games, which has been publishing the magazine since issue #140 (February 1991). Since issue #176 (September/October 1995), Decision Games has also offered a cheaper, newsstand version without the wargame that comes in every regular issue. According to the official website "by issue #216, more copies of the magazine edition were being produced than the game edition." In 2003, Decision Games spun off Strategy & Tactics Press as a sister company for magazine and media development. In 2008, World at War magazine was begun which covers World War II. In 2012, Modern War magazine began which covers post-World War II military history. Strategy & Tactics continues to cover all periods in history and so the periods covered may overlap.
As S&T reached its 40th year as a professionally produced magazine, as opposed to a fanzine, it laid claim to being the longest continually published wargame magazine. S&T also survived many of its competitors, including Command, which also came with a complete game in each issue, and which was created by Bomba when he left 3W. Bomba named his publishing company XTR (as in "Cross The River"), a reference to Julius Caesar's decision to cross the Rubicon which he used in this case regarding his future relationship with Dunnigan and 3W upon leaving S&T. However, Dunnigan is long-gone, S&T is no longer published by 3W, and the masthead of the Nov/Dec 2008 issue of S&T (Number 253) listed Bomba as assistant editor and as one of the magazine's four copy editors.
Awards and value
Strategy & Tactics won thirteen Charles S. Roberts/Origins Awards between 1974 and 2009, and in 1997 the magazine was inducted into the Adventure Gaming Hall of Fame.
Back issues of Strategy & Tactics are highly valued by wargame collectors, and some have become quite expensive. S&T magazine games that have not been played and have counter sheets intact ("unpunched") are worth much more than played ("punched") games.
References
External links
Strategy & Tactics homepage
Index of Articles and Games in Strategy & Tactics Issues #1 to #90
Checklist of Strategy & Tactics issues
Review in the Chicago Tribune
Magazines established in 1967
Magazines published in California
Magazines published in New York City
Monthly magazines published in the United States
Origins Award winners
Simulations Publications games
Wargaming magazines | [
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222469 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chris%20Evert | Chris Evert | Christine Marie Evert (born December 21, 1954), known as Chris Evert Lloyd from 1979 to 1987, is an American former world No. 1 tennis player. She won 18 Grand Slam singles championships and three doubles titles. She was the year-end world no. 1 singles player seven times (1974–78, 1980, 1981). Overall, Evert won 157 singles titles and 32 doubles titles.
Evert reached 34 Grand Slam singles finals, more than any other player in the history of professional tennis. She holds the record of most consecutive years (13) of winning at least one Major title. In singles, Evert reached the semifinals or better in 52 of the 56 Grand Slams she played, including the semifinals or better of 34 consecutive Grand Slams entered from the 1971 US Open through the 1983 French Open. Evert never lost in the first or second round of a Grand Slam singles tournament and lost in the third round only twice. In Grand Slam women's singles play, Evert won a record seven titles at the French Open and a co-record six championships at the US Open (tied with Serena Williams).
Evert's career winning percentage in singles matches of 90.00% (1309–146) is the highest in the Open Era history of tennis, for men or women. On clay courts, her career winning percentage in singles matches of 94.55% (382–22) remains a WTA record.
Evert served as president of the Women's Tennis Association for eleven calendar years, 1975–76 and 1983–91. She was awarded the Philippe Chatrier award and inducted into the Hall of Fame. In later life, Evert was a coach and is now an analyst for ESPN, and has a line of tennis and active apparel.
Tennis career
Evert began taking tennis lessons from her father Jimmy Evert when she was five years old. He was a professional tennis coach who had won the men's singles title at the Canadian Championships in 1947. By 1969, she had become the No. 1 ranked under-14 girl in the United States. Evert played her first senior tournament in that year also, reaching the semifinals in her hometown of Fort Lauderdale, Florida, losing to Mary-Ann Eisel in three sets. (For years, this was the record for the furthest a player had reached in her first senior-level tournament. That record was broken when another Floridian, Jennifer Capriati, reached the final of the tournament in Boca Raton, Florida, in 1990 at the age of 13. In 1970, Evert won the national 16-and-under championship and was invited to play in an eight-player clay-court tournament in Charlotte, North Carolina. The 15-year-old Evert defeated Françoise Dürr in the first round in straight sets before defeating Margaret Court 7–6, 7–6 in a semifinal. Court was the world No. 1 player and had just won the Grand Slam in singles. These results led to Evert's selection for the U.S. Wightman Cup team as the youngest player ever in the competition.
Evert made her Grand Slam tournament debut at age 16 at the 1971 US Open; she received an invitation after winning the national 16-and-under championship. After an easy straight-sets win over Edda Buding in the first round, she faced the American No. 4, Mary-Ann Eisel in the second round. With Eisel serving at 6–4, 6–5 (40–0) in the second set – Evert saved six match points before going on to win 4–6, 7–6, 6–1. She made two further comebacks from a set down, against fifth seed Dürr and Lesley Hunt, both seasoned professionals, before losing to top seed Billie Jean King in a semifinal in straight sets. This defeat ended a 46-match winning streak built up through a variety of professional and junior tour events. This winning streak included her first matches with and wins over King, Virginia Wade and Betty Stöve.
In 1973, Evert was the runner-up at the French Open and the Wimbledon Championships. A year later she won both those events during her then-record 55-consecutive-match winning streak, which included eight other tournament wins. She ended the year with a 100–7 match record, winning 16 tournaments including two Grand Slams, having been a finalist in her first Australian Open, and having for a fourth straight year reached the semifinals at the US Open. She was chosen as the year-end number one by the leading tennis experts and authorities of the day – except Bud Collins – over her closest rivals, King and Evonne Goolagong, each of whom had six titles including a Grand Slam (King the US Open and Goolagong the Australian Open).
At the time, she was engaged to Jimmy Connors, who won the Wimbledon men's singles title that year as media attention surrounded the summer "Love Match" of tennis. They partnered in the mixed-doubles event at the 1974 US Open, finishing as runners-up. Their engagement was short-lived as it was called off later that year. However, their on-again-off-again relationship continued over the next couple of years.
For the next five years, Evert was the world's No. 1 player. In 1975 she won her second French Open and the first of four straight US Open titles by defeating Cawley in a three-set final. Also in November of that year, the official WTA computer ranking system was instituted, with Evert being the first No. 1. In total, Evert logged 260 weeks at number one. Until February 2013, she held the record of the oldest woman to be ranked WTA number one, achieving that distinction after reclaiming the spot for the final time during the week of November 24, 1985, at the age of 30 years and 11 months. This was ten years and three weeks after she had first achieved the number-one spot. That record stood for 27 years and 3 months until Serena Williams surpassed it in 2013.
Evert's domination of the women's game and her calm, steely demeanor on court earned her the nickname of the "Ice Maiden" of tennis. Throughout her career, Evert was ranked number one in the world at the end of seven different years by Tennis magazine, by World Tennis magazine and as well as a majority of other major tennis experts from 1974 through 1978, and in 1980 and 1981. In addition, Evert had by far the overall best match record in each of those seven years.
The following 1976 season holds a unique distinction for Evert, as this was the only time in her career where she won both Wimbledon and the US Open titles in the same year. She defeated Goolagong Cawley in a thrilling three-set final on grass and then dismantled her on clay at Forest Hills, losing just three games. However, Evert lost to Goolagong Cawley again in the final of the Virginia Slims Championships. In all, Evert won 26 of 39 matches with Cawley. Evert's 1976 performance earned her Sports Illustrated's title of Sportsman of the Year (the first woman to solely be chosen) and one of only four occasions (King, Arthur Ashe and Williams) the award was given to a tennis player.
The years 1977 and 1978 saw Evert continue to dominate the women's game, winning two more US Opens, the final one played at Forest Hills on clay (1977) and the inaugural one on hard courts at Flushing Meadow (1978 - giving her the distinction as the only female player to win the US Open on two different surfaces). She won 18 of 25 tournaments, with a 126–7 match record, failing only once to reach at least the semifinals during that span. Of particular note is that Evert skipped the French Open during these years (as well as 1976) to play in King's World TeamTennis. The other noteworthy event was Evert's three-set loss to eventual champion Wade in the semifinals of the 1977 Wimbledon Championships. It was Wimbledon's centenary year, coinciding with Queen Elizabeth II's Silver Jubilee as monarch.
Though successful on all surfaces, it was on clay courts where Evert was most dominant. Beginning in August 1973, she won 125 consecutive matches on clay, losing only eight sets throughout; a run which continues to stand as the benchmark among both men and women players. The streak was broken on May 12, 1979, in a semifinal of the Italian Open, when Evert lost to Tracy Austin in a third-set tiebreak after Evert lost a game point to go up 5–2 in the final set. Evert said after the match, "Not having the record will take some pressure off me, but I am not glad to have lost it." Evert rebounded with another clay court streak that reached 64 matches (including titles at the 1979 and 1980 French Open) before ending with a semifinal loss to eventual winner Hana Mandlíková at the 1981 French Open (a record of 189 victories in 191 matches on clay from 1973 to 1981). Hilde Krahwinkel had a similar run of clay-court dominance from 1935 through 1939, winning the French Championships in three consecutive years (not playing there the other two years) and incurring only one loss on clay during that five-year period.
Evert's record of seven French Open singles titles stood for 27 years until being broken in June 2013 by Rafael Nadal. She still holds the record for female players. She also held the record for most clay court Grand Slam titles (10 with seven French Opens and all three US Opens played on clay in 1975–77) before Nadal passed her with his 11th title at the 2018 French Open.
Three of her victories came in three-set finals against Navratilova. In 1975, Evert defeated Navratilova 2–6, 6–2, 6–1 to defend her title from the previous year. In 1985, Evert prevailed 6–3, 6–7, 7–5, a win that saw her capture the world No. 1 computer ranking for the fifth and final time.
For Evert, beating Navratilova in any Grand Slam represented beating the best player, which provided her with two of her most satisfying "final time" wins: The 1986 French Open, where at the age of 31 years, she won her last Grand Slam title defeating Navratilova in three sets and the 1988 Australian Open where she handily dispatched Navratilova in the semifinals in two sets to reach her 34th and last Grand Slam final at age 33.
Evert won at least one Grand Slam singles title a year for 13 consecutive years, from 1974 through 1986. During this period, Evert did not participate in the Australian Opens held from 1975 to 1980 and in 1983, or the French Opens from 1976 to 1978. The reasons for Evert's non-participation in the Australian Open during the years of her greatest dominance (she was ranked No.1 in the world five of the six years she was absent from the event between 1975 and 1980) was the relative decline in the status of this Grand Slam tournament during that period, so that the top American and European players tended to stay away. Evert's absence from the French Open in 1976, 1977 and 1978 reflected the allure of World Team Tennis and the generally lesser significance that the top players attached to the traditional Slam events in the early years of the professional era. During this period of dominance (1975–80), she skipped ten Grand Slam tournaments.
Between September 1971 (her Grand Slam debut at the US Open) and June 1983 (her 12th visit to the Wimbledon Championships), Evert never failed to reach at least the semi-finals of the 34 Grand Slam singles events she entered. This string, however, was broken in the third round at Wimbledon in 1983 when the All England Club refused Evert's request to delay her match with Kathy Jordan to recover from food poisoning. This defeat also ended her attempt to be the holder of all four Grand Slam singles titles simultaneously, as Evert was then holder of the '82 Australian, U.S., and the '83 French titles. In 56 Grand Slam singles events entered from 1971 to 1989, Evert fell short of the semifinals a mere four times (1983 Wimbledon 3rd round; 1987 US Open quarterfinal; 1988 French Open 3rd round; 1989 US Open quarterfinal).
In total, of the record 34 Grand Slam finals reached, Evert won 18 Grand Slam singles titles: seven at the French Open (record for female), six at the US Open (an open era record, male or female, tied with Serena Williams), three at Wimbledon, and two at the Australian Open (both on grass). In addition, Evert won three Grand Slam doubles titles, at the French in 1974 with Olga Morozova, there in 1975 with Navratilova, and again with Navratilova at Wimbledon in 1976.
Evert's overall record in Grand Slam events was 297–38 (88.7%): 72–6 at the French Open, 94–15 at Wimbledon, 101–13 at the US Open (the record for most singles match wins in history, male or female), and 30–4 at the Australian Open (never failing to reach the final and she is the only female player to have played the final on grass and hard courts).
Regarding their Slam rivalry, Evert faced Navratilova in the final of 14 Grand Slam events, with a 4–10 record. Navratilova defeated Evert at least once in the final of each of the four Grand Slam events: the Australian Open (1981, 1985), the French Open (1984), Wimbledon (1978, 1979, 1982, 1984, 1985) and the US Open (1983, 1984) whereas three of Evert's four wins were at the French Open (1975, 1985, 1986) and the fourth was the Australian Open (1982). In their eight semifinal clashes, their record stands at four wins apiece. Evert defeated Navratilova in the semifinals of the US Open (1975), Wimbledon (1976 and 1980), and the Australian Open (1988) but lost to Navratilova in the semifinals of the US Open (1981), Wimbledon (1987 and 1988), and the French Open (1987). Interestingly, in those semifinal rounds, each player won twice on grass, once on hard, and once on clay.
Evert played a reduced schedule in 1989 and retired from the professional tour after the US Open. Upon her retirement, she had amassed 18 Grand Slam singles titles (at the time, an Open Era record, male or female), won 157 singles titles (at the time, the record for male or female) and 32 doubles titles. In her 303 tournaments played, Evert reached 229 finals with a win/loss record of 157–72 (68.6%) and 273 semifinals with a win/loss record of (90.1%). Her losses before the semifinal: first round (7); second round – two of which were defaults (6); third round – two of which were defaults (6); and quarterfinal losses (11). Evert won the WTA Tour Championships four times and helped the United States win the Fed Cup eight times. Evert's last match was a 6–3, 6–2 win over Conchita Martínez in the final of the 1989 Fed Cup.
Rivalries
During her career versus selected rivals, Evert was: 40–6 against Virginia Wade, 37–43 against Martina Navratilova, 26–13 against Evonne Goolagong Cawley, 24–0 against Virginia Ruzici, 23–1 against Sue Barker, 22–0 against Betty Stöve, 22–1 against Rosemary Casals, 21–7 against Hana Mandlíková, 20–1 against Wendy Turnbull, 19–7 against Billie Jean King (winning the last 11 matches with a loss of only two sets), 19–3 against Pam Shriver, 18–2 against Kerry Melville Reid, 17–2 against Manuela Maleeva-Fragniere, 17–2 against Helena Suková, 17–3 against Andrea Jaeger, 16–3 against Dianne Fromholtz Balestrat, 15–0 against Olga Morozova, 13–0 against Françoise Dürr, 9–4 against Margaret Court, 8–9 against Tracy Austin, 7–0 against Mary Joe Fernandez, 6–3 against Gabriela Sabatini, 6–5 against Nancy Richey Gunter (winning the last six matches), 6–8 against Steffi Graf (losing the last eight matches) and 2–1 against Monica Seles.
Awards and recognitions
Evert was voted the Associated Press Female Athlete of the Year on four occasions and was the first female athlete to be Sports Illustrated magazine's sole recipient of "Sportswoman of the Year" award in 1976. In April 1985, she was voted the "Greatest Woman Athlete of the Last 25 Years" by the Women's Sports Foundation. Evert served as president of the Women's Tennis Association during 1975–76, and from 1983 to 1991.
In 1995, she was the fourth player ever to be unanimously elected into the International Tennis Hall of Fame following a worldwide ballot of 185 sports journalists. In 1997, the International Tennis Federation (ITF) presented her with its highest accolade - the Philippe Chatrier Award - for her contributions to tennis, whilst 1999 saw Evert rated No. 50 among ESPN's Greatest North American athletes of the 20th century. Evert was awarded the International Club’s prestigious Jean Borotra Sportsmanship Award in 2001. In 2005, Tennis named her fourth on its list of 40 Greatest Players of the Tennis era.
In 2012, Tennis Channel conducted a poll of players and experts to determine the 100 Greatest Players of all-time, in which Evert ranked ninth overall, and fourth highest among women (finishing behind Graf, Navratilova, and Court in that order.) In June 2013, Evert was awarded a special merit from the International Tennis Hall of Fame. They presented her their gold ring in recognition of her outstanding achievements both on and off the tennis court.
Playing style
Evert was a baseline player, who is credited with revolutionising the sport of tennis. She was known for her consistent, counterpunching game, with her being described retrospectively by the International Tennis Hall of Fame as a "human backboard". Evert was one of the first players to play exclusively from the baseline, typically approaching the net to retrieve short balls only; towards the end of her career, however, Evert would approach the net to end points more frequently. Evert's forehand was hit flat, with consistent depth and power, penetrating deep into the court; towards the end of her career with the development of graphite technology, she would begin to apply more topspin to her forehand. Evert was one of the first women who successfully used a double-handed backhand on the WTA tour, which did not have the extra reach that a one-handed backhand afforded, but did provide power and consistency that was previously unseen on the tour, and would later become the norm for female tennis players. She was adept at absorbing and redirecting power with both her forehand and her backhand, being able to create sharp angles and hit winners from any position on the court; despite this, Evert would not typically hit large numbers of winners, instead predicating her game on the retrieval of balls with devastating accuracy, and keeping unforced errors to a minimum. Evert did not possess a powerful serve, however, it was reliable and accurate. Evert possessed delicate touch, and had one of the most effective drop shots at the time. Playing in an era where serve and volleying was the dominant style of play, Evert was able to hit difficult passing shots with ease, pushing her opponents behind the baseline, and preventing them from rushing the net. Evert's greatest strengths on court were her speed, detailed footwork, court coverage, fitness, consistency, and mental fortitude. Despite having success on all surfaces, Evert's favourite surface was clay, where the high bounce and slower speed afforded by the surface allowed her to execute her measured, defensive style of play with tremendous success; this is highlighted by her career 382–22 (94.6%) winning record on the surface. Due to her composure, mental toughness, and elegant style of play, Evert was known as the "Ice Princess".
Personal life
Evert was born in 1954 in Fort Lauderdale, Florida, to Colette (née Thompson) and Jimmy Evert, and raised in a devout Catholic family. She is a 1973 graduate of St. Thomas Aquinas High School in Ft. Lauderdale.
Jimmy was a professional tennis coach, and tennis was a way of life in his family. Chris and her sister Jeanne became professional tennis players; their brother John played tennis on scholarship at the University of Alabama and later at Vanderbilt University, and brother Drew had a tennis scholarship to Auburn University. Youngest sister Clare played scholarship tennis at Southern Methodist University. Chris, John and sisters Jeanne and Clare all won titles at the prestigious Junior Orange Bowl in Florida.
Before she won her first Grand Slam event, Evert signed a contract with Puritan Fashions to endorse a line of sportswear. Company president Carl Rosen thought so highly of her that he named a yearling racehorse in her honor. The horse Chris Evert went on to win the 1974 U.S. Filly Triple Crown, be voted the Eclipse Award for Outstanding 3-Year-Old Filly, and was inducted into the National Museum of Racing and Hall of Fame.
In the 1970s, Evert's romance with the top men's player Jimmy Connors captured the public's imagination, particularly after they both won the 1974 singles titles at Wimbledon. Evert and Connors also occasionally played mixed doubles together. They became engaged when she was 19 and a wedding was planned for November 8, 1974. The romance did not last and the wedding was called off. In May 2013, Connors wrote in his autobiography that Evert was pregnant with their child and she unilaterally decided to terminate the pregnancy. Evert replied that she was "extremely disappointed that he [Connors] used the book to misrepresent a private matter".
In 1979, Evert married the British tennis player John Lloyd and changed her name to Chris Evert Lloyd. After her affair with British singer and actor Adam Faith, the couple separated, but reconciled and chronicled their marriage in a biography Lloyd On Lloyd co-authored by Carol Thatcher. The couple divorced in April 1987.
In 1988, Evert married downhill skier Andy Mill, who had been introduced to her by Martina Navratilova. They have three sons: Alexander (b. 1991), Nicholas (b. 1994) and Colton (b. 1996). On November 13, 2006, Evert filed for divorce. The divorce was finalized on December 4, 2006, with Evert paying Mill a settlement of U.S. $7 million in cash and securities.
On June 28, 2008, Evert married her third husband, Australian golfer Greg Norman in the Bahamas. On October 2, 2009, they announced they were separating after 15 months. Their divorce became final on December 8, 2009.
In 2021 Evert became a supporter of the new Women's Sports Policy Working Group formed in response to President Joe Biden’s executive order that mandates blanket inclusion for all transgender female athletes.
In January 2022, Evert announced she had been diagnosed with ovarian cancer.
Current work
Evert owns the Evert Tennis Academy with her brother John in Boca Raton, Florida and helps coach the Saint Andrew's School's high school tennis team. She contributes to Tennis magazine, of which she is also publisher. In June 2011, she joined ESPN as a tennis commentator for Grand Slam tournaments. In 2015, she launched a line of tennis and active apparel in collaboration with Tail Activewear called Chrissie by Tail. She was also a member of the Athlete Advisory Committee for the 2019 Aurora Games.
Career statistics
Grand Slam singles performance timeline
Records
These records were attained in Open Era of tennis.
Records in bold indicate peerless achievements.
As Evert elected not to participate in a number of Grand Slam tournaments, the term "consecutive" is inexact. In 19 seasons of professional tennis, Evert competed in all four Grand Slam tournaments in the same year only six times.
See also
WTA Tour records
List of WTA number 1 ranked singles tennis players
List of female tennis players
List of tennis rivalries
Tennis records of the Open Era - Women's Singles
Open Era tennis records – women's singles
Luxembourgian American
Performance timelines for all female tennis players who reached at least one Grand Slam final
Notes
References
Further reading
External links
1954 births
Living people
American female tennis players
American people of Luxembourgian descent
Catholics from Florida
Australian Open (tennis) champions
French Open champions
Sportspeople from Boca Raton, Florida
People from Rancho Mirage, California
Sportspeople from Fort Lauderdale, Florida
Tennis commentators
International Tennis Hall of Fame inductees
Tennis people from Florida
Tennis players at the 1988 Summer Olympics
US Open (tennis) champions
Wimbledon champions
World No. 1 tennis players
Grand Slam (tennis) champions in women's singles
Grand Slam (tennis) champions in women's doubles
Sports world record holders
Women sports announcers
Catholics from California
Olympic tennis players of the United States
St. Thomas Aquinas High School (Florida) alumni
21st-century American women | [
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222472 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Match%20racing | Match racing | A match race is a race between two competitors, going head-to-head.
In sailboat racing it is differentiated from a fleet race, which almost always involves three or more competitors competing against each other, and team racing where teams consisting of 2, 3 or 4 boats compete together in a team race, with their results being combined.
In horse racing, it has historically been a format used for one-off events, but in 2009 IMRA, the International Match Race Association was created to enable anyone to enter a one-on-one horse race in all-terrain half-mile loops.
Sailing
The America's Cup is an international competition in sailing which is broadcast worldwide. There are three single races or the equivalent of three games in most other sports. America’s Cup is a category of sailing called match racing in which two similar boats go head to head in a race or set of races to decide which boat has the better crew competing on board. In sailing there are three main ways of competing in order to find the best sailor, crew or boat. These are fleet racing, match racing and team racing; all of which are managed by the same governing body (ISAF), though each has slightly different rules.
History
The grounds for match racing were originally set about one hundred and forty four years ago when the first America’s Cup was set to take place. The match racing rules were set so that you could have two similar boats within a box rule, which specifies a maximum overall size for boats in the class, as well as features such as stability, that could go head to head in attempt to find the best sailing crews and teams. These rules allow one boat to try to attack the other by getting the other boat penalized so that it has to do what is called three sixty (this is turning the boat three hundred and sixty degrees around or as the rule that states, one tack and one gibe in the same direction), which puts the penalized boat at a large disadvantage compared to the others. After the America’s Cup, the first real match race took place at the Omega Gold Cup in Bermuda in the year 1937. It was considered the first real match race because it was sailed in one design boats (boats that are all exactly identical as they were built and managed by the same people), while the America’s Cup is a box rule which allows each of the boats to be different speeds. The skipper whom won this regatta was Briggs Cunningham. Briggs Cunningham also won the first America’s Cup that was held which incorporated the box rule. Since the Omega Gold Cup was a great success, match racing grew exponentially and created a new form of competitive sailing that had to have its rules managed and standardized. This resulted in The World Match Race Conference, which was a meeting with delegates from all major match racing regattas who decided on the rules and restrictions and who now supervise all match racing regattas.
How the race is raced
The Match Racing course has a very simple setup in comparison to fleet racing. In match racing there are usually four legs, although some events - such as the 2013 America's Cup that has five - may set a different course. Two of the legs are upwind, or sailing against the wind, and the other two legs are downwind, or sailing with the wind. In the first leg the boats are tacking against the wind in order to get to the windward mark the fastest without being penalized while also trying to get the other boats penalized. As their boats and crew get to the windward mark they round it leaving it to starboard, or the right side of the boat. As they go around the mark they cannot touch it, and then they go on to the second leg. On the second leg the boats are going downwind, so they hoist their downwind sails(spinnaker) and go for what is called a gate in sailing, once again trying to get to the gate the fastest by gibing away from the other boat for clear wind or gibing toward another boat to take the opponents wind without getting penalized. A gate in is when there are two marks (buoys) and it is the crew’s choice as to which one they will go around once they start the rounding by going between the two marks and finish the rounding with only one mark next to them. When the boats go through the gate they are then on the third leg of the race. The third leg is basically a repeat of the first leg where they beat upwind going towards the windward mark. Once the boats round the windward mark again they are on the fourth and final leg where they race downwind towards the finish in hope of winning.
Match racing in sailing
A match race in sailing involves two boats racing, and contrasts with fleet racing (at least 3 boats, often many, all racing against each other) and team racing (two teams of 2, 3, or 4 boats per team).
Tactics
With a large enough fleet, the winning boat will generally be the one that finds the fastest possible way around the course. In contrast, match racers will only concentrate on crossing the line before their opponent: This sometimes means taking a route that's not the fastest possible, for example, in order to slow down their opponent. As a result of this, special pre-start routines have been developed and two other tactics that arise from this mind-set are tight coverage and drawing fouls.
By tight coverage, the lead boat will attempt to stay as close as possible to its opponent while staying in front. For example, if on a downwind leg the losing boat gybes toward the right side of the course, the winning boat will gybe toward the right side of the course as well, even though the left side of the course appears to be favored. That way the winning boat is insured against losing the lead due to a wind shift that favors the right side of the course. In fleet racing there will often be boats on both sides of the course, requiring the lead boat to sail on the side that it considers to be fastest.
Drawing fouls is also an important part of match racing. As fouls in sailboat racing penalize the offending boat, but do not advantage the fouled boat, drawing a foul in fleet racing is almost always a net loss. However, when there are only two boats on the course any penalty for one boat is an advantage for the other. Therefore, in match racing a boat will often try to put itself in a position where the other boat will have no option but to foul it or make a disadvantageous change in course, even at the cost of sailing a slower course.
Events
Most match racing is between one-design boats, meaning that ideally the boats should perform identically on all points of sail and that any differences in performance are attributable to the crew. The most notable match race is the America's Cup which was until 2007 sailed by boats of the International America's Cup Class, which is a formula class. The design of America's Cup Class boats is controlled by a complex formula which allows designers a fair bit of room to optimize for different expected conditions. This has resulted in boats that do not perform identically on all points of sail, which opens up another match racing tactic of forcing the opponent onto an unfavored point of sail. During the 2003 America's Cup Challenger Series between Oracle BMW Racing and Alinghi, for example, the Alinghi boat was heavier but more powerful and favored on higher points of sail downwind. Alinghi used the tactic of getting to leeward of Oracle on a downwind leg and forcing her up onto a course where Alinghi was comparatively faster, although Alinghi herself could have sailed faster to the finish line on a lower course.
In the Olympics match racing was introduced during the 1992 Olympics in Barcelona, Spain. The match racing took place in the Soling after selection races in fleet race format also in the Soling. This discipline was continued for the 1996 and 2000 Olympics. A new event for 2012 was the Women’s Keelboat Match Racing, using the Elliott 6m.
The World Match Racing Tour is the world's pre-eminent monohull match racing series. It is sanctioned by the International Sailing Federation (ISAF) with 'Special Event ' status.
The Tour comprises a series of 9 events which cross 3 continents during the season combining the adrenaline fuelled excitement of match racing with close to shore racing which provides spectacular heart of the action views for the on shore audience. The championship series uses identical locally supplied racing yachts and includes such world class sailing venues as: Marseille, St. Moritz, Portimao, Kuala Terengganu, Gyeonggi and Hamilton.
The World Match Racing Tour has a proud match racing history since its establishment in 1988 and draws on the heritage of the very first match race for the King Edward VII Gold Cup in Hamilton, Bermuda in 1937. The Bermuda Gold Cup is still an annual event which is a key stage of the World Match Racing Tour.
The Women's International Match Racing Series (WIM Series), the first and only professional sailing series for women, was started in 2013 by the Women's International Match Racing Association (WIMRA). The WIM Series consists of 4-5 events per year throughout the world.
Other notable match racing events in sailing include the Canada's Cup and the Richardson Trophy, both held on the Great Lakes. The Richardson Trophy is governed and sponsored by the Yacht Racing Union of the Great Lakes.
The'Granddaddy of Match Racing' is the Congressional Cup, held at the Long Beach Yacht Club every Spring, It features 5 days of racing on identical 37 foot Catalinas that were purpose built for this event by Frank Butler. The race is sailed off of the Belmont Pier in Long Beach, CA, and attracts many Sailors who go on to compete in the America's Cup.<https://thecongressionalcup.com>
The San Francisco Perpetual Challenge Trophy, the second-oldest match racing championship, was first contested on San Francisco Bay in 1895, with the Encinal Yacht Club's El Sueno defeating the San Francisco Yacht Club's Queen by 11 minutes over a 15-mile course. The 2012 event saw the San Francisco Yacht Club's classic Bird boat, Robin, defeat the Corinthian Yacht Club's Polly in a best-of-three match sailed on September 15. Robin was skippered by 2002 US Rolex Yachtswoman of the Year Liz Baylis.
Match races in horse racing
Famous horse racing match races include:
1823 match race at Union Course on Long Island of 3 heats, 4 miles each between [American Eclipse]and [Sir Henry], won by American Eclipse;
the 1851 match at York between The Derby winners The Flying Dutchman and Voltigeur;
1854 match race at Metairie Race Course in New Orleans between Lexington and Lecomte, won by Lexington;
1877 "Great Race" 2½-mile run by a trio of champions: Ten Broeck, Tom Ochiltree and Parole that shut down the U.S. Congress for a day and is depicted in a four-ton stone bas relief sculpted in stone hanging over the clubhouse entrance at Pimlico;
the 1878 four mile long race in Louisville between the Eastern U.S. colt Ten Broeck and California filly Mollie McCarty that inspired the song Molly and Tenbrooks;
the Canadian contest between Man o' War and Sir Barton in 1920, won by Man O'War;
Seabiscuit's 4 length victory over War Admiral in the 1938 Pimlico Special;
on September 19, 1942 Alsab won by a nose over Whirlaway at Narragansett Park;
the 1955 race between Nashua and Swaps;
the 1966 Pace of the Century between standardbred champs Bret Hanover and Cardigan Bay;
and 1975's tragedy-marred contest between colt Foolish Pleasure and filly Ruffian at Belmont Park. Ruffian broke down in the backstretch and was euthanized; her remains are buried in the Belmont Park infield.
See also
Racing Rules of Sailing
References
External links
Women's International Match Racing Association
Lysekil Women's Match
Dutch Match & Team Racing Association
Women's International Match Racing Series
Racing
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222484 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gog%20and%20Magog | Gog and Magog | Gog and Magog (; , Gōg ū-Māgōg) appear in the Hebrew Bible and the Quran as individuals, tribes, or lands. In Ezekiel 38, Gog is an individual and Magog is his land; in Genesis 10, Magog is a man and eponymous ancestor of a nation, but no Gog is mentioned; and centuries later Jewish tradition changed Ezekiel's "Gog from Magog" into "Gog and Magog".
The Gog prophecy is meant to be fulfilled at the approach of what is called the "end of days", but not necessarily the end of the world. Jewish eschatology viewed Gog and Magog as enemies to be defeated by the Messiah, which would usher in the age of the Messiah. Christianity's interpretation is more starkly apocalyptic: making Gog and Magog, here indicating nations rather than individuals, allies of Satan against God at the end of the millennium, as described in the Book of Revelation.
A legend was attached to Gog and Magog by the time of the Roman period, that the Gates of Alexander were erected by Alexander the Great to repel the tribe. Romanized Jewish historian Josephus knew them as the nation descended from Magog the Japhetite, as in Genesis, and explained them to be the Scythians. In the hands of Early Christian writers they became apocalyptic hordes. Throughout the Middle Ages, they were variously identified as the Vikings, Huns, Khazars, Mongols, Turanians or other nomads, or even the Ten Lost Tribes of Israel.
The legend of Gog and Magog and the gates were also interpolated into the Alexander romances. In one version, "Goth and Magothy" are kings of the Unclean Nations, driven beyond a mountain pass by Alexander, and blocked from returning by his new wall. Gog and Magog are said to engage in human cannibalism in the romances and derived literature. They have also been depicted on Medieval cosmological maps, or mappae mundi, sometimes alongside Alexander's wall.
The conflation of Gog and Magog with the legend of Alexander and the Iron Gates was disseminated throughout the Near East in the early centuries of the Christian and Islamic era. They appear in the Quran in chapter Al-Kahf as Yajuj and Majuj (Arabic: ; Yaʾjūj wa-Maʾjūj), primitive and immoral tribes that were separated and barriered off by Dhul-Qarnayn ("He of the Two Horns") who is mentioned in the Quran as a great righteous ruler and conqueror. Some contemporary Muslim historians and geographers regarded the Vikings as the emergence of Gog and Magog. In modern times they remain associated with apocalyptic thinking, especially in Israel and the Muslim world.
Names
The names are mentioned together in Ezekiel chapter 38, where Gog is an individual and Magog is his land. The meaning of the name Gog remains uncertain, and in any case, the author of the Ezekiel prophecy seems to attach no particular importance to it. Efforts have been made to identify him with various individuals, notably Gyges, a king of Lydia in the early 7th century BC, but many scholars do not believe he is related to any historical person.
In Genesis 10 Magog is described as a son of Japheth, grandson of Noah, although there is no mention there of a person named Gog. The name Magog itself is of obscure origin. It is often associated with Assyrian mat-Gugu, "Land of Gyges", i.e., Lydia. Alternatively, Gog may be derived from Magog rather than the other way round, and "Magog" may be code for Babylon.
The form "Gog and Magog" may have emerged as shorthand for "Gog and/of the land of Magog", based on their usage in the Septuagint, the Greek translation of the Hebrew Bible. An example of this combined form in Hebrew (Gog u-Magog) has been found, but its context is unclear, being preserved only in a fragment of the Dead Sea Scrolls. In Revelation, Gog and Magog together are the hostile nations of the world. Gog or Goug the Reubenite occurs in 1 Chronicles , but he appears to have no connection with the Gog of Ezekiel or Magog of Genesis.
The Biblical "Gog and Magog" possibly gave derivation of the name Gogmagog, a legendary British giant. A later corrupted folk rendition in print altered the tradition around Gogmagog and Corineus with two giants Gog and Magog, with whom the Guildhall statues came to be identified.
Jewish texts
Ezekiel
The Book of Ezekiel records a series of visions received by the prophet Ezekiel, a priest of Solomon's Temple, who was among the captive during the Babylonian exile. The exile, he tells his fellow captives, is God's punishment on Israel for turning away, but God will restore his people to Jerusalem when they return to him. After this message of reassurance, chapters 38–39, the Gog oracle, tell how Gog of Magog and his hordes will threaten the restored Israel but will be destroyed, after which God will establish a new Temple and dwell with his people for a period of lasting peace (chapters 40–48).
"Son of man, direct your face against Gog, of the land of Magog, the prince, leader of Meshech and Tubal, and prophesy concerning him. Say: Thus said the Lord: Behold, I am against you, Gog, the prince, leader of Meshech and Tubal ... Persia, Cush and Put will be with you ... also Gomer with all its troops, and Beth Togarmah from the far north with all its troops—the many nations with you."
Internal evidence indicates that the Gog oracle was composed substantially later than the chapters around it. Of Gog's allies, Meshech and Tubal were 7th-century BC kingdoms in central Anatolia north of Israel, Persia towards the east, Cush (Ethiopia) and Put (Libya) to the south; Gomer is the Cimmerians, a nomadic people north of the Black Sea, and Beth Togarmah was on the border of Tubal. The confederation thus represents a multinational alliance surrounding Israel. "Why the prophet's gaze should have focused on these particular nations is unclear," comments Biblical scholar Daniel I. Block, but their remoteness and reputation for violence and mystery possibly "made Gog and his confederates perfect symbols of the archetypal enemy, rising against God and his people". One explanation is that the Gog alliance, a blend of the "Table of Nations" in Genesis 10 and Tyre's trading partners in Ezekiel 27, with Persia added, was cast in the role of end-time enemies of Israel by means of Isaiah 66:19, which is another text of eschatological foretelling.
Although the prophecy refers to Gog as an enemy in some future, it is not clear if the confrontation is meant to occur in a final "end of days" since the Hebrew term aḥarit ha-yamim () may merely mean "latter days", and is open to interpretation. Twentieth-century scholars have used the term to denote the eschaton in a malleable sense, not necessarily meaning final days, or tied to the Apocalypse. Still, the Utopia of chapters 40–48 can be spoken of in the parlance of "true eschatological character, given that it is a product of "cosmic conflict" described in the immediately preceding Gog chapters.
The Septuagint reads "Gog" instead of "Agag" in Numbers 24:7.
Over the next few centuries Jewish tradition changed Ezekiel's Gog from Magog into Gog and Magog. The process, and the shifting geography of Gog and Magog, can be traced through the literature of the period. The 3rd book of the Sibylline Oracles, for example, which originated in Egyptian Judaism in the middle of the 2nd century BC, changes Ezekiel's "Gog from Magog" to "Gog and Magog", links their fate with up to eleven other nations, and places them "in the midst of Aethiopian rivers"; this seems a strange location, but ancient geography did sometimes place Ethiopia next to Persia or even India. The passage has a highly uncertain text, with manuscripts varying in their groupings of the letters of the Greek text into words, leading to different readings; one group of manuscripts ("group Y") links them with the "Marsians and Dacians", in eastern Europe, amongst others.
The Book of Jubilees, from about the same time, makes three references to either Gog or Magog: in the first, Magog is a descendant of Noah, as in Genesis 10; in the second, Gog is a region next to Japheth's borders; and in the third, a portion of Japheth's land is assigned to Magog. The 1st-century Liber Antiquitatum Biblicarum, which retells Biblical history from Adam to Saul, is notable for listing and naming seven of Magog's sons, and mentions his "thousands" of descendants. The Samaritan Torah and the Septuagint (a Greek translation of the Hebrew Bible made during the last few centuries of the pre-Christian era) occasionally introduce the name of Gog where the Hebrew original has something else, or use Magog where the Hebrew has Gog, indicating that the names were interchangeable.
Midrashic writings
The anti-Roman Bar Kokhba revolt in the 2nd century AD looked to a human leader as the promised messiah, but after its failure Jews began to conceive of the messianic age in supernatural terms: first would come a forerunner, the Messiah ben Joseph, who would defeat Israel's enemies, identified as Gog and Magog, to prepare the way for the Messiah ben David; then the dead would rise, divine judgement would be handed out, and the righteous would be rewarded.
The aggadah, homiletic and non-legalistic exegetical texts in the classical rabbinic literature of Judaism, treat Gog and Magog as two names for the same nation who will come against Israel in the final war. The rabbis associated no specific nation or territory with them beyond a location to the north of Israel, but the great Jewish scholar Rashi identified the Christians as their allies and said God would thwart their plan to kill all Israel.
Christian texts
Chapters 19:11–21:8 of the Book of Revelation, dating from the end of the 1st century AD, tells how Satan is to be imprisoned for a thousand years, and how, on his release, he will rally "the nations in the four corners of the Earth, Gog and Magog", to a final battle with Christ and his saints:
When the thousand years are over, Satan will be released from his prison and will go out to deceive the nations in the four corners of the Earth—Gog and Magog—and to gather them for battle. In number they are like the sand on the seashore.
Islamic texts
Two chapters of the Quran, Al Kahf and Al-Anbiya, discuss Gog and Magog. In the Quran Yajuj and Majuj (Gog and Magog) are suppressed by Dhul-Qarnayn "the two-horned one (traditionally regarded to be Alexander the Great.)" Dhul-Qarnayn, having journeyed to the ends of the world, meets "a people who scarcely understood a word" who seek his help in building a barrier that will separate them from the people of Yajuj and Majuj who "do great mischief on earth". He agrees to build it for them, but warns that when the time comes (Last Age), Allah will remove the barrier.
The early Muslim traditions were summarised by Zakariya al-Qazwini (d. 1283) in two popular works called the Cosmography and the Geography. Gog and Magog, he says, live near to the sea that encircles the Earth and can be counted only by God; this sea is claimed to be the Caspian sea, Black sea or the Sea of Azov. They are human, but only half the height of a normal man, with small eyes almost like the mongols, with claws instead of nails, and a hairy tail and huge hairy ears which they use as mattress and cover for sleeping. They dig into their wall each day until they almost break through. They break for the night saying, "Tomorrow we will finish", but each night God restores it. Then one day, as they stop digging for the night, one will say, "Tomorrow we will finish, God Willing", and in the morning, it is not restored as with everything night. When they do break through, they will be so numerous that, "Their vanguard is in Syria and their rear in Khorasan".
Various nations and peoples in history were identified as Ya'juj and Ma'juj. At one point, it was the Turks, who threatened Baghdad and northern Iran; later, when the Mongols destroyed Baghdad in 1258, it was they who were Gog and Magog. The wall dividing them from civilized peoples was normally placed towards today's Armenia and Azerbaijan, but in the year 842 the Caliph Al-Wathiq had a dream in which he saw that it had been breached, and sent an official named Sallam to investigate (this may be related to Ergenekon). Sallam returned a little over two years later and reported that he had seen the wall and also the tower where Dhul Qarnayn had left his building equipment, and all was still intact. It is not entirely clear what Sallam saw, but he may have reached Derbent in the Caucuses or the Jade Gate and the westernmost customs point on the border of China. Somewhat later the 14th-century traveller Ibn Battuta reported that the wall was sixty days' travel from the city of Zeitun, which is on the coast of China; the translator notes that Ibn Battuta has confused the Great Wall of China with that built by Dhul-Qarnayn.
According to Shia sources, Yajooj and Majooj are not from the Children of Adam (the human race). However, in other sources, they're described as small-eyed humans. Al-Kafi, one of their primary collections of ahadith, states that it has been narrated from Ibn Abbas that when he asked Ali about the "creatures", he responded by saying God has created "1,200 species on the land, 1,200 species in the sea, 70 species from the Children of Adam and the people are the Children of Adam except for the Yajooj and Majooj". This is in contradiction with many reports in Sunni sources, including those in Sahih Al-Bukhari and Sahih Muslim, which indicate they will indeed, be from the Children of Adam, and this is the belief of the overwhelming majority of Islamic scholars.
Various modern scholars of history and geography regarded the Vikings and their descendants as Gog and Magog, since the unknown group from Scandinavia had made their sudden and considerable entry into the history of Europe. Viking travelers and colonists were seen at many points in history as violent raiders. Many historical documents suggest that their conquests of other territories was retaliation in response to the encroachment upon tribal lands by Christian missionaries, and perhaps by the Saxon Wars prosecuted by Charlemagne and his kin to the south. Researches of professors and philosophers such as Allama Muhammad Iqbal, Syeed Abul Ala Mawdudi, who played important roles in British and South Asian politics, and American academic Abu Ammaar Yasir Qadhi and Caribbean eschatologist Imran N. Hosein, compare the languages, behaviors and sexual activities of the tribes of Gog and Magog with those of Vikings.
According to Sahih Muslim, the Prophet said:
Then a people whom Allah had protected from him (dajjal) would come to Isa, son of Maryam, and he would wipe their faces and would inform them of their ranks in Paradise and it would be under such conditions that Allah would reveal to Isa (alaihis salam) these words: I have brought forth from amongst My servants such people against whom none would be able to fight; you take these people safely to Tur, and then Allah would send Gog and Magog and they would swarm down from every slope. The first of them would pass the lake of Tiberias and drink out of it. And when the last of them would pass, he would say: There was once water there.
Some scholars further attempt to relate the last portion of the interpretation of Yajuj and Majuj to the lake of Tiberias, currently known as the Sea of Galilee, the Earth's lowest freshwater lake, and the Dead Sea.
Historian and exegete Ibn Kathir mentioned similar theories in his book Al-Bidaya wa'l-Nihaya.
In Ahmadiyya
Mirza Ghulam Ahmad (d.1908), the founder of the Ahmadiyya movement, identified Gog and Magog with the European powers that had emerged from the Slavic and Germanic peoples respectively, with particular reference to their political duplicity and shattering of world peace. Ahmadiyya exegeses draw upon the etymological connection of the Arabic cognate Yaʾjūj wa-Maʾjūj with the underlying themes of "blazing fire", "hastiness" and "boiling water" to what is viewed as the superlative industrial use of fire and steam by these peoples and to their restless political character. According to these teachings, the conflict between Russia and the United States as two superpowers, or the militant rivalry between the communist and capitalist systems and their impact over the nations of the world, is thus seen as having occurred in accordance with prophecies concerning Gog and Magog. These powers cannot be defeated through military force and are to be overcome through prayer and divine intervention. Islam is then seen as that which alone would succeed in bringing people of different nations together as per the Quran ().
Alexander the Great
The 1st-century Jewish historian Josephus identified the Gog and Magog people as Scythians, horse-riding barbarians from around the Don and the Sea of Azov. Josephus recounts the tradition that Gog and Magog were locked up by Alexander the Great behind iron gates in the "Caspian Mountains", generally identified with the Caucasus Mountains. This legend must have been current in contemporary Jewish circles by this period, coinciding with the beginning of the Christian Era. Several centuries later, this material was vastly elaborated in the Apocalypse of Pseudo-Methodius and Alexander romance.
Precursor texts in Syriac
The Pseudo-Methodius, written originally in Syriac, is considered the source of Gog and Magog tale incorporated into Western versions of the Alexander Romance. An earlier-dated Syriac Alexander Legend contains a somewhat different treatment of the Gog and Magog material, which passed into the lost Arabic version, or the Ethiopic and later Oriental versions of the Alexander romance.
In the Syriac Alexander Legend dating to 629–630, Gog (, gwg) and Magog (ܵ, mgwg) appear as kings of Hunnish nations. Written by a Christian based in Mesopotamia, the Legend is considered the first work to connect the Gates with the idea that Gog and Magog are destined to play a role in the apocalypse. The legend claims that Alexander carved prophecies on the face of the Gate, marking a date for when these Huns, consisting of 24 nations, will breach the Gate and subjugate the greater part of the world.
Pseudo-Methodius (7th century) is the first source in the Christian tradition for a new element: two mountains moving together to narrow the corridor, which was then sealed with a gate against Gog and Magog. This idea is also in the Quran and found its way in the Western Alexander Romance.
Alexander romances
This Gog and Magog legend is not found in earlier versions of the Alexander romance of Pseudo-Callisthenes, whose oldest manuscript dates to the 3rd century, but an interpolation into recensions around the 8th century. In the latest and longest Greek version are described the Unclean Nations, which include the Goth and Magoth as their kings, and whose people engage in the habit of eating worms, dogs, human cadavers and fetuses. They were allied to Belsyrians (Bebrykes, of Bithynia in modern-day North Turkey), and sealed beyond the "Breasts of the North", a pair of mountains fifty days' march away towards the north.
Gog and Magog appear in somewhat later Old French versions of the romance. In the verse Roman d'Alexandre, Branch III, of Lambert le Tort (c. 1170), Gog and Magog ("Gos et Margos", "Got et Margot") were vassals to Porus, king of India, providing an auxiliary force of 400,000 men. Routed by Alexander, they escaped through a defile in the mountains of Tus (or Turs), and were sealed by the wall erected there, to last until the advent of the Antichrist. Branch IV of the poetic cycle tells that the task of guarding Gog and Magog, as well as the rule of Syria and Persia was assigned to Antigonus, one of Alexander's successors.
Gog and Magog also appear in Thomas de Kent's Roman de toute chevalerie (c. 1180), where they are portrayed as cave-dwellers who consume human flesh. A condensed account occurs in a derivative work, the Middle English King Alisaunder (vv. 5938–6287). In the 13th-century French Roman d'Alexandre en prose, Alexander has an encounter with cannibals who have taken over the role of Gog and Magog. This is a case of imperfect transmission, since the prose Alexander'''s source, the Latin work by Archpriest Leo of Naples known as Historia de Preliis, does mention "Gogh et Macgogh", at least in some manuscripts.
The Gog and Magog are not only human flesh-eaters, but illustrated as men "a notably beaked nose" in examples such as the "Sawley map", an important example of mappa mundi. Gog and Magog caricaturised as figures with hooked noses on a miniature depicting their attack of the Holy City, found in a manuscript of the Apocalypse in Anglo-Norman.
Identification with civilisations
Early Christian writers (e.g. Eusebius) frequently identified Gog and Magog with the Romans and their emperor. After the Empire became Christian, Ambrose (d. 397) identified Gog with the Goths, Jerome (d. 420) with the Scythians, and Jordanes (died c. 555) said that Goths, Scythians and Amazons were all the same; he also cited Alexander's gates in the Caucasus. The Byzantine writer Procopius said it was the Huns Alexander had locked out, and a Western monk named Fredegar seems to have Gog and Magog in mind in his description of savage hordes from beyond Alexander's gates who had assisted the Byzantine emperor Heraclius (610–641) against the Muslim Saracens.
Nomadic identification
As one nomadic people followed another on the Eurasian steppes, so the identification of Gog and Magog shifted. In the 9th and 10th centuries these kingdoms were identified by some with the lands of the Khazars, a Turkic people whose leaders had converted to Judaism and whose empire dominated Central Asia–the 9th-century monk Christian of Stavelot referred to Gazari, said of the Khazars that they were "living in the lands of Gog and Magog" and noted that they were "circumcised and observing all [the laws of] Judaism". Arab traveler ibn Fadlan also reported of this belief, writing around 921 he recorded that "Some hold the opinion that Gog and Magog are the Khazars".
After the Khazars came the Mongols, seen as a mysterious and invincible horde from the east who destroyed Muslim empires and kingdoms in the early 13th century; kings and popes took them for the legendary Prester John, marching to save Christians from the Muslim Saracens, but when they entered Poland and Hungary and annihilated Christian armies a terrified Europe concluded that they were "Magogoli", the offspring of Gog and Magog, released from the prison Alexander had constructed for them and heralding Armageddon.
Europeans in Medieval China reported findings from their travels to the Mongol Empire. Some accounts and maps began to place the "Caspian Mountains", and Gog and Magog, just outside the Great Wall of China. The Tartar Relation, an obscure account of Friar Carpini's 1240s journey to Mongolia, is unique in alleging that these Caspian Mountains in Mongolia, "where the Jews called Gog and Magog by their fellow countrymen are said to have been shut in by Alexander", were moreover purported by the Tartars to be magnetic, causing all iron equipment and weapons to fly off toward the mountains on approach. In 1251, the French friar André de Longjumeau informed his king that the Mongols originated from a desert further east, and an apocalyptic Gog and Magog ("Got and Margoth") people dwelled further beyond, confined by the mountains. In the map of Sharif Idrisi, the land of Gog and Magog is drawn in the northeast corner (beyond Northeast Asia) and enclosed. Some medieval European world maps also show the location of the lands of Gog and Magog in the far northeast of Asia (and the northeast corner of the world).
In fact, Gog and Magog were held by the Mongol to be their ancestors, at least by some segment of the population. As traveler and Friar Riccoldo da Monte di Croce put it in c. 1291, "They say themselves that they are descended from Gog and Magog: and on this account they are called Mogoli, as if from a corruption of Magogoli". Marco Polo, traveling when the initial terror had subsided, places Gog and Magog among the Tartars in Tenduc, but then claims that the names Gog and Magog are translations of the place-names Ung and Mungul, inhabited by the Ung and Mongols respectively.
An explanation offered by Orientalist Henry Yule was that Marco Polo was only referring to the "Rampart of Gog and Magog", a name for the Great Wall of China. Friar André's placement of Gog and Magog far east of Mongolia has been similarly explained.
The confined Jews
Some time around the 12th century, the Ten Lost Tribes of Israel came to be identified with Gog and Magog; possibly the first to do so was Petrus Comestor in Historica Scholastica (c. 1169–1173), and he was indeed a far greater influence than others before him, although the idea had been anticipated by the aforementioned Christian of Stavelot, who noted that the Khazhars, to be identified with Gog and Magog, was one of seven tribes of the Hungarians and had converted to Judaism.
While the confounding Gog and Magog as confined Jews was becoming commonplace, some, like Riccoldo or Vincent de Beauvais remained skeptics, and distinguished the Lost Tribes from Gog and Magog. As noted, Riccoldo had reported a Mongol folk-tradition that they were descended from Gog and Magog. He also addressed many minds (Westerners or otherwise) being credulous of the notion that Mongols might be Captive Jews, but after weighing the pros and cons, he concluded this was an open question.
The Flemish Franciscan friar William of Rubruck, who was first-hand witness to Alexander's supposed wall in Derbent on the shores of the Caspian Sea in 1254, identified the people the walls were meant to fend off only vaguely as "wild tribes" or "desert nomads", but one researcher made the inference Rubruck must have meant Jews, and that he was speaking in the context of "Gog and Magog". Confined Jews were later to be referred to as "Red Jews" (die roten Juden) in German-speaking areas; a term first used in a Holy Grail epic dating to the 1270s, in which Gog and Magog were two mountains enclosing these people.
The author of the Travels of Sir John Mandeville, a 14th-century best-seller, said he had found these Jews in Central Asia where as Gog and Magog they had been imprisoned by Alexander, plotting to escape and join with the Jews of Europe to destroy Christians.
In the Borgia map, a copper-engraved world map probably produced in Southern Germany , the most eastern part contains two fortified regions depicting Gog and Magog, with the following Latin inscriptions:
The province of Gog, in which the Jews were confined during the time of Artaxerxes, king of the Persians.
Magog – in these two are large people and giants who are full of all kinds of bad behaviors. These Jews were collected by Artaxerxes from all parts of Persia.
The Persian king Artaxerxes (either Artaxerxes I or Artaxerxes II, appearing in the Book of Ezra 7) was commonly confused in Medieval Europe with the Neo-Assyrian ruler Shalmaneser V, who according to 2 Kings 17 drove the Ten Lost Tribes of Israel into exile.
Modern apocalypticism
In the early 19th century, some Hasidic rabbis identified the French invasion of Russia under Napoleon as "The War of Gog and Magog". But as the century progressed, apocalyptic expectations receded as the populace in Europe began to adopt an increasingly secular worldview. This has not been the case in the United States, where a 2002 poll indicated that 59% of Americans believed the events predicted in the Book of Revelation would come to pass. During the Cold War the idea that Soviet Russia had the role of Gog gained popularity, since Ezekiel's words describing him as "prince of Meshek" – rosh meshek'' in Hebrew – sounded suspiciously like Russia and Moscow. Even some Russians took up the idea, apparently unconcerned by the implications ("Ancestors were found in the Bible, and that was enough"), as did Ronald Reagan.
Some post-Cold War millenarians still identify Gog with Russia, but they now tend to stress its allies among Islamic nations, especially Iran. For the most fervent, the countdown to Armageddon began with the return of the Jews to Israel, followed quickly by further signs pointing to the nearness of the final battle – nuclear weapons, European integration, Israel's reunification of Jerusalem in the Six Day War in 1967, and America's wars in Afghanistan and the Persian Gulf. According to an unconfirmed report, US President George W. Bush, in the prelude to the 2003 Invasion of Iraq, told French President Jacques Chirac, "Gog and Magog are at work in the Middle East." Bush is said to have continued, "This confrontation is willed by God, who wants to use this conflict to erase His people's enemies before a new age begins." Officials from the Bush Administration claim there is no record of this conversation and that making such references, "doesn't sound at all like Bush", and French officials on the call have similarly claimed to have not heard any such remarks.
In the Islamic apocalyptic tradition, the end of the world would be preceded by the release of Gog and Magog, whose destruction by God in a single night would usher in the Day of Resurrection. Reinterpretation did not generally continue after Classical times, but the needs of the modern world have produced a new body of apocalyptic literature in which Gog and Magog are identified as Communist Russia and China. One problem these writers have had to confront is the barrier holding Gog and Magog back, which is not to be found in the modern world: the answer varies, some writers saying that Gog and Magog were the Mongols and that the wall is now gone, others that both the wall and Gog and Magog are invisible.
See also
Alexander the Great in the Quran
Cyrus the Great in the Quran
Eschatology
Magog
Sasanian defense lines
Explanatory notes
References
Citations
Bibliography
Monographs
Encyclopedias
Biblical studies
Literary
Geography and ethnography
()
Modern apocalyptic thought
Articles about multiple people in the Quran
Biblical phrases
Book of Revelation
Dhul-Qarnayn
Duos
Islamic mythology
Japheth
Jewish eschatology
Jewish messianism
Kabbalistic words and phrases
Monarchs of the Hebrew Bible
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222486 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Adios%20Butler | Adios Butler | The horse Adios Butler, also known as "The Butler" (1956–1983), was a North American harness racing champion.
Background
Sired by the great Standardbred Adios and out of an obscure broodmare named Debby Hanover, Adios Butler was trained by Paige West and driven by Clint Hodgins in 1959.
Racing career
In 1959, Adios Butler won the Cane Pace, then the Little Brown Jug, where he was the first horse to win with a sub-two-minute mile, and finally the Messenger Stakes, doing it in track and stake record time to become the first pacer to capture the Triple Crown of Harness Racing for Pacers. In 1960 Adios Butler was sold in part to Ohio interests and while he remained in the care of Paige West he was driven throughout the rest of his career by Eddie Cobb. He stood at stud at Fair Chance Farms in Washington Court House, Ohio.
The following year, he lost only one race on a muddy track and later recorded a 1:54.3 mile, the then-fastest time in harness racing history. Adios Butler was named "United States Harness Horse of the Year" in 1960 and 1961 by the U.S. Trotting Association and the U.S. Harness Writers Association.
Stud record
After his racing career, he was retired to stud. Adios Butler went on to sire such notable pacers as Honest Story, Pantry Man, El Patron, Escondido, Van Kirk, Uncle Frank, Ocean Mouth, Dean Butler, Lord Butler, Trial Lawyer, Starboard Butler and many others. This despite facing fertility problems throughout his career as a stallion.
References
American Standardbred racehorses
Harness racing in the United States
1956 racehorse births
1983 racehorse deaths
American Champion harness horses
Horse racing track record setters
Harness Horse of the Year winners
United States Harness Racing Hall of Fame inductees
Little Brown Jug winners
Cane Pace winners
Messenger Stakes winners
Triple Crown of Harness Racing winners | [
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222487 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Magog | Magog | Magog may refer to:
In the Bible
Magog (Bible), a grandson of Noah in the Old Testament
Gog and Magog, a Biblical pair
Fictional people
Magog, of Gog and Magog (statues) in Guildhall, London
Magog ("Magos"), appearing with Gog ("Gos"), in Gargantua
Places in Canada
Magog, Quebec, a town
Magog Township, Quebec, a former township
Magog River, Quebec
Lake Magog, Quebec
Mount Magog, on the border between Alberta and British Columbia
Entertainment
Magog (comics), an anti-hero in DC Comics' Kingdom Come miniseries
Magog, a 1972 novel by Andrew Sinclair
Magog, a fallen angel in the Dresden Files novels by Jim Butcher, first appearing in Small Favor
Guards of Magog, referenced in the song "Supper's Ready" by Genesis on the 1972 album Foxtrot
Magog, a fictional race of beings from the TV show "Andromeda"
Other uses
, a Royal Canadian Navy frigate during the Second World War
Magog, an unaccepted synonym for a genus of sponges Chondrilla (sponge)
Magog, a nickname given within the Skull and Bones collegiate secret society
Oaks of Avalon, a pair of oak trees known individually as Gog and Magog, Glastonbury, Somerset, England
Gog and Magog, twin rock formations in Stewart Island / Rakiura, New Zealand
See also
Gog Magog Hills, a range of hills south of Cambridge, England
Gog (disambiguation) | [
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222488 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Camp%20Nou | Camp Nou | Camp Nou (, meaning new field, often referred to in English as the Nou Camp) is a football stadium in Barcelona, Spain. It opened in 1957 and has been the home stadium of FC Barcelona since its completion.
With a seating capacity of 99,354, it is the largest stadium in Spain and Europe, and the fourth largest association football stadium in the world in capacity. It has hosted two European Cup/Champions League finals in 1989 and 1999, two European Cup Winners' Cup finals, four Inter-Cities Fairs Cup final games, five UEFA Super Cup games, four Copa del Rey finals, two Copa de la Liga finals, and twenty-one Supercopa de España finals. It also hosted five matches in the 1982 FIFA World Cup, including the opening game, two out of four matches at the 1964 European Nations' Cup, and the football tournament's final at the 1992 Summer Olympics.
History
Construction
The construction of Camp Nou started on 28 March 1954 as Barcelona's previous stadium, Camp de Les Corts, had no room for expansion. Although originally planned to be called the Estadi del FC Barcelona, the more popular name Camp Nou was used. The June 1950 signing of László Kubala, regarded as one of Barcelona's greatest players, provided further impetus to the construction of a larger stadium.
On 14 November 1950, the president Agustí Montal i Galobart obtained the favourable agreement of an assembly of members to acquire land for the construction of a new stadium, located in Hospitalet de Llobregat, which was later exchanged with the Barcelona City Council for other land in the neighbourhood of Les Corts. The stadium is located at the end of Travessera de les Corts, next to the Cementiri and the Maternitat. The commission dedicated to the project recommended another location in February 1951. The official purchase took place two years later.
The appointment of Francesc Miró-Sans as president of FC Barcelona, on 14 November 1953, was to relaunch the project. Invested in February of the following year, Miró-Sans decided in favour of the land acquired in 1950, and the first stone of the stadium was laid on 28 March 1954. A procession of several thousands of people made the journey from the Camp de Les Corts to La Masia de Can Planes, where the ceremony of laying the first stone was held, a solemn ceremony in the presence of Miró-Sans, the head of the Civil Government of Barcelona and the archbishop of Barcelona, Gregorio Modrego.
The project was completed one year later, when the club entrusted the construction to the building company Ingar SA. The work was supposed to last eight months, but the costs were more than four times higher than expected, reaching 288 million pesetas. Through mortgages and loans, the club managed to finish the project, borrowing heavily for several years. The club hoped to cover the cost with the sale of the land at Les Corts, but the Barcelona City Council took five years to requalify it, giving rise to a period of certain economic hardship, Finally, the head of state and of the Spanish government at the time, the dictator Francisco Franco, authorised the requalification of the land at Les Corts and put an end to the crisis of the Barcelona club. During the course of the Camp Nou construction work, La Masia served as a workshop for making the models and a workplace for architects and builders.
The architects were Francesc Mitjans and Josep Soteras, with the collaboration of Lorenzo García-Barbón.
Finally, on 24 September 1957, the feast of La Mercè, the Camp Nou was inaugurated. A solemn mass presided over by the archbishop, who welcomed the finished stadium, preceded the Hallelujah from Handel's Messiah. Dignitaries of the Franco regime and of the city gathered in the presidential tribune, and some 90,000 people attended the opening ceremony in the stands of the huge stadium. During the event, football clubs from all over Catalonia paraded on the field, as well as members of the different sections of Barça, the penyes and the different FC Barcelona teams.
Early years and the 1982 World Cup
In May 1972, Camp Nou hosted its first European Cup Winners' Cup final between Rangers and Dynamo Moscow. Rangers won the match with a score of 3–2. Electronic scoreboards were installed 1975 in the stadium.
The stadium underwent an expansion in 1980, in anticipation of the 1982 FIFA World Cup, which added boxes, VIP lounges, a new press area, new markers and the construction of the third tier, which was smaller in height than the original design by 6 metres (46.60 metres compared to the original design of 52.50 metres). The expansion of the stadium added 22,150 new seats, taking the total seating capacity to 71,731, and the standing capacity was expanded by 16,500 to 49,670, taking the total stadium capacity (seated and standing combined) to 121,401. FC Barcelona's record attendance was set on 5 March 1986 in the European Cup quarter-final against Juventus in front of 120,000 spectators, just 1,401 shy of the stadium's capacity.
Camp Nou was one of several stadiums used throughout the 1982 World Cup, hosting the inauguration ceremony on 13 June. It also hosted more matches in that tournament than any of the 16 other stadiums used all over Spain, including the opening match, where the traditional opening ceremonies took place (including the releasing of a dove). In front of 95,000, Belgium upset the defending champions Argentina 1–0 in that opening match. It then hosted three round-robin matches between the Soviet Union, Poland, and Belgium, which Poland ended up winning and qualifying from to reach the semi-finals, where they played Italy at the Camp Nou, losing 2–0; Italy went on to win the final match, which was played at Real Madrid's Santiago Bernabéu Stadium in Madrid.
Camp Nou also hosted the 1999 UEFA Champions League Final between Manchester United and Bayern Munich, with both teams in contention to complete league title/domestic cup/European Cup trebles. Bayern led early through Mario Basler's goal in the sixth minute and kept the lead as the clock reached 90 minutes, but United came back to win with injury time goals from Teddy Sheringham and Ole Gunnar Solskjær.
Development
The stadium's capacity has varied greatly over the years, opening at 106,146, but growing to 121,401 for the 1982 FIFA World Cup.
Apart from hosting Barcelona, Camp Nou is home to the Catalan team. The stadium is frequently used for other football events. The European Cup final between Milan and Steaua București was held on 24 May 1989, with the Italian club winning 4–0. Camp Nou hosted part of the football competition, including the final, in the 1992 Summer Olympics. In preparation for these matches, two additional tiers of seating were installed over the previous roof-line.
Camp Nou underwent little change after 1982, except for the opening of the club museum in 1984. The stadium was renovated in 1993–94, in which the pitch was lowered by 2.5 metres (8 feet), the security gap that separated the lawn from the galleries was removed, and standing room was eliminated in favour of individual seating. A new press box, renovation of the presidential grandstand and boxes, new parking under the main grandstand, and new lighting and sound systems were completed in time for the 1998–99 season. During 1998–99, UEFA rated Camp Nou a five-star stadium for its services and functionalities.
The facilities now included a memorabilia shop, mini-pitches for training matches, and a chapel for the players. The stadium also houses the second-most visited museum in Catalonia, FC Barcelona Museum, which receives more than 1.2 million visitors per year.
On 1 October 2017, Barcelona's league match against Las Palmas was played in an empty Camp Nou due to political turmoil in the region.
Renovation and expansion
The club issued an international tender to remodel the stadium as a celebration of the stadium's fiftieth anniversary. The objective was to make the facility an integrated and highly visible urban environment. The club sought to increase the seating capacity by 13,500, with at least half of the total seating to be under cover. The intention was to make it the third-largest stadium in the world in terms of seating capacity, after the Narendra Modi Stadium in India (132,000 capacity) and Rungrado 1st of May Stadium in North Korea (114,000 capacity) .
On 18 September 2007, the British architect Norman Foster and his company were selected to "restructure" Camp Nou. The plan included the addition of roughly 6,000 seats, for a maximum capacity of 105,000, at an estimated cost of €250 million. The FC Barcelona board approved the sale of their former training ground (the Mini Estadi) against significant opposition in order to finance the remodeling. The project was planned to begin in 2009 and to be finished for the 2011–12 season. However, due to the 2008 financial crisis the sale of the training ground was postponed and likewise the remodeling project. In May 2010, Sandro Rosell, then a candidate for president of FC Barcelona, dismissed the possibility of selling the Mini Estadi, saying it would be indefensible to "sell the crown jewels", and his election on 30 June 2010 effectively halted the plan to remodel Camp Nou.
In January 2014, Barcelona's board of directors rejected the option of building a new stadium due to financial constraints and instead opted to remodel the Camp Nou to bring the capacity up to 105,000. The project was expected to run from 2017 to early 2021, with a cost of around £495 million (€600 million), making it one of the most expensive expansions on a per-seat basis. A refined plan was released in May 2015 showing plans to add a canopy over the stands and showing the plans for seating expansion in greater detail. Construction was planned in 2019 to begin in summer 2020 and to be completed in 2024.
Other uses
Camp Nou has been used for various purposes other than football, often hosting major concerts. Pope John Paul II celebrated mass for a congregation of over 121,500 at Camp Nou on 17 November 1982, on the occasion being made an honorary citizen of Barcelona.
High-profile performances at Camp Nou included those by Julio Iglesias on 5 September 1983 and on 8 September 1988. Bruce Springsteen on 3 August 1988 during his Tunnel of Love Express Tour in front of 90,000 fans ; and again on 19 and 20 July 2008 during his Magic Tour. He returned to the stadium on 16 May 2016 during The River Tour. On 9 August 1988, Michael Jackson appeared at the stadium in front of 95,000 fans during his Bad World Tour. On 10 September 1988, a charity concert organised by Amnesty International to support human rights featured, among others, Bruce Springsteen, Sting, Peter Gabriel, Youssou N'Dour, Tracy Chapman, and El Último de la Fila. A concert by the Three Tenors – Josep Carreras, Plácido Domingo and Luciano Pavarotti – was held on 13 July 1997. On 3 August 1988 Bruce Springsteen appeared in front of 90,000 people on the Tunnel of Love Express Tour. He came back on 9 September 1988 to appear in front of again 90,000 on the Human Rights Now! tour.
U2 performed at the stadium three times: the first one was on 7 August 2005 during their Vertigo Tour, in front of a sold-out crowd of 81,269 people. The second and the third were on 30 June and 2 July 2009 during their U2 360° Tour, in front of a total crowd of 182,055 people. The encore performance of "I'll Go Crazy If I Don't Go Crazy Tonight" from the second 2009 show was filmed for the music video of the single.
On 4 November 2014, Ligue Nationale de Rugby (LNR), which operates France's professional rugby union leagues, announced that the 2015–16 Top 14 final would be held at the Camp Nou on 24 June 2016. The Top 14 final is traditionally held at the Stade de France in the Paris suburb of Saint-Denis. However, the scheduling of the 2015 Rugby World Cup caused the 2015–16 French season to be shifted by several weeks, in turn causing the Stade de France to be unavailable because it would be a major venue for UEFA Euro 2016. The match ultimately drew a crowd of 99,124, setting a new record for attendance at a domestic rugby union match.
On 18 May 2019, the first Super League game was hosted in Spain at Camp Nou as Catalans Dragons defeated Wigan Warriors 33–16. This match set the Super League attendance record for a non-Magic Weekend, regular season fixture, attracting 31,555 fans.
Transport connections
The stadium is accessible from the Barcelona Metro with the closest stations to Camp Nou are Palau Reial, Maria Cristina and Les Corts, on L3; Badal on L5 and Collblanc on L5 or L9. All are 500 to 1,000 metres from Camp Nou, depending on which of the gates (accesses) to Camp Nou are used. Usually metro services are increased when there is a match, which causes significant passenger congestion.
A new station, named Avinguda de Xile / Camp Nou, is under construction and will be served by L9 and L10.
Approximately 680 metres from Camp Nou there is the Trambaix Avinguda de Xile station (lines T1, T2 and T3).
Camp Nou is also served by several TMB bus routes, an AMB line, and four Nitbus services. Apart from regular routes, there are two special lines to Mossèn Jacint Verdaguer Square and to Catalunya Square on days with matches.
The stadium is located from the El Prat International Airport. It is connected by L9 from the airport directly to Collblanc, which is a short walk from the stadium.
1982 FIFA World Cup
The stadium was one of the 17 venues of the 1982 FIFA World Cup, and held the following matches:
References
Bibliography
External links
Official website
Profile at Estadios de España
FC Barcelona
Football venues in Catalonia
Sports venues in Barcelona
Sports venues completed in 1957
Les Corts (district)
Venues of the 1992 Summer Olympics
Olympic football venues
1964 European Nations' Cup stadiums
1982 FIFA World Cup stadiums
1957 establishments in Spain | [
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222491 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/7th%20arrondissement%20of%20Paris | 7th arrondissement of Paris | The 7th arrondissement of Paris (VIIe arrondissement) is one of the 20 arrondissements of the capital city of France. In spoken French, this arrondissement is referred to as le septième.
The arrondissement, called Palais-Bourbon in a reference to the seat of the National Assembly, includes some of the major and well-known tourist attractions of Paris, such as the Eiffel Tower, the Hôtel des Invalides (Napoleon's resting place), the Chapel of Our Lady of the Miraculous Medal, as well as a concentration of museums such as the Musée d'Orsay, Musée Rodin and the Musée du Quai Branly – Jacques Chirac.
Situated on the Rive Gauche—the "Left" bank of the River Seine—this central arrondissement, which includes the historical aristocratic neighbourhood of Faubourg Saint-Germain, contains a number of French national institutions, among them the National Assembly and numerous government ministries. It is also home to many foreign diplomatic embassies, some of them occupying outstanding hôtels particuliers.
The arrondissement has been home to the French upper class since the 17th century, when it became the new residence of France's highest nobility. The district has been so fashionable within the French aristocracy that the phrase le Faubourg—referring to the ancient name of the current 7th arrondissement—has been used to describe French nobility ever since. The 7th arrondissement of Paris and Neuilly-sur-Seine form the most affluent and prestigious residential area in France.
History
During the 17th century, French high nobility started to move from the central Marais, the then-aristocratic district of Paris where nobles used to build their urban mansions (see Hotel de Soubise), to the clearer, less populated and less polluted Faubourg Saint-Germain.
The district became so fashionable within the French aristocracy that the phrase le Faubourg has been used to describe French nobility ever since. The oldest and most prestigious families of the French nobility built outstanding residences in the area, such as the Hôtel Matignon, the Hôtel de Salm, and the Hôtel Biron.
After the Revolution many of these mansions, offering magnificent inner spaces, many reception rooms and exquisite decoration, were confiscated and turned into national institutions. The French expression "les ors de la Republique" (literally "the golds of the Republic"), referring to the luxurious environment of the national palaces (outstanding official residences and priceless works of art), comes from that time.
During the Restauration, the Faubourg recovered its past glory as the most exclusive high nobility district of Paris and was the political heart of the country, home to the Ultra Party. After the Fall of Charles X, the district lost most of its political influence but remained the center of the French upper class' social life.
During the 19th century, the arrondissement hosted no fewer than five Universal Exhibitions (1855, 1867, 1878, 1889, 1900) that have immensely impacted its cityscape. The Eiffel Tower and the Orsay building were built for these Exhibitions (respectively in 1889 and 1900).
Geography
The land area of the arrondissement is 4.088 km² (1.578 sq. miles, or 1,010 acres).
Demography
The 7th arrondissement attained its peak population in 1926 when it had 110,684 inhabitants. Because it is the location of so many French government bodies, this arrondissement has never been as densely populated as some of the others. In 1999, the population was 56,985, while the arrondissement provided 76,212 jobs.
Historical population
Immigration
Cityscape
Places of interest
Important places include:
Palais Bourbon, meeting place of the National Assembly
Eiffel Tower
Hôtel Matignon
Hôtel de Boisgelin (Rue de Varenne, Paris), historic building, home to the Italian embassy in Paris.
Champ de Mars
Musée d'Orsay
École Militaire
Hôtel des Invalides
Maison de Verre
Musée du quai Branly
Musée national de la Légion d'Honneur et des Ordres de Chevalerie
Musée Maillol
Musée de l'Ordre de la Libération
Musée Rodin
Musée Valentin Haüy
Institut d'Etudes Politiques de Paris (Sciences Po)
Art and industry
Musée du quai Branly
Musée national de la Légion d'Honneur et des Ordres de Chevalerie
Musée Maillol
Musée de l'Ordre de la Libération
Musée Rodin
Musée Valentin Haüy
National Horticultural Society of France
Economy
Air Liquide, Alcatel-Lucent, and Valode & Pistre have their head offices in this arrondissement.
Education
Public and private high schools:
Lycée Victor-Duruy
Établissement La Rochefoucauld
Institut de l'Alma
Lycée-collège Paul-Claudel
Lycée d'Hulst
Lycée Sainte-Jeanne Elisabeth
Lycée Saint-Thomas-d'Aquin
Lycée Thérèse-Chappuis
Istituto Statale Italiano Leonardo Da Vinci, an Italian international school, maintains two campuses in the arrondissement. The American University of Paris, a private liberal arts university, maintains several buildings near the Quai d'Orsay.
Government
The Ministry of Agriculture, the Ministry of Foreign Affairs and the Ministry of National Education have their head offices in the arrondissement.
Politically, the arrondissement is situated firmly on the right. The mayor of the 7th, Rachida Dati, was Minister of Justice under Nicolas Sarkozy's presidency and member of the European Parliament for the centre-right UMP from 2009 to 2019.
In the 2017 French presidential election, the 7th gave right-wing candidate François Fillon 52.7% of its votes in the first round, compared to his poor national showing of only 20%. It then went on to vote for Emmanuel Macron in the runoff by a landslide.
Sport
The arrondissement hosted the equestrian events for the 1900 Summer Olympics.
References
External links
Venues of the 1900 Summer Olympics
Olympic equestrian venues
Histories of cities in France | [
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222495 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Triple%20Crown%20of%20Harness%20Racing%20for%20Pacers | Triple Crown of Harness Racing for Pacers | The Triple Crown of Harness Racing for Pacers consists of these horse races:
Cane Pace, held at Meadowlands Racetrack in East Rutherford, New Jersey
Messenger Stakes, held at Yonkers Raceway in Yonkers, New York
Little Brown Jug, held at the Delaware County Fair in Delaware, Ohio
Since its inauguration in 1956, the Pacing Triple Crown has had 10 winners:
External links
New Jersey Horse Enthusiast Web
The Harness Triple Crown Trophies for both Pacing and Trotting
Harness racing in the United States
Racing series for horses | [
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222497 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Triple%20Crown%20of%20Harness%20Racing%20for%20Trotters | Triple Crown of Harness Racing for Trotters | Triple Crown is a combination of three major races in harness racing. The term Triple Crown is mostly used in the US, but also in France. The term is also used in thoroughbred racing.
United States
The Triple Crown of Harness Racing for Trotters consists of the following horse races:
Hambletonian, held at the Meadowlands Racetrack in East Rutherford, New Jersey
Yonkers Trot, held at Yonkers Raceway in Yonkers, New York
Kentucky Futurity, held at The Red Mile in Lexington, Kentucky
Since its inauguration in 1955, there have been nine winners of the Trotting Triple Crown. They are:
France
In french harness racing, a Triple Crown consists of the following horse races:
Prix d'Amérique
Prix de France
Prix de Paris
All races is held at Hippodrome de Vincennes in Paris. Winning all three races under the same winter meeting, gets a Triple Crown and a bonus on 300 000 euro. Since its inauguration, there have been four winners of a French Triple Crown. The trotter Gelinotte won the Triple Crown two years in a row.
References
External links
New Jersey Horse Enthusiast Web
The Harness Triple Crown Trophies for both Pacing and Trotting
Harness racing in the United States
Harness racing in France
Racing series for horses | [
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222499 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Trapeze%20%28band%29 | Trapeze (band) | Trapeze were an English rock band from Cannock, Staffordshire. Formed in 1969, the band originally featured former The Montanas members John Jones (trumpet, vocals) and Terry Rowley (keyboards), and former Finders Keepers members Glenn Hughes (bass, vocals, piano), Mel Galley (guitar, vocals) and Dave Holland (drums). Jones and Rowley left the band following the release of their self-titled debut album in 1970, with the lineup of Hughes, Galley and Holland continuing as a trio. After the release of Medusa later in 1970 and You Are the Music... We're Just the Band in 1972, Hughes left Trapeze in 1973 to join Deep Purple.
Galley and Holland resurfaced with Trapeze a year later, adding second guitarist Rob Kendrick and bassist Pete Wright to the band. Hot Wire was released in late 1974 and a second self-titled album followed in 1975, after which the classic trio briefly reunited for a tour in 1976 when Hughes returned following Deep Purple's breakup. After Hughes left again, Trapeze returned in 1978 with new frontman Peter Goalby, who performed on the band's final album Hold On. Several more lineup changes occurred in the following years, including Holland joining Judas Priest in 1979, before the band broke up in 1982 as Galley joined Whitesnake.
In 1991, Hughes, Galley and Holland reunited Trapeze for a string of tour dates the following year, adding Asia keyboardist Geoff Downes for the shows. The tour resulted in a live album, Welcome to the Real World: Live at the Borderline, which was released in 1998. The trio revived Trapeze again in 1994 with second guitarist Craig Erickson, completing a brief tour early in the year before permanently disbanding.
Following the band's breakup, both Galley and Holland remained relatively inactive, while Hughes continued with his solo career and collaborations with various artists. Galley died of oesophageal cancer on 1 July 2008, and Holland died of lung cancer on 16 January 2018, leaving Hughes the sole surviving member of the classic line-up.
History
1969–1973: Formation and early releases
Trapeze formed in March 1969, with the original lineup featuring former The Montanas members John Jones (trumpet, vocals) and Terry Rowley (keyboards, guitar, flute), along with former Finders Keepers members Glenn Hughes (bass, vocals, piano) Mel Galley (guitar, vocals) and Dave Holland (drums). One of the band's early performances was filmed for an appearance on the BBC2 show Colour Me Pop, recorded on 5 July 1969 at Club Lafayette in Wolverhampton, at which they performed the song "Send Me No More Letters". Local promoter Tony Perry described the show as "one of the most outstanding nights at the [venue]", praising the band's performance as "fantastic". Later in the year, Trapeze signed as the first act on Threshold Records, a record label founded by The Moody Blues and distributed in the United States by London Records and elsewhere by Decca Records. The band reportedly declined an offer to join Apple Records, the label founded by The Beatles, as they believed that they would have more creative freedom with Threshold.
Working with The Moody Blues bassist John Lodge as producer, Trapeze recorded their self-titled debut album at London's Morgan Studios and Decca Studios. Despite Jones being the band's official lead singer, Hughes performed all vocals on the release. Hughes has revealed that he was asked to sing on the album by the group's management, who deemed him to be the better of the two vocalists. Before the end of the year, the Rowley composition "Send Me No More Letters" was released as the band's first single, backed with "Another Day" (written by Galley, Hughes and Jones). Trapeze was released in May 1970. The album was generally well received by critics – Billboard magazine described it as featuring "a strong rock personality" and dubbed it "a candidate for big chart action", while journalist Nigel Williamson hailed it as "a classic period example of English prog, mixing pastoral whimsy, swirling psychedelia, rock guitars and pop harmonies". It also received significant airplay on BBC Radio 1 from DJs such as Bob Harris and Pete Drummond, and was played in full by the station. Trapeze was promoted on a string of shows in the UK between January and July.
In August 1970, Jones and Rowley left Trapeze, returning to The Montanas. Rather than replacing the departed members, Hughes, Galley and Holland continued as a power trio, adopting a style more akin to hard rock and funk rock. On 13 November 1970, the band released their second album Medusa in the UK, which was issued in the US in March 1971. Produced again by Lodge, the album has since been highlighted by multiple critics as the band's best release, as well as one of the decade's most underrated hard rock albums. Writing in the booklet for a 1994 reissue of the album, author John Tracy claimed that Medusa was "greeted with instant, and seemingly universal, acclaim". Ultimate Classic Rock writer Eduardo Rivadavia credited the album for contributing to the early development of the heavy metal genre in 1970. "Black Cloud", written by Galley with brother Tom, was issued in the US as the only single from the album backed with "Your Love Is Alright", written by the three band members.
Trapeze toured extensively in promotion of Medusa, primarily in the US, including a stint in December 1970 supporting The Moody Blues and numerous headline tours throughout 1971, before releasing their third album You Are the Music... We're Just the Band on 1 December 1972. The album was primarily written by Hughes (three tracks were written by the Galley brothers), produced by Neil Slaven, and featured a number of guest contributors including Rod Argent on piano and B. J. Cole on steel guitar. The album marked an increase in softer, more melodic songs since Medusa, which were praised as highlights of the collection by multiple reviewers. Billboard dubbed the album a "fine set", while Tracy described it as "a masterpiece". You Are the Music... We're Just the Band was the first Trapeze album to chart, peaking at number 9 on the US Billboard Bubbling Under chart, which acts as an extension to the Billboard 200. The band toured throughout late 1972 and early 1973 in promotion of the album, including dates in the US and the UK. Prior to a show at the Village East in December 1972, the band's equipment was stolen and they were forced to play using "hastily rented equipment".
1973–1976: Hughes's departure and return
In April 1973, Deep Purple members Ritchie Blackmore, Jon Lord and Ian Paice attended a Trapeze show at the Whisky a Go Go in Los Angeles, California, with a view to asking Hughes to replace bassist Roger Glover in the band. When approached at another show the following month, Hughes declined the invitation in favour of remaining with Trapeze, claiming that he was "in a very, very different frame of mind as a musician" at the time and dubbing Deep Purple "too basic rock for me". However, due to the high-profile status of the group at the time, combined with the prospect of working with former Free frontman Paul Rodgers, who had been approached to replace vocalist Ian Gillan, Hughes reconsidered and agreed to join the band as bassist and second vocalist. The lineup change was officially announced in the music magazine Melody Maker on 14 July 1973. Rodgers ultimately passed on the opportunity to join, focusing instead on the formation of Bad Company. David Coverdale was brought in as Gillan's replacement later, after contacting the group in response to the Melody Maker article, which mentioned that they were still looking for a new singer. Hughes has since described the choice to leave Trapeze as a "horrible" one to make, dubbing the band his "family" and claiming in multiple interviews that to some extent he regrets leaving.
After a brief hiatus, Trapeze returned in 1974 with Galley on lead vocals, adding second guitarist Rob Kendrick and bassist Pete Wright to their lineup. In July it was announced that the band had signed with Warner Bros. Records, with a new album slated for release later in the year. Threshold issued the band's first compilation album The Final Swing in October, which featured tracks from their first three albums as well as the previously unreleased "Good Love" and "Dats It". The album was the band's first to chart, entering the US Billboard 200 at number 184 and peaking at number 172. December saw the release of the band's fourth studio album Hot Wire, which peaked at number 146 on the Billboard 200, number 153 on the Cash Box albums chart, and number 161 on the Record World albums chart in early 1975. Former keyboardist Terry Rowley was also featured as a guest contributor on the album, performing synthesizers, organ, electric piano and backing vocals. Rowley remained in the touring lineup of the band for the Hot Wire cycle and featured on the album Live at the Boat Club 1975, although again not credited as a group member.
Later in 1975, Trapeze released a second self-titled album, on which Hughes returned to perform vocals on two tracks. Billboard praised Trapeze as an example of "tight, cooking, soul-tinged hard rock", although AllMusic's Dave Thompson criticised it as "a dour little disc, desperately missing the funk infusions of Glenn Hughes and, for the most part, overshadowed even by its disappointing predecessor". Galley and Holland briefly took a break from Trapeze in November to complete a British concert tour with Justin Hayward and John Lodge, in promotion of their collaboration album Blue Jays, released earlier in the year. The following year, after Deep Purple broke up, Hughes temporarily reunited the classic trio of Trapeze for The Appreciation Tour, which was scheduled to visit the US in August and the UK in September. After a short run of US dates, Hughes left again due to off-stage problems caused by drug abuse, particularly cocaine. Speaking about the brief reunion in 2007, Galley recalled that Hughes "wasn't in a good state of mind at the time", suggesting that "if we could have carried the electricity of those shows on, we could have known no bounds". Similarly, the band's manager Tony Perry has recalled that Hughes "[had] major problems at the time and was very difficult to deal with", adding that he and the other members of the band had discussed the possibility of firing and replacing him during the tour. During their reunion, the trio also recorded a number of new songs, including "L.A. Cut Off" and "Space High", both of which were later released on Hughes's debut solo album Play Me Out in 1977.
1978–1982: Later years and disbandment
After Hughes left the band for a second time, Trapeze returned in 1978 with new frontman Peter Goalby and Wright returning on bass. Signing a deal with newly formed label Aura Records, the band released their final studio album Hold On in late 1979, produced by Jimmy Miller. The album, initially released in Germany in 1978 under the title Running with a different track listing, was hailed by Sounds magazine's Graham Neale as the culmination of the band's "obvious regenerated enthusiasm" following recent challenges, while Galley presented it as an evolution in the band's sound and style of songwriting. The album received a positive review from Billboard magazine, which described it as "a noticeably strong ... LP that takes its strength from the tight vocal harmonies and solid original material", suggesting that "Several of the songs included here could become AOR staples". AllMusic's Steve Huey hailed Hold On as "quite possibly [Trapeze]'s best" album, while his colleague Joe Viglione praised it for its songwriting and production qualities.
In August 1979, Holland left Trapeze to join heavy metal band Judas Priest. He was replaced later by Steve Bray as the band continued to tour in support of Hold On, including dates with Humble Pie and a stint supporting Scottish band Nazareth alongside Swiss group Krokus. The band released their first live album Live in Texas: Dead Armadillos in 1981, which was recorded on the resulting tour in May 1981. By the time the album was released, Goalby had left Trapeze to join Uriah Heep. Mervyn Spence (bass, lead vocals) and Richard Bailey (keyboards) joined the band later in the year, and in 1982 Bray was replaced by Kex Gorin. Trapeze officially came to an end in late 1982, when Galley joined a new lineup of Whitesnake in time for the Saints & Sinners Tour, which commenced in October. The final lineup of Trapeze had begun recording material for a potential new album before Galley left, with the material later adapted for Whitesnake and Phenomena, a project started by Tom Galley.
1991–1994: Reunions and live releases
Hughes, Galley and Holland revived Trapeze in 1991 for a concert tour featuring keyboardist Geoff Downes. On 20 March 1992 they supported Fish at Hammersmith Apollo. In May 1992, the band recorded the live album Welcome to the Real World: Live at the Borderline, which was released in 1998. Another live album, Live: Way Back to the Bone, was released the same year, featuring recordings from earlier in the band's career. The trio reunited again in 1993, recording a number of demos for a planned future release. On 9 February 1994, the band performed at the Irving Plaza in New York City as part of a concert dedicated to vocalist Ray Gillen, who had died on 1 December 1993. This was followed later in the year by a short string of shows in the US and the UK, which Hughes described as a "wonderful run" and a "great experience". The trio were joined for the shows by second guitarist Craig Erickson. Live at the Boat Club 1975 was released in 2006, before Galley died on 1 July 2008, ending any future chance of the band returning again. Nearly a decade later, Holland died on 16 January 2018, which now leaves Hughes the sole surviving member of the trio.
Band members
Discography
Studio albums
Trapeze (1970)
Medusa (1970)
You Are the Music...We're Just the Band (1972)
Hot Wire (1974)
Trapeze (1975)
Hold On (1979) / Running (1978, Germany)
Live albums
Live in Texas: Dead Armadillos (1981)
Welcome to the Real World: Live at the Borderline (1993)
Live: Way Back to the Bone (1998)
Live at the Boat Club 1975 (2006)
Live In Houston 1972 (2021) - RSD release vinyl only 2lp
Compilations
The Final Swing (1974)
Way Back to the Bone (1986)
High Flyers: The Best of Trapeze (1996)
On the Highwire (2003)
Singles
"Send Me No More Letters" (1969)
"Black Cloud" (1970)
"Coast to Coast" (1972)
"On the Sunny Side of the Street" (1975)
"Don't Ask Me How I Know" (1979)
"Running Away" (1980)
References
External links
Trapeze history on the Glenn Hughes official website
English rock music groups
English hard rock musical groups
Musical groups established in 1969
Musical groups disestablished in 1982
Musical groups reestablished in 1991
Musical groups disestablished in 1992
Musical groups reestablished in 1993
Musical groups disestablished in 1994
Warner Records artists | [
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222500 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Any%20Given%20Sunday | Any Given Sunday | Any Given Sunday is a 1999 American sports drama film directed by Oliver Stone depicting a fictional professional American football team. The film features an ensemble cast, including Al Pacino, Cameron Diaz, Dennis Quaid, Jamie Foxx, James Woods, LL Cool J, Ann-Margret, Lauren Holly, Matthew Modine, John C. McGinley, Charlton Heston, Bill Bellamy, Lela Rochon, Aaron Eckhart, Elizabeth Berkley, Marty Wright, and NFL players Jim Brown and Lawrence Taylor. It is partly based on the 1984 novel On Any Given Sunday by NFL defensive end Pat Toomay; the title is derived from a line in the book (also used in the film) that a team can win or lose on "any given Sunday", said by the fictitious coach Tony D'Amato.
Cameo roles also featured many former American football players including Dick Butkus, Y. A. Tittle, Pat Toomay, Warren Moon, Johnny Unitas, Ricky Watters, Emmitt Smith and Terrell Owens, as well as coach Barry Switzer.
Plot
The Miami Sharks, a once-great American football team, are struggling to make the 2001 Associated Football Franchises of America (AFFA) playoffs. They are coached by thirty-year veteran Tony D'Amato, who has fallen out of favor with young team owner Christina Pagniacci and offensive coordinator and D'Amato's expected successor Nick Crozier. In the thirteenth game of the season, both starting quarterback Jack "Cap" Rooney and second-string quarterback Tyler Cherubini are injured and forced to leave the field. The desperate Sharks call upon third-string quarterback Willie Beamen to replace them. While a nervous Beamen makes a number of errors and fails to win the game for the Sharks, he plays well and gains confidence. Rooney vows to make it back by the playoffs, with D'Amato promising to not give up on him.
The next day, D'Amato and Pagniacci argue about the direction of the team. Pagniacci favors Crozier and wants to eventually cut Rooney. D'Amato argues that Pagniacci's father, the previous owner, would never meddle in his coaching plans. During the next game, to D'Amato's chagrin, Beamen disregards the team's conservative offense and changes plays in the huddle. As the media hails Beamen as the next model of quarterback, the newfound success feeds his growing narcissism and leads to tension with teammates and coaches. During a confrontation with Beamen, D'Amato demotes him back to the bench. After Beamen gives an interview taking sole credit for the Sharks' winning streak, the other players refuse to perform for Beamen and consequently lose a home game. After Beamen gets into a brawl with Julian "J-Man" Washington, an irate D'Amato expresses his embarrassment at his team before leaving. Beamen contemplates and amends his self-centered behavior.
As the playoffs come around, Sharks middle linebacker Luther Lavay reminds Beamen how lucky he is to be in the league and to find a life outside of football; his words fall on deaf ears. D'Amato worsens his relationship with Pagniacci and berates Rooney for second-guessing his availability. Before the game, D'Amato gives a speech urging team unity that Beamen takes to heart and energizes the rest of the team. Rooney returns as starting quarterback, but is injured with a concussion after scoring a touchdown. Rooney urges D'Amato to let Beamen finish the game; after an argument, D'Amato relents. Subsequently, Pagniacci enters the locker room to demand that D'Amato play Beamen. After she and D'Amato argue, Beamen informs her that he had already been told he would start the second half. Beamen apologizes to his teammates for his actions and leads the team to win. In a post-game talk with D'Amato, Beaman dedicates the next game to Rooney, but admits that he is worried about his ongoing health.
An epilogue voiceover says that the Sharks eventually lost the championship final (the Pantheon Cup) to San Francisco. At D'Amato's final press conference as head coach, he is thanked by Pagniacci. D'Amato is expected to announce his retirement, but he instead drops two bombshells and announces that he has been hired as head coach and general manager of an expansion team in New Mexico, the Albuquerque Aztecs, and that he has signed Willie Beamen to be his starting quarterback and franchise player.
Cast
Al Pacino as Tony D'Amato, head coach of the Miami Sharks. Having held his position for decades and been given much autonomy by the team's owner, "Tony D" is respected for great successes, including two Pantheon Cups, the championship for this (fictional) professional football league. He devoted so much time to the team, he became estranged from his wife and children. D'Amato's traditional methods have come under fire from management and the media for recent failures, including missing the playoffs. Bitter that he was never promoted to general manager, D'Amato resents the hands-on "interference" of Christina Pagniacci, who succeeded her father Arturo as team owner. His last name comes from boxing trainer Constantine "Cus" D'Amato.
Cameron Diaz as Christina Pagniacci, owner and general manager. She inherited the team from her father and boasts a Cornell MBA. She attributes the team's disappointments to Coach D'Amato's "old-school methods" and takes a more hands-on approach, bringing in innovative new offensive coordinator Nick Crozier as his eventual successor. She hints that D'Amato will not return after his contract expires, adding to his distractions. She also threatens to move the franchise if the city refuses to build a new stadium, causing a confrontation with the AFFA Commissioner and the Mayor of Miami.
Dennis Quaid as Jack "Cap" Rooney, starting quarterback and team captain. Seen as being like a son to D'Amato, the two have been credited with the team's greatest on-field successes. Rooney is now an aging veteran who faces injuries and conflicts with team personnel. Pagniacci wants to dump him. Relations have soured between Rooney and wife Cindy (Lauren Holly), who goads him without sympathy for his physical or mental situation, mercilessly browbeating him when he even mentions retiring. He is injured during a game and is replaced, but is determined to make a comeback. Rooney recovers in time for the first round of the playoffs, wherein he plays well until suffering a hard hit while scoring a touchdown before halftime.
James Woods as Dr. Harvey Mandrake, the unscrupulous team physician. He risks serious injury to players to enable the team to have a better shot at winning, often at the direction of Pagniacci. He is later fired after his unethical methods are discovered by the conscientious team internist.
Jamie Foxx as Willie "Steamin" Beamen, the third-string quarterback. Beamen has a history that eventually led him to distrust his coaches. In particular, while playing for San Diego, Beamen was made into a defensive secondary player for having "fast feet" and was eventually injured while making a tackle. Beamen initially believes that racism played a major role in his history of being denied opportunities he desired, using an alternative of "placeism" to describe a lack of African-American quarterbacks and head coaches in pro football. He takes over as starter after injuries to Rooney and the backup quarterback. Though surprisingly successful, Beamen causes tension among staff and teammates. He frequently changes the plays the coach calls, or just calls his own. These acts create major tension with D'Amato. D'Amato respects Beamen's athletic ability and acknowledges his talents warrant him to be a quarterback, but heavily criticizes his lack of leadership skills and intangibles. He is granted his own music video and even asks owner Pagniacci for a date when she enters a postgame locker room full of naked or partly dressed players like himself. Beamen's antics on and off the field eventually get him demoted to the bench by D'Amato, who firmly believes that a quarterback's most important role is to lead the team and help keep them confident, both of which Beamen took a clear disregard for. Beamen later matures and is inspired by "Cap" Rooney's gutsy performance in the Sharks' first playoff game.
LL Cool J as Julian "J-Man" Washington, starting running back. He is very good but becomes increasingly angry at Beamen for his cockiness and tendencies to take plays away from him. He is motivated by incentive clauses in his contract, and D'Amato refers to him as a "merc" (mercenary) "who will be gone before next season." Washington later redeems himself to the team by running out-of-bounds in order to stop the play clock while his team was attempting an offensive drive with little time left.
Ann-Margret Olsson as Margaret Pagniacci, Christina's mother and the widow of the Sharks' original owner Arturo.
Lauren Holly as Cindy Rooney, wife of Cap Rooney. It is heavily implied that she is no more than a trophy wife, caring more for her wealth and social status than for her husband's health and well being.
Lawrence Taylor as Luther "Shark" Lavay, starting middle linebacker and the captain of the defense, with a cortisone addiction and is nearing the twilight of a very successful career. Held in high esteem by D'Amato for "revolutionizing" his position by being highly skilled in both pass rushing and defending against the run. Mandrake has concealed that "Shark" is suffering from a previous injury, a broken neck that did not heal properly. If he suffers a serious hit again, he may be killed or permanently disabled. The team's internist informs him and D'Amato of the situation, but "Shark" says he will lose over one million dollars if he does not make his incentive stats or retires as Powers suggests. He also has a confrontation with Beamen over the role of offense vs. defense (which culminates with him cutting Beamen's Chevrolet Suburban in half with a circular saw during a party). While making a hit, Shark gets knocked unconscious. He awakens and is hauled off on a stretcher, satisfied that he made his one million dollars incentive.
Jim Brown as Monte Monroe, defensive coordinator. He is vocal and brings intensity to the defense and to the team in general. A longtime friend of D'Amato, who personally confides in Montezuma several times. Monroe states at one point he would like to return to high school coaching where the game is "pure."
Aaron Eckhart as Nick Crozier, offensive coordinator. Nick is an offensive guru brought in from Minnesota by Christina Pagniacci. Young and tech-savvy (making use of a laptop computer while calling plays), he is highly critical of Tony's old-fashioned ways, as well as Beamen's changing the plays in the huddle and Julian's playing for contract incentives. Despite the tension, D'Amato recognizes Crozier's talent. He is named D'Amato's successor after the coach departs to lead an expansion franchise in New Mexico.
Bill Bellamy as Jimmy Sanderson, the Wide Receiver who becomes Willie Beamen's first option on offense once he is moved into the starting Quarterback position, adding to the friction already building up between Willie and Julian.
Matthew Modine as Dr. Ollie Powers, the team's internist. He discovers Dr. Mandrake covering for players who are suffering from near-career-ending injuries but are overdosing on painkillers, steroids and hormones to cover the pain. Powers faces his own dilemma in the need to relieve the players' pain vs. prescribing too much medication at the insistence of the addicted players.
John C. McGinley as Jack Rose, an abrasive and prominent sports reporter. On his own cable show, Rose displays an incredible distaste for all things D'Amato. This leads to D'Amato physically assaulting Rose near the end of the regular season, but no charges are pressed after D'Amato makes a public apology. In spite of their rivalry (or even because of it) he confesses that he will miss D'Amato when he retires.
Lela Rochon as Vanessa Struthers, Longtime girlfriend of Willie Beamen who unsuccessfully tries to pressure him into marriage after being humiliated by Cindy Rooney in front of the other Football wives.
Elizabeth Berkley as Mandy Murphy, a high priced escort who provides Tony with a girlfriend experience (GFE) when he is feeling lonely.
Clifton Davis as Mayor Tyrone Smalls, who is always a few steps ahead of Christina in her efforts to leverage him into using taxpayer money to build a new stadium for the Sharks.
Charlton Heston as AFFA Football Commissioner
Andrew Bryniarski as Patrick "Madman" Kelly
James Karen and Gianni Russo as Christina's Advisors
Duane Martin as Willie's Agent
Pat O'Hara as Tyler Cherubini
Mazio Royster as Wide Receiver
Rick Johnson as Dallas Quarterback
Allan Graf as Referee
Margaret Betts as Mayor's Aide
Lester Speight as Sharks' Security Guard
Eva Tamargo as Tunnel Reporter - Game 3
Delia Sheppard and Jaime Bergman as Party Girls
Sean Stone as Fan (as Sean C. Stone)
Antoni Corone as Fan
Cameos
Dick Butkus
Terrell Owens
Ricky Watters
Irving Fryar
Joe Schmidt
Oliver Stone
Barry Switzer
Y. A. Tittle
Warren Moon
Johnny Unitas
Pat Toomay
Emmitt Smith
Wilt Chamberlain (uncredited)
Production
Development
Oliver Stone developed a script called Monday Night written by Jamie Williams, a former tight end for the Nebraska Cornhuskers and later the San Francisco 49ers, and Richard Weiner, a sports journalist. Stone separately acquired the spec script On Any Given Sunday, by John Logan. Stone later amalgamated a third screenplay, Playing Hurt by Daniel Pyne, into the project.
As of May 1, 1999, the screenplay's cover page listed the following writers: original draft by Jamie Williams & Richard Weiner, John Logan, Daniel Pyne; subsequent revisions by Gary Ross; revisions by Raynold Gideon & Bruce A. Evans; revisions by John Logan; revisions by Lisa Amsterdam & Robert Huizenga; latest revisions by Oliver Stone.
The Writers Guild of America ultimately awarded screenplay credit to Logan and Stone, with "story" credit to Pyne and Logan. Williams and Weiner went uncredited for their original screenplay, but were credited for their work on the film as technical consultants.
The screenplay was also based in part on the 1994 book You're Okay, It's Just a Bruise: A Doctor's Sideline Secrets by Robert Huizenga. Huizenga was the intern doctor for the Los Angeles Raiders in their 1980s heyday, working under Dr. Robert T. Rosenfeld, who dismissed many players' injuries with the phrase, "You're okay, it's just a bruise." James Woods' character was based on Rosenfeld, and his first diagnosis of "Cap" Rooney's career-threatening injury at the beginning of the film is "you're okay, it's just a bruise." Huizenga left the Raiders in the early 1990s, disgusted at the way the medical advice was kept from players and Rosenfeld being allowed to continue treating them after several mishaps, one of which is closely mirrored in the film—Shark's neck injury and risk of sudden death, based on the real-life Mike Harden case.
Casting
Director Oliver Stone's first two choices to play Tony D'Amato were Al Pacino and Robert De Niro. Henry Rollins was offered a role as a football player but turned it down as he felt he did not have the size to make the portrayal believable. Sean "P. Diddy" Combs was cast as Willie Beamen, but dropped out amidst rumors he could not throw a football convincingly. Publicly Combs dropped off the project because of scheduling conflicts with his recording career. According to Cuba Gooding Jr., he met with Oliver Stone about playing the role of Willie Beamen but Stone turned Gooding down because he had already played a football player in Jerry Maguire (1996). Chris Tucker turned down the role of Willie Beamen. George Clooney was offered the role of Jack Rooney but turned it down.
Five Pro Football Hall of Fame Players made cameo appearances as opposing head coaches. Bob St. Clair appears as the coach for Minnesota in the first game. Y. A. Tittle, for Chicago, the second game. Dick Butkus, with California, the road game. Warren Moon, with New York in the rain soaked game. For the final game in Dallas, Johnny Unitas appears as the coach.
Jim Caviezel played Tony D'Amato's estranged son, but his scenes were cut. They can be seen in the extras of the Oliver Stone Collection DVD. Tom Sizemore also had a role in the film, but it too was cut.
Principal photography
The film was shot in Miami, Florida and Irving, Texas. Miami's Orange Bowl stadium represents the home of the fictitious American football team, the Miami Sharks. When the team traveled to California, the stadium used was Pro Player Stadium, which is located in Miami Gardens. Texas Stadium is used for the home of the fictitious Dallas Knights.
Director Oliver Stone requested, but did not receive, the National Football League's permission to use real NFL team logos and stadiums for the film. As a result, the fictional Associated Football Franchises of America (AFFA) was created (not to be confused with the real AFA). The AFFA apparently exists alongside the NFL, since the Miami Dolphins are mentioned.
For the scenes during a football game, production asked local schools to participate as extras for the film, including Lake Stevens Middle School in Miami, Florida. For each shot the crowd was asked to move around so that each section looked filled. In empty seats cardboard cutouts were placed in seats with balloons attached to them so that they would seem in motion.
For the practice scenes they used the baseball arena Homestead Sports Complex.
The film also used Arena Football League players such Pat O'Hara, who played for the Tampa Bay Storm, later coached the Orlando Predators and is now an assistant coach with the Tennessee Titans, and Connell Maynor, who also played for the Orlando Predators and spent time as both a player and coach for the Philadelphia Soul. Bjorn Nittmo, then with the AFL's Buffalo Destroyers, was the Sharks' placekicker. Matt Martinez, a former Gurkha & ex-husband of Niki Taylor and linebacker for the AFL's Miami Hooters, played himself, #31 for the Sharks.
Soundtrack
A soundtrack containing hip hop, rock and R&B music was released on January 4, 2000 by Atlantic Records. It peaked at #28 on the Billboard 200 and #11 on the Top R&B/Hip-Hop Albums.
Oliver Stone wanted to use the music of the Canadian band Godspeed You! Black Emperor and actually filmed a scene using their music; when he later asked for permission the band said no, and Stone was forced to redo the scene without the music.
Film composer Richard Horowitz, who supplied the original score, published his complete music for the film on a promotional CD.
Release
Box office
Any Given Sunday was a financial success; made on a budget of $55 million, it went on to earn $100.2 million worldwide.
Reception
Time Out New York 's Andrew Johnston wrote: "It's often been said of films about sports that smaller balls equal better movies. Any Given Sunday explodes that theory, and not just because of the incredible intensity of its gridiron action. Oliver Stone's best movie in many years—and one of his finest ever—looks at the world of professional football from almost every conceivable angle, but it never tries to be the definitive statement on the subject. A surprisingly balanced film that merges Stone's hyperkinetic style with a character-centric narrative approach reminiscent of John Sayles and Robert Altman at their best, Sunday proves that powerful human drama and MTV visual pyrotechnics actually can coexist after all."
Roger Ebert of the Chicago Sun-Times also gave the film a mostly positive review, awarding it 3 out of 4 stars, but criticized its length: "I guess I recommend the movie because the dramatic scenes are worth it. Pacino has some nice heart-to-hearts with Quaid and Foxx, and the psychology of the veteran coach is well-captured in the screenplay by Stone and John Logan. But if some studio executive came along and made Stone cut his movie down to two hours, I have the strangest feeling it wouldn't lose much of substance and might even play better."
Conversely, Richard Schickel of Time criticized the story as being "standard" and stated "(a)lmost three hours of this jitter deteriorates from bravura filmmaking to annoying mannerism, and Any Given Sunday ends up less than the sum of its many, often interesting parts." Rick Groen of The Globe and Mail wrote that the story was "(c)hoc-a-bloc with manly blather about sacrifice and honour and rugged individuals pulling together for the greater glory of the team." And, elaborating on many critics' shared observations that the movie was "hyperkinetic", Jack Matthews of the New York Daily News states that "the sensation we get from the blizzard of images and teeth-jarring sound effects is of having our head used as the football."
The film received an aggregated score of 52% from 122 reviews on Rotten Tomatoes. The site’s consensus states: "Sometimes entertaining, but overall Any Given Sunday is a disappointment coming from Oliver Stone." On Metacritic, Any Given Sunday has an aggregated score of 52% based on reviews from 33 critics, indicating "mixed or average reviews". Audiences polled by CinemaScore gave the film an average grade of "B–" on an A+ to F scale.
Director's cut
When released to home video on VHS and DVD, a new director's cut by Oliver Stone was used. Due to the packaging listing "6 minutes of previously unseen footage" and a running time of 156 minutes, many assumed that the theatrical cut was 150 minutes, and that Stone had added six minutes of footage. In actuality, the theatrical cut ran 162 minutes; 12 minutes were deleted for the director's cut, and six minutes of new footage were added. Stone said these changes were made to help with the film's pacing.
References
External links
1999 films
1990s sports drama films
American films
American sports drama films
American football films
1990s English-language films
Films set in Miami
Films shot in Texas
Warner Bros. films
Films produced by Lauren Shuler Donner
Films directed by Oliver Stone
Films produced by Oliver Stone
Films with screenplays by John Logan
Films with screenplays by Oliver Stone
1999 drama films
Films set in Los Angeles | [
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222506 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Acting%20president%20of%20the%20United%20States | Acting president of the United States | An acting president of the United States is an individual who legitimately exercises the powers and duties of the president of the United States even though that person does not hold the office in their own right. There is an established presidential line of succession in which officials of the United States federal government may be called upon to take on presidential responsibilities if the incumbent president becomes incapacitated, dies, resigns, is removed from office (by impeachment by the House of Representatives and subsequent conviction by the Senate) during their four-year term of office; or if a president-elect has not been chosen before Inauguration Day or has failed to qualify by that date.
Presidential succession is referred to multiple times in the U.S. ConstitutionArticle II, Section 1, Clause 6, as well as the Twentieth Amendment and Twenty-fifth Amendment. The vice president is the only officeholder named in the Constitution as a presidential successor. The Article II succession clause authorizes Congress to designate which federal officeholders would accede to the presidency if the vice president were unable to do so, a situation which has never occurred. The current Presidential Succession Act was adopted in 1947 and last revised in 2006. The order of succession is as follows: the vice president, the speaker of the House of Representatives, the president pro tempore of the Senate, and then the eligible heads of the federal executive departments who form the president's Cabinet in the order of creation of the department, beginning with the secretary of state.
If the president dies, resigns, or is removed from office, the vice president automatically becomes president. Likewise, were a president-elect to die during the transition period, or decline to serve, the vice president-elect would become president on Inauguration Day. A vice president can also become the acting president if the president becomes incapacitated. However, should the presidency and vice presidency both become vacant, the statutory successor called upon would not become president, but would only be acting as president. To date, three vice presidents—George H. W. Bush (once), Dick Cheney (twice) and Kamala Harris (once)—have served as acting president. No one lower in the presidential line of succession has so acted.
Constitutional provisions
Regarding eligibility
The qualifications for acting president are the same as those for the office of president. Article II, Section 1, Clause 5 of the Constitution prescribes three eligibility requirements for the presidency. At the time of taking office, one must be a natural-born citizen of the United States, at least thirty-five years old, and a resident of the United States for at least fourteen years.
Regarding succession
Article II, Section 1, Clause 6 makes the vice president first in the line of succession. It also empowers Congress to provide by law who would act as president in the case where neither the president nor the vice president were able to serve.
Two constitutional amendments elaborate on the subject of presidential succession and fill gaps exposed over time in the original provision:
Section 3 of the Twentieth Amendment declares that if the president-elect dies before their term begins, the vice president-elect becomes president on Inauguration Day and serves for the full term to which the president-elect was elected, and also that, if on Inauguration Day, a president has not been chosen or the president-elect does not qualify for the presidency, the vice president-elect acts as president until a president is chosen or the president-elect qualifies. It also authorizes Congress to provide for instances in which neither a president-elect nor a vice president-elect have qualified. Acting on this authority, Congress incorporated "failure to qualify" as a possible condition for presidential succession into the Presidential Succession Act of 1947.
Sections 3 and 4 of the Twenty-fifth Amendment provide for situations in which the president is temporarily or indefinitely unable to discharge the powers and duties of their office.
The former section enables the president to voluntarily transfer their powers and duties (but not the office itself) to the vice president (who becomes acting president), by notifying the president pro tempore of the Senate and the Speaker of the House of Representatives. The vice president remains acting president until such a time that the president is able to discharge their powers and duties again.
The latter section provides a mechanism to remove the president's powers and duties without their consent. It is invoked when the vice president and a majority of the 15 Cabinet secretaries write to the Senate president pro tempore and the House speaker to notify them that the president is unable to discharge their powers and duties. The vice president then immediately assumes the role of acting president. Should the president declare that they are still capable of discharging their powers and duties, the vice president and Cabinet secretaries must write a second letter. If this is received within four days, then the matter is debated and voted on by Congress (with any attempt to permanently install the vice president as acting president requiring a two-thirds majority of each house). If no such letter is received within the time limit, then the president reassumes his powers and duties.
History
Before the Twenty-fifth Amendment
On April 4, 1841, only one month after his inauguration, William Henry Harrison died. He was the first U.S. president to die in office. Afterward, a constitutional crisis ensued over the Constitution's ambiguous presidential succession provision (Article II, Section 1, Clause 6).
Shortly after Harrison's death, his Cabinet met and decided that John Tyler, Harrison's vice president, would assume the responsibilities of the presidency under the title "Vice-President acting President". Instead of accepting this proposed title, however, Tyler asserted that the Constitution gave him full and unqualified powers of the presidency and had himself sworn in as president; this set a critical precedent for the orderly transfer of power following a president's death. Nonetheless, several members of Congress, such as representative and former president John Quincy Adams, felt that Tyler should be a caretaker under the title of "acting president", or remain vice president in name. Senator Henry Clay saw Tyler as the "vice-president" and his presidency as a mere "regency".
Throughout Tyler remained resolute in his claim to the title of president and in his determination to exercise the full powers of the presidency. The precedent he set in 1841 was followed subsequently on seven occasions when an incumbent president died prior to the presidential succession being enshrined in the Constitution through section 1 of the Twenty-fifth Amendment.
Though the precedent regarding presidential succession due to the president's death was set, questions concerning presidential "inability" remained unanswered, such as what constituted an inability, who determined the existence of an inability, and did a vice president become president for the rest of the presidential term in the case of an inability or is the vice president merely "acting as president". Due to this lack of clarity, later vice presidents were hesitant to assert any role in cases of presidential inability.
On two occasions, in particular, the operations of the executive branch were hampered due to the fact that there was no constitutional basis for declaring that the president was unable to function:
For 80 days in 1881, between the shooting of James Garfield in July and his death in September. Congressional leaders urged Vice President Chester Arthur to step up and exercise presidential authority while the president was disabled, but he declined, fearful of being labeled a usurper. Aware that he was in a delicate position and that his every action was placed under scrutiny, he remained secluded in his New York City home for most of the summer.
October 1919 – March 1921, when Woodrow Wilson suffered a debilitating stroke. Nearly blind and partially paralyzed, he spent the final 17 months of his presidency sequestered in the White House. Vice President Thomas R. Marshall, the cabinet, and the nation were kept in the dark concerning the severity of the president's illness for several months by First Lady Edith Wilson, the president's personal physician, and his secretary. Marshall was pointedly afraid to ask about Wilson's health, or to preside over cabinet meetings, fearful that he would be accused of "longing for his place."
Since the Twenty-fifth Amendment
Proposed by the 89th Congress and subsequently ratified by the states in 1967, the Twenty-fifth Amendment also established formal procedures for addressing instances of presidential disability and succession. Its Section 3, which allows the president to voluntarily transfer his authority to the vice president, has been invoked on four occasions by three presidents. (Section 4, which addresses the case of an incapacitated president who is unable or unwilling to issue voluntary declaration, has not been activated since the amendment came into force.)
Three vice presidents have served as acting president on four occasions, each one while the president underwent a medical procedure.
See also
United States presidential line of succession
References
United States presidential succession
Vice presidency of the United States
Presidency of the United States
Twenty-fifth Amendment to the United States Constitution | [
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222512 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Piano%20Concerto%20%28Grieg%29 | Piano Concerto (Grieg) | The Piano Concerto in A minor, Op. 16, composed by Edvard Grieg in 1868, was the only concerto Grieg completed. It is one of his most popular works and is among the most popular of all piano concerti.
Structure
The concerto is in three movements:
Performance time of the whole concerto is usually about 30 minutes.
Instrumentation
Grieg scored the concerto for solo piano, 2 flutes, 2 oboes, 2 clarinets (in A and B), 2 bassoons, 2 horns in E and E, 2 trumpets in C and B, 2 trombones, tuba, timpani and strings (violins, violas, cellos and double basses). He later added 2 horns and changed the tuba to a third trombone.
History and influences
The work is among Grieg's earliest important works, written by the 24-year-old composer in 1868 in Søllerød, Denmark, during one of his visits there to benefit from the climate.
The concerto is often compared to the Piano Concerto of Robert Schumann: it is in the same key; the opening descending flourish on the piano is similar; and the overall style is considered to be closer to Schumann than any other single composer. Incidentally, both composers wrote only one concerto for piano. Grieg had heard Schumann's concerto played by Clara Schumann in Leipzig in 1858, and was greatly influenced by Schumann's style generally, having been taught the piano by Schumann's friend Ernst Ferdinand Wenzel.
Grieg's concerto provides evidence of his interest in Norwegian folk music; the opening flourish is based on the motif of a falling minor second followed by a falling major third, which is typical of the folk music of Grieg's native country. This specific motif occurs in other works by Grieg, including the String Quartet No. 1. In the last movement of the concerto, similarities to the halling (a Norwegian folk dance) and imitations of the Hardanger fiddle (the Norwegian folk fiddle) have been detected.
The work was premiered by Edmund Neupert on April 3, 1869 in Copenhagen, with Holger Simon Paulli conducting. Some sources say that Grieg himself, an excellent pianist, was the intended soloist, but he was unable to attend the premiere owing to commitments with an orchestra in Christiania (now Oslo). Among those who did attend the premiere were the Danish composer Niels Gade and the Russian pianist Anton Rubinstein, who provided his own piano for the occasion. Neupert was also the dedicatee of the second edition of the concerto (Rikard Nordraak was the original dedicatee), and James Huneker said that he himself composed the first movement cadenza.
The Norwegian premiere in Christiania followed on August 7, 1869, and the piece was later heard in Germany in 1872 and England in 1874. At Grieg's visit to Franz Liszt in Rome in 1870, Liszt played the notes a prima vista (by sight) before an audience of musicians and gave very good comments on Grieg's work which would later influence him. The work was first published in Leipzig in 1872, but only after Johan Svendsen intervened on Grieg's behalf.
The concerto is the first piano concerto ever recorded—by pianist Wilhelm Backhaus in 1909. Due to the technology of the time, it was heavily abridged, and ran only six minutes.
Grieg revised the work at least seven times, usually in subtle ways, but the revisions amounted to over 300 differences from the original orchestration. In one of these revisions, he undid Liszt's suggestion to give the second theme of the first movement (as well as the first theme of the second) to the trumpet rather than to the cello. The final version of the concerto was completed only a few weeks before Grieg's death, and it is this version that has achieved worldwide popularity. The original 1868 version has been recorded, by Love Derwinger, with the Norrköping Symphony Orchestra under Junichi Hirokami.
Grieg worked on a transcription of the concerto for two solo pianos, which was completed by Károly Thern. The premiere recording of this version was by the British piano duo Anthony Goldstone and Caroline Clemmow. On April 2, 1951, the Russian-born American pianist Simon Barere collapsed while playing the first few bars of the concerto, in a performance with conductor Eugene Ormandy and the Philadelphia Orchestra at Carnegie Hall in New York. He died backstage shortly afterwards. It was to have been Barere's first performance of the work.
Second concerto
In 1882 and 1883, Grieg worked on a second piano concerto in B minor, but it was never completed. The sketches for the concerto have been recorded by pianist Einar Steen-Nøkleberg. In 1997, the Oslo Grieg Society held its Third International Competition for Composers on the theme: "re-imagine" Grieg's second concerto. One of the contestants, the Belgian composer Laurent Beeckmans, elaborated a full piano concerto from the sketches, which was first performed in London on 3 May 2003.
Another elaboration on Grieg's sketches was completed by the Norwegian composer Helge Evju and was recorded by the Naxos label. Among the other contestants the Romanian Șerban Nichifor (Concerto GRIEGoriano), the Russian Vladimir Belyayev (Second Piano Concerto), the Scottish Callum Kenmuir (Rhapsody on themes by Grieg), the American Daniel Powers (Concerto Reliquary), the German Klaus Miehling (Concert Fantasy in B minor), the New Zealander Alison Edgar (Fantasia in B minor), the Australian David Morgan (Norwegian Fantasy). The 1st prize went to the Italian Alberto Colla (Piano Concerto No. 1).
In popular culture
The enduring popularity of Grieg's Piano Concerto has ensured its use in a wide variety of contexts.
The first movement's coda features in the film Intermezzo (1939) starring Leslie Howard and Ingrid Bergman.
The Concerto was featured in the film The Seventh Veil (1945) as the piece played by the young concert pianist (Ann Todd; the uncredited pianist was Eileen Joyce).
It was famously parodied in Franz Reizenstein's Concerto Popolare of 1959 (written for Gerard Hoffnung's music festival).
The opening theme of the first movement was used by Jimmy Wisner, recording under the name "Kokomo", in the song "Asia Minor", a top-ten pop hit in the U.S. in 1961. The title of the song was also based on the key of the concerto, A minor.
Excerpts from the first movement are incorporated into the number "Rosemary", in the Broadway musical How to Succeed in Business Without Really Trying (1961).
Jethro Tull have played a short excerpt of the second movement live as part of their Thick as a Brick tour of 1972.
The comedian Bill Bailey is a skilled musician, and has used Grieg's piano concerto for comic effect; in the TV series Black Books it is played by his character Manny Bianco, and it is cited as an example in his solo mock-scholarly sketch on cockney music.
The introductory motif opens "Make the Most of Your Music", in the 1987 revised version of Follies.
Cuban bandleader Alfredo Valdés repeatedly references the first movement of the concerto in Canto a La Vueltabajera.
The strategy video game Civilization V also uses the second movement in its soundtrack.
The second movement's theme features in the spy thriller Red Sparrow (2018).
Morecambe and Wise
The concerto was used in a sketch by the British comedians Morecambe and Wise. Originally written by Dick Hills and Sid Green and performed as a two-hander in the ITV series Two of a Kind in 1963, the sketch was subsequently amended and used again in the Christmas edition of The Morecambe & Wise Show, the duo's BBC series, in 1971. The sketch features Eric Morecambe as the piano soloist; while Ernie Wise was the conductor in the original sketch, the amended version features André Previn, then the principal conductor of the London Symphony Orchestra. Morecambe claims he is playing "all the right notes, but not necessarily in the right order". In fact, he was playing a simplified version of the correct music, but in a completely inappropriate style.
References
External links
Grieg
Concertos by Edvard Grieg
1868 compositions
Compositions in A minor | [
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222514 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lil%20Hardin%20Armstrong | Lil Hardin Armstrong | Lillian Hardin Armstrong (née Hardin; February 3, 1898 – August 27, 1971) was a jazz pianist, composer, arranger, singer, and bandleader. She was the second wife of Louis Armstrong, with whom she collaborated on many recordings in the 1920s.
Her compositions include "Struttin' with Some Barbecue", "Don't Jive Me", "Two Deuces", "Knee Drops", "Doin' the Suzie-Q", "Just for a Thrill" (which was a hit when revived by Ray Charles in 1959), "Clip Joint", and "Bad Boy" (a hit for Ringo Starr in 1978). Armstrong was inducted into the Memphis Music Hall of Fame in 2014.
Background
She was born Lillian Hardin in Memphis, Tennessee, where she grew up in a household with her grandmother, Priscilla Martin, a former slave from near Oxford, Mississippi. Martin had a son and three daughters, one of whom was Dempsey, Lil's mother. Priscilla Martin moved her family to Memphis to escape from her husband, a trek the family made by mule-drawn wagon. Dempsey married Will Harden, and Lil was born on February 3, 1898. Will died when Lil was seven, though Dempsey later remarried to John Miller.
During her early years, Hardin was taught hymns, spirituals, and classical music on the piano. She was drawn to popular music and later blues.
Early education and mentors
Hardin first received piano instruction from her third-grade teacher, Violet White. Her mother then enrolled her in Mrs. Hook's School of Music. At Fisk University, a college for African Americans in Nashville, she was taught a more acceptable approach to the instrument. She received a diploma from Fisk, returning to Memphis in 1917. In August 1918, she moved to Chicago with her mother and stepfather. By then she had become a proficient sight-reader, a skill that helped her gain a job as a sheet music demonstrator at Jones Music Store.
The store paid Hardin $3 a week (US$ in dollars), but bandleader Lawrence Duhé offered $22.50 (US$ in dollars). Knowing that her mother would disapprove of her working in a cabaret, she made it known that her new job was playing for a dancing school. As observed by Thomas Brothers, the discrepancies between her education and that of Duhé's band members were apparent; when she asked what key the New Orleanians were going to play in, they remarked, "We don't know what key. When you hear two knocks start playing." Three weeks later the band moved to a better booking at the De Luxe Café, where the entertainers included Florence Mills and Cora Green. From there, the band moved up to Dreamland. Here the principal entertainers were Alberta Hunter and Ollie Powers. When King Oliver's Creole Jazz Band replaced Duhé's group at Dreamland, Oliver asked Hardin to stay with him. She was with Oliver at Dreamland in 1921 when an offer came for the orchestra to play a six-month engagement at the Pergola Ballroom in San Francisco. At the end of that booking Hardin returned to Chicago while the rest of the Oliver band went to Los Angeles. She later studied at the New York College of Music, where she earned a post-graduate diploma in 1929.
Marriages and divorces
In Chicago, Hardin returned to work at Dreamland as a pianist in an orchestra for Mae Brady, a violinist and vaudeville stalwart. While there, she fell for Jimmie Johnson, a young singer from Washington, D.C., whom she married on August 22, 1922. The marriage was short-lived, ending in divorce. The Oliver band returned from California and opened at the Royal Gardens with Bertha Gonzales at the piano but soon found itself back at Dreamland with Hardin at the piano.
King Oliver's band was enjoying enormous success at Dreamland when he sent for Louis Armstrong to join as second cornetist. Armstrong was beginning to make a name for himself in New Orleans and regarded Oliver ("Papa Joe") as his mentor. At first, Hardin was unimpressed, remembering that she "was very disgusted" by Louis, who arrived in Chicago wearing clothes and a hair style that she deemed to be "too country" for Chicago, but she worked to "take the country out of him", and a romance developed (to the surprise of other band members, some of whom had been trying to woo her for some time with no success). They would visit cabarets and after-hour spots after their job at Lincoln Gardens, but their relationship was solidified after Armstrong's mother's intervention in 1923, when she visited Armstrong in Chicago. She and Armstrong needed to be divorced from their previous relationships (Lil Hardin to Jimmie Johnson, Louis Armstrong to Daisy Armstrong) and "claimed desertion" from said relationships to annul the marriages. Hardin and Armstrong were married on February 5, 1924 and honeymooned/toured with the Oliver band in Biglerville, Pennsylvania. The Defender noted that Hardin was dressed in a "Parisian gown of white crepe elaborately beaded in rhinestones and silver beads."
Hardin took Armstrong shopping and taught him how to dress more fashionably. She got rid of his bangs and began working to foster his career. In addition to updating his appearance, Hardin assisted Armstrong in learning classical music with the help of a German teacher in Chicago. She felt that he was wasting his talent in a secondary role. Armstrong was happy to be playing next to his idol, but Hardin at first persuaded him to manage his own money and assert himself on the bandstand and during recording sessions; eventually, she convinced him to leave Oliver and go out on his own. Armstrong resigned from Oliver's band and in September 1924 accepted a job with bandleader Fletcher Henderson in New York City. Hardin stayed in Chicago, first with Oliver, then leading a band of her own. When Hardin's band got a job at the Dreamland Café in Chicago she prepared for Armstrong's return to Chicago by having a huge banner that read "The World's Greatest Trumpet Player".
Richard M. Jones convinced Okeh Records to make a series of sessions under his name: the Armstrong "Hot Five" recordings. With Hardin at the piano, Kid Ory on trombone, Johnny Dodds on clarinet, and Johnny St. Cyr on banjo, this group rehearsed at Armstrong and Hardin's residence on Chicago's East 41st Street and held its first session on November 15, 1925.
In the late 1920s, Hardin and Armstrong grew apart due to class differences and money issues. He formed a new Hot Five with Earl Hines on piano. Hardin reformed her own band with Freddie Keppard, whom she considered second only to Armstrong. Hardin and Armstrong separated in 1931 when he had a liaison with Alpha Smith, who threatened to sue Armstrong for breach of promise, so he begged Hardin not to grant him a divorce. They finally divorced in 1938.
Later years
In the 1930s, sometimes billing herself as "Mrs. Louis Armstrong", Hardin led an "All Girl Orchestra", a mixed-sex big band which broadcast nationally over the NBC radio network. In the same decade she recorded for Decca as a swing vocalist and performed as piano accompanist for other singers. She also performed with Red Allen.
Solo work
In the late 1940s and early 1950s, Hardin worked mostly as a soloist, singing and playing piano. In the late 1940s, she decided to leave the music business and become a tailor, so she took a course in tailoring. Her graduation project was to make a tuxedo for Armstrong.
Hardin returned to Chicago and the house on East 41st Street. She made a trip to Europe and had a brief love affair in France, but mostly she worked around Chicago, often with fellow Chicagoans. Collaborators included Red Saunders, Joe Williams, Oscar Brown Jr., and Little Brother Montgomery.
In the 1950s, Hardin recorded a biographical narrative for Bill Grauer at Riverside Records that was issued in LP form. She would again appear on that label in 1961, participating in its project Chicago: The Living Legends as accompanist for Alberta Hunter and leader of her own hastily assembled big band. The Riverside recordings led to her inclusion in a 1961 NBC network special, Chicago and All That Jazz, and a follow-up album released by Verve. In 1962, she began writing her autobiography with Chris Albertson, but she changed her mind when she realized the book would include experiences that might discomfit Louis Armstrong, so the project was delayed until his death. She died before finishing the book.
Death
When Louis Armstrong died in 1971, she traveled to New York for the funeral and rode in the family car. Returning to Chicago, she felt that work on her autobiography could continue, but the following month, performing at a televised memorial concert for Armstrong, she collapsed at the piano and died from a heart attack on the way to the hospital. After her funeral, her letters and the unfinished manuscript of her autobiography disappeared from her house.
In 2004, the Chicago Park District renamed a community park in her honor.
Legacy
Hardin's song "Bad Boy" was recorded by Ringo Starr in 1978 and became an international pop hit.
Armstrong's composition "Oriental Swing" was sampled by electro swing musician Parov Stelar to create the 2012 song "Booty Swing". The song gained notoriety when it was used in a 2013 Chevrolet commercial.
References
External links
Obituary, The New York Times, 28 August 1971
Gates, Henry Louis, Jr., ed. (2004). African American Lives.
Lil Hardin Armstrong at Red Hot Jazz Archive
Lil Hardin Armstrong at Music Rising, Tulane University
Lil Hardin Armstrong recordings at the Discography of American Historical Recordings.
African-American jazz composers
African-American jazz pianists
20th-century African-American women singers
American women composers
American women jazz musicians
American women jazz singers
American jazz singers
American jazz bandleaders
Jazz songwriters
1898 births
1971 deaths
Jazz musicians from Illinois
Musicians from Chicago
Musicians from Memphis, Tennessee
Musicians who died on stage
Fisk University alumni
New York College of Music alumni
Women conductors (music)
20th-century American conductors (music)
20th-century jazz composers
20th-century American women pianists
20th-century American pianists
20th-century American women singers
20th-century American composers
Jazz musicians from Tennessee
New Orleans Wanderers members
Louis Armstrong and His Hot Five members
Louis Armstrong and His Hot Seven members
Red Onion Jazz Babies members
20th-century women composers
20th-century American singers | [
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222519 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jim%20Dunnigan | Jim Dunnigan | James F. Dunnigan (born 8 August 1943) is an author, military-political analyst, Defense and State Department consultant, and wargame designer currently living in New York City.
Career
Dunnigan was born in Rockland County, New York. After high school, he volunteered for the military instead of waiting to be drafted. From 1961 to 1964, he worked as a repair technician for the Sergeant ballistic missile; his service included a tour in Korea. Afterwards, he attended Pace University studying accounting, then transferred to Columbia University, graduating with a degree in history in 1970.
While still in college, he became involved in wargaming. He designed Jutland, which Avalon Hill published in 1967, following it up with 1914 the next year, and PanzerBlitz in 1970, which eventually sold more than 300,000 copies. Meanwhile, Dunnigan had founded his own company, initially known as Poultron Press, and which soon became Simulations Publications Inc. (SPI). Dunnigan created SPI in order to save the magazine Strategy & Tactics, which was published by Chris Wagner. Dunnigan had been a contributor to the magazine since Strategy & Tactics #2 (February 1967), and when Wagner was having financial difficulties with the magazine he sold Dunningan the rights for $1. Dunnigan set up shop in a windowless basement in New York City's Lower East Side, and published his first issue from there, Strategy & Tactics #18 (September 1969); starting with that issue, every issue included a new wargame. Dunnigan also designed the game Sniper! (1973) . Dunnigan later designed Dallas: The Television Role-Playing Game (1980), the first ever licensed role-playing game. In 1980, Dunnigan was forced out of SPI due to the company's worsening financial situation. He left SPI to write more books, begin modeling financial markets, and pursue other projects.
Between 1966 and 1992, he designed over 100 wargames and other conflict simulations, ranging from 1969's Up Against the Wall, Motherfucker about the student takeover at Columbia (which he witnessed as a bystander), to the gigantic War in Europe, to the online Hundred Years War with his long time partners Albert Nofi and Daniel Masterson, which has been running since 1992.
In 1979, he wrote The Complete Wargames Handbook (first edition), and in 1980 How to Make War.
Dunnigan contributed to Three-Sixty Pacific's Victory at Sea but, he claimed, was not allowed to finish the computer wargame's design, although it was advertised as "James F. Dunnigan's Victory at Sea".
With his partners from the Hundred Years War, Daniel Masterson and Albert Nofi, Dunnigan founded the online military news site StrategyPage in 1999, of which he is the editor-in-chief. Podcasts of his commentaries on history, military affairs, and the contemporary world are regularly posted on StrategyPage.Com and as at Instapundit.com
Dunnigan regularly lectures at military and academic institutions, such as the Chief of Naval Operations Strategic Studies Group, in Newport, Rhode Island.
Awards/recognition
In 1975, Dunnigan was inducted into the Charles Roberts Awards Hall of Fame. In 1999 Pyramid magazine named him as one of the millennium's most influential persons "at least in the realm of adventure gaming". He was honored as a "famous game designer" by being featured on the king of diamonds in Flying Buffalo's 2008 Famous Game Designers Playing Card Deck.
Books
The Complete Wargames Handbook, first edition, 1979
The Complete Wargames Handbook: How to Play, Design and Find Them, Revised edition, William Morrow, 1992. . (online version)
Wargames Handbook: How to Play and Design Commercial and Professional Wargames, Third edition, 2000. .
How To Make War: A Comprehensive Guide To Modern Warfare, first edition, 1983
How to Make War: A Comprehensive Guide to Modern Warfare for the Post-Cold War Era, 3rd edition, William Morrow, 1993. .
How to Make War: A Comprehensive Guide to Modern Warfare in the Twenty-first Century, 4th edition, HarperCollins, 2003.
Digital Soldiers, St. Martin's, 1996. .
Dirty Little Secrets of the 20th Century: Myths, Misinformation, and Unknown Truths About the 20th Century, William Morrow, 1999. .
The Perfect Soldier. Citadel, 2004. .
Co-author
As editor and co-author
The Russian Front: Germany's War in the East, 1941-45 (also published as The Russian Campaign), Arms and Armour, 1978. .
With William Martel
How to Stop a War: The Lessons of Two Hundred Years of War and Peace, Doubleday, 1987. .
With Austin Bay
From Shield to Storm: High-Tech Weapons, Military Strategy and Coalition Warfare in the Persian Gulf, William Morrow, 1991. .
A Quick & Dirty Guide to War: Briefings on Present and Potential Wars, 4th edition, Paladin, 2008. .
With Albert Nofi
Shooting Blanks: War Making That Doesn't Work, 1991. .
Medieval Life and the Hundred Years War (200,000 word online book, 1994)
Dirty Little Secrets of World War II: Military Information No One Told You About the Greatest, Most Terrible War in History, William Morrow, 1994. .
Victory at Sea: World War II in the Pacific, William Morrow, 1995. .
The Pacific War Encyclopedia, Facts on File, 1998. .
Dirty Little Secrets: American Military Information You're Not Supposed to Know, St. Martins Press, 1999. .
Victory and Deceit: Deception and Trickery at War, 2nd edition, Writers Club, 2001. .
Dirty Little Secrets of the Vietnam War: Military Information You're Not Supposed to Know, St. Martins Griffin, 2001. .
With Daniel Masterson
The Way of the Warrior: Business Tactics and Techniques from History's Twelve Greatest Generals, St. Martin's Griffin, 1998. .
With Raymond M. Macedonia
Getting It Right: American Military Reforms After Vietnam to the Gulf War and Beyond, 2nd edition, Writers Club, 2001. .
Other works
(contributor) Wargame Design: The History, Production, and Use of Conflict Simulations, Simulations Publications, 1977. .
Foreword to H.G. Wells's Floor Games (Skirmisher, 2006)
Games
Jutland (1967)
1914 (1968)
1918 (1969)
Anzio Beachhead (1969)
Barbarossa (1969)
Crete (1969)
Deployment (1969)
Flying Fortress (1969)
Italy (1969)
Korea (1969)
Leipzig (1969)
Normandy (1969)
Tannenberg (1969)
Up Against the Wall, Motherfucker (1969)
Bastogne (1970)
Chicago, Chicago! (1970)
PanzerBlitz (1970)
Grenadier (1971)
Kursk (1971)
Lost Battles (1971)
Origins of World War II (1971)
Strategy I (1971)
USN (1971)
The Next President (1971)
American Revolution (1972)
Breakout and Pursuit (1972)
Combat Command (1972)
Flying Circus (1972)
France '40 (1972)
Franco-Prussian War (1972)
Moscow Campaign (1972)
Origins of World War I (1972)
Outdoor Survival (1972)
Red Star/White Star (1972)
Turning Point (1972)
Wilderness Campaign (1972)
Year of the Rat (1972)
Ardennes Offensive (1973)
Battles of Bull Run (1973)
CA (1973)
Desert War (1973)
El Alamein (1973)
Foxbat & Phantom (1973)
Kampfpanzer (1973)
NATO (1973)
Napoleon at Waterloo (1973)
Panzer Armee Afrika (1973)
Scrimmage (1973)
Sinai (1973)
Sniper! (1973)
Solomons Campaign (1973)
Spitfire (1973)
World War Two (1973)
American Civil War (1974)
Combined Arms (1974)
Frigate (1974)
Operation Olympic (1974)
Patrol (1974)
Tank (1974)
The East is Red (1974)
War in the East (1974)
Wolfpack (1974)
Battle for Germany (1975)
Global War (1975)
Invasion America (1975)
Mech War '77 (1975)
Oil War (1975)
Panzer '44 (1975)
Sixth Fleet (1975)
The Fast Carriers (1975)
War in the Pacific (1975)
World War 3 (1975)
World War I (1975)
Wurzburg (1975)
FireFight (1976)
Panzergruppe Guderian (1976)
Plot to Assassinate Hitler (1976)
Revolt in the East (1976)
Russian Civil War (1976)
Strike Force (1976)
War in Europe (1976)
War in the West (1976)
Fulda Gap (1977)
Agincourt (1978)
Brusilov (1978)
Canadian Civil War (1978)
The Next War (1978)
Bulge (1979)
Berlin '85 (1980)
Dallas (1980)
Demons (1980)
Drive on Metz (1980)
Empires of the Middle Ages (1980)
Fifth Corps (1980)
NATO Division Commander (1980)
TimeTripper (1980)
Wreck of the Pandora (1980)
Light Infantry Division (1985)
Tactical Combat Model (1985)
Men-At-Arms (1990)
Hundred Years War (1992)
Victory at Sea (1992)
Notes
References
External links
James F. Dunnigan homepage
StrategyPage
Board game designers
American military writers
1943 births
Living people
Columbia College (New York) alumni
United States Army soldiers
American company founders | [
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222521 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Treasure%20%28company%29 | Treasure (company) | is a Japanese video game developer based in Tokyo known for its action, platform, and shoot 'em up games. The company was founded in 1992 by former Konami employees seeking to explore original game concepts and free themselves from Konami's reliance on sequels. Their first game, Gunstar Heroes (1993) on the Sega Genesis, was a critical success and established a creative and action-oriented design style that would continue to characterize their output. Treasure's philosophy in game development has always been to make games they enjoy, not necessarily those that have the greatest commercial viability.
Treasure grew a cult following for their action games developed during the 1990s, and though initially exclusive to Sega platforms, they expanded to other platforms in 1997. The company earned recognition from critics, being called one of the best Japanese indie studios and 2D game developers. The company's output decreased in the 2010s, with their most recent release being Gaist Crusher God in 2014.
History
Origins and 16-bit era
Treasure founder and president Masato Maegawa dreamed of working in the video game industry when he was young and began learning computer programming in junior high school. He studied programming in college and was hired by developer and publisher Konami after graduating. At Konami, Maegawa and associates that would later establish Treasure worked on a variety of games including arcade titles The Simpsons (1991) and Bucky O'Hare (1992), and Super NES games Super Castlevania IV (1991), Contra III: The Alien Wars (1992), and Axelay (1992). In 1991, Maegawa and several other Konami employees began planning an original game that would become Gunstar Heroes (1993), but their concept was rejected by Konami. Maegawa and his team were growing frustrated with Konami's growing reliance on sequels to established franchises such as their Castlevania and Teenage Mutant Ninja Turtles series. The team felt consumers wanted original games, and so they left Konami in 1992 to establish Treasure and continue development on Gunstar Heroes.
Treasure was founded on June 19, 1992; the company name came from wanting to be a "treasure" to the industry. Around the time of founding, the company had just over ten people. Even though most of the staff made games for the Super NES at Konami, they wanted to develop Gunstar Heroes for the Sega Genesis because the system's Motorola 68000 microprocessor was necessary for the visuals and gameplay they were striving for. Treasure approached Sega for a publishing contract. At first, they were not granted approval because they lacked a track record, but Sega instead contracted them to develop McDonald's Treasure Land Adventure (1993). Several months into development, they were granted approval to work on Gunstar Heroes. Treasure staff was split into two teams to work on both games in parallel. They had a staff of around 18 people at the time, most being ex-Konami programmers. The staff felt they had more freedom working under Sega than Konami.
McDonald's Treasure Land Adventure was completed first, but Treasure decided to finish and release Gunstar Heroes first because they wanted their debut to be an original game. North American magazine GameFan were enthralled with the game and secured the first English language interview with Treasure that year. McDonald's Treasure Land Adventure was released next, initiating a trend for Treasure of developing games based on licensed properties. As a small studio, Treasure required the revenue from licensed games to develop original projects. Treasure continued to develop games for the Genesis for the remainder of the 16-bit era because of the system's smooth sprite movement, and grew a following among Sega fans. After Gunstar Heroes, Treasure was divided into four teams to develop (in order of release): platformer Dynamite Headdy (1994), fighting game Yu Yu Hakusho Makyō Tōitsusen (1994), run and gun Alien Soldier (1995), and action-adventure Light Crusader (1995). The variety among these games illustrated unevenness and unpredictability in Treasure's output that would become characteristic of them.
32-bit era
In 1994, Sega introduced the Sega Saturn technology to Treasure. Treasure were impressed with the system's ability to handle a large number of sprites. They also knew their fan base consisted entirely of Sega gamers, so as the 32-bit era began, they moved development to the Saturn. Even though the Saturn was capable of 3D graphics, they continued to develop 2D games because they had built up 2D sprite know how. They were not concerned with competing with 3D games. First on Saturn was Guardian Heroes (1996), a beat 'em up that combines elements from fighting games and RPGs. Treasure worked on their next two releases concurrently, side-scrolling platformers Mischief Makers (1997) and Silhouette Mirage (1997). Mischief Makers was released on the Nintendo 64 and published by Enix, Treasure's first game published by a company other than Sega and released on non-Sega hardware. Treasure chose to develop for the Nintendo 64 because they were interested in the hardware's capabilities. Enix had heard of Treasure's reputation for action games and requested to publish for them in the past, but it was not until Treasure was developing for a non-Sega platform that they sought Enix's cooperation. Mischief Makers was followed by Silhouette Mirage, which was initially released on the Saturn then ported to the PlayStation in 1998.
In 1998, Treasure released their first arcade game, the shoot 'em up Radiant Silvergun. Treasure had been hesitant to develop an arcade game for years because of concerns with their commercial viability, but the staff felt Radiant Silvergun had potential and they were eager to develop it. The game was ported to the Saturn later that year. Enix published Treasure's next game for the PlayStation, fighting game Rakugaki Showtime (1999), but had to pull it from shelves shortly after release because of a lawsuit filed against them. This was followed by the multidirectional shooter Bangai-O (1999) which received a limited release on the Nintendo 64, but was later modified and re-released for the Dreamcast. By 1999, most of the founding Treasure staff were still with the company.
2000s
Treasure began the 2000s with some early troubles. Gun Beat, a racing game they were developing for Sega's NAOMI arcade platform, was canceled with little explanation. Also, Silpheed: The Lost Planet (2000) and Stretch Panic (2001) for the PlayStation 2 were both critically panned. Despite these hiccups, Treasure did find success with Sin and Punishment (2000), a rail shooter co-developed with Nintendo for the Nintendo 64 and later released on the iQue in China. The game was not released in western territories but grew a cult following among import gamers. While Sin and Punishment was still in development, Treasure started development on a spiritual sequel to Radiant Silvergun titled Ikaruga (2001). The arcade shooter was co-developed with G.rev, and ported to the Dreamcast and saw a worldwide release on the GameCube.
Treasure next embarked on a series of licensed projects. Two of these were based on the Tiny Toon Adventures franchise, Tiny Toon Adventures: Buster's Bad Dream (2002) for the Game Boy Advance and the unreleased Tiny Toon Adventures: Defenders of the Universe for the PlayStation 2. Other licensed games during this period included Game Boy Advance games Hajime no Ippo: The Fighting! (2003) and Astro Boy: Omega Factor (2003), as well as GameCube games Wario World (2003) and Dragon Drive: D-Masters Shot (2003). Astro Boy: Omega Factor was co-developed with Hitmaker and was critically praised for returning to Treasure's classic side-scrolling action style that had been missing from their recent output. Their next game was Gradius V (2004) which like Ikaruga before it, was co-developed with G.rev. The companies worked under contract for Konami, and the game helped cement Treasure's return to critical successes following a slew of mediocre licensed games.
Treasure developed sequels on the Game Boy Advance for their earlier successes, Advance Guardian Heroes (2004) and Gunstar Super Heroes (2005). Treasure followed this with a series of licensed Bleach games for the Nintendo DS. Maegawa explained that his company experiences challenges in developing games based on licensed properties like Bleach, saying that the staff wants to be original but cannot detract too far from the source material and risk disappointing fans. By 2009, the company had 20-30 employees.
2010s
By 2011, the number of employees at Treasure had dropped to 16. In a 2011 interview, Maegawa explained that Treasure now uses middleware to develop games, no longer using custom programming to push the hardware to their maximum levels. The company was also putting an increased focus on rereleasing their back catalog as downloadable games on the Virtual Console, PlayStation Network, and Xbox Live. Treasure has not released any new games since 2014 apart from re-releases of games like Ikaruga.
Staff and design philosophy
Treasure does not have a rigid hierarchy. Maegawa explained that Treasure operates differently from other companies by not assigning lead designers. While a project leader may create a project plan, most of the game design is done collaboratively between the programmers and artists. Most permanent employees and part-time contractors drift in and out of projects as required. Some individuals have been important figures in Treasure's history:
Masato Maegawa – Founder, company president, and lead producer on all games. He was programmer for some of the company's Genesis games.
Hideyuki Suganami – Programmer on Gunstar Heroes, Alien Soldier, Mischief Makers, and Sin and Punishment. Suganami has left the company but worked as a freelancer on Gunstar Super Heroes and Sin and Punishment: Star Successor.
Hiroshi Iuchi – Director for Radiant Silvergun, Ikaruga, and Gradius V
Mitsuru Yaida – Programmer for the Bangai-O games
Tetsuhiko Kikuchi – Frequent artist and character designer. Led development of Guardian Heroes.
Norio Hanzawa – Frequent composer
Yasushi Suzuki – Artist for Radiant Silvergun, Sin and Punishment, and Ikaruga
Treasure places emphasis on creating original games in the action, platform, and shooter genres. They do not have a preference on gaming platforms or 2D vs. 3D gameplay, preferring to choose the most suitable depending on the game they are designing. The company has never viewed sales as much of a concern. They would prefer making the games they want to make, and not what will more likely sell well. Maegawa has preferred to always keep the company small to keep an "independent-minded" mentality, and help the developers' personalities shine through their games.
They expressed disinterest in sequels early in their history, but became more open to it later. They pride themselves in creating original ideas and avoiding imitating other works or being associated with games already on the market. They have made games based on licensed properties to generate revenue to pursue original projects. Explaining the Treasure design philosophy, Megawa said it "simply, to create the games we want to make" and "creating the things we love in the way we like." The company has generally employed around 20 to 30 people at any given time.
Reputation
Treasure was one of the most celebrated developers of the 16-bit era and grew a cult following during the period. USgamer called them "one of Japan's pioneering indie developers" and explained the "sense of integrity" in their 1990s work that was not seen in other games of the era. Maximum: The Video Game Magazine called them "one of the most respected programming houses in the world" in 1996. Gamers' Republic agreed in 1998, writing: "Any action or platform gamer worth his salt recognizes Treasure as one of the finest development houses in the world." In 2005, 1UP.com called Treasure "one of Japan's most famous independent development houses [...] releasing some of the most finely crafted, creative, and offbeat action games the world has ever seen." Treasure did not have any large commercial successes, which influenced Retro Gamer to describe their output as "critically acclaimed yet commercially unsuccessful." Because of the loyal fan base but low sales, prices of Treasure games such as Rakugaki Showtime and Radiant Silvergun have climbed on the secondary market.
The company established a signature style early on that became consistent across their work. Their first game, Gunstar Heroes, established what 1UP.com called Treasure's key themes: "creativity, weirdness, and a tendency toward completely absurd levels of action." Wireframe called their style "fast, aggressive [...] featuring bold graphics and surreal dashes of humour." Retro Gamer wrote that they have "consistently excellent art direction" and are renowned for their "action-packed" and "explosive" gameplay. They explained that Treasure is "at the very cutting edge of artistic freedom, forging its own very particular path and creating a softography guided by nothing other than the whims of the creators." The company is known for taking risks within established genres, borrowing conventional ideas and adding their own creative touches to create something new and innovative. They became recognized for their prowess in 2D game design, with Gamers' Republic calling their output "the finest 2D platform games on the planet." Treasure is also known for technological innovation; several of their games pushed the hardware to their limits.
Games developed
Cancelled games
Gun Beat (Arcade, cancelled 2000)
Tiny Toon Adventures: Defenders of the Universe (GameCube & PlayStation 2, cancelled 2002)
Notes
References
External links
Video game companies established in 1992
Video game companies of Japan
Amusement companies of Japan
Konami
Video game development companies
Software companies based in Tokyo
Japanese companies established in 1992 | [
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222525 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Triple%20Crown%20of%20Alpine%20Skiing | Triple Crown of Alpine Skiing | The Triple Crown of Alpine Skiing consists of three different types of alpine skiing events. A Triple Crown winner wins all three World Cup titles in one season or all three Gold medals at the Winter Olympic Games in the following:
Slalom
Giant Slalom
Downhill
Only two people have ever accomplished the feat.
Austrian skier Toni Sailer was the first person to win the Triple Crown of Alpine Skiing at the 1956 Winter Olympics
At the 1968 Winter Olympic Games French skier, Jean-Claude Killy won the Triple Crown.
See also
Skiing and skiing topics
Alpine skiing | [
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222526 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yari | Yari | is the term for a traditionally-made Japanese blade () in the form of a spear, or more specifically, the straight-headed spear. The martial art of wielding the is called .
History
Early are believed to have been derived from Chinese spears. These are thought to be from the Nara period (710–794). While they were present in early Japanese history, the term appeared for the first time in written sources in 1334 and this type of spear did not become popular until the late 15th century. The original warfare of the was not a thing for commoners; it was a ritualized combat usually between two warriors who would challenge each other via horseback archery. In the late Heian period, battles on foot began to increase and , a polearm, became a main weapon along with a yumi (longbow). The attempted Mongol invasions of Japan in 1274 and 1281 was one of the factors that changed Japanese weaponry and warfare. The Mongols employed Chinese and Korean footmen wielding long pikes and fought in tight formations. They moved in large units to stave off cavalry. Polearms (including and ) were of much greater military use than swords, due to their significantly longer reach, lighter weight per unit length (though overall a polearm would be fairly hefty), and their great piercing ability. In the Nanbokuchō period, battles on foot by groups became the mainstream and the importance of further increased, but were not yet the main weapon. However, from the Onin War in 15th century in the Muromachi period, large-scale group battles started in which mobilized (foot troops) fought on foot and in close quarters, and yari, and (Japanese matchlock) became the main weapons. Swords in a full battle situation were therefore relegated to emergency sidearm status from the Heian through the Muromachi periods.
Around the latter half of the 16th century, holding pikes () with length of became the main forces in armies. They formed lines, combined with soldiers bearing firearms tanegashima and short spears. Pikemen formed a two or three row line, and were trained to move their pikes in unison under command. All of The Three Great Spears of Japan were forged by the 16th century in the Muromachi period.
The eventually became more popular than the yumi (longbow) as a weapon for the samurai, and foot troops () followed suit and used them extensively. With the coming of the Edo period the had fallen into disuse. Greater emphasis was placed on small-scale, close quarters combat, so the convenience of swords led to their dominance, and polearms and archery lost their practical value. During the peaceful Edo period, were still produced (sometimes even by renowned swordsmiths), although they existed mostly as either a ceremonial weapon or as a police weapon.
Description
were characterized by a straight blade that could be anywhere from several centimeters to or more in length. The blades were made of the same steel () that traditional Japanese swords and arrow heads were forged with, and were very durable. Throughout history many variations of the straight blade were produced, often with protrusions on a central blade. blades often had an extremely long tang (); typically it would be longer than the sharpened portion of the blade. The tang protruded into a reinforced hollow portion of the handle ( or ) resulting in a very stiff shaft making it nearly impossible for the blade to fall or break off.
The shaft ( or ) came in many different lengths, widths, and shapes; made of hardwood and covered in lacquered bamboo strips, these came in oval, round, or polygonal cross section. These in turn were often wrapped in metal rings or wire (), and affixed with a metal pommel () on the butt end. shafts were often decorated with inlays of metal or semiprecious materials such as brass pins, lacquer, or flakes of pearl. A sheath () was also part of a complete .
Variations of blades
Various types of points or blades existed. The most common blade was a straight, flat design that resembles a straight-bladed double edged dagger. This type of blade could cut as well as stab and was sharpened like a razor edge. Though is a catchall term for 'spear', it is usually distinguished between , which have additional horizontal blades, and simple () or straight spears. can also be distinguished by the types of blade cross section: the triangular sections were called and the diamond sections were called .
have a point that resembles a narrow spike with a triangular cross-section. A therefore had no cutting edge, only a sharp point at the end. The was therefore best suited for penetrating armor, even armor made of metal, which a standard yari was not as suited to. There are two types of : , blades with a triangular, equilateral cross section, and , with a triangular, isosceles-shaped cross section.
, a blade with a diamond shaped cross section.
were mounted to a shaft by means of a metal socket instead of a tang. The socket and blade are forged from a single piece.
were one of the rarest types of , possessing only a single edge. This created a weapon that could be used for hacking and closely resembled a . are the only which use a .
had a very broad, "spade-shaped" head. often had a pair of holes centering the two ovoid halves.
, also called , looked something similar to a trident or partisan, and brandished a pair of curved blades around its central lance. It is occasionally referred to as in modern weaponry texts.
, a with one side blade pointing down and one side blade pointing upwards.
, a with the two side blades pointing down.
, a with the two side blades resembling a pair of buffalo horns.
gets its name from a peasant weapon called (lit. "sickle" or "scythe").
had a weapon design sporting a blade that was two-pronged. Instead of being constructed like a military fork, a straight blade (as in ) was intersected just below its midsection by a perpendicular blade. This blade was slightly shorter than the primary, had curved tips making a parallelogram, and was set off center so that only 1/6 of its length extended on the other side. This formed a rough 'L' shape.
barely looked like a spear at all. A polearm that had a crescent blade for a head, which could be used for slashing and hooking.
was a key-shaped spear with a long blade with a side hook much like that found on a fauchard. This could be used to catch another weapon, or even dismount a rider on horseback.
possessed some of the most ornate designs for any spear. Running parallel to the long central blade were two 'crescent moon' shaped blades facing outwards. They were attached in two locations by short cross bars, making the head look somewhat like a fleur-de-lis.
, an old form of possibly from the Nara period (710–794), a guard's spear with pole and blade either leaf-shaped or waved (like keris); a sickle-shaped horn projected on one or both sides at the joint of blade. The had a hollow socket like the later period for the pole to fit into rather than a long tang.
, a broad described as being "leaf shaped" or "bamboo leaf shaped".
(alao known as ), a straight double edged blade.
(), an extra long blade.
Variations of shafts
A shaft can range in length from , with some in excess of 6 metres.
: long, a type of pike used by . It was especially used by Oda clan beginning from the reign of Oda Nobunaga; samurai tradition of the time held that the soldiers of the rural province of Owari were among the weakest in Japan. Kantō was a chaotic place; Kansai was home to the Shogunate, and the Uesugi, Takeda, Imagawa, and Hojo clans, as well as pirate raiders from Shikoku. Additionally, Kyushu was home of one of the most warmongering clans in Japan, the Shimazu clan. Because of this, Nobunaga armed his underperforming soldiers extra-long pikes in order for them to be more effective against armoured opponents and cavalry, and fighting in groups and formations.
, a long spear used by and samurai.
. The shaft goes through a hollow metal tube that allowed the spear to be twisted during thrusting. This style of is typified in the school .
. A with a short simple shaft that was kept by the bedside for home protection.
. A with a short shaft that was used by samurai and police to help capture criminals.
Gallery
See also
Japanese sword
Three Great Spears of Japan
Nunti Bo
Naginata
References
External links
Nihonto message board forum
Richard Stein's Japanese sword guide
Spears of Japan
Blade weapons
Samurai pole weapons | [
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222531 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Polka-mazurka | Polka-mazurka | The polka-mazurka is a dance, musically similar to the mazurka, but danced much like the polka. Many polka-mazurkas were composed by Johann Strauss II and his family. Johann Strauss I did not compose any of this type of music; the first polka-mazurka example written by the Strauss family was in the year 1854 by Johann Strauss II, entitled La Viennoise op. 144.The polka-mazurka was not credited to the Strauss family alone, as many Viennese composers in the 1850s era also wrote many examples. This variant of the polka was seen as cross-cultural, as many of its influences can be seen in the French-polka with its feminine and deliberate steps as well as the exciting schnell-polka, where Eduard Strauss composed many famous pieces of this type.
Polka-mazurka music
Its tempo of 3 beats to the bar ( time) meant that it was similar in rhythm to the waltz, but the emphasis of the polka-mazurka was on the first beat of the bar as opposed to the waltz which places its beats on the last two as epitomised by the Viennese waltz with its heavily accentuated final two beats to the bar.
The polka-mazurka does possess a similar structure to the polka, with a main theme quickly proceeding to its subsidiary theme which is usually brash and loudly played. The 'trio' section is free-style and need not associate with the main theme nor of the same key signature. The Strauss family, Josef Strauss in particular, attempted in most of his famous polka-mazurkas to blend in sensitivity and romanticism, as can be heard in his pieces Sympathie op. 73, and Frauenherz op. 166, which were inspired by his concern for social issues faced by women in that era.
See also
Polska -beat Nordic folk dance
Polonaise - slow dance of Polish origin, in time
References
https://polishmusic.usc.edu/research/dances/polka/
http://memory.loc.gov/diglib/ihas/loc.music.sm1882.03213/default.html
Polka genres
Mazurka
Austrian styles of music | [
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222533 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mazurka | Mazurka | The mazurka (Polish: mazur or mazurek) is a Polish musical form based on stylised folk dances in triple meter, usually at a lively tempo, with character defined mostly by the prominent mazur's "strong accents unsystematically placed on the second or third beat". The mazurka, alongside the polka dance, became popular at the ballrooms and salons of Europe in the 19th century, particularly through the notable works by Frédéric Chopin. The mazurka (in Polish mazur, the same word as the mazur) and mazurek (rural dance based on the mazur) are often confused in Western literature as the same musical form.
History
The folk origins of the mazurka are three Polish folk dances which are:
mazur, most characteristic due to its inconsistent rhythmic accents,
slow and melancholic kujawiak,
fast oberek.
The mazurka is always found to have either a triplet, trill, dotted eighth note (quaver) pair, or an ordinary eighth note pair before two quarter notes (crotchets). In the 19th century, the form became popular in many ballrooms in different parts of Europe.
"Mazurka" is a Polish word, it means a Masovian woman or girl. It is a feminine form of the word "Mazur", which — until the nineteenth century — denoted an inhabitant of Poland's Mazovia region (Masovians, formerly plural: Mazurzy). The similar word "Mazurek" is a diminutive and masculine form of "Mazur". In relation to dance, all these words (mazur, mazurek, mazurka) mean "a Mazovian dance". Apart from the ethnic name, the word mazurek refers to various terms in Polish, e.g. a cake, a bird and a popular surname.
Mazurek is also a rural dance identified by some as the oberek. It is said oberek is a danced variation of the sung mazurek, the latter also having more prominent accents on second and third beats and less fluent of a rhythmical flow, which is so characteristical of oberek.
Several classical composers have written mazurkas, with the best known being the 59 composed by Frédéric Chopin for solo piano. In 1825 Maria Szymanowska wrote the largest collection of piano mazurkas published before Chopin. Henryk Wieniawski also wrote two for violin with piano (the popular "Obertas", Op. 19), Julian Cochran composed a collection of five mazurkas for solo piano and orchestra, and in the 1920s, Karol Szymanowski wrote a set of twenty for piano and finished his composing career with a final pair in 1934. Alexander Scriabin, who was at first conscious of being Chopin's follower, wrote 24 mazurkas.
Chopin first started composing mazurkas in 1824, but his composing did not become serious until 1830, the year of the November Uprising, a Polish rebellion against the Russian tsar. Chopin continued composing them until 1849, the year of his death. The stylistic and musical characteristics of Chopin's mazurkas differ from the traditional variety because Chopin in effect created a completely separate and new genre of mazurka all his own. For example, he used classical techniques in his mazurkas, including counterpoint and fugue. By including more chromaticism and harmony in the mazurkas, he made them more technically interesting than the traditional dances. Chopin also tried to compose his mazurkas in such a way that they could not be used for dancing, so as to distance them from the original form.
However, while Chopin changed some aspects of the original mazurka, he maintained others. His mazurkas, like the traditional dances, contain a great deal of repetition: repetition of certain measures or groups of measures; of entire sections; and of an initial theme. The rhythm of his mazurkas also remains very similar to that of earlier mazurkas. However, Chopin also incorporated the rhythmic elements of the two other Polish forms mentioned above, the kujawiak and oberek; his mazurkas usually feature rhythms from more than one of these three forms (mazurek, kujawiak, and oberek). This use of rhythm suggests that Chopin tried to create a genre that had ties to the original form, but was still something new and different.
The mazurka began as a dance for either four or eight couples. Eventually, Michel Fokine created a female solo mazurka dance dominated by flying grandes jetés, alternating second and third arabesque positions, and split-leg climactic postures.
Outside Poland
The form was common as a popular dance in Europe and the United States in the mid to late nineteenth century.
Cape Verde Islands
In Cape Verde the mazurka is also revered as an important cultural phenomenon played with acoustic bands led by a violinist and accompanied by guitarists.
It also takes a variation of the mazurka dance form and is found mostly in the north of the archipelago, mainly in São Nicolau, Santo Antão. In the south it finds popularity in the island of Brava.
Czech Republic and its forerunners
Czech composers Bedřich Smetana, Antonín Dvořák, and Bohuslav Martinů all wrote mazurkas to at least some extent. For Smetana and Martinů, these are single pieces (respectively, a Mazurka-Cappricio for piano and a Mazurka-Nocturne for a mixed string/wind quartet), whereas Dvořák composed a set of six mazurkas for piano, and a mazurka for violin and orchestra.
France
In France, Impressionistic composers Claude Debussy and Maurice Ravel both wrote mazurkas; Debussy's is a stand-alone piece, and Ravel's is part of a suite of an early work, La Parade. Jacques Offenbach included a mazurka in his ballet Gaîté Parisienne; Léo Delibes composed one which appears several times in the first act of his ballet Coppélia. The mazurka appears frequently in French traditional folk music. In the French Antilles, the mazurka has become an important style of dance and music.
A creolised version of the mazurka is mazouk which—beginning around 1979 in Paris—morphed into the globally popular dance style “zouk” developed in France and popularised by Paris's Island-creole supergroup Kassav'; mazouk had been introduced to the French Caribbean in the late 1800s. In the 21st century in Brazil and the Afro-Caribbean diaspora, zouk (and its progenitor band Kassav') remains very popular. In popular 20th century folk dancing in France, the Polish/classical-piano (see Chopin) mazurka evolved into mazouk, a dance at a more gentle pace (without the traditional 'hop' step on the 3rd beat), fostering more-intimate dancing and associating mazouk with a "seduction" dance (see also tango from Argentina). This "sexy" style of mazurka has also been imported to “balfolk" dancing in Belgium and the Netherlands, hence the name "Belgian Mazurka" or "Flemish Mazurka". Perhaps the most enduring style of intimate dancing music of this origin moved zouk from the 1980s–2000s into its wildly popular (especially in Brazil and Africa) slow-dancing variant called zouk love, which remains a staple of French-Caribbean dance venues in Paris and elsewhere.
Ireland
Mazurkas constitute a distinctive part of the traditional dance music of County Donegal, Ireland. As a couple's dance, it is no longer popular. The Polish dance entered the UK in the 1840s, but is not widely played outside of Donegal. Unlike the Polish mazurek, which may have an accent on the second or third beat of a bar, the Irish mazurka (masúrca in the Irish language) is consistently accented on the second beat, giving it a unique feel. Musician Caoimhín Mac Aoidh has written a book on the subject, From Mazovia to Meenbanad: The Donegal Mazurkas, in which the history of the musical and dance form is related. Mac Aoidh tracked down 32 different mazurkas as played in Ireland.
Italy
Mazurkas are part of Italian popular music including the Liscio style. Typical of Italian mazurkas are groups of triplets, strong dotted rhythms, and phrase endings of two accented quarter notes and a rest, unlike a waltz.
Latin America
Brazil
In Brazil, the composer Ernesto Nazareth wrote a Chopinesque mazurka called "Mercedes" in 1917. Heitor Villa-Lobos wrote a mazurka for classical guitar in a similar musical style to Polish mazurkas.
Cuba
In Cuba, composer Ernesto Lecuona wrote a piece titled Mazurka en Glisado for the piano, one of various commissions throughout his life.
Nicaragua
In Nicaragua, Carlos Mejía Godoy y los de Palacaguina and Los Soñadores de Saraguasca made a compilation of mazurkas from popular folk music, which are performed with a violin de talalate, an indigenous instrument from Nicaragua.
Curaçao
In Curaçao the mazurka was popular as dance music in the nineteenth century, as well as in the first half of the twentieth century. Several Curaçao-born composers, such as Jan Gerard Palm, Joseph Sickman Corsen, Jacobo Palm, Rudolph Palm and Wim Statius Muller, have written mazurkas.
Mexico
In Mexico, composers Ricardo Castro and Manuel M Ponce wrote mazurkas for the piano in a Chopin fashion, eventually mixing elements of Mexican folk dances.
Philippines
In the Philippines, the mazurka is a popular form of traditional dance. The Mazurka Boholana is one well-known Filipino mazurka.
Portugal
In Portugal the mazurka became one of the most popular traditional European dances through the first years of the annual Andanças, a traditional dances festival held nearby Castelo de Vide.
Russia
In Russia, many composers wrote mazurkas for solo piano: Scriabin (26), Balakirev (7), Tchaikovsky (6). Borodin wrote two in his Petite Suite for piano; Mikhail Glinka also wrote two, although one is a simplified version of Chopin's Mazurka No. 13. Tchaikovsky also included mazurkas in his scores for Swan Lake, Eugene Onegin, and Sleeping Beauty. Rachmaninoff's Morceaux de salon Op 10 includes a Mazurka in D-flat major as its 7th piece.
The mazurka was a common dance at the balls of the Russian Empire and it is depicted in many Russian novels and films. In addition to its mention in Leo Tolstoy's Anna Karenina as well as in a protracted episode in War and Peace, the dance is prominently featured in Ivan Turgenev's novel Fathers and Sons. Arkady reserves the mazurka for Madame Odintsov with whom he is falling in love. During Russian balls, it was danced elegantly and famously by the Tsarina Maria Feodorovna, the second-to-last tsarina of the Russian empire before its collapse in 1918.
Sweden
In Swedish folk music, the quaver or eight-note polska has a similar rhythm to the mazurka, and the two dances have a common origin. The international version of the mazurka was also introduced under that name during the nineteenth century.
United States
The mazurka survives in some old-time fiddle tunes, and also in early Cajun music, though it has largely fallen out of Cajun music now. In the Southern United States it was sometimes known as a "mazuka".
California
In addition to being part of the repertoire of Irish traditional music sessions, the mazurka has been played by a wide variety of cultural groups in California. The mazurka first came to Alta California during the Spanish period and danced among Californios. Later, the renowned guitarist Manuel Y. Ferrer, who was born in Baja California to Spanish parents and learned guitar from a Franciscan friar in Santa Barbara but made his career in the San Francisco Bay Area, arranged mazurkas for the guitar. During the early 20th century, the mazurka became part of the repertoire of Italian American musicians in San Francisco playing in the ballo liscio style. Pianist Sid LeProtti, an important Oakland-born early jazz musician on the west coast, stated that before jazz took off, he and other musicians in Barbary Coast clubs played mazurkas in addition to waltzes, two-steps, marches, polkas, and schottisches. One mazurka, played on harmonica, was collected by Sidney Robertson Cowell for the WPA California Folk Music Project in 1939 in Tuolumne County.
See also
Mazur (dance)
Bourrée
Fandango
Ländler
Mazurkas (Chopin)
Polish music
Polonaise (dance)
Polska (dance)
Waltz
Notes
Bibliography
Downes, Stephen. "Mazurka" Grove Music Online. Oxford Music Online. 17 November 2009.
Kallberg, Jeffrey. "The problem of repetition and return in Chopin's mazurkas." Chopin Styles, ed. Jim Samson. Cambridge, England: Cambridge University Press, 1988.
Kallberg, Jeffrey. "Chopin's Last Style." Journal of the American Musicological Society 38.2 (1985): 264–315.
Michałowski, Kornel, and Jim Samson. "Chopin, Fryderyk Franciszek" Grove Music Online. Oxford Music Online. 17 November 2009. (esp. section 6, "Formative Influences")
Milewski, Barbara. "Chopin's Mazurkas and the Myth of the Folk." 19th-Century Music 23.2 (1999): 113–35.
Rosen, Charles. The Romantic Generation. Cambridge, Massachusetts: Harvard University Press, 1995.
Winokur, Roselyn M. "Chopin and the Mazurka". Diss. Sarah Lawrence College, 1974.
External links
history, description, costumes, music, sources
Mazurka within traditional dances of the County of Nice (France)
The Russian Mazurka
The Mazurka Project
*
'Vincent Campbell's Mazurka' as played by Vincent Campbell in Co. Donegal
Dance forms in classical music
Irish dances
Irish music
Polish dances
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222534 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fierce%20Creatures | Fierce Creatures | Fierce Creatures is a 1997 British-American farcical comedy film. While not literally a sequel, Fierce Creatures is a spiritual successor to the 1988 film A Fish Called Wanda. Both films star John Cleese, Jamie Lee Curtis, Kevin Kline and Michael Palin. Fierce Creatures was written by John Cleese and directed by Robert Young and Fred Schepisi.
The film was dedicated to Gerald Durrell and Peter Cook. Some scenes were filmed at Jersey Zoo, a zoological park founded by Durrell.
Plot
Willa Weston arrives in Atlanta to take a high-ranking position in a company recently acquired by Octopus Inc.'s owner, Rod McCain. But Rod informs her that he has already sold the company where she was to work. Willa then agrees to run another recent acquisition, Marwood Zoo, in an attempt to create a business model that can be used for multiple zoos in the future. Rod McCain's son Vincent, who feels an unreciprocated attraction to Willa, announces that he will join her at the zoo.
The newly appointed director of the zoo is a retired Hong Kong Police Force officer and former Octopus Television employee, Rollo Lee. In order to meet Octopus's revenue target of 20% from all assets, Rollo institutes a "fierce creatures" theme on the assumption that dangerous and violent animals will attract more visitors. All animals not meeting those requirements must go. All the animal keepers, including spider-handler Bugsy, make various attempts to get Rollo to change his mind. One such attempt involves getting Rollo to kill some of the cutest animals himself, but Rollo, seeing through their prank, fakes the animals' extermination. Rollo keeps the animals in his bedroom which later causes Willa and Vincent to misunderstand that Rollo is having an orgy with the female staff.
Rollo discovers that several staff members are faking animal attack injuries. Rollo fires several warning shots at those responsible and Reggie rushes in, thinking mistakenly that one of them is shot. Rollo then finds a visitor who has had a genuine accident but, not believing it is real, tastes the blood of the visitor whilst loudly proclaiming that it is fake. Just then Willa and Vincent arrive and this fiasco sees Rollo demoted to middle management. Vince even threatens to fire him if his apparent activities with the female staff do not cease.
Vince covers both the zoo and animals alike with advertisements after secretly garnering sponsors, dresses the staff in ridiculous outfits, and installs an artificial panda in one of the enclosures. His continued attempts to seduce Willa fail, while she comes to enjoy working at the zoo after having a close encounter with a silverback gorilla. She finds herself attracted to Rollo after becoming fascinated by his apparent ability to attract multiple women. When Rollo attempts to have a discussion about Vince's marketing plan, she suggests they have dinner, but she is forced to postpone when she remembers Rod is coming from Atlanta to discuss the running of the zoo.
Worried that the visit might be part of a plan to close the zoo, Rollo and the zookeepers bug Rod's hotel room to find out. Although the plan goes awry, they learn that Rod wants to turn the zoo into a golf course and is not actually expecting to die soon.
Upon discovering that Vince has stolen sponsorship money he raised, Willa warns him to return it, or else she will tell Rod. When Rollo attempts to work out how the theft can be traced, he and Willa finally kiss, just as Vince arrives to return the money. A confrontation takes place first at the zoo office, and then outside as Willa, Rollo, Bugsy, and several others attempt to stop Vince from running off with the money. Bugsy refuses to shut up, so Vince loses his temper and grabs a pistol from the management office. Rod arrives just as Vince is being subdued and announces the police are on their way to arrest Vince for stealing. Vince tries and fails to shoot his father, but then Bugsy takes the pistol and accidentally shoots Rod between the eyes.
In the panic that follows, a plan emerges to fool Neville and the arriving police. The keepers work together to dress Vince up as Rod, since he can imitate his father's accent fairly well. When the police and Neville arrive, Vince (as Rod) tells them that he has rewritten Rod's will, specifying that the zoo will become a trust of the caretakers while Vince will inherit everything else, and he wants all of them to be witnesses. After signing the new will, Vince locks himself in a caretaker hut where he feigns Rod's suicide. Although Neville becomes suspicious, he is left dumbstruck when he discovers the dead body of his boss in the hut.
Now free, the zookeepers destroy the evidence of McCain's ownership. Vince becomes the new CEO of Octopus, while Willa and Rollo happily begin a new life together while continuing to run the zoo.
Cast
John Cleese as Rollo Lee
Jamie Lee Curtis as Willa Weston
Kevin Kline as Rod McCain/Vince McCain
Michael Palin as Adrian 'Bugsy' Malone
Robert Lindsay as Sydney Lotterby
Ronnie Corbett as Reggie Sea Lions
Carey Lowell as Cub Felines
Bille Brown as Neville
Derek Griffiths as Gerry Ungulates
Maria Aitken as Di Harding
Cynthia Cleese as Pip Small Mammals
Richard Ridings as Hugh Primates
Gareth Hunt as Inspector Masefield
Production
Cleese began writing the script in 1992 and shooting began on 15 May 1995. It was completed in August and the film was previewed in November of that year. Preview audiences expressed dissatisfaction with the ending, and in February 1996 the decision was made to reshoot the ending and some other sequences. These additional scenes could not be shot until August 1996 because of the availability of the cast, in particular Michael Palin who was making Full Circle with Michael Palin. In the meantime, Cleese and Johnstone worked on a new ending with William Goldman. The delay meant that director Robert Young was busy on pre-production for Jane Eyre, so Cleese hired Fred Schepisi, with whom he had been discussing making a version of Don Quixote. The reshoots took five weeks and cost $7 million.
Schepisi claims he tried to get the producers to take out the opening 15 minutes, which was done for a test screening, but then some of this footage was put back in, which Schepisi thought killed the movie.
Reception
On Rotten Tomatoes, the film has a score of 55% based on 33 reviews with an average rating of 5.58/10. The site's critical consensus reads "Fierce Creatures reunites A Fish Called Wanda'''s talented ensemble for a comedy that, while not without its moments, suffers from diminishing returns".
Roger Ebert awarded the film two and a half out of four stars, and compared it unfavourably to A Fish Called Wanda, stating: "It lacks the hair-trigger timing, the headlong rush into comic illogic, that made Wanda so special."
The film grossed $9 million in the United States and Canada and $31 million in the rest of the world, for a worldwide total of $40 million.
Cleese has since stated that following up A Fish Called Wanda with a second film had been a mistake. When asked in 2008 by his friend, director and restaurant critic Michael Winner what he would do differently if he could live his life again, Cleese responded, "I wouldn't have married Alyce Faye Eichelberger and I wouldn't have made Fierce Creatures''."
References
External links
1997 films
1997 comedy films
English-language films
British comedy films
British films
Films directed by Fred Schepisi
Films directed by Robert Young
Films shot at Pinewood Studios
Films with screenplays by John Cleese
Universal Pictures films
Films scored by Jerry Goldsmith
Films set in zoos | [
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222536 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Polonaise | Polonaise | The polonaise (, ; ) is a dance of Polish origin, in time. Its name is French for "Polish".
The polonaise has a rhythm quite close to that of the Swedish semiquaver or sixteenth-note polska, and the two dances have a common origin.
The polonaise is a widespread dance in carnival parties. The polonaise is always a first dance at a studniówka ("student dance"), the Polish equivalent of the senior prom that occurs approximately 100 days before exams.
Influence of Polonaise in music
The notation alla polacca ( means "polonaise") on a musical score indicates that the piece should be played with the rhythm and character of a polonaise. For example, the third movement of Beethoven's Triple Concerto op. 56, marked "Rondo alla polacca," and the finale of Chopin's Variations on "Là ci darem la mano" both feature this notation. In his book Classic Music: Expression, Form, and Style, Leonard G. Ratner cites the fourth movement from Beethoven's Serenade in D major, Op. 8, marked "Allegretto alla Polacca," as a representative example of the polonaise dance topic (Ratner 1980, pp. 12–13).
Frédéric Chopin's polonaises are generally the best known of all polonaises in classical music. Other composers who wrote polonaises or pieces in polonaise rhythm include Johann Sebastian Bach, Georg Philipp Telemann, Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart, Ludwig van Beethoven, Karol Kurpiński, Józef Elsner, Maria Agata Szymanowska, Franz Schubert, Carl Maria von Weber, Robert Schumann, Franz Liszt, Johann Kaspar Mertz, Moritz Moszkowski, Modest Mussorgsky, Nicolai Rimsky-Korsakov, Pyotr Ilyich Tchaikovsky and Alexander Scriabin.
Another more recent prolific polonaise composer was the American Edward Alexander MacDowell.
John Philip Sousa wrote the Presidential Polonaise, intended to keep visitors moving briskly through the White House receiving line. Sousa wrote it in 1886 after a suggestion from President Chester A. Arthur.
Tchaikovsky's opera Eugene Onegin, an adaption of Alexander Pushkin's novel in poetry verse, includes a famous polonaise.
National dance
The polonaise is a Polish dance and is one of the five historic national dances of Poland. The others are the Mazurka (Mazur), Kujawiak, Krakowiak and Oberek, last three being old folk dances. Polonaise originated as a peasant dance known under various names – chodzony ("pacer"), chmielowy ("hops"), pieszy ("walker") or wielki ("great"), recorded as early as the 15th century. In later centuries it gained popularity among the nobility and townspeople.<ref>Roderyk Lange. Tradycyjny taniec ludowy w Polsce i jego przeobrażenia w czasie i przestrzeni. PUNO. 1978. p. 40.</ref>
Outside Poland
Polonaise in French Courts
The polonaise or polonez, was first introduced in the 17th century in French courts, although the form originated in Poland and was very popular throughout Europe. This dance in 3/4 metre was designed to entertain the French royal court. The term polonaise was used over the term polonez'' at the start of the 18th century.
Princess Anna Maria of Saxony
Princess Anna Maria of Saxony collected sheet music for polonaises throughout her life time, collecting over 350. Her collection was focused on the finest examples of instrumentation.
Gallery
See also
Waltz
Mazurka
Varsovienne
Kujawiak
Krakowiak
Redowa
References
External links
Polonaise ‒ The Royal Dance Every Polish Teenager Has to Master
Polish styles of music
Polish dances
Dance forms in classical music
Triple time dances | [
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222537 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Piano%20Concerto%20%28Schumann%29 | Piano Concerto (Schumann) | The Piano Concerto in A minor, Op. 54, by the German Romantic composer Robert Schumann was completed in 1845 and is the composer's only piano concerto. The complete work was premiered in Dresden on 4 December 1845. It is one of the most widely performed and recorded piano concertos from the Romantic period.
History
Schumann had worked on several piano concertos earlier. He began one in E-flat major in 1828, from 1829–31 he worked on one in F major, and in 1839, he wrote one movement of a concerto in D minor. None of these works were completed.
Already on 10 January 1833, Schumann first expressed the idea of writing a Piano Concerto in A minor. In a letter to his future father-in-law, Friedrich Wieck, he wrote: "I think the piano concerto must be in C major or in A minor." From 17–20 May 1841, Schumann wrote a fantasy for piano and orchestra, his Phantasie in A minor. Schumann tried unsuccessfully to sell this one-movement piece to publishers. In August 1841 and January 1843 Schumann revised the piece, but was unsuccessful. His wife Clara, an accomplished pianist, then urged him to expand it into a full piano concerto. In 1845 he added the Intermezzo and Allegro vivace to complete the work. It remained the only piano concerto that Schumann finished.
The premiere of the first movement (Phantasie) took place on 13 August 1841 at the Gewandhaus in Leipzig with Clara Schumann as the soloist. The complete three-movement version was premiered in Dresden on 4 December 1845, again with Clara Schumann, and the dedicatee Ferdinand Hiller as the conductor. Less than a month later, on 1 January 1846, the concerto was performed in Leipzig, conducted by Felix Mendelssohn.
After this concerto, Schumann wrote two other pieces for piano and orchestra: the Introduction and Allegro Appassionato in G major, Op. 92, and the Introduction and Allegro Concertante in D minor, Op. 134.
Instrumentation
The concerto is scored for 2 flutes, 2 oboes, 2 clarinets, 2 bassoons, 2 horns, 2 trumpets, timpani, strings, and solo piano. With this instrumentation Schumann chose the usual orchestration in early Romantic music for this concerto.
Structure
The piece, as marked in the score, is in three movements:
There is no break between these last two movements (attacca subito). The duration of the concerto is about 30 to 35 minutes, depending on the interpretation.
First movement: Allegro affettuoso
The main movement of the concerto is marked Allegro affettuoso; its origin lay in the one-movement fantasy written by Schumann in 1841, at whose core is the musical development of the conflict between the boisterous Florestan and the dreamy Eusebius, two characters Schumann often used to express the duality of being. The movement is set in 4/4 rhythm.
The piece starts with an energetic strike by strings and timpani, followed by a fierce, descending attack by the piano. This exposition chord is followed by a descending, rhythmically incisive chord progression of the solo piano corresponding to the ideal of the boisterous Florestan.
Only then, the main, dreamlike theme of Eusebius is introduced by the oboe along with other wind instruments. The melody begins with the notes C–H–A–A, which stand for the Italian spelling of the first name CHiArA of Schumann's wife Clara, who was the soloist at the world premiere of the piano concerto. After its introduction by the woodwinds, the theme is then given to the soloist. Schumann provides great variety with this theme.
In the course of the first movement Schumann varies this theme in many ways. He first offers it in the A minor key of the movement, then we hear it again in major, and we can also hear small snatches of the tune in a very slow, A-flat section. The orchestra and especially the clarinet is often used against the piano in this movement: while the solo instrument is dedicated to the main theme of the concerto, the strings begin to intone a Florestan-like, syncopated side thought (bar 41), which becomes more and more dominant, until a variation of the Eusebian main theme recurs quietly but urgently.
This is followed by a subsection labeled Animato. At its end Schumann introduces a second theme, which does not reach the significance of the main theme.
Subsequently, the development of the main movement begins in the form of a dramatic lament (bar 156). This part almost reaches the position of an independent middle section. In A-flat major, the metrically altered main theme is referenced by piano arpeggios. Suddenly, however, chords of the Florestan theme interrupt the peace of the main theme. It comes to a struggle between the two ideals, which shapes the development further with rapid changes of soli and tutti.
With further dramatic progression and the modulation to A minor, the reprise is finally reached and cites the exposition almost tone for tone. The last tense progression brings forth a solo cadenza of monumental size and virtuosity (bar 402). It is undoubtedly the culmination of the movement.
In the coda, a throbbing, mysterious 2/4 rhythm dominates. This is turned into a fierce Davidsbündler-march a little later. The main movement of the concerto ends with four tutti chords.
Second movement: Intermezzo - Andantino grazioso
This movement is in ABA form keyed in F major. The piano and strings open up the piece with a small, delicate tune, which is heard throughout the A section. In the B section in the dominant the cellos and later the other strings and wind instruments display a singing theme which is derived from the piano flourish in bar 7. The piano accompanies the singing theme and interjects but never takes the lead. After a shortened reprise of the A section the movement closes with small glimpses of the first movement's theme before moving straight into the third movement.
Third movement: Allegro vivace
The movement opens with a huge run up the strings while the piano takes the main A major theme. Schumann shows great color and variety in this movement. Though the nominal time signature is 3/4, the movement in reality alternates between 6/4 and 3/2. The piece is cast in a hybrid sonata-rondo form with an extended and exciting coda, ending with a long timpani roll and a huge chord from the orchestra.
Intention
Despite its three movements, the work has retained the character of a fantasy. The basic idea expressed in the work is that of yearning and happiness between two loving people. Schumann musically transforms his fight for Clara in this work. The main theme of the first movement is similar to the melody of the Florestan aria from Ludwig van Beethoven's opera Fidelio. Congruent with Beethoven, Schumann saw this theme as an expression of the intimate connection between loyalty and the struggle for freedom. In this way the concerto is, like many of his other compositions, based on Schumann's life long concern to fight against philistinism with musical means.
Reception
The contemporary reception of the work was consistently positive. Clara Schumann wrote after the premiere: "... how rich in invention, how interesting from the beginning to the end, how fresh and what a beautiful coherent whole!"
Special emphasis was placed on the skilful, colorful and independent orchestral treatment, that would leave room for piano and orchestra alike. The Leipzig Allgemeine Musikzeitung praised the composition on December 31: "because, fortunately, it avoids the usual monotony of the genre, by giving, with great love and care, the obligatory room to orchestra without diminishing the role of the piano, and manages to beautifully link both independent parts together".
The Dresdner Abendzeitung praised the "quite independent, beautiful and interesting orchestral treatment", and recognizes that the "receding of the piano part into the background" could certainly also be seen as progress.
The work may have been used as a model by Edvard Grieg in composing his own Piano Concerto, also in A minor. Grieg's concerto, like Schumann's, employs a single powerful orchestral chord at its introduction before the piano's entrance with a similar descending flourish. Sergei Rachmaninoff in turn used Grieg's concerto as a model for his first Piano Concerto.
The work has become one of the most widely performed and recorded piano concertos from the Romantic period. It has frequently been paired with the Grieg concerto on recordings.
In popular music, the theme of Eusebius (together with Florestan one of Robert Schumann's two imaginary alter egos), which appears played by an oboe and other wind instruments soon into the first movement, might have been an original source of inspiration, possibly via the 1911 suite Goyescas by Spanish composer Enrique Granados, of the song Bésame mucho, whose worldwide success dates back to the 1930s.
References
Further reading
Donald Tovey, Essays in Musical Analysis: Concertos (Oxford University Press, London, 1936)
Alfred Nieman, "The Concertos," in Robert Schumann: The Man and his Music, edited by Alan Walker (Barrie and Jenkins, London, 1972)
Michael Steinberg, "The Concerto: A Listener's Guide", (Oxford University Press, Oxford, 1998)
External links
BBC Radio 3's Discovering Music BBC
Compositions by Robert Schumann
Schumann
1845 compositions
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222543 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Milan%20Cathedral | Milan Cathedral | The Milan Cathedral ( ; ), or Metropolitan Cathedral-Basilica of the Nativity of Saint Mary (), is the cathedral church of Milan, Lombardy, Italy. Dedicated to the Nativity of St Mary (Santa Maria Nascente), it is the seat of the Archbishop of Milan, currently Archbishop Mario Delpini.
The cathedral took nearly six centuries to complete: construction began in 1386, and the final details were completed in 1965. It is the largest church in the Italian Republic—the larger St. Peter's Basilica is in the State of Vatican City, a sovereign state—and possibly the second largest in Europe and the third largest in the world (its size and position remains a matter of debate).
History
Milan's layout, with streets either radiating from the Duomo or circling it, reveals that the Duomo occupies what was the most central site in Roman Mediolanum, that of the public basilica facing the forum. The first cathedral, the "new basilica" () dedicated to St Thecla, was completed by 355. It seems to share, on a slightly smaller scale, the plan of the contemporaneous church recently rediscovered beneath Tower Hill in London. An adjoining basilica was erected in 836. The old octagonal baptistery, the Battistero Paleocristiano, dates to 335 and still can be visited under the Cathedral. When a fire damaged the cathedral and basilica in 1075, they were rebuilt as the Duomo.
Construction begins
In 1386, Archbishop Antonio da Saluzzo began construction of the cathedral. Start of the construction coincided with the ascension to power in Milan of the archbishop's cousin Gian Galeazzo Visconti, and was meant as a reward to the noble and working classes, who had suffered under his tyrannical Visconti predecessor Barnabò. Before actual work began, three main buildings were demolished: the palace of the Archbishop, the Ordinari Palace and the Baptistry of St. Stephen at the Spring, while the old church of Sta. Maria Maggiore was exploited as a stone quarry. Enthusiasm for the immense new building soon spread among the population, and the shrewd Gian Galeazzo, together with his cousin the archbishop, collected large donations for the work-in-progress. The construction program was strictly regulated under the "Fabbrica del Duomo", which had 300 employees led by first chief engineer Simone da Orsenigo. Orsenigo initially planned to build the cathedral from brick in Lombard Gothic style.
Visconti had ambitions to follow the newest trends in European architecture. In 1389, a French chief engineer, Nicolas de Bonaventure, was appointed, adding to the church its Rayonnant Gothic. Galeazzo gave the Fabbrica del Duomo exclusive use of the marble from the Candoglia quarry and exempted it from taxes. Ten years later another French architect, Jean Mignot, was called from Paris to judge and improve upon the work done, as the masons needed new technical aid to lift stones to an unprecedented height. Mignot declared all the work done up till then as in pericolo di ruina ("peril of ruin"), as it had been done sine scienzia ("without science"). In the following years Mignot's forecasts proved untrue, but they spurred Galeazzo's engineers to improve their instruments and techniques. Work proceeded quickly, and at the death of Gian Galeazzo in 1402, almost half the cathedral was complete. Construction, however, stalled almost totally until 1480, for lack of money and ideas: the most notable works of this period were the tombs of Marco Carelli and Pope Martin V (1424) and the windows of the apse (1470s), of which those extant portray St. John the Evangelist, by Cristoforo de' Mottis, and Saint Eligius and San John of Damascus, both by Niccolò da Varallo. In 1452, under Francesco Sforza, the nave and the aisles were completed up to the sixth bay.
In 1488, both Leonardo da Vinci and Donato Bramante created models in a competition to design the central cupola; Leonardo later withdrew his submission. In 1500 to 1510, under Ludovico Sforza, the octagonal cupola was completed, and decorated in the interior with four series of 15 statues each, portraying saints, prophets, sibyls and other Figures from the Bible. The exterior long remained without any decoration, except for the Guglietto dell'Amadeo ("Amadeo's Little Spire"), constructed 1507–1510. This is a Renaissance masterwork which nevertheless harmonized well with the general Gothic appearance of the church.
During the subsequent Spanish domination, the new church proved usable, even though the interior remained largely unfinished, and some bays of the nave and the transepts were still missing. In 1552 Giacomo Antegnati was commissioned to build a large organ for the north side of the choir, and Giuseppe Meda provided four of the sixteen pales which were to decorate the altar area (the program was completed by Federico Borromeo). In 1562, Marco d' Agrate's St. Bartholomew and the famous Trivulzio candelabrum (12th century) were added.
Borromeo
After the accession of Carlo Borromeo to the archbishop's throne, all lay monuments were removed from the Duomo. These included the tombs of Giovanni, and Filippo Maria Visconti, Francesco I and his wife Bianca, Galeazzo Maria, which were brought to unknown destinations. However, Borromeo's main intervention was the appointment, in 1571, of Pellegrino Pellegrini as chief engineer— a contentious move, since to appoint Pellegrino, who was not a lay brother of the duomo, required a revision of the Fabbrica's statutes.
Borromeo and Pellegrini strove for a new, Renaissance appearance for the cathedral, that would emphasise its Roman / Italian nature, and subdue the Gothic style, which was now seen as foreign. As the façade still was largely incomplete, Pellegrini designed a "Roman" style one, with columns, obelisks and a large tympanum. When Pellegrini's design was revealed, a competition for the design of the façade was announced, and this elicited nearly a dozen entries, including one by Antonio Barca
This design was never carried out, but the interior decoration continued: in 1575-1585 the presbytery was rebuilt, while new altars and the baptistry were added. The wooden choir stalls were constructed by 1614 for the main altar by Francesco Brambilla. In 1577 Borromeo finally consecrated the whole edifice as a new church, distinct from the old Santa Maria Maggiore and Santa Tecla (which had been unified in 1549 after heavy disputes).
17th century
At the beginning of the 17th century Federico Borromeo had the foundations of the new façade laid by Francesco Maria Richini and Fabio Mangone. Work continued until 1638 with the construction of five portals and two middle windows. In 1649, however, the new chief architect Carlo Buzzi introduced a striking revolution: the façade was to revert to original Gothic style, including the already finished details within big Gothic pilasters and two giant belfries. Other designs were provided by, among others, Filippo Juvarra (1733) and Luigi Vanvitelli (1745), but all remained unapplied. In 1682 the façade of Santa Maria Maggiore was demolished and the cathedral's roof covering completed.
In 1762 one of the main features of the cathedral, the Madonnina's spire, was erected at the dizzying height of 108.5 m. The spire was designed by Carlo Pellicani and sports at the top a famous polychrome Madonnina statue, designed by Giuseppe Perego that befits the original stature of the cathedral. Given Milan's notoriously damp and foggy climate, the Milanese consider it a fair-weather day when the Madonnina is visible from a distance, as it is so often covered by mist.
Completion
On 20 May 1805, Napoleon Bonaparte, about to be crowned King of Italy, ordered the façade to be finished by Pellicani. In his enthusiasm, he assured that all expenses would fall to the French treasurer, who would reimburse the Fabbrica for the real estate it had to sell. Even though this reimbursement was never paid, it still meant that finally, within only seven years, the Cathedral's façade was completed. Pellicani largely followed Buzzi's project, adding some neo-Gothic details to the upper windows. As a form of thanksgiving, a statue of Napoleon was placed at the top of one of the spires. Napoleon was crowned King of Italy at the Duomo.
In the following years, most of the missing arches and spires were constructed. The statues on the southern wall were also finished, while in 1829–1858, new stained glass windows replaced the old ones, though with less aesthetically significant results. The last details of the cathedral were finished only in the 20th century: the last gate was inaugurated on 6 January 1965. This date is considered the very end of a process which had proceeded for generations, although even now, some uncarved blocks remain to be completed as statues. The Allied bombing of Milan in World War II further delayed construction. Like many other cathedrals in cities bombed by the Allied forces, the Duomo suffered some damage, although to a lesser degree compared to other major buildings in the vicinity such as the La Scala Theatre. It was quickly repaired and became a plaza of solace and gathering for displaced local residents.
The Duomo's main façade went under renovation from 2003 to early 2009: as of February 2009, it has been completely uncovered, showing again the colours of the Candoglia marble.
In November 2012 officials announced a campaign to raise funds for the cathedral's preservation by asking patrons to adopt the building's spires. The effects of pollution on the 14th-century building entail regular maintenance, and recent austerity cuts to Italy's culture budget has left less money for upkeep of cultural institutions, including the cathedral. To help make up funds, Duomo management launched a campaign offering its 135 spires up for "adoption." Donors who contribute €100,000 (about $110,505) or more will have a plaque with their name engraved on it placed on the spire.
Architects and engineers
1387 Simone da Orsenigo
1387 Zeno da Campione
1387 Marco da Campione detto da Frixono
1389 Giacomo da Campione
1389 Nicola Bonaventura o da Benaventis di Francia
1389 Stefanino o Tavannino di Castelseprio
1391 Giovanni Fernach di Frimburgo
1391 Giovannino de Grassi
1391 Lorenzo degli Spazii da Campione o di Laino
1391 Marco da Carona
1391 Enrico di Gamodia (Gmüden)
1394 Beltramo da Conigo
1394 Ulrico Füssingen di Ulma
1398 Salomone de Grassi
1399 Antonio o Antonino da Paderno
1399 Gasparino da Carona
1399 Giacomolo da Venezia di Parigi
1399 Giovanni Mignoto
1399 Giovanni Cona o Cova di Bruges
1399 Arasmino de Sirtori
1400 Filippo degli Organi
1401 Polino da Orsenigo
1404 Antonio da Paderno
1406 Cristoforo de Chiona
1407 Leonardo da Sirtori
1409 Giovanni Magatto
1415 Antonio da Muggiò
1416 Bartolomeo di Modena
1420 Antonio da Gorgonzola
1430 Franceschino da Cannobio
1451 Giorgio degli Organi da Modena
1451 Giovanni Solari
1452 Antonio da Firenze detto il Filarete
1458 Donato de Sirtori
1459 Boniforte o Guinforte Solari
1476 Pietro Antonio Solari
1483 Giovanni Nexemperger di Graz
1486 Giovanni Antonio Amadeo
1490 Gian Giacomo Dolcebuono
1506 Cristoforo Solari detto il Gobbo
1512 Gerolamo della Porta
1519 Bernardo Zenale di Treviglio
1524 Giangiacomo della Porta
1526 Cristoforo Lombardo
1539 Baldassarre Vianelli
1547 Vincenzo da Seregno o Seregni
1567 Pellegrino Pellegrini, called il Tibaldi
1587 Martino Bassi
1591 Lelio Buzzi
1598 Aurelio Trezzi
1609 Alessandro Bisnato
1617 Fabio Mangone
1617 Giovanni Paolo Bisnato
1631 Francesco Maria Ricchino
1638 Carlo Buzzio o Buzzi
1658 Girolamo Quadrio
1679 Andrea Biffi
1686 Giambattista Quadrio
1723 Antonio Quadrio
1743 Bartolomeo Bolla o Bolli
1760 Francesco Croce
1773 Giulio Galliori
1795 Felice Soave
1801 Giovanni Antonio Antolini
1803 Leopoldo Pollak
1806 Giuseppe Zanoja
1806 Giuseppe Pollak
1806 Carlo Amati
1813 Pietro Pestagalli
1854-1860 Office vacant
1861 Giuseppe Vandoni
1877 Paolo Cesa-Bianchi
1904 Gaetano Moretti
1907 Luca Beltrami
1912 Adolfo Zacchi
1963 Antonio Cassi Ramelli
1964 Carlo Ferrari da Passano
1988 Benigno Mörlin Visconti Castiglione
Architecture and art
The plan consists of a nave with four side-aisles, crossed by a transept and then followed by choir and apse. The height of the nave is about , the highest Gothic vaults of a complete church (less than the of Beauvais Cathedral, which was never completed).
The roof is open to tourists (for a fee), which allows many a close-up view of some spectacular sculpture that would otherwise be unappreciated. The roof of the cathedral is renowned for the forest of openwork pinnacles and spires, set upon delicate flying buttresses.
The cathedral's five broad naves, divided by 40 pillars, are reflected in the hierarchic openings of the façade. Even the transepts have aisles. The nave columns are high, and the apsidal windows are . The huge building is of brick construction, faced with marble from the quarries which Gian Galeazzo Visconti donated in perpetuity to the cathedral chapter. Its maintenance and repairs are very complicated.
In 2015, Milan's cathedral developed a new lighting system based on LED lights.
Aesthetic judgements
The cathedral was built over several hundred years in a number of contrasting styles. Reactions to it have ranged from admiration to disfavour. The Guida d’Italia: Milano 1998 (Touring Club Editore, p. 154) points out that the early Romantics tended to praise it in "the first intense enthusiasms for Gothic." As the Gothic Revival brought in a purer taste, condemnation was often equally intense.
John Ruskin commented acidly that the cathedral steals "from every style in the world: and every style spoiled. The cathedral is a mixture of Perpendicular with Flamboyant, the latter being peculiarly barbarous and angular, owing to its being engrafted, not on a pure, but a very early penetrative Gothic … The rest of the architecture among which this curious Flamboyant is set is a Perpendicular with horizontal bars across: and with the most detestable crocketing, utterly vile. Not a ray of invention in a single form… Finally the statues all over are of the worst possible common stonemasons’ yard species, and look pinned on for show. The only redeeming character about the whole being the frequent use of the sharp gable ... which gives lightness, and the crowding of the spiry pinnacles into the sky." (Notebooks[M.6L]). The plastered ceiling painted to imitate elaborate tracery carved in stone particularly aroused his contempt as a "gross degradation".
While appreciating the force of Ruskin's criticisms, Henry James was more appreciative: "A structure not supremely interesting, not logical, not … commandingly beautiful, but grandly curious and superbly rich. … If it had no other distinction it would still have that of impressive, immeasurable achievement … a supreme embodiment of vigorous effort."
Main monuments and sights
The interior of the cathedral includes numerous monuments and artworks. These include:
At the left of the altar is located the most famous statue of all the Cathedral, the Saint Bartholomew Flayed (1562), by Marco d'Agrate, the saint shows his flayed skin thrown over his shoulders like a stole.
The Archbishop Alberto da Intimiano's sarcophagus, which is overlooked by a Crucifix in copper laminae (a replica).
The sarcophagi of the archbishops Ottone Visconti and Giovanni Visconti, created by a Campionese master in the 14th century.
The sarcophagus of Marco Carelli, who donated 35,000 ducati to accelerate the construction of the cathedral.
The three magnificent altars by Pellegrino Pellegrini, which include the notable Federico Zuccari's Visit of St. Peter to St. Agatha jailed.
In the right transept, the monument to Gian Giacomo Medici di Marignano, called "Medeghino", by Leone Leoni, and the adjacent Renaissance marble altar, decorated with gilt bronze statues.
The presbytery is a late Renaissance masterpiece composing a choir, a Temple by Pellegrini, two pulpits with giant atlantes covered in copper and bronze, and two large organs. Around the choir the two sacristies' portals, some frescoes and a fifteenth-century statue of Martin V by Jacopino da Tradate can be seen.
The transepts house the Trivulzio Candelabrum, which is in two pieces. The base (attributed to Nicolas of Verdun, 12th no century), characterized by a fantastic ensemble of vines, vegetables and imaginary animals; and the stem, of the mid-16th century.
In the left aisle, the Arcimboldi monument by Alessi and Romanesque figures depicting the Apostles in red marble and the neo-Classic baptistry by Pellegrini.
A small red light bulb in the dome above the apse marks the spot where one of the nails reputedly from the Crucifixion of Christ has been placed. The Holy Nail is retrieved and exposed to the public every year, during a celebration known as the Rite of the Nivola.
In November–December, in the days surrounding the birthdate of Saint Charles Borromeo, a series of large canvases, the Quadroni are exhibited along the nave.
Since September 2005, in the cathedral's crypt, beside the relics of Saint Charles Borromeo, there has been a video installation by English artist Mark Wallinger. Entitled Via Dolorosa, it consists of an 18-minute film reproducing scenes of the Passion excerpted from the film Jesus of Nazareth by Franco Zeffirelli.
In November 2014 a white marble sculpture by Tony Cragg inspired to the Madonna statue on the rooftop was installed.
The 5-manual, 225-rank pipe-organ, built jointly by the Tamburini and Mascioni Italian organbuilding firms on Mussolini's command, is currently the largest organ in all of Italy.
The American writer and journalist Mark Twain visited Milan in the summer of 1867. He dedicated chapter 18 of Innocents Abroad to Milan Cathedral, including many physical and historical details, and a visit to the roof. He describes the Duomo as follows:
Oscar Wilde visited Milan in June 1875. In a letter to his mother he wrote: "The Cathedral is an awful failure. Outside the design is monstrous and inartistic. The over-elaborated details stuck high up where no one can see them; everything is vile in it; it is, however, imposing and gigantic as a failure, through its great size and elaborate execution."
In Italian Hours, Henry James describes: a certain exhibition that I privately enjoyed of the relics of St. Charles Borromeus. This holy man lies at his eternal rest in a small but gorgeous sepulchral chapel … and for the modest sum of five francs you may have his shrivelled mortality unveiled and gaze at it with whatever reserves occur to you. The Catholic Church never renounces a chance of the sublime for fear of a chance of the ridiculous--especially when the chance of the sublime may be the very excellent chance of five francs. The performance in question, of which the good San Carlo paid in the first instance the cost, was impressive certainly, but as a monstrous matter or a grim comedy may still be. The little sacristan, having secured his audience, … lighted a couple of extra candles and proceeded to remove from above the altar, by means of a crank, a sort of sliding shutter, just as you may see a shop-boy do of a morning at his master's window. In this case too a large sheet of plate-glass was uncovered, and to form an idea of the étalage you must imagine that a jeweller, for reasons of his own, has struck an unnatural partnership with an undertaker. The black mummified corpse of the saint is stretched out in a glass coffin, clad in his mouldering canonicals, mitred, crosiered and gloved, glittering with votive jewels. It is an extraordinary mixture of death and life; the desiccated clay, the ashen rags, the hideous little black mask and skull, and the living, glowing, twinkling splendour of diamonds, emeralds and sapphires. The collection is really fine, and many great historic names are attached to the different offerings. Whatever may be the better opinion as to the future of the Church, I can't help thinking she will make a figure in the world so long as she retains this great fund of precious "properties," this prodigious capital decoratively invested and scintillating throughout Christendom at effectively-scattered points.
See also
Italian Gothic architecture
List of highest church naves
List of largest church buildings in the world
Early Christian churches in Milan
List of Gothic Cathedrals in Europe
History of medieval Arabic and Western European domes
History of Italian Renaissance domes
History of early modern period domes
Anor Londo (Dark Souls)
References
External links
Official website
Photos and details
Duomo in Google Maps
Virtual model of Piazza del Duomo
Interactive Panorama: Milan Cathedral (roof)
Corpus of architectural drawings of the Cathedral of Milan research project by the Polytechnic University of Milan
Gothic architecture
Duomo
Milan
Milano
Buildings containing meridian lines
Cathedrals in Lombardy
Tourist attractions in Milan
Burial sites of the House of Visconti | [
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222544 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISO%203166-2%3AAU | ISO 3166-2:AU | ISO 3166-2:AU is the entry for Australia in ISO 3166-2, part of the ISO 3166 standard published by the International Organization for Standardization (ISO), which defines codes for the names of the principal subdivisions (e.g., provinces or states) of all countries coded in ISO 3166-1.
Currently for Australia, ISO 3166-2 codes are defined for 6 states and 2 territories. Lesser territories that are under the administration of the commonwealth government, such as the Jervis Bay Territory, the Ashmore and Cartier Islands, and the Coral Sea Islands, are not listed.
Each code consists of two parts, separated by a hyphen. The first part is , the ISO 3166-1 alpha-2 code of Australia. The second part is two or three letters, which is the conventional abbreviation of the state or territory (defined in Australian Standard AS ).
Current codes
Subdivision names are listed as in the ISO 3166-2 standard published by the ISO 3166 Maintenance Agency (ISO 3166/MA).
Click on the button in the header to sort each column.
The external territories of Christmas Island, the Cocos (Keeling) Islands and Norfolk Island have their own ISO 3166-1 codes and are not included in Australia's entry in ISO 3166-2. There are no ISO 3166-2 codes for:
Ashmore and Cartier Islands
Australian Antarctic Territory (part of Antarctica with country code AQ)
Coral Sea Islands
Jervis Bay Territory
Changes
The following changes to the entry have been announced in newsletters by the ISO 3166/MA since the first publication of ISO in 1998. ISO stopped issuing newsletters in 2013.
The following changes to the entry are listed on ISO's online catalogue, the Online Browsing Platform:
External territories
Four of the external territories of Australia are officially assigned their own country codes in ISO 3166-1, with the following alpha-2 codes:
Cocos (Keeling) Islands
Christmas Island
Heard Island and McDonald Islands
Norfolk Island
Under the definitions in ISO 3166-1, the Ashmore and Cartier Islands and the Coral Sea Islands are covered by Australia, and the Australian Antarctic Territory is covered by Antarctica, with alpha-2 code .
See also
Subdivisions of Australia
FIPS region codes of Australia
External links
ISO Online Browsing Platform: AU
States of Australia, Statoids.com
ISO page for Australia
2:AU
ISO 3166-2
Australia geography-related lists | [
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222548 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISO%203166-2%3ANZ | ISO 3166-2:NZ | ISO 3166-2:NZ is the entry for New Zealand in ISO 3166-2, part of the ISO 3166 standard published by the International Organization for Standardization (ISO), which defines codes for the names of the principal subdivisions (e.g., provinces or states) of all countries coded in ISO 3166.
Currently for New Zealand, ISO 3166-2 codes are defined for 16 regions and 1 special island authority
Some of the New Zealand outlying islands that are outside the authority of any regions are not assigned codes, specifically:
Kermadec Islands
New Zealand Subantarctic Islands
Three Kings Islands
Each code consists of two parts, separated by a hyphen. The first part is , the ISO 3166-1 alpha-2 code of New Zealand. The second part is three letters: regions and special island authority.
Current codes
Subdivision names are listed as in the ISO 3166-2 standard published by the ISO 3166 Maintenance Agency (ISO 3166/MA).
ISO 639-1 codes are used to represent subdivision names in the following administrative languages:
(en): English
(mi): Māori
Click on the button in the header to sort each column.
Changes
The following changes to the entry have been announced by the ISO 3166/MA since the first publication of ISO 3166-2 in 1998. ISO stopped issuing newsletters in 2013.
See also
Subdivisions of New Zealand
FIPS region codes of New Zealand
External links
ISO Online Browsing Platform: NZ
Regions of New Zealand, Statoids.com
2:NZ
ISO 3166-2
New Zealand geography-related lists | [
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222550 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Weekly%20World%20News | Weekly World News | The Weekly World News was a tabloid which published mostly fictional "news" stories in the United States from 1979 to 2007, renowned for its outlandish cover stories often based on supernatural or paranormal themes and an approach to news that verged on the satirical. Its characteristic black-and-white covers have become pop-culture images widely used in the arts. It ceased print publication in August 2007. The company has a library of 110,000+ articles and 300+ original characters.
In 2009, Weekly World News was relaunched as an online and social media publication. The editor-in-chief from 2009 to 2018 was Neil McGinness. The current editor-in-chief, since August 2019, is Greg D'Alessandro. In July 2021, Weekly World News announced the formation of Weekly World News Studios, to develop and produce entertainment projects based on its brand and characters.
History
Generoso Pope, Jr. launched the Weekly World News in 1979 to continue using the black-and-white press that sister tabloid The National Enquirer had been printed on when it switched to color printing. The WWN was published in Lantana, Florida until it moved to Boca Raton in the late 1990s. It was unique as a tabloid because it was printed entirely in black and white. Eddie Clontz was its long-time editor, a 10th-grade dropout from North Carolina, and a former copy editor at small newspapers. In the 2000s, the circulation of WWN peaked at 1.2 million per issue. The Weekly World News went on to thrive online from 2009-2015 and was relaunched in 2019 by screenwriter and former Senior Editor, Greg D'Alessandro along with SpyCat LLC investor David Collins.
General approach to stories
The WWN traditionally claimed that it always printed the truth, but many stories appeared to have comedic intent - more so as time went by. As recalled by Joe Berger, a former White House correspondent who served as a WWN editor from 1981 to 2001, "About 80 percent of the stories were clipped from newspapers. We had three or four clippers who were surrounded by mountains of newspapers. We spent the day looking at newspapers throughout the world, clipping weird stories. About 50 percent were about people narrowly escaping death; someone falling off a cliff, or hanging off a tree branch for four days until they were rescued." The introduction to Batboy Lives! states that one person would read the tabloid for real news, whereas another would read it for the humor. The tabloid's main rival Sun carried a fine print disclaimer, whereas the WWN never publicly contradicted the accuracy of its own stories until 2004, when it began stating that "the reader should suspend disbelief for the sake of enjoyment." In the 2000s, Sun moved more toward articles on health and miracle cures, leaving WWN alone in its niche of supernatural news stories, such as sightings of Elvis Presley and the Loch Ness monster.
Thus, for a significant percentage of its content, the WWN ran strange-but-true stories, such as "DEVOUT CHRISTIAN ATTACKED - AND HE'S THE ONE FINED!" referring to British street evangelist Harry Hammond. Other verifiable stories included those of a giant mutant hog monster attacking Georgia and the arrest of a Tallahassee, Florida, man whose pants were on fire at the time. It reported on the discovery of an infant dragon preserved in formaldehyde proving the existence of dragons, although this was later proven to be a hoax. It also quoted Vatican exorcist Father Gabriele Amorth on Pope John Paul II's battles with Satan and ran a story on the copyright dispute between O, The Oprah Magazine and a German erotic periodical also named O. Whether partially fictional or wholly true, the writing style remained as fact-based as possible. As writer Bob Lind recalled for Mental Floss, "We wrote these things straight, for people who wanted to believe these things. We wrote it like a news story. We wrote a lede with a dash in it, filled it in, and then had a money quote."
In February 1989, WWN published real, graphic photos on its front page of the post-autopsied body of executed serial killer Ted Bundy. Managing editor Eddie Clontz defended his decision to run the photos, claiming that he hoped that such images would deter other murderers. Angry and surprised officials in Florida vowed to catch the person responsible, eventually arresting a low-level employee of the Alachua County, Florida Medical Examiner's office and charging him with taking the photographs and selling them to the WWN.
As other supermarket tabloids switched to celebrity gossip, the Weekly World News remained devoted to its original content, refusing to fact-check its way out of a sensational story, or, as Iain Calder, WWN co-founder and Enquirer editor-in-chief from 1973 to 1997, told Mental Floss: "We'd say Elvis was still alive and run a picture of what Elvis would have looked like at that time. We'd get dozens of phone calls. If someone calls and says, 'I saw Elvis,' you didn't try to disprove the headline." Derrik Lang, a stringer for the paper, said that "everything in my stories was fake — you know, depending on how you define fake." Common WWN stories involved alien abductions, the Loch Ness monster, Bigfoot, time travel, predictions of an oncoming depression or apocalypse, and other newly found lost prophecies or religious relics. There were also characters who, in later years, became stock fixtures in WWN news stories, most famously Bat Boy, a half-bat half-boy discovered in West Virginia caverns, and P'lod, an extraterrestrial who became involved in Earth politics and had an affair with Hillary Clinton.
Columns and features
Regular columns included Ed Anger (opinion), first Dear Babs and later Dear Dotti (outspoken advice columnists), Hi Dolly (relationship advice), Horse Sense (medical advice), Monkey Business (financial and business-related advice and information) and Madame Malisa (psychic). The most famous of these was Ed Anger, a character created in 1979 by staffer Rafe Klinger; Anger was a perpetually angry conservative (a typical column began "I'm pig-biting mad!"), who railed against illegal immigrants, women, speed limits and rainforests, among many other perceived ills.
Beginning on May 9, 2005, the Weekly World News went "All New" along with other tabloid papers such as the National Enquirer, which had become "Bigger • Bolder • Better." In the new Weekly World News, Serena and Sonya Sabak's psychic column was replaced by the horoscopes of Madame Malisa, and Dotti Primrose's "Dear Dotti" was supplanted by an advice column called "Hi Dolly" written by a middle-aged Southern blonde woman. The new WWN included a weekly "Weird Picture Search" by Mad cartoonist Sergio Aragonés. Other features included Trivia, Test Yourself, Jokes, and "Miss Adventure", a.k.a. "The Gayest American Hero", who has penetrated the mob, gone to Hollywood, and fought DRAG-U-LA traveling from the depths of the Earth's center to outer space.
Two pages of comic strips were spun off from feature stories. For two years, in 2004 and 2005, Peter Bagge created a Bat Boy comic "using celebrities and current events and creating totally absurd and implausible stories and situations for them." In 2011, IDW Publishing released a hardcover collection of Bagge's strips. "SpyCat", created by Dick Siegel, was drawn by Ernie Colón. SpyCat spoke nine different languages ranging from Persian to "dog" and was armed with "Adamwestium" claws and deadly cat-of-nine-tails. He wrote free-form poetry when not waging war on America's enemies—at home and abroad. "Matthew Daemon", also created by Dick Siegel, was written and illustrated by Mike Collins and was a spinoff from the "SOS Matthew Daemon (Seeker of Obscure Supernaturals)" feature. Daemon's lair was located beneath Grant's Tomb. Daemon specialized in B-List Monster hunting. "Alien Baby" by Craig Boldman chronicled the adventures of Moogera the deadbeat alien dad, alien baby Ethan, and Stacy, his Earth-born mother.
Recurring subjects
Bat Boy
Bat Boy was first featured in a 1992 issue after being found in a cave in West Virginia (Lost World Caverns). He has since led police on a high-speed chase, fought in the war on terror, led the troops to capture Saddam Hussein, bitten Santa Claus, and traveled into outer space. In 2000, he gave his endorsement to Al Gore. It was foretold that Bat Boy would become president in 2028.
The story of Bat Boy was the basis for an acclaimed off-Broadway musical, Bat Boy: The Musical, in which Bat Boy meets a tragic end. In addition to articles, Bat Boy has been featured in a comic strip since 2004, though it is said that only the articles are the "true" story of Bat Boy.
A Scientist
"A Scientist" is typically shown and quoted. He was known as "A Scientist" to distinguish him from A Baffled Scientist.
Page 5 Honey
Each week a different model was featured on page 5 and on the back page. She was usually wearing a bikini and a description of her was printed. This feature ended after the Halloween issue of 2006.
"ALIVE!", starring (often) Elvis Presley
One of the many other recurring subjects was the occasional "ALIVE!" cover story. Most often the story pertained to some sort of creature such as a mummy, prehistoric creature, or, occasionally, a human who had been frozen in a block of ice (e.g. Santa Claus).
Another subject often tackled by WWN is the reemergence of many prominent figures believed to be deceased, including Hank Williams, Marilyn Monroe, John F. Kennedy, Adolf Hitler, and Michael Jackson. Survivors of the Titanic and Hindenburg were also occasionally featured. Among the most frequently printed reports were those asserting that "Elvis is alive."
The WWN frequently reported Elvis sightings with a series of articles claiming that Elvis Presley had faked his death and had recently emerged from years of seclusion to prepare for a comeback. Obviously altered photos purported to show a gray-haired, balding Elvis sneaking into a movie theater and coming out of a Burger King restaurant. When the U.S. Postal Service conducted a poll to determine the design of the Elvis commemorative postage stamp, the WWN conducted its own poll pitting the USPS's 1950s Elvis and 1970s Elvis versus its own, 1990s Elvis; the elderly Elvis won.
In 1994, the newspaper ran a front cover with the headline "Elvis Presley Dead!", stating that Elvis was now "really dead" from heart failure after slipping into a diabetic coma. In a 2004 Washington Post article on Clontz's death, humorist Gene Weingarten claimed that he and Dave Barry were the sources of the story. According to Weingarten, the WWN later reported that claims of Elvis' (belated) death had been a hoax. In an earlier telling of his story, Weingarten varied some details.
The World's Fattest...
Numerous stories regarding shockingly obese people and animals made the pages of WWN, the most popular of which was Tonya, the world's fattest cat. After Tonya was first discovered, WWN encouraged readers to send in their guesses as to exactly how much they believed Tonya weighed. Weighing in at over 80 lbs., Tonya was featured being adopted, and possibly sat on, by the world's fattest woman. Later stories involved Tonya's attempts to lose weight through the "Catkins" diet, her struggle with anorexia, and claims that she had been eaten by the world's thinnest woman. Other stories featured the exploits of the world's fattest couple at the gym, the world's fattest baby, and even a similar weight-guessing contest featuring the world's fattest dog. One continuing story featured a morbidly obese man named Buster Simcus who had lost so much weight that it left 80 pounds of loose skin hanging off his body that he was planning to have surgically removed. By the next story, he had regained the weight, severely damaging his scars.
Upcoming economic depressions
WWN covered stories that featured analysis of a coming Great Depression in the immediate future in which many prominent celebrities, politicians, and icons of business would become penniless. The cover story of the June 6, 2005, issue warned that the second Great Depression was "just weeks away." Because of this, Texas oil tycoons were planning to flee to Luxembourg, the only country to survive this economic crash. Consequences of this depression would include mass starvation, a disease epidemic, mobs of looters and a return to pagan religions and Satanism.
Religion and Biblical relics
Another typical Weekly World News topic was new Bible-related findings, including relics from Noah's Ark, the Garden of Eden (claimed by the tabloid to be in Colorado), the discovery of additional commandments from God, and sandals worn by Jesus. The magazine also reported on when Jesus will return to Earth, and held an interview with Sisyphus when he finished his eternal boulder-hauling "workout." Other stories stated that natural disasters such as earthquakes and human economic activity like drilling for oil have opened up gates and portals to Hell from which demons have escaped to wreak havoc upon the earth. A story shortly after September 11, 2001 showed the face of Satan appearing in a cloud of dust caused by the collapse of the World Trade Center. Similar stories, wherein Satan's face had appeared in a thunderstorm, had appeared before.
Terrorism
Following the terrorist attack on September 11, 2001, WWN featured articles about plans for future terrorist attacks on the United States of America. A 2004 cover story described plans by Kim Jong-il to eventually invade and conquer the United States. Other stories featured profiles on the location and nature of Iraq's weapons of mass destruction, including the news that Saddam Hussein had an arsenal of giant slingshots, the missing link, and dinosaurs. In 2003, a series of articles profiled the ongoing relationship between and eventual marriage of Saddam Hussein and Osama Bin Laden. Other stories have made claims that Bin Laden was actually a dwarf, that he recruited a cloned Adolf Hitler to join Al Qaeda, and that he was in fact dead, long before his actual death and that the CIA was keeping it a secret. After his being captured by Bat Boy, Saddam was humiliated by female prison guards, won the United States lottery, and even demanded that the government pay for his sex change operation.
Presidency
WWN has often been the home to political satire regarding current and past presidential administrations. The magazine reported that the founding fathers were all gay and that George Washington and Abraham Lincoln were actually women. According to the paper, President Lincoln was insane, and his ghost had also been spotted in the White House giving President George W. Bush advice on the war in Iraq. Stories about President George W. Bush capitalized on the public's perception that he lacked intelligence. The paper chronicled his plans to run for pope, his love affair with Janet Reno, and his intention to nominate Yoda as secretary of defense. The June 21, 2004, issue stated that Vice President Dick Cheney was actually a robot and that his frequent trips to the hospital allowed him to rewire his circuits.
Aliens
Aliens are another subject frequently tackled by WWN. Weekly World News blamed these creatures for holes in the ozone. A Roswell crash survivor, "Altair Bob," made contact with WWN via telepathic e-mail. Several factions of extraterrestrials have been using the moon to dump garbage. Martians have been monitoring the Mideast crisis. Warrior aliens have been resurrecting the dead, fighting Bigfoot, and training in a mock U.S. town hidden in Antarctica. San Franciscans have opened their hearts to immigrants from Mercury.
One such alien, named P'Lod, who made several appearances in WWN, has been known to fraternize with known women of politics. It was reported that he and Hillary Clinton once had a close relationship that ended up in a brawl between him and President Bill Clinton, who went on a jealous rage. After P'Lod left Hillary Clinton, he expressed a lot of interest in Condoleezza Rice. A June 15, 1993 cover announced Hillary Clinton's adoption of an alien baby.
In the June 7, 1994, edition, WWN reported that 12 U.S. senators were aliens from other planets. In response, several senators or their spokespersons humorously "confirmed" the story. One, William S. Cohen of Maine, told the mainstream press, ""It is preferable to be a space alien than a space cadet."
In the August 11, 1998, edition, WWN reported that autograph dealer Steve Koschal offered to pay $1 million for anything signed by an extraterrestrial. Koschal said he would pay the million dollars to anyone who had a signed letter or signed photograph or anything signed by a visitor from outer space. "Hundreds of people claim to have been abducted and taken aboard UFOs and yet there's not a single verifiable signature of an extraterrestrial being anywhere on Earth," said Koschal in an exclusive interview. "Someone out there must have asked one of these creatures for an autograph," continued Koschal. "If not, someone will in the future. When they do, I want to be the first collector to acquire it."
The subject of space aliens endorsing U.S. presidential candidates in various elections was also a recurring topic. During the 2000 U.S. presidential election, then-candidate George W. Bush posed for photographers with a Weekly World News issue opened to the article reading, "Space Alien Backs Bush for President!".
Cryptids
Cryptids and half-animal half-human hybrids are another frequent topic of Weekly World News. Creatures such as Bigfoot, merpeople, real-life catwomen, half-alligator half-humans, frog babies, kangaroo women, and many other creatures have taken the world by storm on various covers (e.g. Abominable Beachman strikes terror in Hawaii! and Bigfoot Steals Race Car!!!!) including the aforementioned 'Bat Boy'.
Merfolk
The existence of mermen and mermaids is also frequently reported in the pages of the Weekly World News. One detailed article recounted a mermaid being caught in a fishing net off the coast of Florida on April 17, 2004. According to the article, she was at least half human, very sociable, and extremely intelligent; and was able to talk in a sophisticated "three dimensional language" that depends heavily on noises that could possibly be connected to the "click languages" prevalent in parts of Africa and on hand movements that look like sign language.
Similar to their female counterparts, mermen are found within the pages of the Weekly World News. On June 17, 2003, a merman was reported to have been caught in the South Pacific, this one measuring only 28 inches.
Stories taken as legitimate
Since the Weekly World News began to publish online, its stories have occasionally been treated as legitimate news stories by readers unaware of the nature of the publication.
In late 2010 the WWN ran a satirical story, written by Frank Lake, indicating that the Los Angeles Police Department intended to purchase 10,000 jet packs at a total cost of one billion dollars. The story was reported as fact by the Fox & Friends morning news show.
The WWN reported twice, once in 2011 and once in 2012, that the social media website Facebook would shut down. Both times, the claim was interpreted by some as genuine. The second time, Facebook issued an official reply to the technology blog Mashable, stating, "The answer is no, so please help us put an end to this silliness. We didn't get the memo about shutting down and there's lots to do, so we'll just keep cranking away like always."
Demise and relaunch
In 1999, David Pecker bought American Media Inc., which owned the Weekly World News. Within the next two years, many of WWN'''s longtime writers and editors, including Clontz, Sal Ivone, Derek Clontz, Susan Jimison, Joe Berger, Bob Lind, Dick Kulpa, and Leskie Pinson, were gone. Clontz left the paper in 2001, having been there 20 years, and died in 2004.
In a filing with the United States Securities and Exchange Commission in March 2007, American Media said that sales of WWN in 2006 were only 83,000 per issue. WWN ceased its print publication in August 2007. It was then published as an insert within The Sun magazine, with new material being printed alongside articles and columns from older issues, until Sun itself ceased publication in 2012.
In October 2008, Bat Boy L.L.C., a company started by Neil McGinness, bought WWN. It was relaunched as an online-only publication in 2009. In January 2011, the Weekly World News was made available via an online paid subscription. The online edition is emailed to subscribers biweekly. The online edition closely resembles the printed Weekly World News in both appearance (it uses the Weekly World News logo used from 1979 to 2001) and subject matter (the first issue's headline was "Werewolf Sues Airline Over Flight Delay"). In January 2013, Weekly World News announced that it would go behind a paywall. An initial limit was set at three free article views, though select content remained unmetered.
In August of 2019, Greg D'Alessandro took over as CEO/Editor-In-Chief with David Collins as President/CFO. They relaunched the brand and began developing a number of projects with Hollywood producers.
On September 21, 2020, Weekly World News launched a Kickstarter campaign in an effort to expand reporting, graphics and video production, as well as to get the tabloid back into print. The campaign was successful in reaching its financial goal.
On March 21, 2021, 'Weekly World News" printed its first full-length print publication in 15 years. "Weekly World News Greatest Covers" was printed as a limited special edition (5,000 copies).
In popular culture
Articles from Weekly World News were a primary inspiration for David Byrne's 1986 film True Stories as reported by Rolling Stone magazine: "Your big inspiration for the movie was reading headlines in tabloids. Were you mostly reading Weekly World News at the time?" David Byrne: "Yeah, they were all from Weekly World News. They weren't really in the [National] Enquirer."
In January 1996, a satirical comedy series inspired by Weekly World News premiered on the USA Network, and was hosted by longtime journalist Edwin Newman. The series was canceled after one season.Tabloid Dreams (1996) by Robert Olen Butler is a short-story collection that used headlines from the Weekly World News and other supermarket tabloids as writing prompts. Two examples: “Jealous Husband Returns in the Form of a Parrot” and “Boy Born with Tattoo of Elvis.”
In 1999, the Weekly World News was declared the "Official Newspaper of the Windows 2000 Team" at Microsoft, and its Senior Vice President, Brian Valentine, would read excerpts from it at what was called Windows Information Meetings, or WIMs, while attempting to entertain and encourage the developers, testers, program managers, and writers involved.
A parody of the Weekly World News called “The World” was featured in the 1997 film Men in Black as "The best damn investigative journalism in the country." A publication that told the truth because it was 'a free country.'Weekly World News was also featured in the Supernatural, season 2 episode "Tall Tales".
Disney Channel's paranormal/supernatural-themed animated show Gravity Falls (2012–2016) features a reference to Bat Boy in the show's intro.
Shion Takeuchi and Alex Hirsch, executive producers of Inside Job (2021-Present) said they were inspired by pages of the publication.
See also
Fake news
List of satirical magazines
List of satirical news websites
List of satirical television news programs
The Onion Sunday Sport Sun Toronto Special''
References
External links
Mentalfloss.com, "Bat Boy Lives! An Oral History of Weekly World News," by Jake Rossen, 7 August 2020
Badmouth.net interview with David Perel, vice president of the Weekly World News
Archive of Weekly World News Articles
Google Books Archive of Weekly World News back issues
1979 establishments in Florida
2007 disestablishments in Florida
Satirical magazines published in the United States
Weekly magazines published in the United States
Biweekly magazines published in the United States
Defunct magazines published in the United States
Magazines established in 1979
Magazines disestablished in 2007
Supermarket tabloids
Magazines published in Florida
Online magazines with defunct print editions | [
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222551 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Motif%20%28software%29 | Motif (software) | In computing, Motif refers to both a graphical user interface (GUI) specification and the widget toolkit for building applications that follow that specification under the X Window System on Unix and Unix-like operating systems. The Motif look and feel is distinguished by its use of rudimentary square and chiseled three-dimensional effects for its various user interface elements.
Motif is the toolkit for the Common Desktop Environment and IRIX Interactive Desktop, thus it was the standard widget toolkit for Unix. Closely related to Motif is the Motif Window Manager (MWM).
After many years as proprietary software, Motif was released in 2012, as free software under the GNU Lesser General Public License (LGPL-2.1-or-later).
History
Motif was created by the Open Software Foundation (OSF) to be a standard graphical user interface for Unix platforms. Rather than create a new interface from scratch, OSF opened a Request For Technology (RFT) in 1988 to solicit existing technologies from third parties. OSF intended to either adopt an existing interface wholesale, or create one using technologies from multiple existing products. Forty products were submitted, from which OSF selected twenty-three finalists. Among the finalists were Adobe Inc.'s Display Postscript, Sun Microsystems' OPEN LOOK, Digital Research's GEM, IXI Limited's X.desktop, Apollo Computer's Open Dialogue, Carnegie Mellon University's Andrew User Interface System, Digital Equipment Corporation's XUI, and Hewlett-Packard and Microsoft's CXI and PM/X. Ultimately, OSF selected HP and Microsoft's CXI and DEC's XUI, using the look and feel, window manager and Common User Access compliance from CXI, along with the widget toolkit API and User Interface Language (UIL) from XUI. Motif was first shipped by OSF in 1989.
Standardization
Motif is the basic building block of the Common Desktop Environment, which was the standard desktop for commercial Unix.
The IEEE 1295 standard (now withdrawn) defines the "Motif API". As of version 2.1, Motif supports Unicode, which made it widely used in several multilingual environments.
Licensing
Proprietary
Motif was originally made available under a license requiring royalty payments.
Open Motif
A version called Open Motif (substantially the same codebase under a different license) was released on May 15, 2000, under a license which allowed royalty-free distribution of Open Motif if the platform upon which it is used was open sourcebut was not an open source license itself. The name was criticized by Richard Stallman of the Free Software Foundation for likelihood to mislead people into thinking it was proper open source or free software, particularly for the Open Group's statement that they had "released the source code of Motif to the Open Source community". The initial release of Open Motif was version 2.1.30 in May 2000; Open Motif 2.3 was released in June 2007, followed by a 2.3.1 bug fix release in September 2008 and a 2.3.2 bug fix release in March 2009.
During the time when Motif was closed source software, the LessTif project was created with the aim of creating a free software implementation, under the LGPL.
GNU LGPL
In October 2012, Motif was released as a source code distribution under the GNU LGPL-2.1-or-later. Motif's source code is available on SourceForge.
See also
MoOLIT
IBM Common User Access
LessTif
References
External links
ICS MotifZone (current)
Software using the LGPL license
X-based libraries
Formerly proprietary software | [
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222556 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISO%203166-2%3ADE | ISO 3166-2:DE | ISO 3166-2:DE is the entry for Germany in ISO 3166-2, part of the ISO 3166 standard published by the International Organization for Standardization (ISO), which defines codes for the names of the principal subdivisions (e.g., provinces or states) of all countries coded in ISO 3166-1.
The current version of the standard defines codes for all 16 German states, referring to them using the German words (singular) and (plural). Each code consists of two parts, separated by a hyphen. The first part is , the ISO 3166-1 alpha-2 code for Germany; the second part is two letters derived from the name of the Land.
Current codes
Subdivision names are listed as shown in the ISO 3166-2 standard, published by the ISO 3166 Maintenance Agency.
Notes
The codes for Bremen () and Hamburg () are derived from the formal names of the cities— and , respectively—which reference their history in the Hanseatic League.
The codes for Lower Saxony (, ), Saxony (, ), and Saxony-Anhalt (, ) were deliberately chosen because they avoid the connotations of Nazism associated with codes like NS ("Nationalsozialismus"), SA ("Sturmabteilung"), and SS ("Schutzstaffel"). The code for Hamburg could also be avoided on these grounds—it can be associated with the phrase Heil Hitler—but it is accepted as it was already in use for the city's vehicle registration plates long before Hitler's time in power.
See also
Administrative divisions of Germany
FIPS region codes of Germany
NUTS codes of Germany
External links
ISO Online Browsing Platform: DE
States of Germany, Statoids.com
2:DE
States of Germany-related lists | [
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] |
222558 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Widget%20toolkit | Widget toolkit | A widget toolkit, widget library, GUI toolkit, or UX library is a library or a collection of libraries containing a set of graphical control elements (called widgets) used to construct the graphical user interface (GUI) of programs.
Most widget toolkits additionally include their own rendering engine. This engine can be specific to a certain operating system or windowing system or contain back-ends to interface with more multiple ones and also with rendering APIs such as OpenGL, OpenVG, or EGL.
The look and feel of the graphical control elements can be hard-coded or decoupled, allowing the graphical control elements to be themed/skinned.
Overview
Some toolkits may be used from other languages by employing language bindings. Graphical user interface builders such as e.g. Glade Interface Designer facilitate the authoring of GUIs in a WYSIWYG manner employing a user interface markup language such as in this case GtkBuilder.
The GUI of a program is commonly constructed in a cascading manner, with graphical control elements being added directly to on top of one another.
Most widget toolkits use event-driven programming as a model for interaction. The toolkit handles user events, for example when the user clicks on a button. When an event is detected, it is passed on to the application where it is dealt with. The design of those toolkits has been criticized for promoting an oversimplified model of event-action, leading programmers to create error-prone, difficult to extend and excessively complex application code. Finite state machines and hierarchical state machines have been proposed as high-level models to represent the interactive state changes for reactive programs.
Windowing systems
A window is considered to be a graphical control element. In some windowing systems, windows are added directly to the scene graph (canvas) by the window manager, and can be stacked and layered on top of each other through various means. Each window is associated with a particular application which controls the widgets added to its canvas, which can be watched and modified by their associated applications.
See also
WIMP (computing)
Layout manager
List of widget toolkits
References
Graphical user interfaces | [
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222564 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISO%203166-2%3ACA | ISO 3166-2:CA | ISO 3166-2:CA is the entry for Canada in ISO 3166-2, part of the ISO 3166 standard published by the International Organization for Standardization (ISO), which defines codes for the names of the principal subdivisions (e.g., provinces or states) of all countries coded in ISO 3166-1.
Currently for Canada, ISO 3166-2 codes are defined for 10 provinces and 3 territories.
Each code consists of two parts, separated by a hyphen. The first part is , the ISO 3166-1 alpha-2 code of Canada. The second part is two letters, which is the postal abbreviation for the province or territory.
Current codes
Subdivision names are listed as in the ISO 3166-2 standard published by the ISO 3166 Maintenance Agency (ISO 3166/MA).
ISO 639-1 codes are used to represent subdivision names in the following administrative languages:
(en): English
(fr): French
Click on the button in the header to sort each column.
Changes
The following changes to the entry have been announced in newsletters by the ISO 3166/MA since the first publication of ISO 3166-2 in 1998:
See also
Administrative divisions of Canada
List of FIPS region codes (A–C)#CA:_Canada
References
External links
ISO Online Browsing Platform: CA
Canada Provinces, Statoids.com
2:CA
ISO 3166-2
Lists of Canadian abbreviations | [
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222567 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Igor%20Kurchatov | Igor Kurchatov | Igor Vasilyevich Kurchatov (; 12 January 1903 – 7 February 1960), was a Soviet nuclear physicist who is widely known as the director of the Soviet atomic bomb project. Along with Georgy Flyorov and Andrei Sakharov, Kurchatov is known as the "father of the Soviet atomic bomb" and later "the father of the Soviet nuclear missile" for his directorial role in a clandestine Soviet nuclear program formed during World War II in the wake of the Soviet discovery of the Western Allied efforts to develop nuclear weapons. After nine years of covert development, as well as Soviet spies successfully infiltrating the Manhattan Project, the Soviet Union successfully tested its first nuclear weapon, codenamed First Lightning, at the Semipalatinsk Test Range in 1949. In 1954 he was awarded the USSR State Prize in physics.
From 1940 onward, Kurchatov worked on and contributed to the advancement of the nuclear weapons program, and later advocated for the peaceful development of nuclear technology. In 1950, Kurchatov contributed in the development of the hydrogen bomb with Sakharov, who originated this development as Sakharov's Third Idea. Other projects completed under Kurchatov included the installation and the development of Soviet Union's first particle accelerator, the Cyclotron; inauguration and establishment in Obninsk of the Obninsk Nuclear Power Plant, the world's first nuclear power plant; and the completion and launching of the Lenin, the first nuclear-powered surface vessel under his leadership in 1959.
Biography
Kurchatov was born in Simsky Zavod, Ufa Governorate (now the town of Sim, Chelyabinsk Oblast), the elder son and second of three children of Vasili Alekseevich Kurchatov, a surveyor and former forester's assistant, and Mariya Vasilevna Ostroumova, daughter of the parish priest at Sim. He was of Russian ethnicity. After completing Simferopol gymnasium №1, he enrolled at the Physics department of the Crimea State University, earning his doctorate degree in Physics there, under the supervision of Abram Ioffe. Kurchatov also studied at the Polytechnical Institute in Petrograd where he earned his degrees in naval engineering.
After studying Physics and Naval engineering, Kurchatov was a research assistant at the faculty of Physics of the Ioffe Physico-Technical Institute in Baku. Later he researched under Ioffe at the Physico-Technical Institute on various problems connected with radioactivity. After working in a variety of research laboratories and the Azerbaijan Polytechnic Institute in Baku for a year, he came to the Leningrad Institute for Physics and Technology (the Russian abbreviation of this institution is LFTI) in 1925. Kurchatov's talent for experimenting and organization was recognized there. His early work was consumed with physics of crystals like dielectric and ferroelectric materials. One of his important results was the discovery of ferroelectric properties of Seignette salt. This discovery earned a degree of doctor of physics and mathematics for him. He was awarded this degree without a dissertation in 1934. In 1932, he received funding for his own nuclear science research team, which built the Soviet Union's first cyclotron particle accelerator in 1939.
Kurchatov married Marina Sinelnikova in 1927. They did not have children.
Academic research
Between 1931 and 1934 he worked in the Physical department of the Radium Institute (Leningrad) which was headed by . Kurchatov's position there was a senior scientist and he took part in the creation of Europe's first cyclotron.
Then, until 1943, he worked at the Ioffe Institute with Anatoly Petrovich Alexandrov. By November 1941, they had devised a method of demagnetizing ships to protect them from German mines, which was in active use until the end of World War II and thereafter. Kurchatov's laboratory separated from the Ioffe Institute and moved to Moscow in 1943 to work on the Soviet atomic bomb project.
In 1932, George Gamow and Lev Mysovskii submitted a draft for consideration by the Academic Council of Radium Institute, which was approved by the Soviet government. Khlopin, under the guidance and direct participation of Igor Kurchatov, Lev Mysovskii and George Gamow, installed Europe's first cyclotron particle accelerator. Installation was finished in 1937, and research began to take place on 21 September 1939.
Kurchatov and his apprentice Georgy Flyorov discovered the basic ideas of the uranium chain reaction and the nuclear reactor concept in 1939. In 1942, Kurchatov declared: "At breaking up of kernels in a kilogram of uranium, the energy released must be equal to the explosion of 20,000 tons of trotyl."
Atomic bomb project
In 1941, Nazi Germany commenced a large-scale military offensive against the Soviet Union under the codename Operation Barbarossa. Meanwhile, Kurchatov was leading research in nuclear physics and was widely known in the Soviet Academy of Sciences for his diverse array of research. Because of the war against Germany and its allies, the Soviet Union did not undertake any serious initiative to start scientific research into nuclear weapons until 1942. In April 1942, Georgii Flerov, who would later become a key figure in the nuclear program, addressed a secret letter to Joseph Stalin that pointed out that nothing had been published in physics journals by Americans, British or even Germans on nuclear fission since the year of its discovery, 1939, and that many of the most prominent physicists in Allied countries seemed indeed not to be publishing at all. That academic silence was highly suspicious, and Flerov urged Stalin to launch the program with immediate effect, as he believed that other nations were already secretly advancing their programmes. In 1943, the NKVD obtained a copy of a secret British report by the MAUD Committee concerning the feasibility of atomic weapons, which led Stalin to order the commencement of a Soviet nuclear programme (albeit with very limited resources).
Stalin turned to the Soviet Academy of Sciences to find the best administrator to lead the program and so the Soviet Academy of Sciences chose Kurchatov for his wide experience in nuclear physics. Ioffe recommended Kurchatov to Vyacheslav Molotov, who advised Stalin to appoint Kurchatov as the formal director of the nascent Soviet nuclear programme and the development of Soviet nuclear weapons began in the 1940s. Kurchatov switched his research first to protecting shipping from magnetic mines and later to tank armour and finally to nuclear physics.
During its formative years, the Soviet atomic bomb project remained a relatively low priority until information from the spy Klaus Fuchs and later the destruction of Hiroshima and Nagasaki goaded Stalin into action. Stalin ordered Kurchatov to produce a bomb by 1948 and put the ruthless Lavrenty Beria in direct command of the project. The project took over the town of Sarov in the Gorki Oblast (now Nizhny Novgorod Oblast), on the Volga, and renamed it Arzamas-16. The team (which included other prominent Soviet nuclear scientists such as Julii Borisovich Khariton and Yakov Borisovich Zel'dovich) was assisted by public disclosures made by the US government as well as by further information supplied by Fuchs. However, Kurchatov and Beria feared that the intelligence was disinformation and so insisted for the scientists retest everything themselves. Beria, in particular, would use the intelligence as a third-party check on the conclusions of the teams of scientists.
First lightning
On 29 August 1949, Kurchatov's team successfully detonated its initial test device First Lightning (a plutonium implosion bomb) at the Semipalatinsk Test Site. Kurchatov later remarked that his main feeling at the time to be one of relief.
In the wake of the successful detonation of the first American fusion device, codenamed Ivy Mike in 1952, Stalin ordered Soviet scientists to build a comparable device, a program that was launched in 1953. The directors of the project were Vitaly Ginzburg and Andrei Sakharov who originated this project as Sakharov's Third Idea. Kurchatov contributed some of the calculations necessary for the Soviet Union's first hydrogen bomb. Unlike Ginzburg, Sakharov and Yakov Zel'dovich, Kurchatov was involved only in small-scale calculations, applying the basic nuclear weapons principles used in the smaller nuclear weapons that were developed under his directorship. In 1953, the Soviet Union detonated its first thermonuclear device, codename Joe 4. While other scientists, such as Ginzburg, Zel'dovich and Sakharov earned renown, Kurchatov's contribution was diminished.
Other projects
In the late 1950s, Kurchatov advocated against nuclear weapons tests. Among the projects completed under Kurchatov's leadership was the first cyclotron in Moscow (1949), the first atomic reactor in Europe (1946), the first nuclear power plant in the world (1954), the icebreaker Lenin, the world's first nuclear-powered surface ship, and the first nuclear-powered civilian vessel (1959).
Death
In January 1949 Kurchatov had been involved in a serious accident which became a catastrophe at Chelyabinsk-40 in which it is possible that even more people died than at Chernobyl. In an effort to save the uranium load and reduce losses in the production of plutonium, Kurchatov was the first to step into the central hall of the damaged reactor full of radioactive gases.
Kurchatov's health sharply declined in his last years. He suffered a stroke in 1954 and died in Moscow of a cardiac embolism on 7 February 1960 aged 57. He was cremated and his ashes were buried in the Kremlin Wall Necropolis on Red Square.
Legacy and honors
During the A-bomb programme, Kurchatov swore he would not cut his beard until the program succeeded, and he continued to wear a large beard (often cut into eccentric styles) for the remainder of his life, earning him the nickname "The Beard". Two towns bear his name: Kurchatov Township, the headquarters of the STS, and Kurchatov near Kursk (the site of a nuclear power station), the Kurchatov Institute is named in his honour, and bears a large monument dedicated to him at the entrance. The crater Kurchatov on the Moon and the asteroid 2352 Kurchatov are also named after him. Many of his students also enjoyed distinguished careers, among them Andrei Sakharov, Viktor Adamsky, Yuri Babayev, Yuri Trutnev and .
For his part in establishing the Soviet nuclear program, in accordance with state decree 627-258, Kurchatov was awarded the title of Hero of Socialist Labor, the Stalin Prize First Class, the sum of 500,000 rubles (besides the earlier results of (50%) premium in the amount of 500,000 rubles) and a ZIS-110 car, a private house and cottage furnished by the state, a doubling of his salary and "the right (for life for him and his wife) to free travel by rail, water and air transport in the USSR". In all, he was:
Member of the Soviet Academy of Sciences (elected in 1943)
Three times Hero of Socialist Labor (1949, 1951, 1954)
Awarded five Orders of Lenin
Awarded two Orders of the Red Banner
Awarded the following medals: "For Victory over Germany", "For the defense of Sevastopol"
Four times recipient of the Stalin Prize (1942, 1949, 1951, 1954)
Recipient of the Lenin Prize (1957).
Kurchatov was buried in the Kremlin Wall in Moscow, a burial place reserved for top Soviet officials. In 1960 his institute was renamed to the I.V. Kurchatov Institute of Atomic Energy, and in 1991 to the Russian Research Centre Kurchatov Institute. The Kurchatov Medal was established by the Academy of Sciences for outstanding work in nuclear physics. In the Transfermium Wars element naming controversy, the USSR's proposed name for element 104 was "kurchatovium", Ku, in honor of Kurchatov. Element 104 is now known as rutherfordium.
References
Further reading
Dark Sun: The Making Of The Hydrogen Bomb by Richard Rhodes ()
PBS documentary Citizen Kurchatov
S. P. Korolev. Encyclopedia of life and creativity - edited by C. A. Lopota, RSC Energia. S. P. Korolev, 2014
External links
Kurchatov institute
Biography of Igor Kurchatov (in Russian)
Annotated bibliography of Igor Kurchatov from the Alsos Digital Library
1903 births
1960 deaths
People from Ashinsky District
People from Ufa Governorate
Soviet nuclear physicists
Nuclear weapons program of the Soviet Union
Soviet inventors
Russian anti-capitalists
Communist Party of the Soviet Union members
Moscow State University faculty
Peter the Great St. Petersburg Polytechnic University alumni
Moscow Institute of Physics and Technology faculty
Full Members of the USSR Academy of Sciences
Stalin Prize winners
Heroes of Socialist Labour
Burials at the Kremlin Wall Necropolis | [
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222568 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/T%C5%8Dru%20Takemitsu | Tōru Takemitsu | was a Japanese composer and writer on aesthetics and music theory. Largely self-taught, Takemitsu was admired for the subtle manipulation of instrumental and orchestral timbre. He is known for combining elements of oriental and occidental philosophy and for fusing sound with silence and tradition with innovation.
He composed several hundred independent works of music, scored more than ninety films and published twenty books. He was also a founding member of the Jikken Kōbō (Experimental Workshop) in Japan, a group of avant-garde artists who distanced themselves from academia and whose collaborative work is often regarded among the most influential of the 20th century.
His 1957 Requiem for string orchestra attracted international attention, led to several commissions from across the world and established his reputation as the leading 20th-century Japanese composer. He was the recipient of numerous awards and honours and the Toru Takemitsu Composition Award is named after him.
Biography
Youth
Takemitsu was born in Tokyo on October 8, 1930; a month later his family moved to Dalian in the Chinese province of Liaoning. In 1938 he returned to Japan to attend elementary school, but his education was cut short by military conscription in 1944. Takemitsu described his experience of military service at such a young age, under the Japanese Nationalist government, as "... extremely bitter". Takemitsu first became conscious of Western classical music during his term of military service, in the form of a popular French Song ("Parlez-moi d'amour") which he listened to with colleagues in secret, played on a gramophone with a makeshift needle fashioned from bamboo.
During the post-war U.S. occupation of Japan, Takemitsu worked for the U.S. Armed Forces, but was ill for a long period. Hospitalised and bed-ridden, he took the opportunity to listen to as much Western music as he could on the U.S. Armed Forces network. While deeply affected by these experiences of Western music, he simultaneously felt a need to distance himself from the traditional music of his native Japan. He explained much later, in a lecture at the New York International Festival of the Arts, that for him Japanese traditional music "always recalled the bitter memories of war".
Despite his lack of musical training, and taking inspiration from what little Western music he had heard, Takemitsu began to compose in earnest at the age of 16: "... I began [writing] music attracted to music itself as one human being. Being in music I found my raison d'être as a man. After the war, music was the only thing. Choosing to be in music clarified my identity." Though he studied briefly with Yasuji Kiyose beginning in 1948, Takemitsu remained largely self-taught throughout his musical career.
Early development and Jikken Kōbō
In 1948, Takemitsu conceived the idea of electronic music technology, or in his own words, to "bring noise into tempered musical tones inside a busy small tube." During the 1950s, Takemitsu had learned that in 1948 "a French [engineer] Pierre Schaeffer invented the method(s) of musique concrète based on the same idea as mine. I was pleased with this coincidence."
In 1951, Takemitsu was a founding member of the anti-academic : an artistic group established for multidisciplinary collaboration on mixed-media projects, who sought to avoid Japanese artistic tradition. The performances and works undertaken by the group introduced several contemporary Western composers to Japanese audiences. During this period he wrote Saegirarenai Kyūsoku I ("Uninterrupted Rest I", 1952: a piano work, without a regular rhythmic pulse or barlines); and by 1955 Takemitsu had begun to use electronic tape-recording techniques in such works as Relief Statique (1955) and Vocalism A·I (1956). Takemitsu also studied in the early 1950s with the composer Fumio Hayasaka, perhaps best known for the scores he wrote for films by Kenji Mizoguchi and Akira Kurosawa, the latter of whom Takemitsu would collaborate with decades later.
In the late 1950s chance brought Takemitsu international attention: his Requiem for string orchestra (1957), written as an homage to Hayasaka, was heard by Igor Stravinsky in 1958 during his visit to Japan. (The NHK had organised opportunities for Stravinsky to listen to some of the latest Japanese music; when Takemitsu's work was put on by mistake, Stravinsky insisted on hearing it to the end.) At a press conference later, Stravinsky expressed his admiration for the work, praising its "sincerity" and "passionate" writing. Stravinsky subsequently invited Takemitsu to lunch; and for Takemitsu this was an "unforgettable" experience. After Stravinsky returned to the U.S., Takemitsu soon received a commission for a new work from the Koussevitsky Foundation which, he assumed, had come as a suggestion from Stravinsky to Aaron Copland. For this he composed Dorian Horizon, (1966), which was premièred by the San Francisco Symphony, conducted by Copland.
Influence of Cage; interest in traditional Japanese music
During his time with Jikken Kōbō, Takemitsu came into contact with the experimental work of John Cage; but when the composer Toshi Ichiyanagi returned from his studies in America in 1961, he gave the first Japanese performance of Cage's Concert for Piano and Orchestra. This left a "deep impression" on Takemitsu: he recalled the impact of hearing the work when writing an obituary for Cage, 31 years later. This encouraged Takemitsu in his use of indeterminate procedures and graphic-score notation, for example in the graphic scores of Ring (1961), Corona for pianist(s) and Corona II for string(s) (both 1962). In these works each performer is presented with cards printed with coloured circular patterns which are freely arranged by the performer to create "the score".
Although the immediate influence of Cage's procedures did not last in Takemitsu's music—Coral Island, for example for soprano and orchestra (1962) shows significant departures from indeterminate procedures partly as a result of Takemitsu's renewed interest in the music of Anton Webern—certain similarities between Cage's philosophies and Takemitsu's thought remained. For example, Cage's emphasis on timbres within individual sound-events, and his notion of silence "as plenum rather than vacuum", can be aligned with Takemitsu's interest in ma. Furthermore, Cage's interest in Zen practice (through his contact with Zen scholar Daisetz Teitaro Suzuki) seems to have resulted in a renewed interest in the East in general, and ultimately alerted Takemitsu to the potential for incorporating elements drawn from Japanese traditional music into his composition:
I must express my deep and sincere gratitude to John Cage. The reason for this is that in my own life, in my own development, for a long period I struggled to avoid being "Japanese", to avoid "Japanese" qualities. It was largely through my contact with John Cage that I came to recognize the value of my own tradition.
For Takemitsu, as he explained later in a lecture in 1988, one performance of Japanese traditional music stood out:
One day I chanced to see a performance of the Bunraku puppet theater and was very surprised by it. It was in the tone quality, the timbre, of the futazao shamisen, the wide-necked shamisen used in Bunraku, that I first recognized the splendor of traditional Japanese music. I was very moved by it and I wondered why my attention had never been captured before by this Japanese music.
Thereafter, he resolved to study all types of traditional Japanese music, paying special attention to the differences between the two very different musical traditions, in a diligent attempt to "bring forth the sensibilities of Japanese music that had always been within [him]". This was no easy task, since in the years following the war traditional music was largely overlooked and ignored: only one or two "masters" continued to keep their art alive, often meeting with public indifference. In conservatoria across the country, even students of traditional instruments were always required to learn the piano.
From the early 1960s, Takemitsu began to make use of traditional Japanese instruments in his music, and even took up playing the biwa—an instrument he used in his score for the film Seppuku (1962). In 1967, Takemitsu received a commission from the New York Philharmonic, to commemorate the orchestra's 125th anniversary, for which he wrote November Steps for biwa, shakuhachi, and orchestra. Initially, Takemitsu had great difficulty in uniting these instruments from such different musical cultures in one work. Eclipse for biwa and shakuhachi (1966) illustrates Takemitsu's attempts to find a viable notational system for these instruments, which in normal circumstances neither sound together nor are used in works notated in any system of Western staff notation.
The first performance of November Steps was given in 1967, under Seiji Ozawa. Despite the trials of writing such an ambitious work, Takemitsu maintained "that making the attempt was very worthwhile because what resulted somehow liberated music from a certain stagnation and brought to music something distinctly new and different". The work was distributed widely in the West when it was coupled as the fourth side of an LP release of Messiaen's Turangalîla Symphony.
In 1972, Takemitsu, accompanied by Iannis Xenakis, Betsy Jolas, and others, heard Balinese gamelan music in Bali. The experience influenced the composer on a largely philosophical and theological level. For those accompanying Takemitsu on the expedition (most of whom were French musicians), who "... could not keep their composure as I did before this music: it was too foreign for them to be able to assess the resulting discrepancies with their logic", the experience was without precedent. For Takemitsu, however, by now quite familiar with his own native musical tradition, there was a relationship between "the sounds of the gamelan, the tone of the kapachi, the unique scales and rhythms by which they are formed, and Japanese traditional music which had shaped such a large part of my sensitivity". In his solo piano work For Away (written for Roger Woodward in 1973), a single, complex line is distributed between the pianist's hands, which reflects the interlocking patterns between the metallophones of a gamelan orchestra.
A year later, Takemitsu returned to the instrumental combination of shakuhachi, biwa, and orchestra, in the less well known work Autumn (1973). The significance of this work is revealed in its far greater integration of the traditional Japanese instruments into the orchestral discourse; whereas in November Steps, the two contrasting instrumental ensembles perform largely in alternation, with only a few moments of contact. Takemitsu expressed this change in attitude:
But now my attitude is getting to be a little different, I think. Now my concern is mostly to find out what there is in common ... Autumn was written after November Steps. I really wanted to do something which I hadn't done in November Steps, not to blend the instruments, but to integrate them.
International status and the gradual shift in style
By 1970, Takemitsu's reputation as a leading member of avant-garde community was well established, and during his involvement with Expo '70 in Osaka, he was at last able to meet more of his Western colleagues, including Karlheinz Stockhausen. Also, during a contemporary music festival in April 1970, produced by the Japanese composer himself ("Iron and Steel Pavilion"), Takemitsu met among the participants Lukas Foss, Peter Sculthorpe, and Vinko Globokar. Later that year, as part of a commission from Paul Sacher and the Zurich Collegium Musicum, Takemitsu incorporated into his Eucalypts I parts for international performers: flautist Aurèle Nicolet, oboist Heinz Holliger, and harpist Ursula Holliger.
Critical examination of the complex instrumental works written during this period for the new generation of "contemporary soloists" reveals the level of his high-profile engagement with the Western avant-garde, in works such as Voice for solo flute (1971), Waves for clarinet, horn, two trombones and bass drum (1976), Quatrain for clarinet, violin, cello, piano and orchestra (1977). Experiments and works that incorporated traditional Japanese musical ideas and language continued to appear in his output, and an increased interest in the traditional Japanese garden began to reflect itself in works such as for gagaku orchestra (1973), and A Flock Descends into the Pentagonal Garden for orchestra (1977).
Throughout this apogee of avant-garde work, Takemitsu's musical style seems to have undergone a series of stylistic changes. Comparison of Green (for orchestra, 1967) and A Flock Descends into the Pentagonal Garden (1977) quickly reveals the seeds of this change. The latter was composed according to a pre-compositional scheme, in which pentatonic modes were superimposed over one central pentatonic scale (the so-called "black-key pentatonic") around a central sustained central pitch (F-sharp), and an approach that is highly indicative of the sort of "pantonal" and modal pitch material seen gradually emerging in his works throughout the 1970s. The former, Green (or November Steps II) written 10 years earlier, is heavily influenced by Debussy, and is, in spite of its very dissonant language (including momentary quarter-tone clusters), largely constructed through a complex web of modal forms. These modal forms are largely audible, particularly in the momentary repose toward the end of the work. Thus in these works, it is possible to see both a continuity of approach, and the emergence of a simpler harmonic language that was to characterise the work of his later period.
His friend and colleague Jō Kondō said, "If his later works sound different from earlier pieces, it is due to his gradual refining of his basic style rather than any real alteration of it."
Later works: the sea of tonality
In a Tokyo lecture given in 1984, Takemitsu identified a melodic motive in his Far Calls. Coming Far! (for violin and orchestra, 1980) that would recur throughout his later works:
I wanted to plan a tonal "sea". Here the "sea" is E-flat [Es in German nomenclature]-E-A, a three-note ascending motive consisting of a half step and perfect fourth. [... In Far Calls] this is extended upward from A with two major thirds and one minor third ... Using these patterns I set the "sea of tonality" from which many pantonal chords flow.
Takemitsu's words here highlight his changing stylistic trends from the late 1970s into the 1980s, which have been described as "an increased use of diatonic material [... with] references to tertian harmony and jazz voicing", which do not, however, project a sense of "large-scale tonality". Many of the works from this period have titles that include a reference to water: Toward the Sea (1981), Rain Tree and Rain Coming (1982), riverrun and I Hear the Water Dreaming (1987). Takemitsu wrote in his notes for the score of Rain Coming that "... the complete collection [is] entitled "Waterscape" ... it was the composer's intention to create a series of works, which like their subject, pass through various metamorphoses, culminating in a sea of tonality." Throughout these works, the S-E-A motive (discussed further below) features prominently, and points to an increased emphasis on the melodic element in Takemitsu's music that began during this later period.
His 1981 work for orchestra named Dreamtime was inspired by a visit to Groote Eylandt, off the coast of the Northern Territory of Australia, to witness a large gathering of Australian indigenous dancers, singers and story tellers. He was there at the invitation of the choreographer Jiří Kylián.
Pedal notes played an increasingly prominent role in Takemitsu's music during this period, as in A Flock Descends into the Pentagonal Garden. In Dream/Window, (orchestra, 1985) a pedal D serves as anchor point, holding together statements of a striking four-note motivic gesture which recurs in various instrumental and rhythmic guises throughout. Very occasionally, fully fledged references to diatonic tonality can be found, often in harmonic allusions to early- and pre-20th-century composers—for example, Folios for guitar (1974), which quotes from J. S. Bach's St Matthew Passion, and Family Tree for narrator and orchestra (1984), which invokes the musical language of Maurice Ravel and American popular song. (He revered the St Matthew Passion, and would play through it on the piano before commencing a new work, as a form of "purificatory ritual".)
By this time, Takemitsu's incorporation of traditional Japanese (and other Eastern) musical traditions with his Western style had become much more integrated. Takemitsu commented, "There is no doubt ... the various countries and cultures of the world have begun a journey toward the geographic and historic unity of all peoples ... The old and new exist within me with equal weight."
Toward the end of his life, Takemitsu had planned to complete an opera, a collaboration with the novelist Barry Gifford and the director Daniel Schmid, commissioned by the Opéra National de Lyon in France. He was in the process of publishing a plan of its musical and dramatic structure with Kenzaburō Ōe, but he was prevented from completing it by his death at 65. He died of pneumonia on February 20, 1996, while undergoing treatment for bladder cancer.
Personal life
He was married to Asaka Takemitsu (formerly Wakayama) for 42 years. She first met Toru in 1951, cared for him when he was suffering from tuberculosis in his early twenties, then married him in 1954. They had one child, a daughter named Maki. Asaka attended most premieres of his music and published a memoir of their life together in 2010.
Music
Composers whom Takemitsu cited as influential in his early work include Claude Debussy, Anton Webern, Edgard Varèse, Arnold Schoenberg, and Olivier Messiaen. Messiaen in particular was introduced to him by fellow composer Toshi Ichiyanagi, and remained a lifelong influence. Although Takemitsu's wartime experiences of nationalism initially discouraged him from cultivating an interest in traditional Japanese music, he showed an early interest in "... the Japanese Garden in color spacing and form ...". The formal garden of the kaiyu-shiki interested him in particular.
He expressed his unusual stance toward compositional theory early on, his lack of respect for the "trite rules of music, rules that are ... stifled by formulas and calculations"; for Takemitsu it was of far greater importance that "sounds have the freedom to breathe. ... Just as one cannot plan his life, neither can he plan music".
Takemitsu's sensitivity to instrumental and orchestral timbre can be heard throughout his work, and is often made apparent by the unusual instrumental combinations he specified. This is evident in works such as November Steps, that combine traditional Japanese instruments, shakuhachi and biwa, with a conventional Western orchestra. It may also be discerned in his works for ensembles that make no use of traditional instruments, for example Quotation of Dream (1991), Archipelago S., for 21 players (1993), and Arc I & II (1963–66/1976). In these works, the more conventional orchestral forces are divided into unconventional "groups". Even where these instrumental combinations were determined by the particular ensemble commissioning the work, "Takemitsu's genius for instrumentation (and genius it was, in my view) ...", in the words of Oliver Knussen, "... creates the illusion that the instrumental restrictions are self-imposed".
Influence of traditional Japanese music
Takemitsu summarized his initial aversion to Japanese (and all non-Western) traditional musical forms in his own words: "There may be folk music with strength and beauty, but I cannot be completely honest in this kind of music. I want a more active relationship to the present. (Folk music in a 'contemporary style' is nothing but a deception)." His dislike for the musical traditions of Japan in particular were intensified by his experiences of the war, during which Japanese music became associated with militaristic and nationalistic cultural ideals.
Nevertheless, Takemitsu incorporated some idiomatic elements of Japanese music in his very earliest works, perhaps unconsciously. One unpublished set of pieces, Kakehi ("Conduit"), written at the age of seventeen, incorporates the ryō, ritsu and insen scales throughout. When Takemitsu discovered that these "nationalist" elements had somehow found their way into his music, he was so alarmed that he later destroyed the works. Further examples can be seen for example in the quarter-tone glissandi of Masques I (for two flutes, 1959), which mirror the characteristic pitch bends of the shakuhachi, and for which he devised his own unique notation: a held note is tied to an enharmonic spelling of the same pitch class, with a portamento direction across the tie.
Other Japanese characteristics, including the further use of traditional pentatonic scales, continued to crop up elsewhere in his early works. In the opening bars of Litany, for Michael Vyner, a reconstruction from memory by Takemitsu of Lento in Due Movimenti (1950; the original score was lost), pentatonicism is clearly visible in the upper voice, which opens the work on an unaccompanied anacrusis. The pitches of the opening melody combine to form the constituent notes of the ascending form of the Japanese in scale.
When, from the early 1960s, Takemitsu began to "consciously apprehend" the sounds of traditional Japanese music, he found that his creative process, "the logic of my compositional thought[,] was torn apart", and nevertheless, "hogaku [traditional Japanese music ...] seized my heart and refuses to release it". In particular, Takemitsu perceived that, for example, the sound of a single stroke of the biwa or single pitch breathed through the shakuhachi, could "so transport our reason because they are of extreme complexity ... already complete in themselves". This fascination with the sounds produced in traditional Japanese music brought Takemitsu to his idea of ma (usually translated as the space between two objects), which ultimately informed his understanding of the intense quality of traditional Japanese music as a whole:
Just one sound can be complete in itself, for its complexity lies in the formulation of ma, an unquantifiable metaphysical space (duration) of dynamically tensed absence of sound. For example, in the performance of nō, the ma of sound and silence does not have an organic relation for the purpose of artistic expression. Rather, these two elements contrast sharply with one another in an immaterial balance.
In 1970, Takemitsu received a commission from the National Theatre of Japan to write a work for the gagaku ensemble of the Imperial Household; this was fulfilled in 1973, when he completed Shuteiga ("In an Autumn Garden", although he later incorporated the work, as the fourth movement, into his 50-minute-long "In an Autumn Garden—Complete Version"). As well as being "... the furthest removed from the West of any work he had written", While it introduces certain Western musical ideas to the Japanese court ensemble, the work represents the deepest of Takemitsu's investigations into Japanese musical tradition, the lasting effects of which are clearly reflected in his works for conventional Western ensemble formats that followed.
In Garden Rain (1974, for brass ensemble), the limited and pitch-specific harmonic vocabulary of the Japanese mouth organ, the shō (see ex. 3), and its specific timbres, are clearly emulated in Takemitsu's writing for brass instruments; even similarities of performance practice can be seen, (the players are often required to hold notes to the limit of their breath capacity). In A Flock Descends into the Pentagonal Garden, the characteristic timbres of the shō and its chords (several of which are simultaneous soundings of traditional Japanese pentatonic scales) are emulated in the opening held chords of the wind instruments (the first chord is in fact an exact transposition of the shō's chord, Jū (i); see ex. 3); meanwhile a solo oboe is assigned a melodic line that is similarly reminiscent of the lines played by the hichiriki in gagaku ensembles.
Influence of Messiaen
The influence of Olivier Messiaen on Takemitsu was already apparent in some of Takemitsu's earliest published works. By the time he composed Lento in Due Movimenti, (1950), Takemitsu had already come into possession of a copy of Messiaen's 8 Préludes (through Toshi Ichiyanagi), and the influence of Messiaen is clearly visible in the work, in the use of modes, the suspension of regular metre, and sensitivity to timbre. Throughout his career, Takemitsu often made use of modes from which he derived his musical material, both melodic and harmonic among which Messiaen's modes of limited transposition to appear with some frequency. In particular, the use of the octatonic, (mode II, or the 8–28 collection), and mode VI (8–25) is particularly common. However, Takemitsu pointed out that he had used the octatonic collection in his music before ever coming across it in Messiaen's music.
In 1975, Takemitsu met Messiaen in New York, and during "what was to be a one-hour 'lesson' [but which] lasted three hours ... Messiaen played his Quartet for the End of Time for Takemitsu at the piano", which, Takemitsu recalled, was like listening to an orchestral performance. Takemitsu responded to this with his homage to the French composer, Quatrain, for which he asked Messiaen's permission to use the same instrumental combination for the main quartet, cello, violin, clarinet and piano (which is accompanied by orchestra). As well as the obvious similarity of instrumentation, Takemitsu employs several melodic figures that appear to "mimic" certain musical examples given by Messiaen in his Technique de mon langage musical, (see ex. 4). In 1977, Takemitsu reworked Quatrain for quartet alone, without orchestra, and titled the new work Quatrain II.
On hearing of Messiaen's death in 1992, Takemitsu was interviewed by telephone, and still in shock, "blurted out, 'His death leaves a crisis in contemporary music!'" Then later, in an obituary written for the French composer in the same year, Takemitsu further expressed his sense of loss at Messiaen's death: "Truly, he was my spiritual mentor ... Among the many things I learned from his music, the concept and experience of color and the form of time will be unforgettable." The composition Rain Tree Sketch II, which was to be Takemitsu's final piano piece, was also written that year and subtitled "In Memoriam Olivier Messiaen".
Influence of Debussy
Takemitsu frequently expressed his indebtedness to Claude Debussy, referring to the French composer as his "great mentor". As Arnold Whittall puts it:
Given the enthusiasm for the exotic and the Orient in these [Debussy and Messiaen] and other French composers, it is understandable that Takemitsu should have been attracted to the expressive and formal qualities of music in which flexibility of rhythm and richness of harmony count for so much.
For Takemitsu, Debussy's "greatest contribution was his unique orchestration which emphasizes colour, light and shadow ... the orchestration of Debussy has many musical focuses." He was fully aware of Debussy's own interest in Japanese art, (the cover of the first edition of La mer, for example, was famously adorned by Hokusai's The Great Wave off Kanagawa). For Takemitsu, this interest in Japanese culture, combined with his unique personality, and perhaps most importantly, his lineage as a composer of the French musical tradition running from Rameau and Lully through Berlioz in which colour is given special attention, gave Debussy his unique style and sense of orchestration.
During the composition of Green (November Steps II, for orchestra, 1967: "steeped in the sound-color world of the orchestral music of Claude Debussy") Takemitsu said he had taken the scores of Debussy's Prélude à l'Après-midi d'un Faune and Jeux to the mountain villa where both this work and November Steps I were composed. For Oliver Knussen, "the final appearance of the main theme irresistibly prompts the thought that Takemitsu may, quite unconsciously, have been attempting a latter-day Japanese Après-midi d'un Faune". Details of orchestration in Green, such as the prominent use of antique cymbals, and tremolandi harmonies in the strings, clearly point to the influence of Takemitsu's compositional mentor, and of these works in particular.
In Quotation of Dream (1991), direct quotations from Debussy's La Mer and Takemitsu's earlier works relating to the sea are incorporated into the musical flow ("stylistic jolts were not intended"), depicting the landscape outside the Japanese garden of his own music.
Motives
Several recurring musical motives can be heard in Takemitsu's works. In particular the pitch motive E♭–E–A can be heard in many of his later works, whose titles refer to water in some form (Toward the Sea, 1981; Rain Tree Sketch, 1982; I Hear the Water Dreaming, 1987).
When spelt in German (Es–E–A), the motive can be seen as a musical "transliteration" of the word "sea". Takemitsu used this motive (usually transposed) to indicate the presence of water in his "musical landscapes", even in works whose titles do not directly refer to water, such as A Flock Descends into the Pentagonal Garden (1977; see ex. 5).
Musique concrète
During Takemitsu's years as a member of the Jikken Kōbō, he experimented with compositions of musique concrète (and a very limited amount of electronic music, the most notable example being Stanza II for harp and tape written later in 1972). In Water Music (1960), Takemitsu's source material consisted entirely of sounds produced by droplets of water. His manipulation of these sounds, through the use of highly percussive envelopes, often results in a resemblance to traditional Japanese instruments, such as the tsuzumi and nō ensembles.
Aleatory techniques
One aspect of John Cage's compositional procedure that Takemitsu continued to use throughout his career, was the use of indeterminacy, in which performers are given a degree of choice in what to perform. As mentioned previously, this was particularly used in works such as November Steps, in which musicians playing traditional Japanese instruments were able to play in an orchestral setting with a certain degree of improvisational freedom.
However, he also employed a technique that is sometimes called "aleatory counterpoint" in his well-known orchestral work A Flock Descends Into the Pentagonal Garden (1977, at [J] in the score), and in the score of Arc II: i Textures (1964) for piano and orchestra, in which sections of the orchestra are divided into groups, and required to repeat short passages of music at will. In these passages the overall sequence of events is, however, controlled by the conductor, who is instructed about the approximate durations for each section, and who indicates to the orchestra when to move from one section to next. The technique is commonly found in the work of Witold Lutosławski, who pioneered it in his Jeux vénitiens.
Film music
Takemitsu's contribution to film music was considerable; in under 40 years he composed music for over 100 films, some of which were written for purely financial reasons (such as those written for Noboru Nakamura). However, as the composer attained financial independence, he grew more selective, often reading whole scripts before agreeing to compose the music, and later surveying the action on set, "breathing the atmosphere" whilst conceiving his musical ideas.
One notable consideration in Takemitsu's composition for film was his careful use of silence (also important in many of his concert works), which often immediately intensifies the events on screen, and prevents any monotony through a continuous musical accompaniment. For the first battle scene of Akira Kurosawa's Ran, Takemitsu provided an extended passage of intense elegiac quality that halts at the sound of a single gunshot, leaving the audience with the pure "sounds of battle: cries screams and neighing horses".
Takemitsu attached the greatest importance to the director's conception of the film; in an interview with Max Tessier, he explained that, "everything depends on the film itself ... I try to concentrate as much as possible on the subject, so that I can express what the director feels himself. I try to extend his feelings with my music."
Legacy
In a memorial issue of Contemporary Music Review, Jō Kondō wrote, "Needless to say, Takemitsu is among the most important composers in Japanese music history. He was also the first Japanese composer fully recognized in the west, and remained the guiding light for the younger generations of Japanese composers."
Composer Peter Lieberson shared the following in his program note to The Ocean that has no East and West, written in memory of Takemitsu: "I spent the most time with Toru in Tokyo when I was invited to be a guest composer at his Music Today Festival in 1987. Peter Serkin and composer Oliver Knussen were also there, as was cellist Fred Sherry. Though he was the senior of our group by many years, Toru stayed up with us every night and literally drank us under the table. I was confirmed in my impression of Toru as a person who lived his life like a traditional Zen poet."
In the foreword to a selection of Takemitsu's writings in English, conductor Seiji Ozawa writes: "I am very proud of my friend Toru Takemitsu. He is the first Japanese composer to write for a world audience and achieve international recognition."
Awards and honours
Takemitsu won awards for composition, both in Japan and abroad, including the Prix Italia for his orchestral work Tableau noir in 1958, the Otaka Prize in 1976 and 1981, the Los Angeles Film Critics Award in 1987 (for the film score Ran) and the University of Louisville Grawemeyer Award for Music Composition in 1994 (for Fantasma/Cantos). In Japan, he received the Film Awards of the Japanese Academy for outstanding achievement in music, for soundtracks to the following films:
1979
1985 Fire Festival (film)
1986
1990
1996
He was also invited to attend numerous international festivals throughout his career, and presented lectures and talks at academic institutions across the world. He was made an honorary member of the Akademie der Künste of the DDR in 1979, and the American Institute of Arts and Letters in 1985. He was admitted to the French Ordre des Arts et des Lettres in 1985, and the Académie des Beaux-Arts in 1986. He was the recipient of the 22nd Suntory Music Award (1990). Posthumously, Takemitsu received an Honorary Doctorate from Columbia University early in 1996 and was awarded the fourth Glenn Gould Prize in fall 1996.
The Toru Takemitsu Composition Award, intended to "encourage a younger generation of composers who will shape the coming age through their new musical works", is named after him.
Literary works
Takemitsu, Tōru, with Cronin, Tania and Tann, Hilary, "Afterword", Perspectives of New Music, vol. 27, no. 2 (Summer, 1989), 205–214, (subscription access)
Takemitsu, Tōru, (trans. Adachi, Sumi with Reynolds, Roger), "Mirrors", Perspectives of New Music, vol. 30, no. 1 (Winter, 1992), 36–80, (subscription access)
Takemitsu, Tōru, (trans. Hugh de Ferranti) "One Sound", Contemporary Music Review, vol. 8, part 2, (Harwood, 1994), 3–4, (subscription access)
Takemitsu, Tōru, "Contemporary Music in Japan", Perspectives of New Music, vol. 27, no. 2 (Summer, 1989), 198–204 (subscription access)
Notes and references
Sources
General references
Further reading
External links
Toru Takemitsu: Complete Works
Slate article focusing on his film music
Interview with Toru Takemitsu
Interview with Tōru Takemitsu, March 6, 1990
1930 births
1996 deaths
20th-century classical composers
20th-century classical pianists
20th-century guitarists
20th-century Japanese composers
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Deaths from cancer in Japan
Deutsche Grammophon artists
Composers for the classical guitar
Composers for piano
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Electronic musicians
Georges Delerue Award winners
Glenn Gould Prize winners
International Rostrum of Composers prize-winners
Japanese classical composers
Japanese classical guitarists
Japanese classical pianists
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Japanese male classical pianists
Japanese male film score composers
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222569 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Robert%20Bloomfield | Robert Bloomfield | Robert Bloomfield (3 December 1766 – 19 August 1823) was an English labouring-class poet, whose work is appreciated in the context of other self-educated writers, such as Stephen Duck, Mary Collier and John Clare.
Life
Robert Bloomfield was born into a poor family in the village of Honington, Suffolk. His father was a tailor, who died of smallpox when his son was a year old. It was from his mother Elizabeth, who kept the village school, that he received the rudiments of education.
Bloomfield was apprenticed at the age of eleven to his mother's brother-in-law, and worked on a farm that was part of the estate of the Duke of Grafton, his future patron. Four years later, owing to his small and weak stature (in adulthood just five feet tall), he was sent to London to work as a shoemaker under his elder brother George. One of his early duties was to read the papers aloud while the others in the workshop were working, and he became particularly interested in the poetry section of The London Magazine. He had his first poem, "The Village Girl", published in 1786. When his brother George returned to Suffolk in that year, he set up on his own as a cobbler and in 1790 married Mary Ann Church, by whom he was to have five children.
The poem that made his reputation, The Farmer's Boy, was composed in a garret in Bell Alley, Coleman Street. It was influenced by James Thomson's poem The Seasons. Bloomfield was able to carry in his head some fifty to a hundred finished lines of it at a time, until an opportunity arose to write them down. The manuscript was declined by several publishers and was eventually shown by his brother George to Capel Lofft, a radical Suffolk squire of literary tastes, who arranged for its publication with woodcuts by Thomas Bewick in 1800.
The success of The Farmer's Boy was remarkable, over 25,000 copies being sold in the next two years. It was also reprinted in several American editions, appeared in German translation in Leipzig, in French as Le Valet du Fermier in Paris, and in Italian translation in Milan. There was even a Latin translation of parts of it – De Agricolae Puero, Anglicano Poemate celeberrimo excerptum, et in morem Latini Georgice redditum – made by the lively Suffolk vicar William Clubbe. The poem was particularly admired by the Suffolk-born painter John Constable, who used couplets from it as tags for two of his paintings: "A Ploughing Scene" (shown at the Royal Academy in 1814) and "A Harvest Field, Reapers, Gleaners" (shown at the British Institution in 1817), which he marked as derived from "Bloomfield's poem". It was also admired by Robert Southey, a Romantic poet and future poet laureate.
While this success helped to reduce his poverty for a while, it also took him away from his work. As a result, the Duke of Grafton, who lived at Euston Hall near the village of Bloomfield's birth, settled on him a small annuity of £15 and used influence to gain him employment in the Seal Office to the King's Bench Court and then at Somerset House, although he did not work for long at either. Meanwhile, Bloomfield's reputation was increased by the appearance of his Rural Tales (1802), several poems of which were set to music by his brother Isaac. Another of them, "The Miller's Maid", was turned into an opera in 1804 by John Davy (1763–1824) and formed the basis for a two-act melodrama by John Faucit Saville in 1821. Other publications by Bloomfield included Good Tidings (in praise of inoculation at the instigation of Edward Jenner, 1804); Wild Flowers or Pastoral and Local Poetry (1806); and The Banks of the Wye (a poetic journal of a walking tour taken in the footsteps of Wordsworth, 1811).
Unfortunately Vernor and Hood, his publishers, failed, and in 1812 Bloomfield had to move from London into a cottage rented to him by a friend in the Bedfordshire village of Shefford. There one of his daughters died in 1814 and his wife became insane. To support himself, he tried to carry on a business as a bookseller but it failed, and in his later years he was reduced to making Aeolian harps, which he sold among his friends. With failing eyesight and his own reason threatened by depression, he died in great poverty on 19 August 1823. His collection of books and manuscripts, and his household effects, had to be auctioned to pay his debts and cover the funeral expenses. To assist in that fund-raising came the publication in that year of his drama, Hazlewood Hall, and in the following year of The Remains of Robert Bloomfield, which included writing for children, on which he had been working for some years, and a selection of his correspondence.
Robert Bloomfield is buried in the churchyard of the Church of All Saints in nearby Campton, Bedfordshire.
Poetry
Bloomfield's poetry invites comparison with that of George Crabbe, who was also a native of Suffolk. Both wrote much in couplets of iambic pentameters, and both provide descriptions of rural life at its hardest and least inviting. Bloomfield, however, is more cheerful in tone and his verse is denser and more vigorous. Here, for instance, is the episode in "The Farmer's Boy" where Giles chops up turnips to feed to the livestock in winter:
On GILES, and such as Giles, the labour falls,
To strew the frequent load where hunger calls.
On driving gales sharp hail indignant flies,
And sleet, more irksome still, assails his eyes;
Snow clogs his feet; or if no snow is seen,
The field with all its juicy store to screen,
Deep goes the frost, till every root is found
A rolling mass of ice upon the ground.
No tender ewe can break her nightly fast,
Nor heifer strong begin the cold repast,
Till Giles with pond'rous beetle foremost go,
And scatt'ring splinters fly at every blow;
When pressing round him, eager for the prize,
From their mixt breath warm exhalations rise.
However, such verse varies little from the work of many of Bloomfield's contemporaries, such as James Montgomery and Ebenezer Elliot, whose names, like his, were well known in their time but are scarcely remembered now. Besides such formal productions, he told many light-hearted stories in octosyllabics, some of which are incidentally interesting for their employment of Suffolk dialect words, particularly in "The Horkey". His work served as an inspiration to John Clare, who began publishing his own rural poetry in 1820 and praised Bloomfield's highly.
Robert's brother, Nathaniel, also published a collection of poetry in 1803, An Essay on War, in Blank Verse, and Other Poems. Byron commented on the brothers in English Bards and Scotch Reviewers (lines 775–786), linking Robert's name favourably with other poets of humble beginnings such as Burns and Gifford, but dismissing Nathaniel's writing as routine and uninspired. Byron returned to the charge in Hints from Horace with the apostrophe:
Hark to those lines, narcotically soft,
The cobbler-laureats sing to Capel Lofft! (lines 733–734)
Although a note makes it clear that Nathaniel is his principal target, he also seems to include his "brother Bobby" in the accusation that Lofft "has spoiled some excellent shoemakers and been accessory to the poetic undoing of many of the industrious poor."
Later reputation
The Robert Bloomfield Masonic lodge No 8328 was founded in 1971 at Biggleswade Masonic Centre, where it continues to meet. Shefford's secondary school, later a middle school (for pupils aged 9–13), was named after the poet. In 2000 the Robert Bloomfield Society was founded to promote awareness of his life and work and has encouraged scholarly publications relating to him. A revised and enlarged selection of his poems was published by Trent Editions in 2007. Recent studies see his poetry in its social as well as its literary context.
References
External links
Robert Bloomfield at the Eighteenth-Century Poetry Archive (ECPA)]
Birkett Foster’s 1857 edition of the complete poems
The Banks of Wye, an electronic edition edited by Tim Fulford
1766 births
1823 deaths
People from the Borough of St Edmundsbury
English male poets
People from Shefford, Bedfordshire | [
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222572 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Princess%20Edward | Princess Edward | Princess Edward may refer to:
Princess Victoria of Saxe-Coburg-Saalfeld (1786–1861), The Princess Edward, Duchess of Kent
Katharine, Duchess of Kent (born 1933), Princess Edward, Duchess of Kent
Sophie, Countess of Wessex (born 1965), The Princess Edward, Countess of Wessex | [
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222573 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Voxel | Voxel | In 3D computer graphics, a voxel represents a value on a regular grid in three-dimensional space. As with pixels in a 2D bitmap, voxels themselves do not typically have their position (i.e. coordinates) explicitly encoded with their values. Instead, rendering systems infer the position of a voxel based upon its position relative to other voxels (i.e., its position in the data structure that makes up a single volumetric image).
In contrast to pixels and voxels, polygons are often explicitly represented by the coordinates of their vertices (as points). A direct consequence of this difference is that polygons can efficiently represent simple 3D structures with much empty or homogeneously filled space, while voxels excel at representing regularly sampled spaces that are non-homogeneously filled.
Voxels are frequently used in the visualization and analysis of medical and scientific data (e.g. geographic information systems (GIS)). Some volumetric displays use voxels to describe their resolution. For example, a cubic volumetric display might be able to show 512×512×512 (or about 134 million) voxels.
One of the definitions is: "Voxel is an image of a three-dimensional space region limited by given sizes, which has its own nodal point coordinates in an accepted coordinate system, its own form, its own state parameter that indicates its belonging to some modeled object, and has properties of modeled region." This definition has the following advantage. If fixed voxel form is used within the whole model it is much easier to operate with voxel nodal points, i.e. three coordinates of this point. Yet, there is the simple form of record – indexes of the elements in the model set, i.e. integer coordinates. Model set elements in this case are state parameters, indicating voxel belonging to the modeled object or its separate parts, including their surfaces.
Etymology
The word voxel originated analogously to the word "pixel", with vo representing "volume" (instead of pixel's "picture") and el representing "element"; a similar formation with el for "element" is the word "texel".
Rendering
A volume described as voxels can be visualized either by direct volume rendering or by the extraction of polygon iso-surfaces that follow the contours of given threshold values. The marching cubes algorithm is often used for isosurface extraction, however other methods exist as well.
Both ray-tracing and ray-casting, as well as rasterisation, can be applied to voxel data to obtain 2D raster graphics to depict on a monitor.
Incremental error rasterisation
Another technique for voxels involves raster graphics where one simply raytraces every pixel of the display into the scene, tracking an error term to determine when to step. A typical implementation will raytrace each pixel of the display starting at the bottom of the screen using what is known as a y-buffer. When a voxel is reached that has a higher y value on the display it is added to the y-buffer overriding the previous value and connected with the previous y-value on the screen interpolating the color values. There is a major downside to voxel rasterization when transformation is applied which causes severe aliasing. The advantage was the ability to rasterise using cheap integer calculations on a CPU without hardware acceleration.
Outcast, and other 1990s video games employed this graphics technique for effects such as reflection and bump-mapping and usually for terrain rendering. Outcast'''s graphics engine was mainly a combination of a ray casting (heightmap) engine, used to render the landscape, and a texture mapping polygon engine used to render objects. The "Engine Programming" section of the games credits in the manual has several subsections related to graphics, among them: "Landscape Engine", "Polygon Engine", "Water & Shadows Engine" and "Special effects Engine". Although Outcast is often cited as a forerunner of voxel technology, this is somewhat misleading. The game does not actually model three-dimensional volumes of voxels. Instead, it models the ground as a surface, which may be seen as being made up of voxels. The ground is decorated with objects that are modeled using texture-mapped polygons. When Outcast was developed, the term "voxel engine", when applied to computer games, commonly referred to a ray casting engine (for example the VoxelSpace engine). On the engine technology page of the game's website, the landscape engine is also referred to as the "Voxels engine". The engine is purely software-based; it does not rely on hardware-acceleration via a 3D graphics card.
John Carmack also experimented with Voxels for the Quake III engine. One such problem cited by Carmack was the lack of graphics cards designed specifically for such rendering requiring them to be software rendered.
Comanche was also the first commercial flight simulation based on voxel technology. NovaLogic used the proprietary Voxel Space engine developed for the company by Kyle Freeman (written entirely in Assembly language) to create open landscapes. This rendering technique allowed for much more detailed and realistic terrain compared to simulations based on vector graphics at that time.
Gallery
Data
A voxel represents a single sample, or data point, on a regularly spaced, three-dimensional grid. This data point can consist of a single piece of data, such as an opacity, or multiple pieces of data, such as a color in addition to opacity. A voxel represents only a single point on this grid, not a volume; the space between each voxel is not represented in a voxel-based dataset. Depending on the type of data and the intended use for the dataset, this missing information may be reconstructed and/or approximated, e.g. via interpolation.
The value of a voxel may represent various properties. In CT scans, the values are Hounsfield units, giving the opacity of material to X-rays. Different types of value are acquired from MRI or ultrasound.
Voxels can contain multiple scalar values, essentially vector (tensor) data; in the case of ultrasound scans with B-mode and Doppler data, density, and volumetric flow rate are captured as separate channels of data relating to the same voxel positions.
While voxels provide the benefit of precision and depth of reality, they are typically large data sets and are unwieldy to manage given the bandwidth of common computers. However, through efficient compression and manipulation of large data files, interactive visualization can be enabled on consumer market computers.
Other values may be useful for immediate 3D rendering, such as a surface normal vector and color.
Technologies to extend voxels into 4 and 5 dimensions of data are under investigation.
Uses
Common uses of voxels include volumetric imaging in medicine and representation of terrain in games and simulations. Voxel terrain is used instead of a heightmap because of its ability to represent overhangs, caves, arches, and other 3D terrain features. These concave features cannot be represented in a heightmap due to only the top 'layer' of data being represented, leaving everything below it filled (the volume that would otherwise be the inside of the caves, or the underside of arches or overhangs).
Computer games
3D Dot Game Heroes uses voxels to present retro-looking graphics.
7 Days to Die is a voxel-based open world survival horror game developed by The Fun Pimps Entertainment.
Ace of Spades used Ken Silverman's Voxlap engine before being rewritten in a bespoke OpenGL engine.
Amok uses voxels for its environments.
Armored Fist 3 is a computer game made by Novalogic that used voxel-based rendering technology.
Blade Runner is a video game that used voxels to render characters and artifacts.Castle Story, a castle building Real Time Strategy game in development, has terrain consisting of smoothed voxels
Comanche series, a series of computer games made by NovaLogic that used the Voxel Space voxel rasterization for terrain rendering.
Command & Conquer: Tiberian Sun, Command & Conquer: Red Alert 2 and Command & Conquer: Yuri's Revenge are computer games made by Westwood Studios that used voxels to render most vehicles.
Crysis, as well as Cryengine 2 and Cryengine 3, use a combination of heightmaps and voxels for their terrain systems.
Cube World, an action role-playing game, features procedurally generated voxel landscapes.Delta Force is a computer game made by Novalogic that used the in-house Voxel Space rendering engine.
Dual Universe is a single-shard universe MMORPG game that uses voxels to build spaceships, civilizations, and space stations.
EverQuest Next and EverQuest Next: Landmark, cancelled MMORPGs by Sony Online Entertainment, make extensive use of voxels for world creation as well as player generated contentHexplore, a multi-player role playing game, uses a voxel engine allowing the player to rotate the isometric rendered playfield.
Hytale is a RPG Sandbox voxel-based game which gets developed by Hypixel Studios and gets funded by Riot Games, release date is set to 2023 at earliest.
Master of Orion III uses voxel graphics to render space battles and solar systems. Battles displaying 1000 ships at a time were rendered slowly on computers without hardware graphic acceleration.
Medieval Engineers is the second voxel-based engineering game by Keen Software House inspired from medieval technology.
Minecraft is a sandbox video game that uses voxels to store terrain data, but does not use voxel rendering techniques. Instead it uses polygon rendering to display each voxel as a cubic "block".
Miner Wars 2081 is a 6DOF open world game made by Keen Software House that uses its own VRage voxel rendering engine to let the user deform the terrain of asteroids allowing tunnels to be formed.
No Man's Sky is a space exploration game consisting of procedurally generated star systems containing explorable planets, moons and asteroids made up of voxels. The voxel engine allows for both terrain destruction and creation.
Outcast, is a third-person action computer game made by former Belgian video game developer Appeal, with landscapes rendered by a voxel engine.
Phase Zero is a 2002 unreleased action-shooter video game for Atari Jaguar, with landscapes redered by the engine Voxel Space.
Planet Coaster is a 2016 construction and management simulation developed and published by Frontier Developments which uses a voxel-based terrain editor.Resogun is a 2013 voxel-based side-scrolling shoot 'em up video game developed by Finnish developer Housemarque.
Roblox uses voxels for terrain.
Robocraft, a vehicular combat game in which players build combat machines out of voxels and premade components
ScrumbleShip, a block-building MMO space simulator game in development (as of 2017), renders each in-game component and damage to those components using dozens to thousands of voxels.
Shadow Warrior and Blood use Build engine for first-person shooter game voxel rendering, instead of sprites, as an option for many of the items pickups and scenery. Duke Nukem 3D has a fan-created pack in a similar style.
Shattered Steel featured deforming landscapes using voxel technology.
Sid Meier's Alpha Centauri uses voxel models to render units.
SkySaga: Infinite Isles is a voxel-based sandbox MMORPG, being developed by Radiant Worlds and published by Smilegate.
Space Engineers is a voxel-based sandbox game set in space, developed and published by Keen Software House
StarMade, a voxel-based sandbox game set in space, developed and published by Robin "Schema" Promesberger.Teardown, a voxel-based game featuring fully destructible environments, developed and published by the studio Tuxedo Labs
The Sandbox Trove is a voxel-based MMORPG with building elements, developed and published by Trion Worlds.
Vangers is a computer game uses voxels for its two-level terrain system.
Vox, released in 2012, is a voxel based exploration/RPG game focused on player generated content.Voxatron, a computer game produced by Lexaloffle, is composed and generated fully using voxels.
Voxelstein 3D is a FPS that renders a fully-destructible level with enemies (also fully-destructible) with only voxels.
Werewolf is a computer game made by Novalogic that used voxel-based rendering technology. It was originally bundled and shipped with the Comanche 2 game although they were two separate games.
Worms 4: Mayhem uses a voxel-based engine to simulate land deformation similar to the older 2D Worms games.
Minetest uses them for rendering nodes
Editors
While scientific volume visualization does not require modifying the actual voxel data, voxel editors can be used to create art (especially 3D pixel art) and models for voxel based games. Some editors are focused on a single approach to voxel editing while others mix various approaches. Some common approaches are:
Slice based: The volume is sliced in one or more axes and the user can edit each image individually using 2D raster editor tools. These generally store color information in voxels.
Sculpture: Similar to the vector counterpart but with no topology constraints. These usually store density information in voxels and lack color information.
Building blocks: The user can add and remove blocks just like a construction set toy.
There are a few voxel editors available that are not tied to specific games or engines. They can be used as alternatives or complements to traditional 3D vector modeling.
Extensions
A generalization of a voxel is the toxel'', or temporal voxel. This is used in the case of a 4D dataset, for example, an image sequence that represents 3D space together with another dimension such as time. In this way, an image could contain 100×100×100×100 toxels, which could be seen as a series of 100 frames of a 100×100×100 volume image (the equivalent for a 3D image would be showing a 2D cross section of the image in each frame). Although storage and manipulation of such data requires large amounts of memory, it allows the representation and analysis of spacetime systems.
See also
Maxel – material element
Pixel – picture element
Resel – resolution element
Sparse voxel octree
Texel – texture element
Tixel - tactile element
Tomography
Volume mesh
Volume rendering
References
External links
Fundamentals of voxelization "Archived"
3D computer graphics
3D imaging
Articles containing video clips
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222574 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Capel%20Lofft | Capel Lofft | Capel Lofft (sometimes spelled Capell; 14 November 1751 – 26 May 1824) was a British lawyer, writer and amateur astronomer.
Life
Born in London, he was educated at Eton College, Peterhouse, Cambridge. He trained as a lawyer at Lincoln's Inn, where he was called to the bar (qualified as a barrister) in 1775. In addition to his legal practice, he became a prolific writer on the law and political topics. In politics, he was an advocate of parliamentary and other reforms, identifying with the Foxite Whig faction. He also engaged in voluminous correspondence with prominent authors.
His legal career was ended by a case in Stanton, Suffolk. On the night of 3 October 1799, Sarah Lloyd, a 22 year old servant, was incited by a suitor to steal 40 shillings. She was caught, tried, and sentenced to death by hanging. Capel Lofft fought strenuously but unsuccessfully for a reprieve. Lloyd was to be executed on 23 April 1800 in Bury St Edmunds. Lofft accompanied the cart transporting Lloyd on that morning, holding an umbrella over Lloyd to shield her from rain, and remained by her side until she was hanged. The authorities took a dim view of Lofft's fight on Lloyd's behalf, and he was struck off the Roll (list of qualified lawyers).
Lofft wrote the preface to poet and former Quaker Thomas 'Clio' Rickman's An Ode, in Celebration of the Emancipation Of The Blacks of Saint Domingo, November 29, 1803. He commended Toussaint Louverture - "of whom Posterity will know how to speak" - and hoped that "a Nation [Haiti] which has emerged into Freedom should prove itself capable and worthy of the blessings [sic] by its use of it". He became the patron of Robert Bloomfield, the author of The Farmer's Boy, and was responsible for the publication of that work. Byron, in a note to his English Bards and Scotch Reviewers, ridiculed Lofft as "the Maecenas of shoemakers and preface-writer general to distressed versemen; a kind of gratis accoucheur to those who wish to be delivered of rhyme, but do not know how to bring forth."
Lofft had an interest in astronomy and is known to have observed several transits and eclipses. These include the transits of Mercury on 7 May 1799 and 9 November 1802, the solar eclipses on 16 June 1806 and 19 November 1816, and the lunar eclipses on 4 December 1797 and 10 June 1816.
The deaths of Lofft's father and uncle in 1811 left him with a large property and family estate. A supporter of Napoleon, he wrote letters to the editor of the Morning Chronicle (31 July and 10 August 1815) opposing the Government's decision to send Napoleon to St Helena. Lofft attempted to serve a writ of habeas corpus (a legal instrument against wrongful imprisonment) while the captive Napoleon was being held aboard a ship in Plymouth.
In 1816 Lofft moved to Europe for his daughters' education. He died in 1824 at Montcalieri, near Turin.
Family
Lofft married Anne, daughter of Henry Emlyn, in 1778. Their fourth son Capell Lofft the younger (1806–1873), was also a writer.
References
1751 births
1824 deaths
Alumni of Peterhouse, Cambridge
People educated at Eton College
English abolitionists | [
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222578 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Parque%20de%20las%20Ciencias | Parque de las Ciencias | Parque de las Ciencias Luis A. Ferré is an educational and recreational park located in Bayamón, Puerto Rico focused on science-related exhibitions. It is one of multiple touristic attractions inaugurated under the leadership of longtime mayor Ramon Luis Rivera and is named in honor of former Governor of Puerto Rico Luis A. Ferré. The park closed for renovations on February, 2011. It reopened on January 10, 2016 after renovations at the cost of eleven million dollars.
Park features
Some of the main features of the park are a natural observatory set on a hill at 285 feet (87m) above sea level, a zoo, and an artificial lake. It also features exhibitions of archaeology, space exploration, transportation, science and health, among many others.
The park also includes parks dedicated to late comedian José Miguel Agrelot and child entertainer Joaquín Monserrat ("Pacheco").
The park occupies and connects with several main highways.
As of January 2016, the prices are:
Adults: $10
Kids (2-12): $8
Elderly (65+): $5
People with disabilities: $5
Some attractions such as the Mini Golf, Bungee Trampoline, Cups, Carousel, and Human Gyroscope have additional costs.
Gallery
See also
Tourism in Puerto Rico
Bayamón, Puerto Rico
References
External links
Parque de las Ciencias at the Bayamón website.
Article about the park
TripAdvisor reviews of the park
Science museums in Puerto Rico
Transport museums in Puerto Rico
Museums in Bayamón, Puerto Rico | [
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222579 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISO%203166-2%3AUS | ISO 3166-2:US | ISO 3166-2:US is the entry for the United States in ISO 3166-2, part of the ISO 3166 standard published by the International Organization for Standardization (ISO), which defines codes for the names of the principal subdivisions (e.g., provinces or states) of all countries coded in ISO 3166-1.
Currently for the United States, ISO 3166-2 codes are defined for the following subdivisions:
50 states
1 district (i.e., the District of Columbia, the capital of the country, also known as Washington DC)
6 outlying areas (including the United States Minor Outlying Islands, a collection of nine islands or groups of islands)
Each code consists of two parts, separated by a hyphen. The first part is , the ISO 3166-1 alpha-2 code of the United States. The second part is two letters, which is the postal abbreviation of the state, district, or outlying area, except the United States Minor Outlying Islands which do not have a postal abbreviation.
Current codes
Subdivision names are listed as in the ISO 3166-2 standard published by the ISO 3166 Maintenance Agency (ISO 3166/MA).
Click on the button in the header to sort each column.
Subdivisions included in ISO 3166-1
Besides being included as subdivisions of the United States in ISO 3166-2, the outlying areas are also officially assigned their own country codes in ISO 3166-1.
See also
FIPS region codes of United States
FIPS state codes of the United States
Political divisions of the United States
External links
ISO Online Browsing Platform: US
States of the United States, Statoids.com
2:US
Lists of subdivisions of the United States
Lists of United States abbreviations | [
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222581 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISO%203166-2%3ASE | ISO 3166-2:SE | ISO 3166-2:SE is the entry for Sweden in ISO 3166-2, part of the ISO 3166 standard published by the International Organization for Standardization (ISO), which defines codes for the names of the principal subdivisions (e.g., provinces or states) of all countries coded in ISO 3166-1.
Currently for Sweden, ISO 3166-2 codes are defined for 21 counties.
Each code consists of two parts, separated by a hyphen. The first part is , the ISO 3166-1 alpha-2 code of Sweden. The second part is one or two letters, which is the alphabetic code () of the county, and was used in vehicle registration plates until 1973.
Current codes
Subdivision names are listed as in the ISO 3166-2 standard published by the ISO 3166 Maintenance Agency (ISO 3166/MA).
In ISO 3166-2, the numeric code (länskod) of each county is shown for information purposes in square brackets after the name of the county. However, these alternative code elements are not official ISO 3166-2 codes, since this part of ISO 3166 does not allow for duplicate coding of identical subdivisions.
Subdivision names are sorted in Swedish alphabetical order: a-z, å, ä, ö.
Click on the button in the header to sort each column.
Counties
Changes
The following changes to the entry have been announced in newsletters by the ISO 3166/MA since the first publication of ISO 3166-2 in 1998:
See also
Subdivisions of Sweden
FIPS region codes of Sweden
NUTS codes of Sweden
External links
ISO Online Browsing Platform: SE
Counties of Sweden, Statoids.com
2:SE
ISO 3166-2
Sweden geography-related lists | [
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222583 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Adi%C3%B3s | Adiós | Adiós (Spanish, 'goodbye'), or Adios, may refer to:
Music
Albums
Adios (Böhse Onkelz album), 2004
Adiós (Flans album), 1990
Adiós (Glen Campbell album), the final album by Glen Campbell, 2017
Adios (KMFDM album), 1999
Adios: The Greatest Hits, the final album by Christian rock band Audio Adrenaline
Songs
"Adiós" (Ricky Martin song), 2014
"Adiós", a song by Don Omar
"Adios", a song composed by Enric Madriguera, performed instrumentally by Glenn Miller Orchestra, Billy May, and others
"Adios", a song by Everglow from their second single album Hush
"Adiós", a song by Glen Campbell from Adiós
"Adiós", a song by Gustavo Cerati from the album Ahí vamos
"Adiós", a song by Jesse & Joy from their studio album Electricidad
"Adiós", a song by Juan Gabriel from his studio album Siempre en Mi Mente
"Adiós", a song by Kany García from her eponymous album
"Adiós", a song by La Oreja de Van Gogh from their album Lo Que te Conté Mientras te Hacías la Dormida
"Adios", a song by Linda Ronstadt from Cry Like a Rainstorm, Howl Like the Wind
"Adios", a song by Migos from Y.R.N. (Young Rich Niggas)
"Adios", a song by Nellie McKay from the album Home Sweet Mobile Home
"Adiós", a song by Rammstein from the album Mutter
"Adiós", a song by RBD from their last studio album Para Olvidarte de Mí
"Adiós", a song by Sebastián Yatra
"Adiós", a song by Selena Gomez from the extended play Revelación
"Adios", a song by Twelve Foot Ninja from the album Outlier
Other uses
Adios (horse), a champion harness racing sire
Adiós, Navarre, a place in Spain
See also
Adieu (disambiguation)
Goodbye (disambiguation) | [
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222589 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISO%203166-2%3ANO | ISO 3166-2:NO | ISO is the entry for Norway in ISO 3166-2, part of the ISO 3166 standard published by the International Organization for Standardization (ISO), which defines codes for the names of the principal subdivisions (e.g., provinces or states) of all countries coded in ISO 3166-1.
Currently, for Norway, ISO 3166-2 codes are defined for the following subdivisions:
11 counties
2 arctic regions (i.e., Svalbard and Jan Mayen, territories in the Arctic region separated from metropolitan Norway)
Each code consists of two parts, separated by a hyphen. The first part is , the ISO 3166-1 alpha-2 code of Norway. The second part is two digits.
Collectively Svalbard and Jan Mayen is also assigned its own set of country codes in ISO 3166-1, with alpha-2 code .
Current codes
Subdivision names are listed as in the ISO standard published by the ISO 3166 Maintenance Agency (ISO 3166/MA).
Click on the button in the header to sort each column. Note that subdivision names will be sorted in Norwegian alphabetical order: a-z, æ, ø, å.
Changes
The following changes to the entry have been announced by the ISO 3166/MA since the first publication of ISO 3166-2 in 1998. ISO stopped issuing newsletters in 2013.
See also
Subdivisions of Norway
FIPS region codes of Norway
NUTS codes of Norway
References
External links
ISO Online Browsing Platform: NO
Counties of Norway, Statoids.com
2:NO
ISO 3166-2
Norway geography-related lists | [
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222590 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Army%20of%20the%20Potomac | Army of the Potomac | The Army of the Potomac was the principal Union Army in the Eastern Theater of the American Civil War. It was created in July 1861 shortly after the First Battle of Bull Run and was disbanded in June 1865 following the surrender of the Confederate Army of Northern Virginia in April.
History
The Army of the Potomac was created in 1861 but was then only the size of a corps (relative to the size of Union armies later in the war). Its nucleus was called the Army of Northeastern Virginia, under Brig. Gen. Irvin McDowell, and it was the army that fought (and lost) the war's first major battle, the First Battle of Bull Run. The arrival in Washington, D.C., of Maj. Gen. George B. McClellan dramatically changed the makeup of that army. McClellan's original assignment was to command the Division of the Potomac, which included the Department of Northeast Virginia under McDowell and the Department of Washington under Brig. Gen. Joseph K. Mansfield. On July 26, 1861, the Department of the Shenandoah, commanded by Maj. Gen. Nathaniel P. Banks, was merged with McClellan's departments and on that day, McClellan formed the Army of the Potomac, which was composed of all military forces in the former Departments of Northeastern Virginia, Washington, Pennsylvania, and the Shenandoah. The men under Banks's command became an infantry division in the Army of the Potomac. The army started with four corps, but these were divided during the Peninsula Campaign to produce two more. After the Second Battle of Bull Run, the Army of the Potomac absorbed the units that had served under Maj. Gen. John Pope.
It is a popular, but mistaken, belief that John Pope commanded the Army of the Potomac in the summer of 1862 after McClellan's unsuccessful Peninsula Campaign. On the contrary, Pope's army consisted of different units, and was named the Army of Virginia. During the time that the Army of Virginia existed, the Army of the Potomac was headquartered on the Virginia Peninsula, and then outside Washington, D.C., with McClellan still in command, although three corps of the Army of the Potomac were sent to northern Virginia and were under Pope's operational control during the Northern Virginia Campaign.
The Army of the Potomac underwent many structural changes during its existence. The army was divided by Ambrose Burnside into three grand divisions of two corps each with a Reserve composed of two more. Hooker abolished the grand divisions. Thereafter the individual corps, seven of which remained in Virginia, reported directly to army headquarters. Hooker also created a Cavalry Corps by combining units that previously had served as smaller formations. In late 1863, two corps were sent West, and— in 1864— the remaining five corps were recombined into three. Burnside's IX Corps, which accompanied the army at the start of Ulysses S. Grant's Overland Campaign, rejoined the army later. For more detail, see the section Corps below.
The Army of the Potomac fought in most of the Eastern Theater campaigns, primarily in (Eastern) Virginia, Maryland, and Pennsylvania. After the end of the war, it was disbanded on June 28, 1865, shortly following its participation in the Grand Review of the Armies.
The Army of the Potomac was also the name given to General P. G. T. Beauregard's Confederate army during the early stages of the war (namely, First Bull Run; thus, the losing Union Army ended up adopting the name of the winning Confederate army). However, the name was eventually changed to the Army of Northern Virginia, which became famous under General Robert E. Lee.
In 1869 the Society of the Army of the Potomac was formed as a veterans association. It had its last reunion in 1929.
Famous units
Because of its proximity to the large cities of the North, such as Washington, D.C., Philadelphia, and New York City, the Army of the Potomac received more contemporary media coverage than the other Union field armies. Such coverage produced fame for a number of this army's units. Individual brigades, such as the Irish Brigade, the Philadelphia Brigade, the First New Jersey Brigade, the Vermont Brigade, and the Iron Brigade, all became well known to the general public, both during the Civil War and afterward.
Corps
The army originally consisted of fifteen divisions, the Artillery Reserve and the Cavalry Command. Commanded by Edwin V. Sumner, William B. Franklin, Louis Blenker, Nathaniel P. Banks, Frederick W. Lander (Replaced by James Shields after Lander's death on the March 2, 1862, Silas Casey, Irvin McDowell, Fitz John Porter, Samuel P. Heintzelman, Don Carlos Buell (Replaced by Erasmus D. Keyes in November, 1861), William F. Smith, Joseph Hooker, John A. Dix, Charles P. Stone (Replaced by John Sedgwick in February, 1862), George A. McCall, George Stoneman (Replaced by Philip St. George Cooke in January, 1862) and Henry J. Hunt. Because this arrangement would be too hard to control in battle, President Lincoln issued an order on March 13, 1862, dividing the army into five corps headed by MG Irvin McDowell (I Corps; Franklin's Division: BG William B. Franklin, McCall's "Pennsylvania Reserves" Division: BG George A. McCall and McDowell's old Division under BG Rufus King.), BG Edwin V. Sumner (II Corps; Sumner's old Division under BG Israel B. Richardson, Sedgwick's Division: BG John Sedgwick and Blenker's Division: Louis Blenker.), BG Samuel P. Heintzelman (III Corps; Porter's Division: BG Fitz John Porter, Hooker's Division: BG Joseph Hooker and Heintzelman's old Division under BG Charles S. Hamilton), BG Erasmus D. Keyes (IV Corps; Keyes' old Division under BG Darius N. Couch, Smith's Division: BG William F. Smith and Casey's Division: BG Silas Casey), MG Nathaniel P. Banks (V Corps would later become the XII Corps; Banks' old Division under BG Alpheus S. Williams, Shield's Division: BG James Shields and a Cavalry Division under BG John P. Hatch). The five highest-ranking officers division commanders in the army, McClellan was not happy with this, as he had intended to wait until the army had been tested in battle before judging which generals were suitable for corps command.
After the Battle of Williamsburg on May 5, McClellan requested and obtained permission to create two additions corps; these became the V Corps, headed by BG Fitz-John Porter, and the VI Corps, headed by BG William B. Franklin, both personal favorites of his. After the Battle of Kernstown in the Valley on March 23, the administration became paranoid about "Stonewall" Jackson's activities there and the potential danger they posed to Washington D.C., and to McClellan's displeasure, detached Blenker's division from the II Corps and sent it to West Virginia to serve under John C. Fremont's command. McDowell's corps was detached as well and stationed in the Rappahannock area.
In June 1862, George McCall's division from McDowell's corps (the Pennsylvania Reserves Division) was sent down to the Peninsula and temporarily attached to the V Corps. In the Seven Days Battles, the V Corps was heavily engaged. The Pennsylvania Reserves, in particular, suffered heavy losses including its division commander, who was captured by the Confederates, and two of its three brigadiers (John F. Reynolds, also captured, and George Meade, who was wounded). The III Corps fought at Glendale, however, the rest of the army was not heavily engaged in the week-long fight aside from Slocum's division of the VI Corps, which was sent to reinforce the V Corps at Gaines Mill.
The Army of the Potomac remained on the Virginia Peninsula until August, when it was recalled back to Washington D.C. Keyes and one of the two IV Corps divisions were left behind permanently as part of the newly created Department of the James, while the other division, commanded by Brig. Gen Darius Couch was attached to the VI Corps.
During the Second Battle of Bull Run, the III and V Corps were temporarily attached to Pope's army; the former suffered major losses and was sent back to Washington to rest and refit afterward, so it did not participate in the Maryland Campaign. The V Corps attracted controversy during the battle when Fitz-John Porter failed to execute Pope's orders properly and attack Stonewall Jackson's flank despite his protests that James Longstreet's troops were blocking the way. Pope blamed the loss at Second Bull Run on Porter, who was court-martialed and spent much of his life attempting to get himself exonerated. Sigel's command, now redesignated the XI Corps, also spent the Maryland Campaign in Washington resting and refitting.
In the Maryland Campaign, the Army of the Potomac had six corps. These were the I Corps, commanded by Joe Hooker after Irvin McDowell was removed from command, the II Corps, commanded by Edwin Sumner, the V Corps, headed by Fitz-John Porter, the VI Corps, headed by William Franklin, the IX Corps, headed by Ambrose Burnside and formerly the Department of North Carolina, and the XII Corps, headed by Nathaniel Banks until September 12, and given to Joseph K. Mansfield just two days prior to Antietam, where he was killed in action.
At Antietam, the I and XII Corps were the first Union outfits to fight and both corps suffered enormous casualties (plus the loss of their commanders) so that they were down to near-division strength and their brigades at regimental strength after the battle was over. The II and IX Corps were also heavily engaged but the V and VI Corps largely stayed out of the battle.
When Burnside took over command of the army from McClellan in the fall, he formed the army into four Grand Divisions. The Right Grand Division was commanded by Edwin Sumner and comprised the II and XI Corps, the Center Grand Division, commanded by Joe Hooker, comprised the V and III Corps, and the Left Grand Division, commanded by William Franklin, comprised the VI and I Corps. In addition, the Reserve Grand Division, commanded by Franz Sigel, comprised the XI and XII Corps.
At Fredericksburg, the I Corps was commanded by John F. Reynolds, the II Corps by Darius Couch, the III Corps by George Stoneman, the V Corps by Daniel Butterfield, the VI Corps by William F. Smith, and the IX Corps by Orlando Willcox. The XI Corps was commanded by Franz Sigel and the XII Corps by Henry Slocum, however, neither corps was present at Fredericksburg, the former not arriving until after the battle was over, and the latter was stationed at Harper's Ferry.
Following Fredericksburg, Burnside was removed from command of the army and replaced by Joe Hooker. Hooker immediately abolished the Grand Divisions and also for the first time organized the cavalry into a proper corps led by George Stoneman instead of having them ineffectually scattered among infantry divisions. Burnside and his old IX Corps departed out to a command in the Western Theater. The I, II, and XII Corps retained the same commanders they had had during the Fredericksburg campaign, but the other corps got new commanders once again. Daniel Butterfield was chosen by Hooker as his new chief of staff and command of the V Corps went to George Meade. Daniel Sickles received command of the III Corps and Oliver Howard the XI Corps after Franz Sigel had resigned, refusing to serve under Hooker, his junior in rank. William Franklin also left the army for the same reason. Edwin Sumner, who was in his 60s and exhausted from campaigning, departed as well and died a few months later. William F. Smith resigned from command of the VI Corps, which was taken over by John Sedgwick. The I and V Corps were not significantly engaged during the Chancellorsville campaign.
During the Gettysburg Campaign, the army's existing organization was largely retained, but a number of brigades composed of short-term nine-month regiments departed as their enlistment terms expired. Darius Couch resigned from command of the II Corps after Chancellorsville, the corps going to Winfield Hancock. The Pennsylvania Reserves Division, having spent several months in Washington D.C. resting and refitting from the 1862 campaigns, returned to the army, but was added to the V Corps rather than rejoining the I Corps. George Stoneman had been removed from command of the cavalry corps by Hooker after a poor performance during the Chancellorsville campaign and replaced by Alfred Pleasanton.
George Meade was suddenly appointed the commander of the army on June 28, a mere three days before the battle of Gettysburg. At the battle, the I, II, and III Corps suffered such severe losses that they were almost nonfunctional as fighting units at the end. One corps commander (Reynolds) was killed, another (Sickles) lost a leg and was permanently out of the war, and a third (Hancock) was badly wounded and never completely recovered from his injuries. The VI Corps had not been significantly engaged and was mostly used to plug up holes in the line during the battle.
For the remainder of the war, corps were added and subtracted from the army. IV Corps was broken up after the Peninsula Campaign, with its headquarters and 2nd Division left behind in Yorktown, while its 1st Division moved north, attached to the VI Corps, in the Maryland Campaign. Those parts of the IV Corps that remained on the Peninsula were reassigned to the Department of Virginia and disbanded on October 1, 1863. Those added to the Army of the Potomac were IX Corps, XI Corps (Sigel's I Corps in the former Army of Virginia), XII Corps (Banks's II Corps from the Army of Virginia), added in 1862; and the Cavalry Corps, created in 1863. Eight of these corps (seven infantry, one cavalry) served in the army during 1863, but due to attrition and transfers, the army was reorganized in March 1864 with only four corps: II, V, VI, and Cavalry. Of the original eight, I and III Corps were disbanded due to heavy casualties and their units combined into other corps. The XI and XII Corps were ordered to the West in late 1863 to support the Chattanooga Campaign, and while there were combined into the XX Corps, never returning to the East.
The IX Corps returned to the army in 1864, after being assigned to the West in 1863 and then served alongside, but not as part of, the Army of the Potomac from March to May 24, 1864. On that latter date, IX Corps was formally added to the Army of the Potomac. Two divisions of the Cavalry Corps have transferred in August 1864 to Maj. Gen. Philip Sheridan's Army of the Shenandoah, and the 2nd Division alone remained under Meade's command. On March 26, 1865, that division was also assigned to Sheridan for the closing campaigns of the war.
Commanders
Brigadier General Irvin McDowell: Commander of the Army and Department of Northeastern Virginia (May 27 – July 25, 1861)
Major General George B. McClellan: Commander of the Military Division of the Potomac, and later, the Army and Department of the Potomac (July 26, 1861 – November 9, 1862)
Major General Ambrose E. Burnside: Commander of the Army of the Potomac (November 9, 1862 – January 26, 1863)
Major General Joseph Hooker: Commander of the Army and Department of the Potomac (January 26 – June 28, 1863)
Major General George G. Meade: Commander of the Army of the Potomac† (June 28, 1863 – June 28, 1865)
†Major General John G. Parke took brief temporary command during Meade's absences on four occasions during this period)
Lt. Gen. Ulysses S. Grant, general-in-chief of all Union armies, located his headquarters with the Army of the Potomac and provided operational direction to Meade from May 1864 to April 1865, but Meade retained command of the Army of the Potomac.
Major battles and campaigns
First Bull Run Campaign or First Manassas: McDowell (as "Army of Northeastern Virginia")
Peninsula Campaign, including the Seven Days Battles: McClellan
Northern Virginia Campaign, including the Second Battle of Bull Run (I, XI, XII Corps participated under the control of the Army of Virginia)
Maryland Campaign, including the Battle of Antietam or Sharpsburg: McClellan
Fredericksburg Campaign: Burnside
Chancellorsville Campaign: Hooker
Gettysburg Campaign: Hooker/Meade (Meade appointed June 28, 1863)
Bristoe Campaign: Meade
Mine Run Campaign: Meade
Overland Campaign: Grant/Meade
Richmond–Petersburg Campaign, including the Battle of the Crater: Grant/Meade
Appomattox Campaign, including Lee's surrender at Appomattox Court House: Grant/Meade
Casualties breakdown
Below is the grand recapitulation of the losses sustained by the Army of the Potomac and the Army of the James, from May 5, 1864 to April 9, 1865, compiled in the Adjutant-General's Office, Washington:
Notes
References
Beatie, Russel H. Army of the Potomac: Birth of Command, November 1860 – September 1861. New York: Da Capo Press, 2002. .
Beatie, Russel H. Army of the Potomac: McClellan Takes Command, September 1861 – February 1862. New York: Da Capo Press, 2004. .
Beatie, Russel H. Army of the Potomac: McClellan's First Campaign, March – May 1862. New York: Savas Beatie, 2007. .
Eicher, John H., and Eicher, David J., Civil War High Commands, Stanford University Press, 2001, .
Welcher, Frank J. The Union Army, 1861–1865 Organization and Operations. Vol. 1, The Eastern Theater. Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1989. .
Further reading
Chamberlain, Joshua L. The Passing of the Armies: An Account of the Final Campaign of the Army of the Potomac. New York: Bantam Books, 1993. . First published in 1915 by G.P. Putnam's Sons.
Sears, Stephen W. Lincoln's Lieutenants: The High Command of the Army of the Potomac (Boston: Houghton Mifflin Harcourt, 2017), xii, 884 pp.
Taaffe, Stephen R. Commanding the Army of the Potomac. Lawrence: University of Kansas Press, 2006. .
External links
Army Organization during the Civil War
Potomac, Army of the
Military units and formations established in 1861
Military units and formations disestablished in 1865
Virginia in the American Civil War
1861 establishments in Virginia
1865 disestablishments in the United States | [
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222591 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kusel%20%28district%29 | Kusel (district) | Kusel () is a district (Kreis) in the south of Rhineland-Palatinate, Germany. Neighboring districts are (from north-west clockwise) Birkenfeld, Bad Kreuznach, Donnersbergkreis, Kaiserslautern, Saarpfalz and Sankt Wendel (the last two belonging to the state of Saarland).
History
The district of Kusel was created at the beginning of the 19th century. In 1939 it was renamed as Landkreis Kusel. The boundary was altered slightly as part of the communal reform of 1969/72 with some parts of the district of Birkenfeld being added to Kusel.
Geography
The district of Kusel lies in the North Palatine Uplands (Nordpfälzer Bergland), to the north of the industrial areas of the Saarland. The largest rivers are the Lauter (also called the Waldlauter, to distinguish it from other rivers in German-speaking Europe named Lauter) and the Glan.
Coat of arms
The German blazon reads: Gespalten: Vorne in Schwarz ein linksgewendeter, rot bewehrter goldener Löwe, hinten in Silber ein rot bewehrter, blauer Löwe.The district's arms might in English heraldic language be described thus: Per pale sable a lion rampant sinister Or armed and langued gules and argent a lion rampant azure armed and langued of the third.The two charges, both lions, are both heraldic devices borne by former lords, the one on the dexter (armsbearer's right, viewer's left) side by the Counts of Veldenz and the one on the sinister (armsbearer's left, viewer's right) side by Electoral Palatinate, which acquired the area in the 15th century. The arms were approved on 13 December 1965.
Towns and municipalities
References
External links
Official website (German)
Districts of Rhineland-Palatinate | [
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222596 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ram%C3%B3n%20Luis%20Rivera | Ramón Luis Rivera | Ramón Luis Rivera Rivera (born June 21, 1929) is a Puerto Rican politician affiliated with the New Progressive Party. He served as Mayor of Bayamón from 1977 until 2001.
Early life
Rivera was born in Aguas Buenas. Rivera began his primary studies in his hometown of Aguas Buenas, but completed high school at the Dr. Agustín Stahl High School in Bayamón. He then completed an Associate degree in Administration from the Metropolitan School of Commerce. Rivera served in the United States Army. From 1952 to 1954, he served during the Korean War. He was stationed in Germany until being honorably discharged. Rivera worked for 15 years for Merrill Lynch, Pierce, Fenner & Smith.
Political career
Rivera began his political career in 1968, when he was elected as member of the Municipal Assembly of Bayamón. In 1972, Rivera was elected to the House of Representatives of Puerto Rico representing District 6.
After one term as Representative, Rivera ran for Mayor at the 1976 general election. He defeated incumbent Manuel Aponte Borrero. His main concerns towards Bayamón were in the tourism and business industries. During his 24-year tenure, many buildings and other types of structures were inaugurated, including the Parque De Las Ciencias, the Parque del Trensito (which had, at the time it opened, Puerto Rico's only running train and a DC-3 plane formerly used by United Airlines), the city hall, which is a building that crosses over an avenue, the Ruben Rodriguez Coliseum, the Canton Mall, a small suspension bridge and many others. In addition, a large industrial park with such notable companies as 7UP and Wrangler also opened, in the area known as Lomas Verdes. 7UP has a bottling facility there.
Rivera was a member of the New Progressive Party (PNP). Rivera was the president of the New Progressive Party from 1988 until 1989. In 2000, he announced he would not run for mayor again, and his son, Ramón Luis Rivera Jr. was then elected as mayor. Rivera Jr. has held that position ever since. Rivera Sr. has since retired from public life.
See also
List of Puerto Ricans
Bayamón, Puerto Rico
Politics of Puerto Rico
External links
Ramón Luis Rivera Biography
Biography - in Spanish.
1929 births
Living people
People from Aguas Buenas, Puerto Rico
Mayors of Bayamón, Puerto Rico
New Progressive Party (Puerto Rico) politicians
New Progressive Party members of the House of Representatives of Puerto Rico
Presidents of the New Progressive Party (Puerto Rico)
Puerto Rican party leaders
Puerto Rican Roman Catholics
United States Army soldiers | [
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] |
222598 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISO%203166-2%3AJP | ISO 3166-2:JP | ISO 3166-2:JP is the entry for Japan in ISO 3166-2, part of the ISO 3166 standard published by the International Organization for Standardization (ISO), which defines codes for the names of the principal subdivisions (e.g. provinces or states) of all countries coded in ISO 3166-1.
Currently for Japan, ISO 3166-2 codes are defined for 47 prefectures.
Each code consists of two parts, separated by a hyphen. The first part is , the ISO 3166-1 alpha-2 code of Japan. The second part is two digits (01–47), which is the Japanese Industrial Standard JIS X 0401 code of the prefecture. The codes are assigned roughly from north to south.
Current codes
Subdivision names are listed as in the ISO 3166-2 standard published by the ISO 3166 Maintenance Agency (ISO 3166/MA).
See also
Administrative divisions of Japan
FIPS region codes of Japan
External links
ISO Online Browsing Platform: JP
Districts of Japan, Statoids.com
2:JP
ISO 3166-2
Japan geography-related lists | [
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222599 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John%20Flaxman | John Flaxman | John Flaxman (6 July 1755 – 7 December 1826) was a British sculptor and draughtsman, and a leading figure in British and European Neoclassicism. Early in his career he worked as a modeller for Josiah Wedgwood's pottery. He spent several years in Rome, where he produced his first book illustrations. He was a prolific maker of funerary monuments.
Early life and education
He was born in York. His father, also named John (1726–1803), was well known as a moulder and seller of plaster casts at the sign of the Golden Head, New Street, Covent Garden, London. His wife's maiden name was Lee, and they had two children, William and John. Within six months of John's birth the family returned to London. He was a sickly child, high-shouldered, with a head too large for his body. His mother died when he was nine, and his father remarried. He had little schooling, and was largely self-educated. He took delight in drawing and modelling from his father's stock-in-trade, and studied translations from classical literature in an effort to understand them.
His father's customers helped him with books, advice, and later with commissions. Particularly significant were the painter George Romney, and a cultivated clergyman, Anthony Stephen Mathew and his wife Mrs. Mathew, in whose house in Rathbone Place the young Flaxman used to meet the best "blue-stocking" society of the day and, among those his own age, the artists William Blake and Thomas Stothard, who became his closest friends. At the age of 12 he won the first prize of the Society of Arts for a medallion, and exhibited in the gallery of the Free Society of Artists; at 15 he won a second prize from the Society of Arts showed at the Royal Academy for the first time. In the same year, 1770, he entered the Academy as a student and won the silver medal. In the competition for the gold medal of the Academy in 1772, however, Flaxman was defeated, the prize being awarded by the president, Sir Joshua Reynolds, to a competitor named Engleheart. This episode seemed to help cure Flaxman of a tendency to conceit which led Thomas Wedgwood V to say of him in 1775, "It is but a few years since he was a most supreme coxcomb."
He continued to work diligently, both as a student and as an exhibitor at the Academy, with occasional attempts at painting. To the Academy he contributed a wax model of Neptune (1770); four portrait models in wax (1771); a terracotta bust, a wax figure of a child, an historical figure (1772); a figure of Comedy; and a relief of a Vestal (1773). During this period he received a commission from a friend of the Mathew family for a statue of Alexander the Great, but he was unable to obtain a regular income from private contracts.
Wedgwood
From 1775 he was employed by the potter Josiah Wedgwood and his partner Bentley, for whom his father had also done some work, modelling reliefs for use on the company's jasperware and basaltware. The usual procedure was to model the reliefs in wax on slate or glass grounds before they cast for production. D'Hancarville's engravings of Sir William Hamilton's collection of ancient Greek vases were an important influence on his work.
His designs included the Apotheosis of Homer (1778), later used for a vase; Hercules in the Garden of Hesperides (1785); a large range of small bas-reliefs of which The Dancing Hours (1776–8) proved especially popular; library busts, portrait medallions, and a chess set.
Early sculptural work
By 1780 Flaxman had also begun to earn money by sculpting grave monuments. His early memorials included those to Thomas Chatterton in the church of St Mary Redcliffe in Bristol (1780), Mrs Morley in Gloucester Cathedral (1784), and the Rev. Thomas and Mrs Margaret Ball in Chichester Cathedral (1785). During the rest of Flaxman's career memorial bas-reliefs of this type made up the bulk of his output, and are to be found in many churches throughout England. One example, the monument to George Steevens, originally in St Matthais Old Church, is now in the Fitzwilliam Museum, Cambridge. His best monumental work was admired for its pathos and simplicity, and for the combination of a truly Greek instinct for rhythmical design and composition with a spirit of domestic tenderness and innocence.
Marriage
In 1782, aged 27, Flaxman married Anne Denman, who was to assist him throughout his career. She was well-educated, and a devoted companion. They set up house in Wardour Street, and usually spent their summer holidays as guests of the poet William Hayley, at Eartham in Sussex.
Italy
In 1787, five years after their marriage, Flaxman and his wife set off for Rome, on a journey partly funded by Wedgwood. His activities in the city included supervising a group of modellers employed by Wedgwood, although he no longer made any work for the potter himself. His sketchbooks show that while there he studied not only Classical, but also Medieval and Renaissance art.
While in Rome he produced the first of the book illustrations for which he was to become famous, and which promoted his influence all over Europe, leading Goethe to describe him as "the idol of all dilettanti". His designs for the works of Homer (published in 1793) were commissioned by Georgiana Hare-Naylor; those for Dante (first published in London in 1807) by Thomas Hope; those for Aeschylus by Lady Spencer. All were engraved by Piroli. Flaxman created one hundred and eleven illustrations to Dante's Divine Comedy which served as an inspiration for such artists as Goya and Ingres, and were used as an academic source for 19th-century art students.
He had originally intended to stay in Italy for little more than two years, but was detained by a commission for a marble group of the Fury of Athamas for Frederick Hervey, Earl of Bristol and Bishop of Derry, which proved troublesome. By the time of his return to England in the summer of 1794, after an absence of seven years, he had also executed Cephalus and Aurora, a group in marble based on a story in Ovid's Metamorphoses. This was bought by Thomas Hope, who arrived in Rome in 1791, and is often said to have commissioned it. Hope was later to make it the centrepiece of a "Flaxman room" at his London home. It is now in the collection of the Lady Lever Art Gallery, Liverpool.
Return to England
During their homeward journey, the Flaxmans travelled through central and northern Italy. On their return they took a house in Buckingham Street, Fitzroy Square. Buckingham Street has since been renamed Greenwell Street, W1; there is a plaque to Flaxman on the front wall of no.7 identifying this as the site of the house where Flaxman lived. Immediately after his return the sculptor published a protest against the scheme (already considered by the French Directory and carried out two years later by Napoleon) to set up a vast central museum of art at Paris to contain works looted from across Europe. Despite this, he later took take advantage of the Peace of Amiens to go to Paris to see the despoiled treasures collected there.
While still in Rome, Flaxman had sent home models for several sepulchral monuments, including one in relief for the poet William Collins in Chichester cathedral, and one in the round for Lord Mansfield in Westminster Abbey.
Later life
In 1797 he was made an associate of the Royal Academy. He exhibited work at the Academy annually, occasionally showing a public monument in the round, like those of Pasquale Paoli (1798) or Captain Montague (1802) for Westminster Abbey, of Sir William Jones for University College, Oxford (1797–1801), of Nelson or Howe for St Paul's Cathedral, but more often memorials for churches, with symbolic Acts of Mercy or illustrations of biblical texts, usually in low relief. He made a large number of these smaller funerary monuments; his work was in great demand, and he did not charge particularly high prices. Occasionally he would vary his output with a classical piece like those he favoured in his earlier years.
Soon after his election as Associate of the Academy, he published a scheme for a grandiose monument to be erected on Greenwich Hill, in the form of a figure of Britannia high, in honour of British naval victories.
In 1800 he was elected a full Academician, and in 1810 the Academy appointed him to the specially created post of Professor of Sculpture. He was a thorough and judicious teacher, and his lectures were often reprinted. According to the Encyclopædia Britannica of 1911: "With many excellent observations, and with one singular merit—that of doing justice, as in those days justice was hardly ever done, to the sculpture of the medieval schools—these lectures lack point and felicity of expression, just as they are reported to have lacked fire in delivery, and are somewhat heavy reading." His most important sculptural works from the years following this appointment were the monument to Mrs Baring in Micheldever church, the richest of all his monuments in relief (1805–1811); that for the Cooke-Yarborough family at Campsall church, Yorkshire, those to Sir Joshua Reynolds for St Paul's (1807); to Captain Webbe for India (1810); to Captains Walker and Beckett for Leeds (1811); to Lord Cornwallis for Prince of Wales's Island (1812); and to Sir John Moore for Glasgow (1813).
He was commissioned to create the monument to Matthew Boulton (died 1809), by Boulton's son, which is on the north wall of the sanctuary of St. Mary's Church, Handsworth, Birmingham, where Boulton is buried. It includes a marble bust of Boulton, set in a circular opening above two putti, one holding an engraving of the Soho Manufactory.
Around this time there was much debate over the merits of the sculptures from the Parthenon in Athens, which had been brought to Britain by Lord Elgin, and were hence popularly known as the Elgin marbles. When Flaxman first saw them at Elgin's house in 1807, he advised against their restoration. Flaxman's statements in favour of their purchase by the government to a parliamentary commission carried considerable weight; the sculptures were eventually bought in 1816. His designs for the friezes of Ancient Drama and Modern Drama, for the facade of the Theatre Royal, Covent Garden, made in 1809 and carved by John Charles Felix Rossi, provide an early example of the direct influence of the marbles on British sculpture.
In the years immediately following his Roman period he produced fewer outline designs for publication, except three for William Cowper's translations of the Latin poems of John Milton (1810). In 1817, however, he returned to the genre, publishing a set of designs to Hesiod, which were engraved by Blake. He also designed work for goldsmiths at around this time—a testimonial cup in honour of John Kemble, and the famous and beautiful (though quite un-Homeric) "Shield of Achilles" designed between 1810 and 1817 for Rundell, Bridge and Rundell. Other late works included a frieze of Peace, Liberty and Plenty, for the Duke of Bedford's sculpture gallery at Woburn Abbey, and an heroic group of St Michael overthrowing Satan, for Lord Egremont's Petworth House (delivered after Flaxman's death.) He also wrote several articles on art and archaeology for Rees's Cyclopædia (1819–20).
In the last six years of his life, Flaxman designed decorations for the facades of Buckingham Palace. Some of his drawings for this commission are now held by the Royal Collection Trust.
In 1820 Flaxman's wife died. Her younger sister, Maria Denman, and his own sister, Maria Flaxman, continued to live with him, and he continued to work hard. In 1822 he delivered at the Academy a lecture in memory of his old friend, Canova, who had recently died; in 1823 he received a visit from Schlegel, who wrote an account of their meeting.
Flaxman died, aged 71, on 7 December 1826. His name is listed as one of the important lost graves on the Burdett Coutts Memorial in Old St. Pancras Churchyard.
The Chelsea telephone exchange that became 020 7352 was named after him, the digits 352 still corresponding to the old three letter dialling code FLA.
Studio practice
Most of the carving of his works was carried out by assistants; Margaret Whinney thought that, as a result "the execution of some of his marbles is a little dull" but that "his plaster models, cast from his own designs in clay, frequently show more sensitive handling". Early in his career, Flaxman made his works in the form of small models which his assistants would scale up when making the finished marble versions. In many cases, notably with the monument to Lord Howe, this proved problematic, and for his later works he produced full-sized plaster versions for his employees to work from.
Critical reception
Flaxman's complicated monuments in the round, such as the three in Westminster Abbey and the four in St Paul's Cathedral, are considered too "heavy"; but his simple monuments in relief are of finer quality. He thoroughly understood relief, and it gave better scope for his particular talents. His compositions are best studied in the casts from his studio sketches, of which a comprehensive collection is preserved in the Flaxman gallery at University College, London. The principal public collections are at University College, in the British Museum, and the Victoria and Albert Museum.
References
Sources
Further reading
Petherbridge, Deanna, 'Some Thoughts on Flaxman and the Engraved Outlines', Print Quarterly, XXVIII, 2011, pp. 385–91.
- Flaxman was a prominent Swedenborgian.
External links
Information from the National Portrait Gallery (London)
World of Dante – Flaxman's illustrations of Divine Comedy in World of Dante gallery
John Flaxman's Biography, style and artworks
John Flaxman's illustrations of the Iliad
John Flaxman's illustrations of the Odyssey
Biography
1755 births
1826 deaths
English sculptors
English male sculptors
Royal Academicians
Neoclassical sculptors
English Swedenborgians
Artists from York
British medallists
Burials at St Pancras Old Church
Wedgwood pottery | [
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222603 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pasquale%20Paoli | Pasquale Paoli | Filippo Antonio Pasquale de' Paoli (; ; 6 April 1725 – 5 February 1807) was a Corsican patriot, statesman and military leader who was at the forefront of resistance movements against the Genoese and later French rule over the island. He became the president of the Executive Council of the General Diet of the People of Corsica and wrote the Constitution of the state.
The Corsican Republic was a representative democracy asserting that the elected Diet of Corsican representatives had no master. Paoli held his office by election and not by appointment. It made him commander-in-chief of the armed forces as well as chief magistrate. Paoli's government claimed the same jurisdiction as the Republic of Genoa. In terms of de facto exercise of power, the Genoese held the coastal cities, which they could defend from their citadels, but the Corsican republic controlled the rest of the island from Corte, its capital.
Following the French conquest of Corsica in 1768, Paoli oversaw the Corsican resistance. Following the defeat of Corsican forces at the Battle of Ponte Novu he was forced into exile in Britain where he was a celebrated figure. He returned after the French Revolution, of which he was initially supportive. He later broke with the revolutionaries and helped to create the Anglo-Corsican Kingdom which lasted between 1794 and 1796. After the island was re-occupied by France he again went into exile in Britain where he died in 1807.
Paoli was idolized by a young Corsican nationalist named Napoleon Bonaparte. The Bonapartes had assisted him during the French invasion, but refused to go into exile with him and pledged allegiance to King Louis XV. Paoli saw the Bonapartes as collaborators, and upon regaining power during the French Revolution he tried to prevent Napoleon from returning to his position in the Corsican National Guard. In May 1793 Paolists detained Napoleon on his way to his post (though he was soon released), ransacked his home, and formally outlawed the Bonapartes via the Corsican parliament. These events and others in 1793 accelerated Napoleon's transition from Corsican to French nationalism. Napoleon never fully outgrew his fondness of Paoli, and had mixed feelings about him throughout the rest of his life.
Biography
Early years
Paoli was born in the hamlet of Stretta, Morosaglia commune, part of the ancient parish of Rostino, Haute-Corse, Corsica. He was the second son of the physician and patriot Giacinto Paoli, who was to become one of three "Generals of the People" in the Corsican nationalist movement that rebelled against rule by the Republic of Genoa, which at that time they regarded as corrupt and tyrannical. Prior to that century Corsicans more or less accepted Genoan rule. By 1729, the year of first rebellion, the Genovese were regarded as failing in their task of government. The major problems were the high murder rate because of the custom of vendetta, the raiding of coastal villages by the Barbary pirates, oppressive taxes and economic depression.
In the rebellion of 1729 over a new tax, the Genovese withdrew into their citadels and sent for foreign interventions: first from the Habsburg Holy Roman Empire, and then from their enemies in the War of Austrian Succession, Bourbon France. Defeated by professional troops, the Corsicans ceded violence, but kept their organisation. After surrendering to the French in 1739 Giacinto Paoli went into exile in Naples with his then 14-year-old son, Pasquale. An older brother, Clemente, remained at home as a liaison to the revolutionary diet, or assembly of the people.
Corsica was subsequently distracted by the aforementioned War of the Austrian Succession, during which troops of a number of countries temporarily occupied the cities of Corsica. In Naples, Giacinto perceiving that he had a talented son, spared no effort or expense in his education, which was primarily classical. The enlightenment of which Pasquale was to become a part was neo-classical in its art, architecture and sentiments. Paoli is said once to have heard an old man on the road reciting Vergil, walked up behind him, clapped him on the back, and resumed reciting at the point where the other had left off. In 1741 Pasquale joined the Corsican regiment of the royal Neapolitan army and served in Calabria under his father.
Corsican exiles in Italy were seeking assistance for the revolution, including a skilled general. In 1736 the exiles of Genoa had discovered Theodor von Neuhoff, a soldier of fortune whom they were willing to make king, but he was unsuccessful and in 1754 languished in debtors' prison in London. The young Pasquale became of interest when in opposition to a plan to ask the Knights of Malta to assume command he devised a plan for a native Corsican government. In that year Giacinto decided that Pasquale was ready to supplant Theodor and wrote to Vincente recommending that a general election be held. The subsequent popular election called by Vincente at Caccia made Pasquale General-in-Chief of Corsica, commander of all resistance.
Corsica at that time was still under the influence of feuding clans, as a result of which only the highland clans had voted in the election. The lowlanders now held an election of their own and elected Mario Matra as commander, who promptly attacked the supporters of Paoli. Moreover, Matra called on the Genovese for assistance, dragging Paoli into a conflict with them. Matra was killed shortly in battle and his support among the Corsicans collapsed.
Paoli's next task was to confine the Genovese to their citadels. His second was to design a constitution which when ratified by the population in 1755 set up a new republic, a representative democracy. Its first election made Paoli president, supplanting his former position.
President of the Corsican Republic
In November 1755, the people of Corsica ratified a constitution that proclaimed Corsica a sovereign nation, independent from the Republic of Genoa. This was the first constitution written under Enlightenment principles. The new president and author of the constitution occupied himself with building a modern state; for example, he founded a university at Corte. Linda Colley credits Paoli as writing the first ever written constitution of a nation state.
French invasion
Seeing that they had in effect lost control of Corsica, Genoa responded by ceding Corsica to the French by the treaty of Versailles in May 1768, as this was the only way to repay France for the debts incurred for the defence of the island. In September 1768 France proceeded to the conquest of the island. Paoli fought a guerilla war from the mountains but in 1769 he was defeated in the Battle of Ponte Novu by vastly superior forces and took refuge in England. Corsica officially became a French province in 1789.
First exile
In London, Paoli attracted the attention of the Johnsonian circle almost immediately for which his expansive personality made him a natural fit. By the time Paoli entered the scene it had in part taken the form of The Club of mainly successful men of a liberal frame of mind. Such behaviour as Paoli showing his bullet-ridden coat to all visitors and then demanding a gratuity for the observation were amusing to the group, which had begun when its members were starting their careers and according to its chronicler James Boswell were themselves needy.
Paoli's memoirs were recorded by Boswell in his book, An Account of Corsica.
After a series of interviews with King George III, Paoli was given a pension by the crown with the understanding that if he ever returned to Corsica in a position of authority he would support British interests against the French. This was not, however, a cynical arrangement. Paoli became sincerely pro-British and had a genuine affection for his new friends, including the king, a predisposition that in the French Revolution led him into the royalist camp. The arrangement also was not a treaty of any sort, as at the time neither Paoli nor George III would have any idea of future circumstances.
President of the department of Corsica
By the time of the French revolution the name of Paoli had become something of an idol of liberty and democracy. In 1790 the revolutionary National Assembly in Paris passed a decree incorporating Corsica into France, essentially duplicating the work of 1780 but under a new authority. It granted amnesty to exiles, on which Paoli embarked immediately for Corsica. He arrived in time for the election of departmental officers at Orezza, ran for president, and was elected unanimously. Napoleon Bonaparte, organiser of the elections and active Jacobin, did not run at this time, but he was as much an admirer of Paoli as anyone.
Napoleon, on leave from his artillery regiment, returned to the regiment at Auxonne, where he was working on a history of Corsica. Writing to Paoli he asked his opinion on some of it and for historical documents. The differences between the two men became apparent. Paoli thought the history amateurish and too impassioned and refused the documents; Napoleon at this point had no idea of Paoli's regal connections in Britain or moderate, even sympathetic, sentiments about royalty.
President of the British protectorate
Paoli split from the French Revolution over the issue of the execution of the king and threw in his lot with the royalist party. He did not make these views generally known, but when the revolutionary government ordered him to take Sardinia he put his nephew in charge of the expedition with secret orders to lose the conflict. In that case he was acting as a British agent, as the British had an interest in Sardinia they could not pursue if the French occupied it.
He had however also sent Napoleon Bonaparte as a colonel in command of two companies of Corsican guard (unofficially reinforced by 6000 revolutionaries from Marseille), which participated in the assault on La Maddalena Island in February 1793. It failed because the commander, Pietro Paolo Colonna-Cesari, failed to take appropriate military action, because the island had been reinforced just prior to the attack, and because the defenders seemed to know exactly where and when the revolutionaries were going to strike.
Napoleon perceived the situation during the first confrontation with his commander and assumed de facto command but the attack failed and he barely escaped. Enraged, after having been a strong supporter and admirer of Paoli, he and the entire Bonaparte family denounced Paoli as a traitor before the French National Convention. Arrest warrants were issued and sent to Corsica along with a force intended to take the citadels from the royalists, who had supplanted the Genovese after the sale of Corsica. Combining the Paolists and royalists defeated the Bonapartes and drove them from the island.
Paoli then summoned a consulta (assembly) at Corte in 1793, with himself as president and formally seceded from France. He requested the protection of the British government, then at war with revolutionary France. In 1794 British sent a fleet under Admiral Samuel Hood. This fleet had just been ejected from the French port of Toulon by a revolutionary army following the plan of Napoleon Bonaparte, for which he was promoted to Brigadier General. The royalists at Toulon also had requested British protection. Napoleon was now dispatched to deal with Italy as commander of the French forces there.
For a short time, Corsica was a protectorate of King George III, chiefly by the exertions of Hood's fleet (e.g. in the Siege of Calvi), and Paoli's co-operation. This period has become known as the "Anglo-Corsican Kingdom" because George III was accepted as sovereign head of state, but this was not an incorporation of Corsica into the British Empire. The relationship between Paoli's government and the British was never clearly defined, resulting in numerous questions of authority. At last the crown invited Paoli to resign and return to exile in Britain with a pension, which, having no other options now, he did. Not long after, the French reconquered the island and all questions of Corsican sovereignty came to an end until the 20th century.
Second exile
Paoli set sail for England in October 1795, where he lived out his final years. Pasquale Paoli died on 5 February 1807 and was buried in Old St. Pancras Churchyard in London. His name is listed on the 1879 Burdett-Coutts Memorial amongst the important graves lost.
A bust was placed in Westminster Abbey. In 1889 his bones were brought to Corsica in a British frigate and interred at the family home under a memorial in the Italian language.
Pasquale never married and as far as is known had no heirs. Information about his intimate life is mainly lacking; however, it is believed he had an affair with Maria Cosway. However, Robert Harvey claims he was homosexual, when discussing how Carlo Buonaparte became Paoli's personal secretary.
Pasquale Paoli and Italian irredentism
Insofar as Italian irredentism was a political or historical movement, Pasquale Paoli lived long before its time and did not have anything to do with the movement that ended with the occupation of Corsica by Italian fascist troops in late 1942, during World War II.
There is no question, however, that Paoli was sympathetic to Italian culture and regarded his own native language as an Italian dialect (Corsican is an Italic language closely related to Tuscan, Sicilian and, to some extent, Sardinian language). He was considered by Niccolò Tommaseo, who collected his Lettere (Letters), as one of the precursors of the Italian irredentism. The "Babbu di a Patria" (Father of the fatherland), as was nicknamed Pasquale Paoli by the Corsicans, wrote in his Letters the following appeal in 1768 against the French invaders:
We are Corsicans by birth and sentiment, but first of all we feel Italian by language, origins, customs, traditions; and Italians are all brothers and united in the face of history and in the face of God ... As Corsicans we wish to be neither slaves nor "rebels" and as Italians we have the right to deal as equals with the other Italian brothers ... Either we shall be free or we shall be nothing... Either we shall win or we shall die (against the French), weapons in hand ... The war against France is right and holy as the name of God is holy and right, and here on our mountains will appear for Italy the sun of liberty....
("Siamo còrsi per nascita e sentimento ma prima di tutto ci sentiamo italiani per lingua, origini, costumi, tradizioni e gli italiani sono tutti fratelli e solidali di fronte alla storia e di fronte a Dio… Come còrsi non-vogliamo essere né schiavi né "ribelli" e come italiani abbiamo il diritto di trattare da pari con gli altri fratelli d'Italia… O saremo liberi o non saremo niente… O vinceremo con l'onore o soccomberemo (contro i francesi) con le armi in mano... La guerra con la Francia è giusta e santa come santo e giusto è il nome di Dio, e qui sui nostri monti spunterà per l'Italia il sole della libertà…")
Pasquale Paoli wanted Italian to be the official language of his Corsican Republic. His Corsican Constitution of 1755 was written in Italian and the short-lived university he founded in the city of Corte in 1765 used Italian as teaching language.
Paoli commemorated in the United States
The American Sons of Liberty movement were inspired by Paoli. Ebenezer McIntosh, a leader of the Sons of Liberty, named his son Paschal Paoli McIntosh in honour of him. In 1768, the editor of the New York Journal described Paoli as "the greatest man on earth". Several places in the United States are named after him. These include:
Paoli, Colorado
Paoli, Indiana
Paoli, Kentucky
Paoli, Oklahoma
Paoli, Pennsylvania, which was named after "General Paoli's Tavern" a meeting-point of the Sons of Liberty and homage to the "General of the Corsicans".
Paoli, Wisconsin
See also
Corsican Italians
History of Corsica
References
Further reading
James Boswelll Account of Corsica and Memoirs of P Paoli (1768)
Carrington, Dorothy. "The Corsican constitution of Pasquale Paoli (1755-1769)." English Historical Review 88.348 (1973): 481–503. online
Long, Luke. "The Corsican crisis in British politics 1768–1770." Global Intellectual History (2019): 1-31.
McLaren, Moray. "Pasquale Paoli: Hero of Corsica." History Today (Nov 1965) 15#11 pp 756–761.
Thrasher, Peter Adam. Pasquale Paoli. An Enlightened Hero, 1725–1807. London. Constable, 1970.
External links
1725 births
1807 deaths
18th-century rulers in Europe
Corsican nationalists
Corsican politicians
Fellows of the Royal Society
Heads of state of former countries
Heads of state of unrecognized or largely unrecognized states
Italian revolutionaries
People from Haute-Corse | [
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222607 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Frederick%20Wedmore | Frederick Wedmore | Frederick Wedmore (9 July 184425 February 1921) was a British art critic and man of letters.
Wedmore was born at Richmond Hill, Clifton, the eldest son of Thomas Wedmore of Druids Stoke, Stoke Bishop. His family were Quakers, and he was educated at a Quaker private school and then in Lausanne and Paris. After a short experience of journalism in Bristol he came to London in 1868, and began to write for The Spectator. His early works included two novels, but the best examples of his prose are perhaps to be found in his volumes of short stories, Pastorals of France (1877), Renunciations (1893), Orgeas and Miradou (1896), reprinted in 1905 as A Dream of Provence.
In 1900 he published another novel, The Collapse of the Penitent. As early as 1878 he had begun a long connection with the London Standard as art critic. He began his studies on etching with a noteworthy paper in The Nineteenth Century (1877–1878) on the etchings of Charles Meryon. This was followed by The Four Masters of Etching (1883), with original etchings by Sir FS Haden, , JM Whistler, and Alphonse Legros; Etching in England (1895); an English edition (1894) of E Michel's Rembrandt: His Life, His Works, and His Time In Two Volumes; and a study and a catalogue of Whistler's Etchings (1886, 2nd edition 1899). His other works include Studies in English Art (2 vols., 1876–80), The Masters of Genre Painting (1880), On Books and Arts (1899), English Water Colour (1902), Turner and Ruskin (2 vols., 1900).
He was knighted in 1912. He published that year his Memories, a book of reminiscences, social and literary. He also published Painters and Painting (1913) and a novel, Brenda Walks On (1916). He died at Sevenoaks.
Family
His daughter, Millicent Wedmore (born 1879), herself the author of two volumes of verse, helped him to edit during World War I Poems of the Love and Pride of England.
Notes
External links
1844 births
1921 deaths
English art critics | [
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222609 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Francis%20Seymour%20Haden | Francis Seymour Haden | Sir Francis Seymour Haden PPRE (16 September 1818 – 1 June 1910), was an English surgeon, best known as an original etcher who championed original printmaking. He was at the heart of the Etching Revival in Britain, and one of the founders of the Society of Painter-Etchers, now the Royal Society of Painter-Printmakers, as its first president. He was also a collector and scholar of Rembrandt's prints.
Life
Haden was born at 62 Lower Sloane Street, Chelsea, London. His father, Charles Thomas Haden, being a well-known doctor and lover of music. He was educated at Derby School, Christ's Hospital, and University College, London, and also studied at the Sorbonne, Paris, where he took his degree in 1840. He was admitted as a member of the College of Surgeons in London in 1842.
Artistic career
In 1843–44, with his friends Duval, Le Cannes and Colonel Guibout, he travelled to Italy and made his first sketches and six etchings from nature. Haden attended no art school and had no art teachers, but between 1845 and 1848 he studied intently, the portfolios of prints belonging to a second-hand dealer named Love, who had a shop in Bunhill Row, the old Quaker quarter of London. Arranging the prints in chronological order, he studied in particular, the works of the great original engravers, Albrecht Dürer, Lucas van Leyden and Rembrandt.
As mentioned in "Print REbels" primarily celebrating the bicentenary of Haden: Exquisite line, especially drypoint burr, sometimes calligraphic in sensibility, can be seen across Haden's prints, the majority which are landscapes. Added to this is his range and intensity of expression. He expresses the maximum by means of the minimum to achieve the essence of his subject matter: what Haden himself called "the labour of omission". Haden's printmaking was mutually invigorated by his younger brother-in-law, James McNeill Whistler, at the Haden home in Lower Sloane Street in 1855. An etching press was installed there and for a while Haden and Whistler collaborated on a series of etchings of the Thames. However, the relationship and project did not last.
Haden followed the art of original etching with such vigour that he became not only the foremost British exponent of that art from 1865 but brought about its revival in England. His strenuous efforts and perseverance, aided by the secretarial ability of Sir William R Drake RE, resulted in the foundation of the Royal Society of Painter-Etchers and Engravers, styled the Royal Society of Painter-Printmakers since 1990. As President Haden ruled the Society for thirty years with a strong hand from its first beginnings in 1880. "As PRE," Frederick Keppel, author and print collector wrote: "Sir Francis Seymour Haden did great work in maintaining sound doctrine in etching. Nothing was admitted that was "commercial" in character, and etchings that were done after paintings by other hands were vigorously ruled out." In fact, as regarding the RE Members, "he ruled them with a rod of iron," However, "membership was eagerly sought for – so much that many famous et hers weren't never elected though they thrived hard to be."
Notwithstanding Haden's study of the old masters of his art, Haden's own plates were very individual. He preferred to work directly onto the plate in front of the subject. Malcolm Salaman Hon RE wrote of Haden drawing from nature; "with that breadth, freedom, and spontaneity of effect, which, while suggesting a sketch,
represented a true etcher's drawing". Even when working from a picture by another artist his personality dominates the plate, as for example in the large plate he etched after J.M.W. Turner's Calais Pier, which is a classical example of what interpretative work can do in black and white. Of his original plates, 263 in number, one of the most notable was the large Breaking up of the Agamemnon.[4]
An early plate, rare and most beautiful, is Thames Fisherman. Mytton Hall is broad in treatment, and a fine rendering of a shady avenue of yew trees leading to an old manor-house (now a hotel in Lancashire) in September sunlight. Sub Tegmine was etched in Greenwich Park in 1859; and Early Morning—Richmond", full of the poetry and freshness of the hour, was done, according to Haden, actually at sunrise. [4]
Also mentioned in Print REbels: ‘Haden’s finest and rarest compositions were created along the River Muteen, by Greenpark in Dundrum, County Tipperary and at Glenmalure, County Wicklow. This surgeon-etcher visited Ireland four times between 1859 and 1864. Impressions of A River in Ireland, A Bye Road in Tipperary and Sunset in Ireland are hailed internationally amongst the finest landscape etchings of the 19th century. Kenneth Guichard writes in British Etchers 1850-1950 published in London, 1977:
‘Sunset in Ireland must be one of the greatest prints ever produced in etching, one can feel the dew beginning at the end of a balmy evening in Tipperary.” [4]
This is fortified in Raymond Lister and Robin Garton’s book, Great Images of Printmaking in 1978:
‘1863 was a sublime year for Haden in printmaking. Sunset in Ireland is one of the greatest etchings of its period. It has the potency of ‘A River in Ireland’, but its textures are still richer, with their hint of that humid dusk often encountered in Ireland. There too, a note of mystery in the river as it curves into wooded reaches. In places the lines of shading seem almost careless, where much of the composition is cross-hatched by diagonal lines. The apparent carelessness is all part of Haden’s calculated and brilliant gift of suggestion. The plate was etched on the spot at Dundrum Park in Tipperary’. [4]
Other notable plates include are Combe Bottom, Shere Mill Pond (both the small study and the larger plate), The Towing Path, Kilgaren Castle, The Three Sisters, Battersea Reach – Out of Whistler's Window, Penton Hook, Grim Spain and Evening Fishing, Longparish'. ‘Sunset in Ireland’ is Haden's acknowledged pastoral masterpiece. A catalogue of his works was begun by Sir William Drake and completed by Harrington in 1880. During later years also Haden began to practise mezzotint engraving, with a measure of the same success that he had already achieved in pure etching and in drypoint. His mezzotints include An Early Riser, a stag seen through the morning mists, Grayling Fishing and A Salmon Pool on the Spey. He also created paintings and charcoal drawings of trees and park-like country.
Writings
Haden's studies of Rembrandt, besides influencing his original work, led to his important monograph on the Dutch artist's etchings. Haden was the first to catalogue Rembrandt's etchings chronologically and in "states". Through books and lectures, and with the aid of an exhibition at the Burlington Fine Arts Club in 1877, he tried to give a true reflection of Rembrandt's work, excluding from his oeuvre a large number of plates previously attributed to him. Haden's reasons were founded upon the results of a study of the master's works in chronological order, and are clearly expressed in his monograph, The Etched Work of Rembrandt critically reconsidered, privately printed in 1877, and in The Etched Work of Rembrandt: True and False (1895). 102 of Rembrandt's etchings from Haden's collection were exhibited alongside the RE Annual exhibition in 1890.
Other books written by Haden not already mentioned are:Etudes a l'eau forte (Paris, 1865) About Etching (London, 1879)The Art of the Painter-Etcher (London, 1890)The Relative Claims of Etching and Engraving to rank as Fine Arts and to be represented in the Royal Academy (London, 1883)Address to Students of Winchester School of Art (Winchester, 1888)Cremation: a Pamphlet (London, 1875)The Disposal of the Dead, a Plea for Legislation (London, 1888).
As the last two indicate, he was an ardent champion of a system of "earth to earth" burial. During the London 'Burial Crisis' of the late 1840s, following several epidemics, he aired a proposal to ship the bodies of London's dead to the Thames Estuary for use in land reclamation but this met with little approval.
Honours
Among numerous distinctions Haden received the Grand Prix, Paris, in 1889 and 1900, and was made an honorary member of the Institut de France, Académie des Beaux-Arts and Société des Artistes Français. Haden was knighted in 1894 for his services "to the advancement of original etching and engraving".
Bicentenary commemoration of Sir Francis Seymour Haden:
Print REbels, an exhibition commemorating 200 years since the birth of Haden and celebrating the origins of the Royal Society of Painter-Printmakers, founded by Haden, was launched by this Society at the Bankside Gallery, London. This exhibition toured UK museums and galleries at Cambridge, Cheltenham, Marlborough, Devon and Wales as well as Spain until 2019. In July and August 2021 this exhibition travels to Dublin, Republic of Ireland, at the Knight of Glin Exhibition Room, Assembly House, headquarters of the Irish Georgian Society (IGS). A 346 page catalogue/book, written by Edward Twohig RE and published by the Royal Society of Painter-Printmakers in April 2018, comprehensively mirrors Haden's achievements and influence. A limited edition "REbels Portfolio" by current Members of the Royal Society of Painter-Printmakers was created, also, in celebration. Box sets of this portfolio are in the permanent collection of the British Museum, London; Ashmolean Museum, Oxford; Fitzwilliam Museum, Cambridge and HM The Queen. [4]
Family
In 1847 he married the musician Dasha Whistler, the half-sister of the artist James McNeill Whistler (the siblings sharing the same father only); and his eldest son, Francis Seymour Haden (b. 1850), was educated at Marlborough College in Wiltshire and had a distinguished career as a member of the government in Natal Colony from 1881 to 1893, being made a C.M.G. in 1890. His daughter Anne was the mother of the mystery writer Molly Thynne.
BibliographyA Catalogue Raisonné of the Prints of Sir Francis Seymour Haden'' by Dr Richard S. Schneiderman (1983) .
References
External links
Sir Francis Seymour Haden at artoftheprint.com
H. Nazeby Harrington: The Engraved Work of Sir Francis Seymour Haden, P.R.E. An Illustrated and Descriptive Catalogue. Henry Young & Sons, Liverpool 1910.
British Museum: http://www.britishmuseum.org/research/collection_online/search.aspx?searchText=Seymour+haden+
Portrait of Sir Francis Seymour Haden by Alphonse Legros at University of Michigan Museum of Art
1818 births
1910 deaths
University of Paris alumni
People educated at Derby School
People educated at Christ's Hospital
English etchers
Companions of the Order of St Michael and St George
Knights Bachelor | [
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222611 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geranium%20maderense | Geranium maderense | Geranium maderense, known as giant herb-Robert or the Madeira cranesbill, is a species of flowering plant in the family Geraniaceae, native to the island of Madeira. It is sometimes confused with another Madeira endemic, Geranium palmatum.
Growing to tall and wide, it is a mound-forming evergreen perennial with deeply divided ferny leaves. Spectacular pink flowers on hairy red stems are produced in large panicles in summer. It is grown as an ornamental plant in temperate regions, where it is hardy in mild or coastal areas down to . It has gained the Royal Horticultural Society's Award of Garden Merit.
References
External links
maderense
Endemic flora of Madeira
Garden plants of Europe | [
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222612 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Free%20reed%20aerophone | Free reed aerophone | A free reed aerophone is a musical instrument that produces sound as air flows past a vibrating reed in a frame. Air pressure is typically generated by breath or with a bellows. In the Hornbostel–Sachs system, it is number: 412.13 (a member of interruptive free aerophones). Free reed instruments are contrasted with non-free or enclosed reed instruments, where the timbre is fully or partially dependent on the shape of the instrument body, Hornbostel–Sachs number: 42 (flute, reed, and brass).
Operation
The following illustrations depict the type of reed typical of harmonicas, pitch pipes, accordions, and reed organs as it goes through a cycle of vibration. One side of the reed frame is omitted from the images for clarity; in reality, the frame completely encloses the reed. Airflow over one side of the reed (labeled “AR”) creates a region of low pressure on that side (see the Bernoulli's principle article for details), causing the reed to flex towards the low-pressure side. The reed frame is constructed so that the flexing of the reed obstructs the airflow, which reduces or eliminates the low-pressure region and allows the reed to flex back.
Each time the reed passes through the frame, it interrupts air flow. These rapid, periodic interruptions of the air flow create the audible vibrations perceived by the listener.
In a free-reed instrument, it is generally the physical characteristics of the reed itself, such as mass, length, cross-sectional area, and stiffness, which determine the pitch of the musical note produced. Of secondary importance to the pitch are the physical dimensions of the chamber in which the reed is fitted, and of the air flow. As an exception, the pitch of the Chinese bawu and hulusi are determined by fingering recorder-like tone holes along the instrument body.
History
Various free reed instruments appear to have been invented since antiquity. The most likely precursor to free reed aerophones is the Jew's harp, an instrument known to many cultures throughout the world, and by many names (e.g., k'uang in ancient China). In this instrument, the main sound producer is the vibrating reed tongue itself, rather than the air flow.
Among the ancient instruments, the khene of Laos, the shēng of China and the shō of Japan have survived to modern times.
The sheng was traditionally made with bamboo pipes, and was first mentioned in the Shi Jing of the Zhou Dynasty (c. 1050–256 BC). A free reed organ was invented in the Arab world in the 13th century, while the German Heinrich Traxdorf (fl. 15th century) of Nuremberg built one around 1460 AD. In Copenhagen, one of these instruments with brass pipes and free reeds in-caved into the sides of the pipes inspired the organ builder Kirsnick to fit similar reeds into portable organs. In 1780 Kirsnick moved to Saint Petersburg improved these new organ pipes to an adjustable pitch with a hook. Christian Gottlieb Kratzenstein also built his speaking machine in Copenhagen and he was in contact with Kirsnick. Christian Gottlieb Kratzenstein got an award for the machine in Petersburg but he never moved to Petersburg. His machine or a copy of this machine came to Paris very shortly after 1780. Georg Joseph Vogler put all his effort to get this new type of organ pipes in use in church organs so he started with changing organs in Rotterdam (1790), London(1790), Frankfurt (1791), Stockholm (1791), Paris (1796), Berlin (1800), Prague (1802), Vienna (1804), Salzburg Munich (1805), – up to 30 documented rebuilds of organs with new free reed type organ pipes. He also held lessons at universities and did all to promote this new type of reeds, not only in German-speaking regions of Europe. The actual work was done by different organ builders, and very many people were involved, so it is nearly impossible that any organ builder in Europe did not know about free reeds after 1800. In the two years from 1802 to 1804 in Vienna, he spent time with Johann Nepomuk Mälzel and Mälzel changed the type of reeds used in his Panharmonicon to free reed pipes. Vogler, Maelzel and Friedrich Kaufmann were then at the same time in Paris in 1807. From there, Mälzel went to Regensburg and Vienna, where he constructed a new Panharmonicon and the mechanischer Trompeter; after that he went on tour again to Paris, London and other places; maybe he went for the first time to Boston and New York as well, but up to now we don't know of any notice in a newspaper about it. Friedrich Kaufmann, a clock maker, went back home to Dresden and copied Mälzel's machines. The mechanischer Trompeter still can be seen in a museum in Munich.
First use in America
In the United States, organ builder William M. Goodrich is often claimed to have invented the free reed. He tells that he worked in 1810 to 1812 with Johann Nepomuk Mälzel's Pan Harmonicon that was sent to Boston and then exhibited in several towns. Märzel had a very good relationship to Vogler while in Europe so his Pan Harmonicon used free reeds. It is not known with certainty whether Mälzel was personally in America around 1811. What is clear is that he arrived New York on February 7, 1826, which might have been either his first or his second visit to the New World. He also visited Boston around that time.
1823 Pan Harmonicun copied;
There is a story that in 1821 James H. Bazin repaired a free reed pipe and used this type of reeds for constructing, in 1836, the "lap organ".
From 1833, Prescott built similar instruments.
Melodeons in 1840
By 1840, there were 40 melodeon builders in America.
Europe
Cyrill Demian's (see below) patent of 1829 however states that the reeds in his instrument "were known for more than 200 years as Regale, Zungen, Schnarrwerk, in organs." He compares the reeds used by him with beating reeds.
The accordion in Russia
The earliest history of the accordion in Russia is poorly documented. Nevertheless, according to Russian researchers, the earliest known simple accordions were made in Tula, Russia by from 1820, and from 1830. By the late 1840s, the instrument was already very widespread; together the factories of the two masters were producing 10,000 instruments a year. By 1866, over 50,000 instruments were being produced yearly by Tula and neighbouring villages, and by 1874 the yearly production rate was over 700,000. By the 1860s, Novgorod, Vyatka and Saratov Governorates also had significant accordion production. By the 1880s, the list included Oryol, Ryazan, Moscow, Tver, Vologda, Kostroma, Nizhny Novgorod, Simbirsk and others, and many of these places created their own varieties of the instrument. The first chromatic piano-like accordions in Russia were built in 1871 by Nikolay Ivanovich Beloborodov.
In 1907, St. Petersburg master accordion maker V. S. Sterlingov created a chromatic button accordion for the player Ya. F. Orlandskiy-Titarenko featuring 52 melody keys and 72 chords of the Stradella bass system. Orlandskiy-Titarenko called his new instrument the bayan (after the legendary bard Boyan), and it was the ancestor of the modern instrument with that name. However, its layout on the melody side was different from the layout of the modern bayan. The modern bayan's B-system layout (or "Moscow system") became more popular than the early instrument's "Leningrad system" (which was more similar to the Khromka garmon) around 1930–35.
Between 1953 and 1968, the yearly production of button accordions (garmons and bayans) in the Soviet Union ranged between 597,307 and 921,674 instruments, while the yearly production of piano accordions ranged between 7,124 and 120,313 instruments (averaging around 50,000).
Notable examples
Querhammerflügel with Aeoline, circa 1810, made by Johann Kasper Schlimbach at Königshofen Bayern, using steel reeds and frames made in one part.
The accordion, patented in 1829 by Cyrill Demian.
The concertina, patented in two forms (perhaps independently):
Sir Charles Wheatstone, 1829 and 1844.
Carl Friedrich Uhlig, 1834.
The harmonica, the harmonium, the melodica, and the bandoneón.
Related instruments
In the related woodwind instruments, a vibrating reed is used to set a column of air in vibration within the instrument. In such instruments, the pitch is primarily determined by the effective length of that column of air. Although the Chinese sheng, Japanese sho and Laotian khene have pipes, the pipes do not determine the pitch. In these instruments, the pipes serve as resonating chambers.
Notes
References
External links
What Is A Free Reed?
The Classical Free Reed, Inc. website
Reeds World Musical Instrument Gallery
The Roots of Reeds – an exhibition curated by the Museum of Making Music, Carlsbad, CA – detailing the history and migration of reed instruments. | [
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222618 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Charles%20Meryon | Charles Meryon | Charles Meryon (sometimes Méryon, 23 November 1821 – 14 February 1868) was a French artist who worked almost entirely in etching, as he suffered from colour blindness. Although now little-known in the English-speaking world, he is generally recognised as the most significant etcher of 19th century France. His most famous works are a series of views powerfully conveying his distinctive Gothic vision of Paris. He also suffered from mental illness, dying in an asylum.
Meryon's mother was a dancer at the Paris Opera, who moved to London around 1814 to dance there. In 1818 she had a daughter by Viscount Lowther, the future William Lowther, 2nd Earl of Lonsdale, a wealthy aristocrat and politician, and 1821 Charles Meryon by Dr Charles Lewis Meryon, an English doctor, returning to Paris for the birth, and remaining there for the rest of her life. The household in Paris was supported financially by both fathers, but more so by Lowther, whose indirect funding remained important throughout Meryon's life; he made very little money from his art.
Starting at the age of 16, Meryon spent ten years as a naval cadet and finally officer, which included tours of the Mediterranean, and a four year voyage around the world, for most of it based in New Zealand, where the French then maintained an imperial toe-hold. On his return he fought and was wounded in a pro-government militia during political disturbances in 1848.
He had become seriously interested in art during his naval career, starting to take lessons. He gradually and reluctantly realized that his colour-blindness ruled out painting, and by 1848 settled on etching, then out of favour as a medium for fine art, though about to undergo a considerable revival. His best period lasted between 1850 and about 1856, before his increasing mental illness reduced his output. He spent fourteen months in an asylum in 1858 and 1859, then continued to work until 1866, when he re-entered the asylum for the final time.
Birth and childhood
Meryon's mother, Pierre-Narcisse Chaspoux, was a Parisian, born in 1791, who became a dancer in the Paris Opera in 1807 with the stage name of Narcisse Gentil. Her appearances there stop in 1814, and it was presumably about this time that she moved to London, where she became the mistress of Viscount Lowther, the future William Lowther, 2nd Earl of Lonsdale, then an unmarried Tory MP, junior minister, and friend of the Prince Regent. She had a daughter Frances (Fanny) by him in 1818. She was also friendly with Dr Charles Lewis Meryon, who had been a fellow boarder at 10 Warwick Street, Charing Cross, off Cockspur Street, around 1818. In 1821, when she was appearing as a dancer at the London Opera, Pierre-Narcisse became pregnant by Meryon, and returned to Paris with Fanny, Dr Meryon having left for Florence. Charles Meryon was born in the rue Rameau, round the corner from the then site of the Opera.
His father, Dr Meryon, had been working at St Thomas' Hospital at this time, but had spent the years 1810 to 1817 in the Middle East as (at that point unqualified) doctor to the aristocratic traveller Lady Hester Stanhope, who he was later to visit in Lebanon three times, seeing her for the last time in 1838. He continued to correspond with Pierre-Narcisse, and pay maintenance for his son, probably of 600 francs a year. The letters became increasingly uncomfortable, and she only found out about his marriage, which had been in 1823, by accident in 1831. Equally, Pierre-Narcisse was rather more generously supported by Lowther, who saw her and Fanny when he was in Paris, but she was keen to keep him unaware of the existence of Charles, although the two fathers were acquaintances in London. Both fathers apparently continued to know her under her stage name of "Narcisse Gentil".
Charles was registered at birth as a "Chaspoux", and eventually (in 1829) baptised in the Church of England by the chaplain of the British Embassy in Paris. In 1824 his father legally acknowledged paternity, and he was re-registered as "Meryon", although apparently usually known as "Gentil" as a child. For over a year after his birth he lived with friends of his mother some 20 kilometres outside Paris, visited not very frequently by his mother, sister and grandmother. He could walk at 9 months. He was moved back to Paris in January 1823, and from late 1825 Fanny was at a boarding school.
By late in 1826 he had entered the "Pension Savary", one of a number of small boarding schools in the Paris suburb of Passy; Camille Pissarro was a pupil some years later. He remained there until 1836, apart from a period with his father in 1834–35, and it seems to have been a generally happy time in his life. In 1834 his father, with his wife and children, was living in Marseilles, where Charles joined them for an extended visit in May 1834; he had previously seen him on a few occasions. They spent the winter in north Italy, reaching as far as Florence; Charles was back in Paris by May 1835. Although in most respects he enjoyed the visit, and had happy memories of it, it appears that "the relationships within the family were not explained" to Charles, and perhaps other members, and this, the last time he would see his father, contributed to a growing resentment Charles felt towards him.
Meryon's mother died in October 1838, when he was already in the French Naval School in Brest in Brittany. After this his half-sister Fanny went to live in England, where she married in 1840. She remained in touch with him for the rest of his life. He had his grandmother still in Paris, until her death in 1845, and various cousins and family friends in and around Paris.
In the Navy
Training
Meryon later said that he first became attracted to a naval career by "the animation of the quays of Marseilles", on his visit to his father, and from his letters to his father it is clear this had become a clear intention by the end of 1835. He entered the Naval school in Brest in November 1837, having come 47th in the competitive entry exam, out of 68 candidates who passed.
By the end of his first half-year he was ranked 15th, then 19th six months later. By September 1839 he was 11th out of 60 remaining in his class. He "consistently scored a near-perfect mark in Drawing", did well in English (after greatly improving this when with his father) and Gunnery. The training in drawing covered not only making charts and sketches of coastlines, important skills for naval officers, but "picturesque and linear" drawing of heads and landscapes.
The school for future naval officers had only been founded in 1827. It was based on the ship Orion and the course lasted two years. The pupils almost never set foot on shore, and Meryon's claim to have not done so for 22 months seems plausible. The routine and discipline were harsh, but Meryon made life-long friends, including Ernest Mouchez.
Meryon joined his first ship, the Alger at Toulon in October 1839, as a cadet, second class. Initially he lodged onshore. After a trip to Algiers carrying troops, the ship left Toulon to join the French Levant squadron in the Aegean Sea in February 1840, allowing Meryon to visit Athens, Corinth, Argos, Melos and Mycenae. In April 1840 he transferred to the Montebello near modern Izmir (then Smyrna) in Turkey, with which he revisited Greece, then France, before visiting Tunis, then of great political interest to the French, and Carthage. In January 1842 he was promoted to cadet, first class.
Voyage around the world
In the corvette "Le Rhin" he made a voyage round the world from 1842 to September 1846. The purpose of the voyage was to promote French interests in New Zealand, which the French government was not yet ready to accept as wholly a British territory; there were also French whaling interests to protect. A small French settlement on the South Island had been established on an earlier voyage. The French naval "New Zealand station" was to end while the Rhin was returning home, when the replacement ship, the Seine, was wrecked on the coast of New Caledonia.
The French base in New Zealand was Akaroa, or Port Louis-Philippe as the French still called it, then a small whaling-station, with a mostly French population. The Rhin reached it on 18 January 1843, and was replaced in April 1846. The outward voyage began on 15 August 1842, heading across the Atlantic, passing Tenerife, but not landing until Bahia in Brazil was reached in October, where they spent nearly two weeks. They then changed direction, rounding the Cape of Good Hope, and arriving at Hobart, Tasmania in late December, staying only a week, before sailing for Akaroa, which they reached on 11 January 1843.
Relations between the French and British populations, and even their officials, were cordial or friendly, despite the British tightening their control over this period, for example restricting the fishing rights allowed to French boats. But both sides were aware the question of French claims would be settled back in Europe. In May and June 1843 the Rhin visited Wellington for ten days, then Auckland. In October they set off for Australia, via Kororareka near the tip of the North Island, today Russell, New Zealand, where they stayed until early November. Less than 18 months later the so-called Flagstaff War between the British and Māori was to break out there. In November Meryon was, back in Paris, promoted to ensign, the lowest rank of naval officer, although the news did not reach him on the Rhin until July the next year.
At the end of August 1844 the Rhin sailed for Valparaiso in Chile "to buy stores, particularly wine, which was very expensive in Sydney". After staying two weeks they set off on the return voyage on 6 November 1844, stopping at the Marquesas and Tahiti, which had just come under French "protection", and where there were a total of seven French naval ships at that point. The Rhin reached Akaroa again on 8 February 1845, hoping to find that its replacement ship had arrived, and they could return to France. But the ship had not come, and in March tensions between the Maori and Europeans had sharply increased, increasing the warmth of local Franco-British relations.
The replacement ship Seine finally arrived on 8 March 1846, and the Rhin set sail for home on the 16th. They passed Cape Horn in early May, and landed at Saint Helena on 14 June, staying a week. Meryon's visit to Napoleon's final home would come to haunt him in later years. After a brief stop at Ascension Island, they passed into the Mediterranean and spent four days at the French North African port of Mers El-Kebir from 18 August. They finally landed at Toulon on 28 August, four years and 13 days after they left it.
Art during his naval career
Meryon had sketched in Athens, Algiers and other exotic places he had visited, and by late 1840 decided to take lessons in drawing from the Toulon artist Vincent Courdouan, who was then 30. He had thought of painting in watercolour, but decided he did not have time to learn this at first, but studied using sepia washes. He took full watercolour up in November 1841, when a letter to his father is the first documented mention of his colour-blindness; possibly he had not realized he had the condition before. At this time he seems to have hoped the condition would improve. Courdouan's style made much use of strong contrasts of light and dark tones, which is also characteristic of Meryon's art in the 1850s.
Throughout his voyage on the Rhin he made drawings, many of which he turned into etchings some twenty years later. He also dabbled in sculpture, having bought some plaster of Paris in Sydney in 1843. He made busts and heads of Maori people, none of which have survived. After a dead whale washed up at Akaroa he made a coloured plaster model of whale nearly two metres long, which was later placed on display in the Muséum national d'histoire naturelle (National Museum of Natural History) in Paris, before being transferred to the Muséum d'Histoire naturelle de La Rochelle (in La Rochelle) in 1926.
A number of drawings he made of Maori men with heavily tattooed faces survive, but most of his drawings from the voyage show landscapes, houses, or boats sailing near the coast. His drawing of full human figures (or animals) shows his lack of training, but these views of areas where very few Western artists had reached by the 1840s are rather conventional. Some critics have been intrigued by the contrast between his lack of artistic engagement with the very different visual cultures he encountered on his voyage, some at this date relatively little subdued by Western expansion, and his exploration of his return to Paris of a sometimes sinister exoticism based on Gothic Paris. In particular Le Stryge has the forceful demonic energy which at that date French culture often attributed to exotic cult images from parts of the world where the West was just reaching.
In his last Paris etchings, or his last revisions of them, the fantastic flying creatures that appear in the sky in prints like Le Ministere de la Marine ("The Admiralty"), the last Paris scene, of 1865, include fishing boats from Oceania, and whales hunted or ridden, by harpoon-wielding horsemen. In this case the figures in the sky were present from the first state of the print.
Return to Paris
On his return from the Rhin voyage in August 1846, Meryon was given eight months leave, and went to Paris. He hoped, and rather expected, to be placed at the end of his leave with the team working on the official scientific publication of the voyage, especially as regards the illustrations; the French Navy had a tradition of taking these books very seriously.
In July 1847 he visited his sister Fanny in London, where she lived with her husband Henry Broadwood, like Fanny's father a Conservative Member of Parliament, from the piano-making family. The visit to London was notable for his refusal to visit his father, who was then living there. The two had corresponded during the Rhins voyage, and the day he docked in Toulon he wrote to his father offering to visit him in Nice, not realizing he was no longer there. In London, and in the main art cities of Belgium, which he visited on his way back to Paris, he spent much of his time on conventional museum visiting, also going to the theatre in London.
1848 saw rising political tensions in Paris, which overthrew the monarchy in February and culminated in the June Days uprising, when Meryon's immediate neighbourhood saw some intense fighting around the barricades thrown up by the insurgents. He was a member of the National Guard (probably obligatory for a naval officer on leave), which played a crucial role in resisting the uprising on behalf of the French Second Republic, which Meryon generally supported. He "spent almost three days in the street, broken only by hours snatched for sleep", and was slightly wounded.
In May 1847, when his extended leave came to an end, he should have returned to Toulon, but had not. The work on the naval publication, and much else in naval administration, had been thrown into confusion by the political situation, and in July 1848 Meryon decided to resign his commission, possibly to prepare his own book on the voyage, but apparently also because of his health, his doubts about his ability to command men, and because his next posting was unclear. Because he had not reported back to Toulon, at least months of his pay were caught in a bureaucratic tangle, recorded at great length in the naval records. Although the final recommendation for a ministerial decision, the following March, supported paying him, it is not clear whether this actually happened. Several of the memorandums mention his dire financial circumstances.
Professional artist
In a letter to his father dated 5 November 1846 Meryon announced that he was "getting ready to give myself completely to the study of Art". He first approached a minor pupil of Jacques-Louis David, who worked at the War Ministry, who agreed to take him as a student in August 1847, setting him drawing exercises copying famous classical statues and drawings, in the "conventional" academic curriculum. An early notebook (1847–48) with an ambitious list of possible subjects shows a predominance of maritime subjects, many with specific settings drawn from his voyage, such as a scene of Maoris fighting and an Assassination of Captain Cook (in Hawaii in 1779).
At least two finished pastel drawings survive from this period: a dramatic whaling scene, and the Assassination of Captain Marion du Fresne in New Zealand (by Maoris in 1772, at the Bay of Islands, killing 27 in total). Meryon knew the setting well, and the work was exhibited in the annual Paris Salon at the Louvre in 1848. In 1883 it was turned into an etching by Victor-Louis Focillon (father of the art historian Henri Focillon), which was adapted as a book illustration. His drawing is now in the National Library of New Zealand, and remains the best known depiction of the incident.
The drawing seems to have been intended to be redone on a larger scale in oils, and many writers on Meryon have thought that it was the failed attempt to do this that made Meryon realize the impossibility of pursuing a career in a technique using colour. In early 1848 he met the engraver Eugène Bléry, who according to some accounts had taken an interest in his du Fresne drawing. Bléry (1805–87) was a respected and technically very competent etcher, mostly producing landscapes. A precursor of the Etching Revival, he worked in front of his chosen scene not just in making drawings, but etching his plates. Unlike Meryon, he had little interest in architectural subjects, but both enjoyed strong contrasts of light and dark. Meryon later claimed that his long-term aim in learning printmaking was to participate in illustrating an account, either the official one or his own, of the voyage of the Rhin.
Meryon joined Bléry's workshop, and was soon on excellent terms with him and his family. In September 1848 he joined Mme Bléry and her daughter on a holiday, and sketching tour, in Normandy for several weeks, when M Bléry could not leave Paris. By December he had accepted an invitation to move in to their house. He started to produce etchings, mostly copying landscape and animal paintings, or other prints, that allowed him to develop his technique, and could also be sold print-dealers, if only for modest sums.
He entered the studio of the engraver Eugène Bléry, from whom he learnt something of technical matters, and to whom he always remained grateful. Méryon had no money, and was too proud to ask help from his family. He was forced to earn a living by doing work that was mechanical and irksome. Among learners' work, done for his own advantage, are to be counted some studies after the Dutch etchers such as Zeeman and Adriaen van de Velde. Having proved himself a skilled copyist, he began doing original work, notably a series of etchings which are the greatest embodiments of his greatest conceptions—the series called "Eaux-fortes sur Paris." These plates, executed from 1850 to 1854, are never found as a set and were never expressly published as such, but they nonetheless constituted in Méryon's mind an harmonious series.
Mature work
Besides the twenty-two etchings "sur Paris", Meryon did seventy-two etchings of one sort and another ninety-four in all being catalogued in Frederick Wedmore's Méryon and Méryon's Paris; but these include the works of his apprenticeship and of his decline, adroit copies in which his best success was in the sinking of his own individuality, and more or less dull portraits. Yet among the seventy-two prints outside his professed series there are at least a dozen famous ones. Three or four beautiful etchings of Paris do not belong to the series at all. Two or three others are devoted to the illustration of Bourges, a city in which the old wooden houses were as attractive to him for their own sakes as were the stonebuilt monuments of Paris. Generally it was when Paris engaged him that he succeeded the most. He would have done more work if the material difficulties of his life had not pressed upon him and shortened his days.
He was a bachelor, yet almost as constantly occupied with love as with work. The depth of his imagination and the surprising mastery which he achieved almost from the beginning in the technicalities of his craft were appreciated only by a few artists, critics and connoisseurs, and he could not sell his etchings or could sell them only for about lod. apiece. Disappointment told upon him, and, frugal as was his way of life, poverty must have affected him. He became subject to hallucinations. Enemies, he said, waited for him at the corners of the streets; his few friends robbed him or owed him that which they would never pay. A few years after the completion of his Paris series he was placed in the asylum at Charenton. Briefly restored to health, he came out and did a little more work, but at bottom he was exhausted. In 1867 he returned to his asylum, and died there in 1868. In middle age, just before he was confined, he associated with Félix Bracquemond and Léopold Flameng, skilled practitioners of etching. The best portrait we have of him is one by Bracquemond under which the sitter wrote that it represented "the sombre Méryon with the grotesque visage."
There are twenty-two pieces in the Eaux-fortes sur Paris. Some of them are insignificant. That is because ten out of the twenty-two were destined as headpiece, tailpiece, or running commentary on some more important plate. But each has its value, and certain of the smaller pieces throw great light on the aim of the entire set. Thus, one little plate—not a picture at all—is devoted to the record of verses made by Méryon, the purpose of which is to lament the life of Paris. Méryon aimed to illustrate its misery and poverty, as well as its splendour. His etchings are no mere views of Paris. They are "views" only so far as is compatible with their being likewise the visions of a poet and the compositions of an artist.
Méryon's epic work was coloured strongly by his personal sentiment, and affected here and there by current events — in more than one case, for instance, he hurried with particular affection to etch his impression of some old-world building which was on the point of destruction, as Napoleon III tore down buildings to reconstruct Paris with wide boulevards. Nearly every etching in the series reveals technical skill, but even the technical skill is exercised most happily in those etchings which have the advantage of impressive subjects, and which the collector willingly cherishes for their mysterious suggestiveness or for their pure beauty.
Méryon also taught; among his pupils was the etcher Gabrielle-Marie Niel.
Style
The Abside de Notre Dame is the general favourite and is commonly held to be Méryon's masterpiece. Light and shade play wonderfully over the great fabric of the church, seen over the spaces of the river. As a draughtsman of architecture, Méryon was complete; his sympathy with its various styles was broad, and his work on its various styles unbiased and of equal perfection—a point in which it is curious to contrast him with J.M.W. Turner, who, in drawing Gothic architecture, often drew it with want of appreciation. It is evident that architecture must enter largely into any representation of a city, however much such representation may be a vision, and however little a chronicle. Even the architectural portion of Méryon's labour is only indirectly imaginative; to the imagination he has given freer play in his dealings with the figure, whether the people of the street or of the river or the people who, when he is most frankly or even wildly symbolical, crowd the sky.
Generally speaking, his figures are, as regards draughtsmanship, "landscape-painter's figures." They are drawn more with an eye to grace than to academic correctness. But they are not "landscape-painter's figures" at all when what we are ‘concerned with is not the method of their representation but the purpose of their introduction. They are seen then to be in exceptional accord with the sentiment of the scene. Sometimes, as in the case of La Morgue, it is they who tell the story of the picture. Sometimes, as in the case of La Rue des Mauvais Garçons—with the two passing women bent together in secret converse—they at least suggest it. And sometimes, as in L'Arche du Pont Notre Dame, it is their expressive gesture and eager action that give vitality and animation to the scene.
Dealing perfectly with architecture, and perfectly, as far as concerned his peculiar purpose, with humanity in his art, Méryon was little called upon by the character of his subjects to deal with Nature. He drew trees but badly, never representing foliage happily, either in detail or in mass. But to render the characteristics of the city, it was necessary that he should know how to portray a certain kind of water—river-water, mostly sluggish—and a certain kind of sky—the grey obscured and lower sky that broods over a world of roof and chimney. This water and this sky Méryon is thoroughly master of; he notes with observant affection their changes in all lights.
In his technique, Méryon experimented variously in his brief career, and at times within individual works. In two different impressions of his Paris view La Pompe Notre Dame de Paris (1852) he could employ crisp lines through a well wiped plate without surface tone, or leave softer edges and richer darks by ample surface tone. His aesthetics were often dictated by his paper, of which he endeavored to acquire the finest available. His more defined works he printed on 'Hudelist' paper, from a mill in Hallines in the North of France, which had the uniform, smooth quality ideal for sharp images. His more gauzy works, by contrast, were printed on a softer, felt-like Morel Lavenere paper produced in Glaignes, which was highly absorbent—and pale green, which Méryon in his colour blindness would not have perceived as the typical viewer. Ultimately, however, his stated preference was for cleanly-wiped, clear prints of a uniform quality, which determination ironically positioned him against the Etching Revival he helped inspire.
Mental illness
As early as his voyage on the Rhin in his naval period, Meryon had displayed behaviours that were initially interpreted as eccentricity, for which there was considerable tolerance in Parisian artistic circles, but later came to be seen by friends as "the beginnings of a dysfunction". By the mid-1850s he had periods of depression when he could do nothing, and developed a conviction that he was being persecuted by Emperor Napoleon III; he traced this to "tactless words on the abuse of force" which he had inscribed in 1846 in the visitor's book at Longwood, Saint Helena, where Napoleon I had died. He thought several other artists who had died had been done away with by the government, probably by poison.
He developed an obsession with a very young girl in the neighbourhood, Louise Neveu, who lived next door to him between at least 1851 and 1856. His "aggressive and persistent but unsuccessful courting" was an attempt to marry her, for which he negotiated with her parents through a friend. Her father "thought him potentially violent", and he later "threatened visitors with a pistol". There may have been another young girl, as various accounts mention the daughter of the owner of the restaurant where he usually ate, who was not Neveu. Several accounts mention his obsessive digging-up of the back-garden of the house he was staying, apparently looking for buried bodies.
In 1858 he agreed to admit himself to the leading Charenton asylum, a doctor having certified him as "suffering from a profound disturbance of the mental faculties" on 10 May. Two days later, his initial examination at Charenton assessed him as having "Deep melancholy, ideas of persecution which he considers to be deserved. depressive ideas. he considers himself deeply guilty towards Society." This stay lasted fourteen months until 10 September 1859, by which time he was assessed as improved, including by himself in a later letter.
After seven years, during which both his life and his art had shown signs that his condition had remained with him to some degree, he was readmitted to Charenton for the final time on 10 October 1866. Their records of "regular monthly assessments offer a story of persistent violent outbursts, intense melancholy, recurrent hallucinations and the conviction that even his old friends were conspiring against him". Although he was sometimes well enough to be taken out for trips, his condition deteriorated, he stopped eating, and he died in Charenton on 14 February 1868.
Retrospective diagnoses assess Meryon's behavior exhibiting symptoms of schizophrenia.
Value of Meryon's prints
To 1911
It is worthwhile to note the extraordinary enhancement in the value of Méryon's prints. Probably of no other artist of genius, not even of Whistler, could there be cited within the same period a rise in prices of at all the same proportion. Thus the first state of the "Stryge" – that "with the verses" – selling under the hammer in 1873 for £5, sold again under the hammer in 1905 for £100. The first state of the "Galerie de Notre Dame" – selling in 1873 for £5 and at M. Wasset's sale in 1880 for £11, fetched in 1905, £52. A "Tour de l'Horloge," which two or three years after it was first issued sold for half a crown, in May 1903 fetched f70. A first state (Wedmore's, not of course M. Delteil's "first state," which, like nearly all his first states, is in fact a trial proof) of the "Saint Étienne du Mont," realizing about £2 at M. Burty's sale in 1876, realized £60 at a sale in May 1906. The second state of the "Morgue" (Wedmore) sold in 1905 for £65; and Wedmore's second of the "Abside," which used to sell throughout the seventies for £4 or £5, reached in November 1906 more than £200. At no period have even Dürers or Rembrandts risen so swiftly and steadily.
Modern
Though while alive he sold prints for francs, in 2014 prints were for sale under US$1000. Four of the Paris prints sold at Christie's in London for £4,375 in 2009, but an especially good impression of one of these had fetched £11,500 in 1998. In 2018 Meryon’s etchings fetch on the market (in the UK) from between £1,500 to £7,500 GBP.
Gallery of etchingsEtchings of Paris:
Notes
References
Collins, Roger, Charles Meryon: A Life, 1999, Garton & Company, , 9780906030356
Mayor, A. Hyatt, Prints & People: A Social History of Printed Pictures, #s 700–702, 1971 (originally), The Metropolitan Museum of Art (fully available online as PDF)
Van Breda, Jacobus, "Charles Meryon: Paper and Ink", Art in Print, vol. 3, no. 3, 2013, pp. 17–22. JSTOR, Accessed 22 Nov. 2020.
Further readingCataloguesSchneiderman, Richard J., The Catalogue Raisonné of the Prints of Charles Meryon, 1990, Garton & Company, , 9780906030233 (now the standard catalogue)
Catalogue Raisonne of the Etchings of Charles Meryon – Loÿs Delteil, Harold J. L. Wright, 1924
Descriptive Catalogue of the Works of Méryon (London, 1879)Books'''
PG Hamerton, Etching and Etchers (1868)
Francis Seymour Haden, Notes on Etching
Henri Béraldi, Les Peintres graveurs du dix-neuviéme siècle
Baudelaire, Lettres de Baudelaire (1907);
Loÿs Delteil, Charles Méryon (1907)';
Frederick Wedmore, Méryon and Méryon's Paris, with a descriptive catalogue, of the artist's work (1879; 2nd ed., 1892); and Fine Prints'' (1896; 2nd ed., 1905).
External links
Charles Méryon exhibition catalogs
1821 births
1868 deaths
19th-century French engravers
Artists from Paris
French etchers
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