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232328	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Robert%20Gascoyne-Cecil%2C%203rd%20Marquess%20of%20Salisbury	Robert Gascoyne-Cecil, 3rd Marquess of Salisbury	Robert Arthur Talbot Gascoyne-Cecil, 3rd Marquess of Salisbury (; 3 February 183022 August 1903) was a British statesman and Conservative politician who served as Prime Minister of the United Kingdom three times for a total of over thirteen years. He was also Foreign Secretary for much of his tenure, and during his last two years of office he was Lord Keeper of the Privy Seal. He avoided alignments or alliances, maintaining the policy of "splendid isolation". Lord Robert Cecil was first elected to the House of Commons in 1854 and served as Secretary of State for India in Lord Derby's Conservative government 1866–1867. In 1874, under Disraeli, Salisbury returned as Secretary of State for India, and, in 1878, was appointed foreign secretary, and played a leading part in the Congress of Berlin. After Disraeli's death in 1881, Salisbury emerged as Conservative leader in the House of Lords, with Sir Stafford Northcote leading the party in the Commons. He succeeded William Ewart Gladstone as prime minister in June 1885, and held the office until January 1886. When Gladstone came out in favour of Home Rule for Ireland, Salisbury opposed him and formed an alliance with the breakaway Liberal Unionists, winning the subsequent general election. His great achievement in this term was obtaining the majority of new territory in Africa during the Scramble for Africa, avoiding a war or serious confrontation with the other powers. He remained as prime minister until Gladstone's Liberals formed a government with the support of the Irish nationalists at the 1892 general election. The Liberals, however, lost the 1895 general election, and Salisbury for the third and last time became prime minister. He led Britain to victory in a bitter, controversial war against the Boers, and led the Unionists to another electoral victory in 1900. He relinquished the premiership to his nephew Arthur Balfour in 1902 and died in 1903. He was the last prime minister to serve from the House of Lords. Historians agree that Salisbury was a strong and effective leader in foreign affairs, with a wide grasp of the issues. Paul Smith characterises his personality as "deeply neurotic, depressive, agitated, introverted, fearful of change and loss of control, and self-effacing but capable of extraordinary competitiveness." A representative of the landed aristocracy, he held the reactionary credo, "Whatever happens will be for the worse, and therefore it is in our interest that as little should happen as possible." Searle says that instead of seeing his party's victory in 1886 as a harbinger of a new and more popular Conservatism, he longed to return to the stability of the past, when his party's main function was to restrain demagogic liberalism and democratic excess. Early life: 1830–1852 Lord Robert Cecil was born at Hatfield House, the third son of the 2nd Marquess of Salisbury and Frances Mary, née Gascoyne. He was a patrilineal descendant of Lord Burghley and the 1st Earl of Salisbury, chief ministers of Elizabeth I. The family owned vast rural estates in Hertfordshire and Dorset. This wealth increased sharply in 1821, when his father married his mother, Frances Mary Gascoyne, heiress of a wealthy merchant and Member of Parliament who had bought large estates in Essex and Lancashire. Robert had a miserable childhood, with few friends; he filled his time with reading. He was bullied unmercifully at the schools he attended. In 1840, he went to Eton College, where he did well in French, German, Classics, and Theology; however, he left in 1845 because of intense bullying. The unhappy schooling shaped his pessimistic outlook on life and his negative views on democracy. He decided that most people were cowardly and cruel, and that the mob would run roughshod over sensitive individuals. In December 1847 he went to Christ Church, Oxford, where he received an honorary fourth class in Mathematics conferred by nobleman's privilege due to ill health. Whilst at Oxford he found the Oxford movement or "Tractarianism" to be an intoxicating force; he had an intense religious experience that shaped his life. He was involved in the Oxford Union serving as Secretary and Treasurer of the Society. In 1853 he was elected a prize fellow of All Souls College, Oxford. In April 1850 he joined Lincoln's Inn, but did not enjoy law. His doctor advised him to travel for his health, and so in July 1851 to May 1853 Cecil travelled through Cape Colony, Australia, including Tasmania, and New Zealand. He disliked the Boers and wrote that free institutions and self-government could not be granted to the Cape Colony because the Boers outnumbered the British three-to-one, and "it will simply be delivering us over bound hand and foot into the power of the Dutch, who hate us as much as a conquered people can hate their conquerors". He found the Native South Africans "a fine set of men – whose language bears traces of a very high former civilisation", similar to Italian. They were "an intellectual race, with great firmness and fixedness of will" but "horribly immoral" as they lacked theism. In the Bendigo goldmine in Australia, he claimed that "there is not half as much crime or insubordination as there would be in an English town of the same wealth and population". Ten thousand miners were policed by four men armed with carbines, and at Mount Alexander 30,000 people were protected by 200 policemen, with over 30,000 ounces of gold mined per week. He believed that there was "generally far more civility than I should be likely to find in the good town of Hatfield" and claimed this was due to "the government was that of the Queen, not of the mob; from above, not from below. Holding from a supposed right (whether real or not, no matter)" and from "the People the source of all legitimate power," Cecil said of the Māori of New Zealand: "The natives seem when they have converted to make much better Christians than the white man". A Maori chief offered Cecil five acres near Auckland, which he declined. Member of Parliament: 1853–1866 He entered the House of Commons as a Conservative on 22 August 1853, as MP for Stamford in Lincolnshire. He retained this seat until he succeeded to his father's peerages in 1868 and it was not contested during his time as its representative. In his election address he opposed secular education and "ultramontane" interference with the Church of England which was "at variance with the fundamental principles of our constitution". He would oppose "any such tampering with our representative system as shall disturb the reciprocal powers on which the stability of our constitution rests". In 1867, after his brother Eustace complained of being addressed by constituents in a hotel, Cecil responded: "A hotel infested by influential constituents is worse than one infested by bugs. It's a pity you can't carry around a powder insecticide to get rid of vermin of that kind". In December 1856 Cecil began publishing articles for the Saturday Review, to which he contributed anonymously for the next nine years. From 1861 to 1864 he published 422 articles in it; in total the weekly published 608 of his articles. The Quarterly Review was the foremost intellectual journal of the age and of the twenty-six issues published between spring 1860 and summer 1866, Cecil had anonymous articles in all but three of them. He also wrote lead articles for the Tory daily newspaper the Standard. In 1859 Cecil was a founding co-editor of Bentley's Quarterly Review, with John Douglas Cook and Rev. William Scott; but it closed after four issues. Salisbury criticised the foreign policy of Lord John Russell, claiming he was "always being willing to sacrifice anything for peace... colleagues, principles, pledges... a portentous mixture of bounce and baseness... dauntless to the weak, timid and cringing to the strong". The lessons to be learnt from Russell's foreign policy, Salisbury believed, were that he should not listen to the opposition or the press otherwise "we are to be governed… by a set of weathercocks, delicately poised, warranted to indicate with unnerving accuracy every variation in public feeling". Secondly: "No one dreams of conducting national affairs with the principles which are prescribed to individuals. The meek and poor-spirited among nations are not to be blessed, and the common sense of Christendom has always prescribed for national policy principles diametrically opposed to those that are laid down in the Sermon on the Mount". Thirdly: "The assemblies that meet in Westminster have no jurisdiction over the affairs of other nations. Neither they nor the Executive, except in plain defiance of international law, can interfere [in the internal affairs of other countries]... It is not a dignified position for a Great Power to occupy, to be pointed out as the busybody of Christendom". Finally, Britain should not threaten other countries unless prepared to back this up by force: "A willingness to fight is the point d'appui of diplomacy, just as much as a readiness to go to court is the starting point of a lawyer's letter. It is merely courting dishonour, and inviting humiliation for the men of peace to use the habitual language of the men of war". Secretary of State for India: 1866–1867 In 1866 Lord Robert, now Viscount Cranborne after the death of his older brother, entered the third government of Lord Derby as Secretary of State for India. When in 1867 John Stuart Mill proposed a type of proportional representation, Cranborne argued that: "It was not of our atmosphere—it was not in accordance with our habits; it did not belong to us. They all knew that it could not pass. Whether that was creditable to the House or not was a question into which he would not inquire; but every Member of the House the moment he saw the scheme upon the Paper saw that it belonged to the class of impracticable things". On 2 August when the Commons debated the Orissa famine in India, Cranborne spoke out against experts, political economy, and the government of Bengal. Utilising the Blue Books, Cranborne criticised officials for "walking in a dream… in superb unconsciousness, believing that what had been must be, and that as long as they did nothing absolutely wrong, and they did not displease their immediate superiors, they had fulfilled all the duties of their station". These officials worshipped political economy "as a sort of 'fetish'... [they] seemed to have forgotten utterly that human life was short, and that man did not subsist without food beyond a few days". Three-quarters of a million people had died because officials had chosen "to run the risk of losing the lives than to run the risk of wasting the money". Cranborne's speech was received with "an enthusiastic, hearty cheer from both sides of the House" and Mill crossed the floor of the Commons to congratulate him on it. The famine left Cranborne with a lifelong suspicion of experts and in the photograph albums at his home covering the years 1866–67 there are two images of skeletal Indian children amongst the family pictures. Reform Act 1867 When parliamentary reform came to prominence again in the mid-1860s, Cranborne worked hard to master electoral statistics until he became an expert. When the Liberal Reform Bill was being debated in 1866, Cranborne studied the census returns to see how each clause in the Bill would affect the electoral prospects in each seat. Cranborne did not expect Disraeli's conversion to reform, however. When the Cabinet met on 16 February 1867, Disraeli voiced his support for some extension of the suffrage, providing statistics amassed by Robert Dudley Baxter, showing that 330,000 people would be given the vote and all except 60,000 would be granted extra votes. Cranborne studied Baxter's statistics and on 21 February he met Lord Carnarvon, who wrote in his diary: "He is firmly convinced now that Disraeli has played us false, that he is attempting to hustle us into his measure, that Lord Derby is in his hands and that the present form which the question has now assumed has been long planned by him". They agreed to "a sort of offensive and defensive alliance on this question in the Cabinet" to "prevent the Cabinet adopting any very fatal course". Disraeli had "separate and confidential conversations...carried on with each member of the Cabinet from whom he anticipated opposition [which] had divided them and lulled their suspicions". That same night Cranborne spent three hours studying Baxter's statistics and wrote to Carnarvon the day after that although Baxter was right overall in claiming that 30% of £10 ratepayers who qualified for the vote would not register, it would be untrue in relation to the smaller boroughs where the register is kept up to date. Cranborne also wrote to Derby arguing that he should adopt 10 shillings rather than Disraeli's 20 shillings for the qualification of the payers of direct taxation: "Now above 10 shillings you won't get in the large mass of the £20 householders. At 20 shillings I fear you won't get more than 150,000 double voters, instead of the 270,000 on which we counted. And I fear this will tell horribly on the small and middle-sized boroughs". On 23 February Cranborne protested in Cabinet and the next day analysed Baxter's figures using census returns and other statistics to determine how Disraeli's planned extension of the franchise would affect subsequent elections. Cranborne found that Baxter had not taken into account the different types of boroughs in the totals of new voters. In small boroughs under 20,000 the "fancy franchises" for direct taxpayers and dual voters would be less than the new working-class voters in each seat. The same day he met Carnarvon and they both studied the figures, coming to the same result each time: "A complete revolution would be effected in the boroughs" due to the new majority of the working-class electorate. Cranborne wanted to send his resignation to Derby along with the statistics but Cranborne agreed to Carnarvon's suggestion that as a Cabinet member he had a right to call a Cabinet meeting. It was planned for the next day, 25 February. Cranborne wrote to Derby that he had discovered that Disraeli's plan would "throw the small boroughs almost, and many of them entirely, into the hands of the voter whose qualification is less than £10. I do not think that such a proceeding is for the interest of the country. I am sure that it is not in accordance with the hopes which those of us who took an active part in resisting Mr Gladstone's Bill last year in those whom we induced to vote for us". The Conservative boroughs with populations less than 25,000 (a majority of the boroughs in Parliament) would be very much worse off under Disraeli's scheme than the Liberal Reform Bill of the previous year: "But if I assented to this scheme, now that I know what its effect will be, I could not look in the face those whom last year I urged to resist Mr Gladstone. I am convinced that it will, if passed, be the ruin of the Conservative party". When Cranborne entered the Cabinet meeting on 25 February "with reams of paper in his hands" he began by reading statistics but was interrupted to be told of the proposal by Lord Stanley that they should agree to a £6 borough rating franchise instead of the full household suffrage, and a £20 county franchise rather than £50. The Cabinet agreed to Stanley's proposal. The meeting was so contentious that a minister who was late initially thought they were debating the suspension of habeas corpus. The next day another Cabinet meeting took place, with Cranborne saying little and the Cabinet adopting Disraeli's proposal to bring in a Bill in a week's time. On 28 February a meeting of the Carlton Club took place, with a majority of the 150 Conservative MPs present supporting Derby and Disraeli. At the Cabinet meeting on 2 March, Cranborne, Carnarvon and General Peel were pleaded with for two hours not to resign, but when Cranborne "announced his intention of resigning...Peel and Carnarvon, with evident reluctance, followed his example". Lord John Manners observed that Cranborne "remained unmoveable". Derby closed his red box with a sigh and stood up, saying "The Party is ruined!" Cranborne got up at the same time, with Peel remarking: "Lord Cranborne, do you hear what Lord Derby says?" Cranborne ignored this and the three resigning ministers left the room. Cranborne's resignation speech was met with loud cheers and Carnarvon observed that it was "moderate and in good taste – a sufficient justification for us who seceded and yet no disclosure of the frequent changes in policy in the Cabinet". Disraeli introduced his Bill on 18 March and it would extend the suffrage to all rate-paying householders of two years' residence, dual voting for graduates or those of a learned profession, or those with £50 in governments funds or in the Bank of England or a savings bank. These "fancy franchises", as Cranborne had foreseen, did not survive the Bill's course through Parliament; dual voting was dropped in March, the compound householder vote in April; and the residential qualification was reduced in May. In the end the county franchise was granted to householders rated at £12 annually. On 15 July the third reading of the Bill took place and Cranborne spoke first, in a speech which his biographer Andrew Roberts has called "possibly the greatest oration of a career full of powerful parliamentary speeches". Cranborne observed how the Bill "bristled with precautions, guarantees and securities" had been stripped of these. He attacked Disraeli by pointing out how he had campaigned against the Liberal Bill in 1866 yet the next year introduced a Bill more extensive than the one rejected. In the peroration Cranborne said: I desire to protest, in the most earnest language which I am capable of using, against the political morality on which the manoeuvres of this year have been based. If you borrow your political ethics from the ethics of the political adventurer, you may depend upon it the whole of your representative institutions will crumble beneath your feet. It is only because of that mutual trust in each other by which we ought to be animated, it is only because we believe that expressions and convictions expressed, and promises made, will be followed by deeds, that we are enabled to carry on this party Government which has led this country to so high a pitch of greatness. I entreat honourable Gentlemen opposite not to believe that my feelings on this subject are dictated simply by my hostility on this particular measure, though I object to it most strongly, as the House is aware. But, even if I took a contrary view – if I deemed it to be most advantageous, I still should deeply regret that the position of the Executive should have been so degraded as it has been in the present session: I should deeply regret to find that the House of Commons has applauded a policy of legerdemain; and I should, above all things, regret that this great gift to the people – if gift you think – should have been purchased at the cost of a political betrayal which has no parallel in our Parliamentary annals, which strikes at the root of all that mutual confidence which is the very soul of our party Government, and on which only the strength and freedom of our representative institutions can be sustained. In his article for the October Quarterly Review, entitled 'The Conservative Surrender', Cranborne criticised Derby because he had "obtained the votes which placed him in office on the faith of opinions which, to keep office, he immediately repudiated...He made up his mind to desert these opinions at the very moment he was being raised to power as their champion". Also, the annals of modern parliamentary history could find no parallel for Disraeli's betrayal; historians would have to look "to the days when Sunderland directed the Council, and accepted the favours of James when he was negotiating the invasion of William". Disraeli responded in a speech that Cranborne was "a very clever man who has made a very great mistake". In opposition: 1868–1874 [[File:Robert Cecil, Vanity Fair, 1869-07-10.jpg\|thumb\|The Marquess of Salisbury caricatured by "Ape" in Vanity Fair''', 1869]] In 1868, on the death of his father, he inherited the Marquessate of Salisbury, thereby becoming a member of the House of Lords. In 1869 he was elected Chancellor of the University of Oxford and elected a Fellow of the Royal Society. Between 1868 and 1871, he was chairman of the Great Eastern Railway, which was then experiencing losses. During his tenure, the company was taken out of Chancery, and paid out a small dividend on its ordinary shares. From 1868 he was Honorary Colonel of the Hertfordshire Militia, which became the 4th (Militia) Battalion, Bedfordshire Regiment, in 1881, and which was commanded in South Africa during the Second Boer War by his eldest son.Army List. Secretary of State for India: 1874–1878 Salisbury returned to government in 1874, serving once again as Secretary of State for India in the government of Benjamin Disraeli, and Britain's Ambassador Plenipotentiary at the 1876 Constantinople Conference. Salisbury gradually developed a good relationship with Disraeli, whom he had previously disliked and mistrusted. During a Cabinet meeting on 7 March 1878, a discussion arose over whether to occupy Mytilene. Lord Derby recorded in his diary that "[o]f all present Salisbury by far the most eager for action: he talked of our sliding into a position of contempt: of our being humiliated etc." At the Cabinet meeting the next day, Derby recorded that Lord John Manners objected to occupying the city "on the ground of right. Salisbury treated scruples of this kind with marked contempt, saying, truly enough, that if our ancestors had cared for the rights of other people, the British empire would not have been made. He was more vehement than any one for going on. In the end the project was dropped..." Foreign Secretary: 1878–1880 In 1878, Salisbury became foreign secretary in time to help lead Britain to "peace with honour" at the Congress of Berlin. For this he was rewarded with the Order of the Garter along with Disraeli. Leader of the Opposition: 1881–1885 Following Disraeli's death in 1881, the Conservatives entered a period of turmoil. The party's previous leaders had all been appointed as Prime Minister by the reigning monarch on advice from their retiring predecessor, and no process was in place to deal with leadership succession in case either the leadership became vacant while the party was in opposition, or the outgoing leader died without designating a successor, situations which both arose from the death of Disraeli (a formal leadership election system would not be adopted by the party until 1964, shortly after the government of Alec Douglas-Home fell). Salisbury became the leader of the Conservative members of the House of Lords, though the overall leadership of the party was not formally allocated. So he struggled with the Commons leader Sir Stafford Northcote, a struggle in which Salisbury eventually emerged as the leading figure. Historian Richard Shannon argues that while Salisbury presided over one of the longest periods of Tory dominance, he misinterpreted and mishandled his election successes. Salisbury's blindness to the middle class and reliance on the aristocracy prevented the Conservatives from becoming a majority party. Reform Act 1884 In 1884 Gladstone introduced a Reform Bill which would extend the suffrage to two million rural workers. Salisbury and Northcote agreed that any Reform Bill would be supported only if a parallel redistributionary measure was introduced as well. In a speech in the Lords, Salisbury claimed: "Now that the people have in no real sense been consulted, when they had, at the last General Election, no notion of what was coming upon them, I feel that we are bound, as guardians of their interests, to call upon the government to appeal to the people, and by the result of that appeal we will abide". The Lords rejected the Bill and Parliament was prorogued for ten weeks. Writing to Canon Malcolm MacColl, Salisbury believed that Gladstone's proposals for reform without redistribution would mean "the absolute effacement of the Conservative Party. It would not have reappeared as a political force for thirty years. This conviction...greatly simplified for me the computation of risks". At a meeting of the Carlton Club on 15 July, Salisbury announced his plan for making the government introduce a Seats (or Redistribution) Bill in the Commons whilst at the same time delaying a Franchise Bill in the Lords. The unspoken implication being that Salisbury would relinquish the party leadership if his plan was not supported. Although there was some dissent, Salisbury carried the party with him. Salisbury wrote to Lady John Manners on 14 June that he did not regard female suffrage as a question of high importance "but when I am told that my ploughmen are capable citizens, it seems to me ridiculous to say that educated women are not just as capable. A good deal of the political battle of the future will be a conflict between religion and unbelief: & the women will in that controversy be on the right side". On 21 July, a large meeting for reform was held at Hyde Park. Salisbury said in The Times that "the employment of mobs as an instrument of public policy is likely to prove a sinister precedent". On 23 July at Sheffield, Salisbury said that the government "imagine that thirty thousand Radicals going to amuse themselves in London on a given day expresses the public opinion of the day...they appeal to the streets, they attempt legislation by picnic". Salisbury further claimed that Gladstone adopted reform as a "cry" to deflect attention from his foreign and economic policies at the next election. He claimed that the House of Lords was protecting the British constitution: "I do not care whether it is an hereditary chamber or any other – to see that the representative chamber does not alter the tenure of its own power so as to give a perpetual lease of that power to the party in predominance at the moment". On 25 July at a reform meeting in Leicester consisting of 40,000 people, Salisbury was burnt in effigy and a banner quoted Shakespeare's Henry VI: "Old Salisbury – shame to thy silver hair, Thou mad misleader". On 9 August in Manchester, over 100,000 came to hear Salisbury speak. On 30 September at Glasgow, he said: "We wish that the franchise should pass but that before you make new voters you should determine the constitution in which they are to vote". Salisbury published an article in the National Review for October, titled ‘The Value of Redistribution: A Note on Electoral Statistics’. He claimed that the Conservatives "have no cause, for Party reasons, to dread enfranchisement coupled with a fair redistribution". Judging by the 1880 results, Salisbury asserted that the overall loss to the Conservatives of enfranchisement without redistribution would be 47 seats. Salisbury spoke throughout Scotland and claimed that the government had no mandate for reform when it had not appealed to the people. Gladstone offered wavering Conservatives a compromise a little short of enfranchisement and redistribution, and after the Queen unsuccessfully attempted to persuade Salisbury to compromise, he wrote to Rev. James Baker on 30 October: "Politics stand alone among human pursuits in this characteristic, that no one is conscious of liking them – and no one is able to leave them. But whatever affection they may have had they are rapidly losing. The difference between now and thirty years ago when I entered the House of Commons is inconceivable". On 11 November, the Franchise Bill received its third reading in the Commons and it was due to get a second reading in the Lords. The day after at a meeting of Conservative leaders, Salisbury was outnumbered in his opposition to compromise. On 13 February, Salisbury rejected MacColl's idea that he should meet Gladstone, as he believed the meeting would be found out and that Gladstone had no genuine desire to negotiate. On 17 November, it was reported in the newspapers that if the Conservatives gave "adequate assurance" that the Franchise Bill would pass the Lords before Christmas the government would ensure that a parallel Seats Bill would receive its second reading in the Commons as the Franchise Bill went into committee stage in the Lords. Salisbury responded by agreeing only if the Franchise Bill came second. The Carlton Club met to discuss the situation, with Salisbury's daughter writing: The three arch-funkers Cairns, Richmond and Carnarvon cried out declaring that he would accept no compromise at all as it was absurd to imagine the Government conceding it. When the discussion was at its height (very high) enter Arthur [Balfour] with explicit declamation dictated by GOM in Hartington's handwriting yielding the point entirely. Tableau and triumph along the line for the 'stiff' policy which had obtained terms which the funkers had not dared hope for. My father's prevailing sentiment is one of complete wonder...we have got all and more than we demanded. Despite the controversy which had raged, the meetings of leading Liberals and Conservatives on reform at Downing Street were amicable. Salisbury and the Liberal Sir Charles Dilke dominated discussions as they had both closely studied in detail the effects of reform on the constituencies. After one of the last meetings on 26 November, Gladstone told his secretary that "Lord Salisbury, who seems to monopolise all the say on his side, has no respect for tradition. As compared with him, Mr Gladstone declares he is himself quite a Conservative. They got rid of the boundary question, minority representation, grouping and the Irish difficulty. The question was reduced to... for or against single member constituencies". The Reform Bill laid down that the majority of the 670 constituencies were to be roughly equal size and return one member; those between 50,000 and 165,000 kept the two-member representation and those over 165,000 and all the counties were split up into single-member constituencies. This franchise existed until 1918. Prime minister: 1885–1886 Salisbury became prime minister of a minority administration from 1885 to 1886. In the November 1883 issue of National Review Salisbury wrote an article titled "Labourers' and Artisans' Dwellings" in which he argued that the poor conditions of working class housing were injurious to morality and health. Salisbury said "Laissez-faire is an admirable doctrine but it must be applied on both sides", as Parliament had enacted new building projects (such as the Thames Embankment) which had displaced working-class people and was responsible for "packing the people tighter": "...thousands of families have only a single room to dwell in, where they sleep and eat, multiply, and die… It is difficult to exaggerate the misery which such conditions of life must cause, or the impulse they must give to vice. The depression of body and mind which they create is an almost insuperable obstacle to the action of any elevating or refining agencies". The Pall Mall Gazette argued that Salisbury had sailed into "the turbid waters of State Socialism"; the Manchester Guardian said his article was "State socialism pure and simple" and The Times claimed Salisbury was "in favour of state socialism". In July 1885 the Housing of the Working Classes Bill was introduced by the Home Secretary, R. A. Cross in the Commons and Salisbury in the Lords. When Lord Wemyss criticised the Bill as "strangling the spirit of independence and the self-reliance of the people, and destroying the moral fibre of our race in the anaconda coils of state socialism", Salisbury responded: "Do not imagine that by merely affixing to it the reproach of Socialism you can seriously affect the progress of any great legislative movement, or destroy those high arguments which are derived from the noblest principles of philanthropy and religion". Although unable to accomplish much due to his lack of a parliamentary majority, the split of the Liberals over Irish Home Rule in 1886 enabled him to return to power with a majority, and, excepting a Liberal minority government (1892–95), to serve as prime minister from 1886 to 1902. Prime minister: 1886–1892 Salisbury was back in office, although without a conservative majority; he depended on the Liberal Unionists, led by Lord Hartington. Maintaining the alliance forced Salisbury to make concessions in support of progressive legislation regarding Irish land purchases, education, and county councils. His nephew Arthur Balfour acquired a strong reputation for resolute coercion in Ireland, and was promoted to leadership in the Commons in 1891. The Prime Minister proved adept at his handling of the press, as Sir Edward Walter Hamilton noted in his diary in 1887 he was: "the prime minister most accessible to the press. He is not prone to give information: but when he does, he gives it freely, & his information can always be relied on." Foreign policy Salisbury once again kept the foreign office (from January 1887), and his diplomacy continued to display a high level of skill, avoiding the extremes of Gladstone on the left and Disraeli on the right. His policy rejected entangling alliances–which at the time and ever since has been called "splendid isolation." He was successful in negotiating differences over colonial claims with France and others. The major problems were in the Mediterranean, where British interest had been involved for a century. It was now especially important to protect the Suez Canal and the sea lanes to India and Asia. He ended Britain's isolation through the Mediterranean Agreements (March and December 1887) with Italy and Austria-Hungary. He saw the need for maintaining control of the seas and passed the Naval Defence Act 1889, which facilitated the spending of an extra £20 million on the Royal Navy over the following four years. This was the biggest ever expansion of the navy in peacetime: ten new battleships, thirty-eight new cruisers, eighteen new torpedo boats and four new fast gunboats. Traditionally (since the Battle of Trafalgar) Britain had possessed a navy one-third larger than their nearest naval rival but now the Royal Navy was set to the two-power standard; that it would be maintained "to a standard of strength equivalent to that of the combined forces of the next two biggest navies in the world". This was aimed at France and Russia. Salisbury was offered a dukedom by Queen Victoria in 1886 and 1892, but declined both offers, citing the prohibitive cost of the lifestyle dukes were expected to maintain and stating that he would rather have an ancient marquessate than a modern dukedom. 1890 Ultimatum on Portugal Trouble arose with Portugal, which had overextended itself in building a colonial empire in Africa it could ill afford. There was a clash of colonial visions between Portugal (the "Pink Map", produced by the Lisbon Geographic Society after Alexandre de Serpa Pinto's, Hermenegildo Capelo's and Roberto Ivens's expeditions to Africa) and the British Empire (Cecil Rhodes's "Cape to Cairo Railway") came after years of diplomatic conflict about several African territories with Portugal and other powers. Portugal, financially hard-pressed, had to abandon several territories corresponding to today's Malawi, Zambia and Zimbabwe in favor of the Empire. Controversies In 1889 Salisbury set up the London County Council and then in 1890 allowed it to build houses. However, he came to regret this, saying in November 1894 that the LCC, "is the place where collectivist and socialistic experiments are tried. It is the place where a new revolutionary spirit finds its instruments and collects its arms". Salisbury caused controversy in 1888 after Gainsford Bruce had won the Holborn by-election for the Unionists, beating the Liberal Lord Compton. Bruce had won the seat with a smaller majority than Francis Duncan had for the Unionists in 1885. Salisbury explained this by saying in a speech in Edinburgh on 30 November: "But then Colonel Duncan was opposed to a black man, and, however great the progress of mankind has been, and however far we have advanced in overcoming prejudices, I doubt if we have yet got to the point where a British constituency will elect a black man to represent them.... I am speaking roughly and using language in its colloquial sense, because I imagine the colour is not exactly black, but at all events, he was a man of another race". The "black man" was Dadabhai Naoroji, an Indian Parsi. Salisbury's comments were criticised by the Queen and by Liberals who believed that Salisbury had suggested that only white Britons could represent a British constituency. Three weeks later, Salisbury delivered a speech at Scarborough, where he denied that "the word "black" necessarily implies any contemptuous denunciation: "Such a doctrine seems to be a scathing insult to a very large proportion of the human race... The people whom we have been fighting at Suakin, and whom we have happily conquered, are among the finest tribes in the world, and many of them are as black as my hat". Furthermore, "such candidatures are incongruous and unwise. The British House of Commons, with its traditions... is a machine too peculiar and too delicate to be managed by any but those who have been born within these isles". Naoroji was elected for Finsbury in 1892 and Salisbury invited him to become a Governor of the Imperial Institute, which he accepted. In 1888, the New York Times published an article that was extremely critical of Lord Salisbury's remark. It included the following quotation, "Of course the parsees are not black men, but the purest Aryan type in existence, with an average complexion fairer than Lord Salisbury's; but even if they were ebony hued it would be grotesque and foolish for a Prime Minister of England to insult them in such a wanton fashion as this." Leader of the Opposition: 1892–1895 In the aftermath of the general election of 1892, Balfour and Chamberlain wished to pursue a programme of social reform, which Salisbury believed would alienate "a good many people who have always been with us" and that "these social questions are destined to break up our party". When the Liberals and Irish Nationalists (which were a majority in the new Parliament) successfully voted against the government, Salisbury resigned the premiership on 12 August. His private secretary at the Foreign Office wrote that Salisbury "shewed indecent joy at his release". Salisbury—in an article in November for the National Review entitled 'Constitutional revision'—said that the new government, lacking a majority in England and Scotland, had no mandate for Home Rule and argued that because there was no referendum only the House of Lords could provide the necessary consultation with the nation on policies for organic change. The Lords defeated the second Home Rule Bill by 419 to 41 in September 1893, but Salisbury stopped them from opposing the Liberal Chancellor's death duties in 1894. In 1894 Salisbury also became president of the British Association for the Advancement of Science, presenting a notable inaugural address on 4 August of that year.Jed Z. Buchwald, Robert Fox, The Oxford Handbook of the History of Physics (2013) p. 757, footnote 62. The general election of 1895 returned a large Unionist majority. Prime minister: 1895–1902 Salisbury's expertise was in foreign affairs. For most of his time as prime minister he served not as First Lord of the Treasury, the traditional position held by the prime minister, but as foreign secretary. In that capacity, he managed Britain's foreign affairs, but he was being sarcastic about a policy of "Splendid isolation"—such was not his goal. Foreign policy In the foreign affairs Salisbury was challenged worldwide, The long-standing policy of "Splendid isolation" had left Britain with no allies and few friends. In Europe, Germany was worrisome regarding its growing industrial and naval power, Kaiser Wilhelm's erratic foreign policy, and the instability caused by the decline of the Ottoman Empire. France was threatening British control of Sudan. In the Americas, for domestic political reasons, U.S. President Cleveland manufactured a quarrel over Venezuela's border with British Guiana. In South Africa conflict was threatening with the two Boer republics. In the Great Game in Central Asia, the line that separated Russia and British India in 1800 was narrowing. In China the British economic dominance was threatened by other powers that wanted to control slices of China. The tension with Germany had subsided in 1890 after a deal exchanged German holdings in East Africa for an island off the German coast. However, with peace-minded Bismarck retired by an aggressive new Kaiser, tensions rose and negotiations faltered. France retreated in Africa after the British dominated in the Fashoda Incident. The Venezuela crisis was settled amicably and London and Washington became friendly after Salisbury gave Washington what it wanted in the Alaska boundary dispute. The Open Door Policy and a 1902 treaty with Japan resolved the China crisis. However, in South Africa a nasty Boer war broke out in 1899 and for a few months it seemed the Boers were winning. Venezuela crisis with the United States In 1895 the Venezuelan crisis with the United States erupted. A border dispute between the colony of British Guiana and Venezuela caused a major Anglo-American crisis when the United States intervened to take Venezuela's side. Propaganda sponsored by Venezuela convinced American public opinion that the British were infringing on Venezuelan territory. The United States demanded an explanation and Salisbury refused. The crisis escalated when President Grover Cleveland, citing the Monroe Doctrine, issued an ultimatum in late 1895. Salisbury's cabinet convinced him he had to go to arbitration. Both sides calmed down and the issue was quickly resolved through arbitration which largely upheld the British position on the legal boundary line. Salisbury remained angry but a consensus was reached in London, led by Lord Landsdowne, to seek much friendlier relations with the United States.R.A. Humphreys, "Anglo-American Rivalries and the Venezuela Crisis of 1895" Transactions of the Royal Historical Society (1967) 17: 131–164 in JSTOR By standing with a Latin American nation against the encroachment of the British, the US improved relations with the Latin Americans, and the cordial manner of the procedure improved American diplomatic relations with Britain. Despite the popularity of the Boers in American public opinion, official Washington supported London in the Second Boer War. Africa An Anglo-German agreement (1890) resolved conflicting claims in East Africa; Great Britain received large territories in Zanzibar and Uganda in exchange for the small island of Helgoland in the North Sea. Negotiations with Germany on broader issues failed. In January 1896 the reckless German Kaiser Wilhelm II escalated tensions in South Africa with his Kruger telegram congratulating Boer President Paul Kruger of the Transvaal for beating off the British Jameson Raid. German officials in Berlin had managed to stop the Kaiser from proposing a German protectorate over the Transvaal. The telegram backfired, as the British began to see Germany as a major threat. The British moved their forces from Egypt south into Sudan in 1898, securing complete control of that troublesome region. However, a strong British force unexpectedly confronted a small French military expedition at Fashoda. Salisbury quickly resolved the tensions, and systematically moved toward friendlier relations with France.E. R. Turton, "Lord Salisbury and the Macdonald expedition." Journal of Imperial and Commonwealth History 5.1 (1976): 35-52. Documents in the Foreign Office archives revealed that Salisbury knew about a rape and other atrocities carried out against women and children in Benin by Consul George Annesley and his soldiers in 1897 but took no action against Annesley, who was "quietly pensioned off." Second Boer War After gold was discovered in the South African Republic (called Transvaal) in the 1880s, thousands of British men flocked to the gold mines. Transvaal and its sister republic the Orange Free State were small, rural, independent nations founded by Afrikaners, who descended from Dutch immigrants to the area before 1800. The newly arrived miners were needed for their labor and business operations but were distrusted by the Afrikaners, who called them "uitlanders." The uitlanders heavily outnumbered the Boers in cities and mining districts; they had to pay heavy taxes, and had limited civil rights and no right to vote. The British, jealous of the gold and diamond mines and highly protective of its people, demanded reforms, which were rejected. A small-scale private British effort to overthrow Transvaal's President Paul Kruger, the Jameson Raid of 1895, was a fiasco and presaged full-scale conflict as all diplomatic efforts failed. War started on 11 October 1899 and ended on 31 May 1902 as Great Britain faced the two small far-away Boer nations. The Prime Minister let his extremely energetic colonial minister Joseph Chamberlain take charge of the war. British efforts were based from its Cape Colony and the Colony of Natal. There were some native African allies, but generally both sides avoided using black soldiers. The British war effort was further supported by volunteers from across the Empire. All other nations were neutral, but public opinion in them was largely hostile to Britain. Inside Britain and its Empire there also was a significant opposition to the Second Boer War because of the atrocities and military failures.Langer, The Diplomacy of Imperialism (1950), pp 605–28, 651–76 The British were overconfident and underprepared. Chamberlain and other top London officials ignored the repeated warnings of military advisors that the Boers were well prepared, well armed, and fighting for their homes in a very difficult terrain. The Boers with about 33,000 soldiers, against 13,000 front-line British troops, struck first, besieging Ladysmith, Kimberly, and Mafeking, and winning important battles at Colenso, Magersfontein and Stormberg in late 1899. Staggered, the British fought back, relieved its besieged cities, and prepared to invade first the Orange Free State, and then Transvaal in late 1900. The Boers refused to surrender or negotiate, and reverted to guerrilla warfare. After two years of hard fighting, Britain, using over 400,000 soldiers systematically destroyed the resistance, raising worldwide complaints about brutality. The Boers were fighting for their homes and families, who provided them with food and hiding places. The British solution was to forcefully relocate all the Boer civilians into heavily guarded concentration camps, where 28,000 died of disease. Then it systematically blocked off and tracked down the highly mobile Boer combat units. The battles were small operations; most of the 22,000 British dead were victims of disease. The war cost £217 million and demonstrated the Army urgently needed reforms but it ended in victory for the British and the Conservatives won the Khaki election of 1900. The Boers were given generous terms, and both former republics were incorporated into the Union of South Africa in 1910.Judd and Surridge, The Boer War: A History (2013) pp 55–302. The war had many vehement critics, predominantly in the Liberal party. However, on the whole, the war was well received by the British public, which staged numerous public demonstrations and parades of support. Soon there were memorials built across Britain. Strong public demand for news coverage meant that the war was well covered by journalists – including young Winston Churchill – and photographers, as well as letter-writers and poets. General Sir Redvers Buller imposed strict censorship and had no friends in the media, who wrote him up as a blundering buffoon. In dramatic contrast, Field Marshal Frederick Roberts pampered the press, which responded by making him a national hero. German naval issues In 1897 Admiral Alfred von Tirpitz became German Naval Secretary of State and began the transformation of the Imperial German Navy from a small, coastal defence force to a fleet meant to challenge British naval power. Tirpitz called for a Risikoflotte or "risk fleet" that would make it too risky for Britain to take on Germany as part of wider bid to alter the international balance of power decisively in Germany's favour. At the same time German foreign minister Bernhard von Bülow called for Weltpolitik (world politics). It was the new policy of Germany to assert its claim to be a global power. Chancellor Otto von Bismarck's policy of Realpolitik (realistic politics) was abandoned as Germany was intent on challenging and upsetting international order. The long-run result was the inability of Britain and Germany to be friends or to form an alliance. Britain reacted to Germany's accelerated naval arms race by major innovations, especially those developed by Admiral Fisher. The most important development was unveiled – after Salisbury's death – the entry of into service in 1906, which rendered all the world's battleships obsolete and set back German plans. Historians agree that Salisbury was a strong and effective leader in foreign affairs. He had a superb grasp of the issues, and was never a "splendid isolationist" but rather, says Nancy W. Ellenberger, was:A patient, pragmatic practitioner, with a keen understanding of Britain's historic interests ... He oversaw the partition of Africa, the emergence of Germany and the United States as imperial powers, and the transfer of British attention from the Dardanelles to Suez without provoking a serious confrontation of the great powers. Domestic policy At home he sought to "kill Home Rule with kindness" by launching a land reform programme which helped hundreds of thousands of Irish peasants gain land ownership and largely ended complaints against English landlords. The Elementary School Teachers (Superannuation) Act of 1898 enabled teachers to secure an annuity via the payment of voluntary contributions. The Elementary Education (Defective and Epileptic Children) Act of 1899 permitted school boards to provide for the education of mentally and physically defective and epileptic children. Honours and retirement In 1895 and 1900 he was honoured with appointments as Lord Warden of the Cinque Ports and High Steward of the City and Liberty of Westminster, which he held for life. On 11 July 1902, in failing health and broken hearted over the death of his wife, Salisbury resigned. He was succeeded by his nephew, Arthur Balfour. King Edward VII conferred upon him the Grand Cross of the Royal Victorian Order (GCVO), with the order star set in brilliants, during his resignation audience. Last year: 1902–1903 Salisbury, due to breathing difficulties caused by his great weight, took to sleeping in a chair at Hatfield House. By then he also suffered from a heart condition and later blood poisoning caused by an ulcerated leg. His death in August 1903 followed a fall from that chair. Salisbury was buried at St Etheldreda's Church, Hatfield, where his predecessor as prime minister, Lord Melbourne, is also interred. When Salisbury died his estate was valued at 310,336 pounds sterling, (equivalent to £ in ). Legacy Many historians portray Salisbury as a principled statesman of traditional, aristocratic conservatism: a prime minister who promoted cautious imperialism and resisted sweeping parliamentary and franchise reforms. Robert Blake considers Salisbury "a great foreign minister, [but] essentially negative, indeed reactionary in home affairs". Professor P.T. Marsh's estimate is more favourable than Blake's; he portrays Salisbury as a leader who "held back the popular tide for twenty years." Professor Paul Smith argues that, "into the ‘progressive’ strain of modern Conservatism he simply will not fit." H.C.G. Matthew points to "the narrow cynicism of Salisbury." One admirer, conservative historian Maurice Cowling, largely agrees with the critics and says Salisbury found the democracy born of the 1867 and 1884 Reform Acts as "perhaps less objectionable than he had expected—succeeding, through his public persona, in mitigating some part of its nastiness." Historian Peter T. Marsh states: "In the field of foreign affairs, where he was happiest and most successful, he kept his own counsel and eschewed broad principles of conduct, preferring close-eyed realism and reliability of conduct." Considerable attention has been devoted to his writings and ideas. The Conservative historian Robert Blake considered Salisbury "the most formidable intellectual figure that the Conservative party has ever produced". In 1977 the Salisbury Group was founded, chaired by Robert Gascoyne-Cecil, 6th Marquess of Salisbury and named after the 3rd Marquess. It published pamphlets advocating conservative policies. The academic quarterly The Salisbury Review was named in his honour (by Michael Oakeshott) upon its founding in 1982. Cowling claimed that "The giant of conservative doctrine is Salisbury". It was on Cowling's suggestion that Paul Smith edited a collection of Salisbury's articles from the Quarterly Review. Andrew Jones and Michael Bentley wrote in 1978 that "historical inattention" to Salisbury "involves wilful dismissal of a Conservative tradition which recognizes that threat to humanity when ruling authorities engage in democratic flattery and the threat to liberty in a competitive rush of legislation". In 1967, Clement Attlee (Labour Party prime minister, 1945–51) was asked who he thought was the best prime minister of his lifetime. Attlee immediately replied: "Salisbury". The 6th Marquess of Salisbury commissioned Andrew Roberts to write Salisbury's authorised biography, which was published in 1999. After the Bering Sea Arbitration, Canadian Prime Minister Sir John Sparrow David Thompson said of Lord Salisbury's acceptance of the Arbitration Treaty that it was "one of the worst acts of what I regard as a very stupid and worthless life". The British phrase 'Bob's your uncle' is thought to have derived from Robert Cecil's appointment of his nephew, Arthur Balfour, as Chief Secretary for Ireland. Fort Salisbury (now Harare) was named in honour of him when it was founded in September 1890. Subsequently, simply known as Salisbury, the city became the capital of Southern Rhodesia, from 1890, the Federation of Rhodesia and Nyasaland from 1953–1963, Rhodesia from 1963–1979, Zimbabwe Rhodesia, in 1979, and finally Zimbabwe, from 1980. The name was changed to Harare in April 1982, on the second anniversary of Zimbabwe's independence. Cecil Square, near to Parliament, was also named after him and not, as is erroneously but popularly thought, after Cecil Rhodes. Other Rhodesian/Zimbabwean connections include the suburbs of Hatfield, Cranborne and New Sarum. To date he is the only British prime minister to sport a full beard. At tall, he was also the tallest prime minister. Family and personal life Lord Salisbury was the third son of James Gascoyne-Cecil, 2nd Marquess of Salisbury, a minor Conservative politician. In 1857, he defied his father, who wanted him to marry a rich heiress to protect the family's lands. He instead married Georgina Alderson, the daughter of Sir Edward Alderson, a moderately notable judge and of lower social standing than the Cecils. The marriage proved a happy one. Robert and Georgina had eight children, all but one of whom survived infancy. He was an indulgent father and made sure his children had a much better childhood than the one through which he suffered. Cut off from his family money, Robert supported his family through journalism and was later reconciled with his father. Lady Beatrix Maud Cecil (11 April 185827 April 1950); she married William Palmer, 2nd Earl of Selborne on 27 October 1883. They had four children. Lady Gwendolen Cecil (28 July 186028 September 1945), author, and biographer of her father; she never married. , launched in 1899 on Lake Nyasa, was named after her. James Edward Hubert Gascoyne-Cecil, 4th Marquess of Salisbury (23 October 18614 April 1947); he married Lady Cicely Gore on 17 May 1887. They had seven children. Lord Rupert Ernest William Cecil, Lord Bishop of Exeter (9 March 186323 June 1936); he married Lady Florence Bootle-Wilbraham on 16 August 1887. Lord Edgar Algernon Robert Cecil, 1st Viscount Cecil of Chelwood (14 September 186424 November 1958); he married Lady Eleanor Lambton on 22 January 1889. Hon. Fanny Georgina Mildred Cecil (186524 April 1867) Lord Edward Herbert Cecil (12 July 186713 December 1918); he married Violet Maxse on 18 June 1894. They had two children. Lord Hugh Richard Heathcote Cecil, 1st Baron Quickswood (14 October 186910 December 1956) Salisbury suffered from prosopagnosia, a cognitive disorder which makes it difficult to recognize familiar faces. Cabinets of Lord Salisbury 1885–1886 1886–1892 1895–1902 See also Victorian era Historiography of the British Empire International relations of the Great Powers (1814–1919) Splendid isolation Timeline of British diplomatic history References Further reading Adonis, A. Making Aristocracy Work: The Peerage and the Political System in Britain, 1884–1914 (1993). Benians, E.A. et al. eds. The Cambridge History of the British Empire Vol. iii: The Empire - Commonwealth 1870–1919' (1959) p. 915 and passim; coverage of Salisbury's foreign and imperial policies; online Bentley, Michael. Lord Salisbury's World: Conservative Environments in Late-Victorian Britain (2001). online edition Lord Blake and H. Cecil (eds.), Salisbury: The Man and His Policies (1987). Bright, J. Franck. A History of England: Period V. Imperial Reaction Victoria 1880–1901 (vol 5, 1904); detailed political narrative; 295pp; online; also another copy Brumpton, Paul R. Security and Progress: Lord Salisbury at the India Office (Greenwood Press, 2002) online edition Cecil, Algernon. British Foreign Secretaries 1807-1916 (1927) pp 277–314. online Cecil, C. Life of Robert, Marquis of Salisbury (4 volumes, 1921–32). online This is a long biography, written in the context of 1911, with a Conservative point of view. Cooke, A.B. and J. Vincent, The Governing Passion: Cabinet Government and Party Politics in Britain, 1885–86 (1974). Grenville, J. A. S., Lord Salisbury and Foreign Policy: The Close of the Nineteenth Century (1964). Jones, A. The Politics of Reform, 1884 (1972). Kennedy, A. L. Salisbury 1830–1903: Portrait of a Statesman (1953). Gibb, Paul. "Unmasterly Inactivity? Sir Julian Pauncefote, Lord Salisbury, and the Venezuela Boundary Dispute." Diplomacy and Statecraft 16#1 (2005): 23–55. Gillard, D.R."Salisbury's African Policy and the Heligoland Offer of 1890," The English Historical Review, Vol. LXXV, 1960. Thomas P. Hughes, "Lord Salisbury's Afghan Policy," The Arena, Vol. VI, 1892. Jones, Andrew, and Michael Bentley, ‘Salisbury and Baldwin’, in Maurice Cowling. ed., Conservative Essays (Cassell, 1978), pp. 25–40. Langer, William L. The Diplomacy of Imperialism: 1890–1902 (2nd ed. 1950), a standard diplomatic history of Europe Lowe, C. J.Salisbury and the Mediterranean, 1886–1896 (1965). Marsh, P. The Discipline of Popular Government: Lord Salisbury's Domestic Statecraft, 1881–1902 (1978). Millman, R. Britain and the Eastern question, 1875–1878 (1979). Otte, T. G. "A question of leadership: Lord Salisbury, the unionist cabinet and foreign policy making, 1895–1900." Contemporary British History 14#4 (2000): 1–26. Otte, T. G. "'Floating Downstream'? Lord Salisbury and British Foreign Policy, 1878–1902", in Otte (ed.), The Makers of British Foreign Policy: From Pitt to Thatcher (Palgrave, 2002), pp. 98–127. Paul, Herbert. A History of Modern England (vol 5, 1906), covers 1885–1895. online Penson, Lillian M. "The Principles and Methods of Lord Salisbury's Foreign Policy." Cambridge Historical Journal 5#1 (1935): 87-106. online. Roberts, Andrew. Salisbury: Victorian Titan (Weidenfeld and Nicolson, 1999), a standard scholarly biography; 940pp Ryan, A. P. "The Marquis of Salisbury' History Today (April 1951) 1#4 pp 30-36; online. Shannon, Richard The Age of Disraeli, 1868–1881: The Rise of Tory Democracy (1992). Shannon, Richard The Age of Salisbury, 1881–1902: Unionism and Empire (1996). 569pp. Seton-Watson, R. W. Britain in Europe, 1789–1914. (1938); comprehensive history online Smith, Paul. 'Cecil, Robert Arthur Talbot Gascoyne-, third marquess of Salisbury (1830–1903)', Oxford Dictionary of National Biography, Oxford University Press, September 2004; online edn, October 2009, accessed 8 May 2010. Steele, David. Lord Salisbury: A Political biography (1999). online edition Steele, David. "Three British Prime Ministers and the Survival of the Ottoman Empire, 1855–1902." Middle Eastern Studies 50.1 (2014): 43–60. Wang, Shih-tsung. Lord Salisbury and Nationality in the East: Viewing Imperialism in Its Proper Perspective (Routledge, 2019). Warren, Allen. "Lord Salisbury and Ireland, 1859–87: Principles, Ambitions and Strategies." Parliamentary history 26.2 (2007): 203–224. Weston, C. C. The House of Lords and Ideological Politics: Lord Salisbury's Referendal Theory and the Conservative Party, 1846–1922 (1995). Historiography Ellenberger, Nancy W. "Salisbury" in David Loades, ed. Reader's Guide to British History (2003) 2:1153–55 Goodlad, Graham, "Salisbury as Premier: Graham Goodlad Asks Whether Lord Salisbury Deserves His Reputation as One of the Great Victorian Prime Ministers," History Review #49. 2004. pp 3+. online Lowry, Donal. The South African War Reappraised (Manchester UP, 2000). Roberts, Andrew. "Salisbury," History Today, (Oct 1999), Vol. 49 Issue 10, p45-51 Primary sources Paul Smith (ed.), Lord Salisbury on Politics. A Selection from His Articles in the Quarterly Review, 1860–83 (Cambridge University Press, 1972). John Vincent (ed.), A Selection from the Diaries of Edward Henry Stanley, 15th Earl of Derby (1826–93) between September 1869 and March 1878 (London: The Royal Historical Society, 1994). R. H. Williams (ed.), Salisbury–Balfour Correspondence: Letters Exchanged between the Third Marquess of Salisbury and his nephew Arthur James Balfour, 1869–1892 (1988). Harold Temperley, and Lillian M. Penson, eds; Foundations of British Foreign Policy from Pitt (1792) to Salisbury (1902); Or, Documents, Old and New (1938) online edition Robert Cecil Salisbury. Essays by the Late Marquess of Salisbury (1905) online Temperley, Harold and L.M. Penson, eds. Foundations of British Foreign Policy: From Pitt (1792) to Salisbury (1902)'' (1938), primary sources pp 365 ff online External links Robert Gascoyne-Cecil, 3rd Marquess of Salisbury on the Downing street website. Salisbury, The Empire Builder Who Never Was – article by Andrew Roberts; historytoday.com Ancestors of Lord Salisbury 1830 births 1903 deaths 19th-century prime ministers of the United Kingdom 20th-century prime ministers of the United Kingdom Alumni of Christ Church, Oxford British Secretaries of State for Foreign Affairs British Secretaries of State Burials in Hertfordshire Robert, Salisbury 3 Chancellors of the University of Oxford Conservative Party (UK) MPs for English constituencies Conservative Party prime ministers of the United Kingdom Deputy Lieutenants of Kent English Anglicans Fellows of All Souls College, Oxford Fellows of the Royal Society Knights Grand Cross of the Royal Victorian Order Knights of the Garter Leaders of the Conservative Party (UK) Leaders of the House of Lords Lords Privy Seal Lords Warden of the Cinque Ports Salisbury3 Robert Members of the Privy Council of the United Kingdom People educated at Eton College People of the Victorian era Presidents of the 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232329	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/VCO	VCO	VCO may refer to: Voltage-controlled oscillator, an electronic device. Voice Carry Over (Telecommunications Relay Service). Viceroy's Commissioned Officer Voyage Century Online, a free nautical MMORPG developed by Snail Games and published by IGG, distributed in Europe as Bounty Bay Online. Akatsuki space probe, also known as Venus Climate Orbiter. Virtual Central Office, Virtualization of central office capabilities as described under Open Platform for NFV project	[ 0.3426627218723297, 0.2849687337875366, -0.03404344990849495, 0.20698395371437073, -0.010219762101769447, -0.1588553488254547, -0.25312885642051697, 0.20538033545017242, -0.508235514163971, 0.003823372069746256, -0.7941392064094543, 0.7487916350364685, -0.05111435055732727, 0.43153873085975647, 0.1374206840991974, 0.40350279211997986, 0.844822883605957, 0.39088886976242065, -0.05931372568011284, -0.7400541305541992, -0.1778818517923355, -0.017525628209114075, 0.3638377785682678, -0.13656368851661682, -0.21995626389980316, 0.08686260133981705, -0.2960876226425171, -0.31714770197868347, 0.28012439608573914, 0.10030730068683624, 0.3453007638454437, 0.6212358474731445, 0.21612904965877533, -0.2164941132068634, 0.15078233182430267, 0.13374580442905426, -0.1378840059041977, -0.31019771099090576, -0.3184901177883148, -0.5750550627708435, 0.10349085181951523, 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232333	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Surface-mount%20technology	Surface-mount technology	Surface-mount technology (SMT) is a method in which the electrical components are mounted directly onto the surface of a printed circuit board (PCB). An electrical component mounted in this manner is referred to as a surface-mount device (SMD). In industry, this approach has largely replaced the through-hole technology construction method of fitting components, in large part because SMT allows for increased manufacturing automation which reduces cost and improves quality. It also allows for more components to fit on a given area of substrate. Both technologies can be used on the same board, with the through-hole technology often used for components not suitable for surface mounting such as large transformers and heat-sinked power semiconductors. An SMT component is usually smaller than its through-hole counterpart because it has either smaller leads or no leads at all. It may have short pins or leads of various styles, flat contacts, a matrix of solder balls (BGAs), or terminations on the body of the component. History Surface mounting was originally called "planar mounting". Surface-mount technology was developed in the 1960s. By 1986 surface mounted components accounted for 10% of the market at most, but was rapidly gaining popularity. By the late 1990s, the great majority of high-tech electronic printed circuit assemblies were dominated by surface mount devices. Much of the pioneering work in this technology was done by IBM. The design approach first demonstrated by IBM in 1960 in a small-scale computer was later applied in the Launch Vehicle Digital Computer used in the Instrument Unit that guided all Saturn IB and Saturn V vehicles. Components were mechanically redesigned to have small metal tabs or end caps that could be directly soldered to the surface of the PCB. Components became much smaller and component placement on both sides of a board became far more common with surface mounting than through-hole mounting, allowing much higher circuit densities and smaller circuit boards and, in turn, machines or subassemblies containing the boards. Often the surface tension of the solder is enough to hold the parts to the board; in rare cases parts on the bottom or "second" side of the board may be secured with a dot of adhesive to keep components from dropping off inside reflow ovens if the part is above the limit of 30g per square inch of pad area. Adhesive is sometimes used to hold SMT components on the bottom side of a board if a wave soldering process is used to solder both SMT and through-hole components simultaneously. Alternatively, SMT and through-hole components can be soldered on the same side of a board without adhesive if the SMT parts are first reflow-soldered, then a selective solder mask is used to prevent the solder holding those parts in place from reflowing and the parts floating away during wave soldering. Surface mounting lends itself well to a high degree of automation, reducing labor cost and greatly increasing production rates. Conversely, SMT does not lend itself well to manual or low-automation fabrication, which is more economical and faster for one-off prototyping and small-scale production, and this is one reason why many through-hole components are still manufactured. Some SMDs can be soldered with a temperature-controlled manual soldering iron, but unfortunately, those that are very small or have too fine a lead pitch are impossible to manually solder without expensive hot-air solder reflow equipment. SMDs can be one-quarter to one-tenth the size and weight, and one-half to one-quarter the cost of equivalent through-hole parts, but on the other hand, the costs of a certain SMT part and of an equivalent through-hole part may be quite similar, though rarely is the SMT part more expensive. Common abbreviations Different terms describe the components, technique, and machines used in manufacturing. These terms are listed in the following table: Assembly techniques Where components are to be placed, the printed circuit board normally has flat, usually tin-lead, silver, or gold plated copper pads without holes, called solder pads. Solder paste, a sticky mixture of flux and tiny solder particles, is first applied to all the solder pads with a stainless steel or nickel stencil using a screen printing process. It can also be applied by a jet-printing mechanism, similar to an inkjet printer. After pasting, the boards proceed to the pick-and-place machines, where they are placed on a conveyor belt. The components to be placed on the boards are usually delivered to the production line in either paper/plastic tapes wound on reels or plastic tubes. Some large integrated circuits are delivered in static-free trays. Numerical control pick-and-place machines remove the parts from the tapes, tubes or trays and place them on the PCB. The boards are then conveyed into the reflow soldering oven. They first enter a pre-heat zone, where the temperature of the board and all the components is gradually, uniformly raised to prevent thermal shock. The boards then enter a zone where the temperature is high enough to melt the solder particles in the solder paste, bonding the component leads to the pads on the circuit board. The surface tension of the molten solder helps keep the components in place, and if the solder pad geometries are correctly designed, surface tension automatically aligns the components on their pads. There are a number of techniques for reflowing solder. One is to use infrared lamps; this is called infrared reflow. Another is to use a hot gas convection. Another technology which is becoming popular again is special fluorocarbon liquids with high boiling points which use a method called vapor phase reflow. Due to environmental concerns, this method was falling out of favor until lead-free legislation was introduced which requires tighter controls on soldering. At the end of 2008, convection soldering was the most popular reflow technology using either standard air or nitrogen gas. Each method has its advantages and disadvantages. With infrared reflow, the board designer must lay the board out so that short components don't fall into the shadows of tall components. Component location is less restricted if the designer knows that vapor phase reflow or convection soldering will be used in production. Following reflow soldering, certain irregular or heat-sensitive components may be installed and soldered by hand, or in large-scale automation, by focused infrared beam (FIB) or localized convection equipment. If the circuit board is double-sided then this printing, placement, reflow process may be repeated using either solder paste or glue to hold the components in place. If a wave soldering process is used, then the parts must be glued to the board prior to processing to prevent them from floating off when the solder paste holding them in place is melted. After soldering, the boards may be washed to remove flux residues and any stray solder balls that could short out closely spaced component leads. Rosin flux is removed with fluorocarbon solvents, high flash point hydrocarbon solvents, or low flash solvents e.g. limonene (derived from orange peels) which require extra rinsing or drying cycles. Water-soluble fluxes are removed with deionized water and detergent, followed by an air blast to quickly remove residual water. However, most electronic assemblies are made using a "No-Clean" process where the flux residues are designed to be left on the circuit board, since they are considered harmless. This saves the cost of cleaning, speeds up the manufacturing process, and reduces waste. However, it is generally suggested to wash the assembly, even when a "No-Clean" process is used, when the application uses very high frequency clock signals (in excess of 1 GHz). Another reason to remove no-clean residues is to improve adhesion of conformal coatings and underfill materials. Regardless of cleaning or not those PCBs, current industry trend suggests to carefully review a PCB assembly process where "No-Clean" is applied, since flux residues trapped under components and RF shields may affect surface insulation resistance (SIR), especially on high component density boards. Certain manufacturing standards, such as those written by the IPC - Association Connecting Electronics Industries require cleaning regardless of the solder flux type used to ensure a thoroughly clean board. Proper cleaning removes all traces of solder flux, as well as dirt and other contaminants that may be invisible to the naked eye. No-Clean or other soldering processes may leave "white residues" that, according to IPC, are acceptable "provided that these residues have been qualified and documented as benign". However, while shops conforming to IPC standard are expected to adhere to the Association's rules on board condition, not all manufacturing facilities apply IPC standard, nor are they required to do so. Additionally, in some applications, such as low-end electronics, such stringent manufacturing methods are excessive both in expense and time required. Finally, the boards are visually inspected for missing or misaligned components and solder bridging. If needed, they are sent to a rework station where a human operator repairs any errors. They are then usually sent to the testing stations (in-circuit testing and/or functional testing) to verify that they operate correctly. Automated optical inspection (AOI) systems are commonly used in PCB manufacturing. This technology has proven highly efficient for process improvements and quality achievements. Advantages The main advantages of SMT over the older through-hole technique are: Smaller components. Much higher component density (components per unit area) and many more connections per component. Components can be placed on both sides of the circuit board. Higher density of connections because holes do not block routing space on inner layers, nor on back-side layers if components are mounted on only one side of the PCB. Small errors in component placement are corrected automatically as the surface tension of molten solder pulls components into alignment with solder pads. (On the other hand, through-hole components cannot be slightly misaligned, because once the leads are through the holes, the components are fully aligned and cannot move laterally out of alignment.) Better mechanical performance under shock and vibration conditions (partly due to lower mass, and partly due to less cantilevering) Lower resistance and inductance at the connection; consequently, fewer unwanted RF signal effects and better and more predictable high-frequency performance. Better EMC performance (lower radiated emissions) due to the smaller radiation loop area (because of the smaller package) and the lesser lead inductance. Fewer holes need to be drilled. (Drilling PCBs is time-consuming and expensive.) Lower initial cost and time of setting up for mass production, using automated equipment. Simpler and faster automated assembly. Some placement machines are capable of placing more than 136,000 components per hour. Many SMT parts cost less than equivalent through-hole parts. Disadvantages SMT may be unsuitable as the sole attachment method for components that are subject to frequent mechanical stress, such as connectors that are used to interface with external devices that are frequently attached and detached. SMDs' solder connections may be damaged by potting compounds going through thermal cycling. Manual prototype assembly or component-level repair is more difficult and requires skilled operators and more expensive tools, due to the small sizes and lead spacings of many SMDs. Handling of small SMT components can be difficult, requiring tweezers, unlike nearly all through-hole components. Whereas through-hole components will stay in place (under gravitational force) once inserted and can be mechanically secured prior to soldering by bending out two leads on the solder side of the board, SMDs are easily moved out of place by a touch of a soldering iron. Without developed skill, when manually soldering or desoldering a component, it is easy to accidentally reflow the solder of an adjacent SMT component and unintentionally displace it, something that is almost impossible to do with through-hole components. Many types of SMT component packages cannot be installed in sockets, which provide for easy installation or exchange of components to modify a circuit and easy replacement of failed components. (Virtually all through-hole components can be socketed.) SMDs cannot be used directly with plug-in breadboards (a quick snap-and-play prototyping tool), requiring either a custom PCB for every prototype or the mounting of the SMD upon a pin-leaded carrier. For prototyping around a specific SMD component, a less-expensive breakout board may be used. Additionally, stripboard style protoboards can be used, some of which include pads for standard sized SMD components. For prototyping, "dead bug" breadboarding can be used. Solder joint dimensions in SMT quickly become much smaller as advances are made toward ultra-fine pitch technology. The reliability of solder joints becomes more of a concern, as less and less solder is allowed for each joint. Voiding is a fault commonly associated with solder joints, especially when reflowing a solder paste in the SMT application. The presence of voids can deteriorate the joint strength and eventually lead to joint failure. SMDs, usually being smaller than equivalent through-hole components, have less surface area for marking, requiring marked part ID codes or component values to be more cryptic and smaller, often requiring magnification to be read, whereas a larger through-hole component could be read and identified by the unaided eye. This is a disadvantage for prototyping, repair, rework, reverse engineering, and possibly for production set-up. Rework Defective surface-mount components can be repaired by using soldering irons (for some connections), or using a non-contact rework system. In most cases a rework system is the better choice because SMD work with a soldering iron requires considerable skill and is not always feasible. Reworking usually corrects some type of error, either human- or machine-generated, and includes the following steps: Melt solder and remove component(s) Remove residual solder Print solder paste on PCB, directly or by dispensing Place new component and reflow. Sometimes hundreds or thousands of the same part need to be repaired. Such errors, if due to assembly, are often caught during the process. However, a whole new level of rework arises when component failure is discovered too late, and perhaps unnoticed until the end user of the device being manufactured experiences it. Rework can also be used if products of sufficient value to justify it require revision or re-engineering, perhaps to change a single firmware-based component. Reworking in large volume requires an operation designed for that purpose. There are essentially two non-contact soldering/desoldering methods: infrared soldering and soldering with hot gas. Infrared With infrared soldering, the energy for heating up the solder joint is transmitted by long- or short-wave infrared electromagnetic radiation. Advantages: Easy setup No compressed air required No requirement for different nozzles for many component shapes and sizes, reducing cost and the need to change nozzles Fast reaction of infrared source (depends on system used) Disadvantages: Central areas will be heated more than peripheral areas Temperature control is less precise, and there may be peaks Nearby components must be shielded from heat to prevent damage, which requires additional time for every board Surface temperature depends on the component's albedo: dark surfaces will be heated more than lighter surfaces The temperature additionally depends on the surface shape. Convective loss of energy will reduce the temperature of the component No reflow atmosphere possible Hot gas During hot gas soldering, the energy for heating up the solder joint is transmitted by a hot gas. This can be air or inert gas (nitrogen). Advantages: Simulating reflow oven atmosphere Some systems allow switching between hot air and nitrogen Standard and component-specific nozzles allow high reliability and faster processing Allow reproducible soldering profiles Efficient heating, large amounts of heat can be transferred Even heating of the affected board area Temperature of the component will never exceed the adjusted gas temperature Rapid cooling after reflow, resulting in small-grained solder joints (depends on system used) Disadvantages: Thermal capacity of the heat generator results in slow reaction whereby thermal profiles can be distorted (depends on system used) Packages Surface-mount components are usually smaller than their counterparts with leads, and are designed to be handled by machines rather than by humans. The electronics industry has standardized package shapes and sizes (the leading standardisation body is JEDEC). Identification Resistors For 5% precision SMD resistors usually are marked with their resistance values using three digits: two significant digits and a multiplier digit. These are quite often white lettering on a black background, but other colored backgrounds and lettering can be used. For 1% precision SMD resistors, the code is used, as three digits would otherwise not convey enough information. This code consists of two digits and a letter: the digits denote the value's position in the E96 sequence, while the letter indicates the multiplier. Capacitors Non-electrolytic capacitors are usually unmarked and the only reliable method of determining their value is removal from the circuit and subsequent measurement with a capacitance meter or impedance bridge. The materials used to fabricate the capacitors, such as nickel tantalate, possess different colours and these can give an approximate idea of the capacitance of the component. Generally physical size is proportional to capacitance and (squared) voltage for the same dielectric. For example, a 100 nF, 50 V capacitor may come in the same package as a 10 nF, 150 V device. SMD (non-electrolytic) capacitors, which are usually monolithic ceramic capacitors, exhibit the same body color on all four faces not covered by the end caps. SMD electrolytic capacitors, usually tantalum capacitors, and film capacitors are marked like resistors, with two significant figures and a multiplier in units of picofarads or pF, (10−12 farad.) Inductors Smaller inductance with moderately high current ratings are usually of the ferrite bead type. They are simply a metal conductor looped through a ferrite bead and almost the same as their through-hole versions but possess SMD end caps rather than leads. They appear dark grey and are magnetic, unlike capacitors with a similar dark grey appearance. These ferrite bead type are limited to small values in the nanohenry (nH) range and are often used as power supply rail decouplers or in high frequency parts of a circuit. Larger inductors and transformers may of course be through-hole mounted on the same board. SMT inductors with larger inductance values often have turns of wire or flat strap around the body or embedded in clear epoxy, allowing the wire or strap to be seen. Sometimes a ferrite core is present also. These higher inductance types are often limited to small current ratings, although some of the flat strap types can handle a few amps. As with capacitors, component values and identifiers for smaller inductors are not usually marked on the component itself; if not documented or printed on the PCB, measurement, usually removed from the circuit, is the only way of determining them. Larger inductors, especially wire-wound types in larger footprints, usually have the value printed on the top. For example, "330", which equates to a value of 33μH. Discrete semiconductors Discrete semiconductors, such as diodes and transistors are often marked with a two- or three-symbol code. The same code marked on different packages or on devices from different manufacturers can translate to different devices. Many of these codes, used because the devices are too small to be marked with more traditional numbers used on larger packages, correlate to more familiar traditional part numbers when a correlation list is consulted. GM4PMK in the United Kingdom has prepared a correlation list, and a similar .pdf list is also available, although these lists are not complete. Integrated circuits Generally, integrated circuit packages are large enough to be imprinted with the complete part number which includes the manufacturer's specific prefix, or a significant segment of the part number and the manufacturer's name or logo. See also Board-to-board connectors Chip carrier Electronics Electronics manufacturing services List of electronics package dimensions List of integrated circuit packaging types Plastic leaded chip carrier Point-to-point construction Printed circuit board RoHS SMT placement equipment Through-hole technology Wire wrap RKM code References Chip carriers Electronic design Electronics manufacturing de:Surface-mounted device	[ 0.504572868347168, 0.19546610116958618, 0.5163441300392151, 0.2833181917667389, 0.08318592607975006, -0.2443200647830963, -0.6860385537147522, -0.050797365605831146, -0.23599109053611755, -0.5746230483055115, -0.38630548119544983, 0.9171568751335144, -0.0695442259311676, 0.22918400168418884, -0.037595149129629135, 0.2790563702583313, 0.6654147505760193, -0.21310535073280334, -0.1936410665512085, 0.2556834816932678, -0.4211255609989166, -0.25780579447746277, 1.0283840894699097, -0.38427796959877014, -0.24047495424747467, 0.12252578139305115, 0.4066011309623718, 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232337	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PWR	PWR	PWR may stand for: Parliament of the World's Religions Paul Weel Racing, an Australian V8 Supercar motor racing team Philippine Wrestling Revolution, Filipino indie pro-wrestling promotion Politechnika Wroclawska, Wroclaw University of Technology Pratt & Whitney Rocketdyne, an American company producing rocket engines Pressurized water reactor, a type of nuclear power reactor Preston and Wyre Joint Railway, a historic railway company in Lancashire, England Pro Wrestling Report PWR (esports), an esports organization	[ 0.5561054348945618, 0.14499087631702423, 0.061119623482227325, 0.2517160177230835, -0.32768315076828003, 0.07366912066936493, 0.09636528044939041, 0.1063925176858902, -0.4016481935977936, 0.23448261618614197, -0.2987607419490814, -0.017914876341819763, -0.04341597482562065, 0.1489005982875824, 0.0743621215224266, 0.1608879715204239, 0.11378086358308792, 0.7399308681488037, -0.2073134332895279, -0.5699609518051147, 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232339	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bryan%20Mantia	Bryan Mantia	Bryan Kei Mantia (born February 4, 1963), known professionally as Brain, is an American contemporary rock drummer and composer. He has played with bands such as Primus, Guns N' Roses, Praxis, and Godflesh, and with other performers such as Tom Waits, Serj Tankian, Bill Laswell, Bootsy Collins, and Buckethead. He has also done session work for numerous artists and bands. History Mantia was born February 4, 1963, in the South Bay city of Cupertino, California to an Italian-American father and a Japanese American mother. As a teenager, Mantia became interested in such artists as James Brown, Led Zeppelin, and Jimi Hendrix, acts that featured groove-heavy sounds. When he was 16 years old, he started playing drums. Because of his 'obsessive' study of the drum book Portraits in Rhythm, Mantia was given the nickname "Brain" by members of his high school concert band. Mantia attended the Percussion Institute of Technology in Hollywood, California during the mid-1980s to further hone his craft. During this time, he was a member of local funk-rock band named the Limbomaniacs (which would later become part of Ben Wa). In 1989, Mantia joined Primus briefly, before breaking his foot, forcing him to pull out of the band. In the early '90s, he joined Praxis, a musical project led by Bill Laswell featuring Bernie Worrell, Bootsy Collins and Mantia's long-time friend Buckethead. Mantia recorded with Buckethead on many of Buckethead's solo albums, including Monsters and Robots, Colma, The Cuckoo Clocks of Hell, and Bucketheadland 2, among others. Mantia appeared on releases by the industrial metal band Godflesh in the late 1990s, including Songs of Love and Hate, and Love and Hate in Dub. In 1996, Mantia rejoined Primus, touring with and recording for four years with the group, appearing on The Brown Album, Rhinoplasty and Antipop. In March 2000, Mantia joined the revamped lineup of Guns N' Roses after being recommended to singer Axl Rose by Buckethead (who himself had joined the band a few months earlier). In 2003, Mantia appeared on several songs on BT's 2003 release Emotional Technology as well BT's score for the 2003 film Monster. Mantia toured several legs of the Chinese Democracy Tour with Guns N' Roses from 2000 until 2006, when he left the band to take care of his newborn child. Frank Ferrer, originally brought in as just a replacement drummer for the tour, eventually replaced Mantia as full time drummer for the band. Chinese Democracy was released in 2008, and featured drums from Mantia on every track except the title track. Mantia was also credited with writing the songs "Shackler's Revenge" and "Sorry". Parts of Mantia's drumming on the album were note-for-note re-recordings of Josh Freese's parts, who left the band before Mantia joined. Mantia was also responsible for arrangements on "Shackler's Revenge", "Better", "Street of Dreams", "There Was a Time", "Sorry", "Madagascar", and "Prostitute, initial production on "Shackler's Revenge" and "Sorry", engineering on "Sorry", drum machine and drum programming on "I.R.S." and Logic Pro engineering for the entire album. After leaving the band, Mantia made a guest appearance (alongside fellow former GNR member Robin Finck) at Guns N' Roses' House of Blues West Hollywood show on March 12, 2012. Mantia played congas on "You're Crazy" and "Rocket Queen". He continued to occasionally work for the band on yet to be released remix material. Since leaving Guns N' Roses, Mantia has primarily been focused on music behind the scenes as a composer and producer. Mantia had a brief stint drumming with The Crystal Method in 2013 and 2014 (alongside Guns N' Roses guitarist Richard Fortus). These performances included appearances on Jimmy Kimmel Live, and Last Call with Carson Daly In 2017, Mantia toured with Buckethead and Dan Monti as part of Buckethead's live show. Composing Mantia has partnered with musician Melissa Reese on several projects, a composing team dubbed "Brain and Melissa". In 2010, along with Buckethead, they released the multi-CD sets Kind Regards and Best Regards. Brain and Melissa composed part of the soundtrack to the video game Infamous 2, for which they were nominated for "Outstanding Achievement in Original Composition" by the Academy of Interactive Arts and Sciences awards. Other video games the duo worked on include, PlayStation Home, ModNation Racers, Twisted Metal, Fantasia: Music Evolved and Infamous: Second Son (received the nomination Original Dramatic Score, Franchise at the 2014 NAVGTR Awards, shared with Marc Canham and Nathan Johnson). They also scored the films Detention and Power/Rangers. They have worked with music video director Joseph Kahn on several television commercials, including NASCAR, SEAT, and Qoros. In addition, they scored a commercial for Johnnie Walker Blue which featured a computer-generated Bruce Lee. They also worked on several remixes of songs off of Chinese Democracy for a planned remix album. The two created a stock music album called "Eclectic Cinema" alongside former Guns N' Roses guitarist Paul Tobias, and Guns N' Roses and Buckethead collaborator Pete Scaturro. Mantia has also worked with Tobias on several other stock music tracks. The duo performed at a Houston Rockets halftime show on November 10, 2017, performing remixes of "Sorry" and "If the World" from Chinese Democracy, and a cover of KISS's "Do You Love Me?" from Destroyer. Equipment Information sourced from "Bryan Mantia's Drum setup". Drums DW Collector's Series Maple drums in Tony Williams Yellow Lacquer with Custom Yellow Hardware 18x24 Bass Drum 8x12, 9x13 Toms 16x16, 16x18 Floor Toms w/ Legs 6x14 Edge Snare 9000 Single Bass Drum Pedal 9500 Hi-Hat 9300 Snare Stand 9700 Straight/Boom Cymbal Stand (x6) 9900 Double Tom Stand (x2) 9100 Throne Cymbals Zildjian 14" A Mastersound Hi-Hats 19" A Medium Thin Crash (2) 20" K CrashRide 20" A Deep Ride 20" A Medium Thin Crash 22" Oriental China "Trash" Electronics Akai MPC 60 II, 3000 LE, 4000 Technics SL-1210MKZ Turntables with a M44Gs stylus Vestax PMCO5PRO DJMixer Selected discography Brain's Lessons: Shredding Repis On the Gnar Gnar Rad – 2002 instructional video Brain's Worst Drum Instructional DVD Ever – 2008 instructional video Limbomaniacs Stinky Grooves – 1990 Praxis Transmutation – 1992 Sacrifist – 1994 Metatron – 1994 Live in Poland – 1997 Transmutation Live – 1997 Warszawa – 1999 Tennessee 2004 – 2007 Profanation – 2008 Bullmark Interstate 76 soundtrack – 1996 Giant Robot Giant Robot – 1996 Godflesh Songs of Love and Hate – 1996 Tom Waits Bone Machine - 1992 Mule Variations - 1999 Real Gone - 2004 Orphans: Brawlers, Bawlers & Bastards - 2006 Primus Brown Album – 1997 Rhinoplasty – 1998 Antipop – 1999 Buckethead; I Need 5 Minutes Alone (as Pieces) – 1997 Colma – 1998 Monsters and Robots – 1999 The Cuckoo Clocks of Hell – 2004 Kevin's Noodle House – 2007 A Real Diamond in the Rough (tracks 2, 4, & 7) – 2009 Best Regards (with Melissa Reese) – 2010 Brain as Hamenoodle – 2010 Kind Regards (with Melissa Reese) – 2010 El Stew No Hesitation – 1999 No Forcefield Lee's Oriental Massage 415-626-1837 – 2000 God Is an Excuse – 2001 Colonel Claypool's Bucket of Bernie Brains The Big Eyeball in the Sky – 2004 Serj Tankian Elect the Dead – 2007 Imperfect Harmonies (track 10) – 2010 Guns N' Roses Chinese Democracy – 2008 "Absurd" - 2021 Science Faxtion Living on Another Frequency – 2008 Travis Dickerson The Dragons of Eden (with Buckethead) – 2008 Iconography (with Buckethead) – 2009 Video Games Cyberpunk 2077 (with Melissa Reese) - 2020 Notes References External links Brain and Melissa official website Audio Interview with Brain from the podcast "I'd Hit That" Living people American heavy metal drummers American people of Italian descent American musicians of Japanese descent Musicians from California People from Cupertino, California Godflesh members Guns N' Roses members Primus (band) members San Jose State University alumni Musicians from the San Francisco Bay Area Blue Coast Records artists 1963 births 20th-century American drummers American male drummers 21st-century American drummers Colonel Claypool's Bucket of Bernie Brains members Praxis (band) members	[ 0.050891198217868805, 0.2126014232635498, -0.9292545318603516, -0.02655719593167305, 0.5408366322517395, 0.875016987323761, -0.2065640091896057, -0.21782153844833374, 0.018466534093022346, -0.2882968485355377, -0.0622379295527935, 0.5232573747634888, 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232342	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/North%20Woodmere%2C%20New%20York	North Woodmere, New York	North Woodmere is an unincorporated hamlet in the Town of Hempstead, New York, located in far western Nassau County on the South Shore of Long Island in the Town of Hempstead. Geography North Woodmere is directly north of Woodmere, but separated from it by Motts Creek. Access to Woodmere is available via Branch Boulevard, Brookfield Road, and a footbridge over the creek. Unlike Woodmere, North Woodmere is not part of the Five Towns, which consists of the villages of Lawrence and Cedarhurst, the hamlets of Hewlett, Inwood and Woodmere. Hungry Harbor Road is the main east-west route through North Woodmere, connecting with Branch Boulevard (to Cedarhurst) and Brookfield-Rosedale Road (to Valley Stream). Park Lane provides access to upper Rosedale Road, and from there to Francis Lewis Boulevard, Sunrise Highway, and the Belt Parkway/Cross Island Parkway junction. Demographics North Woodmere houses many residents with advanced degrees and higher educational attainment. Many residents attend four year colleges and professional schools thereafter. There is an educational culture throughout the town. Government North Woodmere is represented by Councilman Bruce Blakeman. Economy A shopping mall is located on Rosedale Road. A former shopping center on Hungry Harbor Road became an assisted living center. The community is home to North Woodmere Park, a Nassau County park. The park includes a pool complex, a playground, a nine-hole golf course, a lighted driving range, and a fishing area. Culture North Woodmere is home to several synagogues, including Congregation Ohr Torah, Young Israel of North Woodmere, Beis Haknesses of North Woodmere, Temple Hillel, Kehillas Bnei Hayeshivos, and Khal Lev Avos. In 1984, Ronald Reagan addressed Temple Hillel. Education This area is served by two school districts: 15 (Lawrence Public Schools) in the west, 14 (Hewlett-Woodmere School District) in the center. Notable residents Bruce Blakeman, first presiding officer of Nassau County. David M. Friedman, U.S. ambassador to Israel Jeffrey M. Friedman, discoverer of Leptin Martin Heit, inventor of the whiteboard Esther Jungreis (1936-2016) - founder of Hineni Wendy Kaufman, spokesperson for Snapple and TV personality Norm Kent past president of the National Organization for the Reform of Marijuana Laws NORML, radio host, publisher Seth Rudetsky, composer, musical director and talk show host. Steve Spinner, founder of Sports Potential, adviser to Obama campaign, Department of Energy official. External links Hewlett-Woodmere Public Schools - District 14 Lawrence School District - District 15 References Hempstead, New York Valley Stream, New York Hamlets in Nassau County, New York	[ -0.8167787790298462, 0.30527594685554504, 0.3864101469516754, -0.047703392803668976, 0.8322621583938599, 0.09079461544752121, 0.1182970255613327, 0.06550564616918564, -0.44602230191230774, -0.5103626847267151, -0.3046446740627289, -0.1543227732181549, -0.2974812686443329, 0.45272132754325867, -1.3343201875686646, 0.8563306331634521, 0.39216047525405884, 0.9849866032600403, -0.0350426584482193, -1.0306360721588135, -0.1392420530319214, -0.18696089088916779, 0.3159826397895813, 0.6230384707450867, 0.19823472201824188, 0.34383419156074524, 0.3706371486186981, -0.05857004597783089, 0.2936338484287262, 0.3399568796157837, -0.30008241534233093, 0.04867497831583023, -0.41803592443466187, -0.6066779494285583, 0.6337756514549255, -0.26716890931129456, 0.35278135538101196, -0.12737984955310822, 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232343	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hong%20Xiuquan	Hong Xiuquan	Hong Xiuquan (1 January 1814 – 1 June 1864), born Hong Huoxiu and with the courtesy name Renkun, was a Hakka Chinese revolutionary who was the leader of the Taiping Rebellion against the Qing dynasty. He established the Taiping Heavenly Kingdom over varying portions of southern China, with himself as the "Heavenly King" and self-proclaimed younger brother of Jesus Christ. Early life and education Hong Xiuquan (), born "Hong Huoxiu", was the third and youngest son of a Hakka family. Some sources claim his family was "well to do". He was born in Fuyuan Springs, Hua county (now part of Huadu District) in Canton (Guangzhou), Guangdong to Hong Jingyang, a farmer and elected headman, and Madam Wang. He and his family moved to Guanlubu Village shortly after his birth. Upon marrying his wife Lai Xiying, Hong received the courtesy name "Renkun." His sister, Hong Xuanjiao, became the commander of the female battalion during the Taiping Rebellion. Hong showed an interest in scholarship at an early age, so his family made financial sacrifices to provide a formal education for him, in the hope that he could one day complete all of the civil service examinations. Hong began studying at a primary school in his village at the age of five. He was able to recite the Four Books after five or six years. He then took the local xiucai preliminary civil service examinations and placed first. A few years later, he traveled to the nearby city of Guangzhou to take the imperial examinations. He was unsuccessful and, his parents being unable to afford to continue his education, he was forced to return to agricultural work. The next year, he accompanied a wealthy schoolmate elsewhere for a year of study and became a village schoolteacher upon his return. In 1836, at the age of 22, Hong returned to Guangzhou to retake the imperial examinations. While in Guangzhou, Hong heard Edwin Stevens, a foreign missionary, and his interpreter preaching about Christianity. From them, Hong received a set of pamphlets entitled "Good Words for Exhorting the Age", which were written by Liang Fa, Stevens's assistant, and contained excerpts from the Bible along with homilies and other material prepared by Liang. Supposedly, Hong only briefly looked over these pamphlets and did not pay much attention to them at the time. Unsurprisingly, he again failed the imperial examinations, which had a pass rate of less than one percent. Visions and iconoclasm In 1837, Hong attempted and failed the imperial examinations for a third time, leading to a nervous breakdown. He was delirious for days to the point that his family feared for his life. While convalescing, Hong dreamed of visiting Heaven, where he discovered that he possessed a celestial family distinct from his earthly family, which included a heavenly father, mother, elder brother, sister-in-law, wife, and son. His heavenly father, wearing a black dragon robe and high-brimmed hat with a long golden beard, lamented that men were worshiping demons rather than him, and presented Hong with a sword and golden seal with which to slay the demons infesting Heaven. Furthermore, he did so with the help of his celestial older-brother and a heavenly army. The father figure later informed Hong that his given name violated taboos and had to be changed, suggesting as one option the "Hong Xiuquan" moniker ultimately adopted by Hong. In later embellishments, Hong would declare that he also saw Confucius being punished by Hong's celestial father for leading the people astray. His acquaintances would later claim that after awakening from his dreams Hong became more careful, friendly, and open, while his pace became imposing and firm and his height and size increased. Hong stopped studying for the imperial examinations and sought work as a teacher. For the next several years Hong taught at several schools around the area of his hometown. In 1843, Hong failed the imperial examinations for the fourth and final time. It was only then, prompted by a visit by his cousin, that Hong took time to carefully examine the Christian pamphlets he had received. After reading these pamphlets, Hong came to believe that they had given him the key to interpreting his visions: his celestial father was God the Father (whom he identified with Shangdi from Chinese tradition), the elder brother that he had seen was Jesus Christ, and he had been directed to rid the world of demon worship. This interpretation led him to conclude that he was the literal son of God and younger brother to Jesus. In contrast to some of the later leaders of his movement, Hong appears to have genuinely believed in his ascent to Heaven and divine mission. After coming to this conclusion Hong began destroying idols and enthusiastically preaching his interpretation of Christianity. As a symbolic gesture to purge China of Confucianism, he and the cousin asked for two giant swords, three chi () long and nine jin (about 4.5 kg), called the "demon-slaying swords" (), to be forged. Hong began by burning all Confucian and Buddhist statues and books in his house, and began preaching to his community about his visions. Some of his earliest converts were relatives of his who had also failed their examinations and belonged to the Hakka minority, Feng Yunshan and Hong Rengan. He collaborated with them to destroy holy statues in small villages, to the ire of local citizens and officials. Hong and his converts' acts were considered sacrilegious and they were persecuted by Confucians who forced them to leave their positions as village tutors. In April 1844, Hong, Feng Yunshan, and two other relatives of Hong left Hua county to travel and preach. They first journeyed to Guangzhou and preached in the outlying areas before heading northwest to White Tiger Village. There, Hong and Feng Yunshan parted ways before traveling some to the southwest to the village of Sigu, Guiping county, Guangxi, where distant relatives of Hong's resided, including two early converts who had returned home. It is in or near Sigu that Hong begins to draft "Exhortations to Worship the One True God", his first substantial work. In November 1844, after having preached in Guangxi for five months, Hong returned home without Feng and resumed his previous job as a village teacher, while continuing to write religious tracts. The "Emperor's Worshippers" In 1847, Hong Xiuquan was invited by a member of the Chinese Union to study with the American Southern Baptist missionary, Reverend Issachar Jacox Roberts. Hong accepted the invitation and traveled to Guangzhou with his cousin, Hong Rengan. Once there, Hong studied Karl Gützlaff's translations of the Old and New Testaments and requested to be baptized by Roberts. Roberts refused to do so, possibly due to Hong being tricked by the other converts into requesting monetary aid from Roberts. Hong left Guangzhou on 12 July 1847 to search for Feng Yunshan. Although robbed of all of his possessions, including his demon-slaying sword, by bandits in the town of Meizixun, he eventually reached Thistle Mountain on 27 August 1847. There, he reunited with Feng and discovered the "Society of God-Worshipers" that Feng had founded. In January 1848, Feng Yunshan was arrested and banished to Guangdong, and Hong Xiuquan left for Guangdong shortly thereafter to once again reunite with Feng. In Feng and Hong's absence, Yang Xiuqing and Xiao Chaogui jointly emerged to lead the "God Worshipers" themselves. Both claimed to enter trances which allowed them to speak as a member of the Trinity; God the Father in the case of Yang and Jesus Christ in the case of Xiao. When Hong and Feng returned in the summer of 1849, they investigated Yang and Xiao's claims and declared them to be genuine. Hong ministered to the faithful in outdoor meetings strongly resembling the Baptist tent revivals he had witnessed with Issachar Roberts. Most of Hong Xiuquan's knowledge of the scriptures came from the books known as "Good Words to Admonish the Age" written by the Chinese preacher Liang Fa, as well as a localized Bible translated into Chinese. Many Western missionaries grew jealous of Hong and his local ministry. These competing missionaries were fond of spreading defamatory rumors such as his "lack of baptism." (Hong and his cousin were in fact both baptized according to the way prescribed in the pamphlet "Good words to admonish the age"). In 1847, Hong began his translation and adaptation of the Bible, what came to be known as "Authorized Taiping Version of the Bible", or "The Taiping Bible", which he based on Gutzlaff's translation. He presented his followers with the Bible as a vision of the authentic religion that had existed in ancient China before it was wiped out by Confucius and the imperial system. The deity of the Old Testament punished evil nations and rewarded those who followed his commandments, even music, food, and marriage laws. Hong made some minor changes in the text, such as correcting misprints and improving the prose style, but adapted the meaning elsewhere to fit his own theology and moral teachings. For instance, in Genesis 27:25 the Israelites did not drink wine, and in Genesis 38:16-26 he omitted the sexual relations between the father and his son's widow. Hong preached a mixture of communal utopianism, evangelism and oriental syncretism. While proclaiming sexual equality, the sect segregated men from women and encouraged all its followers to pay their assets into a communal treasury. When Hong returned to Guangxi, he found that Feng Yunshan had accumulated a following of around 2,000 converts. Guangxi was a dangerous area at this time with many bandit groups based in the mountains and pirates on the rivers. Perhaps due to these more pressing concerns, the authorities were largely tolerant of Hong and his followers. However, the instability of the region meant that Hong's followers were inevitably drawn into conflict with other groups, not least because of their predominantly Hakka ethnicity. There are records of numerous incidents when local villages and clans, as well as groups of pirates and bandits, came into conflict with the authorities, and responded by fleeing to join Hong's movement. The rising tension between the sect and the authorities was probably the most important factor in Hong's eventual decision to rebel. Rebellion and the Heavenly Kingdom By 1850 Hong had between 10,000 and 30,000 followers. The authorities were alarmed at the growing size of the sect and ordered them to disperse. A local force was sent to attack them when they refused, but the imperial troops were routed and a deputy magistrate killed. A full-scale attack was launched by government forces in the first month of 1851, in what came to be known as the Jintian Uprising, named after the town of Jintian (present-day Guiping, Guangxi) where the sect was based. Hong's followers emerged victorious and beheaded the Manchu commander of the government army. Hong declared the founding of the "Heavenly Kingdom of Transcendent Peace" on 11 January 1851. Despite this evidence of planning, Hong and his followers faced immediate challenges. The local Green Standard Army outnumbered them ten to one, and had recruited the help of the river pirates to keep the rebellion contained to Jintian. After a month of preparation the rebels managed to break through the blockade and fight their way to the town of Yongan (not to be confused with Yong'an), which fell to them on 25 September 1851. Hong and his troops remained in Yongan for three months, sustained by local landowners who were hostile to the Manchu-ruled Qing Dynasty. The imperial army regrouped and launched another attack on the rebels in Yongan. Having run out of gunpowder, Hong's followers fought their way out by sword, and made for the city of Guilin, to which they laid siege. However, the fortifications of Guilin proved too strong, and Hong and his followers eventually gave up and set out northwards, towards Hunan. Here, they encountered an elite militia created by a local member of the gentry specifically to put down peasant rebellions. The two forces fought at Soyi Ford on 10 June 1852 where the rebels were forced into retreat, and 20% of their troops were killed. However, in March 1853, Hong's forces managed to take Nanjing and turned it into the capital of their movement. After establishing his capital at Nanjing Hong implemented an ambitious reform and modernization program. He created an elaborate civil bureaucracy, reformed the calendar used in his kingdom, outlawed opium use, and introduced a number of reforms designed to make women more socially equal to men. Hong ruled by making frequent proclamations from his Heavenly Palace, demanding strict compliance with various moral and religious rules. Most trade was suppressed, and some communal land ownership was introduced. Polygamy was forbidden and men and women were separated, although Hong and other leaders maintained groups of concubines. Yang Xiuqing, also known as the "Eastern King", was a fellow Taiping leader who had directed successful military campaigns, and who often claimed to speak with the voice of God. Hong became increasingly suspicious of Yang's ambitions and his network of spies. In 1856, he and others in the Taiping élite had Yang and his family murdered in a purge that subsequently spun out of control, resulting in the further purge of its main perpetrator Wei Changhui. Following a failed attempt by the Taiping rebels to take Shanghai in 1860, Qing government forces, aided by Western officers, slowly gained ground. Death In the spring of 1864, Nanjing was besieged and dangerously low on food supplies. Hong's solution was to order his subjects to eat manna, which had been translated into Chinese as sweetened dew and a medicinal herb. Hong himself gathered weeds from the grounds of his palace, which he then ate. Hong fell ill in April 1864, possibly due to his ingestion of the weeds, and died on 1 June 1864. Although Hong likely died of his illness, suicide by poison has also been suggested. He was buried in a yellow-silk shroud without a coffin in the bare ground, per Taiping custom, near the former Ming Imperial Palace. He was succeeded by his teenage son, Hong Tianguifu. On 30 July 1864, Qing forces exhumed, beheaded, and burned his body. His body was later exhumed on orders of Zeng Guofan to verify his death, and then cremated. Hong's ashes were later blasted out of a cannon in order to ensure that his remains have no resting place as eternal punishment for the uprising. Publications Imperial Decree of Taiping () (1852) The Instructions on the Original Way Series () (1845–1848): included in the Imperial Decree of Taiping later. The series is proclaimed by the People's Republic of China's National Affairs Department to be Protected National Significant Documents in 1988. Instructions on the Original Way to Save the World () Instructions on the Original Way to Awake the World () Instructions on the Original Way to Make the World Realize () The Heavenly Father's poem ()(1857) New Essay on Economics and Politics () (1859) Poetry The following poem, titled Poem on Executing the Evil and Preserving the Righteous (), written in 1837 by Hong Xiuquan, illustrates his religious thinking and goal that later led to the establishment of the "Heavenly Kingdom of Taiping". Note that in the seventh line, the name of the then yet-to-come kingdom is mentioned. Legacy Views and opinions on Hong differ greatly. The Communists under Mao Zedong generally admired Hong and his rebellion as a legitimate peasant uprising that anticipated their own. Sun Yat-sen came from the same area as Hong and was said to have identified with Hong since his childhood days. To honor his legacy, the People's Republic of China established a small museum in 1959, the "Hong Xiuquan's Former Residence Memorial Museum" (), in his birthplace, where there is a longan tree planted by him. The museum's plate is written by the famous literary figure Guo Moruo (1892–1978). The residence and Book Chamber Building were renovated in 1961. There has been an active academic debate on the degree to which Hong is similar or dissimilar to Falun Gong founder Li Hongzhi. Scholars that promote the opinion that a strong similarity exists between Li and Hong note that both rallied a large number of people behind a religious or spiritual cause in order to challenge the status quo. Scholars disputing a close relationship note that Li's political intentions are debatable. See also Hong Xuanjiao Millennarianism in colonial societies Liberation theology Sino-Christian theology Autotheism Private revelation Entering heaven alive Conversion of Paul the Apostle Heavenly Mother (Mormonism) Christianity in China References Citations Bibliography Kilcourse, Carl S. "Instructing the Heavenly King: Joseph Edkins's Mission to Correct the Theology of Hong Xiuquan." Journal of Ecclesiastical History (2020) 71#1 pp 116-134. 1814 births 1864 deaths Chinese Christians Chinese dissidents Chinese politicians of Hakka descent Chinese revolutionaries Converts to Christianity Deified Chinese people Educators from Guangdong Founders of new religious movements Generals from Guangdong Hakka generals Hakka writers Heavenly kings of Taiping Military leaders of the Taiping Rebellion People from Huadu District Self-declared messiahs Taiping Rebellion Writers from Guangzhou Theocrats Self-proclaimed monarchy Taiping Heavenly Kingdom Founding monarchs	[ -0.17921969294548035, 0.5708317160606384, -0.4838522672653198, -0.12429074198007584, -0.22848275303840637, 1.2667962312698364, 0.09822937846183777, -0.06427450478076935, 0.04683186113834381, -0.2649351954460144, -0.08272294700145721, -0.28185760974884033, 0.07823830097913742, 0.0818600058555603, -0.7460964918136597, 0.21398691833019257, 0.4580506384372711, -0.3156053125858307, -0.9160805940628052, 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232345	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Butyric%20acid	Butyric acid	Butyric acid (from , meaning "butter"), also known under the systematic name butanoic acid, is a straight-chain alkyl carboxylic acid with the chemical formula CH3CH2CH2CO2H. It is an oily, colorless liquid with an unpleasant odor. Isobutyric acid (2-methylpropanoic acid) is an isomer. Salts and esters of butyric acid are known as butyrates or butanoates. The acid does not occur widely in nature, but its esters are widespread. It is a common industrial chemical and an important component in the mammalian gut. History Butyric acid was first observed in impure form in 1814 by the French chemist Michel Eugène Chevreul. By 1818, he had purified it sufficiently to characterize it. However, Chevreul did not publish his early research on butyric acid; instead, he deposited his findings in manuscript form with the secretary of the Academy of Sciences in Paris, France. Henri Braconnot, a French chemist, was also researching the composition of butter and was publishing his findings, and this led to disputes about priority. As early as 1815, Chevreul claimed that he had found the substance responsible for the smell of butter. By 1817, he published some of his findings regarding the properties of butyric acid and named it. However, it was not until 1823 that he presented the properties of butyric acid in detail. The name butyric acid comes from , meaning "butter", the substance in which it was first found. The Latin name butyrum (or buturum) is similar. Occurrence Triglycerides of butyric acid compose 3–4% of butter. When butter goes rancid, butyric acid is liberated from the glyceride by hydrolysis. It is one of the fatty acid subgroup called short-chain fatty acids. Butyric acid is a typical carboxylic acid that reacts with bases and affects many metals. It is found in animal fat and plant oils, bovine milk, breast milk, butter, parmesan cheese, body odor, vomit, and as a product of anaerobic fermentation (including in the colon). It has a taste somewhat like butter and an unpleasant odor. Mammals with good scent detection abilities, such as dogs, can detect it at 10 parts per billion, whereas humans can detect it only in concentrations above 10 parts per million. In food manufacturing, it is used as a flavoring agent. In humans, butyric acid is one of two primary endogenous agonists of human hydroxycarboxylic acid receptor 2 (HCA2), a G protein-coupled receptor. Butyric acid is present as its octyl ester in parsnip (Pastinaca sativa) and in the seed of the ginkgo tree. Production Industrial In industry, butyric acid is produced by hydroformylation from propene and syngas, forming butyraldehyde, which is oxidised to the final product. H2 + CO + CH3CH=CH2 → CH3CH2CH2CHO → butyric acid It can be separated from aqueous solutions by saturation with salts such as calcium chloride. The calcium salt, Ca(C4H7O2)2·H2O, is less soluble in hot water than in cold. Microbial biosynthesis Butyrate is produced by several fermentation processes performed by obligate anaerobic bacteria. This fermentation pathway was discovered by Louis Pasteur in 1861. Examples of butyrate-producing species of bacteria: Clostridium butyricum Clostridium kluyveri Clostridium pasteurianum Faecalibacterium prausnitzii Fusobacterium nucleatum Butyrivibrio fibrisolvens Eubacterium limosum The pathway starts with the glycolytic cleavage of glucose to two molecules of pyruvate, as happens in most organisms. Pyruvate is oxidized into acetyl coenzyme A catalyzed by pyruvate:ferredoxin oxidoreductase. Two molecules of carbon dioxide (CO2) and two molecules of elemental hydrogen (H2) are formed as waste products. Subsequently, is produced in the last step of the fermentation. Three molecules of ATP are produced for each glucose molecule, a relatively high yield. The balanced equation for this fermentation is C6H12O6 → C4H8O2 + 2 CO2 + 2 H2 Other pathways to butyrate include succinate reduction and crotonate disproportionation. Several species form acetone and n-butanol in an alternative pathway, which starts as butyrate fermentation. Some of these species are: Clostridium acetobutylicum, the most prominent acetone and butanol producer, used also in industry Clostridium beijerinckii Clostridium tetanomorphum Clostridium aurantibutyricum These bacteria begin with butyrate fermentation, as described above, but, when the pH drops below 5, they switch into butanol and acetone production to prevent further lowering of the pH. Two molecules of butanol are formed for each molecule of acetone. The change in the pathway occurs after acetoacetyl CoA formation. This intermediate then takes two possible pathways: acetoacetyl CoA → acetoacetate → acetone acetoacetyl CoA → butyryl CoA → butyraldehyde → butanol Fermentable fiber sources Highly-fermentable fiber residues, such as those from resistant starch, oat bran, pectin, and guar are transformed by colonic bacteria into short-chain fatty acids (SCFA) including butyrate, producing more SCFA than less fermentable fibers such as celluloses. One study found that resistant starch consistently produces more butyrate than other types of dietary fiber. The production of SCFA from fibers in ruminant animals such as cattle is responsible for the butyrate content of milk and butter. Fructans are another source of prebiotic soluble dietary fibers which can be digested to produce butyrate. They are often found in the soluble fibers of foods which are high in sulfur, such as the allium and cruciferous vegetables. Sources of fructans include wheat (although some wheat strains such as spelt contain lower amounts), rye, barley, onion, garlic, Jerusalem and globe artichoke, asparagus, beetroot, chicory, dandelion leaves, leek, radicchio, the white part of spring onion, broccoli, brussels sprouts, cabbage, fennel and prebiotics, such as fructooligosaccharides (FOS), oligofructose, and inulin. Reactions Butyric acid reacts as a typical carboxylic acid: it can form amide, ester, anhydride, and chloride derivatives. The latter, butyryl chloride, is commonly used as the intermediate to obtain the others. Uses Butyric acid is used in the preparation of various butyrate esters. It is used to produce cellulose acetate butyrate (CAB), which is used in a wide variety of tools, paints, and coatings, and is more resistant to degradation than cellulose acetate. CAB can degrade with exposure to heat and moisture, releasing butyric acid. Low-molecular-weight esters of butyric acid, such as methyl butyrate, have mostly pleasant aromas or tastes. As a consequence, they are used as food and perfume additives. It is an approved food flavoring in the EU FLAVIS database (number 08.005). Due to its powerful odor, it has also been used as a fishing bait additive. Many of the commercially available flavors used in carp (Cyprinus carpio) baits use butyric acid as their ester base. It is not clear whether fish are attracted by the butyric acid itself or the substances added to it. Butyric acid was one of the few organic acids shown to be palatable for both tench and bitterling. The substance has been used as a stink bomb by Sea Shepherd Conservation Society to disrupt Japanese whaling crews. Pharmacology Pharmacodynamics Butyric acid (pKa 4.82) is fully ionized at physiological pH, so its anion is the material that is mainly relevant in biological systems. It is one of two primary endogenous agonists of human hydroxycarboxylic acid receptor 2 (HCA2, aka GPR109A), a G protein-coupled receptor (GPCR), Like other short-chain fatty acids (SCFAs), butyrate is an agonist at the free fatty acid receptors FFAR2 and FFAR3, which function as nutrient sensors that facilitate the homeostatic control of energy balance; however, among the group of SCFAs, only butyrate is an agonist of HCA2. It is also an HDAC inhibitor (specifically, HDAC1, HDAC2, HDAC3, and HDAC8), a drug that inhibits the function of histone deacetylase enzymes, thereby favoring an acetylated state of histones in cells. Histone acetylation loosens the structure of chromatin by reducing the electrostatic attraction between histones and DNA. In general, it is thought that transcription factors will be unable to access regions where histones are tightly associated with DNA (i.e., non-acetylated, e.g., heterochromatin). Therefore, butyric acid is thought to enhance the transcriptional activity at promoters, which are typically silenced or downregulated due to histone deacetylase activity. Pharmacokinetics Butyrate that is produced in the colon through microbial fermentation of dietary fiber is primarily absorbed and metabolized by colonocytes and the liver for the generation of ATP during energy metabolism; however, some butyrate is absorbed in the distal colon, which is not connected to the portal vein, thereby allowing for the systemic distribution of butyrate to multiple organ systems through the circulatory system. Butyrate that has reached systemic circulation can readily cross the blood-brain barrier via monocarboxylate transporters (i.e., certain members of the SLC16A group of transporters). Other transporters that mediate the passage of butyrate across lipid membranes include SLC5A8 (SMCT1), SLC27A1 (FATP1), and SLC27A4 (FATP4). Metabolism Butyric acid is metabolized by various human XM-ligases (ACSM1, ACSM2B, ASCM3, ACSM4, ACSM5, and ACSM6), also known as butyrate–CoA ligase. The metabolite produced by this reaction is butyryl–CoA, and is produced as follows: Adenosine triphosphate + butyric acid + coenzyme A → adenosine monophosphate + pyrophosphate + butyryl-CoA As a short-chain fatty acid, butyrate is metabolized by mitochondria as an energy (i.e., adenosine triphosphate or ATP) source through fatty acid metabolism. In particular, it is an important energy source for cells lining the mammalian colon (colonocytes). Without butyrates, colon cells undergo autophagy (i.e., self-digestion) and die. In humans, the butyrate precursor tributyrin, which is naturally present in butter, is metabolized by triacylglycerol lipase into dibutyrin and butyrate through the reaction: Tributyrin + H2O → dibutyrin + butyric acid Biochemistry Butyrate has numerous effects on energy homeostasis and related diseases (diabetes and obesity), inflammation, and immune function (e.g., it has pronounced antimicrobial and anticarcinogenic effects) in humans. These effects occur through its metabolism by mitochondria to generate during fatty acid metabolism or through one or more of its histone-modifying enzyme targets (i.e., the class I histone deacetylases) and G-protein coupled receptor targets (i.e., FFAR2, FFAR3, and HCA2). In the mammalian gut Butyrate is essential to host immune homeostasis. Although the role and importance of butyrate in the gut is not fully understood, many researchers argue that a depletion of butyrate-producing bacteria in patients with several vasculitic conditions is essential to the pathogenesis of these disorders. A depletion of butyrate in the gut is typically caused by an absence or depletion of butyrate-producing-bacteria (BPB). This depletion in BPB leads to microbial dysbiosis. This is characterized by an overall low biodiversity and a depletion of key butyrate-producing members. Butyrate is an essential microbial metabolite with a vital role as a modulator of proper immune function in the host. It has been shown that children lacking in BPB are more susceptible to allergic disease and Type 1 Diabetes. Butyrate is also reduced in a diet low in fiber which can induce inflammation and have other adverse affects insofar as these short-chain fatty acids activate PPAR-γ. Butyrate exerts a key role for the maintenance of immune homeostasis both locally (in the gut) and systemically (via circulating butyrate). It has been shown to promote the differentiation of regulatory T cells. In particular, circulating butyrate prompts the generation of extrathymic regulatory T cells. The low-levels of butyrate in human subjects could favor reduced regulatory T cell-mediated control, thus promoting a powerful immuno-pathological T-cell response. On the other hand, gut butyrate has been reported to inhibit local pro-inflammatory cytokines. The absence or depletion of these BPB in the gut could therefore be a possible aide in the overly-active inflammatory response. Butyrate in the gut also protects the integrity of the intestinal epithelial barrier. Decreased butyrate levels therefore lead to a damaged or dysfunctional intestinal epithelial barrier. In a 2013 research study conducted by Furusawa et al, microbe-derived butyrate was found to be essential in inducing the differentiation of colonic regulatory T cells in mice. This is of great importance and possibly relevant to the pathogenesis and vasculitis associated with many inflammatory diseases because regulatory T cells have a central role in the suppression of inflammatory and allergic responses. In several research studies, it has been demonstrated that butyrate induced the differentiation of regulatory T cells in vitro and in vivo. The anti-inflammatory capacity of butyrate has been extensively analyzed and supported by many studies. It has been found that microorganism-produced butyrate expedites the production of regulatory T cells, although the specific mechanism by which it does so unclear. More recently, it has been shown that butyrate plays an essential and direct role in modulating gene expression of cytotoxic T-cells. Butyrate also has an anti-inflammatory effect on neutrophils, reducing their migration to wounds. This effect is mediated via the receptor HCA1 Immunomodulation and inflammation Butyrate's effects on the immune system are mediated through the inhibition of class I histone deacetylases and activation of its G-protein coupled receptor targets: HCA2 (GPR109A), FFAR2 (GPR43), and FFAR3 (GPR41). Among the short-chain fatty acids, butyrate is the most potent promoter of intestinal regulatory T cells in vitro and the only one among the group that is an HCA2 ligand. It has been shown to be a critical mediator of the colonic inflammatory response. It possesses both preventive and therapeutic potential to counteract inflammation-mediated ulcerative colitis and colorectal cancer. Butyrate has established antimicrobial properties in humans that are mediated through the antimicrobial peptide LL-37, which it induces via HDAC inhibition on histone H3. In vitro, butyrate increases gene expression of FOXP3 (the transcription regulator for ) and promotes colonic regulatory T cells (Tregs) through the inhibition of class I histone deacetylases; through these actions, it increases the expression of interleukin 10, an anti-inflammatory cytokine. Butyrate also suppresses colonic inflammation by inhibiting the IFN-γ–STAT1 signaling pathways, which is mediated partially through histone deacetylase inhibition. While transient IFN-γ signaling is generally associated with normal host immune response, chronic IFN-γ signaling is often associated with chronic inflammation. It has been shown that butyrate inhibits activity of HDAC1 that is bound to the Fas gene promoter in T cells, resulting in hyperacetylation of the Fas promoter and up-regulation of Fas receptor on the T-cell surface. Similar to other HCA2 agonists studied, butyrate also produces marked anti-inflammatory effects in a variety of tissues, including the brain, gastrointestinal tract, skin, and vascular tissue. Butyrate binding at FFAR3 induces neuropeptide Y release and promotes the functional homeostasis of colonic mucosa and the enteric immune system. Cancer Butyrate has been shown to be a critical mediator of the colonic inflammatory response. It is responsible for about 70% of energy from the colonocytes, being a critical SCFA in colon homeostasis. Butyrate possesses both preventive and therapeutic potential to counteract inflammation-mediated ulcerative colitis (UC) and colorectal cancer. It produces different effects in healthy and cancerous cells: this is known as the "butyrate paradox". In particular, butyrate inhibits colonic tumor cells and stimulates proliferation of healthy colonic epithelial cells. The explanation why butyrate is an energy source for normal colonocytes and induces apoptosis in colon cancer cells, is the Warburg effect in cancer cells, which leads to butyrate not being properly metabolized. This phenomenon leads to the accumulation of butyrate in the nucleus, acting as a histone deacetylase (HDAC) inhibitor. One mechanism underlying butyrate function in suppression of colonic inflammation is inhibition of the IFN-γ/STAT1 signalling pathways. It has been shown that butyrate inhibits activity of HDAC1 that is bound to the Fas gene promoter in T cells, resulting in hyperacetylation of the Fas promoter and upregulation of Fas receptor on the T cell surface. It is thus suggested that butyrate enhances apoptosis of T cells in the colonic tissue and thereby eliminates the source of inflammation (IFN-γ production). Butyrate inhibits angiogenesis by inactivating Sp1 transcription factor activity and downregulating vascular endothelial growth factor gene expression. In summary, the production of volatile fatty acids such as butyrate from fermentable fibers may contribute to the role of dietary fiber in colon cancer. Short-chain fatty acids, which include butyric acid, are produced by beneficial colonic bacteria (probiotics) that feed on, or ferment prebiotics, which are plant products that contain dietary fiber. These short-chain fatty acids benefit the colonocytes by increasing energy production, and may protect against colon cancer by inhibiting cell proliferation. Conversely, some researchers have sought to eliminate butyrate and consider it a potential cancer driver. Studies in mice indicate it drives transformation of MSH2-deficient colon epithelial cells. Potential treatments from butyrate restoration Owing to the importance of butyrate as an inflammatory regulator and immune system contributor, butyrate depletions could be a key factor influencing the pathogenesis of many vasculitic conditions. It is thus essential to maintain healthy levels of butyrate in the gut. Fecal microbiota transplants (to restore BPB and symbiosis in the gut) could be effective by replenishing butyrate levels. In this treatment, a healthy individual donates their stool to be transplanted into an individual with dysbiosis. A less-invasive treatment option is the administration of butyrate—as oral supplements or enemas—which has been shown to be very effective in terminating symptoms of inflammation with minimal-to-no side-effects. In a study where patients with ulcerative colitis were treated with butyrate enemas, inflammation decreased significantly, and bleeding ceased completely after butyrate provision. Addiction Butyric acid is an inhibitor that is selective for class I HDACs in humans. HDACs are histone-modifying enzymes that can cause histone deacetylation and repression of gene expression. HDACs are important regulators of synaptic formation, synaptic plasticity, and long-term memory formation. Class I HDACs are known to be involved in mediating the development of an addiction. Butyric acid and other HDAC inhibitors have been used in preclinical research to assess the transcriptional, neural, and behavioral effects of HDAC inhibition in animals addicted to drugs. Butyrate salts and esters The butyrate or butanoate ion is C3H7COO−, the conjugate base of butyric acid. It is the form found in biological systems at physiological pH. A butyric (or butanoic) compound is a carboxylate salt or ester of butyric acid. Examples Salts Sodium butyrate Esters Butyl butyrate Butyryl-CoA Cellulose acetate butyrate (aircraft dope) Estradiol benzoate butyrate Ethyl butyrate Methyl butyrate Pentyl butyrate Tributyrin See also List of saturated fatty acids Histone Histone-modifying enzyme Histone acetylase Histone deacetylase Hydroxybutyric acids α-Hydroxybutyric acid β-Hydroxybutyric acid γ-Hydroxybutyric acid β-Methylbutyric acid β-Hydroxy β-methylbutyric acid Notes References External links NIST Standard Reference Data for butanoic acid GABA analogues Flavors Alkanoic acids Fatty acids Foul-smelling chemicals Biomolecules Histone deacetylase inhibitors	[ -0.4209917187690735, 0.2112216204404831, 0.1807885766029358, -0.20925360918045044, -0.5352275371551514, -0.09875813126564026, 0.07592479139566422, 0.3106786608695984, 0.3255390226840973, -0.050190169364213943, -0.5384660959243774, 0.3566654622554779, -0.41594335436820984, 0.2979506254196167, 0.4908207356929779, 0.9405782222747803, 0.7949793338775635, 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232346	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Unincorporated%20area	Unincorporated area	An unincorporated area is a region that is not governed by a local municipal corporation. Widespread unincorporated communities and areas are a distinguishing feature of the United States and Canada. Most other countries of the world have either no unincorporated areas at all, or these are very rare; typically remote, outlying, sparsely populated, or uninhabited areas. By country Argentina In Argentina, the provinces of Chubut, Córdoba, Entre Ríos, Formosa, Neuquén, Río Negro, San Luis, Santa Cruz, Santiago del Estero, Tierra del Fuego, and Tucumán have areas that are outside any municipality or commune. Australia Unlike many other countries, Australia has only one level of local government immediately beneath state and territorial governments. A local government area (LGA) often contains several towns and even entire cities. Thus, aside from very sparsely populated areas and a few other special cases, almost all of Australia is part of an LGA. Unincorporated areas are often in remote locations, cover vast areas, or have very small populations. Postal addresses in unincorporated areas, as in other parts of Australia, normally use the suburb or locality names gazetted by the relevant state or territorial government. Thus, any ambiguity regarding addresses rarely exists in unincorporated areas. Queensland, Tasmania, and Western Australia are entirely partitioned into LGAs and have no unincorporated areas. Australian Capital Territory The Australian Capital Territory (ACT) has no municipalities. The territorial government is directly responsible for matters normally carried out by a local government. In some countries, this arrangement would be referred to as a unitary authority, but the Australian Bureau of Statistics refers to the whole of the ACT as an unincorporated area. New South Wales The far west and north of New South Wales constitutes the Unincorporated Far West Region, which is sparsely populated and barely warrants an elected council. A civil servant in the state capital manages such matters as are necessary. The second unincorporated area of this state is Lord Howe Island. Northern Territory In the Northern Territory, 1.45% of the total area and 4.0% of the population are in unincorporated areas, including the Unincorporated Top End Region (the largest), areas covered by the Northern Territory Rates Act, Nhulunbuy, the community of Alyangula on Groote Eylandt in the northern region, and Yulara in the southern region. South Australia In South Australia, 60% of the area is unincorporated and communities located within can receive municipal services provided by a state agency, the Outback Communities Authority. Victoria Victoria has 10 small unincorporated areas, which are either small islands directly administered by the state or ski resorts administered by state-appointed management boards. Canada In Canada, depending on the province, an unincorporated settlement is one that does not have a municipal council that governs solely over the settlement. It is usually, but not always, part of a larger municipal government. This can range from being a small hamlet to being a large urbanized area that is similar in size to a town or city. For example, were they incorporated, the urban service areas of Fort McMurray in the Regional Municipality of Wood Buffalo and Sherwood Park in Strathcona County would be the fifth- and sixth-largest cities in Alberta. In British Columbia, unincorporated settlements lie outside municipal boundaries entirely, and are administered directly by regional/county-level governments similar to the American system. Unincorporated settlements with a population between 100 and 1,000 residents may have the status of designated place in Canadian census data. In some provinces, large tracts of undeveloped wilderness or rural country are unorganized areas that fall directly under the provincial jurisdiction. Some unincorporated settlements in such unorganized areas may have some types of municipal services provided to them by a quasigovernmental agency such as a local services board in Ontario. In New Brunswick, where a significant population lives in a local service district, taxation and services may come directly from the province. Czech Republic The entire area of the Czech Republic is divided into municipalities (obce, sg. obec), with the only exception being four military training areas. These are parts of the regions and do not form self-governing municipalities, but are rather governed by military offices (újezdní úřad), which are subordinate to the Ministry of Defence. Note: Brdy Military Area was abandoned by the army in 2015 and converted into a Landscape park, with its area being incorporated either into existing municipalities or municipalities newly established from the existing settlements. The other four military training areas were reduced in size in 2015 too. The decisions on whether the settlements join existing municipalities or form new ones are decided in plebiscites. Denmark Ertholmene, named so because they are small as a pea (Danish, ert, (modern) ært) form the easternmost part of Denmark. This small archipelago lies 20 kilometers northeast of Bornholm. Population of less than 100. Statistics Denmark groups them with Bornholm in Landsdel Bornholm. Germany Since Germany has no administrative level comparable to the townships of other countries, the vast majority of the country, close to 99%, is organized in municipalities (German: Gemeinde, plural Gemeinden), often consisting of multiple settlements that are not considered to be unincorporated. Because these settlements lack a council of their own, usually an Ortsvorsteher or Ortsvorsteherin (village chairman / chairwoman) is appointed by the municipal council, except in the very smallest villages. In 2000, the number of unincorporated areas in Germany, called gemeindefreie Gebiete (municipality-free areas) or singular gemeindefreies Gebiet, was 295 with a total area of 4,890.33 km2 and around 1.4% of its territory. However, these are mostly unpopulated areas such as forests, lakes and their surroundings, military training areas, and the like. , Germany had 248 uninhabited unincorporated areas (of which 214 are located in Bavaria), not belonging to any municipality, consisting mostly of forested areas, lakes, and larger rivers. Also, three inhabited unincorporated areas existed, all of which served as military training areas: Osterheide and Lohheide in Lower Saxony, and Gutsbezirk Münsingen in Baden-Württemberg. They had fewer than 2,000 inhabitants in total. After losing its inhabited parts to adjacent municipalities on 1 January 2011, Gutsbezirk Münsingen is now uninhabited. Largest The following shows the largest unincorporated areas in Germany (including all inhabited areas, but excluding lakes) with an area of more than 50 km2: † No inhabitants since 1 January 2011 as a result of reduction in area. In Bavaria, there are other contiguous unincorporated areas covering more than 50 km2; these are however composed of several adjacent unincorporated areas combined, each of which is however under 50 km2 in area. Israel In Israel, almost all land is subdivided into 393 municipalities which are further classified, normally by population, as city, local council, or regional council. All three types of municipality provide services including zoning and planning. However, a few unincorporated areas exist, whether because of omissions and ambiguities left in official maps dating from the British Mandate for Palestine, or due to deliberate policy of ensuring facilities of national importance, such as Ben Gurion Airport, Mikveh Israel boarding school, or the BAZAN Group oil refineries, would not have their operation affected by local considerations. The largest unincorporated area in Israel is the so-called "Reservation area", a triangular region whose vertexes are Beersheba, Dimona and Arad, in which all Negev Bedouins were concentrated in the 1950s. As no municipal services are provided within unincorporated area, this effectively makes all Bedouin settlements in the area unrecognized, with the sole exception of those included within the Abu Basma Regional Council. Netherlands The Netherlands has had regular periods with unincorporated land when newly reclaimed land polders fall dry. Unincorporated land is since medieval times administered by an appointed officer with the name Landdrost or Drossaart. Also, Elten and Tudderen, both annexed from Germany after World War II, were governed by a Landdrost until they were ceded to Germany in 1963. The most recent period with unincorporated land started in 1967, when the dyke around Southern Flevoland was closed, but several years are required before the polder is genuinely accessible for cultivation, and construction of roads and homes can start, as in the first years, the soil is equivalent to quicksand. During the initial period of inhabitation, a special, government-appointed officer was installed, the Landdrost. During the administrative office of a Landdrost, no municipal council forms. In 1975, the first homes in what is now the city of Almere were built, and from 1976 to 1984, the area was governed by the Landdrost as the executive of the Openbaar Lichaam Zuidelijke IJsselmeerpolders (Southern IJsselmeerpolders Public Body). In 1984, the Landdrost became the first mayor of the new city Almere. Since that date, the Netherlands does not have any unincorporated land areas. The Openbaar Lichaam remained, however, only governing the water body of the Markermeer. After the municipal division of the Wadden Sea (1985), the territorial waters in the North Sea (1991) and the IJsselmeer (1994), all water bodies are now also part of a municipality and no unincorporated areas exist in the Netherlands anymore. The Openbaar Lichaam Zuidelijke IJsselmeerpolders was dissolved in 1996. Norway In Norway, Bouvet Island, Jan Mayen, and Svalbard are outside of any of the country's counties and municipalities. They are ruled directly by national authorities without any local democracy. An exception is the Longyearbyen Community Council, which since 2004 in reality acts partly like a Norwegian municipality. Svalbard has a governor appointed by the government of Norway, ruling the area. Jan Mayen has no population, only radio and weather stations with staff, whose manager has the responsibility for the activities. Bouvet Island has only occasional visitors. United States In local government in the United States, an unincorporated area generally refers to the part of a county that is outside any municipality. An unincorporated community is one general term for a geographic area having a common social identity without municipal organization or official political designation (i.e., incorporation as a city or town). The two main types of unincorporated communities are: a neighborhood or other community existing within one or across multiple existing incorporated areas (i.e., cities or towns). In this sense, a community is part of a municipal government, but not separately incorporated from it. For example, Hyannis, Massachusetts, is an unincorporated village within the town of Barnstable, and Intervale, New Hampshire, is an unincorporated community on the border of the towns of Bartlett and Conway. a neighborhood or other community existing outside an incorporated municipal government. In this sense, the community is outside any municipal government, and entirely unincorporated. Examples include Hovland, Minnesota; Nutbush, Tennessee; and Yucca, Arizona; all are small rural settlements of low population. Most states have granted some form of home rule, so that county commissions (or boards or councils) have the same powers in these areas as city councils or town councils have in their respective incorporated areas. Some states, instead, put these powers in the hands of townships, which are minor civil divisions of each county, and are called "towns" in some states. Due to differences in state laws regarding the incorporation of communities, a great variation exists in the distribution and nature of unincorporated areas. Unincorporated regions are essentially nonexistent in eight of the northeastern states. All of the land in New Jersey, Connecticut, Massachusetts, New York, and Rhode Island, and nearly all of the land in New Hampshire, Pennsylvania, and Vermont, is part of an incorporated area of some type. In these areas, types (and official names) of local government entities can vary. In New England (which includes five of those eight states, plus the less fully incorporated state of Maine), local municipalities are known as towns or cities, and most towns are administered by a form of direct democracy, such as the open town meeting or representative town meeting. Larger towns in New England may be incorporated as cities, with some form of mayor-council government. In New Jersey, multiple types exist, as well, such as city, township, town, borough, or village, but these differences are in the structure of the legislative branches, not in the powers or functions of the entities themselves. On the opposite end of the spectrum is the Virginia "strong county" model. Virginia and other states with this model, such as Alabama, Maryland, and Tennessee, set strict requirements on incorporation or grant counties broad powers that in other states are carried out by cities, creating a disincentive to incorporate, and thus have large, urbanized areas which have no municipal government below the county level. Meanwhile, in other mid-Atlantic states, such as New York and Pennsylvania, a hybrid model that tries to balance the two approaches is prevalent, with differing allocations of power between municipalities and counties existing. Throughout the U.S., some large cities have annexed all surrounding unincorporated areas within their counties, creating what are known as consolidated city–county forms of government (e.g., Jacksonville, Florida and Nashville, Tennessee). In these cases, unincorporated areas continue to exist in other counties of their respective metropolitan areas. Conversely, there are a number of "county islands" that exist, where an unincorporated area is surrounded on most or all sides by municipalities. In areas of sparse population the majority of the land in any given state may be unincorporated. Some states, including North Carolina, grant extraterritorial jurisdiction to cities and towns (but rarely villages), so that they may control zoning for a limited distance into adjacent unincorporated areas, often as a precursor (and sometimes as a legal requirement) to later annexation of those areas. This is especially useful in rural counties that have no zoning at all, or only spot zoning for unincorporated communities. In California, all counties except the City and County of San Francisco have unincorporated areas. Even in highly populated counties, the unincorporated portions may contain a large number of inhabitants. In Los Angeles County, the county government estimates the population of its unincorporated areas to exceed one million people. Despite having 88 incorporated cities and towns, including the state's most populous, 65% of the land in Los Angeles County is unincorporated, this mostly consisting of Angeles National Forest and sparsely populated regions to its north. California law makes no distinction between "city" and "town", and municipalities may use either term in their official names. Insular areas In the context of the insular areas of the United States, the word "unincorporated" refers to territories in which the United States Congress has determined that only selected parts of the United States Constitution apply, and which have not been formally incorporated into the United States by Congress. Currently, the five major unincorporated U.S. insular areas are American Samoa, Puerto Rico, Guam, the U.S. Virgin Islands, and the Northern Mariana Islands. Unincorporated insular areas can be ceded to another nation or be granted independence. The U.S. has one incorporated insular area, Palmyra Atoll. Incorporation is regarded as perpetual by the U.S. federal government; once incorporated, the Territory cannot be disincorporated. (See: United States territory.) The U.S. Minor Outlying Islands without a permanent civilian population are "unorganized" in the sense that they do not have a local government and they are administered by the Office of Insular Affairs directly. The populated American Samoa is also "unorganized" in the sense that Congress has not passed an organic act but it does have a constitution and locally elected territorial legislature and executive. U.S. Census Bureau An unincorporated community may be part of a census-designated place (CDP). A CDP is an area defined by the United States Census Bureau for statistical purposes only. It is a populated area that generally includes one officially designated, but currently unincorporated community, for which the CDP is named, plus surrounding inhabited countryside of varying dimensions, and occasionally, other, smaller unincorporated communities, as well. Otherwise, it has no legal status. The Census Bureau designates some unincorporated areas as "unorganized territories", as defined by the U.S. Census Bureau where portions of counties are not included in any legally established minor civil division (MCD) or independent incorporated place. These occur in 10 MCD states: Arkansas, Indiana, Iowa, Louisiana, Maine, Minnesota, North Carolina, North Dakota, Ohio, and South Dakota. The Census recognizes such separate pieces of territory as one or more separate county subdivisions for statistical purposes. It assigns each unorganized territory a descriptive name, followed by the designation "unorganized territory". Unorganized territories were first used for statistical purposes in conjunction with the 1960 census. At the 2000 census there were 305 of these territories within the United States. Their total land area was 85,392 square miles (221,165 km2) and they had a total population of 247,331. South Dakota had the most unorganized territories, 102, as well as the largest amount of land under that status: 39,785 square miles (103,042 km2), or 52.4% of the state's land area. North Dakota followed with 86 territories, 20,358 square miles (52,728 km2), or 29.5% of its land area. Maine was next with 36 territories, 14,052 square miles (36,396 km2), or 45.5% of its land area. Minnesota had 71 territories, 10,552 square miles (27,330 km2), or 13% of its land area. Several other states had small amounts of unorganized territory. The unorganized territory with the largest population was Camp Lejeune, North Carolina, a United States Marine Corps base with a census population of 34,452 inhabitants. In the 2010 census, unorganized territory areas were identified in nine U.S. states: Arkansas, Indiana, Iowa, Maine, Minnesota, New York, North Carolina, North Dakota, and South Dakota. USGS definition of "populated place" Unincorporated areas with permanent populations in the United States are defined by the US government scientific agency United States Geological Survey (USGS) as "populated places", a "place or area with clustered or scattered buildings, and a permanent human population (city, settlement, town, village)." No legal boundaries exist, although a corresponding "civil" record may occur, the boundaries of which may or may not match the perceived populated place. U.S. mail delivery Many unincorporated communities are also recognized as acceptable place names for use in mailing addresses by the United States Postal Service (USPS) (indeed, some have their own post offices), and the United States Census Bureau uses the names of some widely recognized unincorporated communities for its CDPs for which it tabulates census data. In some instances, unincorporated areas have a mailing address indicating the name of an incorporated city, as well as those where residents of one incorporated city have mailing addresses indicating another incorporated city. Mailing addresses do not necessarily change whether an area becomes a part of an incorporated place, changes to another incorporated place, or disincorporates. For example, places in Kingwood, Texas, previously unincorporated, retained "Kingwood, TX" mailing addresses after the 1996 annexation of Kingwood into the City of Houston. The Houston city government stated on its website, "The U.S. Postal Service establishes ZIP codes and mailing addresses to maximize the efficiency of their system, not to recognize jurisdictional boundaries." The USPS is very conservative about recognizing new place names for use in mailing addresses and typically only does so when a place incorporates. The original place name associated with a ZIP Code is still maintained as the default place name, even though the name of the newly incorporated place is more accurate. As an example, Sandy Springs is one of the most populated places in Georgia, but is served by a branch of the Atlanta post office. Only after the city was incorporated in 2005 has "Sandy Springs" been approved by the USPS for use in mailing addresses, though "Atlanta" remains the default name. Accordingly, "Atlanta" is the only accepted place name for mailing addresses in the nearby unincorporated town of Vinings, also served by a branch of the Atlanta post office, even though Vinings is in Cobb County and Atlanta is in Fulton and DeKalb counties. In contrast, neighboring Mableton has not been incorporated in nearly a century, but has its own post office and thus "Mableton" is the only acceptable place name for mailing addresses in the town. The areas of Dulah and Faria, California, which are unincorporated areas in Ventura County between Ventura and Carpinteria, have the ZIP Code of 93001, which is assigned to the post office at 675 E. Santa Clara St. in Ventura; thus, all mail to those two areas is addressed to Ventura. If an unincorporated area becomes incorporated, it may be split among ZIP codes, and its new name may be recognized as acceptable for use with some or all of them in mailing addresses, as has been the case in Johns Creek and Milton, Georgia. If an incorporated area disincorporates, though, this has no effect on whether a place name is "acceptable" in a mailing address or not, as is the case with Lithia Springs, Georgia. ZIP code boundaries often ignore political boundaries, so the appearance of a place name in a mailing address alone does not indicate whether the place is incorporated or unincorporated. Other nations Some nations have some exceptional unincorporated areas: The Kingdom of Denmark has three unincorporated areas: In Denmark proper, the former naval fortress Ertholmene east of Bornholm with less than 100 inhabitants is still governed directly by the Ministry of Defence. In Greenland, all land is incorporated except for the Northeast Greenland National Park and the Thule Air Base. In France, all land is incorporated except for Clipperton Island, a small overseas island possession held as an overseas state private property under the direct authority of the French government, administered by France's Overseas Minister. Hong Kong (except for the Lok Ma Chau Loop) is divided into districts. In India, there are several union territories ('centrally administered province'). Unlike the states of India, which have their own governments, union territories are federal territories governed, in part or in whole, by the Central Government of India. Many of these were created at the time of India's independence or after being acquired from non-British colonial powers or princely states. Azad Kashmir has no official status in Pakistani law, but is nonetheless de facto governed by Pakistan. Slovakia is divided into municipalities. There are two types of municipalities: towns (mesto, pl. mestá) and villages (obec, pl. obce), with minor differences between them. Additionally, there are several military areas which are not part of any municipality. Each military area is a municipality of its own right. However, the military areas hold no elections and have no mayors or other elected representatives. Instead, they are administered directly by the Slovak Ministry of Defence. Switzerland also has a few exceptions: 22 lakes and a forest, as described by the Swiss federal statistical office (See: Gemeindefreie Gebiete ). In Ukraine, all land is divided into hromadas except for the Chernobyl Exclusion Zone. The latter contains parts of Kyiv Oblast and Zhytomyr Oblast and is directly administered by a designated government agency. Countries without unincorporated areas Many countries, especially those with many centuries of history using multiple tiers of local government, do not use the concept of an unincorporated area. The whole of the territories of Austria, Belgium, Bosnia and Herzegovina, Croatia, Finland, France, Greece, Italy, Japan, Lithuania, Montenegro, the Netherlands, the Philippines, Poland, Portugal, Serbia, Slovenia, Sweden, and Turkey are divided into municipalities. In Brazil, Chile, Colombia, and Mexico, all land must belong to a municipality. Even large uninhabited areas, such as forests or grasslands, are, by law, part of the nearest "city". This is because in Latin America, a "municipality" is the equivalent of what in the United States and Canada is called a "county". In Mainland China, every piece of land belongs to a county-level (third level) administrative division (equivalent to a municipality), either a district (区 qū) in an urban area, or a county-level city (县级市 xiànjíshì), county (县 xiàn) or banner (旗 qí). There is also a township-level (fourth level) administrative division, which may be a subdistrict (街道 jiēdào), town (镇 zhèn), township (乡 xiāng), or sumu (苏木 sūmù). In Croatia, every piece of land belongs either to a city (grad) or to a municipality (općina). In Estonia, the entire territory is divided into 79 municipalities, of which 14 are municipal towns and 65 are parishes. The entire territory of the country is divided into settlements of four types: towns, boroughs, small boroughs and villages. In France, the territory is subdivided into 36,685 communes (municipalities). An elected council and a mayor form the governing body of a municipality. In Indonesia, every piece of land belongs to a municipality (kotamadya) or a regency (kabupaten). In Japan, every piece of land belongs to a municipality, of which there are four types: cities (市 shi); the special wards (特別区 tokubetsu-ku) of Tokyo; towns (町 chō or machi); villages (村 mura or son). In Peru, the whole territory is divided into districts ("distritos"), which form provinces ("provincias"), which form regions ("regiones"). Some districts, especially in the Amazon, are vast portions of territory, but they're governed from a district capital (which can be anywhere from a city to a small village). In the Philippines, all land belongs to either a city or a municipality, which are further subdivided into barangays. In Portugal, the constitution defines territorial divisions as parishes, municipalities, and administrative regions. It has no official definition of city limits, so a city may include several parishes, or a parish may cover several villages or townships, but a municipality is usually administered from the city or town that bears its name. In South Africa, the constitution gives every place in the country democratically elected third-tier government. In South Korea, every piece of land belongs to a municipality, either a district (구/區 gu) in a city (시/市 shi) or a town (읍/邑 eub) or township (면/面 myeon) in a county (군/郡 gun). In Spain, the Spanish Constitution of 1978 says that the land is divided into Autonomous Communities, provinces and municipalities. Each of these have certain powers determined by law. Autonomous Communities and municipalities are enabled to appeal to the Constitutional Court any public decision that violates their autonomy by other entities (State or Autonomous Community power). Nevertheless, some regions, like Navarre, have some unincorporated areas. The largest of these, the Bardenas Reales has a surface of 418 km2 and is governed by a board of representatives of 20 bordering municipalities, a valley in the Pyrenees, and a monastery, all of which have rights to use the area. The plazas de soberanía also functions as de facto unincorporated areas under the administration of the Spanish Ministry of Defence. In Sweden, all territory is divided into municipalities. Sweden has post-glacial rebound, so the land area is increasing, but municipal boundaries extend into the sea, so new land is not unincorporated. In the free area of the Republic of China (Taiwan Island, Penghu, Kinmen, Matsu, and some minor islands), every piece of land belongs to either a township or a county-administered city in county, or district in provincial city. There are, in total, 368 townships, county-administered cities and districts in Taiwan. See also: administrative divisions of Taiwan. In the United Kingdom: In England, all land is within a county or local government district, both of which exercise power over their jurisdictions. In Northern Ireland, all land is within one of 11 districts. In Scotland, all land is within one of 32 unitary authorities designated as councils. In Wales, all land is within one of 22 single-tier principal areas. See also County island Main road town Unorganized Borough, Alaska, an area without county-level government. 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232364	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Viborg	Viborg	Viborg may refer to: Places Viborg, Denmark, a city in Jutland, Denmark Viborg Municipality, a Danish municipality named for the city Viborg County, a former county of Denmark Diocese of Viborg Viborg FF, a professional football team based in Viborg Viborg HK, a handball club Viborg Stadium, home of Viborg FF Vyborg, Viipuri or Viborg, a city on the Karelian Isthmus, Leningrad Region, Russia Viborg Province, a former province of Finland Vyborg Castle Viborg, South Dakota, a city in South Dakota, US People Erik Viborg, veterinarian and botanist	[ 0.6797313690185547, -0.06772318482398987, 0.3355674147605896, 0.15555095672607422, -0.46373501420021057, 0.20976707339286804, 0.719853401184082, 0.1502634584903717, -0.7990288734436035, -0.012096026912331581, -0.3091717064380646, -0.20417796075344086, -0.6168026924133301, 0.486025333404541, -0.3286307156085968, 0.4920945465564728, 0.5774739980697632, 0.9577299952507019, -0.07314719259738922, 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232367	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Journey%20to%20the%20West	Journey to the West	Journey to the West () is a Chinese novel published in the 16th century during the Ming dynasty and attributed to Wu Cheng'en. It is regarded as one of the Four Great Classical Novels of Chinese literature, and has been described as arguably the most popular literary work in East Asia. Arthur Waley's abridged translation, Monkey, is known in English-speaking countries. The novel is an extended account of the legendary pilgrimage of the Tang dynasty Buddhist monk Xuanzang, who travelled to the "Western Regions" (Central Asia and the Indian subcontinent) to obtain Buddhist sacred texts (sūtras) and returned after many trials and much suffering. The monk is referred to as Tang Sanzang in the novel. The novel retains the broad outline of Xuanzang's own account, Great Tang Records on the Western Regions, but adds elements from folk tales and the author's invention: Gautama Buddha gives this task to the monk and provides him with three protectors who agree to help him as an atonement for their sins. These disciples are Sun Wukong, Zhu Bajie, and Sha Wujing, together with a dragon prince who acts as Tang Sanzang's steed, a white horse. The group of pilgrims journeys towards enlightenment by the power and virtue of cooperation. Journey to the West has strong roots in Chinese folk religion, Chinese mythology, Confucianist, Taoist, and Buddhist philosophy, and the pantheon of Taoist immortals and Buddhist bodhisattvas are still reflective of some Chinese religious attitudes today. Enduringly popular, the novel is at once a comic adventure story, a humorous satire of Chinese bureaucracy, a source of spiritual insight, and an extended allegory. Authorship The earliest known full-length version of Journey to the West was published anonymously in 1592, preceded by 2 briefer versions. The question of authorship is further complicated by the fact that a good deal of the novel's material had been published in the form of folk tales. Anthony C. Yu, writing in 2012, warned that "this vexing dispute over the novel's authorship, similar to that on the priority of its textual versions, see-sawed back and forth for nearly a century without resolution." Hu Shih, literary scholar and former Ambassador to the United States, wrote that the novel was thought to have been written and published anonymously by Wu Cheng'en. He reasoned that the people of Wu's hometown attributed it early on to Wu, and kept records to that effect as early as 1625; thus, claimed Ambassador Hu, Journey to the West was one of the earliest Chinese novels for which the authorship is officially documented. Recent scholarship casts doubts on this attribution. Brown University Chinese literature scholar David Lattimore states: "The Ambassador's confidence was quite unjustified. What the gazetteer says is that Wu wrote something called The Journey to the West. It mentions nothing about a novel. The work in question could have been any version of our story, or something else entirely." Translator W. J. F. Jenner points out that although Wu had knowledge of Chinese bureaucracy and politics, the novel itself does not include any political details that "a fairly well-read commoner could not have known." Regardless of the origins and authorship, Journey to the West has become the authoritative version of these folk stories, and Wu's name has become a household name accompanying the book. Historical context The novel Journey to the West was based on historical events. Xuanzang (602–664) was a monk at Jingtu Temple in late-Sui dynasty and early-Tang dynasty Chang'an. Motivated by seeking better translations of Buddhist scripture at the time, Xuanzang left Chang'an in 629, in defiance of Emperor Taizong of Tang's ban on travel. Helped by sympathetic Buddhists, he traveled via Gansu and Qinghai to Kumul (Hami), thence following the Tian Shan mountains to Turpan. He then crossed regions that are today Kyrgyzstan, Uzbekistan and Afghanistan, into Gandhara, in what is today northern Pakistan, in 630. Xuanzang traveled throughout the Indian subcontinent for the next thirteen years, visiting important Buddhist pilgrimage sites, studying at the ancient university at Nalanda, and debating the rivals of Buddhism. Xuanzang left India in 643 and arrived back in Chang'an in 646. Although he had defied the imperial travel ban when he left, Xuanzang received a warm welcome from Emperor Taizong upon his return. The emperor provided money and support for Xuanzang's projects. He joined Da Ci'en Monastery (Monastery of Great Maternal Grace), where he led the building of the Big Wild Goose Pagoda to store the scriptures and icons he had brought back from India. He recorded his journey in the book Great Tang Records on the Western Regions. With the support of the emperor, he established an institute at Yuhua Gong (Palace of the Lustre of Jade) monastery dedicated to translating the scriptures he had brought back. His translation and commentary work established him as the founder of the Dharma character school of Buddhism. Xuanzang died on 7 March 664. The Xingjiao Monastery was established in 669 to house his ashes. Popular and story-teller versions of Xuanzang's journey dating as far back as the Southern Song dynasty include a monkey character as a protagonist. Synopsis The novel has 100 chapters that can be divided into four unequal parts. The first part, which includes chapters 1–7, is a self-contained introduction to the main story. It deals entirely with the earlier exploits of Sun Wukong, a monkey born from a stone nourished by the Five Elements, who learns the art of the Tao, 72 polymorphic transformations, combat, and secrets of immortality, and whose guile and force earns him the name Qitian Dasheng (), or "Great Sage Equal to Heaven." His powers grow to match the forces of all of the Eastern (Taoist) deities, and the prologue culminates in Sun's rebellion against Heaven, during a time when he garnered a post in the celestial bureaucracy. Hubris proves his downfall when the Buddha manages to trap him under a mountain, sealing it with a talisman for five hundred years. The second part (chapters 8–12) introduces Tang Sanzang through his early biography and the background to his great journey. Dismayed that "the land of the South (i.e. Tang China) knows only greed, hedonism, promiscuity, and sins," the Buddha instructs the bodhisattva Avalokiteśvara (Guanyin) to search China for someone to take the Buddhist sutras of "transcendence and persuasion for good will" back. Part of this section also relates to how Tang Sanzang becomes a monk (as well as revealing his past life as a disciple of the Buddha named "Golden Cicada" ()) and comes about being sent on this pilgrimage by Emperor Taizong, who previously escaped death with the help of an official in the Underworld. The third and longest section of the work is chapters 13–99, an episodic adventure story in which Tang Sanzang sets out to bring back Buddhist scriptures from Leiyin Temple on Vulture Peak in India, but encounters various evils along the way. The section is set in the sparsely populated lands along the Silk Road between China and India. The geography described in the book is, however, almost entirely fantasy; once Tang Sanzang departs Chang'an, the Tang capital, and crosses the frontier (somewhere in Gansu province), he finds himself in a wilderness of deep gorges and tall mountains, inhabited by demons and animal spirits who regard him as a potential meal (since his flesh was believed to give immortality to whoever ate it), with the occasional hidden monastery or royal city-state amidst the harsh setting. Episodes consist of 1–4 chapters and usually involve Tang Sanzang being captured and having his life threatened while his disciples try to find an ingenious (and often violent) way of liberating him. Although some of Tang Sanzang's predicaments are political and involve ordinary human beings, they more frequently consist of run-ins with various demons, many of whom turn out to be earthly manifestations of heavenly beings (whose sins will be negated by eating the flesh of Tang Sanzang) or animal-spirits with enough Taoist spiritual merit to assume semi-human forms. Chapters 13–22 do not follow this structure precisely, as they introduce Tang Sanzang's disciples, who, inspired or goaded by Guanyin, meet and agree to serve him along the way in order to atone for their sins in their past lives. The first is Sun Wukong, or Monkey King, whose given name loosely means "awakened to emptiness," trapped by the Buddha for defying Heaven. He appears right away in chapter 13. The most intelligent and violent of the disciples, he is constantly reproved for his violence by Tang Sanzang. Ultimately, he can only be controlled by a magic gold ring that Guanyin has placed around his head, which causes him unbearable headaches when Tang Sanzang chants the Ring Tightening Mantra. The second, appearing in chapter 19, is Zhu Bajie, literally "Eight Precepts Pig," sometimes translated as Pigsy or just Pig. He was previously the Marshal of the Heavenly Canopy, a commander of Heaven's naval forces, and was banished to the mortal realm for harassing the moon goddess Chang'e. A reliable fighter, he is characterised by his insatiable appetites for food and women, and is constantly looking for a way out of his duties, which causes significant conflict with Sun Wukong. The third, appearing in chapter 22, is the river ogre Sha Wujing, also translated as Friar Sand or Sandy. He was previously the celestial Curtain Lifting General, and was banished to the mortal realm for dropping (and shattering) a crystal goblet of the Queen Mother of the West. He is a quiet but generally dependable and hard-working character, who serves as the straight foil to the comic relief of Sun and Zhu. The fourth is White Dragon Horse, the third son of the Dragon King of the West Sea, who was sentenced to death for setting fire to his father's great pearl. He was saved by Guanyin from execution to stay and wait for his call of duty. He has almost no speaking role, as throughout the story he mainly appears as a horse that Tang Sanzang rides on. Chapter 22, where Sha Wujing is introduced, also provides a geographical boundary, as the river that the travelers cross brings them into a new "continent." Chapters 23–86 take place in the wilderness, and consist of 24 episodes of varying length, each characterised by a different magical monster or evil magician. There are impassibly wide rivers, flaming mountains, a kingdom with an all-female population, a lair of seductive spider spirits, and many other scenarios. Throughout the journey, the four disciples have to fend off attacks on their master and teacher Tang Sanzang from various monsters and calamities. It is strongly suggested that most of these calamities are engineered by fate and/or the Buddha, as, while the monsters who attack are vast in power and many in number, no real harm ever comes to the four travelers. Some of the monsters turn out to be escaped celestial beasts belonging to bodhisattvas or Taoist sages and deities. Towards the end of the book, there is a scene where the Buddha commands the fulfillment of the last disaster, because Tang Sanzang is one short of the 81 tribulations required before attaining Buddhahood. In chapter 87, Tang Sanzang finally reaches the borderlands of India, and chapters 87–99 present magical adventures in a somewhat more mundane setting. At length, after a pilgrimage said to have taken fourteen years (the text actually only provides evidence for nine of those years, but presumably there was room to add additional episodes) they arrive at the half-real, half-legendary destination of Vulture Peak, where, in a scene simultaneously mystical and comic, Tang Sanzang receives the scriptures from the living Buddha. Chapter 100, the final chapter, quickly describes the return journey to the Tang Empire, and the aftermath in which each traveller receives a reward in the form of posts in the bureaucracy of the heavens. Sun Wukong and Tang Sanzang achieve Buddhahood, Sha Wujing becomes an arhat, White Dragon Horse is made a nāga and Zhu Bajie, whose good deeds have always been tempered by his greed, is promoted to an altar cleanser (i.e. eater of excess offerings at altars). Main characters Sun Wukong or Monkey King Sun Wukong () (pinyin: sūnwùkōng) is the name given to this character by his teacher, Subhuti, the latter part of which means "Awakened to Emptiness" (in the Waley translation, Aware-of-Vacuity); he is often called the Monkey King. He is born on Flower Fruit Mountain from a stone egg that forms from an ancient rock created by the coupling of Heaven and Earth. He first distinguishes himself by bravely entering the Water Curtain Cave on the mountain; for this feat, his monkey tribe gives him the title of "Handsome Monkey King (美猴王)." After seeing a fellow monkey die because of old age, he decides to travel around the world to seek the Tao, and find a way to be able to live forever. He eventually found the "Grand Master of Bodhi (菩提祖師)," who taught him the 72 heavenly methods of transformation and a "sumersault cloud" which allows him to travel 108,000 li almost instantaneously. After angering several gods and coming to the attention of the Jade Emperor, he is given a minor position in heaven as the Keeper of Horses (弼馬溫) so they can keep an eye on him. When Sun realises that he was given a low position and is not considered a full-fledged god, he becomes very angry. Upon returning to his mountain, he puts up a flag and declares himself the "Great Sage Equal to Heaven." The Jade Emperor dispatches celestial soldiers to arrest Sun Wukong, but no one succeeds. The Jade Emperor has no choice but to appoint him to be the guardian of the heavenly peach garden. The peach trees in the garden bear fruit every 3,000 years, and eating its flesh will bestow immortality, so Sun Wukong eats nearly all of the ripe peaches. Later, after fairies who come to collect peaches for Xi Wangmu's heavenly peach banquet inform Sun Wukong he is not invited and make fun of him, he once again starts causing trouble in Heaven and defeats an army of 100,000 celestial troops, led by the Four Heavenly Kings, Erlang Shen, and Nezha. Eventually, the Jade Emperor appeals to the Buddha, who seals Wukong under a mountain called Five Elements Mountain after the latter loses a bet regarding whether he can leap out of the Buddha's hand in a single somersault. Sun Wukong is kept under the mountain for 500 years, and cannot escape because of a seal that was placed on the mountain. He is later set free when Tang Sanzang comes upon him during his pilgrimage and accepts him as a disciple. His primary weapon is his staff, the "Ruyi Jingu Bang," which he can shrink down to the size of a needle and keep in his ear, as well as expand it to gigantic proportions. The rod, which weighs 17,550 pounds, was originally a pillar supporting the undersea palace of the Dragon King of the East Sea, but he was able to pull it out of its support and can swing it with ease. The Dragon King had told Sun Wukong he could have the staff if he could lift it, but was angry when the monkey was actually able to pull it out and accused him of being a thief; hence Sun Wukong was insulted, so he demanded a suit of armour and refused to leave until he received one. The Dragon King, fearful of Sun wreaking havoc in his palace, gave him a suit of golden armour. These gifts, combined with his devouring of the peaches of immortality, three jars of elixir, and his time being tempered in Laozi's Eight-Trigram Furnace (after which he gained a steel-hard body and fiery golden eyes that could see very far into the distance and through any disguise), makes Sun Wukong the strongest member of the pilgrimage by far. Besides these abilities, he can also pluck hairs from his body and blow on them to convert them into whatever he wishes (usually clones of himself to gain a numerical advantage in battle). Furthermore, he is a master of the 72 methods of transformation (), and can transform into anything that exists (animate and inanimate). Notably, however, Sun cannot fight as well underwater. The monkey, nimble and quick-witted, uses these skills to defeat all but the most powerful of demons on the journey. Sun's behavior is checked by a band placed around his head by Guanyin, which cannot be removed by Sun Wukong himself until the journey's end. Tang Sanzang can tighten this band by chanting the "Ring Tightening Mantra" (taught to him by Guanyin) whenever he needs to chastise him. The spell is referred to by Tang Sanzang's disciples as the "Headache Sutra". Tang Sanzang speaks this mantra quickly in repetition when Sun disobeys him. Sun Wukong's childlike playfulness is in huge contrast to his cunning mind. This, coupled with his great power, makes him a trickster hero. His antics present a lighter side in the long and dangerous trip into the unknown. After completion of the journey, Sun is granted the title of Victorious Fighting Buddha () and ascends to Buddhahood. Tang Sanzang or Tripitaka The monk Tang Sanzang (, meaning "Tripitaka Master of Tang," with Tang referring to the Tang dynasty and Sanzang referring to the Tripiṭaka, the main categories of texts in the Buddhist canon which is also used as an honorific for some Buddhist monks) is a Buddhist monk who had renounced his family to become a monk from childhood. He is just called Tripitaka in many English versions of the story. He set off for Dahlia kingdom (, an appellation for India in ancient China) to retrieve original Buddhist scriptures for China. Although he is helpless in defending himself, the bodhisattva Avalokiteśvara (Guanyin) helps by finding him powerful disciples who aid and protect him on his journey. In return, the disciples will receive enlightenment and forgiveness for their sins once the journey is done. Along the way, they help the local inhabitants by defeating various monsters and demons who try to obtain immortality by consuming Tang Sanzang's flesh. Zhu Bajie or Pigsy Zhu Bajie (, literally "Pig of the Eight Prohibitions") is also known as Zhu Wuneng ("Pig Awakened to Power"), and given the name Pigsy, Monk Pig or just simply Pig in English. Once an immortal who was the Marshal of the Heavenly Canopy commanding 100,000 naval soldiers of the Milky Way, he drank too much during a celebration of the gods and attempted to harass the moon goddess Chang'e, resulting in his banishment to the mortal world. He was supposed to be reborn as a human but ended up in the womb of a sow due to an error on the Reincarnation Wheel, which turned him into a half-man, half-pig monster. Zhu Bajie was very greedy, and could not survive without eating ravenously. Staying within the Yunzhan Dong ("cloud-pathway cave"), he was commissioned by Guanyin to accompany Tang Sanzang to India and given the new name Zhu Wuneng. However, Zhu Bajie's lust for women led him to the Gao Family Village, where he posed as a handsome young man and helped defeat a group of robbers who tried to abduct a maiden. Eventually, the family agreed to let Zhu Bajie marry the maiden. But during the day of the wedding, he drank too much alcohol and accidentally returned to his original form. Being extremely shocked, the villagers ran away, but Zhu Bajie wanted to keep his bride, so he told the bride's father that if after one month the family still doesn't agree to let him keep the bride, he would take her by force. He also locked the bride up in a separate building. At this point, Tang Sanzang and Sun Wukong arrived at the Gao Family Village and helped defeat him. Renamed Zhu Bajie by Tang Sanzang, he consequently joined the pilgrimage to the West. His weapon of choice is the jiuchidingpa ("nine-tooth iron rake"). He is also capable of 36 transformations, and can travel on clouds, but not as fast as Sun Wukong. However, Zhu is noted for his fighting skills in the water, which he used to combat Sha Wujing, who later joined them on the journey. He is the second strongest member of the team. Being spiritually the lowest of the group due to his lust for women, extreme laziness, and greediness, he remained on Earth and was granted the title "Cleaner of the Altars," with the duty of cleaning every altar at every Buddhist temple for eternity by eating excess offerings. Sha Wujing or Sandy Sha Wujing (, "Sand Awakened to Purity"), given the name Friar Sand or Sandy in English, was once a celestial Curtain Lifting General, who stood in attendance by the imperial chariot in the Hall of Miraculous Mist. He was exiled to the mortal world and made to look like a monster because he accidentally smashed a crystal goblet belonging to the Queen Mother of the West during a Peach Banquet. The now-hideous immortal took up residence in the Flowing Sands River, terrorising surrounding villages and travellers trying to cross the river. However, he was subdued by Sun Wukong and Zhu Bajie when Tang Sanzang's party came across him. They consequently took him in, as part of the pilgrimage to the West. Wujing's weapon is a magic wooden staff wrapped in pearly threads. He also knows 18 transformation methods and is highly effective in water combat. Wujing is known to be the most obedient, logical, and polite of the three disciples, and always takes care of his master, seldom engaging in the bickering of his fellow disciples. He has no major faults nor any extraordinary characteristics. Perhaps this is why he is sometimes seen as a minor character. He does however serve as the peacekeeper of the group mediating between Wukong and Bajie and even Tang Sanzang and the others. He is also the person whom Tang Sanzang consults when faced with difficult decisions. Wujing eventually becomes an arhat at the end of the journey, giving him a higher level of exaltation than Zhu Bajie, who is relegated to cleaning altars, but lower spiritually than Sun Wukong and Tang Sanzang, who are granted Buddhahood. Sequels The brief satirical novel Xiyoubu (, "A Supplement to the Journey to the West," ) follows Sun Wukong as he is trapped in a magical dream world created by the Qing Fish Demon, the embodiment of desire (, qing). Sun travels back and forth through time, during which he serves as the adjunct King of Hell and judges the soul of the recently dead traitor Qin Hui during the Song dynasty, takes on the appearance of a beautiful concubine and causes the downfall of the Qin dynasty, and even faces Pāramitā, one of his five sons born to the rakshasa Princess Iron Fan, on the battlefield during the Tang dynasty. The events of Xiyoubu take place between the end of chapter 61 and the beginning of chapter 62 of Journey to the West. The author, Dong Yue (), wrote the book because he wanted to create an opponent—in this case desire—that Sun could not defeat with his great strength and martial skill. Notable English-language translations Monkey: A Folk-Tale of China (1942), an abridged translation by Arthur Waley. For many years, this was the most well-known translation available in English. The Waley translation has also been published as Adventures of the Monkey God, Monkey to the West, Monkey: [A] Folk Novel of China, and The Adventures of Monkey, and in a further abridged version for children, Dear Monkey. Waley noted in his preface that the method adopted in earlier abridgements was "to leave the original number of separate episodes, but drastically reduce them in length, particularly by cutting out dialogue. I have for the most part adopted the opposite principle, omitting many episodes, but translating those that are retained almost in full, leaving out, however, most of the incidental passages in verse, which go very badly into English." The degree of abridgement, 30 out of the 100 chapters (which corresponds to roughly 1/6 of the whole text), and excising most of the verse, has led to a recent critic awarding it the lesser place, as a good retelling of the story. On the other hand, it has been praised as "remarkably faithful to the original spirit of the work." The literary scholar Andrew H. Plaks points out that Waley's abridgement reflected his interpretation of the novel as a "folk-tale," that is, not a sophisticated piece of art. This "brilliant translation... through its selection of episodes gave rise to the misleading impression that that this is essentially a compendium of popular materials marked by folk wit and humor." Waley followed Hu Shi's lead, as shown in Hu's introduction to the 1943 edition. Hu scorned the allegorical interpretations of the novel as a spiritual as well as physical quest, declaring that they were old-fashioned. He instead insisted that the stories were simply comic. Hu Shi reacted against elaborately allegorical readings of the novel made popular in the Qing dynasty, but does not account for the levels of meaning and the looser allegorical framework which recent scholars in China and the West have shown. Journey to the West (1982–1984), a complete translation in four volumes by William John Francis Jenner. Readable translation without scholarly jargon. The Journey to the West (1977–1983), a complete translation in four volumes by Anthony C. Yu, the first to translate the poems and songs which Yu argues are essential in understanding the author's meanings. Yu also supplied an extensive scholarly introduction and notes. In 2006, an abridged version of this translation was published by University of Chicago Press under the title The Monkey and the Monk. In 2012, University of Chicago Press issued a revised edition of Yu's translation in four volumes. In addition to correcting or amending the translation and converting romanization to pinyin, the new edition updates and augments the annotations, and revises and expands the introduction in respect to new scholarship and modes of interpretation. Julia Lovell's translation of selected chapters into lively contemporary English, with an extensive Introduction by Lovell and a Preface by Gene Luen Yang. Media adaptations Saiyūki (西遊記) also known by its English title Monkey and commonly referred to by its title song, "Monkey Magic," is a Japanese television series starring Masaaki Sakai, produced by Nippon TV and International Television Films in association with NHK (Japan Broadcasting Corporation) and broadcast from 1978 to 1980 on Nippon TV. It was translated into English by the BBC. In the 1980s, China Central Television (CCTV) produced and aired a TV adaptation of Journey to the West under the same name as the original work. A second season was produced in the late 1990s covering portions of the original work that the first season skipped over. In 1997, Brooklyn-based jazz composer Fred Ho premiered his jazz opera Journey To The East, at the Brooklyn Academy of Music, which he developed into what he described as a "serial fantasy action-adventure music/theater epic,” Journey Beyond the West: The New Adventures of Monkey based upon Wu Cheng’en's 16th-century novel. Ho's pop-culture infused take on the story of the Monkey King has been performed to great acclaim. It also made its way to the Mass Electronic Entertainment Media (Reimagined Video game adaptation) in 2009, titled Enslaved: Odyssey to the West, which was released in October 2010 for Microsoft Windows, PlayStation 3, and Xbox 360. It was developed by Ninja Theory and published by Bandai Namco Entertainment. The main protagonist 'Monkey' is voice acted by Andy Serkis. On 20 April 2017, Australia's ABC, TVNZ, and Netflix announced production was underway in New Zealand on a new live-action television series, The New Legends of Monkey, to premiere globally in 2018. The series, which is based on Journey to the West, is made up of 10 half-hour episodes. While there has been enthusiasm for the new series, it has also attracted some criticism for "whitewashing," since none of the core cast are of Chinese descent, with two of the leads having Tongan ancestry while only one, Chai Hansen, is of half-Asian (his father is Thai) descent. More recently in 2017, Viki and Netflix hosted a South Korean show called A Korean Odyssey; a modern comedy retelling that begins with the release of Sun Wukong/Son O-Gong and the reincarnation of Tang Sanzang/Samjang. In August 2020, Game Science Studios announced a video game adaptation called Black Myth: Wukong. See also Dragon Ball Dream of the Red Chamber Enslaved: Odyssey to the West Romance of the Three Kingdoms Starzinger Water Margin The God of High School Hanuman Notes References Further reading Critical studies External links Journey to the West from the Gutenberg Project (Traditional Chinese) Journey to the West from Xahlee (Simplified Chinese) Story of Sun Wukong and the beginning of Journey to the West with manhua 200 images of Journey to the West by Chen Huiguan, with a summary of each chapter Journey to the West 西遊記 Chinese text with embedded Chinese-English dictionary 16th-century Chinese novels 1592 novels Books about China Books about India Novels set in the Tang dynasty Picaresque novels Pilgrimage accounts Shenmo novels Works published anonymously Novels adapted into operas Pigs in literature Works of uncertain authorship Chinese classic novels Epic novels Chinese fantasy novels Chinese novels adapted into television series Chinese novels adapted into films Ming dynasty 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232372	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tang%20Sanzang	Tang Sanzang	Tang Sanzang () is a central character in the 16th century novel Journey to the West by Wu Cheng'en. Tang Sanzang is based on the historical Buddhist monk Xuanzang. He is also widely known by his courtesy name, Tang Seng, () or Sanzang (). The title Sanzang refers to his mission to seek the Sanzangjing, or the "Three Collections of (Buddhist) Scriptures". In some English translations of Journey to the West, the title is rendered as Tripitaka which is the original Sanskrit term for the Sanzangjing. His name Tang Sanzang reflects his status as an oath brother of Emperor Taizong of the Tang dynasty. Character description In the novel, Tang Sanzang is a Chinese Buddhist monk who is actually a reincarnation of Golden Cicada (), a disciple of the Buddha. Tang Sanzang is originally the posthumous son of Tang Palace Graduate Chen Guangrui and the Prime Minister's daughter, Yin Wenjiao. After being awarded the first place in a national examination, Chen Guangrui is appointed Prefect of Jiangzhou. While on his way to take office, he is murdered by a ferryman named Liu Hong, who also abducts his wife and takes his place as Prefect. When Chen's son is born, Yin Wenjiao puts the baby on a wooden board and sets him floating adrift down the Yangzi River, out of fear of him being killed by Liu Hong. The baby reaches a monastery and is found by the Abbot, who names him Xuanzang and raises him as a Buddhist novice. When Xuanzang turns 18, he is reunited with his father, whose body was saved by the Dragon King of River Hong; together they look for Yin Wenjiao and bring Liu Hong to justice. He is sent by the Emperor Taizong on a mission to Tianzhu (an ancient Chinese name for India) to fetch a set of Buddhist scriptures back to China for the purpose of spreading Buddhism in his native land. He becomes sworn brothers with the Emperor of the Tang Dynasty, and the emperor sees him off from the capital Chang'an with two escorts to accompany him. Tang Sanzang is helpless at defending himself and his two escorts are killed during his first encounter with demons after his departure from Chang'an. The bodhisattva Avalokiteśvara (Guanyin) helps Tang Sanzang find three powerful supernatural beings – Sun Wukong, Zhu Bajie and Sha Wujing (a monkey, pig and fish spirit respectively) – to aid and protect him on his journey. The three become Tang Sanzang's disciples and receive enlightenment and redemption for their past sins once the pilgrimage is complete. Along the journey, Tang Sanzang is constantly terrorised by monsters and demons due to a legend which says that one can attain immortality by consuming his flesh because he is a reincarnation of a holy being. At the end of the novel, Tang Sanzang is appointed as the Buddha of Sandalwood Merit (). Historical background Tang Sanzang is modeled after the historical Tang Dynasty Buddhist monk Xuanzang, whose life was the book's inspiration; the real Xuanzang made a perilous journey on foot from China to India (and back) to obtain Buddhist sutras. In contrast to the historical Xuanzang, a wise and learned scholar (he was in his late 20s when he left for India), the fictional Tang Sanzang is presented as a young monk who is extremely naive, showing idealistic compassion without wisdom. Tang Sanzang is usually quick to fall for the facades of demons who have disguised themselves as innocent humans, whereas Sun Wukong can see through them with his magic powers (specifically fire eyes that can see through the said disguises). This frequently leads to tension when Sun Wukong attacks and kills apparently innocent humans when the demon has in fact simply abandoned the corpse and run away. One such popular instance was when the White Bone Demon (白骨夫人, Chinese: Bai Gu Fu Ren) disguised three times as family members — first, a young woman. After Wukong "killed" the woman, the demon escaped, but Wukong was punished by Tang Sanzang for it. The second was the young woman's elderly mother, looking for her daughter. The third was the young woman's elderly father, searching for his wife and child. Upon the "death" of the father by Wukong's hands, Wukong finally killed the demon before she got away. Tang Sanzang, convinced that Wukong had actually killed three innocent people, sent him away, despite protests. Tang Sanzang usually punishes him by chanting the words of the headache spell (緊箍咒) given to Tang Sanzang by the bodhisattva Avalokiteśvara (Guanyin) to control Wukong, which causes the latter's headband to contract and give him acute headaches. Like Sun Wukong, Tang Sanzang is often described as a god of protection. Ksitigarbha, a highly revered bodhisattva in East Asian Buddhism, is occasionally mistaken for Tang Sanzang because the former is often portrayed like Tang Sanzang - dressed in a similarly-patterned kasaya robe, wearing a Buddhist crown (an Ushnisha or a Black Crown), and wielding a khakkhara staff. In some depictions or media sometimes Sanzang is depicted as a female monk or nun but this is mostly in Japan. Gallery References Further reading Original text See also Monkey King Journey to the West Chinese Buddhist monks Journey to the West characters Fictional Chinese people in literature Fictional characters based on real people Fictional Buddhist monks Fictional Tang dynasty people	[ -0.5699337720870972, 0.42793354392051697, -0.307821124792099, -0.5463060140609741, -0.5487779378890991, 0.4842546582221985, 0.4059997797012329, 0.24561919271945953, -0.10303811728954315, -0.4082828760147095, -0.2549455463886261, -0.04817406088113785, 0.484524667263031, 0.18369655311107635, -0.5477169156074524, 0.18169403076171875, 0.7494893670082092, 0.1995888650417328, -0.3442246913909912, -0.6041454672813416, -0.33894848823547363, -0.5604287385940552, 0.30450576543807983, -0.18966928124427795, 0.5319017171859741, 0.1565733700990677, 0.21774843335151672, 0.18849734961986542, 0.20203322172164917, -0.028573105111718178, -0.3343765139579773, 0.6811521649360657, -0.041649479418992996, -0.08165480941534042, 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232381	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Columns%20%28video%20game%29	Columns (video game)	is a match-three puzzle video game released by Sega in 1990. Designed by Jay Geertsen, it was released by Sega for arcades and then ported to several Sega consoles. The game was subsequently ported to home computer platforms, including the Atari ST. Gameplay Columns was one of the many tile-matching puzzle games to appear after the great success of Tetris in the late 1980s. The area of play is enclosed within a tall, rectangular playing area. Columns of three different symbols (such as differently-colored jewels) appear, one at a time, at the top of the well and fall to the bottom, landing either on the floor or on top of previously-fallen "columns". While a column is falling, the player can move it left and right, and can also cycle the positions of the symbols within it. After a column lands, if three or more of the same symbols are connected in a horizontal, vertical, or diagonal line, those symbols disappear. The pile of columns then settles under gravity. If this resettlement causes three or more other symbols to align, they too disappear and the cycle repeats. Occasionally, a special column with a multicolor Magic Jewel appears. It destroys all the jewels with the same color as the one underneath it. The columns fall at a faster rate as the player progresses. The goal of the game is to play for as long as possible before the well fills up with jewels, which ends the game. Players can score up to 99,999,999 points. Some ports of the game offer alternate game modes as well. "Flash columns" involves mining their way through a set number of lines to get to a flashing jewel at the bottom. "Doubles" allows two players work together in the same well. "Time trial" involves racking up as many points as possible within the time limit. Ports Sega ported the arcade game to the Mega Drive/Genesis console. This version of the game was nearly identical to the original arcade game. Columns was the first pack-in game for the Game Gear. This version was slightly different from the Mega Drive/Genesis version and its soundtrack was transposed and rearranged due to the limitations of the handheld's sound chip. While the columns themselves were updated for the Mega Drive/Genesis version, the overall decoration was less like a cartoon in the Game Gear version and instead more artistically designed. Lastly, the Game Gear version had a feature that let the player change the jewels to fruit, squares, dice, or playing card suits (clubs, diamonds, spades, and hearts). In 1990, Compile and Telenet Japan developed and published an MSX2 version. On November 7, 2006, Columns was released as part of the game Sega Genesis Collection for the PlayStation 2, and later on another release of the above compilation for PlayStation Portable. On December 4, 2006 the title was released on Nintendo's Virtual Console for 800 Wii Points. It is also included on Sonic's Ultimate Genesis Collection for the PlayStation 3 and Xbox 360. It was included as one of the games in the Sega Genesis Mini. Most recently the game was ported to iOS by Sega, but the port was subsequently withdrawn by Sega. Music Tokuhiko Uwabo composed the music for Columns. The song "Clotho" is named after the Greek Moira of the same name, related to the Greek flavor of some of the game's art. The other main songs are titled "Atropos" and "Lathesis" (sic), other "Moirai". Reception In Japan, Game Machine listed Columns on their April 15, 1990 issue as being the eighth most-successful table arcade unit of the month. It went on to be Japan's fourth highest-grossing arcade game of 1990 (below Capcom's Final Fight and Sega's Tetris and Super Monaco GP) and third highest-grossing arcade conversion kit of 1991 (below Capcom's Street Fighter II and Sega's Tetris). Reviewing the game's appearance in Sega Arcade Classics for the Sega CD, Glenn Rubenstein gave it a B+ rating in Wizard magazine, describing it as "like Tetris but a bit better." Mega placed the game at number 34 in their "Top Mega Drive Games of All Time". In 2017, Gamesradar ranked the game 40th on its "Best Sega Genesis/Mega Drive games of all time." Legacy Many sequels and spin-offs were produced: Columns II: The Voyage Through Time, Columns III: Revenge of Columns, Columns '97, Sakura Taisen: Hanagumi Taisen Columns 1 & 2, and many compilations and re-releases (Columns Arcade Collection, Sega Ages Vol. 07: Columns) as well. Because Columns was made by Sega, versions were made available on the Master System, Mega Drive/Genesis, Sega CD, Game Gear, Saturn, and Dreamcast. Additional versions of the game have also been made available on PC Engine, Game Boy Advance, and PlayStation 2. A Super Famicom version was released in Japan via the Nintendo Power service. The Game Boy Color version was specifically called Columns GB: Osamu Tezuka Characters, where it featured many of his characters such as Kimba and Astroboy, but also featured slightly less known characters such as Unico. Columns has also been cloned many times across different platforms: References External links Columns for Virtual Console 1990 video games Articles contradicting other articles Atari ST games Falling block puzzle games FM Towns games Match 3 games IOS games Game Gear games Game Boy Color games MSX2 games NEC PC-8801 games NEC PC-9801 games Pack-in video games PlayStation 3 games Sega Genesis games Master System games Sega video games Sega Games franchises Sega CD games Sega arcade games Sega Meganet games Sharp X68000 games Super Nintendo Entertainment System games Xbox Live Arcade games TurboGrafx-16 games Video games developed in the United States Virtual Console games	[ -0.3465535044670105, 0.12043953686952591, 0.6990131139755249, 0.06588810682296753, -0.0878048688173294, 0.11459733545780182, -0.07727257162332535, -0.15177813172340393, -0.2832464277744293, 0.050867099314928055, 0.2211548089981079, 0.5299850106239319, -0.6342558264732361, -0.6791311502456665, -0.2495383769273758, 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232384	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cheongsam	Cheongsam	The cheongsam (, ), also known as the qipao (), is a type of Chinese form-fitting garment of Manchu origin. It is a high-necked, closely fitted and often short-sleeved dress with the skirt portion slit partway up the side. It was known as the mandarin gown during the 1920s and 1930s, when it was modernized by Chinese socialites and high society women in Shanghai. Terminology As English loanwords, both "cheongsam" and "qipao" describe the same type of body-hugging dress worn by Chinese women, and the words could be used interchangeably. The term cheongsam is a romanization of Cantonese word (), which comes from the Shanghainese term . In Cantonese and Shanghainese, the term is used to describe a Chinese dress popularized in Shanghai. However, in Mandarin Chinese and other varieties of Chinese, () refers to an exclusively male garment, and the female version is known as the . In Hong Kong, where many Shanghainese tailors fled after the communist revolution of 1949, the word became gender-neutral, referring to both male and female garments. The word qipao (), which literally means "Bannerman robe" and originally referred to a loose-fitting traditional garment worn by Manchu women, became a more formal term for the female . Usage of the term "cheongsam" in Western countries mostly followed the original Cantonese meaning and applies to the dress worn by women only. History Background When the Manchus ruled China during the Qing dynasty, they used an administrative division called the Eight Banner system. Originally only the Manchu households were organised within this system, but over time naturized Mongols and Han Chinese were incorporated. The Manchus, and anyone living under the Eight Banners system, wore different clothing from ordinary civilians. Thus they became known as Banner People (旗人 pinyin: ). The Manchu clothing that they wore consisted of similar long robes for both men and women. These were called (長袍). For a period of time under the dynastic laws during transition from Ming to Qing, all Han Chinese were forced to adopt the Manchu male queue hairstyle (see Queue Order) and the Manchu changpao instead of traditional Han Chinese clothing under a policy threatening the penalty of death called tifa yifu (). However, the order for ordinary non-Banner Han civilians to wear Manchu clothing was lifted, and only those Han who served as officials or scholars were required to wear them. Over time though, some Han civilian men voluntarily adopted changshans. By the late Qing, not only officials and scholars, but a great many Han commoners wore Manchu male attire. Until 1911, the Manchu changpao was required clothing for Chinese men of a certain class. For women, Manchu and Han systems of clothing coexisted. Throughout the Qing dynasty, Han civilian women continued to wear traditional Han clothing from the Ming dynasty. As a result, Ming dynasty style clothing was retained in some places in China until the Xinhai Revolution of 1911. Birth of the cheongsam The original qipao fitted loosely and hung in an A-line. It covered most of the wearer's body, revealing only the head, hands, and the tips of the toes. The baggy clothing also served to conceal the figure of the wearer regardless of age. The version seen as the typical cheongsam in China today was popularized by the celebrities, socialites and politicians of the time in Shanghai from the 1920s to the 1940s. Former First Lady of China Madame Wellington Koo (Oei Hui-lan) was a prominent figure among them. Voted several times by Vogue into its lists of the world's best-dressed women, Madame Wellington Koo was much admired for her adaptations of the traditional Manchu fashion, which she wore with lace trousers and jade necklaces. Cheongsam dresses at the time had been decorously slit a few inches up the sides, but Madame Koo slashed hers to the knee, 'with lace pantelettes just visible to the ankle'. Unlike other Asian socialites, Madame Koo also insisted on local Chinese silks, which she thought were of superior quality. Further transformation People eagerly sought a more modernized style of dress and transformed the old cheongsam to suit new tastes. Slender and tight-fitting with a high cut, it had great differences from the traditional cheongsam. High-class courtesans and celebrities in the city made these redesigned tight fitting cheongsam popular at that time. In Shanghainese, it was first known as for 'long dress', rendered in Mandarin as and in Cantonese as ; it is the last of these spoken renditions of that was borrowed into English as "cheongsam". In the beginning, cheongsam were always worn with trousers, as were the male changpao. With the introduction of Western fashion during the Nanjing decade (1927–1937), many people replaced trousers with stockings. The side slits were re-purposed into an aesthetic design reaching the top of the thighs to reflect the new fashion trend. By the 1940s, trousers had completely fallen out of use, replaced by different type of hosiery. High-heeled shoes were another fashion trend introduced to Shanghai at the same time, and it became an essential part of cheongsam fashion set, which continued into modern days. As trend of hosiery in turn declined in later decades, women started to wear cheongsam more commonly with bare legs. While this development settled the cheongsam as a one-piece dress, by contrast, the related Vietnamese retained trousers. The modernized version of cheongsam is noted for accentuating the figures of women, and as such was popular as a dress for high society. As Western fashions evolved, so does the cheongsam design, with introduction of high-necked sleeveless dresses, bell-like sleeves, and the black lace frothing at the hem of a ball gown. By the 1940s, cheongsam came in a wide variety of fabrics with an equal variety of accessories. The 1949 Communist Revolution curtailed the popularity of the cheongsam and other fashions in Shanghai, but the Shanghainese emigrants and refugees brought the fashion to Hong Kong and Taiwan where it has remained popular. Recently there has been a revival of the Shanghainese cheongsam in Shanghai and elsewhere in Mainland China; the Shanghainese style functions now mostly as a stylish party dress. Popularity and women's liberation The Republican period is the golden age of cheongsam. In exploring reasons behind its prevalence in Republic of China, many scholars relate it to the women's liberation movements. After the feudal Qing dynasty was overturned, Chinese feminists called for women's liberation from traditional roles and they led several movements against the Neo-Confucian gender segregation, including a termination of bound feet for women, cutting off long hair which was conventionally symbolized as women's "oriental" beauty, and encouraging women to wear men's one-piece clothing, Changshan or "changpao". "Changpao" was traditionally taken as men's patent throughout the long history since Han dynasty (202 BC to 220) to Qing dynasty (1616–1911). During that time, Chinese Han female's clothing gradually developed into two pieces. Women were forbidden to wear robes as men did and instead had to wear tops and bottoms known as "Liang jie yi". After the Xinhai Revolution of 1911 (which overthrew the Qing dynasty), young Chinese people began to learn Western science and cultures in order to seek a way of saving the nation. Also, the opening of several ports and ceding territories of China to Western powers imported some Western ideas to mainland China. Among all these Western thoughts, the idea of gender equality quickly gained its followers, among whom young female students became its prime advocates. In the early years of Republican period, wearing cheongsam carried the symbol of promoting gender equality and saving the country. The color of cheongsam were usually cold and rigid. It symbolized a silent protest, as part of the May Fourth Movement and the New Cultural Movement. Since the 1930s, cheongsam was popularized from young female students to all women in China regardless of their ages and social status. More and more female workers and celebrities put on cheongsam. The style of cheongsam also varied due to Western influence. It changed from a wide and loose style to a more form fitting and revealing cut, which put more emphasis on women's body line. The length of cheongsam was also reduced from ankle reaching to above the knee. The design of cheongsam got various inventions like ruffled collar, bell-like sleeves and black lace frothing. Starting from that, the priority of cheongsam moved from a political expression to aesthetic and ornamental emphasis. Timeline of Chinese dress Starting from the Qing dynasty, changpao, which was the early form of cheongsam, was the daily clothes of Manchus Bannerman. Apart from cheongsam, changpao was a long robe without sleeves and collars. Until the 1920s, right after the overthrow of the Qing dynasty and founding of the Republic of China, cheongsam was originated in Shanghai. Cheongsam of the early 1920s had loose cutting, with long, wide sleeves. Affected by Western culture, cheongsam kept on changing, such as becoming more fitted and body-hugging, with side slits that reached up to the thigh. Moreover, numerous distinct designs were unveiled and cheongsam became a fashion trend. In 1929, cheongsam was chosen by the Republic of China to be one of the national dresses. In the 1930s, the fashion prevailed in Shanghai. At that time, cheongsam was made of silk and embroidered with pearls and other decorations. Also, they were close fitting, and drew the outline of the wearer's body. In the 1940s, cheongsam was worn with stockings, and trousers had completely fallen out of use. High-heeled shoes became an essential part of the cheongsam fashion set. From the 1950s to the 1970s, due to the anti-tradition movements in China, especially the Chinese Cultural Revolution (1966–1976), the cheongsam was seen as a feudal dress of the ancient times. It was abandoned as daily clothing, and people who wore cheongsams were judged as being bourgeois, which was considered a political misbehaviour at that time. For example, in 1963, when Chinese President Liu Shaoqi visited four neighbouring countries in South Asia, first lady Wang Guangmei wore a cheongsam. She was later declared guilty in the Cultural Revolution for wearing a cheongsam. Since the 1980s, with the trend of reevaluation of Chinese traditional culture, people in mainland China started to pay attention to the cheongsam again. The cheongsam is gaining popularity in films, beauty pageants, and fashion shows in both China and other countries all over the world. In 1984, the cheongsam was specified as the formal attire of female diplomatic agents by the People's Republic of China. Modern use Workplace Some airlines in Mainland China and Taiwan, such as China Airlines and Hainan Airlines, have cheongsam uniforms for their women flight attendants and ground workers. These uniform cheongsams are in a plain color, hemmed just above the knee, with a close-fitting wool suit jacket of the same color as the cheongsam. In the 1950s, women in the workforce in Hong Kong started to wear more functional cheongsam made of wool, twill, and other materials. Most were tailor fitted and often came with a matching jacket. The dresses were a fusion of Chinese tradition with modern styles. Cheongsam were commonly replaced by more comfortable clothing such as sweaters, jeans, business suits and skirts. Due to its restrictive nature, it is now mainly worn as formal wear for important occasions. They are sometimes worn by politicians and film artists in Taiwan and Hong Kong. They are shown in some Chinese movies such as in the 1960s film The World of Suzie Wong, where actress Nancy Kwan made the cheongsam briefly fashionable in Western culture. They are also commonly seen in beauty contests, along with swim suits. Today, cheongsam are only commonly worn day to day as a uniform by people like restaurant hostesses and serving staff at luxury hotels. School uniform A few primary schools and some secondary schools in Hong Kong, especially older schools established by Christian missionaries, use a plain rimmed sky-blue cotton and/or dark blue velvet (for winter) cheongsam with the metal school badge right under the stand-up collar to be closed with a metal hook and eye as the official uniform for their female students. The schools which use this standard include True Light Girls' College, St. Paul's Co-educational College, Heep Yunn School, St. Stephen's Girls' College, Ying Wa Girls' School, etc. These cheongsam are usually straight, with no waist shaping, and the cheongsam hem must reach mid-thigh. The cheongsam fit closely to the neck, and the stiff collar is hooked closed, despite the tropical humid and hot weather. Although the skirts have short slits, they are too narrow to allow students to walk in long strides. The seams above the slits often split when walking and are repeatedly sewn. Many schools also require underskirts to be worn with the cheongsam. The underskirt is a white cotton full slip, hemmed slightly shorter than the cheongsam, and have slits at the sides like the cheongsam, although the slits are deeper. A white cotton undershirt is often worn underneath the cheongsam. The cheongsam's length, styling, color and sleeve length varies between schools. Many students feel it an ordeal, yet it is a visible manifestation of the strict discipline that is the hallmark of prestigious secondary schools in Hong Kong and many students and their parents like that. Some rebellious students express their dissatisfaction with this tradition by wearing their uniform with the stand-up collar intentionally left unhooked or hemmed above their knees. The Ying Wa and True Light Schools have sent questionnaires to their students about uniform reforms but have not altered their policies. However, Madam Lau Kam Lung Secondary School of Miu Fat Buddhist Monastery ended their cheongsam uniform in 1990 after receiving suggestions from its student union. Festivities Cheongsams are a popular choice of outfit for festive seasons like Chinese New Year. In countries with significant Chinese populations such as Malaysia, Singapore, Hong Kong and Taiwan, it is common for women to have new cheongsams tailored in preparation for the New Year. Cheongsams are also a popular choice of outfit for older women on formal occasions or family reunions. Upmarket fashion labels such as Shanghai Tang specialize in modern versions of the cheongsam as occasion wear. Weddings In Western weddings, Chinese brides or brides marrying into a Chinese family, will often wear cheongsam for a portion of the wedding day. It is common for many brides to have both a traditional white wedding dress and a cheongsam or kwa to be worn during the tea ceremony. Cheongsam styles have also evolved to be more modern from mermaid silhouettes to semi-traditional styles that feature a cheongsam top with softer details like lace and a looser skirt. Lolita fashion Some Lolita dresses are styled like a cheongsam. The dresses or jumper skirts are designed after traditional Chinese dresses. This style of Lolita fashion is called Qi Lolita. On the international stage Sport-related In the 2008 Summer Olympics, the medal bearers wore cheongsam. Similar attire was worn by female members of the Swedish team and of the Spanish team in the opening ceremony, with the national colors. For the 2012 Hong Kong Sevens tournament, sportswear brand Kukri Sports teamed up with Hong Kong lifestyle retail store G.O.D. to produce merchandising, which included traditional Chinese jackets and cheongsam-inspired ladies' polo shirts. Political stage In contemporary China, the meaning of cheongsam has been revisited again. It now embodies an identity of being ethnic Chinese, and thus is used for important diplomatic occasions. Since 2013, Peng Liyuan, the first lady of China, has worn cheongsam several times while on foreign visits with Chinese leader Xi Jinping. In November 2014, cheongsam was the official attire for the political leaders' wives in the 22nd APEC meeting in Beijing. International fashion With the growth of the Chinese economy, cheongsam has experienced a renewed popularity. Many Western designers have integrated elements of cheongsam in their fashion collections. French designer Pierre Cardin once said that cheongsam was his inspiration for many of his evening dress designs. In many films and movies, cheongsam is used to make a fashion statement and an exotic impression. In the 2011 movie One Day, Anne Hathaway wore a set of dark blue cheongsam as evening dress. Many western stars such as Elizabeth Taylor, Nicole Kidman, Paris Hilton, Emma Watson, Deepika Padukone, and Celine Dion have also made public appearances wearing cheongsam. Controversies on origin The cheongsam is generally considered to be adapted from the one-piece dress of Manchu women during the Qing dynasty. However, there has been considerable debate on the origin of the cheongsam in academic circles. The following are three common arguments on the origin of the cheongsam: The first argument says that the cheongsam came directly from the clothing of the banner people when the Manchu ruled China during the Qing dynasty. This argument was prominently represented by Zhou Xibao () in his work The History of Ancient Chinese Clothing and Ornaments. The second opinion holds that the cheongsam inherited some features of the chángpáo of Banner People in the Qing dynasty, but the true origin of the cheongsam dates back to a period between the Western Zhou dynasty (1046 BC – 771 BC) and the pre-Qin era, approximately two millennia before the Qing dynasty. According to Yuan Jieying's () book Chinese Cheongsam, the modern cheongsam shares many similarities with the narrow-cut straight skirt that women wore in the Western Zhou dynasty. And Chinese Professor Bao Minxin () also pointed out in his book A Real Record of Modern Chinese Costume that the cheongsam originated from the ancient robe in the Han dynasty (206 BC-220 AD). The robe is a one-piece upper and lower connected long dress which was quite popular among ladies in Han. The third argument was raised by Bian Xiangyang () in his book An Analysis on the Origin of Qipao. Bian thinks that the cheongsam originates from neither the robe nor the chángpáo. It is an adaption of Western-style dress during the Republic of China era when people were open to the Western cultures. In his opinion, the cheongsam was a hybrid of traditional Chinese costumes and Western costumes such as the waistcoat and one-piece dress. Similar garments The Vietnamese áo dài looks similar to the cheongsam as they both consist of a long robe with side splits on both sides of the robe with one of the main difference typically being the height of the side split. The áo dài was developed from the clothing worn in Chinese court but it could only be worn by the royalty originally. The áo dài was derived from áo ngũ thân (lit. 'five-panel gown') which was a Nguyễn court fashion which drew strong influences from the civil and military official clothing practices used in China; the áo dài also evolved from the early prototypes decreed by Nguyễn Phúc Khoát. In the 18th century, in an attempt to separate his domain from Tonkin ruled by his rival Trịnh clan and build an independent state, Lord Nguyễn Phúc Khoát (r. 1738 – 1765) forced his subjects to wear Ming dynasty style Chinese clothing. The ethnic Kinh robe (i.e. the traditional áo giao lĩnh, a type of crossed-collar robe, which was identical to the ones worn by the Han Chinese) was therefore replaced by a robe with Chinese-style fasteners, which was buttoned in the front, and had an upright collar. The skirt which was worn by the Vietnamese was also replaced by trousers under his rule. This form of new fashion became the prototype of the áo dài; it was a form of áo ngũ thân which was invented by Lord Nguyễn Phúc Khoá; the áo ngũ thân also had 5 flaps instead of 4 (the 5th flap was small and was found under the front garment) and 5 buttons. Another new form of fashion included a type of four-panel robe which was described by Lê Quý Đôn as an áo dài which was loose fitting similarly to the áo giao lãnh. Under the rule of Emperor Minh Mang, two new forms of áo dài were created from the áo ngũ thân regulated by Nguyễn Phúc Khoát: the áo tứ thân, and the Huế-style áo dài which was created with five flaps. The Huế-style áo dài represented royal court culture of the Huế and later developed influenced the modern áo dài. See also Hanfu Mao suit Chinese clothing Notes and references Bibliography About a tailor of cheongsam who has been in the business for nearly 80 years. External links About.com entry on the qipao Dresses 17th-century fashion 18th-century fashion 19th-century fashion 20th-century fashion Chinese traditional clothing Chinese words and phrases History of clothing (Western fashion) History of fashion History of Asian clothing	[ 0.07776015996932983, -0.08784706890583038, -0.11576162278652191, 0.18615411221981049, -0.24965950846672058, 0.4372403025627136, 0.22408360242843628, 0.15485437214374542, -0.2160491794347763, -0.16505908966064453, -0.887789249420166, -0.020688584074378014, -0.6539226174354553, 0.23225387930870056, -0.5451669692993164, 0.37489408254623413, 0.37578797340393066, 0.26478248834609985, -0.3749126195907593, -0.2443978488445282, -0.09813276678323746, -0.8145821690559387, -0.027396036311984062, 0.13381825387477875, 0.86077880859375, -0.12304989993572235, 0.5409812331199646, 0.372394859790802, 0.2689798176288605, 0.09013579040765762, -0.1505568027496338, 0.3236140012741089, 0.5440425276756287, 0.05596119165420532, 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232386	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Motor%20skill	Motor skill	A motor skill is a function that involves specific movements of the body's muscles to perform a certain task. These tasks could include walking, running, or riding a bike. In order to perform this skill, the bodies nervous system, muscles, and brain has to all work together. The goal of motor skill is to optimize the ability to perform the skill at the rate of success, precision, and to reduce the energy consumption required for performance. Performance is an act of executing a motor skill or task. Continuous practice of a specific motor skill will result in a greatly improved performance, which leads to Motor Learning. Motor learning is a relatively permanent change in the ability to perform a skill as a result of continuous practice or experience. Types of motor skills Motor skills are movements and actions of the muscles. There are two major groups of motor skills: Gross motor skills – require the use of large muscle groups in our legs, torso, and arms to perform tasks such as: walking, balancing, and crawling. The skill required is not extensive and therefore are usually associated with continuous tasks. Much of the development of these skills occurs during early childhood. We use our Gross Motor Skills on a daily basis without putting much thought or effort into them. The performance level of gross motor skill remains unchanged after periods of non-use. Gross motor skills can be further divided into two subgroups: Locomotor skills, such as running, jumping, sliding, and swimming; and object-control skills such as throwing, catching, dribbling, and kicking. Fine motor skills – require the use of smaller muscle groups to perform smaller movements. These muscles include those found in our wrists, hands, fingers, feet and in our toes. These tasks are precise in nature like: playing the piano, tying shoelaces, brushing your teeth, and flossing. Some fine motor skills may be susceptible to retention loss of over a period of time if not in use. The phrase "if you don't use it, you lose it" is a perfect way to describe these skills, they need to continuously used. Discrete tasks such as switch gears in an automobile, grasping an object, or striking a match, usually require more fine motor skill than gross motor skills. Both Gross and fine motor skills can become weakened or damaged. Some reasons for these impairments could be caused by an injury, illness, stroke, congenital deformities (an abnormal change in the size or shape of a body part at birth), cerebral palsy, and developmental disabilities. Problems with the brain, spinal cord, peripheral nerves, muscles, or joints can also have an effect on these motor skills, and decrease control over them. Development Motor skills develop in different parts of a body along three principles: Cephalocaudal – the principle that development occurs from head to tail. For example, infants first learn to lift their heads on their own, followed by sitting up with assistance, then sitting up by themselves. Followed by scooting, crawling, pulling up, and then walking. Proximodistal – the principle that movement of limbs that are closer to the body develop before the parts that are further away. For example, a baby learns to control their upper arm before their hands and fingers. Fine movements of the fingers are the last to develop in the body. Gross to specific – a pattern in which larger muscle movements develop before finer movements. For example, a child will go from only being able to pick up large objects, to then being able to pick up an object that is small, between the thumb and fingers. The earlier movements involve larger groups of muscles, but as the child grows, finer movements become possible and specific tasks can be achieved. An example of this would be a young child learning to grasp a pencil. In children, a critical period for the development of motor skills is preschool years (ages 3–5), as fundamental neuroanatomic structure shows significant development, elaboration, and myelination over the course of this period. Many factors contribute to the rate that children develop their motor skills. Unless afflicted with a severe disability, children are expected to develop a wide range of basic movement abilities and motor skills around a certain age. Motor development progresses in seven stages throughout an individual's life: reflexive, rudimentary, fundamental, sports skill, growth and refinement, peak performance, and regression. Development is age-related but is not age dependent. In regard to age, it is seen that typical developments are expected to attain gross motor skills used for postural control and vertical mobility by 5 years of age. There are six aspects of development: Qualitative – changes in movement-process results in changes in movement-outcome. Sequential – certain motor patterns precede others. Cumulative – current movements are built on previous ones. Directional – cephalocaudal or proximodistal Multifactorial – numerous-factors impact Individual – dependent on each person In the childhood stages of development, gender differences can greatly influence motor skills. In the article "An Investigation of Age and Gender Differences in Preschool Children's Specific Motor Skills", girls scored significantly higher than boys on visual motor and graphomotor tasks. The results from this study suggest that girls attain manual dexterity earlier than boys. Variability of results in the tests can be attributed towards the multiplicity of different assessment tools used. Furthermore, gender differences in motor skills are seen to be affected by environmental factors. In essence, "parents and teachers often encourage girls to engage in [quiet] activities requiring fine motor skills, while they promote boys' participation in dynamic movement actions". In the journal article "Gender Differences in Motor Skill Proficiency From Childhood to Adolescence" by Lisa Barrett, the evidence for gender-based motor skills is apparent. In general, boys are more skillful in object control and object manipulation skills. These tasks include throwing, kicking, and catching skills. These skills were tested and concluded that boys perform better with these tasks. There was no evidence for the difference in locomotor skill between the genders, but both are improved in the intervention of physical activity. Overall, the predominance of development was on balance skills (gross motor) in boys and manual skills (fine motor) in girls. Components of development Growth – increase in the size of the body or its parts as the individual progresses toward maturity (quantitative structural changes) Maturation – refers to qualitative changes that enable one to progress to higher levels of functioning; it is primarily innate Experience or learning – refers to factors within the environment that may alter or modify the appearance of various developmental characteristics through the process of learning Adaptation – refers to the complex interplay or interaction between forces within the individual (nature) and the environment (nurture) Influences on development Stress and arousal – stress and anxiety are the result of an imbalance between the demand of a task and the capacity of the individual. In this context, arousal defines the amount of interest in the skill. The optimal performance level is moderate stress or arousal. An example of an insufficient arousal state is an overqualified worker performing repetitive jobs. An example of excessive stress level is an anxious pianist at a recital. The "Practice-Specificity-Based Model of Arousal" (Movahedi, 2007) holds that, for best and peak performances to occur, motor task performers need only to create an arousal level similar to the one they have experienced throughout training sessions. For peak performance, performers do not need to have high or low arousal levels. It is important that they create the same level of arousal throughout training sessions and competition. In other words, high levels of arousal can be beneficial if athletes experience such heightened levels of arousal during some consecutive training sessions. Similarly, low levels of arousal can be beneficial if athletes experience such low levels of arousal during some consecutive training sessions. Fatigue – the deterioration of performance when a stressful task is continued for a long time, similar to the muscular fatigue experienced when exercising rapidly or over a long period. Fatigue is caused by over-arousal. Fatigue impacts an individual in many ways: perceptual changes in which visual acuity or awareness drops, slowing of performance (reaction times or movements speed), irregularity of timing, and disorganization of performance. A study conducted by Meret Branscheidt concluded that fatigue interferes with the learning of new motor skills. In the experiment, participants were split into two different groups. One group worked the muscles in their hands until they were physically fatigued and then had to learn a new motor task, while the second group learned the task without being fatigued. Those that were fatigued had a harder time learning these new motor skills compared to those who weren't. Even in the days following, after the fatigue had subsided, they still had difficulty learning those same tasks. Vigilance – the ability to maintain attention over time and respond appropriately to relevant stimuli. When vigilance is lost, is can result in slower responses or the failure to respond to stimuli all together. Some tasks include actions that require little work and high attention. Gender – gender plays an important role in the development of the child. Girls are more likely to be seen performing fine stationary visual motor-skills, whereas boys predominantly exercise object-manipulation skills. While researching motor development in preschool-aged children, girls were more likely to be seen performing skills such as skipping, hopping, or skills with the use of hands only. Boys were seen to perform gross skills such as kicking or throwing a ball or swinging a bat. There are gender-specific differences in qualitative throwing performance, but not necessarily in quantitative throwing performance. Male and female athletes demonstrated similar movement patterns in humerus and forearm actions but differed in trunk, stepping, and backswing actions. Stages of motor learning Motor learning is a change, resulting from practice. It often involves improving the accuracy of movements both simple and complex as one's environment changes. Motor learning is a relatively permanent skill as the capability to respond appropriately is acquired and retained. The stages of motor learning are the cognitive phase, the associative phase, and the autonomous phase. Cognitive phase – When a learner is new to a specific task, the primary thought process starts with, "What needs to be done?" Considerable cognitive activity is required so that the learner can determine appropriate strategies to adequately reflect the desired goal. Good strategies are retained and inefficient strategies are discarded. The performance is greatly improved in a short amount of time. Associative phase – The learner has determined the most-effective way to do the task and starts to make subtle adjustments in performance. Improvements are more gradual and movements become more consistent. This phase can last for a long time. The skills in this phase are fluent, efficient, and aesthetically pleasing. Autonomous phase – This phase may take several months to years to reach. The phase is dubbed "autonomous" because the performer can now "automatically" complete the task without having to pay any attention to performing it. Examples include walking and talking or sight reading while doing simple arithmetic. Law of effect Motor-skill acquisition has long been defined in the scientific community as an energy-intensive form of stimulus-response (S-R) learning that results in robust neuronal modifications. In 1898, Thorndike proposed the law of effect, which states that the association between some action (R) and some environmental condition (S) is enhanced when the action is followed by a satisfying outcome (O). For instance, if an infant moves his right hand and left leg in just the right way, he can perform a crawling motion, thereby producing the satisfying outcome of increasing his mobility. Because of the satisfying outcome, the association between being on all fours and these particular arm and leg motions are enhanced. Further, a dissatisfying outcome weakens the S-R association. For instance, when a toddler contracts certain muscles, resulting in a painful fall, the child will decrease the association between these muscle contractions and the environmental condition of standing on two feet. Feedback During the learning process of a motor skill, feedback is the positive or negative response that tells the learner how well the task was completed. Inherent feedback: after completing the skill, inherent feedback is the sensory information that tells the learner how well the task was completed. A basketball player will note that he or she made a mistake when the ball misses the hoop. Another example is a diver knowing that a mistake was made when the entry into the water is painful and undesirable. Augmented feedback: in contrast to inherent feedback, augmented feedback is information that supplements or "augments" the inherent feedback. For example, when a person is driving over a speed limit and is pulled over by the police. Although the car did not do any harm, the policeman gives augmented feedback to the driver in order for him to drive more safely. Another example is a private tutor for a new student in a field of study. Augmented feedback decreases the amount of time to master the motor skill and increases the performance level of the prospect. Transfer of motor skills: the gain or loss in the capability for performance in one task as a result of practice and experience on some other task. An example would be the comparison of initial skill of a tennis player and non-tennis player when playing table tennis for the first time. An example of a negative transfer is if it takes longer for a typist to adjust to a randomly assigned letter of the keyboard compared to a new typist. Retention: the performance level of a particular skill after a period of no use. The type of task can have an effect on how well the motor skill is retained after a period of non-use: Continuous tasks – activities like swimming, bicycling, or running; the performance level retains proficiency even after years of non-use. Discrete tasks – an instrument, video game, or a sport; the performance level drops significantly but will be better than a new learner. The relationship between the two tasks is that continuous tasks usually use gross motor skills and discrete tasks use fine motor skills. Brain structures The regions of the frontal lobe responsible for motor skill include the primary motor cortex, the supplemental motor area, and the premotor cortex. The primary motor cortex is located in the precentral gyrus and is often visualized as the motor homunculus. By stimulating certain areas of the motor strip and observing where it had an effect, Penfield and Rassmussen were able to map out the motor homunculus. Areas on the body that have complex movements, such as the hands, have a bigger representation on the motor homunculus. The supplemental motor area, which is just anterior to the primary motor cortex, is involved with postural stability and adjustment as well as coordinating sequences of movement. The premotor cortex, which is just below the supplemental motor area, integrates sensory information from the posterior parietal cortex and is involved with the sensory-guided planning of movement and begins the programming of movement. The basal ganglia are an area of the brain where gender differences in brain physiology is evident. The basal ganglia are a group of nuclei in the brain that is responsible for a variety of functions, some of which include movement. The globus pallidus and putamen are two nuclei of the basal ganglia which are both involved in motor skills. The globes pallid-us is involved with the voluntary motor movement, while the putamen is involved with motor learning. Even after controlling for the naturally larger volume of the male brain, it was found that males have a larger volume of both the globus pallidus and putamen. The cerebellum is an additional area of the brain important for motor skills. The cerebellum controls fine motor skills as well as balance and coordination. Although women tend to have better fine motor skills, the cerebellum has a larger volume in males than in females, even after correcting for the fact that males naturally have a larger brain volume. Hormones are an additional factor that contributes to gender differences in motor skill. For instance, women perform better on manual dexterity tasks during times of high estradiol and progesterone levels, as opposed to when these hormones are low such as during menstruation. An evolutionary perspective is sometimes drawn upon to explain how gender differences in motor skills may have developed, although this approach is controversial. For instance, it has been suggested that men were the hunters and provided food for the family, while women stayed at home taking care of the children and doing domestic work. Some theories of human development suggest that men's tasks involved gross motor skill such as chasing after prey, throwing spears and fighting. Women, on the other hand, used their fine motor skills the most in order to handle domestic tools and accomplish other tasks that required fine motor-control. See also Motor control Motor Skill Consolidation Motor system Sensorimotor stage References External links Section about motor learning and control in the Wikibook "Stuttering" What's the difference between fine motor and gross motor skills? 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232388	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Motor%20system	Motor system	The motor system is the set of central and peripheral structures in the nervous system that support motor functions, i.e. movement. Peripheral structures may include skeletal muscles and neural connections with muscle tissues. Central structures include cerebral cortex, brainstem, spinal cord, pyramidal system including the upper motor neurons, extrapyramidal system, cerebellum, and the lower motor neurons in the brainstem and the spinal cord. Pyramidal motor system The pyramidal motor system, also called the pyramidal tract or the corticospinal tract, start in the motor center of the cerebral cortex. There are upper and lower motor neurons in the corticospinal tract. The motor impulses originate in the giant pyramidal cells or Betz cells of the motor area; i.e., precentral gyrus of cerebral cortex. These are the upper motor neurons (UMN) of the corticospinal tract. The axons of these cells pass in the depth of the cerebral cortex to the corona radiata and then to the internal capsule, passing through the posterior branch of internal capsule and continuing to descend in the midbrain and the medulla oblongata. In the lower part of the medulla oblongata, 90–95% of these fibers decussate (pass to the opposite side) and descend in the white matter of the lateral funiculus of the spinal cord on the opposite side. The remaining 5–10% pass to the same side. Fibers for the extremities (limbs) pass 100% to the opposite side. The fibers of the corticospinal tract terminate at different levels in the anterior horn of the grey matter of the spinal cord. Here, the lower motor neurons (LMN) of the corticospinal cord are located. Peripheral motor nerves carry the motor impulses from the anterior horn to the voluntary muscles. Extrapyramidal motor system The extrapyramidal motor system consists of motor-modulation systems, particularly the basal ganglia and cerebellum. For information, see extrapyramidal system. See also Motor skill Motor control Motor disorder References External links Anatomy Motor control	[ 0.37334877252578735, 0.11355848610401154, -0.12682731449604034, 0.44072553515434265, 0.09204563498497009, 0.11281143128871918, 0.20826680958271027, 0.26177307963371277, -0.4007491171360016, -0.6388670206069946, -0.08230861276388168, 0.91524738073349, -0.2960388958454132, 0.11852236092090607, -0.09699699282646179, 0.22122004628181458, 0.5848275423049927, 0.24365825951099396, -0.2864515781402588, -0.02824113517999649, -0.38849589228630066, 0.3130636215209961, 0.46178945899009705, 0.23113404214382172, 0.1362255960702896, -0.27908819913864136, 0.003370612394064665, 0.2413937896490097, 0.17365728318691254, -0.28898555040359497, -0.24449855089187622, 0.5965728759765625, -0.29333335161209106, -0.15743479132652283, -0.4785436987876892, -0.4639921486377716, -0.49492090940475464, -0.5727182626724243, -0.2523524761199951, -0.4920843839645386, -0.30893921852111816, 0.001845133607275784, 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232392	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/253%20%28novel%29	253 (novel)	253, or Tube Theatre, is a novel by Canadian writer Geoff Ryman, originally created as a website in 1996, then published as a print book titled 253: The Print Remix in 1998. The print version won a Philip K. Dick Award. Synopsis 253 is about the 253 people on a London Underground train travelling between Embankment station and Elephant & Castle on January 11, 1995. The basic structure of the novel is explained in the foreword: Each character is introduced in a separate section containing 253 words, which give general details and describe the thoughts going through the characters' heads. In the online version, hypertext links lead to other characters who are nearby or who have some connection to the current character; in the print version, the links are partly replaced by a traditional index. The reader can proceed from one character to another using these devices or can read the novel in positional order, e.g. from one seat and one train car to the next, but there is no overall chronological order except in the final section. The novel ends with the train crashing. Interpretations Ryman states that the meaning of 253 is dramatically changed when read in digital form as opposed to print form. In reading 253 on the internet the links between passengers create and emphasize existing similarities between the passengers. It becomes a text about how intrinsically similar people are. Whereas, in print form 253 is about how different people are. A lack of links between passengers means that the reader must traverse the story linearly, thereby emphasizing the differences between passengers. Reception Charles de Lint gave the print edition a mixed review, declaring: "Is it worth reading? Definitely. Is it the fiction of the future? I hope not. As a one-off, it's entertaining, and even thought-provoking, but it took me a long time to read, simply because I kept setting it aside after every half-dozen or so entries to read something with a more coherent narrative. Call me old-fashioned, but I doubt I'd try another." NPR's Mary Glendinning reviewed the print version more favourably as "Gimmicky? Perhaps. Funny, sharp and sad? Yes. Entertaining? Definitely." See also Constrained writing Electronic literature Hypertext fiction Life: A User's Manual, a similarly constructed novel by Georges Perec, based on an apartment building rather than an underground train List of London Underground-related fiction Notes External links 253: The Print Remix at Worlds Without End Novels by Geoff Ryman 1996 British novels 1996 science fiction novels Novels set on the London Underground Fiction set in 1995	[ 0.3342026472091675, 0.3365000784397125, -0.03569307550787926, -0.07714658975601196, -0.41404592990875244, 0.5345779657363892, 0.11255692690610886, -0.23048828542232513, -0.09491241723299026, -0.34669360518455505, -0.22825653851032257, 0.21737119555473328, -0.5859218239784241, -0.43080440163612366, 0.4880450963973999, 0.5335888862609863, 0.17432253062725067, -0.09147706627845764, -0.35850760340690613, -0.5916136503219604, -0.028522534295916557, -0.1547522395849228, 0.18417119979858398, -0.12466800957918167, 0.12999369204044342, 0.26184290647506714, 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232402	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Decepticon	Decepticon	The Decepticons are the main antagonists in the fictional universes of the Transformers multimedia franchise. They are depicted as a faction of sentient robotic lifeforms led by Megatron, identified by a purple face-like insignia. Capable of transforming into alternate forms, these are often high-tech or powerful vehicles; including aircraft, military vehicles, construction vehicles, expensive luxury or sports cars and even smaller-than-human-sized objects. Decepticons are Cybertronian descendants of Terrakors, who are a fictional species of sentient self-configuring modular robotic lifeforms from Skalorr. They are a synergistic blend of biological evolution and technological engineering. The exotic materials that make up their composition is a living metal with a self-replicating cellular structure and genetic code. In the Japanese version of the franchise, the Decepticons are called Destron or Deathtron ( Desutoron). The only exception to this naming convention is Car Robots, where the sub-group referred to as "Decepticons" in the Robots in Disguise adaptation, is known in Japan as the Combatrons (the Japanese name of the G1 subgroup known as the Combaticons). The overall name of the Robots in Disguise villain faction is Destronger. However, the Japanese Version of Transformers Animated uses Decepticon (ディセプティコン). As opposed to the Autobots' Supreme Commander, the Primes, the Decepticons' highest ranking leader is often given the title Emperor of Destruction. Beginning with the original Generation 1 cartoon, the Decepticon rallying cry has been "Decepticons attack!", as well as "Transform and rise up!" in Transformers: Animated as a play on the Autobots' "Transform and roll out!" rallying cry. Transformers: Generation 1 The Decepticons are from a race called Transformers - robots that can change into vehicles, mechanical devices and even animal forms. They waged war for eons on their home planet of Cybertron against the heroic Autobots. Both factions needed supplies, and select numbers from each side intended to get them. The Autobots did not wish to fight the Decepticons, but they fought in space anyway. When the Decepticons board the Autobots' ship it takes a beating and crashes onto Primitive Earth and knocks everyone unconscious. Millions of years later, in 1984 a volcano eruption causes a probe to give them all new forms which come from vehicles in the surrounding area. After the featured film The Transformers: The Movie, Megatron was reformed as Galvatron, and Optimus Prime was replaced for a time by Rodimus Prime, only to return later on. Members Unlike the Autobots, whose leader is a Prime bearing a Matrix, the Decepticons are led by the most powerful of their ranks (usually Megatron). This tends to cause some conflict, given how generally every Decepticon thinks that they're the most powerful. Also, the Decepticons are not exactly the most compassionate beings in the universe, but not all fight for greed. More than a few have a sense of honor, while others believe that Cybertron would be better protected by aggressive expansion. Ultimately, the Decepticons desire to protect their homeworld, even if it is at the expense of others. Other leaders include Galvatron, Shockwave, Soundwave, Scorponok, Devil Z, Deathsaurous, Starscream, Thunderwing, Jiaxus, Ratbat, and Bludgeaon. Some continuities also has Liege Maximo and The Fallen as the ancestor of the Decepticon faction. Hasbro toyline Hasbro launched the Transformers toy line with eighteen different Autobot characters, all of whom transformed into automobiles, while the ten distinct Decepticons, (seven packages as three came two to a box/pack) were weapons, aircraft and communications equipment. Many of the Transformers were based on Takara designs. Optimus Prime was among the first Transformers released from Hasbro in 1984. The character listing/mini-poster that came inside Transformer packaging identified him as "Autobot Commander", as contrasted with Megatron's title of "Decepticon Leader". Marvel Comics In the Marvel comic continuity, it was established that the Decepticons came in and out of the gladiator pits on Cybertron. Early on, the leadership of the Decepticons constantly changed due to their tendency to kill and replace their leaders. It would not be until a lowly Decepticon affiliated gladiator named Megatron assumed the throne that the Decepticons became a true threat to the rest of the population of Cybertron. While Megatron was the primary leader, other Decepticons had prominent roles as leaders of the group. Shockwave, Scorponok, Bludgeon, and Ratbat all led the Decepticons, often overthrowing Megatron in the process or taking over the group during the period when Megatron was believed dead. In the G2 Marvel series (which continues from the G1 Marvel series), it is stated that the Decepticon forces on Cybertron underwent a massive split in the wake of Megatron's disappearance when Megatron, Optimus Prime, and their respective troops crashed on Earth. The smartest, strongest, and most intelligent Decepticons left Cybertron to colonize nearby galaxies, leaving a token leadership of overly cruel and duplicitous Decepticons to control Cybertron. These Decepticons who left their homeworld became "The Second Generation" Decepticons, who were led by the villainous Liege Maximo. On the final page of the last issue, the Liege Maximo indicates that the Decepticons and all their descendants came from him, which indicates that he is the original founder of the Decepticons. Animated series In the original animated series continuity, the Decepticons owe their warlike ways to their faction's origin as military hardware robots, created by the five-faced aliens, the Quintessons, while the Autobots were designed as consumer goods. Following the rebellion that forced the Quintessons off the planet, the Decepticons - as they named themselves - lusting for power, began a civil war. The Autobots could not hope to match the superior firepower and battlefield powers of the Decepticons, and instead turned to stealth, developing the art of transformation, modifying their bodies so that they could assume other forms. With this additional power, the Autobots were able to win the conflict, and a period of peace began, known as the Golden Age of Cybertron, when energy was plentiful and the planet shone with a golden hue. Working in secret, the Decepticons also developed transformation technology, along with new robot-mode flight powers, and, under the command of one of the first of this new breed, Megatron, they attacked one of the capital's outer cities, killing the current Autobot leader. As the knowledge of this act was not made public, younger robots continued to idolize these powerful new flying robots - until one such young robot, Orion Pax, was duped by Megatron into allowing him access to an energy storage facility. Megatron turned on Pax and fatally injured him, but the ancient Autobot, Alpha Trion, then rebuilt Pax into the first of a new, battle-hardy breed of Autobot - now, he was Optimus Prime, leader of the Autobots, who led them against Megatron and the Decepticons as the civil war erupted once more. After five million years, Cybertron was nearly depleted of all its energy when the Decepticons received word that the Autobots were planning to search for new energy resources. Following the Autobot ship, the Ark, in their ship, the Nemesis, the Decepticons boarded the Ark and engaged the Autobots on their ship. Unfortunately, the Ark drifted too close to Earth and crashed landed in a volcano. All the occupants of the Ark went into emergency stasis, while the Decepticons on the Nemesis ejected to South America. There, they scanned the forms of local insects, becoming the Insecticons. After 4 million years, the volcano the Ark was wedged in, erupted in Earth year 1984, restarting its computer, Teletraan I. Sending out Spy Satellites, Teletraan created alternative forms out of Earth vehicles for any transformers caught in its scanning beam (like F-15 Eagles for Skywarp and a Semi-trailer truck for Optimus Prime). The Decepticons awakened first but later the Autobots did too, thanks to Starscream's carelessness. By the Earth year 2005, however, the Decepticons had succeeded in completely conquering Cybertron. In a final attempt to destroy the remaining Autobots they attacked Autobot City on Earth but were defeated. On their way back to Cybertron Astrotrain encountered difficulty leaving Earth's gravity due to an over-large payload. Starscream convinced the others to jettison all the damaged and dying decepticons, including Megatron. Megatron was then found by Unicron who offered to rebuild him in return for destroying the Autobot Matrix of Leadership. Megatron was reformed into Galvatron who returned to Cybertron, destroyed Starscream for his treachery and reassumed command of the Decepticons. Galvatron then attempted to use the Matrix against Unicron, provoking him into attacking Cybertron. The attack coupled with the temporary loss of Galvatron shattered the decepticon forces, allowing the Autobots to reclaim their home planet. The Decepticons fled to the planet Chaar, a world of ash and ruin, where they struggled to survive until Galvatron returned to them and reorganized them into a fighting force, battling to take back Cybertron. Dreamwave Productions After Autobot leader Optimus Prime and Decepticon leader Megatron disappeared in a Space Bridge accident several million years ago, the Autobots and Decepticons split up into several factions. One of those who broke away was Ratbat, who quickly took the opportunity to form his own power base. Gathering loyalist followers and setting up their HQ in the Polyhex region of Cybertron the Ultracons quickly came into conflict with the Autobot splinter faction The Wreckers. However, Ratbat added a secret weapon to his ranks - the combiner team the Constructicons, in flagrant defiance of treaties banning their use in the civil war as both Autobots and Decepticons splintered. When the Ultracons attacked the Tagan Heights in order to seize its factories for themselves, they were opposed by the Wreckers. Ratbat quickly unleashed the Constructicons in their combined form of Devastator, routing the Wreckers. However, Ratbat was prevented from executing his rival Springer by the arrival of the Protectobots in their combined form of Defensor. The Autobot combiners were hoping to prevent an arms race between the various factions by stopping combiners signing up with the factions. After the battle devastated the very manufacturing facilities the two factions hoped to acquire, the Protectobots separated and defeated Devastator via sabotage. With their most potent weapon gone, the Ultracons retreated. Later, the Ultracons joined with the Decepticons under Shockwave to support a peace accord with the Autobots, fighting off Starscream's Predacon faction. However, Megatron's return with an army of Seeker clones would bring a halt to the peace proceedings, and the Ultracons would be reabsorbed into the Decepticons. IDW Publishing The origins of the Decepticons in the IDW continuity would be explored in The Transformers: Megatron Origin, which confirmed Megatron as their founder in this timeline. A lowly miner, Megatron penned a manifesto against Functionalism, the forcible assignment of cybertronians to jobs based on their vehicle modes, which was in force at the time on religious grounds. Megatron began to work against the practice through peaceful protest, but following imprisonment and a brutal beating by police, he determines that force is the only way to bring about equality. Ironically, on his way out the station after having been saved from a government ordered 'accidental-death-by-interrogation', he first meets the future Optimus Prime, who would go on to use his original writings as the basis for the Autobot movement. On the run after an unrelated attack on an Autobot Senator after a mining dispute, Megatron stumbled onto underground gladiator games in the state of Kaon and quickly became one of its rising stars. However, it only truly became more than this when Ratbat, then a senator seeing an opportunity for profit, dispatched Soundwave to arm the gladiators. Megatron's forces then began to commit acts of terrorism increasing in scale and daring, attracting the attention of Sentinel Prime. Kidnapping Senator Decimus as a symbol (with the help of new airborne recruit Starscream) Megatron issued a rallying call to the gladiators and their supporters, promising to unite them under one badge and make the whole planet their arena. Sentinel Prime's forces then found and arrested them en masse. This was all part of Megatron's plan: a supposedly informant Starscream massacred the Autobot Senate and freed the prisoners, signalling revolution and anarchy in Kaon. Megatron eventually seemed to have killed Sentinel Prime one-on-one, and the Decepticons were forged. In this continuity, there are a number of differences to the traditional norm. The Decepticons are no longer based on Cybertron due to its devastation by rogue scientist Thunderwing. Instead, they have spread out through the galaxy, using their transforming abilities to infiltrate target worlds (such as Earth or Nebulos) disguised as local vehicles and equipment. They then use their modes to create conflict, leading to complete anarchy as the world's political and social systems collapse. The Decepticons then move in and harvest the world's raw resources. How the world is pacified is unknown, although The Transformers: Spotlight issue on Sixshot revealed he is often sent in to complete the destruction of entire worlds. As in other continuities, Megatron is in command, and thus far has had to deal with the rebellion of Starscream's Earth infiltration unit and the reemergence of Thunderwing, as well as moving on to Earth in order to harvest the extremely powerful Energon variant Ore-13, something which promises to give the Decepticons a significant edge over the Autobots. The IDW continuity is unique in that it portrays the Decepticons as originally a force for good, standing up against oppression, who eventually themselves became oppressors. A large number of those who would become Autobots, including Optimus Prime himself, even support the Decepticon cause in the beginning, before it turns violent. Beast Era The Decepticons eventually evolve into the Predacons, a faction in the fictional Beast Wars universe created by Hasbro. Previously the name Predacon had been associated with the Transformer group which combined to form Predaking. The faction made their first appearance in the Beast Wars toyline and animated series, and have been represented in various Transformers animated series, comic books and toylines since. A Predacon is most commonly represented as a Decepticon descendant with a new smaller, more energy-efficient body. This body transforms into an animal instead of a vehicle. Though the Decepticons and Predacons share many similarities, several important differences exist, such as leadership and ideals (for example, choosing a pretense of peace with the Maximals, rather than maintaining a war at all costs). It is not completely known as to how the faction gained predominance over all the other various Decepticon factions, although the comic book miniseries Beast Wars: The Gathering has provided hints that their heritage may be found in the original combiner team Predacons, hints confirmed by the subsequent Timelines: Dawn of Futures Past, which confirmed that Razorclaw, Divebomb and the other Predacons had been working behind the scenes. Transformers: Robots in Disguise In Transformers: Robots in Disguise, the Decepticons were not the name of the evil faction, but rather a sub-faction created by Megatron. The main faction was instead the Predacons (carrying the name of the main villains over from Beast Wars), who transformed into mechanical animals. Realising that their ability to travel as Earth vehicles gave the Autobots an edge in stealth, Megatron decided to take drastic action. Megatron recovered the protoforms of six Autobots that had crashed to Earth some time before looking for Fortress Maximus. Scanning them with vehicle modes at a military base and infusing them with a fraction of his spark energy to ensure their new loyalty, the first five became the Commandos. But when Megatron tried to scan a tanker truck as an alternate mode for the leader Scourge, Optimus Prime was scanned as well, resulting in much of Prime's personality being scanned as well. With an infusion of Megatron's spark energy to complete the concoction, Scourge was born, emerging from his pod as a dark twin of Optimus Prime, who proved that Megatron's programming had over-ridden any Autobot goodness within him. Appointed leader of the new "Decepticons", they quickly established themselves as a force to be reckoned with. The newly created Decepticons would try many schemes over the course of the series, including attacking various dams and faking their defection to the Autobots. But their leader, Scourge, had grander ambitions in mind. The copy of Optimus' personality had been warped by Megatron's evil influence, but the individuality of Optimus remained and Scourge now wanted to control both Predacons and Decepticons. He would seize his chance when Fortress Maximus was awakened, directing him to destroy Galvatron (Megatron's new form). The attempt failed and Galvatron took a terrible revenge - he stripped the Decepticons of their individuality, turning them into little more than drones. After Galvatron's defeat by Omega Prime, the Decepticons were among those sent back to Cybertron for imprisonment, except for Sky-Byte. Unicron Trilogy The Decepticons appeared in Transformers: Armada, Transformers: Energon, and Transformers: Cybertron as mostly jets and military vehicles. In the Unicron Trilogy continuity, the early history of the war is not expounded upon. The Decepticons, however, remain the main antagonists, with whom the Autobots have been warring for quite some time. The enslavement of the small, power-enhancing Mini-Cons has long been a major goal of the Decepticons, and the Mini-Cons are seen as key to winning the war. Near the end of Armada, the Autobots and Decepticons join forces to defeat the planet-devouring Unicron, and the beginning of Energon sees them as uneasy allies. Many return to Megatron's side when he returns. Cybertron sees a much smaller Decepticon force than the previous two series, and what has become of most of the survivors of the earlier series remains unknown. As Megatron's true plans are discovered, most of the Decepticons, unwilling to be sacrificed as pawns as their leader seeks to remake the universe, again battle a common foe alongside the Autobots. The end of the series sees three of the comic-relief characters, with a reluctant Thundercracker, desiring to begin a new Decepticon force, and take off in a makeshift rocket. It makes it as far as Mars before it crashes, as the ending credits montage of the final episode shows. The foursome survives, however. The fates of the other surviving Decepticons remains unknown, though evidence of Starscream's survival is discovered. Live-action films The Movie Prequel comic by IDW Publishing would reveal their origins. Originally Optimus Prime and Megatron ruled Cybertron together, due to the power of the Allspark, a mysterious device that could give life to Transformers - and keep Cybertron itself alive. Eventually, Megatron began to desire its power for himself and assembled a like-minded army of separatists - the Decepticons. Megatron soon struck, and Cybertron became embroiled in civil war. However, this would later seem to be changed by the sequel films, where it is revealed that Sentinel Prime was the first leader of the Autobots and The Fallen the founder and supreme master of the Decepticons. Optimus would only take command after Sentinel was seemingly killed in action and Megatron served as leader of the second incarnation of the Decepticons with The Fallen as his master and mentor due to the latter's incapacitation. The subsequent prequel novel Transformers: Ghosts of Yesterday revealed that Starscream seized command of the Decepticons after Megatron's disappearance. Transformers (2007 film) The Decepticons make an appearance in the 2007 the Transformers live-action film. They include Megatron (Hugo Weaving), Starscream, Frenzy, Blackout, Barricade, Scorponok, Brawl and Bonecrusher. Like the Autobots, the Decepticons are designed to look more organic in the movie. While the Autobots have more human-like appearances, the Decepticons are more monstrous; they tend to resemble carnivorous insects, mammals and birds. In the film, the Autobots intend to use the AllSpark, the object that created their robotic race, in an attempt to rebuild Cybertron and end the war, while Megatron and the Decepticons desire to control it with the intention of building an army by giving life to the machines of Earth. Ultimately, nearly all the Decepticons who participated in the first battle (except Starscream, Scorponok and Barricade) are killed and the AllSpark is used by Sam to kill Megatron, thus making the Autobots accept Earth as their new home, while allying with humans to continue to hunt down remaining Decepticons. Transformers: Revenge of the Fallen (2009 film) In Transformers: Revenge of the Fallen it is revealed that The Fallen, a Prime who turned to evil, is the founder of the Decepticons, with Megatron being the leader of its second incarnation, accepting The Fallen as his master and mentor. This would seem to imply the Decepticons were originally Autobots who turned evil. In the final battle in the second movie, there are many Decepticon casualties including Devastator (destroyed by a rail gun), Mixmaster (cut in half and his head stomped off by Jetfire), Rampage (killed by Bumblebee), Ravage (stripped from his spine by Bumblebee), Scrapper and Long Haul (killed by an airstrike), Scorponok (head crushed by Jetfire) and the Fallen himself (spark ripped out by Optimus Prime). Also killed in the movie are Sideways (while still in his vehicle mode) by Sideswipe and Demolishor, killed at the beginning by Optimus and Ironhide. Following the Fallen's death, Megatron officially takes full command of the Decepticons at this point, swearing vengeance. Transformers: Dark of the Moon (2011 film) The Decepticons return in Transformers: Dark of the Moon with the plan to use a Space Bridge to bring an army to Earth and transport Cybertron into orbit to rebuild the planet with Earth's natural resources and human population as slaves. Megatron and Sentinel Prime planned this a long time ago, planning to meet on Earth before Megatron went after the Allspark and ended up frozen and the Ark was shot down by Decepticon fighters (few Decepticons knew of the plan) and crashed on Earth's Moon in 1961. This was detected by the Americans and the Russians and the space programs were created to reach the ship and study it. However, by 1963 the Decepticons had raided the Ark and removed all but five of the pillars and hid them on the Moon along with an army of hundreds of Decepticons, awaiting the time that the pillars would be used. After humans successfully reached the Moon and explored the ship, Soundwave and Laserbeak approached various humans including Dylan Gould's father to get them to shut down the American and Russian space programs. The Decepticons established a network of human collaborators who kept the humans from noticing the Decepticons actions on the Moon, later led by Dylan Gould. After a human collaborator named Alexi Voshkod leads NEST to Chernobyl where they retrieve an engine part from the Ark, the Decepticons reemerge for the first time since Egypt in the form of Shockwave and his Driller who attack, but retreat. This leads the Autobots to retrieve Sentinel and the remaining space bridge pillars and revive him and as this is going according to plan, Megatron orders Laserbeak to kill all the human collaborators but Dylan Gould which he does. Before he's killed, one of the collaborators named Jerry Wang alerts Sam Witwicky to this and he alerts NEST which ignores it. Sam and Seymour Simmons find out about the Decepticons plot from pictures a Russian probe got of the Decepticons hiding the pillars and the Dreads are sent to attack the convoy protecting Sentinel, but are killed by Bumblebee, Dino, Sideswipe and Ironhide. After Sentinel reveals his true colors and murders Ironhide, he sets up the pillars in the National Mall and brings the Decepticon army consisting of hundreds of Decepticon soldiers and Decepticon ships to Earth. With the army in hand, the Decepticons promise to bring no war against the human population in exchange that the Autobots must leave Earth. While taking off into the atmosphere, Starscream destroyed the ship, knowing that mankind will resist on their own. Some of the Decepticons scatter around the world to set up the pillars, but most of the army invades Chicago, devastating the human population and taking over. The Autobots, NEST and a team of mercenaries led by Sam Witwicky and Robert Epps invade Chicago and battle the Decepticon army, aided by the United States Army, and U.S. Air Force. The group manages to take out much of the army including Laserbeak (killed by Sam Witwicky and Bumblebee), the Driller (killed by Optimus), Starscream (killed by Sam Witwicky and Sergent Lennox), Soundwave (killed by Bumblebee), Barricade (killed by NEST) and Shockwave (killed by Optimus) and disrupt the Control Pillar, forcing Sentinel into battle. The combined human and Autobot forces overwhelm Sentinel and his remaining forces and Tomahawk missiles destroy most of the Decepticon fighters, forcing Sentinel to flee before engaging Optimus one-on-one. Dylan Gould reactivates the space bridge, but Sam Witwicky kills Gould, and Ratchet and Bumblebee destroy the Control Pillar, causing Cybertron to collapse and ruining the Decepticon plan. Also, the remaining Decepticon ships are sucked up into Cybertron by the space bridge and are destroyed with the planet. Sentinel nearly kills Optimus, but Megatron, convinced by Carly Spencer that he would end up working for Sentinel unless he could get rid of him, turns on Sentinel and severely injures him. Upon seeing Cybertron being destroyed with the space bridge, Megatron attempts to make a false truce with Optimus, but Optimus doesn't fall for it and kills Megatron and Sentinel. While the loss of human life in Chicago is massive, the battle is a major victory for the Autobots as they eliminated most of the Decepticon army on Earth (including Gould by traitor) despite there being some still scattered around the globe and the entire Decepticon command structure was destroyed with all of its members killed in the battle. Transformers: Age of Extinction (2014 film) While the regular Decepticons do not actually appear in Transformers: Age of Extinction (except Megatron who was reborn as Galvatron), they do play a role in the story as secondary antagonists. The "Battle for Chicago" (climactic battle of Dark of the Moon) has become a 9/11 like event to the public 5 years after the third film and a ruthless government organization named Cemetery Wind have begun hunting Decepticons who are still scattered around the globe and secretly hunted Autobots alike when the alliance between humans and Autobots ended (including alliance between humans and Decepticons as Dylan Gould is already dead). It was mentioned that there might still be less than a dozen Decepticons and Autobots hiding on the planet Earth by Harold Attinger (Kelsey Grammer). The film's antagonist is instead the neutral assassin and bounty hunter Lockdown, who may have been a Decepticon at one point, sent to Earth to hunt Optimus Prime by the Transformers' creator race (unseen in the movie). Lockdown and Attinger make a three-way deal along with a company named K.S.I., Kinetic Solutions Incorporated, by the boss, Joshua Joyce, who uses the original Decepticons' (and Autobots') remains to build new Transformer prototypes which can be controlled by humans and must eliminate those who cross their path such as the Yeager family who know this secret. Their crown jewel is Galvatron, who becomes possessed by Megatron's (Frank Welker) consciousness and then possesses the other prototypes and turns them into Decepticons controlled by him. Galvatron plans to use the Seed, a device that can create Transformium, the metal Transformers are made of, to rebuild his Decepticon army and conquer Earth, when Joyce was called by Cade Yeager, and, knowing that he was manipulated by Attinger and Galvatron, escapes with the Seed. After the final battle in Hong Kong, all the Decepticons are destroyed by Cade, the Autobots and Dinobots, except Galvatron, who escapes after Lockdown and Attinger are killed by Optimus Prime, vowing to return one day, for he is reborn, before Cemetery Wind dissolved by their crimes and branded as a terrorist organization. Barricade, Soundwave and a number of other Decepticon "protoform drones" appear in archival footage from Dark of the Moon presented by Attinger. Various deceased Autobots and Decepticons appear throughout the film in Chicago and in the KSI lab, including Megatron's head. Transformers: The Last Knight (2017 film) The Decepticons return in Transformers: The Last Knight with the revived leader, Megatron, when a war for survival has commenced between the human race and the Transformers and set up a military organization of TRF (Transformers Reaction Force). The Decepticons began to search for the staff when Barricade reports to Megatron that human has found the mysterious talisman they're seeking and suggests using TRF their purposes. Megatron contacting TRF abducting two CIA agents and offered an exchange to release his group of Decepticons. During the final battle, they assist the sorceress Quintessa in draining the life-energy from Earth to repair a damaged Cybertron and began to defend the from the Autobots and military. But the Autobots broke through and most of the Decepticons began to die and were defeated. Bumblebee (2018 film) The Decepticons return in Bumblebee, where they are first seen during the final battle for Cybertron against the Autobots. The Decepticons on Cybertron are co-led by Shockwave and Soundwave, who proceed to force the Autobots off of Cybertron. At some point prior to this battle, the Decepticon Seeker Blitzwing was sent to Earth by the Decepticons for unknown reasons. After the Autobot scout B-127 lands on Earth, Blitzwing intervenes in an ensuing skirmish between the Autobot and the human special operatives group known as Sector Seven. He proceeds to engage B-127 and interrogate him about Optimus Prime's whereabouts, even ripping out the scout's vocal processor and attempting to execute him. Before he could do this, however, B-127 attached one of Blitzwing's missiles onto Blitzwing's body, causing him to explode and die in the process. Decepticon Triple-Changer agents, Shatter and Dropkick are sent to intercept lieutenant Cliffjumper, one of the Autobots that escaped at the beginning of the film, in the hopes that they may find the Autobot leader, Optimus Prime. Cliffjumper refuses to reveal Optimus' whereabouts and thus subsequently fatally sliced in half by Dropkick. Transformers Animated In Transformers Animated, the Decepticons are usually bigger and stronger than the Autobots and usually turn into jets and military vehicles. It takes a group of Autobots to defeat one Decepticon and almost all Decepticons have red eyes and can fly. Most Decepticons in the series are similar to the original G1 series. In the Animated Series Blitzwing, for example, retains his triple changer modes of a tank and jet and also retains his G1 tan and purple color scheme. This series depicts a Decepticon force that is far from what it apparently once was, with Megatron having been chasing the Allspark for millions of years prior to the series' beginning. The Decepticons have been "wandering the periphery" for some time, but have been driven off of Cybertron long ago. These Decepticons see themselves as "freedom fighters", seeking to throw off "Autobot tyranny", and their plans tend to revolve around returning to Cybertron with the means to retake it. What started the great war in this series was some of the Cybertronians being kicked off of Cybertron for being freaks, eventually forming an alliance called the "Decepticons". Now the Decepticons fight for their rights and try to take back what was rightfully theirs. Transformers: Timelines A series of stories printed by Fun Publications, set in a variety of continuities, the Decepticons of alternate worlds can vary greatly from the classics Decepticon image. In the Transtech storyline, the Autobots and Decepticons are merely political factions on a Cybertron which never broke out into war. Lines between good and evil are more blurred. In the Shattered Glass storyline, a group of Decepticons, led by Megatron, are the mirror images of the personalities of most Decepticons. In this world the Decepticon logo is red, and worn by heroic Transformers who seek to protect the weak and oppressed from the evil Autobots. Aligned Continuity The main group of Decepticons, led by Megatron, in the 2010 computer animated series Transformers: Prime is much larger than in most continuities considering their ranks are bolstered by a clone army of drone named Vehicons (a possible homage to Beast Machines) who all look-alike though some have different vehicle modes and have personalities. The Vehicons are sometimes the center of a joke often shown unable to do their job and are very incompetent as well as constantly being killed off way too easily by the Autobots. However The Decepticons don't appear in the series Transformers: Rescue Bots, though it has been heavily implied that the two shows take place in the same continuity. The Decepticons are briefly mentioned by Heatwave in the episode "Bot to the Future", (who also mentioned Unicron in an earlier episode) when the Autobots arrive in an alternate timeline ruled by Morbots (who resemble Vehicons), Bumblebee believes the Morbots are Decepticons, only for Heatwave to correct him. In a later episode, the recruits retrieve what appears to be a cassette tape from a derelict spaceship and it transforms into an injured Laserbeak. The group disagree over whether to help him as he is a Decepticon (Hotshot in particular is against doing so) and it's ultimately revealed that Wedge was originally built as a Decepticon but was given the chance to instead be an Autobot (a fact he kept from the others due to the prejudices shown in this episode). In the end, they allow Laserbeak to stay at the academy while he recovers. Transformers: War for Cybertron In Transformers: War for Cybertron and Transformers: Fall of Cybertron, Megatron has come across a legendary element called "Dark Energon". He infiltrates Starscream's space station in order to corrupt himself with it. He then kills the Autobots' leader Zeta Prime and obtains the Omega Key, which then activates Omega Supreme. After Megatron defeats Omega Supreme, he goes to Cybertron's core and corrupts it with Dark Energon. Optimus Prime becomes the new Autobot leader, and heads into the planet to rescue Omega Supreme. He opens the Omega Lock into the core after Ratchet purges the Dark Energon corruption. Optimus discovers that he is too late to save Cybertron from the Dark Energon corruption, and the core must shut down for about one million years to survive. Optimus is giving a piece of Cybertron's spark for safe-keeping (The Matrix of Leadership). When Optimus evacuates the Autobot forces from Cybertron, Megatron tries to stop them from leaving. Silverbolt, Air Raid, and Jetfire try to stop it, but the space station transforms into Trypticon and crashes on Cybertron. Optimus and his Autobots then defeat Trypticon. Megatron has Trypticon rebuilt into the Nemesis. The Nemesis pursues the Ark, and then Megatron shoots Bumblebee. They go into a space bridge, and leave Cybertron to a lifeless wasteland. Transformers: Prime By the time of Transformers: Prime, it has been three years since the Decepticons last attacked Earth and the Autobots still await their return. After the death of Cliffjumper, the Autobots fight to protect the Earth from the Decepticons and befriend three young humans while preparing for the return of Megatron, who has been missing for three Earth years. Megatron plans to use Dark Energon to raise an undead army of Cybertronians and defeat the Autobots. The Autobots destroy his space bridge and Megatron is believed killed in the process. Starscream becomes the new Decepticon leader. After Megatron's apparent death, new Decepticon leader Starscream does not stray from Megatron's path and recruits several new Decepticons. Starscream attempts many missions to destroy the Autobots and find their headquarters, while keeping a shard of the "last" remaining Dark Energon that he took out of Megatron's chest. In the episode "Out of His Head", Megatron returns after an incident where he takes control of Bumblebee's mind. Megatron then reclaims leadership of the Decepticons, keeping a strict eye on Starscream. After Starscream uses Megatron's share of Dark Energon, he tries to find more to once again bring back his "un-dead army". At the end of the episode "Partners", Starscream became an independent, striking out on his own, having become fed up with being disrespected. During the final four episodes of the season, the Autobots unwillingly team up with Megatron to battle a legendary threat to Earth's existence, Unicron. To defeat Unicron, Optimus uses the Matrix of Leadership. With this sacrifice, he not only loses the Wisdom of the Primes but also his memories of the war and his comrades, and joins Megatron as a Decepticon under his old name, Orion Pax. Orion, under the false truths about the Autobots being evil and the Decepticons being good, Megatron, then sets about decoding the Iacon Database. The Autobots save him, journeying to Cybertron and back to recharge the Matrix of Leadership and help him regain his memories, but the Decepticons continued to search for the relics Orion did decode throughout Season 2, managing to decode all of them thanks to Soundwave's persistence and computer skills. Starscream meanwhile attempts several times to create personal armies and an alliance with MECH, only for the human terrorists to take his T-cog to construct Nemesis Prime as well as a failed attempt to assassinate Megatron. The Insecticons also join the crew of the Nemesis when Airachnid tries to eliminate Megatron for trying to terminate her previously. Airachnid is later imprisoned in a Stasis pod by Acree and held as a prisoner in the Autobot Base. Team Prime also is granted another Autobot when Smokescreen, the rookie warrior and bodyguard of Optimus Prime's mentor Alpha Trion, arrives on Earth in a Decpticon escape pod and Megatron gains MECH leader Silas, who has taken Breakdown's body for his own after nearly being killed by Optimus Prime, as an ally until he fails Megatron's expectations, causing Cylas (as he calls himself) to end up as Knockout's science experiment. When Optimus claims possession of the Star Saber and learns of the last four Iacon relics: the Omega keys (devices that can restore Cybertron), Megatron replaces his arm with an Ancient Prime's arm, so he can use the Forge of Solus Prime to turn a chunk of Dark Energon into the Dark Star Saber. In the battle that follows, Megatron destroys the Star Saber, robbing Optimus of Victory. Defeated, Optimus Prime retreats, gaining the first Omega Key in the process due to Smokescreen's clever thinking. Knock Out obtains the second however using the Resonance Blaster, and Starscream obtains the third using a dose of speed-enhancing Red Energon. The fourth and final one is revealed by Soundwave to have been inside Smokescreen, placed there to make sure it got to Optimus from Alpha Trion. After the Decepticons kidnap him, Knock Out uses the phase shifter to remove it. Megatron also finds out the purpose of the keys, by using the cortical psychic patch on Smokescreen. When Megatron leaves Knockout alone with him, Smokescreen and Knockout fight over the phase shifter, ending with the Autobot placing Knockout in a wall and leaving him there. He takes the one the Decepticons had and his and escaped the ship, starting a free fall battle, resulting in Smokescreen's escape. Starscream then goes on to steal the three keys the Autobots had. Starscream, now with all 4, uses them as a peace offering to rejoin the Decepticons. Dreadwing becomes angry that Megatron allowed Starscream to rejoin the Decepticons after seeing that Starscream turned Skyquake into a Terrorcon. He gives Optimus the Forge of Solus Prime, and attempts to kill Starscream but is killed in the process by Megatron. Knockout and Starscream use the keys and find out the location of the Omega Lock, with Optimus already knowing its location and turning the Goundbridge into a spacebridge, and reforging the Star saber. The Autobots head to Cybertron, fighting off the Decepticons with their Iacon relics, take back the keys and manage to kill all the Vehicons, managing to reach the Omega Lock. Sadly, the victory is short lived, as the Decepticons force them to give them back the keys, or they will expose Jack, Miko, and Raf to Cybertron's toxic atmosphere. The Autobots are forced to yield and give them the keys, which Megatron uses to rebuild the Hall of Records. He then opens a space bridge, and tries to terraform Earth into a new planet he considers calling New Kaon. Optimus, fearing for humanity and unwilling to let another world be destroyed, takes his Star Saber and cuts off Megatron's arm and destroys the Omega Lock, leaving Cybertron in its liveless state forever. The Autobots retreat back to Earth, only to find that Jasper, Nevada has now been changed into a giant fortress. The Nemesis lands there, and Optimus discovers the Decepticons have discovered the location of their base. Under Megatron's orders, Starscream leads an armada of Vehicons and Insecticons to start attacking the base. Wheeljack and Agent Fowler try and hold off the new Vehicons as long as they are able, trying to allow Team Prime to escape. Optimus has Team Prime split up to different parts of the country in the hope of making them more difficult to hunt down, with Optimus remaining behind to ensure the Decepticons could not follow. Outside, Wheeljack's ship, the Jack Hammer is shot down by Starscream. The Decepticons then blow up the base with Optimus inside as he destroys the Ground Bridge with Agent Fowler and June Darby watching in horror as the base explodes. Megatron and Starscream then fly down to the remains of the base to search for survivors. Celebrating their victory, they fail to notice Optimus's arm sticking out of the rubble. In Season 3, the Decepticons hold earth hostage with their fortress, christened as Darkmount, and search for the autobots across the United States, To track the autobots, the recently returned Shockwave brings with him a Predacon to hunt down the scattered Autobots. When the Predacon fails, the search continues under Starscream's command. This search is put on hold however when the Autobots unite under Ultra Magnus to assault Darkmount. However, as the assault continues, it is the Decepticons who emerge victorious even with the loss of the Predacon, capturing Team Prime. However, Optimus Prime, returned to health by Smokescreen's use of the Forge of Solus Prime, attacks Darkmount, defeating Megatron in one on one combat in the air and destroying the fortress' fusion cannons so that the military can destroy the fortress. Forced to use the Nemesis as their base once again, Megatron begins sending units to hunt down Predacon fossils in the hope of gaining an advantage over the Autobots through cloning an army. The return of the Predacon (Predaking himself) adds to this advantage. However, the Decepticon ranks are thinned when Starscream and Knock Out accidentally turn Cylas into a Terrorcon that can turn other Decepticons into Energon vampires through a mixture of Synthetic and Dark Energon. This plague also leads to Airachnid's escape and her retaking control of the Insecticons, forcing Soundwave to teleport her armada to one of Cybertron's moon's and leaving them to be eaten by her as she has become a Terrorcon hybrid. This accident forces the cloning process to be sped up on Project Predacon due to the loss of more than half of Megatron's forces. However, Project Predacon is terminated when Predaking reveals he is capable of higher thought as well as transformation, forcing Megatron to lure the Autobots into destroying the cloning laboratory for him. With the destruction of the lab, it is revealed that Predacon CNA combined with Synthetic Energon is capable of producing cybermatter. Attention is then focused on the restoration of the Omega Lock and the completion of the Synthetic Energon formula. To complete it, Ratchet is kidnapped and forced to aid in completing the formula, at which he succeeds. Megatron however does not count on Ratchet turning Predaking against him, nor the Autobots assaulting the Nemesis. With this, Megatron rallies his troops for a final stand. Though he kills Bumblebee and nearly kills Optimus, Megatron is killed by a resurrected Bumblebee who emerges from the Omega Lock and stabs him in the spark with the Star Saber, sending him tumbling to the earth far below. With Megatron's death, and Soundwave trapped in the Shadowzone by Jack and Miko, the remaining Decepticons are killed, imprisoned or retreat with Shockwave and Starscream to the ship's escape pods. In the film "Predacons Rising" - which serves as the series finale - it is further revealed that while many Decepticons were imprisoned, some defected to the Autobots to help rebuild Cybertron. Starscream and Shockwave, however, remain at large and having cloned two new Predacons they have named Skylynx and Darksteel, they continue to hunt Predacon bones to clone more soldiers. When Megatron returns, Starscream is at first overjoyed to have their leader back, but upon realization that Unicron is overshadowing and controlling him, Starscream retreats while Shockwave and the Predacons fight. Shockwave is also the one who suggests that the Predacons, now under Predaking's full leadership, help the Autobots defeat Unicron and his undead army. Starscream and the Decepticon prisoners aboard the Nemesis attempt to take control of the ship, only for Knock Out to change allegiance to the Autobots and imprison Starscream while the remaining mutineers are killed. Though Starscream escapes, Knock Out stays to help stop Unicron. When Unicron is defeated and imprisoned by Optimus Prime, Megatron is freed from his control and officially disbands the Decepticons and flies off to start a new life, as he is tired of conquest and no longer wishes to oppress anyone, having just experienced it himself. Starscream takes Megatron's throne but his rule is short-lived when the Predacons arrive to settle old scores, the outcome of which remains unknown. Transformers: Robots in Disguise Five years after the events of "Predacons Rising", Bumblebee is alerted to the existence of a new group of Decepticons on Earth. He eventually assembles a team-consisting of Autobots Strongarm, Sideswipe, Grimlock, and Fixit-to contend with these new Decepticons, which include the likes of Underbite and Bisk. Steeljaw, in particular, is the main antagonist, leading a group of Decepticons consisting of bounty hunter Fracture, crime boss Thunderhoof, the metal-consuming Underbite, and the crab-like Clampdown, in hopes of giving the Decepticons their own world. Towards the end of season one, Megatronus/The Fallen, the first Decepticon, contacts Steeljaw and convinces him to build him a space bridge so he can return to Earth. Steeljaw does so, but once on Earth, Megatronus attempts to destroy both Earth and Cybertron. Steeljaw tries to stop him, but Megatronus uses his telepathic powers to throw him into the distance. Ultimately, Megatronus is killed by Bumblebee's team and the rest of Steeljaw's pack is imprisoned. In season two, Steeljaw comes across a group of Decepticons who have turned the Alchemor into their own base, enslaving the Mini-Cons there as well. These Decepticons are led by the strict Glowstrike, ex-pirate Sabrehorn, and the gruff Scorponok. Steeljaw manages to reform his pack by using Scorponok as a distraction while he infiltrates the Autobots' scrapyard and frees Clampdown and Thunderhoof from stasis, along with the insane Springload, the revolutionary Quillfire, hyperactive Bisk, former gladiator Groundpounder, and spy/saboteur Overload. Scorponok is arrested by Bumblebee's team, with Steeljaw fabricating a story that Scorponok had betrayed them. At the end of the season, Steeljaw usurps Sabrehorn and Glowstrike and becomes leader of the escaped Decepticons (collectively known as "Decepticon Island"), but Bumblebee's team sets off a specialized bomb that places all Decepticons on board the Alchemor in stasis, including Steeljaw. Optimus Prime, Windblade, Ratchet, and the former Mini-Con prisoners then take the recaptured Decepticons back to Cybertron while Bumblebee decides to establish a permanent Autobot base on Earth. 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232403	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ditch	Ditch	A ditch is a small to moderate divot created to channel water. A ditch can be used for drainage, to drain water from low-lying areas, alongside roadways or fields, or to channel water from a more distant source for plant irrigation. Ditches are commonly seen around farmland, especially in areas that have required drainage, such as The Fens in eastern England and much of the Netherlands. Roadside ditches may provide a hazard to motorists and cyclists, whose vehicles may crash into them and get damaged, flipped over, or stuck and cause major injury, especially in poor weather conditions and rural areas. Etymology In Anglo-Saxon, the word dïc already existed and was pronounced "deek" in northern England and "deetch" in the south. The origins of the word lie in digging a trench and forming the upcast soil into a bank alongside it. This practice has meant that the name dïc was given to either the excavation or the bank, and evolved to both the words "dike"/"dyke" and "ditch". Thus Offa's Dyke is a combined structure and Car Dyke is a trench, though it once had raised banks as well. In the English Midlands and East Anglia, a dyke is what a ditch is in the south of England, a property-boundary marker or drainage channel. Where it carries a stream, it may be called a running dike as in Rippingale Running Dike, which leads water from the catchwater drain, Car Dyke, to the South Forty Foot Drain in Lincolnshire (TF1427). The Weir Dike is a soak dike in Bourne North Fen, near Twenty and alongside the River Glen. Sustainability of drainage ditches Drainage ditches play major roles in agriculture throughout the world. Improper drainage systems accelerate water contamination, excessively desiccate soils during seasonal drought, and become a financial burden to maintain. Industrial earth-moving equipment facilitates maintenance of straight drainage trenches, but entrenchment results in increasing environmental and eventually profound economic costs over time. Sustainable channel design can result in ditches that are largely self-maintaining due to natural geomorphological equilibrium. Slowed net siltation and erosion result in net reduction in sediment transport. Encouraging development of a natural stream sinuosity and a multi-terraced channel cross section appear to be key to maintain both peak ditch drainage capacity, and minimum net pollution and nutrient transport. Flooding can be a major cause of recurring crop loss—particularly in heavy soils—and can severely disrupt urban economies as well. Subsurface drainage to ditches offers a way to remove excess water from agricultural fields, or vital urban spaces, without the erosion rates and pollution transport that results from direct surface runoff. However, excess drainage results in recurring drought induced crop yield losses and more severe urban heat or desiccation issues. Controlled subsurface drainage from sensitive areas to vegetated drainage ditches makes possible a better balance between water drainage and water retention needs. The initial investment allows a community to draw down local water tables when and where necessary without exacerbating drought problems at other times. Water diversion ditches Particularly in Colorado, the term ditch is also applied to open aqueducts that traverse hillsides as part of transbasin diversion projects. Examples include the Grand Ditch over La Poudre Pass, the Berthoud Pass Ditch, and the Boreas Pass Ditch. Herbicides Herbicides may be used to maintain a ditch. Primarily this is done to deny refuge to weeds that would progress into the adjacent field, but may instead involve only broadleaf herbicides specifically to produce forage and/or hay (see §For forage and hay below). For forage and hay Ditches can provide forage or be harvested for hay. If herbicides are used, however, the resulting manure cannot necessarily be used in crop fields, because in some cases herbicides will pass through and produce crop injury. See also Acequia Canal Culvert Drainage system (agriculture) Irrigation Nullah Rhyne Trench Watertable control References External links Aqueducts Drainage Irrigation	[ -0.002784513169899583, -0.13742604851722717, -0.2302369475364685, 0.015562403947114944, 0.027298791334033012, 0.34309282898902893, 0.48091527819633484, 0.4797738194465637, 0.039316754788160324, -0.5203856229782104, -0.5894075632095337, 0.3169842064380646, -0.173500657081604, 0.0009161303169094026, -0.4288977384567261, 0.5602362751960754, 0.05150016024708748, 0.2628169655799866, 0.3456416726112366, 0.5045729279518127, -0.23579156398773193, -0.016665596514940262, -0.002729020081460476, 0.07955761253833771, 0.08556468784809113, 0.06054052710533142, 0.2438221126794815, 0.19998525083065033, 0.1886899769306183, -0.30627167224884033, 0.22485263645648956, 0.31037983298301697, 0.16245317459106445, -0.3677225410938263, 0.15071560442447662, -0.33185866475105286, 0.12827572226524353, -0.20756781101226807, -0.540428876876831, 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232410	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wainwright%2C%20Alberta	Wainwright, Alberta	Wainwright is a town in east-central Alberta, Canada. It is approximately southeast of Edmonton. Located west of the Alberta–Saskatchewan border, Wainwright is south of Vermilion in the Battle River valley. Highway 41, called the Buffalo Trail, and Highway 14 go through the town. CFB Wainwright is located in Denwood, southwest of Wainwright. History Originally named Denwood, the town was relocated by the Grand Trunk Pacific Railway west-northwest and renamed Wainwright after General William Wainwright, the second vice-president of railway. The town is a divisional point on the Canadian National Railway main line. Wainwright railway station is served by Via Rail's The Canadian. Demographics In the 2021 Census of Population conducted by Statistics Canada, the Town of Wainwright recorded a population of living in of its total private dwellings, a change of from its 2016 population of . With a land area of , it had a population density of in 2021. In the 2016 Census of Population conducted by Statistics Canada, the Town of Wainwright recorded a population of 6,270 living in 2,524 of its 2,770 total private dwellings, a change from its 2011 population of 5,925. With a land area of , it had a population density of in 2016. The Town of Wainwright's 2013 municipal census counted a population of 6,289, an 8.9% increase over its 2008 municipal census population of 5,775. Arts and culture Wainwright has the third-largest stampede in Canada. It occurs at the end of June, and includes a rodeo, chuckwagon races, parade, midway, and an agricultural fair. Education Buffalo Trail Public Schools Regional Division No. 28 Wainwright Elementary School Wainwright High School East Central Alberta Catholic Separate Schools Regional Division No. 16 Blessed Sacrament School Blessed Sacrament Outreach School Greater North Central Francophone Education Region No. 2 École Saint-Christophe Media Radio CKKY-FM/K-Rock 101.9 – provides old and new rock music CKWY-FM/Wayne-FM – provides a mix of classic hits and top 40 music Newspapers The Edge and The Star (formerly the Star Chronicle) merged to be the Star/Edge in 2013. It is published weekly on Fridays. Notable people Glen Sather, former NHL player, coach and general manager, and member of the Hockey Hall of Fame Lynn Seymour, ballerina Frank C. Turner, film and television actor, iconographer See also List of communities in Alberta List of towns in Alberta References External links 1909 establishments in Alberta Towns in Alberta	[ 0.21147021651268005, 1.1555168628692627, 0.0023111661430448294, -0.4992549419403076, -0.3260401785373688, 0.3742692470550537, 1.1844780445098877, 0.43351906538009644, 0.02455059625208378, -0.28479844331741333, 0.14723849296569824, -0.11562242358922958, -0.1886136531829834, 0.3358948230743408, -0.7128579616546631, 0.6711618304252625, -0.21706967055797577, 0.6912695169448853, 0.3512870967388153, -0.27182629704475403, 0.49475395679473877, -0.78216952085495, 0.3586742877960205, 0.19436143338680267, 0.08582470566034317, 0.41228553652763367, 0.8367438912391663, 0.6433593034744263, -0.08326933532953262, 0.3105441927909851, -0.5686653852462769, 0.25810015201568604, 0.07147696614265442, -0.381428986787796, 0.42722588777542114, 0.1507740616798401, 0.42113086581230164, 0.12964555621147156, 0.033852025866508484, 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232411	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sneeze	Sneeze	A sneeze (also known as sternutation) is a semi-autonomous, convulsive expulsion of air from the lungs through the nose and mouth, usually caused by foreign particles irritating the nasal mucosa. A sneeze expels air forcibly from the mouth and nose in an explosive, spasmodic involuntary action. This action allows for mucus to escape through the nasal cavity. Sneezing is possibly linked to sudden exposure to bright light, sudden change (fall) in temperature, breeze of cold air, a particularly full stomach, exposure to allergens, or viral infection. Because sneezes can spread disease through infectious aerosol droplets, it is recommended to cover one's mouth and nose with the forearm, the inside of the elbow, a tissue or a handkerchief while sneezing. In addition to covering the mouth, looking down is also recommended in order to change the direction of the droplets spread and avoid high concentration in the human breathing heights. The function of sneezing is to expel mucus containing foreign particles or irritants and cleanse the nasal cavity. During a sneeze, the soft palate and palatine uvula depress while the back of the tongue elevates to partially close the passage to the mouth, creating a venturi (similar to a carburetor) due to Bernoulli's principle so that air ejected from the lungs is accelerated through the mouth and thus creating a low pressure point at the back of the nose. This way air is forced in through the front of the nose and the expelled mucus and contaminants are launched out the mouth. Sneezing with the mouth closed does expel mucus through the nose but is not recommended because it creates a very high pressure in the head and is potentially harmful, blocking a sneeze entirely may even prove fatal. Sneezing cannot occur during sleep due to REM atonia – a bodily state where motor neurons are not stimulated and reflex signals are not relayed to the brain. Sufficient external stimulants, however, may cause a person to wake from sleep to sneeze, but any sneezing occurring afterwards would take place with a partially awake status at minimum. Description Sneezing typically occurs when foreign particles or sufficient external stimulants pass through the nasal hairs to reach the nasal mucosa. This triggers the release of histamines, which irritate the nerve cells in the nose, resulting in signals being sent to the brain to initiate the sneeze through the trigeminal nerve network. The brain then relates this initial signal, activates the pharyngeal and tracheal muscles and creates a large opening of the nasal and oral cavities, resulting in a powerful release of air and bioparticles. The powerful nature of a sneeze is attributed to its involvement of numerous organs of the upper body – it is a reflexive response involving the face, throat, and chest muscles. Sneezing is also triggered by sinus nerve stimulation caused by nasal congestion and allergies. The neural regions involved in the sneeze reflex are located in the brainstem along the ventromedial part of the spinal trigeminal nucleus and the adjacent pontine-medullary lateral reticular formation. This region appears to control the epipharyngeal, intrinsic laryngeal and respiratory muscles, and the combined activity of these muscles serve as the basis for the generation of a sneeze. The sneeze reflex involves contraction of a number of different muscles and muscle groups throughout the body, typically including the eyelids. The common suggestion that it is impossible to sneeze with one's eyes open is, however, inaccurate. Other than irritating foreign particles, allergies or possible illness, another stimulus is sudden exposure to bright light – a condition known as photic sneeze reflex (PSR). Walking out of a dark building into sunshine may trigger PSR, or the ACHOO (autosomal dominant compulsive helio-ophthalmic outbursts of sneezing) syndrome as it's also called. The tendency to sneeze upon exposure to bright light is an autosomal dominant trait and affects 18-35% of the human population. A rarer trigger, observed in some individuals, is the fullness of the stomach immediately after a large meal. This is known as snatiation and is regarded as a medical disorder passed along genetically as an autosomal dominant trait. Epidemiology While generally harmless in healthy individuals, sneezes spread disease through the infectious aerosol droplets, commonly ranging from 0.5 to 5 µm. A sneeze can produce 40,000 droplets. To reduce the possibility of thus spreading disease (such as the flu), one holds the forearm, the inside of the elbow, a tissue or a handkerchief in front of one's mouth and nose when sneezing. Using one's hand for that purpose has recently fallen into disuse as it is considered inappropriate, since it promotes spreading germs through human contact (such as handshaking) or by commonly touched objects (most notably doorknobs). Until recently, the maximum visible distance over which the sneeze plumes (or puffs) travel was observed at , and the maximum sneeze velocity derived was 4.5 m/s (about 10 mph). In 2020, sneezes were recorded generating plumes of up to . Prevention Proven methods to reduce sneezing generally advocate reducing interaction with irritants, such as keeping pets out of the house to avoid animal dander; ensuring the timely and continuous removal of dirt and dust particles through proper housekeeping; replacing filters for furnaces and air-handling units; air filtration devices and humidifiers; and staying away from industrial and agricultural zones. Tickling the roof of the mouth with the tongue can stop a sneeze. Some people, however, find sneezes to be pleasurable and would not want to prevent them. Holding in sneezes, such as by pinching the nose or holding one's breath, is not recommended as the air pressure places undue stress on the lungs and airways. One computer simulation suggests holding in a sneeze results in a burst of air pressure of 39 kPa, approximately 24 times that of a normal sneeze. History In Ancient Greece, sneezes were believed to be prophetic signs from the gods. In 401 BC, for instance, the Athenian general Xenophon gave a speech exhorting his fellow soldiers to fight against the Persians. A soldier underscored his conclusion with a sneeze. Thinking that this sneeze was a favorable sign from the gods, the soldiers were impressed. Another divine moment of sneezing for the Greeks occurs in the story of Odysseus. His waiting wife Penelope, hearing Odysseus may be alive, says that he and his son would take revenge on the suitors if he were to return. At that moment, their son sneezes loudly and Penelope laughs with joy, reassured that it is a sign from the gods (Odyssey 17: 541-550). It may be because this belief survived through the centuries, that in certain parts of Greece today, when someone is asserting something and the listener sneezes promptly at the end of the assertion, the former responds "bless you and I am speaking the truth", or "bless you and here is the truth", "", ya sou ki alithia leo, or "", ya sou ke na ki i alithia). A similar practice is also followed in India. If either the person just having made a not most obvious statement in Flemish, or some listener sneezes, often one of the listeneners will say " 't is beniesd", literally "It's sneezed upon", as if a proof of truth – usually self-ironically recalling this old superstitious habit, without either suggesting doubt or intending an actual confirmation, but making any apology by the sneezer for the interruption superfluous as the remark is received by smiles. In Europe, principally around the early Middle Ages, it was believed that one's life was in fact tied to one's breath – a belief reflected in the word "expire" (originally meaning "to exhale") gaining the additional meaning of "to come to an end" or "to die". This connection, coupled with the significant amount of breath expelled from the body during a sneeze, had likely led people to believe that sneezing could easily be fatal. Such a theory could explain the reasoning behind the traditional English phrase, "God bless you", in response to a sneeze, the origins of which are not entirely clear (see "Traditional Responses To A Sneeze" below for alternative explanations). Sir Raymond Henry Payne Crawfurd, for instance, the registrar of the Royal College of Physicians, in his 1909 book, "The Last Days of Charles II", states that, when the controversial monarch was on his deathbed, his medical attendants administered a concoction of cowslips and extract of ammonia to promote sneezing. However, it is not known if this promotion of sneezing was done to hasten his death (as coup de grâce) or as an ultimate attempt at treatment. In certain parts of Eastern Asia, particularly in Chinese culture, Korean culture, Japanese culture and Vietnamese culture, a sneeze without an obvious cause was generally perceived as a sign that someone was talking about the sneezer at that very moment. This can be seen in the Book of Songs (a collection of Chinese poems) in ancient China as early as 1000 BC, and in Japan this belief is still depicted in present-day manga and anime. In China, Vietnam, South Korea, and Japan, for instance, there is a superstition that if talking behind someone's back causes the person being talked about to sneeze; as such, the sneezer can tell if something good is being said (one sneeze), someone is thinking about you (two sneezes in a row), even if someone is in love with you (three sneezes in a row) or if this is a sign that they are about to catch a cold (multiple sneezes). Parallel beliefs are known to exist around the world, particularly in contemporary Greek, Slavic, Celtic, English, French, and Indian cultures. Similarly, in Nepal, sneezers are believed to be remembered by someone at that particular moment. In English, the onomatopoeia for sneezes are usually described as 'achoo', and is similar across different cultures. Culture In Indian culture, especially in northern parts of India, Bengali (Bangladesh and Bengal of India) culture and also in Iran, it has been a common superstition that a sneeze taking place before the start of any work was a sign of impending bad interruption. It was thus customary to pause in order to drink water or break any work rhythm before resuming the job at hand in order to prevent any misfortune from occurring. Contrarily, in Polish culture, especially in the Kresy Wschodnie borderlands, a popular belief persists that sneezes may be an inauspicious sign that, depending on the local version, either someone unspecified or one's mother-in-law speaks ill of the person sneezing at that moment. In other regions, however, this superstition concerns hiccups rather than sneezing. As with other Catholic countries, such as Mexico, Italy, or Ireland, the remnants of pagan culture are fostered in Polish peasant idiosyncratic superstitions. The practice among Islamic culture, in turn, has largely been based on various prophetic traditions and the teachings of the prophet Muhammad. An example of this is Al-Bukhaari's narrations from Abu Hurayrah that Muhammad once said:When one of you sneezes, let him say, "Al-hamdu-Lillah" (Praise be to God), and let his brother or companion say to him, "Yarhamuk Allah" (May God have mercy on you). If he says, "Yarhamuk-Allah", then let [the sneezer] say, "Yahdeekum Allah wa yuslihu baalakum" (May God guide you and rectify your condition). Verbal responses In English-speaking countries, one common verbal response to another person's sneeze is "[May God] bless you". Another less common verbal response in the United States and Canada to another's sneeze is "Gesundheit", which is a German word that means, appropriately, "good health". Several hypotheses exist for why the custom arose of saying "bless you" or "God bless you" in the context of sneezing: Some say it came into use during the plague pandemics of the 14th century. Blessing the individual after showing such a symptom was thought to prevent possible impending death due to the lethal disease. In Renaissance times, a superstition was formed claiming one's heart stopped for a very brief moment during the sneeze; saying bless you was a sign of prayer that the heart would not fail. It has also been stated that one says "(God) bless you" so that one does not catch the flu, cold, or any other forms of sickness. Other cultures have similar traditions: In China, after a person sneezes they often say "百岁!" which translates to "may you live one hundred years!" the pronunciation is similar to "bless you" in English. pronunciation: [Bai Sui] In Iran, it is common to respond to sneezing with the Persian phrase âfiyat bâše, which translates to "health", similar to common European expressions. Indian culture is to respond with Krishna, similar to a blessing in western cultures. In Italy after a person sneezes the people present respond with the word "salute" (meaning: health). The louder the sneeze the more emphatic the response. In Slovakia, after a person sneezes, it is proper to say "Na zdravie!" which means "For health!"; a proper response should be "Ďakujem" which means "Thanks". This is also the case in Finland where "terveydeksi" means "for health". Likewise in Russian, "будь здоров" (bud' zdorov), translates as "be healthy". In Tamil, a reciprocation to someone's sneeze is "ஆயுசு நூறு" (aa-yu-su noo-ru) or "ஆயுள் நூறு" (aa-yul noo-ru) which, in direct translation, means "100 years-long life". It is a particularly endearing expression often used by elderly when a young child sneezes, wishing upon them good health, as a sort of blessing. Some may say "Dheergaiyish", meaning "may you live long", but that is more closely related to Sanskrit. In Turkey, after a person sneezes, it is proper to say "Çok yaşa" which means "Live long"; a proper response should be "Sen de gör" which means "May you see too [that I lived long enough]". In Telugu, a reciprocation to someone's sneeze is "chiranjeeva sataish" (చిర౦జీవ) which means "may you live long" (from Sanskrit). In Japanese and Chinese entertainment, such as anime or dramas, a character's sneeze usually means that someone is talking about the character. In the Netherlands and Flanders, the usual verbal response is "Gezondheid!" which has the same meaning as the also occasionally used German word "Gesundheit!". This is usually met with a "Dankjewel" as a response, which means "Thank you". Sexuality Some people may sneeze during the initial phases of sexual arousal. Doctors suspect that the phenomenon might arise from a case of crossed wires in the autonomic nervous system, which regulates a number of functions in the body, including "waking up" the genitals during sexual arousal. The nose, like the genitals, contains erectile tissue. This phenomenon may prepare the vomeronasal organ for increased detection of pheromones. A sneeze has been compared to an orgasm, since both orgasms and sneeze reflexes involve tingling, bodily stretching, tension and release. On this subject, sexologist Vanessa Thompson from the University of Sydney states, "Sneezing and orgasms both produce feel-good chemicals called endorphins but the amount produced by a sneeze is far less than an orgasm." According to Dr. Holly Boyer from the University of Minnesota, there is a pleasurable effect during a sneeze, where she states, "the muscle tension that builds up in your chest causes pressure, and when you sneeze and the muscles relax, it releases pressure. Anytime you release pressure, it feels good...There's also some evidence that endorphins are released, which causes your body to feel good". Endorphins induce the brain's reward system, and because sneezes occur in a quick burst, so does the pleasure. In non-humans Sneezing is not confined to humans or even mammals. Many animals including cats, dogs, chickens and iguanas sneeze. African wild dogs use sneezing as a form of communication, especially when considering a consensus in a pack on whether or not to hunt. Some breeds of dog are predisposed to reverse sneezing. See also Cough Rhinitis Seizure Sniffle References Further reading a book that listed many superstitions and customs that are still common today. External links Reflexes Physiology Symptoms and signs: Respiratory system Articles containing video clips	[ 0.5114600658416748, 0.31517818570137024, -0.36930611729621887, -0.49348747730255127, -0.37067779898643494, -0.3169989287853241, 1.0604239702224731, 0.1841302365064621, -0.0845489501953125, -0.41168877482414246, -0.7216761112213135, 0.43878674507141113, -0.6949794888496399, 0.17972023785114288, -0.017636509612202644, 0.1343659907579422, 0.36989569664001465, 0.4344847500324249, 0.3204742968082428, 0.021480388939380646, -0.44191017746925354, -0.45977655053138733, -0.016274912282824516, -0.17780748009681702, 1.0559676885604858, -0.06894358992576599, 0.16590163111686707, 0.22187715768814087, -0.25872522592544556, -0.2398657500743866, -0.005696399603039026, 0.9424210786819458, 0.48646673560142517, -0.2003554105758667, -0.009258468635380268, 0.8165238499641418, -0.5768502354621887, -0.2606010138988495, -0.645072877407074, -0.4836786389350891, -0.5078209042549133, 0.26583611965179443, 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232412	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Putrefaction	Putrefaction	Putrefaction is the fifth stage of death, following pallor mortis, algor mortis, rigor mortis, and livor mortis. This process references the breaking down of a body of an animal such as a human post-mortem (meaning after death). In broad terms, it can be viewed as the decomposition of proteins, and the eventual breakdown of the cohesiveness between tissues, and the liquefaction of most organs. This is caused by the decomposition of organic matter by bacterial or fungal digestion, which causes the release of gases that infiltrate the body's tissues, and leads to the deterioration of the tissues and organs. The approximate time it takes putrefaction to occur is dependent on various factors. Internal factors that affect the rate of putrefaction include the age at which death has occurred, the overall structure and condition of the body, the cause of death, and external injuries arising before or after death. External factors include environmental temperature, moisture and air exposure, clothing, burial factors, and light exposure. The first signs of putrefaction are signified by a greenish discoloration on the outside of the skin on the abdominal wall corresponding to where the large intestine begins, as well as under the surface of the liver. Certain substances, such as carbolic acid, arsenic, strychnine, and zinc chloride, can be used to delay the process of putrefaction in various ways based on their chemical make up. Body farms are facilities which study the process. Description In thermodynamic terms, all organic tissues are composed of chemical energy, which, when not maintained by the constant biochemical maintenance of the living organism, begin to chemically break down due to the reaction with water into amino acids, known as hydrolysis. The breakdown of the proteins of a decomposing body is a spontaneous process. Protein hydrolysis is accelerated as the anaerobic bacteria of the digestive tract consume, digest, and excrete the cellular proteins of the body. The bacterial digestion of the cellular proteins weakens the tissues of the body. As the proteins are continuously broken down to smaller components, the bacteria excrete gases and organic compounds, such as the functional-group amines putrescine (from ornithine) and cadaverine (from lysine), which carry the noxious odor of rotten flesh. Initially, the gases of putrefaction are constrained within the body cavities, but eventually diffuse through the adjacent tissues, and then into the circulatory system. Once in the blood vessels, the putrid gases infiltrate and diffuse to other parts of the body and the limbs. The visual result of gaseous tissue-infiltration is notable bloating of the torso and limbs. The increased, internal pressure of the continually rising volume of gas further stresses, weakens, and separates the tissues constraining the gas. In the course of putrefaction, the skin tissues of the body eventually rupture and release the bacterial gas. As the anaerobic bacteria continue consuming, digesting, and excreting the tissue proteins, the body's decomposition progresses to the stage of skeletonization. This continued consumption also results in the production of ethanol by the bacteria, which can make it difficult to determine the blood alcohol content (BAC) in autopsies, particularly in bodies recovered from water. Generally, the term decomposition encompasses the biochemical processes that occur from the physical death of the person (or animal) until the skeletonization of the body. Putrefaction is one of seven stages of decomposition; as such, the term putrescible identifies all organic matter (animal and human) that is biochemically subject to putrefaction. In the matter of death by poisoning, the putrefaction of the body is chemically delayed by poisons such as antimony, arsenic, carbolic acid (phenol), nux vomica (plant), strychnine (pesticide), and zinc chloride. Approximate timeline The rough timeline of events during the putrefaction stage is as follows: 1–2 days: Pallor mortis, algor mortis, rigor mortis, and livor mortis are the first steps in the process of decomposition before the process of putrefaction. 2–3 days: Discoloration appears on the skin of the abdomen. The abdomen begins to swell due to gas formation. 3–4 days: The discoloration spreads and discolored veins become visible. 5–6 days: The abdomen swells noticeably and the skin blisters. 10–20 days: Black putrefaction occurs, which is when noxious odors are released from the body and the parts of the body undergo a black discoloration. 2 weeks: The abdomen is bloated; internal gas pressure nears maximum capacity. 3 weeks: Tissues have softened. Organs and cavities are bursting. The nails and hair fall off. 4 weeks: Soft tissues such as the internal organs begin to liquefy and the face becomes unrecognizable. The skin, muscles, tendons and ligaments degrade exposing the skeleton. Order of organs' decomposition in the body: Larynx and trachea Infant brain Stomach Intestines Spleen Omentum and mesentery Liver Adult brain Heart Lungs Kidneys Bladder Esophagus Pancreas Diaphragm Blood vessels Uterus The rate of putrefaction is greatest in air, followed by water, soil, and earth. The exact rate of putrefaction is dependent upon many factors such as weather, exposure and location. Thus, refrigeration at a morgue or funeral home can retard the process, allowing for burial in three days or so following death without embalming. The rate increases dramatically in tropical climates. The first external sign of putrefaction in a body lying in air is usually a greenish discoloration of the skin over the region of the cecum, which appears in 12–24 hours. The first internal sign is usually a greenish discoloration on the undersurface of liver. Factors affecting putrefaction Various factors affect the rate of putrefaction. Exogenous (external) Environmental temperature: Decomposition is accelerated by high atmospheric or environmental temperature, with putrefaction speed optimized between and , further sped along by high levels of humidity. This optimal temperature assists in the chemical breakdown of the tissue and promotes microorganism growth. Decomposition nearly stops below or above . Moisture and air exposure: Putrefaction is ordinarily slowed by the body being submerged in water, due to diminished exposure to air. Air exposure and moisture can both contribute to the introduction and growth of microorganisms, speeding degradation. In a hot and dry environment the body can undergo a process called mummification where the body is completely dehydrated and bacterial decay is inhibited. Clothing: Loose-fitting clothing can speed up the rate of putrefaction, as it helps to retain body heat. Tight-fitting clothing can delay the process by cutting off blood supply to tissues and eliminating nutrients for bacteria to feed on. Manner of burial: Speedy burial can slow putrefaction. Bodies within deep graves tend to decompose more slowly due to the diminished influences of changes in temperature. The composition of graves can also be a significant contributing factor, with dense, clay-like soil tending to speed putrefaction while dry and sandy soil slows it. Light exposure: Light can also contribute indirectly, as flies and insects prefer to lay eggs in areas of the body not exposed to light, such as the crevices formed by the eyelids and nostrils. Endogenous (internal) Age at time of death: Stillborn fetuses and infants putrefy slowly due to their sterility. Otherwise, however, generally, younger people putrefy more quickly than older people. Condition of the body: A body with a greater fat percentage and less lean body mass will have a faster rate of putrefaction, as fat retains more heat and it carries a larger amount of fluid in the tissues. Cause of death: The cause of death has a direct relationship to putrefaction speed, with bodies that died from acute violence or accident generally putrefying slower than those that died from infectious diseases. Certain poisons, such as potassium cyanide or strychnine, may also delay putrefaction, while chronic alcoholism will speed it. External injuries: Antemortem or postmortem injuries can speed putrefaction as injured areas can be more susceptible to invasion by bacteria. Delayed putrefaction Certain poisonous substances to the body can delay the process of putrefaction. They include: Carbolic acid (Phenol) Arsenic and antimony Strychnine Nux vomica (plant) Zinc chloride, ZnCl2 Embalming Embalming is the process of preserving human remains by delaying decomposition. This is acquired through the use of embalming fluid, which is a mixture of formaldehyde, methanol, and various other solvents. The most common reasons to preserve the body are for viewing purposes at a funeral, for above-ground interment or distant transportation of the deceased, and for medical or religious practices. Research Body farms subject donated cadavers to various environmental conditions to study the process of human decomposition. These include The University of Tennessee's Forensic Anthropologic Facility, Western Carolina Universities Osteology Research Station (FOREST), Texas State University's Forensic Anthropology Research Facility (FARF), Sam Houston State University's Southeast Texas Applied Forensic Science Facility (STAFS), Southern Illinois University's Complex for Forensic Anthropology Research, and Colorado Mesa University's Forensic Investigation Research Station. The Australian Facility for Taphonomic Experimental Research, near Sydney, is the first body farm located outside of the United States In The United Kingdom there are several facilities which, instead of using human remains or cadavers, use dead pigs to study the decomposition process. Pigs are less likely to have infectious diseases than human cadavers, and are more readily available without any concern for ethical issues, but a human body farm is still highly sought after for further research. Each body farm is unique in its environmental make-up, giving researchers a broader knowledge, and allowing research into how different environmental factors can affect the rate of decomposition significantly such as humidity, sun exposure, rain or snow, altitude level and more. Other uses In alchemy, putrefaction is the same as fermentation, whereby a substance is allowed to rot or decompose undisturbed. In some cases, the commencement of the process is facilitated with a small sample of the desired material to act as a "seed", a technique akin to the use of a seed crystal in crystallization. See also Cryopreservation Corpse decomposition Decomposition Forensic entomological decomposition Maceration (bone) Promession Putrefying bacteria Rancidification Cotard delusion References External links Putrefaction: Dr. Dinesh Rao's Forensic Pathology The Rate of Decay in a Corpse Alchemical processes Food science Medical aspects of death Necrosis Forensic pathology	[ 0.48098763823509216, 0.28972920775413513, 0.3263544738292694, -0.3519904315471649, -0.3866533041000366, 0.41577720642089844, 0.8723160624504089, 0.45597174763679504, -0.0515977144241333, -0.7631528973579407, -0.2569859027862549, 0.0031491636764258146, 0.03585224971175194, 0.7344114184379578, 0.1713821440935135, 0.6475501656532288, 0.2567925751209259, 0.37802746891975403, 0.06773553788661957, -0.07373633980751038, -0.0454816110432148, -0.30068740248680115, 0.38293561339378357, -0.05530286207795143, 0.11194049566984177, -0.0012567939702421427, 0.1101314052939415, -0.05666673555970192, -0.3892494738101959, 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232415	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Medical%20anthropology	Medical anthropology	Medical anthropology studies "human health and disease, health care systems, and biocultural adaptation". It views humans from multidimensional and ecological perspectives. It is one of the most highly developed areas of anthropology and applied anthropology, and is a subfield of social and cultural anthropology that examines the ways in which culture and society are organized around or influenced by issues of health, health care and related issues. The term "medical anthropology" has been used since 1963 as a label for empirical research and theoretical production by anthropologists into the social processes and cultural representations of health, illness and the nursing/care practices associated with these. Furthermore, in Europe the terms "anthropology of medicine", "anthropology of health" and "anthropology of illness" have also been used, and "medical anthropology", was also a translation of the 19th century Dutch term "medische anthropologie". This term was chosen by some authors during the 1940s to refer to philosophical studies on health and illness. Historical background The relationship between anthropology, medicine and medical practice is well documented. General anthropology occupied a notable position in the basic medical sciences (which correspond to those subjects commonly known as pre-clinical). However, medical education started to be restricted to the confines of the hospital as a consequence of the development of the clinical gaze and the confinement of patients in observational infirmaries. The hegemony of hospital clinical education and of experimental methodologies suggested by Claude Bernard relegate the value of the practitioners' everyday experience, which was previously seen as a source of knowledge represented by the reports called medical geographies and medical topographies both based on ethnographic, demographic, statistical and sometimes epidemiological data. After the development of hospital clinical training the basic source of knowledge in medicine was experimental medicine in the hospital and laboratory, and these factors together meant that over time mostly doctors abandoned ethnography as a tool of knowledge. Most, not all because ethnography remained during a large part of the 20th century as a tool of knowledge in primary health care, rural medicine, and in international public health. The abandonment of ethnography by medicine happened when social anthropology adopted ethnography as one of the markers of its professional identity and started to depart from the initial project of general anthropology. The divergence of professional anthropology from medicine was never a complete split. The relationships between the two disciplines remained constant during the 20th century, until the development of modern medical anthropology in the 1960s and 1970s. A large number of contributors to 20th Century medical anthropology had their primary training in medicine, nursing, psychology or psychiatry, including W. H. R. Rivers, Abram Kardiner, Robert I. Levy, Jean Benoist, Gonzalo Aguirre Beltrán and Arthur Kleinman. Some of them share clinical and anthropological roles. Others came from anthropology or social sciences, like George Foster, William Caudill, Byron Good, Tullio Seppilli, Gilles Bibeau, Lluis Mallart, Andràs Zempleni, Gilbert Lewis, Ronald Frankenberg, and Eduardo Menéndez. A recent book by Saillant & Genest describes a large international panorama of the development of medical anthropology, and some of the main theoretical and intellectual actual debates. Some popular topics that are covered by medical anthropology are mental health, sexual health, pregnancy and birth, aging, addiction, nutrition, disabilities, infectious disease, NCD's, global epidemics, Disaster management and more. Medical sociology Peter Conrad notes that medical sociology studies some of the same phenomena as medical anthropology but argues that medical anthropology has different origins, originally studying medicine within non-western cultures and using different methodologies. He argues that there was some convergence between the disciplines, as medical sociology started to adopt some of the methodologies of anthropology such as qualitative research and began to focus more on the patient, and medical anthropology started to focus on western medicine. He argued that more interdisciplinary communication could improve both disciplines. Popular medicine and medical systems For much of the 20th century, the concept of popular medicine, or folk medicine, has been familiar to both doctors and anthropologists. Doctors, anthropologists, and medical anthropologists used these terms to describe the resources, other than the help of health professionals, which European or Latin American peasants used to resolve any health problems. The term was also used to describe the health practices of aborigines in different parts of the world, with particular emphasis on their ethnobotanical knowledge. This knowledge is fundamental for isolating alkaloids and active pharmacological principles. Furthermore, studying the rituals surrounding popular therapies served to challenge Western psychopathological categories, as well as the relationship in the West between science and religion. Doctors were not trying to turn popular medicine into an anthropological concept, rather they wanted to construct a scientifically based medical concept which they could use to establish the cultural limits of biomedicine. Biomedicine is the application of natural sciences and biology to the diagnosis of a disease. Often in the Western culture, this is ethnomedicine. Examples of this practice can be found in medical archives and oral history projects. The concept of folk medicine was taken up by professional anthropologists in the first half of the twentieth century to demarcate between magical practices, medicine and religion and to explore the role and the significance of popular healers and their self-medicating practices. For them, popular medicine was a specific cultural feature of some groups of humans which was distinct from the universal practices of biomedicine. If every culture had its own specific popular medicine based on its general cultural features, it would be possible to propose the existence of as many medical systems as there were cultures and, therefore, develop the comparative study of these systems. Those medical systems which showed none of the syncretic features of European popular medicine were called primitive or pretechnical medicine according to whether they referred to contemporary aboriginal cultures or to cultures predating Classical Greece. Those cultures with a documentary corpus, such as the Tibetan, traditional Chinese or Ayurvedic cultures, were sometimes called systematic medicines. The comparative study of medical systems is known as ethnomedicine, which is the way an illness or disease is treated in one's culture, or, if psychopathology is the object of study, ethnopsychiatry (Beneduce 2007, 2008), transcultural psychiatry (Bibeau, 1997) and anthropology of mental illness (Lézé, 2014). Under this concept, medical systems would be seen as the specific product of each ethnic group's cultural history. Scientific biomedicine would become another medical system and therefore a cultural form that could be studied as such. This position, which originated in the cultural relativism maintained by cultural anthropology, allowed the debate with medicine and psychiatry to revolve around some fundamental questions: The relative influence of genotypical and phenotypical factors in relation to personality and certain forms of pathology, especially psychiatric and psychosomatic pathologies. The influence of culture on what a society considers to be normal, pathological or abnormal. The verification in different cultures of the universality of the nosological categories of biomedicine and psychiatry. The identification and description of diseases belonging to specific cultures that have not been previously described by clinical medicine. These are known as ethnic disorders and, more recently, as culture-bound syndromes, and include the evil eye and tarantism among European peasants, being possessed or in a state of trance in many cultures, and nervous anorexia, nerves and premenstrual syndrome in Western societies. Since the end of the 20th century, medical anthropologists have had a much more sophisticated understanding of the problem of cultural representations and social practices related to health, disease and medical care and attention. These have been understood as being universal with very diverse local forms articulated in transactional processes. The link at the end of this page is included to offer a wide panorama of current positions in medical anthropology. Applied medical anthropology In the United States, Canada, Mexico, and Brazil, collaboration between anthropology and medicine was initially concerned with implementing community health programs among ethnic and cultural minorities and with the qualitative and ethnographic evaluation of health institutions (hospitals and mental hospitals) and primary care services. Regarding the community health programs, the intention was to resolve the problems of establishing these services for a complex mosaic of ethnic groups. The ethnographic evaluation involved analyzing the interclass conflicts within the institutions which had an undesirable effect on their administrative reorganization and their institutional objectives, particularly those conflicts among the doctors, nurses, auxiliary staff and administrative staff. The ethnographic reports show that interclass crises directly affected therapeutic criteria and care of the ill. They also contributed new methodological criteria for evaluating the new institutions resulting from the reforms as well as experimental care techniques such as therapeutic communities. The ethnographic evidence supported the criticisms of the institutional custodialism and contributed decisively to policies of deinstitutionalizing psychiatric and social care in general and led to in some countries such as Italy, a rethink of the guidelines on education and promoting health. The empirical answers to these questions led to the anthropologists being involved in many areas. These include: developing international and community health programs in developing countries; evaluating the influence of social and cultural variables in the epidemiology of certain forms of psychiatric pathology (transcultural psychiatry); studying cultural resistance to innovation in therapeutic and care practices; analysing healing practices toward immigrants; and studying traditional healers, folk healers and empirical midwives who may be reinvented as health workers (the so-called barefoot doctors). Also, since the 1960s, biomedicine in developed countries has been faced by a series of problems which stipulate inspection of predisposing social or cultural factors, which have been reduced to variables in quantitative protocols and subordinated to causal biological or genetic interpretations. Among these the following are of particular note: a) The transition between a dominant system designed for acute infectious pathology to a system designed for chronic degenerative pathology without any specific etiological therapy. b) The emergence of the need to develop long term treatment mechanisms and strategies, as opposed to incisive therapeutic treatments. c) The influence of concepts such as quality of life in relation to classic biomedical therapeutic criteria. Added to these are the problems associated with implementing community health mechanisms. These problems are perceived initially as tools for fighting against unequal access to health services. However, once a comprehensive service is available to the public, new problems emerge from ethnic, cultural or religious differences, or from differences between age groups, genders or social classes. If implementing community care mechanisms gives rise to one set of problems, then a whole new set of problems also arises when these same mechanisms are dismantled and the responsibilities which they once assumed are placed back on the shoulders of individual members of society. In all these fields, local and qualitative ethnographic research is indispensable for understanding the way patients and their social networks incorporate knowledge on health and illness when their experience is nuanced by complex cultural influences. These influences result from the nature of social relations in advanced societies and from the influence of social communication media, especially audiovisual media and advertising. Agenda Currently, research in medical anthropology is one of the main growth areas in the field of anthropology as a whole and important processes of internal specialization are taking place. For this reason, any agenda is always debatable. In general, we may consider the following six basic fields: the development of systems of medical knowledge and medical care the patient-physician relationship the integration of alternative medical systems in culturally diverse environments the interaction of social, environmental and biological factors which influence health and illness both in the individual and the community as a whole the critical analysis of interaction between psychiatric services and migrant populations ("critical ethnopsychiatry": Beneduce 2004, 2007) the impact of biomedicine and biomedical technologies in non-Western settings Other subjects that have become central to the medical anthropology worldwide are violence and social suffering as well as other issues that involve physical and psychological harm and suffering that are not a result of illness. On the other hand, there are fields that intersect with medical anthropology in terms of research methodology and theoretical production, such as cultural psychiatry and transcultural psychiatry or ethnopsychiatry. Training All medical anthropologists are trained in anthropology as their main discipline. Many come from the health professions such as medicine or nursing, whereas others come from the other backgrounds such as psychology, social work, social education or sociology. Cultural and transcultural psychiatrists are trained as anthropologists and, naturally, psychiatric clinicians. Training in medical anthropology is normally acquired at a master's (M.A. or M.Sc.) and doctoral level. In Latin countries, there are specific masters' in medical anthropology, such as in México, Brazil, and Spain, while in the United States universities such as Brown University, Washington University in St. Louis, University of South Florida, UC Berkeley, UC San Francisco, University of Connecticut, Johns Hopkins University, the University of Arizona, the University of Alabama, the University of Washington, and Southern Methodist University offer PhD programs focused on this subject. In Asia, the University of the Philippines Manila offers both the Master of Science and master's degrees in Medical Anthropology. The University of South Florida, the University of Arizona, the University of Connecticut, the University of Washington and others also offer a dual degree (MA/PhD) in applied anthropology with an MPH. In Canada, the University of British Columbia, the University of Toronto, and McGill University all offer masters' [both MAs and MSCs] and PhD programs in medical anthropology. In Europe, MSc and PhD programs are offered in the UK at University College, London, the University of Oxford, the University of Edinburgh and Durham University, and the University of Amsterdam offers a Master of Medical Anthropology and Sociology. In Africa, a Master of Medical anthropology is offered at Gulu University in Uganda www.gu.ac.ug . A fairly comprehensive account of different postgraduate training courses in different countries can be found on the website of the Society of Medical Anthropology of the American Anthropological Association. See also Biological anthropology Critical medical anthropology Cultural ecology Culture-bound syndrome Ecological anthropology Epidemiological transition Ethnomedicine Medical sociology William Abel Caudill References Further reading The following books present a global panorama on international medical anthropology, and can be useful as handbooks for beginners, students interested or for people who need a general text on this topic. Albretch GL, Fitzpatrick R Scrimshaw S, (2000) Handbook of Social Studies in Health and Medicine. London: Sage. Anderson, Robert (1996) Magic, Science and Health. The Aims and the Achievements of Medical Anthropology. Fort Worth, Harcourt Brace. Baer, Hans; Singer, Merrill; & Susser, Ida (2003)Medical Anthropology and the World System. Westport, CT: Praeger. Bibeau, Gilles (1997), "Cultural Psychiatry in a Creolizing World. Questions for a New Research Agenda", Transcultural Psychiatry, 34-1: 9–41. Brown PJ, ed.(1998) Understanding and Applying Medical Anthropology. Mountain View. Comelles, Josep M.; Dongen, Els van (eds.) (2002). Themes in Medical Anthropology. Perugia: Fondazione Angelo Celli Argo. Dongen, Els; Comelles, Josep M. (2001). Medical Anthropology and Anthropology. Perugia: Fondazione Angelo Celli Argo. Farmer, Paul (1999) Infections and Inequalities: The Modern Plagues. Berkeley, University of California Press. Farmer, Paul (2003) Pathologies of Power: Health, Human Rights, and the New War on the Poor. Berkeley, University of California Press. Geest, Sjaak van der; Rienks, Ari (1998) The Art of Medical Anthropology. Readings. Amsterdam, Het Spinhuis. Universiteit van Amsterdam. Good, Byron, Michael M. J. Fischer, Sarah S. Willen, Mary-Jo DelVecchio Good, Eds. (2010) A Reader in Medical Anthropology: Theoretical Trajectories, Emergent Realities. Malden, MA: Wiley-Blackwell. Gray, A y Seale, C (eds.) (2001) Health and disease: a reader. Buckingham-Philadelphia, PA: Open University Press. Hahn, Robert A. and Marcia Inhorn (eds.) (2010) Anthropology and Public Health, Second Edition: Bridging Differences in Culture and Society.Oxford University Press Helman, Cecil (1994) Culture Health and Illness. An Introduction for Health Professionals. London: Butterworth-Heinemann (new Fifth ed.). Janzen JM (2002) The Social Fabric of Health. An Introduction to Medical Anthropology, New York: McGraw-Hill. Johnson, Thomas; Sargent, C. (comps.) (1992), Medical Anthropology. Contemporary Theory and Method (reedition as Sargent i Johnson, 1996). Westport, Praeger. Landy, David (editor) Disease, and Healing: Studies in Medical Anthropology. New York: Macmillan. Lock, M & Nguyen, Vinh-Kim (2010) An Anthropology of Biomedicine, Wiley-Blackwell. Loustaunan MO, Sobo EJ. (1997) The Cultural Context of Health, Illness and Medicine. Westport, Conn.: Bergin & Garvey. Nichter, Mark. (2008) 'Global health : why cultural perceptions, social representations, and biopolitics matter' Tucson: The University of Arizona Press. Pool, R and Geissler, W. (2005). Medical Anthropology. Buckingham: Open University Press. Samson C. (1999) Health Studies. A critical and Cross-Cultural Reader. Oxford, Blackwell. Singer, Merrill and Baer, Hans (2007) Introducing Medical Anthropology: A Discipline in Action. Lanham, AltaMira Press. Trevathan, W, Smith, EO, McKenna JJ (1999) Evolutionary Medicine: an interpretation in evolutionary perspective. Oxford University Press Trevathan, W, Smith, EO, McKenna J (2007) Evolutionary Medicine and Health: New Perspectives. Oxford University Press. Wiley, AS (2008) Medical anthropology: a biocultural approach. 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232417	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dictionary%20of%20National%20Biography	Dictionary of National Biography	The Dictionary of National Biography (DNB) is a standard work of reference on notable figures from British history, published since 1885. The updated Oxford Dictionary of National Biography (ODNB) was published on 23 September 2004 in 60 volumes and online, with 50,113 biographical articles covering 54,922 lives. First series Hoping to emulate national biographical collections published elsewhere in Europe, such as the Allgemeine Deutsche Biographie (1875), in 1882 the publisher George Smith (1824–1901), of Smith, Elder & Co., planned a universal dictionary that would include biographical entries on individuals from world history. He approached Leslie Stephen, then editor of the Cornhill Magazine, owned by Smith, to become the editor. Stephen persuaded Smith that the work should focus only on subjects from the United Kingdom and its present and former colonies. An early working title was the Biographia Britannica, the name of an earlier eighteenth-century reference work. The first volume of the Dictionary of National Biography appeared on 1 January 1885. In May 1891 Leslie Stephen resigned and Sidney Lee, Stephen's assistant editor from the beginning of the project, succeeded him as editor. A dedicated team of sub-editors and researchers worked under Stephen and Lee, combining a variety of talents from veteran journalists to young scholars who cut their academic teeth on dictionary articles at a time when postgraduate historical research in British universities was still in its infancy. While much of the dictionary was written in-house, the DNB also relied on external contributors, who included several respected writers and scholars of the late nineteenth century. By 1900, more than 700 individuals had contributed to the work. Successive volumes appeared quarterly with complete punctuality until midsummer 1900, when the series closed with volume 63. The year of publication, the editor and the range of names in each volume is given below. Supplements and revisions Since the scope included only deceased figures, the DNB was soon extended by the issue of three supplementary volumes, covering subjects who had died between 1885 and 1900 or who had been overlooked in the original alphabetical sequence. The supplements brought the whole work up to the death of Queen Victoria on 22 January 1901. Corrections were added. After issuing a volume of errata in 1904, the dictionary was reissued with minor revisions in 22 volumes in 1908 and 1909; a subtitle said that it covered British history "from the earliest times to the year 1900". In the words of the Encyclopædia Britannica Eleventh Edition, the dictionary had "proved of inestimable service in elucidating the private annals of the British", providing not only concise lives of the notable deceased, but additionally lists of sources which were invaluable to researchers in a period when few libraries or collections of manuscripts had published catalogues or indices, and the production of indices to periodical literatures was just beginning. Throughout the twentieth century, further volumes were published for those who had died, generally on a decade-by-decade basis, beginning in 1912 with a supplement edited by Lee covering those who died between 1901 and 1911. The dictionary was transferred from its original publishers, Smith, Elder & Co., to Oxford University Press in 1917. Until 1996, Oxford University Press continued to add further supplements featuring articles on subjects who had died during the twentieth century. These include the 3rd supplement in 1927 (covering those who died between 1912 and 1921), 4th supplement in 1937 (covering those who died between 1922 and 1930), 5th supplement in 1949 (covering those who died between 1931 and 1940), 6th supplement in 1959 (covering those who died between 1941 and 1950), 7th supplement in 1971 (covering those who died between 1951 and 1960), 8th supplement in 1981 (covering those who died between 1961 and 1970), 9th supplement in 1986 (covering those who died between 1971 and 1980), 10th supplement in 1990 (covering those who died between 1981 and 1985), 11th supplement in 1993 (covering missing persons, see below), and 12th supplement in 1996 (covering those who died between 1986 and 1990). The 63 volumes of the original DNB included 29,120 lives; the supplements published between 1912 and 1996 added about 6,000 lives of people who died in the twentieth century. In 1993 a volume containing missing biographies was published. This had an additional 1,086 lives, selected from over 100,000 suggestions. L. G. L. Legg was editor of the DNB in the 1940s. In 1966, the University of London published a volume of corrections, cumulated from the Bulletin of the Institute of Historical Research. Concise dictionary There were various versions of the Concise Dictionary of National Biography, which covered everyone in the main work but with much shorter articles; some were only two lines. The last edition, in three volumes, covered everyone who died before 1986. Oxford Dictionary of National Biography In the early 1990s Oxford University Press committed itself to overhauling the DNB. Work on what was known until 2001 as the New Dictionary of National Biography, or New DNB, began in 1992 under the editorship of Colin Matthew, professor of Modern History at the University of Oxford. Matthew decided that no subjects from the old dictionary would be excluded, however insignificant the subjects appeared to a late twentieth-century eye; that a minority of shorter articles from the original dictionary would remain in the new version in revised form, but most would be rewritten; and that room would be made for about 14,000 new subjects. Suggestions for new subjects were solicited through questionnaires placed in libraries and universities and, as the 1990s advanced, online. The suggestions were assessed by the editor, the 12 external consultant editors, and several hundred associate editors and in-house staff. Digitisation of the DNB was performed by the Alliance Photosetting Company in Pondicherry, India. The new dictionary would cover British history, "broadly defined" (including, for example, subjects from Roman Britain, the United States of America before its independence, and from Britain's former colonies, provided they were functionally part of the Empire and not of "the indigenous culture", as stated in the Introduction), up to 31 December 2000. The research project was conceived as a collaborative one, with in-house staff co-ordinating the work of nearly 10,000 contributors internationally. It would remain selective – there would be no attempt to include all members of parliament, for example – but would seek to include significant, influential or notorious figures from the whole canvas of the life of Britain and its former colonies, overlaying the decisions of the late-nineteenth-century editors with the interests of late-twentieth-century scholarship in the hope that "the two epochs in collaboration might produce something more useful for the future than either epoch on its own", but acknowledging also that a final definitive selection is impossible to achieve. Matthews's dedication to a digitised ODNB included what Christopher Warren calls Matthews's "data internationalism". In a 1996 essay, Matthew prophesied, "Who can doubt that in the course of the next century, as nationality in Europe gives way to European Union, so national reference works, at least in Europe, will do so also....Just as the computer is collapsing national library catalogues in a single world-wide series, so I am sure that in the course of the next fifty years we will see the gradual aggregation of our various dictionaries of national biography. We will be much blamed by our users if we do not!" Following Matthew's death in October 1999, he was succeeded as editor by another Oxford historian, Professor Brian Harrison, in January 2000. The new dictionary, now known as the Oxford Dictionary of National Biography (or ODNB), was published on 23 September 2004 in 60 volumes in print at a price of £7500, and in an online edition for subscribers. Most UK holders of a current library card can access it online free of charge. In subsequent years, the print edition has been able to be obtained new for a much lower price. At publication, the 2004 edition had 50,113 biographical articles covering 54,922 lives, including entries on all subjects included in the old DNB. (The old DNB entries on these subjects may be accessed separately through a link to the "DNB Archive" – many of the longer entries are still highly regarded.) A small permanent staff remain in Oxford to update and extend the coverage of the online edition. Harrison was succeeded as editor by another Oxford historian, Dr Lawrence Goldman, in October 2004. The first online update was published on 4 January 2005, including subjects who had died in 2001. A further update, including subjects from all periods, followed on 23 May 2005, and another on 6 October 2005. New subjects who died in 2002 were added to the online dictionary on 5 January 2006, with continuing releases in May and October in subsequent years following the precedent of 2005. The ODNB also includes some new biographies on people who died before the DNB was published and are not included in the original DNB, because they have become notable since the DNB was published through the work of more recent historians, for example William Eyre (fl. 1634–1675). The online version has an advanced search facility, allowing a search for people by area of interest, religion and "Places, Dates, Life Events". This accesses an electronic index that cannot be directly viewed. Response to the new dictionary has been for the most part positive, but in the months following publication there was occasional criticism of the dictionary in some British newspapers and periodicals for reported factual inaccuracies. However, the number of articles publicly queried in this way was small – only 23 of the 50,113 articles published in September 2004, leading to fewer than 100 substantiated factual amendments. These and other queries received since publication are being considered as part of an ongoing programme of assessing proposed corrections or additions to existing subject articles, which can, when approved, be incorporated into the online edition of the dictionary. In 2005, The American Library Association awarded the Oxford Dictionary of National Biography its prestigious Dartmouth Medal. A general review of the dictionary was published in 2007. Sir David Cannadine took over the editorship from October 2014. First series contents See also List of contributors to the Dictionary of National Biography Biographical dictionary Oxford Biography Index Historiography of the United Kingdom References External links . Subscription required. About the Oxford DNB, Oxford University Press site Corrections to the ODNB submitted and peer-reviewed by members of soc.medieval/Gen-Med DNB Index and Epitome to the Dictionary of National Biography, 1903, Perseus Digital Library "National Biography" in Leslie Stephen's Studies of a Biographer, vol. 1 Online volumes of the first and second series, selected from Internet Archive and Google Books at The Online Books Page. Third Supplement (1912–21) at Hathitrust (published 1927, edited by H.W.C. Davis and J.R.H. 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232420	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Changshan	Changshan	A changshan (; ) is a traditional Manchu dress (or robe, long jacket or tunic) worn by men. In function, it is considered the male equivalent of the women's cheongsam (qipao). It is also known as a changpao (chángpáo , "long robe") or dagua (, , "great jacket"). It was often worn by men with a magua or "riding jacket". These types of dress were widely adopted beginning under the Manchu () rulers of the Qing dynasty (), who required that men in certain positions wear this style. The Mandarin Chinese word changshan is cognate with the Cantonese term 長衫 chèuhng sàam. This was borrowed into English as "cheongsam." Unlike the Mandarin term, however, chèuhngsàam can refer to both male and female garments. In Hong Kong the term is frequently used to refer to the female garment rather than the male changshan. Because of the long British presence in Hong Kong, that local usage has become reflected in the meaning of cheongsam in English, which refers exclusively to the female garment. History Changshan, along with qipao, were introduced to China during the Qing dynasty (17th–20th centuries). The Manchus in 1636 ordered that all Han Chinese should adopt the changshan style of dress or face harsh punishment. However, after the 1644 fall of the Ming dynasty, the Manchu stopped this order; they required only that Han men who served as court and government officials wear Manchu clothes. Commoner Han men and women were still allowed to wear the hanfu. Over time, the commoner Han men adopted the changshan as their own dress while Han women still wore a hybrid of qipao and hanfu. The traditional Chinese Hanfu style of clothing for men was gradually replaced. Over time, the Manchu style of male dress gained popularity among Han men. Changshan was considered formal dress for Chinese men before Western-style suits were widely adopted in China. The male changshan could be worn under a western overcoat, and topped with a fedora and scarf. This combination expressed an East Asian modernity in the early 20th century. The 1949 Communist Revolution ended the wearing of changshan and other traditional clothing in Shanghai. Shanghainese emigrants and refugees carried the fashion to Hong Kong, where it remained popular. Recently in Shanghai and elsewhere in mainland China, many people have revived wearing the Shanghainese changshan. It is made of silk. Use of changshan Changshan are traditionally worn for formal pictures, weddings, and other formal Chinese events. A black changshan, along with a rounded black hat, was, and sometimes still is, the burial attire for Chinese men. Changshan are not often worn in mainland China, except during traditional Chinese celebrations but, with the revival of some traditional clothing in urban mainland China, the Shanghainese style functions as a stylish party dress (cf. Mao suit). 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232423	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reification%20%28computer%20science%29	Reification (computer science)	Reification is the process by which an abstract idea about a computer program is turned into an explicit data model or other object created in a programming language. A computable/addressable object—a resource—is created in a system as a proxy for a non computable/addressable object. By means of reification, something that was previously implicit, unexpressed, and possibly inexpressible is explicitly formulated and made available to conceptual (logical or computational) manipulation. Informally, reification is often referred to as "making something a first-class citizen" within the scope of a particular system. Some aspect of a system can be reified at language design time, which is related to reflection in programming languages. It can be applied as a stepwise refinement at system design time. Reification is one of the most frequently used techniques of conceptual analysis and knowledge representation. Reflective programming languages In the context of programming languages, reification is the process by which a user program or any aspect of a programming language that was implicit in the translated program and the run-time system, are expressed in the language itself. This process makes it available to the program, which can inspect all these aspects as ordinary data. In reflective languages, reification data is causally connected to the related reified aspect such that a modification to one of them affects the other. Therefore, the reification data is always a faithful representation of the related reified aspect . Reification data is often said to be made a first class object. Reification, at least partially, has been experienced in many languages to date: in early Lisp dialects and in current Prolog dialects, programs have been treated as data, although the causal connection has often been left to the responsibility of the programmer. In Smalltalk-80, the compiler from the source text to bytecode has been part of the run-time system since the very first implementations of the language. The C programming language reifies the low-level detail of memory addresses.Many programming language designs encapsulate the details of memory allocation in the compiler and the run-time system. In the design of the C programming language, the memory address is reified and is available for direct manipulation by other language constructs. For example, the following code may be used when implementing a memory-mapped device driver. The buffer pointer is a proxy for the memory address 0xB800000. char* buffer = (char*) 0xB800000; buffer[0] = 10; Functional programming languages based on lambda-calculus reify the concept of a procedure abstraction and procedure application in the form of the Lambda expression. The Scheme programming language reifies continuations (approximately, the call stack). In C#, reification is used to make parametric polymorphism implemented as generics as a first-class feature of the language. In the Java programming language, there exist "reifiable types" that are "completely available at run time" (i.e. their information is not erased during compilation). REBOL reifies code as data and vice versa. Many languages, such as Lisp, JavaScript, and Curl, provide an eval or evaluate procedure that effectively reifies the language interpreter. The Logtalk framework for Prolog offers a means to explore reification in the context of logic programming. Smalltalk and Actor languages permit the reification of blocks and messages, which are equivalent of lambda expressions in Lisp, and thisContext which is a reification of the current executing block. Homoiconic languages reify the syntax of the language itself in the form of an abstract syntax tree, typically together with eval. Data reification vs. data refinement Data reification (stepwise refinement) involves finding a more concrete representation of the abstract data types used in a formal specification. Data reification is the terminology of the Vienna Development Method (VDM) that most other people would call data refinement. An example is taking a step towards an implementation by replacing a data representation without a counterpart in the intended implementation language, such as sets, by one that does have a counterpart (such as maps with fixed domains that can be implemented by arrays), or at least one that is closer to having a counterpart, such as sequences. The VDM community prefers the word "reification" over "refinement", as the process has more to do with concretising an idea than with refining it. For similar usages, see Reification (linguistics). In conceptual modeling Reification is widely used in conceptual modeling. Reifying a relationship means viewing it as an entity. The purpose of reifying a relationship is to make it explicit, when additional information needs to be added to it. Consider the relationship type IsMemberOf(member:Person, Committee). An instance of IsMemberOf is a relationship that represents the fact that a person is a member of a committee. The figure below shows an example population of IsMemberOf relationship in tabular form. Person P1 is a member of committees C1 and C2. Person P2 is a member of committee C1 only. The same fact, however, could also be viewed as an entity. Viewing a relationship as an entity, one can say that the entity reifies the relationship. This is called reification of a relationship. Like any other entity, it must be an instance of an entity type. In the present example, the entity type has been named Membership. For each instance of IsMemberOf, there is one and only one instance of Membership, and vice versa. Now, it becomes possible to add more information to the original relationship. As an example, we can express the fact that "person p1 was nominated to be the member of committee c1 by person p2". Reified relationship Membership can be used as the source of a new relationship IsNominatedBy(Membership, Person). For related usages see Reification (knowledge representation). In Unified Modeling Language (UML) UML provides an association class construct for defining reified relationship types. The association class is a single model element that is both a kind of association and a kind of a class. The association and the entity type that reifies are both the same model element. Note that attributes cannot be reified. On Semantic Web RDF and OWL In Semantic Web languages, such as Resource Description Framework (RDF) and Web Ontology Language (OWL), a statement is a binary relation. It is used to link two individuals or an individual and a value. Applications sometimes need to describe other RDF statements, for instance, to record information like when statements were made, or who made them, which is sometimes called "provenance" information. As an example, we may want to represent properties of a relation, such as our certainty about it, severity or strength of a relation, relevance of a relation, and so on. The example from the conceptual modeling section describes a particular person with URIref person:p1, who is a member of the committee:c1. The RDF triple from that description is person:p1 committee:isMemberOf committee:c1 . Consider to store two further facts: (i) to record who nominated this particular person to this committee (a statement about the membership itself), and (ii) to record who added the fact to the database (a statement about the statement). The first case is a case of classical reification like above in UML: reify the membership and store its attributes and roles etc.: committee:Membership rdf:type owl:Class . committee:membership12345 rdf:type committee:Membership . committee:membership12345 committee:ofPerson person:p1 . committee:membership12345 committee:inCommittee committee:c1 . person:p2 committee:nominated committee:membership12345 . Additionally, RDF provides a built-in vocabulary intended for describing RDF statements. A description of a statement using this vocabulary is called a reification of the statement. The RDF reification vocabulary consists of the type rdf:Statement, and the properties rdf:subject, rdf:predicate, and rdf:object. Using the reification vocabulary, a reification of the statement about the person's membership would be given by assigning the statement a URIref such as committee:membership12345 so that describing statements can be written as follows: committee:membership12345Stat rdf:type rdf:Statement . committee:membership12345Stat rdf:subject person:p1 . committee:membership12345Stat rdf:predicate committee:isMemberOf . committee:membership12345Stat rdf:object committee:c1 . These statements say that the resource identified by the URIref committee:membership12345Stat is an RDF statement, that the subject of the statement refers to the resource identified by person:p1, the predicate of the statement refers to the resource identified by committee:isMemberOf, and the object of the statement refers to the resource committee:c1. Assuming that the original statement is actually identified by committee:membership12345, it should be clear by comparing the original statement with the reification that the reification actually does describe it. The conventional use of the RDF reification vocabulary always involves describing a statement using four statements in this pattern. Therefore, they are sometimes referred to as the "reification quad". Using reification according to this convention, we could record the fact that person:p3 added the statement to the database by person:p3 committee:addedToDatabase committee:membership12345Stat . It is important to note that in the conventional use of reification, the subject of the reification triples is assumed to identify a particular instance of a triple in a particular RDF document, rather than some arbitrary triple having the same subject, predicate, and object. This particular convention is used because reification is intended for expressing properties such as dates of composition and source information, as in the examples given already, and these properties need to be applied to specific instances of triples. Note that the described triple (subject predicate object) itself is not implied by such a reification quad (and it is not necessary that it actually exists in the database). This allows also to use this mechanism to express which triples do not hold. The power of the reification vocabulary in RDF is restricted by the lack of a built-in means for assigning URIrefs to statements, so in order to express "provenance" information of this kind in RDF, one has to use some mechanism (outside of RDF) to assign URIs to individual RDF statements, then make further statements about those individual statements, using their URIs to identify them. In Topic Maps In an XML Topic Map (XTM), only a topic can have a name or play a role in an association. One may use an association to make an assertion about a topic, but one cannot directly make assertions about that assertion. However, it is possible to create a topic that reifies a non-topic construct in a map, thus enabling the association to be named and treated as a topic itself. n-ary relations In Semantic Web languages, such as RDF and OWL, a property is a binary relation used to link two individuals or an individual and a value. However, in some cases, the natural and convenient way to represent certain concepts is to use relations to link an individual to more than just one individual or value. These relations are called n-ary relations. Examples are representing relations among multiple individuals, such as a committee, a person who is a committee member and another person who has nominated the first person to become the committee member, or a buyer, a seller, and an object that was bought when describing a purchase of a book. A more general approach to reification is to create an explicit new class and n new properties to represent an n-ary relation, making an instance of the relation linking the individuals an instance of this class. This approach can also be used to represent provenance information and other properties for an individual relation instance. :p1 a :Person ; :has_membership _:membership_12345 . _:membership_12345 a :Membership ; :committee :c1; :nominated_by :p2 . Vs. quotation It is also important to note that the reification described here is not the same as "quotation" found in other languages. Instead, the reification describes the relationship between a particular instance of a triple and the resources the triple refers to. The reification can be read intuitively as saying "this RDF triple talks about these things", rather than (as in quotation) "this RDF triple has this form." For instance, in the reification example used in this section, the triple: committee:membership12345 rdf:subject person:p1 . describing the rdf:subject of the original statement says that the subject of the statement is the resource (the person) identified by the URIref person:p1. It does not state that the subject of the statement is the URIref itself (i.e., a string beginning with certain characters), as quotation would. See also Denotational semantics Formal semantics of programming languages Meta-circular evaluator Metamodeling Metaobject Metaprogramming Normalization by evaluation Operational semantics Reflection (computer science) Resource Description Framework Self-interpreter Topic Maps References Object-oriented programming Formal methods terminology Knowledge representation de:Reifikation#Informatik fr:Réification	[ 0.3512694239616394, 0.48201602697372437, -0.2758747935295105, 0.5137820243835449, 0.13540269434452057, 0.000893804186489433, 0.01713799312710762, 0.5694047808647156, -0.11681506782770157, -0.1393965780735016, -0.43524959683418274, 0.68541020154953, -0.1274825632572174, 0.13756416738033295, -0.3940517008304596, 0.2625526189804077, 0.350523442029953, 0.3661881387233734, 0.0679563581943512, 0.0006935419514775276, -0.4520997107028961, 0.056874796748161316, -0.37709519267082214, -0.8847776055335999, -0.3170822858810425, -0.07648083567619324, 0.24063220620155334, -0.03173786774277687, 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232425	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Print	Print	Printing is the process for reproducing text and images using a master form or template Print or printing may also refer to: Publishing Canvas print, the result of an image printed onto canvas which is often stretched, or gallery-wrapped, onto a frame and displayed Offset printing, the inked image is transferred from a plate to a rubber blanket and then to the printing surface. Old master print, a work of art produced by a printing process in the Western tradition Photographic printing, the process of producing a final image on paper Print run, all of the copies produced by a single set-up of the production equipment Printing press, a device for applying pressure to an inked surface resting upon a print medium Printmaking, process of making artworks by printing, normally on paper Release print, a copy of a film that is provided to a movie theater Textile printing, the process of applying color to fabric in patterns or designs Waterless printing, an offset lithographic printing process Arts, entertainment, and media Animal print, clothing and fashion style in which the garment is made to resemble the pattern of the skin and fur of an animal Print (magazine), a bimonthly magazine about visual culture and design Prints (album), a 2002 album by Fred Frith ThePrint, an Indian online newspaper Computing PRINT (command), introduced in MS-DOS/IBM PC DOS 2.0 to provide print spooling capability Other uses Printing, when the shape or outline of a firearm is visible through a garment Print Matthews (1840–1883), American sheriff who was murdered See also Printer (computing), a peripheral device which impresses graphics or text on paper Fingerprint (disambiguation) Footprint (disambiguation) Imprint (disambiguation) Print shop (disambiguation)	[ 0.9284358024597168, -0.04234027490019798, 0.1225915253162384, 0.2419535517692566, 0.07905147224664688, 0.28818342089653015, -0.5123597979545593, -0.03963084891438484, -0.4520716667175293, -0.7955931425094604, -0.27052411437034607, 0.487318754196167, -0.2673821449279785, 0.032778847962617874, -0.2900034189224243, 0.2271416038274765, 0.4669620096683502, 0.02277449145913124, -0.20744991302490234, -0.3529760241508484, -0.2889806032180786, -0.48969680070877075, -0.35744696855545044, -0.11195866763591766, 0.07248188555240631, -0.5224162936210632, 0.24123132228851318, -0.1113821491599083, -0.46738821268081665, 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232426	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Classification	Classification	Classification is a process related to categorization, the process in which ideas and objects are recognized, differentiated and understood. Classification is the grouping of related facts into classes. It may also refer to: Business, organizations, and economics Classification of customers, for marketing (as in Master data management) or for profitability (e.g. by Activity-based costing) Classified information, as in legal or government documentation Job classification, as in job analysis Standard Industrial Classification, economic activities Mathematics Attribute-value system, a basic knowledge representation framework Classification theorems in mathematics Mathematical classification, grouping mathematical objects based on a property that all those objects share Statistical classification, identifying to which of a set of categories a new observation belongs, on the basis of a training set of data Media Classification (literature), a figure of speech linking a proper noun to a common noun using the or other articles Decimal classification, decimal classification systems Document classification, a problem in library science, information science and computer science Classified information, sensitive information to which access is restricted by law or regulation to particular classes of people Library classification, a system of coding, assorting and organizing library materials according to their subject Image classification in computer vision Motion picture rating system, for film classification Science Scientific classification (disambiguation) Biological classification of organisms Chemical classification Medical classification, the process of transforming descriptions of medical diagnoses and procedures into universal medical code numbers Taxonomic classification, also known as classification of species Cladistics, an approach using similarities Organizations involved in classification International Society for Knowledge Organization Other uses An industrial process such as mechanical screening for sorting materials by size, shape, and density, etc. Civil service classification, personnel grades in government Classification of swords Classification of wine Classification society, a non-governmental organization that establishes and maintains technical standards for the construction and operation of ships and offshore structures Locomotive classification Product classification Security classification, information to which access is restricted by law or regulation See also Class (disambiguation) Classified (disambiguation) Classifier (disambiguation) Data classification (disambiguation) Order Taxonomy (disambiguation) External links Former disambiguation pages converted to set index articles	[ 0.15252438187599182, 0.3224378228187561, -0.8059346079826355, 0.4255162179470062, -0.09030970185995102, 0.32702532410621643, 0.3361058533191681, 0.12463150918483734, -0.252819687128067, -0.7867239713668823, -0.4312242865562439, 0.045530110597610474, -0.0603390708565712, 0.6645017266273499, -0.012876786291599274, 0.4075227379798889, 0.1046522706747055, 0.18449875712394714, -0.08198554813861847, 0.15312203764915466, -0.7788424491882324, 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232428	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cruelty	Cruelty	Cruelty is pleasure in inflicting suffering or inaction towards another's suffering when a clear remedy is readily available. Sadism can also be related to this form of action or concept. Cruel ways of inflicting suffering may involve violence, but affirmative violence is not necessary for an act to be cruel. For example, if a person is drowning and begging for help and another person is able to help with no cost or risk, but is merely watching with disinterest or perhaps mischievous amusement, that person is being cruel—rather than violent. George Eliot stated that "cruelty, like every other vice, requires no motive outside itself; it only requires opportunity." Bertrand Russell stated that "the infliction of cruelty with a good conscience is a delight to moralists. That is why they invented Hell." Gilbert K. Chesterton stated that "cruelty is, perhaps, the worst kind of sin. Intellectual cruelty is certainly the worst kind of cruelty." The word has metaphorical uses, for example, "The cliffs remained cruel." (i.e., unclimbable when they desperately needed to be climbed) in The Lord of the Rings. Four conceptions of cruelty There are four distinct conceptions of cruelty. “The differences between these conceptions of cruelty rest on the types of agency, victimization, causality, and values that they employ.” The first is the agent-objective conception, which is “exemplified by […] agency that goes above in degree and beyond in type the [suffering] allowed by applicable norms.” Under this conception, the victim suffered cruelty in light of “the objective character of the act or treatment” she was subjected to. Cruelty, in this sense, is defined as an “inclination of the mind toward the side of harshness”. Any punishment or other treatment that surpasses the scope of sufficiency and ventures into possibility is classified as excessive, and therefore, cruel. The second conception is agent-subjective, in which “cruelty obtains only when the agent's deviant behavior is accompanied by the fault of character consisting in deriving personal delight from causing and witnessing suffering”. This conception is best understood under the presumption that punishment or other violence is a means to restore the offset in the cosmic order of the universe caused by wrongdoing. Anything that goes beyond what is necessary for this restoration, then, is cruel; the peace and harmony is not balanced with excessive punishment or violence—the scale of wrongdoing merely tips to the other side. For example, the Eighth Amendment of the U.S. Constitution prohibits cruel and unusual punishment, which means that we must “inquire into a prison official’s state of mind […]” when determining that the agent is not taking pleasure in inflicting pain and that punishment does not exceed the crime. The third conception is victim-subjective, in which the “element of cruelty rests in the victim's intense experience of suffering”. Here, the pain or the sense of degradation and humiliation experienced particularly and uniquely by the victim is considered. Recognizing cruelty, then, requires reference to our compassion rather than some normative standard of reasonableness. Continuing with the example of punishment, the state’s intention is not relevant in determining whether a punishment is cruel. According to the law, “ill-treatment must attain a minimum level of severity”, and this minimum is determined by “all the circumstances of the case, such as the duration of the treatment, its physical or mental effects and, in some cases, the sex, age, and state of health of the victim, etc.” The fourth and final conception is the accumulation of all the prior conceptions: the victim-objective and agent-independent. This conception “refers to severe violations of the respect, recognition, and care that the unconditional and inherent dignity of each and every individual command”. Under this view, “cruelty occurs when a grave violation of human dignity that in normal circumstances would amount to cruelty is caused by individuals or by the operation of impersonal institutions, structures or social processes, even if the victim is unaware of his predicament”. Beyond serving as an analytical framework, these four conceptions—the distinctive features of each as well as their collective evolution—reflect the reality that “the phenomenon of cruelty […] is a human-made problem that calls for preventive and corrective responses”. Usage in law The term cruelty is often used in law and criminology with regard to the treatment of animals, children, spouses, and prisoners. When cruelty to animals is discussed, it often refers to unnecessary suffering. In criminal law, it refers to punishment, torture, victimization, draconian measures, and cruel and unusual punishment. In divorce cases, many jurisdictions permit a cause of action for cruel and inhumane treatment. In law, cruelty is "the infliction of physical or mental distress, especially when considered a determinant in granting a divorce." Etymology The term comes from Middle English, via the Old French term "crualte", which is based on Latin "crudelitas", from "crudelis". Criticism One criticism of the concept of cruelty points at the concept of conflating disregard for others with hurting others for its own sake, arguing that the two are mutually exclusive as total disregard for what another being feels (be it a human or non-human) would be incompatible with deriving pleasure from hurting that being for its own sake since caring about inflicting suffering would be incompatible with not caring. See also Abuse Cruelty-free Schadenfreude Spite The Four Stages of Cruelty Theatre of Cruelty References Paulo Barrozo,Cruelty in Criminal Law: Four Conceptions, 51 CRIM. L. BULLETIN 5 (2015). Simon Baron-Cohen, The Science of Evil: On Empathy and the Origins of Cruelty, Basic Books, 2011. Reviewed in The Montreal Review Susan Sontag, Regarding the Pain of Others, 2003. Notes External links Abuse Suffering Aggression	[ 0.13307629525661469, 0.3004803955554962, -0.7598039507865906, 0.31583842635154724, -0.5620748400688171, 0.44237953424453735, 0.773391604423523, 0.2925247848033905, -0.18707291781902313, -0.36616218090057373, -0.19320951402187347, 0.42336875200271606, -0.302624374628067, 0.792462944984436, -0.4312630295753479, 0.6145299077033997, 0.1948084533214569, 0.31720635294914246, -0.051690723747015, 0.0703975036740303, -0.2405373454093933, 0.012437035329639912, 0.028075477108359337, -0.23351241648197174, 0.23662908375263214, -0.10613448917865753, 0.684070348739624, 0.03702238202095032, -0.18392810225486755, 0.15280252695083618, 0.1785835325717926, 0.5918402671813965, -0.19171945750713348, -0.308668851852417, -0.42155104875564575, 0.06272737681865692, -0.27670782804489136, -0.47899776697158813, -0.4098302125930786, -0.6267127394676208, 0.18654857575893402, 0.13138075172901154, -0.021283753216266632, 0.2536710202693939, -0.10766270011663437, 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232429	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/A.%20P.%20Carter	A. P. Carter	Alvin Pleasant Delaney Carter (December 15, 1891 – November 7, 1960) was an American musician and founding member of The Carter Family, one of the most notable acts in the history of country music. Biography Life A.P. Carter was born to Robert C. Carter and Mollie Arvelle Bays in Maces Spring, Virginia, an area in what is now Hiltons, Virginia, which is located in Poor Valley. A.P. was sometimes called "Doc." On June 18, 1915, he married Sara Dougherty and they had three children: Gladys (Millard), Janette (Jett), and Joe. In 1927, he formed the Carter Family band together with his wife. They were joined by Sara's cousin, Maybelle, who was married to A.P.'s brother, Ezra Carter (father of June Carter Cash), and together they formed the first commercial rural country music group. Since A.P.'s employment was as a traveling salesman, Carter was known for traveling extensively throughout Central Appalachia. His home in Poor Valley, in deep southwestern Virginia, is centrally located among eastern Tennessee, western North Carolina, eastern Kentucky, and southeastern West Virginia. (The distance from Maces Spring to the state lines of each of those four other states is less than 25 miles). Carter was often accompanied by his friend Lesley Riddle, collecting and blending songs, particularly from Appalachian musicians, and from attending church services in many isolated localities, the source of the Carter Family's many religious songs. Some of the songs became so closely identified with A.P. Carter that he has been popularly, but mistakenly, credited with writing them. For example, "Keep on the Sunny Side of Life" was published in 1901 with the words being credited to Ada Blenkhorn and the music credited to Howard Entwisle, and "The Meeting in the Air" has been published with credit given for music and words to I.G. Martin. In a case of perfect timing, Victor Records was very interested in 1927 in widening the scope of its recordings and records so as to sell more of their record players, called "Victrolas". Victor Records sent a "mobile" recording team around the country, seeking popular music. One of their stops was in Bristol, Tennessee, just a few miles from Maces Spring, and the Carter Family went there to record some songs, which soon became popular country-wide. A.P. and Sara separated in 1932, in part as a result of Sara's having an affair with A.P.'s cousin—A.P. was away from home for long periods in his job as a traveling salesman—and his search for new musical ideas. They divorced in 1939. The band remained together for several years afterwards, but broke up in 1943. While Maybelle and her daughters continued to tour as the Carter Family, A.P. left the music business to run a general store in Hiltons, Virginia. A.P. Carter died in Kingsport, Tennessee, on November 7, 1960, at the age of 68. He was buried in the Mt. Vernon United Methodist Church cemetery in the Maces Springs area of Hiltons, Virginia. Legacy Despite dying in relative obscurity, A.P. Carter was inducted into the Nashville Songwriters Hall of Fame in 1970. Carter was inducted as part of the Carter Family in the Country Music Hall of Fame in 1970. In 1993, his image appeared on a U.S. postage stamp honoring the Carter Family. In 2001 he was inducted posthumously into the International Bluegrass Music Hall of Honor. PBS aired a one-hour show on A.P. Carter and the Carter Family in 2005 on American Experience titled "Will The Circle Be Unbroken". In recent years, The Barter Theatre in Abingdon, Virginia, has performed a play based on A.P.'s life called Keep on the Sunny Side. On her 2008 album All I Intended to Be, Emmylou Harris includes the song "How She Could Sing the Wildwood Flower", co-written with Kate and Anna McGarrigle about the relationship between A.P. and Sara, inspired by a documentary that the three of them saw on television. The song "When I'm Gone," written by A.P. Carter and performed by the Carter Family in 1931, had been revived in 2009 when Lulu and the Lampshades created a reworked version, using the cup game as percussion, titled "Cups (When I'm Gone)," which in turn was famously covered by Anna Kendrick for her 2012 film "Pitch Perfect." The A. P. and Sara Carter House, A. P. Carter Homeplace, A. P. Carter Store, Maybelle and Ezra Carter House, and Mt. Vernon Methodist Church are listed on the National Register of Historic Places as components of the Carter Family Thematic Resource. In keeping with A.P.'s dying wishes, his daughter Janette Carter restarted regular performances at A.P. Carter's general store venue, and the organization became known as the Carter Family Fold, which continues to offer regular Appalachian music performances. Family Tree See also Songs written by A. P. Carter References External links Nashville Songwriters Foundation PBS Special: The Carter Family: Will the Circle Be Unbroken. Friends of the Carter Family Fold The Carter Family: Will the Circle Be Unbroken A. P. Carter recordings at the Discography of American Historical Recordings. 1891 births 1960 deaths People from Scott County, Virginia Country musicians from Virginia American male singer-songwriters Cash–Carter family Singer-songwriters from Virginia American country singer-songwriters 20th-century American singers The Carter Family members 20th-century American male singers	[ -0.6320400238037109, 0.041955575346946716, -0.8153856992721558, 0.2340300977230072, 0.5108045339584351, 0.534187376499176, 0.21924053132534027, 0.342026025056839, -0.038713887333869934, -0.15250615775585175, 0.3348093330860138, 0.8651719689369202, -0.8344106078147888, 0.17532879114151, -1.033263087272644, 0.3876418173313141, -0.18178527057170868, -0.520039975643158, -0.5346277952194214, -0.20834636688232422, 0.11701901257038116, -0.5612652897834778, 0.4754977524280548, 0.4111969769001007, 0.1054905354976654, 0.08554266393184662, -0.8488022685050964, -0.19796979427337646, 0.38306155800819397, -0.07712730765342712, 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232432	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Victoria%20Racing%20Club	Victoria Racing Club	The Victoria Racing Club was founded in 1864. It was formed following the disbanding of the Victoria Turf Club and the Victoria Jockey Club. A legacy passed from the Victoria Turf Club was the annual "race that stops a nation", the Melbourne Cup, which was first contested in 1861. From its foundation in 1864 until 2001 the Victoria Racing Club was the responsible authority for the conduct of thoroughbred racing in the State of Victoria, Australia. Since 2001 this role has been managed by Racing Victoria Limited. The VRC is managed by an unpaid committee, elected by club members. In 1871 the Victorian Government appointed the VRC as trustees of a site of 352 acres (1.4 km2) of Crown Land, next to the Maribyrnong River, which became known as Flemington Racecourse. Much of the early success of the VRC is attributed to the administration of the first Secretary of the club, Robert C. Bagot and his successors H. Byron Moore and A. V. Kewney. Racing Carnivals The Victoria Racing Club hosts four race meetings at Flemington during the Melbourne Spring Racing Carnival. The Melbourne Cup is run on the first Tuesday in November, the Victoria Derby are held on the Saturday before the Melbourne Cup, the VRC Oaks is on the Thursday following the Cup, and LKS MacKinnon Stakes is on the Saturday following the Oaks. The VRC also hosts race meetings during the Melbourne Autumn Racing Carnival. These meetings include Group 1 races for the Australian Cup, the Newmarket Handicap and the Black Caviar Lightning. See also Melbourne Cup Flemington Racecourse Australian Stud Book References Freedman, Harold and Lemon, Andrew (1987), The History of Australian Thoroughbred Racing, The beginnings to the first Melbourne Cup, Vol. 1, Classic Reproductions, Melbourne, Victoria. Pacini, John (1988), A Century Galloped By. The first hundred years of the Victoria Racing Club, VRC, Melbourne, Victoria. 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232434	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List%20of%20people%20on%20the%20postage%20stamps%20of%20the%20United%20Kingdom	List of people on the postage stamps of the United Kingdom	This is a list of people on stamps of the United Kingdom. (The number in parentheses is the year of first appearance on a stamp.) Until 2005, the Royal Mail policy was that the only identifiable living people depicted on British stamps were the monarch and other members of the Royal Family (or people imminently marrying into it). This policy was only occasionally broken. The first exception was in the 1967 issue commemorating the solo round the world voyage of Gipsy Moth IV where a person appeared as an unidentifiable blob on the yacht – as there was only one person on board it must have been Francis Chichester. Similarly in the issue honouring Freddie Mercury, drummer Roger Taylor can be seen in the background. The rule was again broken in December 2003 when players from England's team which beat Australia in the 2003 Rugby World Cup Final were shown; however, no faces appeared. The rule was finally abandoned with the release on 6 October 2005 of a set of stamps to commemorate the English cricket team's victory over Australia in the 2005 Ashes series. The four stamps clearly and deliberately depict members of the team including captain Michael Vaughan and Andrew "Freddie" Flintoff. A series of stamps released in January 2007 featured some of the most famous Beatles album covers, which also show members of the band. Similarly, a 2011 stamp features actor David Tennant in the role of Hamlet. A series of Gold Medal stamps, issued during the 2012 Summer Olympics, feature British gold medal-winning athletes. This list is complete through 1991. A Nicola Adams (2012) Ben Ainslie (2012) John Alcock (1969) Prince Andrew, Duke of York (1986) Queen Anne of Cleves, wife of Henry VIII (1997) Jessica-Jane Applegate (2012) John Archer (2013) B Charles Babbage, scientist (1991, 2010) Francis Bacon (2009) Robert Baden-Powell (1982) Tim Baillie (2012) Francis Baily (1970) Natasha Baker (2012) Sir John Barbirolli (1980) Laura Bechtolsheimer (2012) Sir Thomas Beecham (1980) The Black Prince (1974) Admiral Robert Blake (1982) Danny Blanchflower (1996) Anne Boleyn, consort of Henry VIII (1997) Queen Elizabeth, the Queen Mother, consort of George VI (1937) David Bowie, musician and actor (2017) Robert Boyle, scientist (2010) Scott Brash (2012) Benjamin Britten (2013) Charlotte Brontë (1980) Emily Brontë (1980) Arthur Whitten Brown (1969) Danielle Brown (2012) Alistair Brownlee (2012) Steven Burke (2012) Robert Burns (1966, 1996, 2009) Sir Matt Busby (2009) Mickey Bushell (2012) C Queen Catherine of Aragon, wife of Henry VIII (1997) Donald Campbell (2009) Luke Campbell (2012) Charles, Prince of Wales (1969) Charlie Chaplin (1985, 1999) Peter Charles (2012) Francis Chichester (1967, 2003) Sophie Christiansen (2012) Sir Winston Churchill (1965, 1974) Ed Clancy (2012) Hannah Cockcroft (2012) Mark Colbourne (2012) Sir Arthur Conan Doyle (2009) Captain James Cook (2018) Peter Cook (1998) Tommy Cooper (1998) Katherine Copeland (2012) Josef Craig (2012) Deb Criddle (2012) Admiral Andrew Cunningham (1982) Peter Cushing, Film and Television actor (2013) D Charles Darwin (1982) Elizabeth David (2013) Aled Davies (2012) Bishop Richard Davies (1988) Les Dawson (1998) Dixie Dean (1996)<ref name="facup"></</ref> Frederick Delius (1985) Richard Dimbleby (2013) Lord Dowding (1986) Sir Francis Drake (1973) Charlotte Dujardin (2012) E King Edward VII (1902) King Edward VIII (1936) Prince Edward, Earl of Wessex (1999) Duncan Edwards, footballer (1996) Edward Elgar (1985) George Eliot (1980) Queen Elizabeth II (1952) Jessica Ennis (2012) F Neil Fachie (2012) Michael Faraday (1991) Mo Farah (2012) Sarah Ferguson, Duchess of York (1986) Admiral Jackie Fisher (1982) Jonathan Fox (2012) Benjamin Franklin (1976, 2010) Heather Frederiksen (2012) Elisabeth Frink (1996) Sir Martin Frobisher (1972) G Mohandas Gandhi (1969) Elizabeth Gaskell (1980) Saint George (1951) King George V (1911) King George VI (1937) Helen Glover (2012) Owain Glyndŵr (1974) King Harold Godwinson (1966) William Gilbert Grace (1973) Katherine Grainger (2012) Thomas Gray (1971) Alex Gregory (2012) Joyce Grenfell (1998) H George Frederic Handel (1985) Thomas Hardy (1990) Sir Arthur Harris (1986) Prince Harry (2018) King Henry V (1964) King Henry VIII (1982) Sir John Herschel (1970) Sir William Herschel, astronomer (1970) Carl Hester (2012) Sir Rowland Hill, postal reformer (1979) Philip Hindes (2012) Alfred Hitchcock, filmmaker (1985) Dorothy Hodgkin, scientist (2010) Wenceslaus Hollar (1965) Gustav Holst, composer (1985) Sophie Hosking (2012) Queen Catherine Howard, wife of Henry VIII (1997) Sir Chris Hoy (2012 twice) Henry Hudson, explorer (1972) Ollie Hynd (2012) J Tom James (2012) Edward Jenner, scientist (2010) Samuel Johnson (2009) Jade Jones (2012) Anthony Joshua (2012) K Anthony Kappes (2012) John Keats, poet (1971) Peter Kennaugh (2012) Jason Kenny (2012 twice) Alice Keppel, mistress of Edward VII, great-grandmother of Camilla Parker-Bowles (1983) Violet Keppel (1983) Danielle King (2012) L Stan Laurel, comedian (1990) Mary Leakey (2013) Edward Lear (1988) Vivien Leigh (1985, 1996, 2013) John Lennon (1988) Joseph Lister (1965, 2010) David Livingstone (1973) David Lloyd-George (2013) Helena Lucas (2012) M Craig MacLean (2012) Ben Maher (2012) Guglielmo Marconi, inventor (1995) Meghan Markle (2018) Ed McKeever (2012) Freddie Mercury, musician (1999) Bobby Moore, footballer (1996 & 1999) Rev William Morgan, Welsh Bible translator (1988) Andy Murray (2012) Brian May (2020) N Alexander Nasmyth (1966) Admiral Horatio Nelson (1982) Sir Isaac Newton, scientist (2010) Florence Nightingale, nurse (1970) David Niven (1985) P Emmeline Pankhurst (1968) Norman Parkinson (2013) Jonnie Peacock (2012) Josie Pearson (2012) Lee Pearson (2012) Fred Perry (2009) Queen Catherine Parr, wife of Henry VIII (1997) Bishop Richard Parry (1988) Victoria Pendleton (2012) Prince Philip, Duke of Edinburgh (1972) Captain Mark Phillips (1973) Lord Portal (1986) R Sir Henry Raeburn (1973) Sir Walter Raleigh (1973) Pete Reed (2012) Pamela Relph (2012) Sir Joshua Reynolds (1973) Naomi Riches (2012) Gus Risman (1995) Robert the Bruce (1974) James Roe (2012) Sir James Clark Ross (1972) Joanna Rowsell (2012) Ernest Rutherford, scientist (2010) Greg Rutherford (2012) Roger Taylor (Queen drummer) (1999) S William Salesbury (1988) Sir Malcolm Sargent (1980) Captain Robert Falcon Scott (1972) Sir Walter Scott (1971) Peter Sellers (1985) Sir Nicholas Shackleton, scientist (2010) Queen Jane Seymour, wife of Henry VIII (1997) William Shakespeare (1964, 1988) Bill Shankly (2013) Ellie Simmonds (2012) Paul Simonon Simon de Montfort (1965) Nick Skelton (2012) Archibald Skirving (1966) David Smith (2012) Sophie, Countess of Wessex (1999) Lady Diana Spencer (1981) Henry Morton Stanley (1973) Heather Stanning (2012) David Stone (2012) Barney Storey (2012) Sarah Storey (2012) Etienne Stott (2012) George Stubbs (1967) Charles Sturt (1973) T Lord Tedder (1986) David Tennant (2011, 2013) Alfred Tennyson (1992) Geraint Thomas (2012) Lord Trenchard (1986) Andrew Triggs Hodge (2012) Laura Trott (2012 twice) Roger Taylor Queen Drummer, June 1999.(On kit in background) V Lily van den Broecke (2012) Queen Victoria (1840, 1970) Ralph Vaughan Williams (1972) W Harold Wagstaff Alfred Russel Wallace, scientist (2010) Anna Watkins (2012) David Weir (2012) Sophie Wells (2012) Bradley Wiggins (2012) Peter Wilson (2012) Billy Wright (1996) Henry Wood (1980) Mary Wollstonecraft (2009) See also List of United Kingdom commemorative stamps List of people on stamps of Lundy References and sources Notes Sources Stanley Gibbons catalogue StampNews.com United Kingdom, List of people on stamps of the Stamps Stamps	[ 0.011430500075221062, 0.5377475023269653, -0.3549991548061371, -0.6565819978713989, -0.22141693532466888, 0.5105221271514893, 0.34072229266166687, 0.6123276948928833, -1.3015722036361694, -0.008087939582765102, -0.1293800324201584, -0.15031804144382477, -0.3597491383552551, 0.10900282114744186, -0.06799902766942978, 0.1844659149646759, -0.5305301547050476, 0.8774925470352173, -0.40713948011398315, -0.20907704532146454, 0.26593828201293945, -0.12541577219963074, 0.1922561377286911, -0.8019765615463257, 0.024980561807751656, 0.20137335360050201, 0.6142153143882751, -0.26843851804733276, -0.4410005509853363, -0.3319261074066162, -0.011762276291847229, 0.6037255525588989, 0.4877595007419586, 0.32540884613990784, 0.2441944032907486, -1.2991527318954468, -0.0054791769944131374, -0.3081517517566681, 0.101247139275074, 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232435	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Green%20belt	Green belt	A green belt is a policy and land-use zone designation used in land-use planning to retain areas of largely undeveloped, wild, or agricultural land surrounding or neighboring urban areas. Similar concepts are greenways or green wedges, which have a linear character and may run through an urban area instead of around it. In essence, a green belt is an invisible line designating a border around a certain area, preventing development of the area and allowing wildlife to return and be established. Purposes In those countries which have them, the stated objectives of green belt policy are to: Protect natural or semi-natural environments; Improve air quality within urban areas; Ensure that urban dwellers have access to countryside, with consequent educational and recreational opportunities; and Protect the unique character of rural communities that might otherwise be absorbed by expanding suburbs. The green belt has many benefits for people: Walking, camping, and biking areas close to the cities and towns. Contiguous habitat network for wild plants, animals and wildlife. Cleaner air and water Better land use of areas within the bordering cities. The effectiveness of green belts differs depending on location and country. They can often be eroded by urban rural fringe uses and sometimes, development 'jumps' over the green belt area, resulting in the creation of "satellite towns" which, although separated from the city by green belt, function more like suburbs than independent communities. History In the 7th century, Muhammad established a green belt around Medina. He did this by prohibiting any further removal of trees in a 12-mile long strip around the city. In 1580 Elizabeth I of England banned new building in a 3-mile wide belt around the City of London in an attempt to stop the spread of plague. However, this was not widely enforced and it was possible to buy dispensations which reduced the effectiveness of the proclamation. In modern times, the term emerged from continental Europe where broad boulevards were increasingly used to separate new development from the centre of historic towns; most notably the Ringstraße in Vienna. Green belt policy was then pioneered in the United Kingdom confronted with ongoing rural flight. Various proposals were put forward from 1890 onwards but the first to garner widespread support was put forward by the London Society in its "Development Plan of Greater London" 1919. Alongside the CPRE they lobbied for a continuous belt (of up to two miles wide) to prevent urban sprawl, beyond which new development could occur. There are fourteen green belt areas in the UK covering 16,716 km² or 13% of England, and 164 km² of Scotland; for a detailed discussion of these, see Green belt (UK). Other notable examples are the Ottawa Greenbelt and Golden Horseshoe Greenbelt in Ontario, Canada. Ottawa's instance is managed by the National Capital Commission (NCC). The more general term in the United States is green space or greenspace, which may be a very small area such as a park. The dynamic Adelaide Park Lands, measuring approximately 7.6 km² surround, unbroken, the city centre of Adelaide. On the fringe of the eastern suburbs, an expansive natural green belt in the Adelaide Hills acts as a growth boundary for Adelaide and cools the city in the hottest months. The concept of "green belt" has evolved in recent years to encompass not only "Greenspace" but also "Greenstructure" which comprises all urban and peri-urban greenspaces, an important aspect of sustainable development in the 21st century. The European Commission's COST Action C11 (COST – European Cooperation in Science and Technology) is undertaking "Case studies in Greenstructure Planning" involving 15 European countries. An act of the Swedish parliament from 1994 has declared a series of parks in Stockholm and the adjacent municipality of Solna to its north a "national city park" called Royal National City Park. Criticism House prices When paired with a city which is economically prospering, homes in a green belt may have been motivated by or result in considerable premiums. They may also be more economically resilient as popular among the retired and less attractive for short-term renting of modest homes. Where in the city itself demand exceeds supply in housing, green belt homes compete directly with much city housing wherever such green belt homes are well-connected to the city. Further, they in all cases attract a future-guaranteed premium for protection of their views, recreational space and for the preservation/conservation value itself. Most also benefit from higher rates of urban gardening and farming, particularly when done in a community setting, which have positive effects on nutrition, fitness, self-esteem, and happiness, providing a benefit for both physical and mental health, in all cases easily provided or accessed in a green belt. Government planners also seek to protect the green belt as its local farmers are engaged in peri-urban agriculture which augments carbon sequestration, reduces the urban heat island effect, and provides a habitat for organisms. Peri-urban agriculture may also help recycle urban greywater and other products of wastewater, helping to conserve water and reduce waste. The housing market contrasts with more uncertainty and economic liberalism inside and immediately outside of the belt: green belt homes have by definition nearby protected landscapes. Local residents in affluent parts of a green belt, as in parts of the city, can be assured of preserving any localized bourgeois status quo present and so assuming the green belt is not from the outset an area of more social housing proportionately than the city, it naturally tends toward greater economic wealth. In a protracted housing shortage, reduction of the green belt is one of the possible solutions. All such solutions may be resisted however by private landlords who profit from a scarcity of housing, for example by lobbying to restrain new housing across the city. The stated motivation and benefits of the green belt might be well-intentioned (public health, social gardening and agriculture, environment), but inadequately realised relative to other solutions. Inherently partial critics include Mark Pennington and the economics-heavy think tanks such as the Institute of Economic Affairs who would see a reduction in many green belts. Such studies focus on widely inherent limitations of green belts. In most examples only a small fraction of the population uses the green belt for leisure purposes. The IEA study claims that a green belt is not strongly causally linked to clean air and water. Rather, they view the ultimate result of the decision to green-belt a city as one to prevent housing demand within the zone to be met with supply, thus exacerbating high housing prices and stifling competitive forces in general. Increasing urban sprawl Another area of criticism comes from the fact that, since a green belt does not extend indefinitely outside a city, it spurs the growth of areas much further away from the city core than if it had not existed, thereby actually increasing urban sprawl. Examples commonly cited are the Ottawa suburbs of Kanata and Orleans, both of which are outside the city's green belt, and are currently undergoing explosive growth (see Greenbelt (Ottawa)). This leads to other problems, as residents of these areas have a longer commute to work places in the city and worse access to public transport. It also means people have to commute through the green belt, an area not designed to cope with high levels of transportation. Not only is the merit of a green belt subverted, but the green belt may heighten the problem and make the city unsustainable. There are many examples whereby the actual effect of green belts is to act as a land reserve for future freeways and other highways. Examples include sections of Ontario Highway 407 north of Toronto and the Hunt Club Road and Richmond Road south of Ottawa. Whether they are originally planned as such, or the result of a newer administration taking advantage of land that was left available by its predecessors is debatable. United Kingdom Green belts were established in England from 1955 to simply prevent the physical growth of large built-up areas; to prevent neighbouring cities and towns from merging. In the UK, green belt around the major conurbations has been criticized as one of the main protectionist bars to building housing, the others being other planning restrictions (Local Plans and restrictive covenants) and developers' land banking. Local Plans and land banking are to be relaxed for home building in the 2015-2030 period by law and the green belt will be reduced by some local authorities as each local authority must now consider it among the available shortlisted options in drawing development plans to meet higher housing targets. Critics argue that the green belts defeat their stated objective of saving the countryside and open spaces. Such criticism falls short when considering the other, broader benefits such as peri-urban agriculture which includes gardening and carries many benefits, especially to the retired. It also ignores the strategic aims of the Attlee Ministry in 1946, just as in France, of shifting capital away from the capital city (addressing regional disparity) and avoiding intra-urban gridlock. The restrictions of the Green Belt were particularly in the 1940s-1980s mitigated with planned, government-supported, new towns under the New Towns Act 1946 and New Towns Act 1981. These saw establishment beyond the green belts of new homes, infrastructure, businesses and other facilities. Without large scale sustainable development, infill development sees urban green space lost. A chronic housing shortage with inadequate new settlements and/or extension of those outside of the green belt and/or no green belt reduction has seen many brownfield sites, often well-suited to industry and commerce, lost in existing conurbations. Notable examples Australia Adelaide's Central Business District is completely encircled by the Adelaide Parklands, as was initially planned in 1837. The Nillumbik Shire Council which is located approximately 30 km (19 miles) north-east of Melbourne is considered as "The Green Wedge Shire" because of the agreement with the Victorian Government which prevents high-density infrastructure to be built. Sydney is surrounded by the Royal National Park, the Ku-ring-gai Chase National Park, and the Blue Mountains National Park on three sides, with the fourth side being oceanfront. The Western Sydney Parklands also provide a partial North-South green belt through suburban areas. Brazil The São Paulo City Green Belt Biosphere Reserve – GBBR, an integral part of the Atlantic Forest Biosphere Reserve, was created in 1994 stemming from a people's movement that collected 150 thousand signatures. It extends throughout 73 municipalities including São Paulo metro and the Santos area. With approximately 17,000 km², it is inhabited by about 23 million people, corresponding to more than 10% of the country's total population in an area equivalent to 0.2% of the Brazilian territory. There are over 6,000 km² of forests and other Atlantic Forest ecosystems at the Reserve, one of the planet's most threatened biomes. In addition to a spectacular biological diversity, the GBBR's ecosystems render valuable ecosystem services. Canada Ottawa Greenbelt, Canada's oldest green belt. Created in 1956 to help curb urban sprawl, it surrounds the capital city of Ottawa. It is mostly owned and managed by the National Capital Commission (NCC). Greenbelt (Golden Horseshoe), a 7300 km² band of land that encompasses the rural and agricultural land surrounding the Greater Toronto Area and Niagara Peninsula, and parts of the Bruce Peninsula. Most of the land consists of the Oak Ridges Moraine, an environmentally sensitive land that is a major aquifer for the region, and the Niagara Escarpment, a UNESCO Biosphere Reserve. In an effort to restrain urban sprawl, the Ontario government created the Greenbelt Act in February 2005 to protect this greenspace from all future development, with the exception of limited agricultural use. British Columbia's Agricultural Land Reserve protects agricultural land throughout the province from urban development, including its mountainous terrain and areas around Vancouver. This protection is strict and urban development of agricultural land is only allowed if no reasonable alternative exists. However, it does not protect non-agricultural land, particularly hillsides, leading to substantial, and highly visible, leapfrog-type hillside sprawl. Quebec's Commission de protection du territoire agricole du Québec keeps territory (the agricultural zones) that is favorable for the practice and the development of agricultural activities. In so doing, the commission safeguards the agricultural territory and helps make its protection a local priority. The agricultural zones cover an area of 63 000 square kilometres in 952 local municipalities. Dominican Republic The Greater Santo Domingo has a Greenbelt (Santo Domingo Greenbelt) project surrounding the whole Distrito Nacional. It is composed of the National botanical Garden, Mirador Del Norte, Mirador del Este, and other parks surrounding the area from its outer municipios. The overall objective of this Greenbelt is for it to protect the water and natural reserves of Santo Domingo, as well as to regulate the expansion of settlements. However, it has largely been affected by uncontrolled urbanization, but other parts remain unaffected. With the aid of seventeen soldiers and some support from local municipalities, CONAU has been able to ensure the daily management and protection of the greenbelt. When analyzing this Greenbelt, it is important to bring up the role the United States (US) has played in its creation and maintenance. The American national park model is what influenced the conservation efforts in the Dominican Republic. In the plan and boundary designation of the national park of Del Este, the coastal waters were not including. This meant that the local community could fish and use the waters as they desired, which did not please American non-profit organizations (NGOs) that were working with the national park to plan and carry out the conservation of endangered species and beach clean ups. However, the lack of inclusion of the local community and economy into the national park's agenda meant that locals were left to find their own ways of feeding themselves and making money, as the creation of the park destroyed the fishing community that had previously thrived in the area. Iran Tehran's greenbelt has always been an issue in Iran's regional politics. Under a decades-long megaproject, the length of the green belt of Tehran increased from 29 square kilometres in 1979 to 530 square kilometres in 2017, and the number of parks in urban and suburban areas also increased from 75 in 1979 to 2,211 in 2017 in total. Such actions and additional afforestation increased the humidity level and chance of precipitation in the city, which cools the summer's temperatures down by up to 4 °C. The Tehran municipal government announced a goal of lengthening the green belt by 10 square kilometres each year. Europe European Green Belt Banjica Forest, Belgrade Royal National City Park, Stockholm German Green Belt Inner and Outer Green Belt of Cologne(de) Coulée verte du sud parisien Coulée verte du nord parisien Promenade plantée Vienna Woods, Austria Rennes Green Belt, France Parco Agricolo Sud Milano, Milan New Zealand In New Zealand, the term Town Belt is most commonly used for an urban green belt. Dunedin Town Belt is one of the world's oldest green belts, having been planned at the time of the city's rapid growth during the Otago Gold Rush of the 1860s. It surrounds the city centre on three sides (the fourth side being the city's harbour). Hamilton Town Belt Wellington Town Belt Thailand Bangkok's Bang Krachao Green Area located inside the curve of Chao Phraya River is considered a green area with authority control over the urbanization. Today it is a popular spot for tourism and cycling. The area is located within the border of Bangkok Province and Samut Sakorn Province. South Korea In 1965, the Korean Planners Association developed the Capital Region Urban Plan that incorporated a Greenbelt and satellite towns along the development corridor between Seoul and Incheon after being influenced by the Greater London Plan of 1944. The official Greenbelt was first introduced as a "Limited Development Area" in 1971 with the then-new City Planning Law to prevent urban sprawl around Seoul. Green belts are currently designated around Seoul, Busan and other metropolitan areas around the country. Other objectives include to control northern parts for national security, eliminate illegal suburban shantytowns around Seoul, control land speculation, protect agricultural land, and for environmental and natural resource protection. The rapid urbanization and economic growth of South Korea after the Korean War expedited the need for land use legislation. However, the boundaries of the greenbelt were hastily drawn and did not include public input nor preexisting villages in the area. The greenbelt reduced housing and property prices within the greenbelt causing landowners to lose economic capital that could be gained from developing the land. However, there are many benefits of the greenbelt in terms of nature preservation, better air quality, and the push for increased efficiency of infrastructure and public services in the urban areas. United Kingdom The Metropolitan Green Belt (5,100 km²) The North West Green Belt (2,600 km²) South and West Yorkshire Green Belt (2,600 km²) West Midlands Green Belt (2,300 km²) United States The U.S. states of Oregon, Washington and Tennessee require cities to establish urban growth boundaries (UGBs). Notable U.S. cities which have adopted UGBs include Portland, Oregon; Twin Cities, Minnesota; Virginia Beach, Virginia; Lexington, Kentucky (the first greenbelt in the U.S. in 1958); and Miami-Dade County, Florida. The Public Works Administration of the New Deal created three Greenbelt communities based on the ideas of Ebenezer Howard which are now the municipalities of Greenbelt, Maryland, Greenhills, Ohio, and Greendale, Wisconsin. More than 20 cities in the San Francisco Bay Area have UGBs (see Greenbelt Alliance, a Bay Area organization that has been involved in establishing these boundaries). Staten Island Greenbelt and Brooklyn-Queens Greenway in New York City Barton Creek Greenbelt, Austin Ann Arbor, Michigan is acquiring conservation easements on agricultural land around the city without the establishment of an urban growth boundary. While the city's initial plan did not include the participation of surrounding townships, at least four townships have participated directly or have initiated their own efforts to protect agricultural land surrounding the city. Boise Greenbelt, Boise, Idaho The Jungle, Seattle The Emerald Necklace in Boston is halfway between a green belt and a greenway, nearly ringing central Boston. The final link in the chain, the Dorchesterway, was never constructed. See also Buffer zone / Community separator Conservation movement Development-supported agriculture Ecology Greenway (landscape) Land use planning Peri-urban agriculture Prime farmland Retirement community Sustainability Urban growth boundary Urban rural fringe Urban sprawl References Protected areas Urban studies and planning terminology Land management Regional parks Sustainable urban planning Zoning	[ 0.0820479467511177, -0.346108615398407, -0.13908013701438904, 0.04246008023619652, 0.6238583922386169, -0.35120344161987305, -0.20328466594219208, 0.4232726991176605, -0.27824828028678894, -0.6873937845230103, -1.240526556968689, 0.18476726114749908, -0.3167118430137634, 0.41399553418159485, -0.3671310842037201, 0.8282817602157593, 0.3910648226737976, 0.545661985874176, 0.16085004806518555, 0.2782154977321625, -0.15969610214233398, -0.3220760226249695, -0.22242100536823273, 0.09434907138347626, 0.4488072395324707, -0.5481845140457153, 0.48608705401420593, 0.2815597355365753, 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232436	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sidney%20Lee	Sidney Lee	Sir Sidney Lee (5 December 1859 – 3 March 1926) was an English biographer, writer, and critic. Biography Lee was born Solomon Lazarus Lee in 1859 at 12 Keppel Street, Bloomsbury, London. He was educated at the City of London School and at Balliol College, Oxford, where he graduated in modern history in 1882. In 1883, Lee became assistant-editor of the Dictionary of National Biography. In 1890 he became joint editor and, on the retirement of Sir Leslie Stephen in 1891, succeeded him as editor. Lee wrote over 800 articles in the Dictionary, mainly on Elizabethan authors or statesmen. His sister Elizabeth Lee also contributed. While still at Balliol, Lee had written two articles on Shakespearean questions, which were printed in The Gentleman's Magazine. In 1884, he published a book about Stratford-on-Avon, with illustrations by Edward Hull. Lee's article on Shakespeare in the 51st volume (1897) of the Dictionary of National Biography formed the basis of his Life of William Shakespeare (1898), which reached its fifth edition in 1905. In 1902, Lee edited the Oxford facsimile edition of the first folio of Shakespeare's comedies, histories and tragedies, followed in 1902 and 1904 by supplementary volumes giving details of extant copies, and in 1906 by a complete edition of Shakespeare's works. Lee received a knighthood in 1911. Between 1913 and 1924, he served as Professor of English Literature and Language at East London College. In 1915 he delivered the British Academy's Shakespeare Lecture. Works Besides the editions of English classics, Lee's works include: Queen Victoria: A Biography (1904) Great Englishmen of the Sixteenth century (1904), based on his Lowell Institute lectures at Boston, Massachusetts, in 1903 Shakespeare and the Modern Stage (1906) Annual Shakespeare Lecture of the British Academy (1915) Shakespeare's England : an account of the life & manners of his age (1916, with Walter Alexander Raleigh) King Edward VII, a Biography (1925) (The second volume of the biography was completed, after Lee's death, by S. F. Markham and published in 1927. See "King Edward VII: A Biography: Volume II: The Reign, 22nd January 1901 to 6th May 1910" by Sir Sidney Lee [New York: The Macmillan Company, 1927], page vi.) There are personal letters from Lee, including those written during his final illness, in the T.F. Tout Collection of the John Rylands Library in Manchester. See also John Denham Parsons References External links Sidney Lee Dictionary of National Biography: Index and Epitome 1859 births 1926 deaths English biographers English Jewish writers Jewish historians People educated at the City of London School Shakespearean scholars Academics of Queen Mary University of London Dictionary of National Biography Fellows of the Society of Antiquaries of London Fellows of the British Academy Knights Bachelor	[ 0.018376821652054787, 0.5487813353538513, -0.8960710167884827, -0.265145480632782, 0.23224632441997528, 0.9276579022407532, 0.45374566316604614, 0.04226863756775856, -0.07684923708438873, -0.08374501019716263, -0.42148834466934204, 0.4013712406158447, 0.0622839517891407, -0.10052170604467392, 0.1827511340379715, 0.0811665877699852, -0.640055775642395, -0.46596503257751465, -0.11206131428480148, -0.12846091389656067, -0.35039713978767395, -0.02374616079032421, 0.4498734176158905, 0.0145029928535223, -0.44181668758392334, -0.03867684677243233, 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232437	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/William%20Price	William Price	William Price, Will Price, Bill Price, or Billy Price may refer to: Business William Price (merchant) (1789–1867), Canadian lumber merchant and manufacturer of planks William Philip Price (1817–1891), British merchant, magistrate and politician William Evan Price (1827–1880), Quebec businessman and political figure William Price (industrialist) (1860–1938), Welsh farmer and industrialist William G. Price Jr. (1869–1960), American businessman and Army general William S. Price III, known as Bill Price, co-founder of private equity firm the Texas Pacific Group William H. Price, co-founder of Chandler & Price Entertainment Bill Price (record producer) (1944–2016), producer and engineer Billy Price (singer) (born 1949), American soul singer Billy Price (actor) (born 2000), English actor Politics William Price (MP for Bath) (died 1596), British member of Parliament William Price (of Briton Ferry), Welsh politician in the House of Commons (1614–1626) William Price (Royalist) (1619–1691), British MP for Merioneth William Price (High Sheriff) (1690–1774), High Sheriff of two Welsh counties in the 1730s William C. Price (1816–1901), Treasurer of the United States (1860–1861) William T. Price (1824–1886), U.S. Representative from Wisconsin William P. Price (1835–1908), U.S. Representative from Georgia William Edwin Price (1841–1886), British member of Parliament for Tewkesbury (1868–1880) William Price (Canadian politician) (1867–1924) William Price (Australian politician) (1869–1937) William Herbert Price (1877–1963), Attorney General of Ontario (1926–1934) William Price (Labour politician) (1934–1999), British Labour MP for Rugby (1966–1979) Bill Price (politician) (born 1935), Queensland Legislative Assemblyman William Price, British member of Parliament for Beaumaris (1558–1567) William M. Price, politician and United States Attorney for the Southern District of New York (1834–1838) William Jennings Price (1873–1922), Ambassador of the United States to Panama (1913–1921) William H. Price, State Auditor of Nebraska (1937–1938) Sports William Price (Liverpool and District cricketer) (1859–?), English cricketer Bill Price (baseball) (1863–1922), Philadelphia Athletics 1890 Bill Price (cricketer) (1881–1958), English cricketer William Price (Worcestershire cricketer) (1900–1982), English cricketer William Price (footballer) (1903–1987), Indian-born English footballer William Price (table tennis) (1915–?), American table tennis player Billy Price (footballer, born 1917) (1917–1995), English footballer Bill Price (curler) (born 1928), Canadian curler Billy Price (footballer, born 1934) (1934–2004), Scottish footballer William Price (volleyball) (born 1987), American volleyball player Billy Price (American football) (born 1995), American football player Other William Price (orientalist) (1780–1830), English linguist William Price (physician) (1800–1893), Welsh physician William Lightfoot Price (1861–1916), American architect William Wallace Price (1867–1931), American journalist William Price (RAF officer) (1895–1982), British World War I flying ace Bill Price (physicist) (1909–1993), Welsh infrared spectroscopist William A. Price (1915–2009), reporter for the New York Daily News (1940–1955) William Ray Price Jr. (born 1952), Chief Justice of the Supreme Court of Missouri William Archer Price, photographer	[ -0.06767711043357849, -0.017211705446243286, -0.28566718101501465, 0.06086041405797005, -0.24595926702022552, 1.0132629871368408, 0.4093152582645416, 0.35196423530578613, 0.20608645677566528, -0.9894476532936096, -0.03210502117872238, 0.1823939085006714, 0.04652741551399231, 0.46283188462257385, -0.48930686712265015, 0.8575999736785889, -0.10994144529104233, 0.2774580121040344, -0.4984726309776306, -0.3577814996242523, -0.052419837564229965, -0.34776267409324646, 0.5899569988250732, 0.14254996180534363, 0.3771454989910126, 0.14942583441734314, 0.46926558017730713, -0.18508508801460266, -0.2142357975244522, 0.84525465965271, -0.05181041732430458, 0.23846034705638885, 0.42098256945610046, -0.1909334361553192, -0.4635884463787079, -0.27625325322151184, -0.2664262354373932, -0.38025912642478943, 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232439	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lawrence%20Sheriff%20School	Lawrence Sheriff School	Lawrence Sheriff School is a boys' grammar school in Rugby, Warwickshire, England. The school is named after Lawrence Sheriff, the Elizabethan founder of Rugby School. The school's name is often shortened to 'LSS', or often just 'Sheriff'. The school has historically run in partnership with Rugby High School for Girls, a nearby grammar school. History Foundation Lawrence Sheriff School was founded to fulfil Lawrence Sheriff's original intentions to provide a school for the boys of Rugby and neighbouring Brownsover, which was originally carried out by Rugby School. By the eighteenth century, Rugby School had acquired a national reputation as a public school and moved to its present site. As the proportion of pupils from outside Rugby increased and the people of the town seemed to benefit less from Lawrence Sheriff's original bequest, local concern led to the nineteenth-century proposal of a Lower School for local boys, with Foundation Scholarships to the Great School. The Lower School was opened in 1878 on the present site of Lawrence Sheriff School with a curriculum designed to meet the needs of a commercial education and preparation for Rugby School. By 1906, a compromise between the traditions of the Foundation and a proposal to hand the school over to the county, led to a Governing body chaired by the Headmaster of Rugby School and containing both Foundation and County Governors. The school was built on what before was glebe land named Market Field, at what was the east limit of the built-up area of Rugby. Second World War Due to the need for maximum food production within Britain during the Second World War, unproductive land (sports fields, large ornamental gardens, parks, golf courses, etc.) was requisitioned for farming or allotment gardens. In this period, the School Field and a third of the Hart Field were used in the grass growing season for sheep grazing but remained in school sport use. Most of the rest of the Hart Field was ploughed and used for growing wheat, except a strip along the bottom edge border that was used for allotment gardens; that border was adjacent to existing allotment gardens which were outside the school property. Approximately one third of the school's sixth form lost their lives during the war. Voluntary aided status This partnership continued into voluntary aided status under the 1944 Act. At the time the school opened, it was on the outskirts of Rugby town, which in 1878 was much smaller than now. The original building (now called Big School), was extended in 1909 with science wings (now used for Chemistry and Physics) on each side. The school continued to grow with several extensions, including the Jubilee Wings (1926 and 1934), the library wing (1957), and major expansion in the early 1960s, which included new biology labs and a new gymnasium. Big School was badly damaged by a fire in 1980, but was immediately restored. The school organ was damaged beyond repair and was replaced. In September 2014 Lawrence Sheriff School converted to academy status, thus ending its status as a voluntary aided school. Present day Lawrence Sheriff School is now the selective boys' grammar school for Rugby and the surrounding area. The school also has an old boys society: the Old Laurentians. The school has been expanded greatly in the last fifteen years with the construction of a new sixth form centre and the conversion of Penrhos House, originally the sixth form common room, into a Music block, as well as the construction of a new Learning Resources Centre. Sport The school owns a playing field, Hart Field, a mile away east-southeastwards, with five Rugby pitches and changing rooms. Over the school year of 2009, the field was regenerated with new pitches created, including an Astroturf field, a new block of changing rooms, cricket nets and levelled playing fields. Following funding from Sport England, the school also houses a regional and local table tennis centre. Academic performance In 2008, 2010 and 2011 the school came first in national performance tables based upon data from the Department for Education (schools were ranked by their total points score in examinations). In 2012 it came fourth in the country and in 2013 it came seventh out of 3,200 secondary schools. In 2013 75% of boys gained the English Baccalaurate. Comparing this to local selective schools in the area 87% of King Edward VI pupils, 73% of Bablake pupils, 66% of Rugby High School pupils and 64% of Rugby School pupils gained the certificate. In 2014 97% of boys gained the English Baccalaurate, placing the school third in the country according to the performance tables published in the Daily Telegraph on Thursday 29 January. The same table showed that the school's average points score placed it fifteenth in the country. In January 2009 the school achieved an average point score of 792, whilst in January 2011 it came top again, with an average point score of 757.4. Recent changes The school operates a vertical tutoring system, in which forms consist of students from each year group. This was implemented to allow older students to mentor and support younger students. It also provides tutors with increased opportunities to support individual students and to check their progress more closely. Currently the new science building is underway. The school is partnering with Lutterworth High School in order to sponsor a primary school in the area. However, Peter Kent, the school's headmaster, stated that the new school will not become a feeder school for Lawrence Sheriff. Notable Old Laurentians Former pupils at the school are called Old Laurentians and include: Steve Beebee – author and journalist Arthur Bostrom – Crabtree in 'Allo 'Allo! (head boy at the school) Will Carruthers – musician Michael Claridge – professor of entomology at Cardiff University from 1983–99 and president of the Linnean Society of London from 1988–91 Wayne Clarke – award-winning broadcaster Ben Croshaw – producer of Zero Punctuation Valentine Cunningham – professor of English language and literature at the University of Oxford since 1996 Reginald Foort - organist John L. Harper CBE – plant biologist Thomas Hedley – media magnate Robert George Spencer Hudson – geologist and president of the Paleontological Association from 1957–59 Ralph Hudson Johnson FRSE (1933–1993) – neurologist Mark Mapletoft – former England rugby player and season top point scorer in English rugby union premiership David Mowat – Conservative MP for Warrington South from 2010–17 Mark Pawsey – Conservative MP for Rugby since 2010 Jason Pierce – singer Mike Powell – Warwickshire cricketer Ric Todd – former Ambassador to Poland (2007–11) and Governor of the Turks and Caicos Islands (20112013) Andrew Rawnsley – political journalist Walter Sweeney – Conservative MP for Vale of Glamorgan from 1992–97 Maj-Gen Anthony Trythall CB – director of Army Education from 1980–84 Kevin Warwick – computer scientist Norman Wooding CBE – chairman of Courtaulds from 1978–83 Houses There are five houses: Caldecott (Purple), Simpson (Green), Tait (Red), Wheeler (Blue) and Kent (Yellow). There are many inter-house competitions between the five. These competitions can range from sports or academic competitions. At the end of each year, the house with the most points for each competition wins a trophy. In 2020, Kent house was established to fit the increasing number of students being admitted. Wheeler house was renamed from "School House" in 1963. Tait house was named after a local auctioneer and parent- Edwin Tait. In 1891, an altercation broke out between Mr Tait and the headmaster Mr Weisse over the flogging of his son. The situation was resolved and Mr Tait subsequently presented a cup for the Champion Athlete. Kent house was named after Dr Kent once headmaster who departed the school at the end of the 2021 autumn term. Local Government Ombudsman Report On 19 May 2014 the school was found at fault by the Local Government Ombudsman for failing to provide an appeal to a child whose place was withdrawn for 2013 entry. Harassment against the school In 2015 at the Coventry County Court, the School successfully applied for an injunction against a parent who for many years harassed senior members of the school through a number of different channels. The judge ruled that the parent had "crossed the boundary between unattractive or unreasonable conduct to conduct, which is, indeed, oppressive and unacceptable. It has plainly involved a deliberate and persistent course of, in my view, unreasonable and oppressive conduct, which was calculated to, and did, cause alarm, fear or distress…” Other information The Parents' Association is in the Guinness Book of Records as the UK's oldest Parents Association. 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232440	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Flemington%20Racecourse	Flemington Racecourse	Flemington Racecourse is a major horse racing venue located in Melbourne, Victoria, Australia. It is most notable for hosting the Melbourne Cup, which is the world's richest handicap and the world's richest 3200-metre horse race. The racecourse is situated on low alluvial flats, next to the Maribyrnong River. The area was first used for horse racing in March 1840. Overview The Flemington Racecourse site comprises 1.27 square kilometres of Crown land. The course was originally leased to the Victoria Turf Club in 1848, which merged with the Victoria Jockey Club in 1864 to form the Victoria Racing Club. The first Melbourne Cup was run in 1861. In 1871 the Victoria Racing Club Act was passed, giving the VRC legal control over Flemington Racecourse. The racecourse is pear-shaped, and boasts a six-furlong (1,200 m) straight known as 'the Straight Six.' The track has a circumference of and a final straight of for race distances over . Races are run in an anti-clockwise direction. The course has a crowd capacity of over 120,000 and contains three grandstands. The biggest ever attendance was on Victoria Derby Day in 2006 when 129,069 people saw Efficient win the Victoria Derby. On 28 November, 1986, Pope John Paul II celebrated the Mass on the racetrack inner oval. The racecourse has undergone a facelift in recent years, with the opening of a new $45 million grandstand in 2000 and the opening of a new members' grandstand in 2018. It also contains a bronze statue of the famous racehorse Phar Lap, which was donated to the Club as part of Australia's bicentenary celebrations in 1988. Also in celebration was the commission of Harold Freedman's seven panel mural which traces the History of Racing. The mural is housed is in The Hill Stand, built in 1977. Flemington Racecourse was added to the Australian National Heritage List on 7 November 2006, announced during the 2006 Melbourne Cup. The site is listed on the Victorian Heritage Register. Flemington Racecourse today hosts many of Australia's top races, including the Melbourne Cup, Victoria Derby, VRC Oaks, Mackinnon Stakes, Newmarket Handicap, Australian Cup and Lightning Stakes. Transport The site has its own railway branch line, which operates on race days, bringing visitors to the adjacent railway station. Originally, it was serviced by Salt Water River station, before that was demolished in the 1860s and replaced with a station on the present site. Trains depart from platforms 8 and 9 at Flinders Street Station. The No. 57 tram from the City (Elizabeth and Flinders Streets) stops at the Epsom Road entrance. Car spaces for the disabled are available and taxi ranks are located adjacent to the main entrances. Shuttle buses run from Epsom Road to the main turnstiles of the racecourse. Lift access is available in the Prince of Wales Stand and to the first floor of the Members Stand. Races The following is a list of Group races which are run at Flemington Racecourse. All races in metres. Key hcp - handicap qlty - quality handicap sw - set weights sw+p - set weights with penalties wfa - Weight for Age Gallery See also Australian horse-racing Melbourne Spring Racing Carnival References External links Victoria Racing Club - official website Horse racing results at Flemington Racecourse 1840 establishments in Australia Australian National Heritage List Horse racing venues in Australia Sports venues in Melbourne Victorian Heritage Register Tourist attractions in Melbourne Sports venues completed in 1840 Flemington, Victoria	[ -0.12631508708000183, -0.5345951318740845, -0.20274893939495087, -0.4069734513759613, 0.4693327844142914, 0.13921652734279633, 0.5675779581069946, -0.14828525483608246, -0.7663849592208862, -0.13735385239124298, -0.2874886095523834, 0.1514635980129242, -0.301527738571167, 0.7264720797538757, 0.48786813020706177, 0.6954666972160339, -0.049097418785095215, 0.022405317053198814, 0.5821844339370728, -0.8185219764709473, -0.16834193468093872, 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232444	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ford%20Sierra	Ford Sierra	The Ford Sierra is a mid-size car or large family car that was built by Ford Europe from 1982 to 1993. It was designed by Uwe Bahnsen, Robert Lutz and Patrick le Quément. The code used during development was "Project Toni". Its name came from the Spanish word for mountain range. The Ford Sierra was first unveiled on 22 September 1982 at the British International Motor Show hosted at the NEC in Birmingham, shortly followed by the Salon de l'Automobile in Paris on 30 September 1982. Sales started on 15 October 1982, replacing the Ford Taunus TC3 (UK: Ford Cortina Mark V). Its aerodynamic styling was ahead of its time and as such, many conservative buyers (including company car drivers) did not take fondly to the Taunus's/Cortina's replacement. This was also due to the fact that the Sierra was not available as sedan, in contrary to the Taunus/Cortina. This sedan followed in 1987 with the introduction of the facelifted Sierra. It was mainly manufactured in Germany, Belgium, and the United Kingdom, although Sierras were also assembled in Ireland, Argentina, Venezuela, South Africa and New Zealand. Initial development and reception By 1978, Ford Europe was working on a new mid-range model to replace the Cortina/Taunus during the early 1980s, working under the codename "Project Toni". Ford had confirmed during 1981, a year before the Sierra's official launch, that its new mid-range car would carry the Sierra name, signalling the end of the Taunus and Cortina nameplates after 43 years and nine generations respectively 20 years and five generations. In September that year, it had unveiled the Probe III concept car at the Frankfurt Motor Show, hinting at what the new car would look like when the final product was unveiled 12 months later. At first, many found the design blob-like and difficult to accept after being used to the sharp-edged, straight-line three-box styling of the Taunus/Cortina, and it was nicknamed "the jellymould". The shape served a purpose though, producing a drag coefficient of 0.34, a significant improvement over the boxy outgoing Taunus's/Cortina's 0.45. This aerodynamic design was key for reducing fuel consumption according to Ford, and was even used as compensation for the V6-engines. The interior was more conventional, although Ford took a page from BMW by angling the center of the dashboard towards the driver. Sales were slow in the first months - the situation being exacerbated by heavy discounting by Ford dealers of surplus Cortina stock from the autumn of 1982 onwards, with more than 11,000 new Cortinas being registered in 1983. However in 1983, its first full year of sales, the Sierra managed nearly 160,000 sales in Britain, outsold only by the smaller Escort. Ford had also launched the more conservatively designed Escort-based Orion saloon that year, which found favour with buyers who would otherwise have been the Sierra's target customers. In West Germany, it was proving very popular from an early stage; within months of its launch, it was reportedly achieving treble the number of sales that the Taunus had been attaining - though in West Germany, the Taunus had not been quite as popular or iconic as its Cortina equivalent had been in Britain. It was later in the Sierra's life that the styling began to pay off; ten years after its introduction, the Sierra's styling was not nearly as outdated as its contemporaries, even though all major competitors were newer designs, though the Sierra had been tweaked on several occasions and many new engines had been added. The most notable changes came at the autumn of 1987, with a major facelift and the addition of a 4-door saloon (UK: Sapphire). As other manufacturers adopted similar aerodynamic styling, the Sierra looked more normal. At its peak, it was Britain's second best selling car in 1983, 1988 and 1989, and was still Britain's fifth best selling car in 1992. Its best year was 1989, when more than 175,000 were sold. However, it was outsold by the Vauxhall Cavalier in MK2 form during 1984 and 1985, and then from 1990 until its demise by the MK3 Cavalier. Nevertheless, it comfortably outsold its second key rival, the Austin Montego, which was launched in April 1984. Between 1985 and 1988, the Sierra faced fresh competition in Europe from the likes of the Renault 21 and Peugeot 405, while Japanese carmaker Nissan was producing its Bluebird model in Britain from 1986. Early versions suffered from crosswind stability problems, which were addressed in 1985 with the addition of "strakes" (small spoilers) on the rear edge of the rubber seals of the rear-most side windows. These shortcomings saw a lot of press attention, and contributed to early slow sales, when it was outsold by its key rival the Vauxhall Cavalier in 1984 and 1985. Other rumours that the car hid major crash damage (in part true, as the new bumper design sprung back after minor impact and couldn't be "read" to interpret major damage) also harmed the car's reputation. This reached near-hysterical heights in its early months on sale, with UK press making a report that Ford would reintroduce the previous Cortina model out of desperation. These reports were swiftly denied by Ford. However, sales began to rise during 1983, and it finished as Britain's second best selling car behind the Escort. After being outsold by the Cavalier for the next two years, it regained its lead of the market sector in Britain during 1986, and a refreshed range (with more engine options as well as the introduction of a saloon) enjoyed a surge in sales from 1987, though the MK3 Cavalier finally outsold it in 1990. Even in 1992, the Sierra was still Britain's fifth best selling car. It was nicknamed "the salesman's spaceship" on account of its status as a popular fleet car in Britain. In contrast to the Sierra's groundbreaking exterior design, its drivetrain was conservatively engineered, retaining rear-wheel drive and the same engines and transmissions as the Cortina/Taunus which were effectively 12 years old as they were first used on the TC1/MkIII generation in 1970. Much of this was done to appease the important fleet market which was wary of complexity. However, there was much modification; for example the engines were fitted with breakerless ignition, improved carburettors and the option of fuel injection, whilst 5-speed transmissions were now available. Most competitors were already switched to front-wheel drive around that time. Ford claimed however this set-up was required to offer V6-engines, which had to contribute to the Sierra's driving comfort. New for the Sierra was a diesel engine, although the engine itself wasn't new at all. Similar to the Ford Granada, Ford used an "Indenor"-engine which was designed by Peugeot in the 1950s. While the Granada was offered with 1.9, 2.1 and 2.5 diesels, the Sierra unit had a displacement of 2,3 liter. This engine was replaced only in 1989 by an all-new 1.8 liter turbodiesel, developed by Ford itself. The Sierra had a four-speed manual gearbox as standard, with a five-speed as option but standard on the 2.3D and 2.3 V6. At a time when the rival Vauxhall Cavalier was offered with a five-speed, this led to some critics commenting that the Sierra was somewhat underpowered. In the mid-1980s, many smaller cars (some even two segments smaller) featured five-speed gearboxes as standard. The chassis, however, was more sophisticated than the Cortina/Taunus, with fully independent suspension on both axles. The rear suspension was essentially carried over from the Granada, with trailing arms and coil springs mounted on a tubular sub-frame which also provided location for the final drive/differential housing driving the axle shafts. The front suspension dispensed with the Cortina/Taunus' double wishbones in favour of a scaled-up version of the Fiesta and Escort/Orion's layout with MacPherson struts, lower locating arms and anti-roll bars. One of the most striking design features of the Sierra was its closed front panel instead of a grille, which was later also to be found on the 1985 Ford Taurus. The air intake was situated below the front bumper, making the Sierra a so-called 'bottom breather'. The headlights were integrated in this front panel while the indicators were mounted in the bumper within a combined unit with the foglights. However, this set-up was only present on the top-of-the-line "Ghia"-trim as well on the later introduced XR4i sportmodel. The other Sierra models had a more traditional front end with a two-bar grille between the headlights, being unpainted on the base model. These models had the indicators in the bumper as well, although being slimmer but wider and without the foglights. Both the Ghia and XR4i had wide headlights with two lenses while the other models had smaller lights with a single lens. For the 1985 model year, all the lower-spec models, except the base model, adopted the Ghia and XR4i's front grille and headlight treatment. However, the second lens of the lower-spec models had no actual light within it. On the Ghia and XR4i this lens contained additional high beam lamps. The South-African XR8 model's front end was similar to the XR4i's but featured a small grille between the headlights. The rear lights of the Ghia, as well as the very early XR4i's, were the same shape and layout as other models, but featured tiny horizontal black strakes on the lenses to give the impression that they were smoked. The car was replaced by the Mondeo in Europe in April 1993, though stocks lasted for about two years afterwards. The Sierra remained a popular second-hand buy and common sight on British roads until well beyond the year 2000. Press evaluation In Europe's largest auto-market, the magazine Auto, Motor und Sport published, in December 1982, a three-way road test comparison involving the Sierra and its obvious competitors, the recently upgraded Volkswagen Passat and Opel Ascona (Vauxhall Cavalier Mk II in the UK). Then as now, a part of the magazine's comparison road test report was a comparison chart rating each of approximately 100 attributes of cars tested out of ten or twenty points (according to importance) and then ranking the cars tested according to the total number of points awarded. On this basis the Sierra tested in 1982 outranked both the Passat and the Ascona. The significance of this result was highlighted more than three decades later, in February 2015, when the magazine reported that no Ford model had beaten a Volkswagen under their road test criteria since the Sierra's "victory" in 1982. The Sierra missed out on the 1983 European Car of the Year award, ending second behind the Audi 100. Celebrity Just before he became leader of the Labour Party in 1983, Neil Kinnock became the owner of one of the first Sierras produced for the British market, but his car was wrecked in a crash on the M4 motorway in Berkshire soon after he bought it. He escaped from the crash uninjured. In 1986 the founder of the Williams Formula One team, former racing car driver and mechanic, Sir Frank Williams crashed whilst driving a rental Ford Sierra in France rendering him tetraplegic. Willem-Alexander of the Netherlands, then Prince, crashed his Sierra XR4x4 in 1988 in the city of Leiden where he attended the university as a student. Manufacture It was mainly manufactured in Germany, Belgium, and the United Kingdom, although Sierras were also assembled in Ireland, Argentina, Venezuela, South Africa and New Zealand. All-wheel drive In 1985, at the Geneva Motor Show, the four-wheel drive Sierra XR4x4 was shown as a derivative of the XR4i. It had two viscous differentials with two thirds of the power directed towards the rear wheels. It was originally available only as a three-door hatchback; the bodywork had the large single-piece rear windows rather than the design with an additional pillar as used on the XR4. The XR4x4 had a single rear spoiler instead of the distinctive biplane unit used on the XR4 but did receive unique alloy wheels. A five-door version was added soon thereafter. A four-wheel-drive estate became available with this drivetrain at the 1986 Geneva Motor Show, but with Ghia rather than XR4x4 badging. This version was better equipped and without the sporting edge of the hatchbacks, and was also available with an automatic transmission. The four-wheel drive allowed for an extra margin of security on slick or snowy roads, while retaining the car's rear-wheel drive comportment. The original, rear-wheel drive XR4 was quickly taken out of production after the XR4x4 arrived. The XR4x4 originally came equipped with the 2.8 litre Cologne V6 engine using the same Bosch K-Jetronic mechanical injection system used since 1977 in the Granada, and since 1981 in the Capri, but it was replaced in 1989 by the new more efficient 2.9 litre Cologne V6 engine, with electronic fuel injection. 1987 facelift In February 1987, a restyled Sierra was launched for the 1988 model year and a four-door saloon version was added to the range - this was marketed as the Sierra Sapphire on the UK market. The front end was completely revised, with the biggest difference seeing the indicators now positioned above the bumper and to the side of a new headlight design. While the grille again remained blanked-off, UK, Irish and South African versions of the newly introduced saloon bodystyle, featured a unique shallow black grille between the headlights. That apart, all specifications of the Sierra now shared a common front end, compared to the car's original styling. The side windows were made slightly larger with the corners made sharper to increase outward vision. The rear lights were replaced with slimmer but wider models containing separate stop lamps. The saloon got similar rear lights as the revised hatchbacks, though not interchangeable. The rear end of the estate has never changed during the Sierra's lifespan. The interior was slightly modernized. Also new to the range was a new 1.8 litre "lean burn" petrol engine, which proved to be one of the most popular choices in the Sierra range. The XR4x4 was now based on the five-door hatchback bodystyle and featured different front and rear body-coloured bumper styling, along with wider side rubbing strips. The RS Cosworth, from January 1988, was now based on the newly introduced saloon bodystyle and featured another style of front bumper as well as the black grille which was only found on UK versions of the saloon bodystyle. The RS Cosworth received more power and four-wheel drive from January 1990. In addition, a roller cam engine was added in 1987 to prevent excessive wear to the cam. From 1988 a pickup called the P100 was produced in Portugal using the Sierra-cab and engines, replacing the previous Cortina/Taunus-related model. The Sierra was Ford's answer to the success of the General Motors "J-car" (Vauxhall Cavalier in the UK), which had been launched in 1981 with front-wheel drive and a hatchback bodystyle to complement the saloon. Unusually in its sector by that time, the Sierra was still rear-wheel drive. It was also a strong competitor for other rivals of the early 1980s, including the Talbot Alpine, Peugeot 505 and Morris Ital and the Citroën BX, but by 1988, it was competing with a host of new rivals, including the third generation Vauxhall Cavalier (Opel Vectra), Rover Montego, Peugeot 405, Renault 21 and Nissan Bluebird. Bodystyles The switch to the Sierra from the Cortina and Taunus was the second time that Ford had changed its saloon-based line-up into a hatchback-based one following the launch of the Escort Mark III in 1980, and before the introduction of the Scorpio (known as the Granada Mark III in the UK and Ireland) in 1985. However, like the Cortina and Taunus before it, the Sierra was available as an estate. The company launched the Ford Orion in 1983 to fill the gap in the saloon range left by the Cortina. Ford found that customers were more attached to the idea of a saloon than they had expected, and this was further addressed in 1987 by the production of a saloon version of the Sierra. In the UK, this model was called the Ford Sierra Sapphire. This differed from the other Sierra models in having a traditional black grille, which only appeared in right hand drive markets. During the life of the car, two different styles of 3-door body were used; one with two pillars rear of the door, looking very much like a modified 5-door frame, as used on the high-performance XR4i; and a one-pillar design used on standard-performance 3-door hatchbacks and also at the other end of the scale as the basis for the very high-performance RS Cosworth. At the time of the car's launch, both styles were already envisaged, and a demonstration model with one style on either side was displayed at a Sierra design exhibition at the Victoria and Albert Museum in London, but the one-pillar design was not launched until 1984. The 3-door Sierra was later dropped in the UK, although the Cosworth version continued. Production of the 3-door Sierra continued in continental Europe, including after the Sierra range was given a facelift in 1987, but this was never offered in the UK. A 5-door van based on the estate, known as the Sierra Van, was introduced in 1984, which, unlike similar car-derived vans, retained its side windows. The back seat was removed and the metal cargo floor was extended towards the front seats. A diesel engine and a limited choice of petrol engines were available for the Van. This variant was never sold in the UK. although some were produced in right hand drive for the Irish market. Versions Sierra model range Drivetrain options During its career, the Sierra was available with a wide range of petrol engines: 1.3 I4 OHC (1294 cc; ) Pinto engine; 1.6 I4 OHC (1593 cc; ) Pinto engine, available in standard or economy tune; 1.8 I4 OHC (1796 cc; ) Pinto engine (from 1985); 1.8 I4 OHC (1769 cc; ) CVH Engine (from 06/1988); 2.0 I4 OHC (1998 cc; ) Pinto engine; 2.0i I4 OHC (1993 cc; ) Pinto engine with fuel injection (from 1985); 2.0i I4 DOHC (1998 cc; ) DOHC engine (from 1989); 2.0i I4 DOHC 16V Turbo (1993 cc; ) DOHC engine, YB Turbo (RS Cosworth, 1986-1987); 2.0i I4 DOHC 16V Turbo (1993 cc; ) DOHC engine, YB Turbo (RS500 Cosworth, 1987); 2.0 V6 (1999 cc; ) Cologne V6 engine; 2.3 V6 (2294 cc; ) Cologne V6 engine; 2.8i V6 (2792 cc; ) Cologne V6 engine (XR4i, 1983-1985, XR4x4 1985-1987) 2.9i V6 (2935 cc; ) Cologne V6 engine (XR4x4, from 1987) Two diesel engines were available: 2.3 I4 D (2304 cc, ) Peugeot Diesel engine (1982-1989); 1.8 I4 TD (1753 cc; ) Endura-D engine (from 1990) 1300, 1600 and 2000 engines all had a 4-speed manual gearbox; a 5-speed manual gearbox was optional with 1600 and 2000 engines, and standard with the 1600 Economy engine, the 2300 and 2300 Diesel. An optional 3-speed automatic transmission was available with 1600, 2000 and 2300 engines. The 2.0 V6 and 2.3 V6 versions of the Sierra were dropped at the end of 1985 and the 1.3 was discontinued in 1986. A carburetted 1.8 and a fuel injected 2.0-litre petrol engine were added at Geneva 1985. In 1990, the 2.3 diesel was replaced by a 1.8 turbodiesel. The turbocharged 2.0 RS Cosworth engine featured on all three Cosworth versions of the Sierra; the three-door rear-wheel drive hatchback, the rear-wheel drive saloon, and the four-wheel drive saloon. The sporting model XR4i utilized the 2.8 engine with mechanical fuel injection (Bosch K Jetronic) coupled to rear-wheel drive (1983-1985) and to four-wheel-drive as XR4x4 (1985-1987). There was also a 2.8-engined Ghia Estate in some markets, and from 1985 until 1987 Swiss customers could buy rear-wheel-drive, 2.8-powered GL and Ghia models with five-door hatchback or estate bodywork. The Swiss (and Swedish) market engines produced marginally less power, as those countries had particularly stringent emissions standards. Output was in 1985 and in 1986. In the Mark II Sierras the 2.8 Cologne engine was replaced by a 2.9-litre version. Both the 2.8/2.9-litre engines gave 150 PS in uncatalyzed trim. The well known Cosworth model was powered by a turbocharged 16-valve 4-cylinder engine known as the YB which was based on the Ford Pinto block. The Ford Sierra RS Cosworth was introduced in 1986 as a three-door hatchback, with a 2-litre DOHC turbo engine producing and a top speed of 150 mph - a speed normally found only in sports cars from prestige brands like Ferrari and Porsche, at much higher prices as well as with less practicality. At the time Ford wanted to compete in group A touring cars and therefore eligible to produce a limited run of 10% of the initial production, therefore this would be 500 cars. this was known as an 'evolution' model. Ford employed Tickford to help with the development. The Sierra RS500 as it was known sported a small additional rear spoiler, and larger front chin spoiler, extra cooling ducts for the engine, brakes and intercooler. Under the bonnet a larger turbo and intercooler was fitted along with an extra set of injectors, so instead of the standard four injectors it was built with eight, although in road trim these extra injectors did not function. These modifications produced in road trim and around in race trim. They were very successful in motorsport and are highly tunable road cars with a very large following. In 1987, Ford introduced a four-door saloon (marketed in the UK as the Sierra Sapphire), which was sold alongside the hatchback and estate until the Sierra was replaced by the Mondeo in early 1993. The last Sierra rolled off the production line in December 1992. The Sierra Cosworth switched to a saloon bodystyle in January 1988, again with rear-wheel drive, before the four-wheel drive version replaced it two years later. Sierras outside Europe South Africa In South Africa, the Sierra range featured both the five-door hatchback and station wagon bodies and production began at the Silverton (Pretoria) plant in January 1983. The restyled Sierra range differed from its European equivalent by featuring the traditional grille of the Sierra Sapphire sedan on the hatchback and wagon, though later, the grille would feature on these models in Europe. The sedan, only introduced in South Africa in the second quarter of 1989, was known simply as the "Ford Sapphire". Versions sold in South Africa were available with the 1.6 (Kent) and 2.0 (Pinto) four-cylinders, 2.3 V6 (Cologne) or 3.0-litre V6 (Essex) petrol engines. While the Cortina MkV in South Africa had retained the old 3.0 V6 Essex engine, the Sierra was initially given the new 2.3 V6 Cologne motor, this being fitted to the top of the line model only. However, owing to the low cost of petrol, and the popularity of the old Cortina XR6, a Sierra XR6 was later launched, featuring the old Essex, initially producing . Versions were LX, GL and GLX, the Ghia trim level was not available for the South African market except on the Ford Sapphire, the sedan version. As the 2.8/2.9 Cologne was never launched in South Africa, the venerable and popular Essex V6 remained the best normal production engine fitted to the Sierra. At the top of the range, the 2.3 GLS quickly gave way to a 3.0 GLX flagship model (producing less power but more torque than the XR6) and that was the end of the Cologne in South Africa, even the station wagon receiving the 3.0 V6 Essex. By 1985, the Sierra had become the largest Ford model in this market, following the demise of the Granada. Towards the end of its production life, the Essex was modified again - the standard carburetted version was tuned to produce from 1991 to 1993, while a fuel-injected version was available from 1992 to 1993. Fitted to the Sierra as the 3.0i RS (replacing the XR6) and to the Sapphire sedan as the Sapphire Ghia (replacing the 3.0 GLX), the fuel-injected Essex put out around and was the most powerful Sierra/Sapphire version sold in South Africa, excluding the small number of XR8s built for homologation purposes. At the end of production a limited edition of 150 vehicles designated as 3.0i RS which based on the sedan (Sapphire) body was produced with some slight engine tweaks which resulted in a power output of . This vehicle was also fitted with the ATE ABS system as was customary only on the Sapphire GHIA models at the time. These limited edition vehicles were only available to two colours, namely red and white. Uniquely, the South African market also saw the introduction of a 5.0-litre XR8 between June 1984 and 1988. A limited number of 250 Sierras were made for the purposes of homologation, as this model was the premier Ford used in Group A racing. The XR8 was fitted with the 302 ci engine from the US Ford Mustang, and the Borg Warner T5 heavy duty transmission. Front brakes were AP Racing four-piston calipers on 280 mm discs. Max power is and a top speed of was claimed. The XR8 is easily recognized by having four cooling slats between the headlights, whereas lesser versions were sold with the original smooth front. The 1.6 Kent continued almost unchanged during the 9 year life of the Sierra/Sapphire, while the 2.0 Cologne was revised several times, being fitted to the Sierra 2.0 GL and GLE and later to the stripped down Sierra 2.0 LX and Sapphire 2.0 GL and GLE models. It eventually even received fuel injection in the Sapphire 2.0GLi, boosting the power from to . The Sierra was eventually replaced in South Africa by the Telstar in 1993. Samcor, which assembled Ford models under license after Ford had divested from the country, was already assembling the smaller Laser and Meteor, alongside the Mazda 323, on which they were based, as well as a facelifted earlier version of the Mazda 626. The Telstar was finally replaced by the Mondeo in 1998. New Zealand Whereas British buyers rued the absence of a saloon version of the Sierra, in New Zealand, it was the absence of an estate (a "station wagon" there) that customers missed, when Ford New Zealand replaced the Cortina with the Ford Telstar range. In order to fill the gap in the market, Ford introduced the Sierra wagon in 1984, in spite of opposition at Ford Asia Pacific and from the Detroit headquarters. This was assembled locally from imported CKD ("completely knocked down") kits. The wagon was offered in 1.6- (base) and 2.0-litre "L" and "Ghia" models initially, and proved to be a strong seller. The then Prime Minister, Sir Robert Muldoon, used a Sierra as his personal transport and would drive it to his office in the government building known as the Beehive. New Zealand was the only market in the world where both the Telstar and the Sierra were offered next to each other. In one month in 1987, the facelifted Ford Sierra, by then a single station wagon model, was the country's top-selling car range. A few fully built-up 2.3 V6 five-doors and XR4i three-doors were also imported from 1984. However, Ford cancelled the Sierra once Mazda, which developed the Telstar, could offer a station wagon. The Telstar wagon, while popular, never reached the Sierra's heights, especially its competition successes overseas. Further reasons could be customers' knowledge of the Telstar's Japanese roots, and that the equivalent Mazda 626 wagon offered a considerably longer warranty at a similar price. Relative rejection of the Telstar forced Ford to import completely built-up (CBU) premium models built in Genk, Belgium from 1990: the Sierra 2.0 GLX Wagon, the Sierra Sapphire 2.0 Ghia and the XR4×4 were part of this range. The advertising copy read, "Introducing the new car that needs no introduction." However, a relatively high price did not help – the Wagon began at over NZ$31,000 – and production errors in the launch brochure showed cars with no steering wheels. Furthermore, any marketing boosts Ford could have gained through Group A touring car racing were over with the Escort Cosworth becoming the company's standard-bearer in competition (and the Escort, meanwhile, was absent from the New Zealand market). The Sierra was withdrawn from the New Zealand market in 1992, and it would be another five years before its European successor the Mondeo would arrive there. Sierra Cosworths remain sought-after performance cars. By contrast, the Sierra was never sold in Australia, as there was less demand for a medium-sized wagon than in New Zealand, although the RS Cosworth/RS500 was used in the Australian Touring Car Championships from the late-1980s and early-1990s. Argentina In Argentina, the Sierra was offered as a five-door hatchback beginning in the summer of 1984. A station wagon body style was added in September 1985. The sporting XR4, with three-door bodywork arrived a couple of months after the original introduction. The facelifted post-1987 model did not reach the Argentinian market, where the range continued with a Merkur XR4Ti-like grille until 1991 for XR4 and 1992 for five-door models, when it was replaced by the Volkswagen Santana-based Galaxy. Argentinian Sierras can be distinguished by a more sculpted front bumper with an extra cooling inlet. The 1.6L was offered in GL model only, while the LX, Ghia, Ghia S/SX and XR4 were available with a 2.3-litre inline-four with some differences in specs. Both engines, as for the preceding Taunus TC3, were from the "Pinto" family. The power ranged between for the 1.6 and for the XR4 and later Ghia S versions. Some Ghia models also featured automatic transmission as an optional. The station wagon was called the Sierra Rural. Ford had previously used the name "Rural" for station wagons in Argentina, such as the Taunus, in a similar way to "Turnier" in Germany. The GL model was the base model replaced by the LX with the same equipment. The XR4 was eventually complemented by the five-door Ghia S/SX. Venezuela In Venezuela the locally assembled Ford Sierra was launched in 1985, the 2.8L V6 engine being standard on versions sold there, including the 5 door hatchback (280 LS and 280ES) and 3 door hatchback (XR4i and 280GT) as well as the 5 door station wagon (Ranchera). In 1990, a face-lifted version of the Sierra, powered by the 2.9L V6 engine was offered as both a hatchback and a sedan, the latter being known as the Sierra 300 Sapphire, although unlike the Sapphire in other markets, it had a blanked-off grille. Also launched in Venezuela was the XR6i. North America In North America, the Ford Sierra was offered under the now defunct Merkur brand. The Sierra was imported from Germany, as a three-door only, and called the XR4Ti. The Sierra name was not used by Ford in North America; the market had already seen the similar-sounding Oldsmobile Ciera, and the Sierra name was used and trademarked by General Motors Corporation from the 1970s as a trim level on its pickup trucks. The car was offered from the start of the Merkur brand in 1985 until 1989. It was equipped as a rear-wheel-drive 2.3-litre SOHC inline four-cylinder (commonly known as the "Lima" engine) equipped with a Garrett T3 turbocharger and fuel injection. The engine produces and was largely the same engine as was available in the Mustang, where it produced thanks to the fitment of an intercooler. Although offering the top-selling XR model worldwide, the Merkur brand is claimed to have been a commercial flop. The reasons vary. Safety and emissions regulations in the U.S. forced Ford to make costly modifications, resulting in relatively high prices, coupled with the required addition of air bags for all 1990 and newer vehicles (not required in foreign markets) doomed the marque to an untimely end. Exchange rates also fluctuated too frequently. Moreover, since Merkurs were sold at Lincoln–Mercury dealers, many customers were more attracted towards Mercury models, such as the Mercury Sable, which were similarly styled and had similar equipment for significantly lower prices. Mechanicals Unlike many of its rivals, the Sierra retained rear-wheel drive, albeit with a modern, fully independent rear suspension, departing from the Cortina's live axle. In the beginning the Sierra used engines and transmissions from the Taunus / Cortina. The engines were of two types, the SOHC Ford Pinto engine in 1.3, 1.6, 1.8 and 2.0-litre displacements, and the OHV Cologne V6 engine (in 2.0, 2.3, 2.8, and 2.9-litre capacities). Towards the end of the 1980s due to tightening emission standards, the Pinto engine began to be phased out-the 1.8-litre in 1988 replaced by a 1.8-litre CVH, the 2.0-litre in 1989, replaced with the Ford I4 DOHC engine and the 1.6 in 1992, replaced by the 1.6 CVH first seen in the Escort in 1980, described as a "CFi", a single point fuel injection system with a catalytic converter. The 2.9 L Cologne engine was available in the Sierra XR4x4 and the Sierra Ghia. Models with the 2.0 L and Cologne V6 engines had an option of a limited slip differential. Models built until 1989 used the type 9 gearbox that had been used in the Cortina, with the exception of 2WD Cosworth models that used the T5. The T5 had several variations, most were internal. This was basically the same transmission used in the Ford Mustang. The .80 overdrive gears were the weak link. It was later superseded by the MT75 unit (for DOHC, 4X4 and V6 models). All Sierras had rear drum brakes, except sporting models (2.0iS (some), 2.0 GLX & GLS, XR4x4, Sierra Cosworth, other special/sporting models inc 2.0i 4x4) and models with anti-lock brakes. American versions meanwhile were sold only with a 2.3 L four-cylinder turbocharged version of the Pinto engine. The Sierra also had a diesel option on the engine, namely at launch the 2.3 L normally aspirated Indenor diesel made by Peugeot. This engine was also used in contemporary Granadas and whilst reliable and economical it made an unrefined, noisy and very slow vehicle, but remained a popular option for Taxi firms. This was later superseded in 1990 by a 1.8 L turbocharged powerplant of Ford's own design which offered better response times and slightly more power. During the Sierra's production run the engine was known both as the Lynx and as the Endura-D, though was further rebranded as the 'Endura-DE' with the release of the second-generation Ford Mondeo. Special edition models In 1983, the high-performance XR4i version was introduced. It utilised the same 2.8 L Cologne engine as used in the Ford Capri 2.8 Injection of that era and sported a restyled version of the 3-door Sierra bodyshell. The double rear spoiler and curious multi-pillared rear windows were considered over-styled by some prospective buyers, and the car never achieved the cult status of the smaller Fiesta XR2 and Escort XR3i. A version of the XR4i with a 2.3 L turbocharged engine was sold in the United States as the Merkur XR4Ti. The XR4Ti was raced in Europe, most notably by Andy Rouse who used one to win the 1985 BTCC. In South Africa, there was a 3.0 L V6 version, called the XR6, also made in South Africa was a limited run of 250 V8 XR8s for saloon car racing homologation in 1984. These were based on the Ford Windsor 302 engine. In 1985 the XR4i was replaced by the XR4x4, which was based on the five-door hatchback, had four-wheel drive and was powered by the same 2.8 L V6 engine but wasn't equipped with the bi-plane rear spoiler. Only a very limited number of three-door XR4x4's have been built. By the end of its production in 1990, 23,540 had been produced. From 1990 to 1993 the XR4x4 was available with both the revised 2.9 EFi and 2.0 DOHC EFi engines. The XR4i also made a reappearance (as a badging exercise) in 5-door form but with the DOHC 2.0 engine instead of the V6. In 1989, Ford nodded towards its past and created the Sierra 2.0i 2000E, a model name used with limited success on the Mk3 Cortina. The Sierra 2000E had two-tone metallic paint, alloys, light grey leather interior, and a trip computer in addition the standard features on the 'Ghia' models. It was only available in saloon form and a limited number of models were sold between 1989 and 1991. Ford used this to showcase the new DOHC twin cam engine which was also released in 1989. In Argentina the non-injected XR4 model was equipped with the Taunus 2.3 engine and was produced between 1986 and 1991. In this market the most direct rival was the Renault Fuego 2.2. In July 1986, a special version called the Ford Sierra RS Cosworth was launched, using the 2.0 OHC bottom end with a 16V DOHC cylinder head specially developed by Cosworth. With the Cosworth Garret T3 turbocharger and intercooler setup the engine produced . It was designed by Ford's Special Vehicle Engineering (SVE) group and made in Ford's Genk factory in Belgium for use in group A. It was based on a three-door Sierra with the dashboard from the Merkur XR4Ti. The car was available in only white, black or Ford's 'Moonstone Blue' and only 5545 were made. The Sierra RS Cosworth was available in both right hand drive and left hand drive, the RS500 was only produced in Right Hand Drive. Racing conversion were done with the European Merkur dashboard. In 1987, a Sierra Cosworth, the RS500, was sold alongside the regular version. Only 500 were produced as the minimum number of road-going cars required to meet with newly introduced homologation racing rules, allowing it to compete in evolution form for group A racing. The car was modified by the Tickford Engineering Company in conjunction with Ford. Revisions included uprated brakes and larger brake cooling ducts and modified front and rear spoilers (a second smaller rear spoiler was added beneath the large "whale-tail"), a modified front bumper to allow extra cooling for a larger intercooler, as well as various engine upgrades including a larger turbocharger and a second fuel rail (which did not operate on road models). Race outputs were as high as , in which the Sierra dominated group A series around the world. Racing versions of the Cosworth were highly successful in European and World Touring Car racing throughout the late 1980s and early 1990s, and the RS500 helped Ford to win the manufacturer's title in the 1987 World Touring Car Championship. Ford was forced to fall back on the Sierra for rallying from 1987, after the banning of the Group B formula. With only rear-drive, the Sierra struggled to compete on looser surfaces but was very quick on asphalt, Didier Auriol winning his first World Championship rally in a Sierra in Corsica, 1988. It was replaced by the 4x4 Sapphire version from 1990, which never managed to win a World Championship event but became a popular and successful car in national championships. The Sierra was replaced by the Escort Cosworth in 1993. In 1988, a new Cosworth was produced which was based on the Sierra Sapphire saloon. 13,140 were produced until it was replaced in 1990 by a four-wheel-drive version, the Sierra Sapphire RS Cosworth 4x4, of which 12,250 were built. Its replacement came in the form of the Escort RS Cosworth which appeared in 1992, which used a shortened and developed version of the Sierra platform and running gear but clothed with an Escort-esque bodyshell and the return of the whale-tail spoiler. Turbocharged versions Turbocharged versions of the Sierra were also available as post-production models from companies like Janspeed and, most notably, from Turbo Technics. The XR4x4 2.8 was available with a range of aftermarket kits pushing power from to over . The 2.9 got a twin-turbo setup, available with variants up to . Even the DOHC version got a single turbo kit, of which only a small number were made. Turbo Technics even sold their own pre-prepared Sierra known as the Minker; only a handful were ever produced, as they cost significantly more than Ford's own RS Cosworth. In Finland, tax laws made the 1.3 L and 1.6 L-engined Sierras attractive business cars in the mid 1980s. Beginning in 1982, a number of these smaller engines were turbocharged locally in order to gain 2.0 L engine power without moving into the higher tax bracket. The 2.0 L OHC engine was also available turbocharged. These are often called "Stockmann Turbo" Sierras, after the provider of the most popular conversion kits. After stricter emissions standards were introduced for 1989, Stockmann focused on getting the more popular 1.6-litre kit approved and stopped offering the other ones. They were not intended as sporting cars, but were "tax specials" meant to save owners money without sacrificing power. The purchase price of a 1.6 Turbo was marginally higher than that of a factory 2.0, but the difference was quickly made up in tax savings. Changes during production life After the major facelift of 1987, and the introduction of the DOHC engines in 1989, further changes to the Sierra were superficial. Some detail styling changes were made in 1990, when the dashboard styling was freshened up, the front was given clear-lensed indicators, the rear given smoked rear lamp lenses, the steering wheel redesigned and a new front grille was added, together with fuel injection as standard, 15-inch wheels and rear disc brakes. UK production of the Sierra ceased in 1990 with right hand drive production moving to Belgium. For the 1991 model year, the 1.6 litre Pinto engine was finally dropped and replaced by a CVH unit of similar capacity, marking the end of the venerable Pinto unit after it had been introduced in the Cortina/Taunus some 21 years earlier. The 1992 model year cars saw the final revisions - most notably the dashboard which gained a more rounded instrument binnacle similar in style to the 1990 Escort and Orion, along with specification, colour and trim upgrades across the whole range. By 1989, Ford had confirmed that the successor to the Sierra (due by 1993) would feature front-wheel drive, and a number of concept cars were shown in the motoring press, hinting at what the new car might look like. By the early 1990s it had become clear that the Sierra had fallen out of step technologically against modern Japanese rivals which offered multi-valve engines and multi-link rear suspension. All of these features appeared on the Sierra's replacement, the front-wheel-drive Mondeo, which was unveiled in November 1992 and went on sale the following March. Popularity The Sierra is the tenth-most popular car to have been sold in Britain, with 1,299,993 units having been sold. The first Sierras were sold in October 1982, and stocks lasted for around two years after the end of production - with more than 200 models being sold in 1994 and at least one example being sold in 1995 (in February as an M-registered model). The Sierra remained a common sight on the roads in the United Kingdom and several other European countries, and a popular second-hand buy, until well into the 21st century. However, just 2,425 Ford Sierras were reported to be taxed and still on UK roads in December 2019, with 11,562 currently SORN. References See also Ford Sierra RS Cosworth Sierra Mid-size cars Rear-wheel-drive vehicles All-wheel-drive vehicles Hatchbacks Sedans Station wagons Hot hatches Cars introduced in 1982 1980s cars 1990s cars Touring cars	[ -0.23465898633003235, 0.17249241471290588, 0.432036817073822, -0.035677261650562286, 0.35679903626441956, 0.3612216114997864, -0.004377787932753563, 0.31600096821784973, 0.1600945144891739, 0.6507861018180847, 0.48579853773117065, 0.25941547751426697, 0.23494480550289154, 0.42429715394973755, -0.17034012079238892, 0.011855571530759335, 0.77461177110672, 0.8044366836547852, 0.1159471943974495, -0.4108976125717163, -0.034111879765987396, -0.5619440078735352, 0.7602638006210327, 0.044596876949071884, -0.022948041558265686, 0.33485686779022217, 0.5220617055892944, 0.1442040055990219, 0.3632667064666748, 0.6853208541870117, -0.3491068482398987, 0.6857791543006897, 0.17834065854549408, 0.008891645818948746, -0.5201705098152161, -0.16727030277252197, 0.033582888543605804, 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232445	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Self-fulfilling%20prophecy	Self-fulfilling prophecy	A self-fulfilling prophecy is the psychological phenomenon of someone "predicting" or expecting something, and this "prediction" or expectation coming true simply because the person believes or anticipates it will and the person's resulting behaviors align to fulfill the belief. This suggests that people's beliefs influence their actions. The principle behind this phenomenon is that people create consequences regarding people or events, based on previous knowledge of the subject. There are three factors within an environment that can come together to influence the likelihood of a self-fulfilling prophecy becoming a reality: appearance, perception and belief. When a phenomenon cannot be seen, appearance is what we rely upon when a self-fulfilling prophecy is in place. When it comes to a self-fulfilling prophecy there also must be a distinction "between 'brute and institutional' facts". The philosopher John Searle states the difference as "facts [that] exist independently of any human institutions; institutional facts can only exist within institutions." There is an inability of institutional facts to be self-fulfilling. For example, the old belief that the Earth is flat (institutional) when it is known to be spherical (brute) is not self-fulfilling, because Earth's shape is proven through significant evidence. There has to be a consensus by "large numbers of people within a given population"—aside from being institutional, social, or bound by the laws of nature for an idea—to be seen as self-fulfilling. A self-fulfilling prophecy can have either negative or positive outcomes. It can be concluded that establishing a label towards someone or something significantly impacts their perception and influences them to establish self-fulfilling prophecy. Interpersonal communication plays a significant role in establishing these phenomena as well as impacting the labeling process. Intrapersonal communication can have both positive and negative effects, dependent on the nature of the self-fulfilling prophecy. The expectations of a relationship or the inferiority complex felt by young minority children are examples of the negative effects of real false beliefs being self-fulfilling. American sociologists W. I. Thomas and Dorothy Swaine Thomas were the first to discover this phenomenon. In 1928 they developed the Thomas theorem (also known as the Thomas dictum), stating that, "If men define situations as real, they are real in their consequences." Because of the way the couple defined a self-fulfilling prophecy, their definition was regarded as flexible in its meaning. On a societal level, there can be a consensus on what's deemed true depending on the importance of the part of the culture even if it is a false assumption and as a result of this perception of the culture it will become the outcome based on the behavior of the society. A person's perception can be "self-creating" if the belief they have is acted upon by their behavior which aligns with the outcome. Building on Thomas' idea, another American sociologist, Robert K. Merton, used the term "self-fulfilling prophecy" for it, popularizing the idea that "a belief or expectation, correct or incorrect, could bring about a desired or expected outcome." While Robert K. Merton is typically credited for this theory because he coined the name; however, the Thomases developed it earlier on—along with the philosophers Karl Popper and Alan Gerwith—who also independently contributed to the idea behind this theory in their works, which also came before Merton. Self-fulfilling prophecies are an example of the more general phenomenon of positive feedback loops. History Robert K. Merton was a sociologist who helped to further develop many different theories such as anomie, social structure as well as the different modes of individual adaption. Merton was deeply passionate and interested in the sociology of science, during his time at Columbia University he was able to research and discover many different concepts such as "social structure, bureaucracy, mass communication, and the sociology of science". He established what his theory was and he would then start testing it right away without developing the concept. Merton would not worry about developing the theory because he was never looking for a "grand" theory, he was looking for a "practical" theory. Merton applied this concept to a fictional situation called "The Last National Bank". In his book Social Theory and Social Structure, he uses the example of a bank run to show how self-fulfilling thoughts can make unwanted situations happen. Rumors spread around the town about the Millingville bank and Merton mentions how a number of people falsely believe the bank was going to file for bankruptcy. Because of this false fear, many people decide to go to the bank and ask for all of their cash at once. The owner of the bank, Cartwright Millingville was once proud about the bank being alive and well which was thanks to the ubiquitous trust in the bank which gave it its stability but as the week fell upon what was called "Black Wednesday", things took a turn when the depositors lost faith in the validity of the bank according to Merton. These actions cause the bank to indeed go bankrupt because banks rarely have the amount of cash on hand to satisfy a large number of customers asking for all of their deposited cash at once. The people with money in the bank were the ones to define their perception or truth of the bank's ability to safely hold their money without risk. They were able to determine their new definition of the bank which became an overall consensus as many rushed to withdraw whatever was left after their scramble to ensure their money was secure in their own hands. Their loss of faith led to the bank's eventual failure which was not an initially true assumption until the depositors made it so. Merton concludes this example with the analysis, "The prophecy of collapse led to its own fulfillment". While Merton's example focused on self-fulfilling prophecies within a business, his theory is also applicable to interpersonal communication, since it is found to have a "potential for triggering self-fulfilling prophecy effects". This is due to the fact "that an individual decides whether or not to conform to the expectations of others". This makes people rely upon or fall into self-fulfilling thoughts, since they are trying to satisfy other's perceptions of them. This theory was applied to experiments done by Dr. Robert Rosenthal and Lenore Jacobson in the Pygmalion in the Classroom Study who tested the IQ's of 1st and 2nd grade elementary students. Where random students' IQ scores aligned with the expectation the teachers had been given about the students eventual success. Self-fulfilling theory can be divided into two behaviors, one would be the Pygmalion effect which is when "one person has expectations of another, changes her behavior in accordance with these expectations, and the object of the expectations then also changes her behavior as a result". Additionally, philosopher Karl Popper called the self-fulfilling prophecy the Oedipus effect: An early precursor of the concept appears in Edward Gibbon's Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire: "During many ages, the prediction, as it is usual, contributed to its own accomplishment" (chapter I, part II). Applications Examples abound in studies of cognitive dissonance theory and the related self-perception theory; people will often change their attitudes to come into line with what they profess publicly. Teacher expectations influence student academic performance. In the United States, the concept was broadly and consistently applied in the field of public education reform, following the "War on Poverty". Theodore Brameld noted: "In simplest terms, education already projects and thereby reinforces whatever habits of personal and cultural life are considered to be acceptable and dominant." The effects of teacher attitudes, beliefs and values, affecting their expectations have been tested repeatedly. Students may study more if they had a positive experience with their teacher. Or female students may perform worse if they expected their male instructor is a sexist. The phenomenon of the "inevitability of war" is a self-fulfilling prophecy that has received considerable study. Fear of failure leads to deterioration of results, even if the person is objectively able to adequately cope with the problem. For example, fear of falling leads to more falls among older people. Americans of Chinese and Japanese origin are more likely to die of a heart attack on the 4th of each month. This is because number 4 is "unlucky" in these cultures. The pronunciation of "4" and "death" is very similar in Chinese. The idea is similar to that discussed by the philosopher William James as "The Will to Believe." But James viewed it positively, as the self-validation of a belief. Just as, in Merton's example, the belief that a bank is insolvent may help create the fact, so too, on the positive side, confidence in the bank's prospects may help brighten them. Similarly, Stock-exchange panic episodes, and speculative bubble episodes, can be triggered with the belief that the stock will go down (or up), thus starting the selling/buying mass move, etc. A more Jamesian example: a swain, convinced that the fair maiden must love him, may prove more effective in his wooing than he would had his initial prophecy been defeatist. There is extensive evidence of "Interpersonal Expectation Effects", where the seemingly private expectations of individuals can predict the outcome of the world around them. The mechanisms by which this occurs are also reasonably well understood: it is simply that our own expectations change our behaviour in ways we may not notice and correct. In the case of the "Interpersonal Expectation Effects", others pick up on non-verbal behaviour, which affects their attitudes. An example includes the Pygmalion in the Classroom study where teachers were told arbitrarily that random students were likely to show significant intellectual growth As a result, those random students actually ended the year with significantly greater improvement when given another IQ test "The control group for all grade levels gained about eight points between the two tests, while the treatment group gained about twelve;" Although the exact actions behind what the teachers did to lead the study towards the initial expectation of student success is unknown, teachers who have higher expectations typically, give "more time to answer questions, more specific feedback, and more approval". A classic experiment was conducted by Robert Rosenthal and Lenore Jacobson in American elementary schools in 1968. Using a simulation test, he convinced the staff that some of the students he chose at random were intellectually gifted and would show excellent results in the future. When measuring intelligence at the end of the school year, 45 percent of children selected as "high-grade" showed an increase in their IQ of 20 or more, with some children showing an improvement of 30 points. People adapt to the judgments and assessments made by society, regardless of whether they were originally correct or not. There are certain prejudices against a socially marginalized group (e.g. homeless people, drug addicts or other minorities), and therefore people in this marginalized group actually begin to behave in accordance with expectations. If the behavior is influenced solely by the expectations of a particular person in power (e.g., a leader, teacher, doctor, or researcher), then we are talking about the Pygmalion effect. Relationships A leading study by Columbia University found that self-fulfilling prophecies have some part in relationships. The beliefs by people in relationships can impact the likelihood of a breakup or the overall health of the relationship. It was suggested by L. Alan Sroufe, that "rejection expectations can lead people to behave in ways that elicit rejection from others." The study looked at the inner workings behind the role of self-fulfilling prophecies in romantic relationships of people who were deemed high in rejection sensitivity which was defined as "the disposition to anxiously expect, readily perceive, and overreact to rejection". Couples were sampled from Columbia University and prompted to journal their thoughts and feelings in regards to their relationships. The psychologist professor Dr. Geraldine Downey found that women were more likely to experience rejection sensitivity in comparison to the negativity held by men about the future of their relationships. "RS was a stronger predictor of concern about rejection during conflict, and of feeling lonely and unloved after conflict, in women than in men" The original hypothesis aligned with the findings that "HRS women may be more likely to behave in ways that exacerbate conflicts." The conclusion was that women with high rejection sensitivity were more likely to "behave in ways that erode their partners' relationship satisfaction and commitment." The feelings of rejection would eventually cause the women to stop the relationship from the built up dissatisfaction. Other specific examples discussed in psychology include: "Clever Hans" effect Observer-expectancy effect Hawthorne effect Placebo effect Nocebo effect Pygmalion effect Stereotype threat International relations applications Self-fulfilling prophecies have been apparent throughout history where different countries fall into the 'Thucydides trap'. This term has been coined by Graham Allison and is defined by the occurrence of a rising power threatening a ruling or dominant power. Thuycidides was an Athenian historian and general who recorded the Peloponnesian war between Sparta and Athens. Thuycidides wrote, ""It was the rise of Athens and the fear that this instilled in Sparta that made war inevitable." The common theme of feeling threatened by another worldly power that may eventually surpass them puts the dominant power in a position to act on its fears which would equate to a potential war. A present day example of this sense of worry and anxiety is of China's rapid progression which threatens the U.S. as a dominant or ruling power. If the United States were to let the continuous growth of China lead into competition and the behavior of trying to restrict the growth of China it would push the two powers towards war which would be the result of the self-fulling prophecy. American political scientist Joseph Nye Jr. suggests to security analysts not to be too hasty as to allow their fear of impending conflict to become a reality and cause a self-fulfilling prophecy to occur. If countries make others out to be an enemy in their head, they secure the future of hostility. Another example of self-fulfilling prophecies is when the U.S. invaded Iraq back in 2002 based on the assumption it was a terrorist threat. However, according to evidence, it shows that no threat was posed by Iraq. The decisions made by the Bush administration stemmed from the desire to overthrow and dominate the regime which resulted in Iraq becoming a terrorist threat and a stronghold for the terrorist organization known as Al Qaeda., and henceforth confirming the initial belief of a potential threat. The belief that democratic peace is the best way to maintain a country is only deemed true among the masses falls into the category of being a self-fulfilling prophecy. If one country perceives another as peaceful and not restricting their ability to grow and function as they currently do, the belief will be held by both. This makes the definition when applied to countries as flexible for the possibility that it can also depend on the consensus of those who believe in a specific principle. Stereotype Self-fulfilling prophecies are one of the main contributions to racial prejudice and vice versa. According to the Dictionary of Race, Ethnicity & Culture "Self-fulfilling prophecy makes it possible to highlight the tragic vicious circle which victimizes people twice: first, because the victim is stigmatized (STIGMA) with an inherent negative quality; and secondly, because he or she is prevented from disproving this quality." To prove this, the author uses the example that Merton used in his book about how white workers expected that black people would be against the principles of trade unionism because white workers considered black workers to be "undisciplined in traditions of trade unionism and the art of collective bargain-ing." This prediction caused the event to happen (black workers would be against trade unionism), because this forecast became fact when all white people started to believe this and did not let the black workers get a job at any white men's business. Which made black workers unable to learn or approve the principles of trade unionism, since they were not given the chance of working in a work environment where these principles were seen or experienced. In the article "The Accumulation of Stereotype-based self-fulfilling Prophecies." The authors mention how teachers can encourage stereotype-based courses and can interact with students in a manner that encourages self-fulfilling thoughts. The example that was given was the one of a female student who seemed to do bad in math and her math teacher and counselor "channel her in the direction of confirming sex stereotypes" By this the author means that the teachers never encouraged her to improve her abilities in math. Instead, the teacher and the counselor recommended classes that were dominated by females. African American psychologist Kenneth B. Clark studied the responses of Black children ages 3–7 years old to black and white dolls in the 1960s. From his reports on his research, the term "self-fulfilling prophecy" made its first appearance in educational literature. The theory of self-fulfilling prophecy contributed to the impact of racism on the children. The responses from Clark's study ranged from some calling the black doll ugly and one girl bursting into tears when prompted to pick the doll she identified with. The black children internalized the inferiority they learned and acted as such as a result of their placement within society. Clark who aided in pushing the Supreme court decision towards the desegregation of schools in the case of the Brown v. The Board of Education, also noted the influence of teachers on the achievement levels between black and white students. ""the importance of the role of teachers in developing self-image, academic aspirations and achievements of their students"" prompted Clark to begin a study in 10 inner-city schools where he assessed the attitudes and behaviors of teachers. The belief held by teachers was that minority students were dumb and therefore they didn't put effort into them. The low expectations of the teachers aligned with their initial belief which was low IQ test scores. Clark wrote, ""If a child scores low on an intelligence test because he cannot read and then is not taught to read because he has a low score, then such a child is being imprisoned in an iron circle and becomes the victim of an educational self-fulfilling prophecy"" Kenneth B. Clarks ideas about educational Self-fulfilling prophecies opened up minds to the effectiveness of teaching and the expectations teachers place upon students. Literature, media, and the arts In literature, self-fulfilling prophecies are often used as plot devices. They have been used in stories for millennia, but have gained a lot of popularity recently in the science fiction genre. They are typically used ironically, with the prophesied events coming to pass due to the actions of one trying to prevent the prophecy (a recent example would be the life of Anakin Skywalker, the fictional Jedi-turned-Sith Lord in George Lucas' Star Wars saga). They are also sometimes used as comic relief. Classical Many myths, legends, and fairy tales make use of this motif as a central element of narratives that are designed to illustrate inexorable fate, fundamental to the Hellenic world-view. In a common motif, a child, whether newborn or not yet conceived, is prophesied to cause something that those in power do not want to happen. This may be the death of the powerful person; in more light-hearted versions, it is often the marriage of a poor or lower-class child to his own. The events come about, nevertheless, as a result of the actions taken to prevent them: frequently child abandonment sets the chain of events in motion. Greek In Greek literature a "prophete" is defined as "one who speaks for another." The best-known example from Greek legend is that of Oedipus. Warned that his child would one day kill him, Laius abandoned his newborn son Oedipus to die, but Oedipus was found and raised by others, and thus in ignorance of his true origins. When he grew up, Oedipus was warned that he would kill his father and marry his mother. Believing his foster parents were his real parents, he left his home and travelled to Greece, eventually reaching the city where his biological parents lived. There, he got into a fight with a stranger, his real father, killed him and married his widow, Oedipus' real mother. Although the legend of Perseus opens with the prophecy that he will kill his grandfather Acrisius, and his abandonment with his mother Danaë, the prophecy is only self-fulfilling in some variants. In some, he accidentally spears his grandfather at a competition—an act that could have happened regardless of Acrisius' response to the prophecy. In other variants, his presence at the games is explained by his hearing of the prophecy, so that his attempt to evade it does cause the prophecy to be fulfilled. In still others, Acrisius is one of the wedding guests when Polydectes tried to force Danaë to marry him, and when Perseus turns them to stone with the Gorgon's head; as Polydectes fell in love with Danaë because Acrisius abandoned her at sea, and Perseus killed the Gorgon as a consequence of Polydectes' attempt to get rid of Danaë's son so that he could marry her, the prophecy fulfilled itself in these variants. Greek historiography provides a famous variant: when the Lydian king Croesus asked the Delphic Oracle if he should invade Persia, the response came that if he did, he would destroy a great kingdom. Assuming this meant he would succeed, he attacked—but the kingdom he destroyed was his own. In such an example, the prophecy prompts someone to action because he is led to expect a favorable result; but he achieves another, disastrous result which nonetheless fulfills the prophecy. When it was predicted that Cronos would be overthrown by his son, and usurp his throne as King of the Gods, Cronus ate his children, each shortly after they were born. When Zeus was born, Cronos was thwarted by Rhea, who gave him a stone to eat instead, sending Zeus to be raised by Amalthea. Cronos' attempt to avoid the prophecy made Zeus his enemy, ultimately leading to its fulfilment. Roman The story of Romulus and Remus is another example. According to legend, a man overthrew his brother, the king. He then ordered that his two nephews, Romulus and Remus, be drowned, fearing that they would someday kill him as he did to his brother. The boys were placed in a basket and thrown in the Tiber River. A wolf found the babies and she raised them. Later, a shepherd found the twins and named them Romulus and Remus. As teenagers, they found out who they were. They killed their uncle, fulfilling the prophecy. Arabic A variation of the self-fulfilling prophecy is the self-fulfilling dream, which dates back to medieval Arabic literature. Several tales in the One Thousand and One Nights, also known as the Arabian Nights, use this device to foreshadow what is going to happen, as a special form of literary prolepsis. A notable example is "The Ruined Man Who Became Rich Again Through a Dream", in which a man is told in his dream to leave his native city of Baghdad and travel to Cairo, where he will discover the whereabouts of some hidden treasure. The man travels there and experiences misfortune after losing belief in the prophecy, ending up in jail, where he tells his dream to a police officer. The officer mocks the idea of foreboding dreams and tells the protagonist that he himself had a dream about a house with a courtyard and fountain in Baghdad where treasure is buried under the fountain. The man recognizes the place as his own house and, after he is released from jail, he returns home and digs up the treasure. In other words, the foreboding dream not only predicted the future, but the dream was the cause of its prediction coming true. A variant of this story later appears in English folklore as the "Pedlar of Swaffham". Another variation of the self-fulfilling prophecy can be seen in "The Tale of Attaf", where Harun al-Rashid consults his library (the House of Wisdom), reads a random book, "falls to laughing and weeping and dismisses the faithful vizier" Ja'far ibn Yahya from sight. Ja'far, "disturbed and upset flees Baghdad and plunges into a series of adventures in Damascus, involving Attaf and the woman whom Attaf eventually marries." After returning to Baghdad, Ja'far reads the same book that caused Harun to laugh and weep, and discovers that it describes his own adventures with Attaf. In other words, it was Harun's reading of the book that provoked the adventures described in the book to take place. This is an early example of reverse causality. In the 12th century, this tale was translated into Latin by Petrus Alphonsi and included in his Disciplina Clericalis. In the 14th century, a version of this tale also appears in the Gesta Romanorum and Giovanni Boccaccio's The Decameron. Hinduism The prophets involved in this religion are considered to be very superior, they have the highest ranking on the class system that one could have, and religious temples or shrines are built in their honor. It is believed in the Hindu religion that the prophets can foretell the future due to what they are experiencing in the "present" time. Many of these prophets are seen to act as "saviors" and "restore justice to the world." Self-fulfilling prophecies appear in classical Sanskrit literature. In the story of Krishna in the Indian epic Mahabharata, the ruler of the Mathura kingdom, Kansa, afraid of a prophecy that predicted his death at the hands of his sister Devaki's son, had her cast into prison where he planned to kill all of her children at birth. After killing the first six children, and Devaki's apparent miscarriage of the seventh, Krishna (the eighth son) was born. As his life was in danger he was smuggled out to be raised by his foster parents Yashoda and Nanda in the village of Gokula. Years later, Kansa learned about the child's escape and kept sending various demons to put an end to him. The demons were defeated at the hands of Krishna and his brother Balarama. Krishna, as a young man returned to Mathura to overthrow his uncle, and Kansa was eventually killed by his nephew Krishna. It was due to Kansa's attempts to prevent the prophecy that it came true, thus fulfilling the prophecy. Ruthenian Oleg of Novgorod was a Varangian prince who ruled over the Rus people during the early tenth century. As old East Slavic chronicles say, it was prophesied by the pagan priests that Oleg's stallion would be the source of Oleg's death. To avoid this he sent the horse away. Many years later he asked where his horse was, and was told that it had died. He asked to see the remains and was taken to the place where the bones lay. When he touched the horse's skull with his boot a snake slithered from the skull and bit him. Oleg died, thus fulfilling the prophecy. In the Primary Chronicle, Oleg is known as the Prophet, ironically referring to the circumstances of his death. The story was romanticized by Alexander Pushkin in his celebrated ballad "The Song of the Wise Oleg". In Scandinavian traditions, this legend lived on in the saga of Orvar-Odd. European fairy tales Many fairy tales, such as The Devil With the Three Golden Hairs, The Fish and the Ring, The Story of Three Wonderful Beggars, or The King Who Would Be Stronger Than Fate, revolve about a prophecy that a poor boy will marry a rich girl (or, less frequently, a poor girl a rich boy). This is story type 930 in the Aarne–Thompson classification scheme. The girl's father's efforts to prevent it are the reason why the boy ends up marrying her. Another fairy tale occurs with older children. In The Language of the Birds, a father forces his son to tell him what the birds say: that the father would be the son's servant. In The Ram, the father forces his daughter to tell him her dream: that her father would hold an ewer for her to wash her hands in. In all such tales, the father takes the child's response as evidence of ill-will and drives the child off; this allows the child to change so that the father will not recognize his own offspring later and so offer to act as the child's servant. In some variants of Sleeping Beauty, such as Sun, Moon, and Talia, the sleep is not brought about by a curse, but a prophecy that she will be endangered by flax (or hemp) results in the royal order to remove all the flax or hemp from the castle, resulting in her ignorance of the danger and her curiosity. Shakespeare Shakespeare's Macbeth is another classic example of a self-fulfilling prophecy. The three witches give Macbeth a prophecy that Macbeth will eventually become king, but afterwards, the offspring of his best friend will rule instead of his own. Macbeth tries to make the first half true while trying to keep his bloodline on the throne instead of his friend's. Spurred by the prophecy, he kills the king and his friend, something he, arguably, never would have done before. In the end, the evil actions he committed to avoid his succession by another's bloodline get him killed in a revolution. The later prophecy by the first apparition of the witches that Macbeth should "Beware Macduff" is also a self-fulfilling prophecy. If Macbeth had not been told this, then he might not have regarded Macduff as a threat. Therefore, he would not have killed Macduff's family, and Macduff would not have sought revenge and killed Macbeth. Modern Fiction Similar to Oedipus above, a more modern example would be Darth Vader in the Star Wars films, or Lord Voldemort in the Harry Potter franchise and the Big Three in Percy Jackson & the Olympians – each attempted to take steps to prevent action against them which had been predicted could cause their downfall, but instead created the conditions leading to it. Another, less well-known, modern example occurred with the character John Mitchell on BBC Three's Being Human. The Disney television series That's So Raven stars Raven-Symoné as the title character with the ability to see into the future, revealing a strange situation. The extreme steps that the character takes to prevent the situation are almost always what lead to the situation. In George R. R. Martin's book series A Song of Ice and Fire, Cersei Lannister kills a friend of hers after hearing a prophecy, from Maggy the Frog, that said friend will soon die. The song "Iron Man" by British heavy metal band Black Sabbath follows the story of a self-fulfilling prophecy of a man who travels into the future and sees the apocalypse and tries to warn people, but ends up causing the apocalypse. New Thought The law of attraction is a typical example of self-fulfilling prophecy. It is the name given to the belief that "like attracts like" and that by focusing on positive or negative thoughts, one can bring about positive or negative results. According to this law, all things are created first by imagination, which leads to thoughts, then to words and actions. The thoughts, words and actions held in mind affect someone's intentions which makes the expected result happen. Although there are some cases where positive or negative attitudes can produce corresponding results (principally the placebo and nocebo effects), there is no scientific basis to the law of attraction. Sports Robert Barnsley showed that in an elite group of ice hockey players, 40% are born between January and March, versus the approximately 25% as would be predicted by statistics, which could be explained by the relative age effect leading to selected players being exposed to higher levels of coaching, playing more games, and having better teammates. These factors make them actually become the best players, fulfilling the prophecy, while the real selection criterion was age. The same relative age effect has been noticed in Association football, Baseball, Basketball, Handball, Tennis and many other Sports. Some researchers from 2008 found that in basketball, the head Coaches gave more biased feedback while the assistant coaches gave more critical feedback. They predicted this was due to the external expectations from the coaches to the athletes which could have resulted in the Pygmalion effect with positive and negative results. Researcher Helen Brown published findings of two experiments performed on athletes in regard to the effect that the media has on them. In the first experiment, the athletes were labelled and categorized. During the experiment, the media reporter stated their expectations for the athlete, which would either be good, bad, or a neutral outlook. As a result, from this first experiment, it was concluded that the athlete's performance was impacted in both a good way and a bad way when they heard what the media's perception and outlook of their performance was. Experiment two took place in 2012 in London. The difference between experiment two and experiment one is that it happened face to face. The key components being studied in the athletes were their thought process as well as their responses to these expectations that the media was making about them. As a result from the second experiment performed, it was concluded that the media does impact athletes, it impacts their judgement, their thought process and it can even have a dangerous and destructive impact on some athletes. This shows that the self-fulfilling prophecy was fulfilled because when the athlete and the media reporter came face to face and the media reporter began stating their expectations that they expect the athlete to fulfill they were able to "influence the athlete's cognition." Causal loop A self-fulfilling prophecy may be a form of causality loop. Predestination does not necessarily involve a supernatural power, and could be the result of other "infallible foreknowledge" mechanisms. Problems arising from infallibility and influencing the future are explored in Newcomb's paradox. A notable fictional example of a self-fulfilling prophecy occurs in classical play Oedipus Rex, in which Oedipus becomes the king of Thebes, whilst in the process unwittingly fulfills a prophecy that he would kill his father and marry his mother. The prophecy itself serves as the impetus for his actions, and thus it is self-fulfilling. The movie 12 Monkeys heavily deals with themes of predestination and the Cassandra complex, where the protagonist who travels back in time explains that he cannot change the past. See also Anticipation Begging the question Bootstrap paradox Cognitive behavioral therapy Confirmation bias Copycat effect Eschatology Expectation (epistemic) Fake it till you make it Mind over matter Moore's law Nineteen Eighty-Four Nominative determinism Reflexivity (social theory) Subject-expectancy effect Selection bias Self-defeating prophecy Self-licking ice cream cone Self-validating reduction Notes Further reading Sayers, Dorothy L.: Oedipus Simplex: Freedom and Fate in Folklore and Fiction. Attitude attribution Causal fallacies Causality Cognitive biases Error Fiction Plot (narrative) Sociological terminology Robert K. 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232450	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Closing%20the%20Gaps	Closing the Gaps	Closing the Gaps was a policy of the Fifth Labour Government of New Zealand for assisting socio-economically disadvantaged Māori and Pacific Islander ethnic groups in New Zealand through specially targeted social programmes. The phrase "Closing the Gaps" was a slogan of the Labour Party in the 1999 election campaign and was implemented as a policy initiative in the 2000 Budget. Overview The aim of Closing the Gaps was to reduce the most visible disparities in socio-economic status and opportunity between Māori and Pacific Islander groups and other groups. The policy had a social development and social inclusion approach to social policy. Closing the Gaps aimed to balance individual and collective rights and responsibilities by integrating Māori and Pacific Islanders more extensively into the paid labour market. Context The socio-economic gaps between Māori and non-Māori stem from a history of colonialism. Land alienation and the Māori labour migration resulted in structural inequalities in socio-economic status between Māori and non-Māori, a central concern of Closing the Gaps. These inequalities were exacerbated by the neoliberal policy reforms pursued by the Fourth Labour and Fourth National governments. Increasing inequality throughout the 1980s and 90s disproportionately affected Māori and Pacific Islanders, who were over-represented at the bottom of New Zealand's socio-economic landscape. Closing the Gaps was a policy typical of Third Way political philosophy, popular throughout the West in the early 2000s. Third Way politics reconciles neoliberalism with social democratic ideals to mitigate the inequalities caused by neoliberal economic and political systems. Hence, Closing the Gaps is recognizant of the global political context it inhabited. Closing the Gaps was a direct response to the findings of the 1998 Te Puni Kōkiri report "Progress Towards Closing the Social and Economic Gaps Between Māori and non-Māori", which outlined these accumulating inequalities Māori and Pacific Islanders encountered. The report's overall findings revealed the gaps between Māori and non-Māori in education, employment, economic and health status were significant. Furthermore, the report revealed these gaps had stabilized or were widening, not reducing. The Closing the Gaps report was the first government publication to measure inequalities between Māori and non-Māori, both setting a benchmark for policy, and providing an impetus for the Fifth Labour-led Government to reduce inequality. Policy outline Investment in schools, polytechnics, universities, housing agencies and hospitals. Investment in Māori and Pacific Islander controlled and managed organisations. $12 million in additional funding to Te Puni Kōkiri over four years to improve the government's information base and monitoring capability in order to more effectively measure outcomes of social policy programmes for Māori. Departmental chief executives required to disclose in their annual reports the steps taken in their departments towards closing socio-economic gaps between Māori and Pacific Islanders and others. $114 million towards capacity building initiatives for Māori and Pacific Islander communities. $8 million in additional funding to the Māori Land Court over four years. Creation of a provisional fund of $50 million for Closing the Gaps initiatives developed between budgets. Public opinion Closing the Gaps was widely criticized for unfairly privileging Māori and threatening social cohesion. In June 2000, Winston Peters, leader of the New Zealand First party, described the program as "social apartheid". The responses from the opposition and the public reflected the perspective that Māori rights under the Treaty of Waitangi were special privileges that actively excluded non-Māori from their rights and privileges as New Zealand citizens. The perspective that Māori were being unfairly privileged by Closing the Gaps gained popularity because the policy was portrayed as undermining an equality of opportunity approach to social policy that was popular in New Zealand. Perspectives on Closing the Gaps was more varied within the Maori community. While the benefits Māori communities received from the policy led to Closing the Gaps being perceived positively by many Māori, critics argued the policy was ultimately damaging for Māori because it perpetuated negative stereotypes that normalised and reinforced Pakeha dominance. Māori Labour Party politicians promoted the policy as providing greater autonomy and self-determination for Māori under the partnership principle of the Treaty of Waitangi. Contrastingly, it was argued that by encouraging assimilation to Western values, Closing the Gaps continued to marginalise Māori culture by portraying Māoridom, and consequently Māori socio-economic disadvantage, as deviant. Additionally, a focus on individual responsibility for reducing socio-economic gaps was criticised for failing to recognise the government's historical role as the excluding agent causing inequalities between Māori and non-Māori. Outcomes Six months after the Labour-led Government was formed in late 1999, the term "Closing the Gaps" was no longer used in official documents. Opposition politicians observed that the Government still had a Closing the Gaps policy objective, but no longer referred to the policy by that name. Closing the Gaps was re-branded by the Government as "reducing inequalities", in an attempt to make the policy more popular with the public. Over the term of the 1999–2008 Labour Government, social statistics for Maori and Pacific Islanders did generally improve; however, the statistics for Pakeha New Zealanders showed a greater improvement, resulting in the 'gaps' actually increasing. Closing the Gaps failed to reduce socio-economic inequalities between Māori and non-Māori and did not resolve structural inequalities that socio-economically excluded Māori from mainstream society. In response to the unpopularity of Closing the Gaps, the opposition National Party campaigned, unsuccessfully, on a commitment to one standard of citizenship for all New Zealanders. In 2004 National leader Don Brash suggested all policies privileging Māori should be abandoned, calling for abolition of the Māori electorates and Māori claims to customary title under the Treaty of Waitangi. Closing the Gaps popularised a rhetoric of privilege in response to Treaty rights. See also Closing the gap – a similar Australian strategy References Politics of New Zealand New Zealand Labour Party Political terminology in New Zealand Helen Clark	[ 0.5145904421806335, 0.10602647811174393, -0.7897951006889343, -0.16570031642913818, -0.2658446133136749, 0.7511397004127502, 0.6474522948265076, 0.006560414098203182, -0.22403360903263092, -0.1077660545706749, -0.4762343168258667, 0.3663136661052704, 0.023476986214518547, 0.23549754917621613, -0.15118931233882904, -0.018484890460968018, 0.18507260084152222, -0.0005913774948567152, 0.003795093623921275, -0.10836445540189743, -0.23918065428733826, 0.030182912945747375, 0.0017131987260654569, 0.0979173555970192, 0.41529473662376404, 0.20450492203235626, 0.5014253854751587, 0.1407814919948578, 0.057091422379016876, -0.24863409996032715, 0.6721139550209045, 0.36273229122161865, -0.20468156039714813, 0.07845330983400345, 0.02394346334040165, -0.24733474850654602, 0.2772693336009979, -0.01617956906557083, -0.10390546172857285, 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232453	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Marston%27s%20Brewery	Marston's Brewery	Marston's plc is a British pub and hotel operator. Founded by John Marston in 1834, it was known as Wolverhampton & Dudley Breweries plc until changing its name to Marston's in 2007. It is listed on the London Stock Exchange. Marston's disposed of its brewing operations in 2020, selling the assets to a newly formed joint venture with the Carlsberg Group to create the Carlsberg Marston's Brewing Company (CMBC), in which Marston's plc holds a 40% share. History In 1834, John Marston established J. Marston & Son at the Horninglow Brewery in Burton upon Trent. By 1861, the brewery produced 3,000 barrels a year. In 1890, Marston & Son Ltd was registered as a limited liability company. In 1898 Marston's amalgamated with John Thompson & Son Ltd and moved to Albion Brewery on Shobnall Road, which the company still operates. By this time the brewery had a capacity of 100,000 barrels a year. It was at this time that the Burton Union System began to be used. In 1905, the company merged with Sydney Evershed to form Marston, Thompson & Evershed. Banks & Co has been brewing at the Park Brewery in Wolverhampton since 1875. In 1890 Banks became Wolverhampton & Dudley Breweries when the company amalgamated with George Thompson & Sons and Charles Colonel Smith's Brewery. In 1943 Wolverhampton & Dudley Breweries took over Julia Hanson & Sons, with 200 pubs. It was first listed on the London Stock Exchange in 1947. It acquired Camerons Brewery in Hartlepool in 1992 and sold it to Castle Eden in 2002, whilst retaining some of Cameron's tied pubs. In 1999, Wolverhampton & Dudley Breweries purchased Marston, Thompson & Evershed, and in the same year took over the Mansfield Brewery of Nottinghamshire and closed it down, transferring production of Mansfield beers to the Park Brewery. In 2005, Marston's Brewery took over production under licence from Interbrew of Draught Bass, succeeding Coors. Later in 2005, the Jennings Brewery of Cockermouth was purchased and in 2007 Hampshire-based Ringwood Brewery, which was established in 1978, and brews Best Bitter, Fortyniner, and Old Thumper, was acquired. In 2007, the company changed its name from Wolverhampton & Dudley Breweries plc to Marston's plc. In late 2013, there was some controversy when it was announced that Marston's would sell some 200 pubs to new company New River Retail. The fear was that many would close and be turned into convenience stores. In 2014, the company took over production of most Thwaites beers after the closure of the latter's main brewery. On 31 March 2015, it was announced the company was buying the bulk of Thwaites beer supply business outright and the top two brands Wainwright and Lancaster Bomber for around £25m. In May 2017, Marston's announced further expansion with the acquisition of Charles Wells's Eagle Brewery in Bedford. This gave Marston's ownership of the Bombardier, Courage and McEwan's ale brands, and the global licence for Young's beers. In February 2020, Marston's signed a five-year extension to its distribution deal with Japanese beer maker Kirin. In May 2020, it was announced that subject to competition law and shareholder approval, Marston's would merge its brewing business with Carlsberg UK (the United Kingdom arm of Carlsberg Group), into a joint venture valued at £780m. Marston's will take a 40% stake in the joint venture and receive up to £273m in cash. The deal will involve Marston's six breweries and distribution depots, but not its 1,400 pubs. The merger was approved by the Competition and Markets Authority on 9 October 2020. The new brewing company will be headquartered in Wolverhampton and be known as Carlsberg Marston's Brewing Company. It was also announced that the transaction was expected to be completed by the end of October 2020. The same month, the company announced that it will cut over 2,150 jobs (a fifth of their employees) as a result of the strict UK government measures to fight the spread of the COVID-19 pandemic. In December 2020, Marston's took over the running of 156 pubs in Wales from Welsh brewer Brains. Operations The company owns and operates six breweries (as of July 2020): The Park Brewery in Wolverhampton brews Banks's and Mansfield beers plus most Thwaites beers under contract. The Marston's Brewery in Burton upon Trent brews Marston's and Bass plus Tetley's beers under contract. The Jennings Brewery in Cockermouth The Wychwood Brewery in Witney (which includes the Brakspear Brewhouse) The Ringwood Brewery in Ringwood, Hampshire The Eagle Brewery, (formerly Charles Wells) Bedford brews Bombardier, Courage, Waggle Dance, the global Young's licence and Scottish brands McEwan's and William Younger The company operates over 1,700 pubs and bars across England and Wales, around 300 tenanted and 500 leased and a hotel chain. Brewing methods Marston's is the only remaining brewer to use Burton Union Sets, a system whereby fermentation barrels and troughs are linked together by pipework. The basic principle is one of preventing excessive beer and yeast loss through foaming, but the consequence is that the beer is in contact with more wood and with more beer, fermenting in a bigger volume, typically totalling about 100 barrels or 160 hectolitres. That results in a more consistent flavour and very little chance of a whole batch being ruined. All other large-scale brewers have abandoned that method in favour of stainless steel fermenting vessels, which while they ensure (through volume) a consistent flavour, limit the use of traditional yeast varieties. They make selective use of the unusual double dropping process (for example, in the production of Brakspear Bitter), which introduces complex flavours by a period of accelerated yeast growth. Beers The main beers are Mansfield, Wainwright, Marston's Pedigree and EPA, McEwans Export, McEwan's Special, Bombardier, Wychwood Hobgoblin, Jennings Cumberland Ale, and Banks's Bitter and Mild. Despite a general UK-wide decline in the popularity of mild ales, Banks's Mild still outsells its stablemate bitter in the West Midlands market and is the best-selling mild ale in the world. The company also owns Sunbeam, a blonde beer which is brewed and distributed from the Banks's brewery based in Wolverhampton. Sunbeam was first produced in 2011, to commemorate the 10th anniversary of Wolverhampton achieving city status. Half of all its beer is bottled. Marston's brews Draught Bass for AB InBev and Tetley Bitter, Mild and Dark Mild for Carlsberg. Marston's Pedigree is a 4.3% ABV bitter. Introduced in 1952, it is Marston's flagship brand, selling 150,000 hectolitres in 2010. It is the only beer to use the oak Burton Union System so that it is fermented in wood; the ingredients are mineral enriched Burton Water, malted barley, and Fuggles and Goldings hops. Wainwright is one of the company's best-selling beers and is brewed at the Banks's Brewery in Wolverhampton. It is a 4.1% ABV golden ale named in honour of the famous fell walker and author Alfred Wainwright. Marston's acquired the brand from Thwaites in 2015. In 2016, the Thwaites branding was dropped and the beer was rebranded "The golden beer". The acquisition of Charles Wells's Eagle Brewery in Bedford increased Marston's share of the British ale market. It also widened its geographical reach giving it southern English brands Bombardier, Waggledance, Courage, the global Young's licence and Scottish brands McEwan's and William Younger. Sponsorship From 2007 to 2017, Marston's had a sponsorshop agreement with the England and Wales Cricket Board, whereby Marston's Pedigree was the official beer of the England Cricket team. Marston's was the official supplier of beer at all home test matches and had exclusive beer advertising rights. See also Brewers of Burton British regional breweries using wooden casks References External links Marston's PLC Marston's Inns Breweries in England Companies based in Wolverhampton British companies established in 1834 Food and drink companies established in 1890 Companies listed on the London Stock Exchange Food and drink companies established in 1834	[ 0.5151139497756958, 0.9136337637901306, 0.6703733205795288, -0.7876542210578918, 0.10165958106517792, 0.4909478425979614, 0.7863462567329407, 0.011421021074056625, -0.3201219141483307, 0.4141292870044708, -0.42354151606559753, 0.16878385841846466, 0.014476018026471138, 0.5942614078521729, 0.008962058462202549, -0.0631435364484787, -0.31190553307533264, 0.49209538102149963, 0.022821247577667236, -0.9985355138778687, 0.2734130918979645, -0.33386579155921936, 0.3041617274284363, -0.2777478098869324, -0.17351101338863373, -0.16161450743675232, 0.21526193618774414, -0.031634680926799774, -0.6171014904975891, 0.4627029597759247, 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232458	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rizal	Rizal	, officially the Province of (), is a landlocked province in the Philippines located in the Calabarzon region in Luzon. Its capital is the city of Antipolo. It is about east of Manila. The province is named after José Rizal, one of the main national heroes of the Philippines. Rizal is bordered by Metro Manila to the west, Bulacan to the north, Quezon to the east and Laguna to the southeast. The province also lies on the northern shores of Laguna de Bay, the largest lake in the country. Rizal is a mountainous province perched on the western slopes of the southern portion of the Sierra Madre mountain range. Pasig served as its capital until 2008, even it became a part of the newly created National Capital Region since November 7, 1975. A provincial capitol has been in Antipolo since 2009, making it the administrative center. On June 19, 2020, President Rodrigo Duterte signed Republic Act No. 11475, which designated Antipolo as the capital of Rizal. The change took place on July 7, 2020. This province is a part of Greater Manila Area. History Tagalog settlement arrived some time in the pre-Spanish period. The provincial territory began with the organization of the Tondo province and Laguna province during the Spanish administration. Some of the towns like Pasig, Parañaque, Taytay and Cainta were already thriving. From the reports of the Encomiendas in 1582–1583, the Encomiendas of Moron (Morong) was under the jurisdiction of La Laguna and, the Encomiendas of Passi (Pasig), Taitay (Taytay) and Tagui (Taguig) belonged to the Province of Tondo. It was recorded that in 1591, the Encomiendas of Moron and Taitay were under the jurisdiction of the Franciscan Order in the Province of La Laguna; and the Encomiendas of Nabotas (Navotas), Tambobo (Malabon), Tondo, Parañaque (then La Huerta, Parañaque), Longalo (Don Galo, Parañaque), Tagui and Pasig were under the jurisdiction of the Augustinians in the Province of Tondo. In 1853 a new political subdivision was formed. This consisted of the towns of Antipolo (now a city), Bosoboso, Cainta and Taytay from the Province of Tondo; and the towns of Morong, Baras, Tanay, Pililla, Angono, Binangonan and Jala-jala from the Province of La Laguna, with the capital at Morong. This district was changed to Distrito Politico-Militar de Morong after four years. In 1860, by virtue of Circular No. 83, dated September 2, 1785, the Province of Tondo became the Province of Manila. All its towns were placed under the administration, fiscal supervision and control of the Governor of the new province. The town of Mariquina (Marikina) became the capital of the Province of Manila during the tenure of the revolutionary government of Gen. Emilio Aguinaldo. The Province of Morong had for its capital the town of Antipolo for the period 1898–1899, and the town of Tanay for 1899–1900. On February 6, the First Philippine Commission sought to establish civil government in the country through a provincial organization act after the Filipino-Spanish and Filipino-American conflicts. Therefore, on June 5, 1901, a historic meeting was held at the Pasig Catholic Church for the organization of a civil government in the Provinces of Manila and Morong, with 221 delegates in attendance. The first Philippine Commission, headed by William Howard Taft and composed of Commissioners Luke E. Wright, Henry C. Ide, Bernard Moses and Dean C. Worcester, discussed with the Assembly the issue of whether or not to write the Province of Manila with Morong Province, was not self-sufficient to operate as a separate province. Although the delegates from Morong, Hilarion Raymundo, and José Tupas, objected to the proposal, Juan Sumulong of Antipolo strongly advocated the move. After much acrimonious debate and upon the suggestion of Trinidad H. Pardo de Tavera the body agreed on the creation of a new province independent of the Province of Manila. The new province was aptly named after Jose Rizal, the country's national hero. On June 11, 1901, the province of Rizal was officially and legally created by virtue of an Act No. 137 by the First Philippine Commission which during the time was acting as the unicameral legislative body in the island of Luzon. The new province was composed of 29 municipalities, 18 from the old Province of Manila (Cainta, Caloocan, Las Piñas, Mariquina (Marikina), Montalban (Rodriguez), Muntinlupa, Navotas, Novaliches, Parañaque, Pasig, Pateros, Pineda (Pasay), San Felipe Neri (Mandaluyong), San Juan del Monte (San Juan), San Mateo, San Pedro Macati (Makati), Taguig, Tambobong (Malabon)); and 11 from the Politico-Militar District of Morong, (Angono, Baras, Binangonan, Antipolo, Cardona, Jalajala, Morong, Pililla, Tanay, Taytay and Teresa). The City of Manila from the old Province of Manila was treated as a separate entity. The seat of the provincial government was Pasig. In year 1939, Quezon City was established, which included parts of Caloocan, and later on, Novaliches and parts of Marikina and San Juan towns. World War II Marking's and the Hunter's ROTC Guerrillas operated in Rizal Province throughout the war. Post-war Through Presidential Decree No. 824, Rizal was partitioned on 7 November 1975 to form Metro Manila. The municipalities of Las Piñas, Parañaque, Muntinlupa, Taguig, Pateros, Makati, Mandaluyong, San Juan, Malabon, Navotas, Pasig and Marikina, and the three cities of Caloocan, Pasay and Quezon City were excised to form the new region, while the other 14 towns remained in Rizal. Contemporary history Rizal Governor Dr. Casimiro Ynares III announced on June 17, 2008, the transfer of the Capitol from Pasig. Its ₱ 270-million capitol building, constructed in Antipolo by Ortigas & Co., owner thereof, was completed by December of that year. Built on a five-hectare lot at the Ynares Center, it employs 2,008 employees. The New Capitol was successfully inaugurated on March 4, 2009, bringing back the Capitol Building inside the provincial territory, from which it was absent for 33 years (when Pasig was incorporated into Metro Manila). On June 19, 2020, President Duterte signed Republic Act No. 11475 into law, which officially transferred the capital of the Rizal province from Pasig to Antipolo. The law was published on June 22, 2020, and took effect on July 7, 2020. The publication of the law coincided with the 159th birth anniversary of Rizal. Geography Rizal covers a total area of occupying the northern-central section of the Calabarzon in Luzon. The province is bordered on the north by Bulacan, east by Quezon, southeast by Laguna, south by the Laguna de Bay, and west by Metro Manila. Located east of Manila, commuters take approximately an hour to reach the provincial seat which is in Antipolo. Generally hilly and mountainous in terrain, most of the province's southern towns lie in the shores of Laguna de Bay, the country's largest inland body of water. Talim Island, the largest island situated within the Laguna de Bay, is under the jurisdiction of the province. Climate Administrative divisions Rizal comprises 13 municipalities and 1 city. Demographics Population The population of Rizal in the was people, with a density of . Due to its location being in the heart of the Katagalugan, almost all of the residents of Rizal mainly speak Tagalog. English and Filipino are used as second languages respectively. Religion Roman Catholicism is the predominant religion with about 80 percent adherence, 2% are from Members Church of God International of Eli Soriano. Various Christian groups exist such as Oneness Apostolic or Pentecostal like UPC, ALJC and ACJC, Iglesia Filipina Independiente, Born-again Christians, Jesus Is Lord Church Worldwide, Iglesia ni Cristo, Jehovah's Witnesses, Baptist, Church of Christ of Latter Day Saints, El Shaddai (movement) Methodists, Presbyterians, Seventh-day Adventist and other Evangelical Christians. Muslims, Anitists, animists, and atheists are also present in the province. Economy Before the 1990s, the primary source of economy in Rizal province were the huge piggery estates owned by Manila-based families. In recent years, the province became one of the most progressive provinces in the country, owing to its proximity to Metro Manila, the economic center of the Philippines. Antipolo, Taytay and Cainta serve as the economic centers of the province, while Angono, Rodriguez, Morong, San Mateo, Tanay, Binangonan and Teresa are taking successful steps to urbanize areas within their jurisdiction. Other areas of the province are having difficulty to start the urbanization process, mainly because of the lack of main roads to connect these to economic centers. In a study recently conducted by the National Statistics Coordination Board (NSCB), Rizal province came out to be the Philippines' least poor province with a poverty incidence rate of 3.4%, even lower than that of the National Capital Region or Metro Manila. . On April 23, 2013, the National Statistics Coordination Board (NCSB) reported that Rizal, from being the least poor province in poverty incidence moved down to the 3rd Place, with Cavite taking over as the least province by 4.1% (compared to Rizal's 7.6%) and Laguna for 2nd with 6.3%. Antipolo, the province's capital city, is the center of trade and exchange, tourism, government, and economy. It is also a center of education and sports because of the availability of various educational and physical training facilities. Acclaimed of its scenic attractions, the city also produces agricultural products such as cashew nuts and rice cakes. Taytay, the province's center of garment and textile manufacturing, is also the town where the country's largest mall operator runs a store near the town center. Meanwhile, Cainta serves as the center of business-process outsourcing (BPO) businesses in the province, aside from being known for the presence of several shopping centers and delicacies such as bibingka or rice cakes. Points of interest Government The provincial legislature or the Sangguniang Panlalawigan is composed of ten elected members. Four members are elected from each of the province's legislative district, while each of Antipolo's legislative districts elect a single member. 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232459	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The%20Custom%20House	The Custom House	The Custom House () is a neoclassical 18th century building in Dublin, Ireland which houses the Department of Housing, Local Government and Heritage. It is located on the north bank of the River Liffey, on Custom House Quay between Butt Bridge and Talbot Memorial Bridge. History Origins A previous Custom House had been built in 1707 by engineer Thomas Burgh (1670–1730). However, by the late 18th century it was deemed unfit for purpose. The building of a new Custom House for Dublin was the idea of John Beresford, who became first commissioner of revenue for Ireland in 1780. In 1781 he appointed James Gandon as architect, after Thomas Cooley, the original architect on the project, had died. This was Gandon's first large scale commission. The new Custom House was unpopular with the Dublin Corporation and some city merchants who complained that it moved the axis of the city, would leave little room for shipping, and it was being built on what at the time was a swamp. Purchase of land was delayed and proved exorbitant and the laying of foundations was disrupted by the High Sheriff and members of the Dublin Corporation with a mob of several thousand. However, Beresford was determined to complete the project and ignored the protests. Construction Construction started in 1781, and for his assistants Gandon chose Irish artists such as Meath stone-cutter Henry Darley, mason John Semple and carpenter Hugh Henry. Every available mason in Dublin was engaged in the work. When it was completed and opened for business on 7 November 1791, it had cost £200,000 to build – a considerable sum at the time. The four facades of the building are decorated with coats-of-arms and ornamental sculptures (by Edward Smyth) representing Ireland's rivers. Another artist, Henry Banks, was responsible for the statue on the dome and other statues. The adjacent original Custom House Dock and swing bridge on the East side of building were also designed by Gandon and completed slightly later in 1796. Along with George's Dock, it later formed part of the Custom House Docks complex. The old dock was eventually filled in and the swing bridge removed in the 1940s to be replaced by an extended quay and laterly to be replaced by Memorial Road. Use and redevelopment As the port of Dublin moved further downriver, the building's original use for collecting customs duties became obsolete, and it was used as the headquarters of the Local Government Board for Ireland. During the Irish War of Independence in 1921, the Irish Republican Army burnt down the Custom House, to disrupt British rule in Ireland by destroying tax records. Gandon's original interior was completely destroyed in the fire and the central dome collapsed. A large quantity of irreplaceable historical records were also destroyed in the fire. Despite achieving its objectives, the attack on the Custom House was a setback for the IRA as a large number of Volunteers were captured either during the attack or when falling back. After the Anglo-Irish Treaty, it was restored by the Irish Free State government. The results of this reconstruction can still be seen on the building's exterior today – the dome was rebuilt using Irish Ardbraccan limestone which is noticeably darker than the Portland stone used in the original construction. This was done to promote Irish resources. Further restoration and cleaning of the stonework was done by an Office of Public Works (OPW) team in the 1980s. In November 2021, a visitor experience opened at the Custom House, exploring the building, burning and restoration of the structure; it was developed by the OPW, Department of Housing, Local Government and Heritage and Fáilte Ireland. 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232460	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cwmbran	Cwmbran	Cwmbran ( ; , also in use as an alternative spelling in English) is a town in the county borough of Torfaen in South Wales. Lying within the historic boundaries of Monmouthshire, Cwmbran was designated as a new town in 1949 to provide new employment opportunities in the south eastern portion of the South Wales Coalfield. Geography Comprising the villages of Old Cwmbran, Pontnewydd, Upper Cwmbran, Henllys, Croesyceiliog, Llantarnam and Llanyrafon, its population had grown to 48,535 by 2011. This makes it the sixth largest urban area in Wales. Sitting as it does at the corner of the South Wales Coalfield, it has a hilly aspect to its western and northern edges, with the surrounding hills climbing to over . The Afon Llwyd forms the major river valley, although the most significant water course is probably the remains of the Monmouthshire & Brecon Canal. To the east of Cwmbran the land is less hilly, forming part of the Usk valley. Etymology The name of the town in Welsh means "valley () of the crow ()",). Cwmbran was the name of one of several villages located in the valley, which had grown up around the tinplate works of the Cwmbran Iron Company. As the new town of Cwmbran was formed in 1949, the area of the old village became known as Old Cwmbran. History Cwmbran was founded in 1949 as a new town, to provide new employment opportunities in the south eastern portion of the South Wales Coalfield, but the area has a long history. There is evidence that Neolithic and Bronze Age people used the area, with the Iron Age Silures tribe also occupying the region before being subdued by the Roman legions based at nearby Usk and Caerleon. Around 1179, Hywel, Lord of Caerleon gave a gift of money and land to found the Cistercian abbey at Llantarnam. At the dissolution of the monasteries by Henry VIII the abbey was closed and was bought by a succession of wealthy landowners. By the 18th century the abbey had passed into the ownership of the Blewitt family, who were to become key figures in the early industrialisation of Cwmbran. Brick making, lime kilns, iron ore mining, quarrying and coal mining were established during this period, along with a canal to transport goods to the docks at Newport. In 1833 the Ordnance Survey map of Monmouthshire shows Cwmbran as a farm situated in the area now known as Upper Cwmbran, in the valley named Cwm Brân. Cwmbran now covers about and has a population of around 50,000. Following some investigation by local residents Richard Davies and Mike Price, the Ancient Cwmbran & The Cistercian project was created and a £48,000 grant has been provided by the Heritage Lottery Fund to explore some previously unrecorded sites of interest in the Greenmeadow and Thornhill areas. The Cistercian Way also passes through Llantarnam, Old Cwmbran, Greenmeadow and Thornhill before reaching the ancient chapel of Llanderfel on Mynydd Maen, and then onwards to Twmbarlwm. In the 19th and 20th centuries, Cwmbran was the site of heavy industrial development. Coal and iron ore were extracted on Mynydd Maen, and moved by inclined planes and tramways into the Eastern Valley for use in factories such as the Patent Nut and Bolt Company (which became Guest Keen and Nettlefolds in 1900), various tin plate works and brickworks. This industry drove the creation of the Monmouthshire Canal, the Newport and Pontypool Railway and the Pontypool, Caerleon and Newport Railway. Very little of this industrial heritage remains today, though many of today's light industrial or retail estates were created on the sites. Following the 1946 New Towns Act, ministries and county councils were asked to nominate sites for housing. For Wales, the Ministry of Housing and Local Government proposed Church Village and Cwmbran. The Church Village proposal was vetoed by the Ministry of Power as new housing there would have interfered with plans for the expansion of coal mining in the area; however, Cwmbran was passed in 1949. Cwmbran was a civil parish and, from 1974, a community in its own right, one of only five in the new district of Torfaen. In 1985 the Cwmbran community was abolished, replaced by Cwmbran Central, Fairwater, Llantarnam, Pontnewydd and Upper Cwmbran. Economy The longest established employer in Cwmbran is biscuit maker Burton's Foods, who employ 1000 people to make its Jammie Dodgers and Wagon Wheels biscuits. As of 2005, the Cwmbran plant produces over 400 million Wagon Wheels a year. Safran Seats Great Britain (formerly Zodiac Aerospace) is the current owner of a factory in Cwmbran which employs 1000 people for manufacturing aircraft seats. Cwmbran Centre Constructed from 1959 to 1981, the pedestrianised Centre hosts supermarkets, high street retailers, banks, theatre, cinema, bowling alley, restaurants, creche, trampoline park, gym, police station, magistrates court, youth centre, pub, library, arts centre and office space. The 170+ shops can be accessed by the bus station located in the Centre, a train station a few minutes walk north-east or with the 3000 free parking spaces located around the Centre's ring road. SME-businesses include the Cwmbran Brewery in Upper Cwmbran, which opened in 1996 as Cottage Spring Brewery. Education The town has two secondary education schools: Croesyceiliog School and Cwmbran High School. There are numerous primary and nursery schools including a Welsh medium primary school, Ysgol Gymraeg Cwmbrân. Sport Athletics Cwmbran Stadium was home to international athletics events in the 1970s and 1980s. British athletics coach Malcolm Arnold used to train some of his athletes at Cwmbran in the 80s and early 90s while he was the Welsh National Coach. Athletes who trained there regularly under Malcolm include former World 110m Hurdle Champion and World Record Holder, Colin Jackson; Commonwealth 110m Hurdle medallist, Paul Gray; and Nigel Walker who had two sporting careers, first as an Olympic hurdler and then later as a Welsh rugby union international player. The 1999 World Indoor 400m Champion Jamie Baulch also used the stadium as a regular training track under a different coach. The stadium is also the home of Gwent Hockey Club (men's and ladies). The town has three athletics clubs: Cwmbran Harriers, Fairwater Runners and Griffithstown Harriers. Football The three main football teams in Cwmbran are Cwmbran Town, Cwmbran Celtic and Croesyceilog who all compete in the Welsh Football League. Cwmbran Town and Celtic both play at Cwmbran Stadium. Also in Cwmbran was The Football Factory. Located near to the town centre, The Football Factory was an indoor sports complex consisting of two sports pitches. The building was destroyed by fire in February 2017. Rugby union Separate grounds at Pontnewydd and Croesyceiliog house the town's two rugby union teams, Cwmbran RFC and Croesyceiliog RFC, although many more of the town's residents support the rugby teams of the older, adjacent town of Pontypool, the city of Newport and the Newport Gwent Dragons regional team. Rugby league Rugby league is represented in the town by Torfaen Tigers, who play in the fourth tier of the rugby league pyramid system, the Conference League South. They play their home matches at the Kings Head Ground, home of Cwmbran R.F.C. Media The main newspaper in the region is the South Wales Argus and the semi-national Western Mail. The digital edition of the latter is published as Wales Online. The town is served by a local news service, Cwmbran Life, while the BBC also serve the South East Wales region from their base in Cardiff. A number of online and amateur radio stations operate in Cwmbran. Vitalize Radio operates as the community radio station for Torfaen, originally established in 2014 as Torfonix. There are also the Cwmbran and District Amateur Radio Society, and Able Radio, who support adults with autism and learning disabilities. Media depictions of Cwmbran In July 2011, Cwmbran was the setting for Goldie Lookin Chain's satirical "Fresh Prince of Cwmbran", a song based on the Fresh Prince of Bel-Air theme praising the town. Transport Rail Cwmbran railway station is served by trains on the Welsh Marches Line, with through trains south to Newport and Cardiff. Northbound local trains serve Pontypool and Abergavenny, and longer distance services run to Hereford, Shrewsbury, Crewe, Holyhead and Manchester. The station was not opened until 1986, as one of the last acts of the Cwmbran New Town Development Board. Until then, Cwmbran had had no train service for 24 years. Historically Cwmbran was served by 2 lines and several local stations. The first line was built by the Monmouthshire Railway and Canal Company and opened in 1852. (Much of its route is now under Cwmbran Drive, the A 4051). The line that is still in use was opened by the Pontypool, Caerleon and Newport Railway in 1874. Bus The town has a comprehensive local bus service from Cwmbran bus station. Newport Bus operate their 29B and 24X services from Newport bus station at Friars Walk shopping centre to Cwmbran bus station, with frequency varying from every 15 minutes, every 30 minutes, and at off peak times every hour. Stagecoach South Wales operate the majority of services at Cwmbran, including routes from the valleys including Blaenavon, Abergavenny, Paris, Pontypool, Blackwood, Varteg, and Hereford, travelling through to the South to Cardiff and Newport. In early 2019 Stagecoach updated their fleet when they introduced newer model Gold Optare Solo buses for routes 1, 2, 5b/c, 6, 7 and 24. The X24 route to Newport Friars Walk and Blaenavon was upgraded to Stagecoach Gold in 2014. Phil Anslow Coaches are a local coach company who also run services in the town. They operate the 63 service to Chepstow, the 24X route to Newport Friars Walk, the 6 service to Ty-Canol & Fairwater, the A3 service to Abergavenny via Pontypool, the 62 service to Coleg Gwent Ebbw Vale campus via Pontypool, and the 68 service to Usk College. Partner Cities Bruchsal in Baden-Württemberg, Germany Notable people See also :Category:People from Cwmbran John Williams (VC) (born 1857, died 1932) – real name John Fielding, Zulu War and Rorke's Drift veteran, born in Abergavenny, buried in Llantarnam. Ivor Bulmer-Thomas (born 1905, died 1993) – former Member of Parliament (MP) and church preservation campaigner. Margaret Price (born 1941, died 2011) – opera singer. Baroness Kingsmill (born 1947) – Labour life peer, personal injury, trade union and employment law solicitor, and business advisor. Green Gartside (born 1955) – singer with Scritti Politti. Andy Dibble (born 1965) – professional footballer. Lee Dainton (born 1973) – TV presenter, host of Dirty Sanchez. Ceri Dallimore (born 1974) – Commonwealth Games gold medal winning markswoman. Ian Gough (born 1976) – Newport Gwent Dragons, Ospreys and 64 cap Welsh Rugby Union international. Gary Lockett (born 1976) – world title challenging boxer and TV/radio analyst. Helen Adams (born 1978) – Big Brother contestant and TV presenter. Danny Gabbidon (born 1979) professional footballer for Cardiff City and Wales. Jamie Arthur (born 1979) – Commonwealth Games medal winning boxer. Rachel Rice (born 1984) – Big Brother winner. David Burns (born 1984) – gay rights advocate and famous gynaecologist. Christian Doidge (born 1992) – professional footballer for Hibernian. Nick Kenny (born 1993) – darts player and Welsh international. Dave Richards (born 1993) – professional footballer for Crewe Alexandra Theo Wharton (born 1994) – Cardiff City Academy graduate and Wales youth international. Kim & Michael Davies, Robot Wars UK competitors and champions with Panic Attack. Connor Edwards (born 1997) – Professional rugby player - Doncaster Knights, Newport Gwent Dragons Bibliography References External links Ancient Cwmbrân Society Cwmbran's War Dead Cwmbran Life Thomas and Elizabeth Morgan, married 81 years Towns in Torfaen New towns in Wales New towns started in the 1940s Former communities of Wales Former civil parishes of Wales	[ -0.15511570870876312, 0.3161892294883728, 0.19525620341300964, -1.5789449214935303, 0.38046205043792725, 0.5070199370384216, 0.8806966543197632, 0.0909729152917862, -0.28404372930526733, 0.13955563306808472, -0.21263709664344788, 0.4828040599822998, 0.14410331845283508, 0.6377002000808716, -0.3122015595436096, -0.026195358484983444, 0.6566522717475891, 0.6054171323776245, 0.3060755133628845, -0.5025420784950256, -0.04166625440120697, -0.3972581923007965, -0.1060284748673439, 0.01564868539571762, -0.4364320933818817, -0.11678066104650497, 0.4476624131202698, 0.060043755918741226, -0.1495482176542282, -0.2766871750354767, 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232462	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Knowledge%20economy	Knowledge economy	The knowledge economy (or the knowledge-based economy) is an economic system in which the production of goods and services is based principally on knowledge-intensive activities that contribute to advancement in technical and scientific innovation. The key element of value is the greater dependence on human capital and intellectual property for the source of the innovative ideas, information and practices. Organisations are required to capitalise this "knowledge" into their production to stimulate and deepen the business development process. There is less reliance on physical input and natural resources. A knowledge-based economy relies on the crucial role of intangible assets within the organisations' settings in facilitating modern economic growth. A knowledge economy features a highly skilled workforce within the microeconomic and macroeconomic environment; institutions and industries create jobs that demand specialized skills in order to meet the global market needs. Knowledge is viewed as an additional input to labour and capital. In principle, one's primary individual capital is knowledge together with the ability to perform so as to create economic value. In a knowledge economy, highly skilled jobs require excellent technical skills and relational skills such as problem-solving, the flexibility to interface with multiple discipline areas as well as the ability to adapt to changes as opposed to moving or crafting physical objects in conventional manufacturing-based economies. A knowledge economy stands in contrast to an agrarian economy, in which the primary economic activity is subsistence farming for which the main requirement is manual labour or an industrialized economy that features mass production in which most of the workers are relatively unskilled. A knowledge economy emphasizes the importance of skills in a service economy, the third phase of economic development, also called a post-industrial economy. It is related to an information economy, which emphasizes the importance of information as non-physical capital, and a digital economy, which emphasizes the degree to which information technology facilitates trade. For companies, intellectual property such as trade secrets, copyrighted material, and patented processes become more valuable in a knowledge economy than in earlier eras. The global economy transition to a knowledge economy is also referred to as the Information Age, bringing about an information society. The term knowledge economy was made famous by Peter Drucker as the title of Chapter 12 in his book The Age of Discontinuity (1969), that Drucker attributed to economist Fritz Machlup, originating in the idea of scientific management developed by Frederick Winslow Taylor. Concepts Knowledge-based economy and human capital An economic system that is not knowledge-based is considered to be inconceivable. It describes the process of consumption and production activities that are satisfied from the application of workers' expertise - intellectual capital and typically represents a significant level of individual economic activities in modern developed economies through building an interconnected and advanced global economy where sources of knowledge are the critical contributors. The present concept for "knowledge" is origins from the historical and philosophical studies by Gilbert Ryle and Israel Scheffler who conducted knowledge to the terms "procedural knowledge" and "conceptual Knowledge" and identified two types of skills: "routine competencies or facilities" and "critical skills" that is intelligent performance; and it's further elaborated by Lundvall and Johnson who defined "knowledge" economically highlighting four broad categories: Know-what : is of the knowledge about "facts", presenting the ownership of information. Examples include population of a country and history evidence. As with information revolution is emerging, complex occupations such as law and medicine remain highly demanding for knowledge and expertise under this category. Know-why : is of the study within the human mind and society at the base of the knowledge of principles and laws of motion in nature. It concerns the theoretical research of scientific and technological fields, which is essential for allowing innovation in the production process and products development in areas such as universities and specialised firms. It can also reduce error frequency in procedures. Know-who : refers to the specific and selective social relations, that is the identification of the key persons that know the solutions and are able to perform under difficult scenarios. Finding the right people can be more essential than knowing basic scientific knowledge for the success of innovation. Know-how : is of an individual's skills and experience to do different kinds of things on a practical level. Individuals share experiences in groups with uniform practices. It constitutes the human capital of enterprises. In a knowledge economy, human intellectual is the key engine of economic enhancement. It is an economy where members acquire, create, disseminate and apply knowledge for facilitating economic and social development. The World Bank has spoken of knowledge economies by associating it to a four - pillar framework that analyses the rationales of a human capital based economies: An educated and skilled labour force: The establishment of a strong knowledge-based economy required workers to have the ability to continuously learn and apply their skills to build and practice knowledge efficiently. A dense and modern information infrastructure: is of the easy access to the information and communication technology (ICT) resources in order to overcome the barrier of high transaction cost, and to facilitate the effectiveness in interacting, disseminating and processing the information and knowledge resources. An effective innovation system: a great level of innovation within firms, industries, and countries to keep up with the latest global technology and human intelligence so as to utilize it for the domestic economy Institutional regime that supports incentives for entrepreneurship and the use of knowledge: An economy system should offer incentives to allow for better efficiency in mobilizing and allocating resources, together with encouraging entrepreneurship. The advancement of a knowledge-based economy occurred when global economies promote changes in material production, together with the creation of rich mechanisms of economic theories after the second world war that tend to integrate science, technology and the economy. Peter Drucker discussed the knowledge economy in the book-The Effective Executive 1966, where he described the difference between the manual workers and the knowledge workers. The manual worker is the one who works with their own hands and produces goods and services. In contrast, the knowledge worker works with their head, rather than hands, and produces ideas, knowledge as well as information. Definitions around "knowledge" are considered to be vague in terms of the formalization and modelling of a knowledge economy, as it is rather a relative concept. For example, there is no sufficient evidence and consideration in whether the "information society" could serve or act as " knowledge society" interchangeably. Information in general, is not equivalent to knowledge. Their use depends on the individual and groups preferences which are "economy-dependent". Information and knowledge together are production resources that can exist without interacting with other sources. Resources are of highly independent of each other in a sense that if they connect with other available resources, they transfer into factors of productions immediately; and production factors are present only to interact with other factors. Knowledge associated with intellectual information then is said to be a production factor in the new economy that is distinguished from the traditional production factors. Evolution From the early days of economic studies, though economists recognised the essential link between knowledge and economic growth, it was still identified only as a supplemental element in economic factors. The idea behind has transformed in recent years when new growth theory gave praise to knowledge and technology in enhancing productivity and economic advancement. Thus far, the developed society has transitioned from an agriculture-based economy, that is, the pre-industrial age where economy and wealth is primarily based upon agriculture, to an industrial economy where the manufacturing sector was booming. In the mid-1900s, the world economies moved towards a post-industrial or mass production system, where it is driven by the service sector that creates greater wealth than the manufacturing industry; to the late 1900s - 2000s, knowledge economy emerged with the highlights of the power of knowledge and human capital sector, and is now marked as the latest stage of development in global economic restructuring. In the final decades of 20th century, the knowledge economy became greatly associated with sectors based in research-intensive and high-technology industries as a result of the steadily increased demand for sophisticated science-based innovations. Knowledge economy operates differently from the past as it has been identified by the upheavals (sometimes referred to as the knowledge revolution) in technological innovations and globally competitive need for differentiation with new goods and services, and processes that develop from the research community (i.e., R&D factors, universities, labs, educational institutes).Thomas A. Stewart points out that just as the industrial revolution did not end agriculture because people have to eat, the knowledge revolution is unlikely to end the industry because society remains in demands for physical goods and services. . For the modern knowledge economies, especially the developed countries, information and knowledge have always taken on enormous importance in the development in either traditional or industrial economy, in particular for the efficient use of factors of production. Owners of production factors should possess and master information and knowledge so as to apply it during one's economic activity. In the knowledge economy, the specialised labor force is characterised as computer literate and well-trained in handling data, developing algorithms and simulated models, and innovating on processes and systems. Harvard Business School Professor, Michael Porter, asserts that today's economy is far more dynamic and that conventional notion of comparative advantages within a company has changed and is less relevant than the prevailing idea of competitive advantages which rests on "making more productive use of inputs, which requires continual innovation". As such, the technical STEM careers, including computer scientists, engineers, chemists, biologists, mathematicians, and scientific inventors will see continuous demand in years to come. Professor Porter further argues that a well situated clusters (that is, geographic concentrations of interconnected companies and institutions in a particular field) is vital with global economies, connect locally and globally with linked industries, manufacturers, and other entities that are related by skills, technologies, and other common inputs. Hence, knowledge is the catalyst and connective tissue in modern economies. Ruggles and Holtshouse argue the change is characterised by a dispersion of power and by managers who lead by empowering knowledge workers to contribute and make decisions. With Earth's depleting natural resources, the need for green infrastructure, a logistics industry forced into just-in-time deliveries, growing global demand, regulatory policy governed by performance results, and a host of other items high priority is put on knowledge; and research becomes paramount. Knowledge provides the technical expertise, problem-solving, performance measurement and evaluation, and data management needed for the trans-boundary, interdisciplinary global scale of today's competition. Worldwide examples of the knowledge economy taking place among many others include: Silicon Valley, United States; aerospace and automotive engineering in Munich, Germany; biotechnology in Hyderabad, India; electronics and digital media in Seoul, South Korea; petrochemical and energy industry in Brazil. Many other cities and regions try to follow a knowledge-driven development paradigm and increase their knowledge base by investing in higher education and research institutions in order to attract high skilled labour and better position themselves in the global competition. Yet, despite digital tools democratising access to knowledge, research shows that knowledge economy activities remain as concentrated as ever in traditional economic cores. The prevailing and future economic development will be highly dominated by the technologies and network expansion, in particular on the knowledge-based social entrepreneurship and the entrepreneurship as a whole. The Knowledge economy is incorporating the network economy, where the relatively localised knowledge is now being shared among and across various networks for the benefit of the network members as a whole, to gain economies of scale in a wider, more open scale. Globalisation The rapid globalisation of economic activities is one of the main determinants of the emerging knowledge economy. While there are no doubts on the other stages of relative openness in the global economy, the prevailing pace and intensity of globalisation are of an extent without precedent. The fundamental microeconomic forces are the significant drives of globalising economic activities and further demands for human intelligence. Forces such as the rapid integration of the world financial and capital market since the early 1980s, which influences essentially on each level of the developed country's financial systems; increased multinational origin of the inputs to productions of both goods and services, technology transfers and information flow etc. Technology The technology requirements for a national innovation system as described by the World Bank Institute must be able to disseminate a unified process by which a working method may converge scientific and technology solutions, and organizational solutions. According to the World Bank Institute's definition, such innovation would further enable the World Bank Institute's vision outlined in their Millennium Development Goals. Challenges for developing countries The United Nations Commission on Science and Technology for Development report (UNCSTD, 1997) concluded that for developing countries to successfully integrate ICTs and sustainable development in order to participate in the knowledge economy they need to intervene collectively and strategically. Such collective intervention suggested would be in the development of effective national ICT policies that support the new regulatory framework, promote the selected knowledge production, and use of ICTs and harness their organizational changes to be in line with the Millennium Development Goals. The report further suggests that developing countries to develop the required ICT strategies and policies for institutions and regulations taking into account the need to be responsive to the issues of convergence. See also Attention economy Automation Basic income guarantee Cognitive-cultural economy Computational knowledge economy Digital Revolution Digital economy Endogenous growth theory Frugal innovation History of knowledge Information economy Indigo Era Industrial espionage International Innovation Index Internet economy Information revolution Information society Know-how trading Knowledge Economic Index Knowledge market Knowledge organization Knowledge management Knowledge market Knowledge policy Knowledge production modes Knowledge society Knowledge tagging Knowledge value chain Learning economy Learning society Liverpool Knowledge Quarter Long tail Network economy Precision agriculture Productivity improving technologies (historical) Purple economy Smart city Social information processing Working hours Notes Bibliography Arthur, W. B. (1996). Increasing Returns and the New World of Business. Harvard Business Review(July/August), 100–109. Bell, D. (1974). The Coming of Post-Industrial Society: A Venture in Social Forecasting. London: Heinemann. Drucker, P. (1969). The Age of Discontinuity; Guidelines to Our changing Society. New York: Harper and Row. Drucker, P. (1993). Post-Capitalist Society. Oxford: Butterworth Heinemann. Machlup, F. (1962). The Production and Distribution of Knowledge in the United States. Princeton: Princeton University Press. Porter, M. E. Clusters and the New Economics of Competition. Harvard Business Review. (Nov-Dec 1998). 77–90. Powell, Walter W. & Snellman, Kaisa (2004). "The Knowledge Economy". Annual Review of Sociology 30 (1): 199–220 Rooney, D., Hearn, G., Mandeville, T., & Joseph, R. (2003). Public Policy in Knowledge-Based Economies: Foundations and Frameworks. Cheltenham: Edward Elgar. Rooney, D., Hearn, G., & Ninan, A. (2005). Handbook on the Knowledge Economy. Cheltenham: Edward Elgar. Stehr, Nico (2002). Knowledge and Economic Conduct. The Social Foundations of the Modern Economy. Toronto: University of Toronto Press. The Brookings Institution. MetroPolicy: Shaping A New Federal Partnership for a Metropolitan Nation. Metropolitan Policy Program Report. (2008). 4–103. 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232463	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Karelia%20%28disambiguation%29	Karelia (disambiguation)	Karelia can refer to: Geographic region Karelia, the land of Karelians, in its most general sense Republic of Karelia, an autonomous republic in Russia (Eastern Karelia) Karelo-Finnish SSR, a Soviet Republic (1940–1956) East Karelia, the cultural root of Finnishness, the land of the Kalevala Finnish Karelia, a historical province of Sweden and Finland (Western Karelia) Ladoga Karelia (most of which was ceded in 1940) North Karelia, an administrative region in present-day Finland Karelian Isthmus (most of which was ceded in 1940) South Karelia, an administrative region in present-day Finland Tver Karelia in the Tver Oblast Music Karelia Suite, a collection of classical music by Jean Sibelius The Karelia (band), a former band of Alex Kapranos Karelia (heavy metal band), a French heavy metal band Karelia, a 1989 album by Shizuka Kudo "Karelia", a song by Lidia Klement "Karelia", an instrumental piece by Amorphis on their 1992 album The Karelian Isthmus "Karelia", an instrumental piece by Insomnium on their 2019 album Heart Like a Grave Company Karelia Tobacco Company, a Greek tobacco company Other Russian submarine Karelia (K-18), a submarine in service with the Russian Navy See also Karelian (disambiguation)	[ -0.023806119337677956, 0.1553950309753418, -0.03352927416563034, 0.24856749176979065, -0.3145780563354492, 0.3117262125015259, 0.457166850566864, 0.4528140127658844, -0.5175997018814087, 0.02815142646431923, -0.42876294255256653, -0.17517496645450592, -0.16542215645313263, 1.0213313102722168, -0.43500250577926636, 0.6945863962173462, 0.24023312330245972, 0.41333526372909546, -0.04090116173028946, -0.023420654237270355, -0.3317703306674957, 0.16504986584186554, 0.6357094645500183, -0.13027691841125488, -0.07221072167158127, -0.294795423746109, 0.5642287731170654, 0.12771043181419373, -0.07326553016901016, 0.19737672805786133, -0.8344373106956482, 0.5611522793769836, 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232475	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Public%20sector%20organisations%20in%20New%20Zealand	Public sector organisations in New Zealand	Public sector organisations in New Zealand comprise the state sector organisations plus those of local government. Within the state sector lies the state services, and within this lies the core public service. Legally, the Legislative Branch non-public service departments (the Office of the Clerk of the House of Representatives and the Parliamentary Service), Executive Branch non-public service departments, and the public service departments are all part of "the Crown". State sector Offices of Parliament Office of the Controller and Auditor-General (Tumuaki o te Mana Arotake) Audit New Zealand Office of the Ombudsmen (Nga Kaitiaki Mana Tangata) Office of the Parliamentary Commissioner for the Environment (Te Kaitiaki Taiao a Te Whare Pāremata Aotearoa) State services departments Public service departments The public service in New Zealand technically consists of solely the departments listed below. Crown Law Office (Te Tari Ture o te Karauna) Department of Conservation (Te Papa Atawhai) Department of Corrections (Ara Poutama Aotearoa) Department of Internal Affairs (Te Tari Taiwhenua) Archives New Zealand (Te Rua Mahara o te Kāwanatanga) Births, Deaths and Marriages (Whānautanga, Matenga, Mārenatanga) Censorship Compliance Unit Local Government Commission (Mana Kāwanatanga ā Rohe) New Zealand Lottery Grants Board (Te Puna Tahua) National Library of New Zealand Office for the Community & Voluntary Sector New Zealand Passports Office (Nga Uruwhenua) New Zealand Citizenship Office (Te Raraunga) New Zealand Gazette Office (Te Kahiti o Aotearoa) Translation Service, The Department of the Prime Minister and Cabinet Cabinet Office National Assessments Bureau Honours Secretariat National Emergency Management Agency Education Review Office (Te Tari Arotake Matauranga) Government Communications Security Bureau National Cyber Security Centre Inland Revenue Department (Te Tari Taake) Land Information New Zealand (Toitu te whenua) Crown Property Management New Zealand Geospatial Office Overseas Investment Office Ministry for Primary Industries (Manatū Ahu Matua) Ministry of Business, Innovation and Employment (Hīkina Whakatutuki) Business.govt.nz Companies Office, which also manages registers for motor-vehicle traders, financial-service providers, societies and trusts and personal-property securities. Consumer Affairs, formerly the Ministry of Consumer Affairs Electricity Authority (NZ) Electrical Workers Registration Board Immigration New Zealand (Te Ratonga Manene) Intellectual Property Office of New Zealand Insolvency and Trustee Service Natural Hazards Research Platform (NHRP) New Zealand Cycle Trail New Zealand Petroleum & Minerals New Zealand Space Agency Occupational Safety and Health (Te Ratonga Oranga) Pike River Recovery Agency Radio Spectrum Management Social Housing Unit Ministry for Children—Oranga Tamariki Ministry for Culture and Heritage (Te Manatū Taonga) Ministry of Defence (Manatu Kaupapa Waonga) Ministry of Education (Te Tāhuhu o te Mātauranga) Ministry for the Environment (Manatū Mō Te Taiao) Ministry of Foreign Affairs and Trade (Te Manatū Aorere) New Zealand Agency for International Development – NZAID (Nga Hoe Tuputupu-mai-tawhiti) Ministry of Health (Manatū Hauora) Medsafe (New Zealand Medicines and Medical Devices Safety Authority) National Radiation Laboratory New Zealand Health Information Service National Health Committee HealthPAC Ministry of Housing and Urban Development Ministry of Justice (Tāhū o te Ture) Crime Prevention Unit Office of Treaty Settlements Ministry for Pacific Peoples Ministry of Social Development (Te Manatu Whakahiato Ora) Ministry of Youth Development (Te Manatū Whakahiato Taiohi) Work and Income (Te Hiranga Tangata) Studylink (Hoto Akoranga) Heartland Services (Ngā Ratonga ki te Manawa o te Whenua) The Office for Disability issues The Office for Senior Citizens The Office of the Families Commission Ministry of Transport (Te Manatū Waka) Ministry for Women (Manatū Wāhine) New Zealand Customs Service (Te Mana Arai o Aotearoa) Serious Fraud Office (Te Tari Hara Taware) State Services Commission (Te Komihana O Ngā Tari Kāwanatanga) Statistics New Zealand (Tatauranga Aotearoa) Te Puni Kōkiri (Ministry for Māori Development) Māori Trust Office The Treasury (Te Tai Õhanga) New Zealand Debt Management New Zealand Export Credit Ministry for Ethnic Communities replaces the Office of Ethnic Communities (previously Ethnic Affairs) that was part of Internal Affairs State services organisations outside the core public service New Zealand Defence Force (NZDF) (Te Ope Kaatua O Aotearoa) New Zealand Cadet Forces Air Training Corps New Zealand Cadet Corps Sea Cadet Corps NZDF armed forces New Zealand Army (Ngāti Tumatauenga) Regular Force Territorial Force Army Reserve Royal New Zealand Navy (RNZN) Royal New Zealand Naval Reserve Royal New Zealand Naval Volunteer Reserve (RNZNVR) Royal New Zealand Air Force (RNZAF) Air Force Reserve Royal New Zealand Air Force (RNZAF) Territorial Air Force (TAF) Veterans' Affairs New Zealand (Te Tira Ahu Ika A Whiro) (semi-autonomous body) New Zealand Security Intelligence Service Intelligence and Security Committee, The Office of the Clerk of the House of Representatives Reporting Services (Hansard) Parliamentary Counsel Office (New Zealand) (Te Tari Tohutohu Paremata) Parliamentary Service (includes the Parliamentary Library) Parliamentary Service Commission Visitor Services New Zealand Police (Ngā Pirihimana O Aotearoa) Reserve Bank of New Zealand Reserve Bank of New Zealand Crown entities Crown agents Accident Compensation Corporation (Te Kaporeihana Āwhina Hunga Whara) Callahan Innovation Civil Aviation Authority District health boards Auckland District Health Board (Auckland) Bay of Plenty District Health Board (Tauranga) Canterbury District Health Board (Christchurch) Capital and Coast District Health Board (Wellington, Porirua and Kapiti Coast) Counties Manukau District Health Board (Otahuhu) Hawke's Bay District Health Board (Napier) Hutt Valley District Health Board (Hutt Valley – Lower Hutt, Upper Hutt) Lakes District Health Board (Rotorua) MidCentral District Health Board (Palmerston North) Nelson Marlborough District Health Board (Nelson) Northland District Health Board (Whangarei) Otago District Health Board (Dunedin) South Canterbury District Health Board (Timaru) Southland District Health Board (Invercargill) Tairāwhiti District Health Board (Gisborne) Taranaki District Health Board (New Plymouth) Waikato District Health Board (Hamilton) Wairarapa District Health Board (Masterton) Waitematā District Health Board (Auckland) West Coast District Health Board (Greymouth) Whanganui District Health Board (Wanganui) Earthquake Commission Education New Zealand Energy Efficiency and Conservation Authority Environmental Protection Authority Fire and Emergency New Zealand Health Promotion Agency Health Quality and Safety Commission Health Research Council of New Zealand Kāinga Ora - Homes and Communities Maritime New Zealand New Zealand Antarctic Institute New Zealand Blood Service New Zealand Qualifications Authority New Zealand Tourism Board New Zealand Trade and Enterprise New Zealand Walking Access Commission Pharmaceutical Management Agency Real Estate Agents Authority Social Workers Registration Board Sport New Zealand Taumata Arowai - the Water Services Regulator Tertiary Education Commission Careers New Zealand Waka Kotahi - NZ Transport Agency WorkSafe New Zealand Autonomous crown entities Accreditation Council Arts Council of New Zealand Toi Aotearoa Broadcasting Commission (New Zealand on Air) (Irirangi Te Motu) Government Superannuation Fund Authority Guardians of New Zealand Superannuation Heritage New Zealand (Pouhere Taonga) Museum of New Zealand Te Papa Tongarewa New Zealand Artificial Limb Board New Zealand Film Commission New Zealand Infrastructure Commission (Te Waihanga) New Zealand Lotteries Commission New Zealand Symphony Orchestra Public Trust Retirement Commission Te Māngai Pāho (Maori Broadcasting Funding Agency) Te Taura Whiri I Te Reo Māori (Māori Language Commission) Independent crown entities Broadcasting Standards Authority Children's Commissioner Climate Change Commission Commerce Commission Criminal Cases Review Commission Drug Free Sport New Zealand Electoral Commission Electricity Authority (Te Komihana Hiko) External Reporting Board Financial Markets Authority Health and Disability Commissioner Human Rights Commission Independent Police Conduct Authority Law Commission Mental Health Commission Office of Film and Literature Classification Privacy Commissioner Productivity Commission Takeovers Panel Transport Accident Investigation Commission Crown entity companies New Zealand Fast Forward Fund Limited New Zealand Venture Investment Fund Limited Radio New Zealand Limited Television New Zealand Limited (TVNZ) Crown Research Institutes (CRIs) (with principal campuses) AgResearch (New Zealand Pastoral Agriculture Research Institute Limited) (Ruakura, Hamilton) ESR (Institute of Environmental Science and Research Limited) (Porirua) Forest Research (New Zealand Forest Research Institute Limited) (Rotorua) GNS Science (formerly Institute of Geological and Nuclear Sciences Limited) (Lower Hutt) IRL (Industrial Research Limited) Web page (Now part of Callaghan Innovation) Landcare Research (Landcare Research New Zealand Limited) (Lincoln) NIWA (National Institute of Water and Atmospheric Research Limited) (Auckland) Plant & Food Research (New Zealand Institute for Plant and Food Research Limited) (Auckland) Institute For Social Research and Development Limited (Wellington). Disestablished in 1995 after failing to achieve financial viability. School boards of trustees See: Education in New Zealand Tertiary education institutions State-owned tertiary institutions consist of universities, colleges of education (teachers colleges), polytechnics (institutes of technology) and wānanga. In addition there are numerous non-state-owned private training establishments. Universities (and amalgamated colleges of education, with principal campus only) AUT University (Te Wananga Aronui o Tāmaki Makau Rau) (Auckland) Lincoln University (Te Whare Wanaka o Aoraki) (Lincoln) Massey University (Te Kunenga ki Purehuroa) (Palmerston North) Palmerston North College of Education University of Auckland (Te Whare Wānanga O Tamaki Makaurau) (Auckland) Auckland College of Education (Te Kura Akoranga o Tamaki Makaurau) University of Canterbury (Te Whare Wānanga O Waitaha) (Christchurch) Christchurch College of Education (Te Whare Whai Mātauraka Ki Ōtautahi) University of Otago (Te Whare Wānanga o Otāgo) (Dunedin) University of Otago College of Education (Te Kura Akau Taitoka) University of Waikato (Te Whare Wānanga o Waikato) (Hamilton) Hamilton Teachers' Training College Victoria University of Wellington (Te Whare Wānanga o te Ūpoko o te Ika a Māui) (Wellington) Wellington College of Education (Te Whānau o Ako Pai ki te Upoko o te Ika) Institutes of Technology and Polytechnics (with principal campus only) Ara Institute of Canterbury Previously CPIT (ICS NZ) (Christchurch) Eastern Institute of Technology (EIT) (Taradale) Manukau Institute of Technology (MIT) (South Auckland) Nelson Marlborough Institute of Technology (NMIT) (Nelson) NorthTec, formerly Northland Polytechnic (Whangarei) Otago Polytechnic (Dunedin) Southern Institute of Technology (SIT) (Invercargill) Tai Poutini Polytechnic (Greymouth) The Open Polytechnic of New Zealand (Lower Hutt) Toi Ohomai Institute of Technology (Rotorua, Tauranga) UCOL (Universal College of Learning) (Palmerston North) Unitec Institute of Technology (Auckland) Waikato Institute of Technology (Wintec) (Hamilton) Wellington Institute of Technology (WelTec) (Petone and Lower Hutt) Western Institute of Technology at Taranaki (New Plymouth) Whitireia Community Polytechnic (WCP) (Porirua) Wānanga (with principal campus only) The following wānanga are those who have been granted Crown entity status; there are many that have not. Te Wānanga o Aotearoa (TWOA) (Te Awamutu) Te Wānanga-o-Raukawa (TWOR) (Ōtaki) Te Whare Wānanga o Awanuiārangi (Whakatāne) Public Finance Act Schedule 4 Organisations Agricultural and Marketing Research and Development Trust Asia New Zealand Foundation Auckland Transition Agency Fish and Game Councils Auckland and Waikato Central South Island Eastern Hawke's Bay Nelson Marlborough North Canterbury Northland Otago Southland Taranaki Wellington West Coast Leadership Development Centre Trust Maori Trustee, The National Pacific Radio Trust New Zealand Fast Forward Limited New Zealand Fish and Game Council New Zealand Game Bird Habitat Trust Board New Zealand Government Property Corporation New Zealand Lottery Grants Board Ngāi Tahu Ancillary Claims Trust Pacific Co-operation Foundation Pacific Island Business Development Trust Research and Education Advanced Network New Zealand Limited Reserve Boards (24) Road Safety Trust Sentencing Council State-owned enterprises The state enterprises are listed in Schedule 1 of the State-owned Enterprises Act. Airways Corporation of New Zealand Limited Animal Control Products Limited AsureQuality Limited Electricity Corporation of New Zealand Limited KiwiRail Holdings Limited Kordia (formerly BCL) Landcorp Farming Limited Learning Media Limited Meteorological Service of New Zealand Limited New Zealand Post Limited New Zealand Railways Corporation Quotable Value Ltd (QV) Solid Energy New Zealand Limited (Went into administration and assets sold in 2015) Terralink NZ Limited Transpower New Zealand Limited Local government Local government in New Zealand consists of city councils, district councils and regional councils. These are all also known as "local authorities". City councils and district councils are collectively known as territorial authorities. Local authorities may set up various council-controlled organisations for specific purposes. Regional councils City and district councils Historic organisations New Zealand Broadcasting Corporation New Zealand Forest Service HortResearch and Crop and Food were merged in 2008 to form Plant & Food Research Department of Labour Department of Lands and Survey Land Transport New Zealand (merged into the NZ Transport Agency) Department of Industries and Commerce Marine Department Mines Department Transfund New Zealand (merged into Land Transport New Zealand) Traffic Safety Service (absorbed into New Zealand Police) New Zealand Post Office (corporatised in 1987 as New Zealand Post, PostBank and Telecom) State Hydro Department, became New Zealand Electricity Department, then NZE, then ECNZ New Zealand Railways Department (corporatised in 1981 as a state-owned enterprise, the New Zealand Railways Corporation, including the infrastructure, which is now trading as KiwiRail) Ministry of Research, Science and Technology (MoRST) (Te Manatū Pūtaiao) Ministry of Works (formerly the Department of Public Works) Department of Social Welfare (restructured in 1999) Income Support Service became Work and Income New Zealand (WINZ) Children, Young Persons and their Families Agency became Child Youth and Family Service the remainder of core services became part of the Ministry of Social Policy. New Zealand Wildlife Service (a division of Internal Affairs) See also Centre for Strategic Studies New Zealand New Zealand Cabinet Institute of Public Administration New Zealand References External links Te Kawa Mataaho Public Service Commission list of organisations of the State sector State-Owned Enterprises Act 1986 at the www.legislation.govt.nz site (as consolidated and amended) Bilingual titles of public and private sector organisations at the Māori Language Commission Te Taura Whiri i te Reo Māori site Lists of organisations based in New Zealand New Zealand Organisations	[ 1.0110158920288086, 0.18221992254257202, -0.6905536651611328, -0.2050098329782486, -0.6641948819160461, 0.42604565620422363, 0.24945229291915894, 0.4016147255897522, -0.7557762265205383, -0.05849434807896614, -0.524965763092041, 0.49917227029800415, 0.10004375129938126, -0.058215994387865067, -0.29294487833976746, 0.4270310401916504, 0.48628678917884827, 0.7214938998222351, 0.46061697602272034, 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232477	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Farnborough%2C%20Hampshire	Farnborough, Hampshire	Farnborough is a town in northeast Hampshire, England, part of the borough of Rushmoor and the Farnborough/Aldershot Built-up Area. Farnborough was founded in Saxon times and is mentioned in the Domesday Book of 1086. The name is formed from Ferneberga which means "fern hill". According to the UK-wide 2011 Census, the population of Farnborough is 57,486. The town is probably best known for its association with aviation, with the Farnborough Airshow, Farnborough Aerodrome, Royal Aircraft Establishment, and the Air Accidents Investigation Branch. History Name changes: Ferneberga (11th century); Farnburghe, Farenberg (13th century); Farnborowe, Fremborough, Farneborough (16th century). Tower Hill Tower Hill, Cove: There is substantial evidence that many years ago a large accumulation of Sarsen stones existed upon what later came to be known as Tower Hill. Farnborough Hill school The town is the home of St. Michael's Abbey. The Imperial Crypt there is the resting place of Napoleon III (1808–1873), Emperor of the French, and his wife, Eugénie de Montijo, (1826–1920) and their son, Napoléon, Prince Imperial. The Abbey was the home of the Catholic National Library from 2007 until it was relocated to Durham University Library in 2015. River Blackwater The River Blackwater on the Hampshire/Surrey border was the location of the first international prize fight between Tom Sayers and John C. Heenan, which took place near the location of the Ship Inn pub. Samuel Cody Closely associated with Farnborough Airfield, situated between Farnborough and Fleet, is Samuel Franklin Cody. Cody, or Colonel Sam Cody as he was known, was one of the early pioneers of aviation. He died when he crashed his plane on Ball Hill, a site which is now within Qinetiq's Technology Park. A statue was unveiled on the 100th anniversary of his death, 7 August 2013. The statue is sited outside the FAST museum, home of the Farnborough Air Sciences Trust, surrounded by commemorative paving paid for by supporters. RAE Farnborough Airfield is the site of the historic Royal Aircraft Establishment (RAE). Part of the old RAE, Farnborough's historic wind tunnels are now listed buildings, two in particular being preserved, the first built in 1917 and the other, much larger, in 1935. The latter was used extensively for research into Concorde's aerodynamics, and later that of Formula 1 cars, until its closure in the early 1990s. The tunnels were open to the public during June and July 2014 until the end of the Farnborough International Airshow. Sir Frank Whittle conducted much of his research into jet aircraft at the RAE. A replica Gloster E.28/39 (based on his prototype) is sited on a roundabout along Ively Road in tribute to its inventor. The Tumble Down Dick An inn, The Tumble Down Dick Pub has been present on the A325 Farnborough Road since the 17th century. It was reputedly connected to Richard Cromwell, and was the central focus of the town before its 19th-century refocus toward North Camp and the town centre proper's 20th-century development. The pub closed in 2008 and was designated an "Asset of Community Value" in 2013 after local protest over a request for planning permission by McDonald's. The ACV status was later rescinded after an appeal by the site's owners. It was converted to a McDonald's restaurant and the building reopened with a new roof in October 2014 after being allowed to lie derelict for six years. During the renovation, an early advertisement for the Reading Simmonds Brewery was discovered and is now on display on the side of the building. Churches St Peter's parish church dates back to 1180, as part of the manor of Crondall. It has a burial vault built by Henry Wilmot, Lord of the Manor from 1768. As Farnborough developed in the Victorian era, the church was extended to accommodate a growing congregation: a new chancel was built in 1886 and in 1900-01 north and south transepts and a south aisle were added. St Mark's Anglican Church, Alexandra Road, was built in 1881. Transport Farnborough is near junctions 4 and 4a of the M3 motorway. The A325 enters the town from Frimley to the north, and continues into Aldershot to the south. The A331 runs north to south along the east side of the town. Farnborough is served by three railway stations, the busiest of which is Farnborough (Main) railway station on the South West Main Line from London Waterloo to Basingstoke and beyond. Farnborough North railway station and North Camp railway station are both on the North Downs Line between Reading and Gatwick. North Camp station is a short distance over the county border, in the Surrey village of Ash Vale. Since 2003 Farnborough Airport has been a business airport operated by TAG Aviation. The Farnborough International Airshow takes place at the airport on even numbered years. Politics Borough Farnborough is part of the Borough of Rushmoor, along with Aldershot. It contains eight wards, each with three elected borough councillors. Until 2011, there were nine wards, but following the Electoral boundary reviews, Grange and Mayfield wards were merged to create Cherrywood ward. The full list of wards and their councillors is as follows: Cove & Southwood: Cllr. Sue Carter (Conservative), Cllr. Steve Masterson (Conservative), Cllr. Martin Tennant (Conservative) Cherrywood: Cllr. Nem Thapa (Conservative), Cllr. Christine Guinness (Labour), Cllr. Ashley Halstead (Labour) Empress: Cllr. Marina Munro (Conservative), Cllr. Adrian Newell (Conservative), Cllr. Mike Smith (Conservative) Fernhill: Cllr. John Marsh (Conservative), Cllr. Ken Muschamp (Conservative), Cllr. Jess Auton (Conservative) Knellwood: Cllr. Mara Makunura (Conservative), Cllr. Calum Stewart (Conservative), Cllr. Paul Taylor (Conservative) St. Johns: Cllr. Jacqui Vosper (Conservative), Cllr. Barbara Hurst (Conservative), Cllr. Jonathan Canty (Conservative) St. Marks: Cllr. Dianne Bedford (Conservative), Cllr. Abul Chowdhury (Conservative was Liberal Democrats), Cllr. Thomas Mitchell (Liberal Democrats) West Heath: Cllr. Rod Cooper (Conservative), Cllr. Lee Jeffers (Conservative), Cllr. Michael Hope (Conservative) County Farnborough is represented on Hampshire County Council by three Divisions, each with a single elected representative. Farnborough North: Cllr. Roz Chadd (Conservative) Farnborough South: Cllr. Roland Dibbs (Conservative) Farnborough West: Cllr. Rod Cooper (Conservative) National Since 2017, the local MP is Leo Docherty (Conservative) for the Constituency of Aldershot, a former captain in the army. Notable residents French emperor Napoleon III, his wife Empress Eugenie and son Louis Napoleon are entombed in the crypt at Saint Michael's Abbey, although it was only Eugenie who was a resident of Farnborough while alive. Their former house was turned into an independent Boarding school and convent set in 64 acres of ground, Farnborough Hill Convent David Mellor and Anne Robinson went to school in Farnborough. Former Middlesex County Cricket Club captain Shaun Udal, who also played for Hampshire and at international level for England, was born and raised here. Arthur English lived in Farnborough for a period, as well as Christopher Lillicrap, children's TV presenter and writer. Fernand Cabrol, monk and scholar became Prior and, later, Abbot at the Benedictine abbey. In 1922 T.E. Lawrence (Lawrence of Arabia) was posted to RAF Farnborough for a photography course, it is thought he lived in Farnborough for 6 weeks. Actress Janet Wright was born in Farnborough before moving to Canada as a child. Robbe De Hert, Belgian film director, was born in Farnborough. Composer Percy Fletcher lived in Farnborough during the 1920s, when he was working in London as a theatre composer and conductor. Media Only some parts of Farnborough are served by two free local newspapers, The Star Courier (published from 18 September 2008 as a combination of the former Surrey Hants Star and the Aldershot Farnborough Courier) and The Rush, along with one local available for purchase, The Farnborough News & Mail. Although the local ITV news region is ITV Meridian and the local BBC TV news region is BBC South, the area is also served from Crystal Palace and Guildford transmitters carrying London programming. Farnborough is covered by BBC radio on BBC Surrey. Local commercial radio stations are 96.4 Eagle Radio and Eagle Extra as well as Heart Thames Valley. Commerce Cody Technology Park The headquarters of QinetiQ is located in Cody Technology Park. Farnborough Aerospace Centre (business park) Farnborough Aerospace Centre is a business park south of the airfield. IQ Farnborough (business park) Adjacent to the airport, IQ Farnborough (formerly Farnborough Business Park), is a development. When completed it will include new housing, a new aviation library and the refurbishing of the listed wind tunnels on the site. Current tenants include: AgustaWestland, Autodesk, a BMW & MINI dealership, Costco warehouse, Blue Coat Systems, Bluhalo, Defence Strategy & Solutions, Imagine Homes, a hotel, Orcare Limited, Fluor Limited, Red Hat and DGTL. On the park is the frame of a 1910 Airship Hangar which had previously been dismantled to house wind tunnels, but is now reconstructed – minus its outer skin – to make an impressive centrepiece. The structure has now been listed and protected as a Grade II building. During the fifteenth series of Top Gear a race was performed around the business park. In 2013, BMW announced that it will move its UK headquarters from Bracknell to the former Nokia facility on the outskirts of Farnborough. Other notable companies Other notable companies present in Farnborough are Zurich Insurance, Aon Hewitt, BAE Systems, Qualcomm, Lockheed Martin, Holt's Military Banking, Fluor Corporation, and Lok'nStore. Other industry Farnborough's North Camp district is notable as being the location of Hampshire's only full-throughput abattoir. The abattoir is nestled between housing and a school, Salesian College. Its site has entrances on both Peabody Road and Sherborne Road. It is licensed to kill bulls, cows, sheep, pigs and goats. Retail Farnborough has one main shopping centre divided into three areas; Kingsmead and Queensmead and Princesmead. There are three supermarkets in Farnborough. Towards the south of Farnborough is North Camp village with independent retailers. Solartron retail park is located to the West of the town centre. On the border with Frimley, there is a retail park known as Blackwater Retail Park (formerly Farnborough Gate). Education Primary schools There are currently seventeen primary schools in Farnborough. Cherrywood Community Primary School Cove Infant School Cove Junior School Fernhill Primary School Grange Community Junior School Guillemont Junior School Manor Infant School Manor Junior School North Farnborough Infant School Parsonage Farm Infant School Pinewood Infant School South Farnborough Infant School South Farnborough Junior School Southwood Infant School St Bernadette's Catholic Primary School St Mark's Church of England Aided Primary School St Patrick's Catholic Primary School St Peter's Church of England Aided Junior School Tower Hill Primary School Secondary schools There are three state secondary schools in Farnborough. All three are non-selective, mixed comprehensives, for pupils aged 11–16. Cove School Fernhill School The Wavell School Independent schools There are two independent Roman Catholic secondary schools in Farnborough. Both are single-sex, selective and include sixth forms. (2012 GCSE score in parentheses) Farnborough Hill (98%) Salesian College (99%) Further education The town is home to the Sixth Form College, Farnborough, which draws in around 4,000 students aged 16–19 from the surrounding area. Farnborough College of Technology is a further-education institution specialising in BTEC, A-level and vocational courses for students aged 16+. Higher education Whilst there are no universities in Farnborough, University Centre Farnborough (UCF) at Farnborough College of Technology, provides degree-level courses, accredited by the University of Surrey. Town centre The centre of Farnborough includes the Kingsmead, Queensmead and Princesmead Shopping precincts. In February 2007, Rushmoor Borough Council unveiled plans to renovate the centre of Farnborough over the next two decades. The town centre study outlines major changes to the council offices, Farnborough's main railway station, the local road network and the continuation of the improvements to Farnborough's town centre, including the development of a Discovery Centre (a Hampshire County Council initiative aimed at improving libraries in the county). Farnborough Town Hall, in Alexandra Road, has been converted for office use and is now known as Ferneberga House. Following a public consultation during the winter 2011–12, a 'town centre prospectus' outlining extensive redevelopment plans for the whole centre, including the building of a new cinema, a significant expansion of the available retail space, a new look for Queensmead shopping street and a community-led theatre or cultural venue was published. On the edge of the town centre, is Farnborough Leisure Centre, which has a swimming pool, gym, indoor bowling, squash courts and ten pin bowling. Sport Football The football club, Farnborough FC (known as Farnborough Town FC until 2007), play in the Southern League Premier Division South. As Farnborough Town FC, the team came to national prominence in 2003 when they reached the fourth round of the FA Cup, where they played the previous season's Cup winners Arsenal at Highbury. They were drawn to play the tie at home but the venue was switched on police advice. The match was won 5–1 by Arsenal. As Farnborough FC they have won the British Gas Business South and West and Premier division and got to the final of the Hampshire Senior Cup against Basingstoke but lost. The town's other clubs are Cove, Farnborough North End and South Farnborough. These teams play in the Southern Counties League and Aldershot & District League respectively. Rugby Established in 1915 (originally as the Royal Aircraft Factory Rugby Union Football Club) Farnborough Rugby Football Club is primarily a rugby union club based at Tile Barn Close in Farnborough. They play in Hampshire Division 1. They also have a Minis and Juniors section which caters for boys from 5 to 19 years of age and girls from 5 to 12 years of age. In the summer 2007 season they also fielded a successful rugby league team, winning the Co-op Southern Conference competition in their first year of entering. Cricket One cricket club in Farnborough is Cove Cricket Club. It fields five senior sides on a Saturday including an Academy XI playing in the Morrant Thames Valley Cricket League and one side on a Sunday playing a combination of league and friendly games. In 2007 Cove established a mini's section, providing cricket related fun on a Monday evening for players aged 4 to 7. Cove run boys teams at U9, U11, U13, and U15 and girls teams at U13 and U15. Hockey Camberley and Farnborough Hockey Club play men and women's field hockey in nearby Camberley (Kings International College). The London 2012 Bronze medal and Rio 2016 Gold medal winning Alex Danson went to school and played hockey at Farnborough Hill. Danson is a former captain of the Great Britain and England Women's Hockey Teams. Motorsports The Farnborough District Motor Club holds rallies, autocross, sprint, hillclimbing events throughout the year. Basketball Farnborough Phantoms Basketball Club was formed in 1996 and has men's, ladies' and junior teams which play in local leagues. Twinned towns - sister cities Rushmoor is twinned with: Dayton, Ohio, United States (since 2019) Gorkha Municipality, Nepal (since 2020) Meudon, France (since 1974) Oberursel, Germany (since 1989) Rzeszów, Poland (since 2019) Sulechów, Poland (since 2001) Neighbouring areas Geography and climate Farnborough forms, with Blackwater and Aldershot, a projection of northeast Hampshire into Surrey. The River Blackwater marks the county boundary. It is centred WSW of London and east of Basingstoke. It is directly to the south of junction 4 of the M3 motorway and its Cove/West Heath parts, included its official GSS built-up area is north-west of the town centre; a similar area, North Camp, is immediately south and a smaller area, Southwood, to the west. The town lies at the centre of the Blackwater Valley conurbation, which includes Aldershot, Camberley, Yateley, Sandhurst, Frimley and Farnham. North Camp is contiguous with the garrison town of Aldershot to the south. Its northern parts abut Frimley to the east and the Hawley part of Blackwater to the north. The council of the local government district of Rushmoor is based in the town, having borough status and including Aldershot. Farnborough's suburban areas include Southwood, Rafborough, Cove, West Heath, Farnborough Park, Farnborough Street, North Camp, South Farnborough, Fox Lane, Hawley Lane, St. John's, and St. Christopher's. Within Farnborough the only naturally occurring significant flowing water is Cove Brook. The Met Office have a weather station at Farnborough Airport which has been operating since 1914. See also Basingstoke Canal List of schools in Hampshire List of further education colleges in Hampshire Notes External links Rushmoor Borough Council Hantsphere: Hampshire's Heritage in Place Towns in Hampshire Unparished areas in Hampshire Rushmoor	[ -0.5417830348014832, 0.10906584560871124, 0.45071539282798767, -1.032942771911621, 0.05910782888531685, -0.22403612732887268, -0.18993951380252838, 0.3762519657611847, -0.2168954610824585, -0.33883124589920044, -0.3912840783596039, 0.4961269795894623, -0.19027942419052124, 0.14521989226341248, -0.48632290959358215, 0.4103337228298187, -0.08633986115455627, -0.07971442490816116, 0.0416257381439209, -0.5817359089851379, 0.036382097750902176, -0.4112161695957184, -0.1776200830936432, 0.07861209660768509, 0.0023026238195598125, -0.22327089309692383, 0.49637484550476074, 0.029832927510142326, -0.11048439145088196, 0.20040790736675262, -0.01119554229080677, 1.0195856094360352, -0.4275542199611664, -0.47544223070144653, 0.22625552117824554, 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232479	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Medieval%20architecture	Medieval architecture	Medieval architecture is architecture common in the Middle Ages, and includes religious, civil, and military buildings. Styles include pre-Romanesque, Romanesque, and Gothic. While most of the surviving medieval architecture is to be seen in churches and castles, examples of civic and domestic architecture can be found throughout Europe, in manor houses, town halls, almshouses, bridges, and residential houses. Types Religious architecture The Latin cross plan, common in medieval ecclesiastical architecture, takes the Roman basilica as its primary model with subsequent developments. It consists of a nave, transepts, and the altar stands at the east end (see Cathedral diagram). Also, cathedrals influenced or commissioned by Justinian employed the Byzantine style of domes and a Greek cross (resembling a plus sign), with the altar located in the sanctuary on the east side of the church. Military architecture Surviving examples of medieval secular architecture mainly served for defense. Castles and fortified walls provide the most notable remaining non-religious examples of medieval architecture. Windows gained a cross-shape for more than decorative purposes, they provided a perfect fit for a crossbowman to safely shoot at invaders from inside. Crenellated walls (battlements) provided shelters for archers on the roofs to hide behind when not shooting invaders. Civic architecture While much of the surviving medieval architecture is either religious or military, examples of civic and even domestic architecture can be found throughout Europe. Examples include manor houses, town halls, almshouses and bridges, but also residential houses. Styles Pre-Romanesque European architecture in the Early Middle Ages may be divided into Early Christian, Romanesque architecture, Russian church architecture, Norse architecture, Pre-Romanesque, including Merovingian, Carolingian, Ottonian, and Asturian. While these terms are problematic, they nonetheless serve adequately as entries into the era. Considerations that enter into histories of each period include Trachtenberg's "historicising" and "modernising" elements, Italian versus northern, Spanish, and Byzantine elements, and especially the religious and political maneuverings between kings, popes, and various ecclesiastic officials. Romanesque Romanesque, prevalent in medieval Europe during the 11th and 12th centuries, was the first pan-European style since Roman Imperial architecture and examples are found in every part of the continent. The term was not contemporary with the art it describes, but rather, is an invention of modern scholarship based on its similarity to Roman Architecture in forms and materials. Romanesque is characterized by a use of round or slightly pointed arches, barrel vaults, and cruciform piers supporting vaults. Romanesque buildings are widely known throughout Europe. The spread of Romanesque architecture through Europe has been described as "revolutionary". This style is sometimes called Anglo-Norman, though it continues under the Angevin and Plantagenet rulers. Motifs of Roman origin were common to Norman and Anglo-Saxon architectural styles. Though usually classed broadly as "Romanesque", the period of architecture can now be divided into two stages. The first stage from 1070 A.D. to 1100 A.D. saw the style emerge during the rebuilding of many great churches, cathedrals, and monasteries (surviving examples include the Durham Cathedral, Norwich Cathedral and the Peterborough Cathedral). The second stage lasted from 1100 A.D. to 1170 A.D. when many smaller churches were built and renovated. During this time, the style became more detailed and ornamental. Identifying these latter churches is made difficult due to something called the Saxo-Norman overlap, where many Anglo-Saxon aspects are present in the masonry. The Church at Kilpeck is identified as 12th century based on its shallow and flat buttresses, emphatic corbel table and apse. Gothic The various elements of Gothic architecture emerged in a number of 11th and 12th century building projects, particularly in the Île de France area, but were first combined to form what we would now recognise as a distinctively Gothic style at the 12th century abbey church of Saint-Denis in Saint-Denis, near Paris. Verticality is emphasized in Gothic architecture, which features almost skeletal stone structures with great expanses of glass, pared-down wall surfaces supported by external flying buttresses, pointed arches using the ogive shape, ribbed stone vaults, clustered columns, pinnacles and sharply pointed spires. Windows contain stained glass, showing stories from the Bible and from lives of saints. Such advances in design allowed cathedrals to rise taller than ever. Regions Central Europe Byzantine Empire Bulgarian Empire Scandinavia Kievan Rus See also Medieval Serbian architecture List of medieval stone bridges in Germany List of medieval bridges in France References Further reading Braun, Hugh, An Introduction to English Mediaeval Architecture, London: Faber and Faber, 1951. "Building the House of God: Architectural Metaphor and The Mystic Ark," Codex Aquilarensis: Revista de arte medieval (2016) Fletcher, Banister; Cruickshank, Dan, Sir Banister Fletcher's a History of Architecture, Architectural Press, 20th edition, 1996 (first published 1896). . Cf. Part Two, Chapter 13. Hillson, J., Buchanan, A., Webb, N, Digital Analysis of Vaults in English Medieval Architecture, London: Taylor & Francis (2021). Rudolph, Conrad, "Building-Miracles as Artistic Justification in the Early and Mid-Twelfth Century," Radical Art History: Internationale Anthologie, ed. Wolfgang Kersten (1997) 398-410. Rudolph, Conrad, "The Architectural Metaphor in Western Medieval Artistic Culture: From the Cornerstone to The Mystic Ark," The Cambridge History of Religious Architecture, ed. Stephen Murray (2016). Rudolph, Conrad, "Medieval Architectural Theory, the Sacred Economy, and the Public Presentation of Monastic Architecture: The Classic Cistercian Plan," Journal of the Society of Architectural Historians 78 (2019) 259-275. 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232480	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/RFI	RFI	RFI may refer to: Organisations Radio France Internationale, a French international radio broadcaster Rete Ferroviaria Italiana, the Italian railway infrastructure manager Rifle Factory Ishapore, an arms manufacturing facility at Ichapore, India Rowing Federation of India, the central body for the sport of rowing in India Other uses Radio-frequency interference Remote File Inclusion, a type of web application exploit Request for information, a business process Request for information (parliamentary procedure), a parliamentary procedure See also Radio-frequency identification or RFID, radio frequency identification	[ 0.4267278015613556, 0.10737154632806778, 0.07044246792793274, -0.20621632039546967, 0.13036160171031952, -0.1308625042438507, -0.1360797882080078, -0.326996386051178, -0.5118251442909241, -0.1127469390630722, -0.5458652973175049, 0.455797016620636, -0.06845363974571228, 0.40960392355918884, 0.05742271989583969, 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232484	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/BCC	BCC	BCC may refer to: Economics Central Bank of the Comoros (Banque Centrale des Comores) Central Bank of Cuba (Banco Central de Cuba) Central Bank of the Congo (Banque Centrale du Congo) Bamburi Cement, in Africa British Chambers of Commerce, a national network of accredited Chambers of Commerce across the UK Bitconnect, a kind of cryptocurrency Bitcoin Cash, a kind of cryptocurrency (more common symbol is BCH) Education Australia Ballarat and Clarendon College, a K–12 school in Ballarat, Victoria Brindabella Christian College, a Christian primary through senior college in Australian Capital Territory Bangladesh Barisal Cadet College, one of the Cadet Colleges of Bangladesh Barbados Barbados Community College Canada Barrie Central Collegiate Institute, a high school in Barrie, Ontario Philippines Bacolod Christian Center, a preschool in Bacolod, Negros Occidental Thailand Bangkok Christian College, a private school in Bangkok United Kingdom Bicester Community College, former name of The Bicester School, in Bicester, Oxfordshire, England United States Baltimore City College, a public secondary school in Baltimore, Maryland Bay City Central High School, a high school in Bay City, Michigan Bee County College, a community college in Beeville, Texas Bellevue Community College, a community college in Bellevue, Washington Bergen Community College, a community college in Bergen County, New Jersey Berkeley City College, a community college in Berkeley, California Berkshire Community College, a community college in Pittsfield, Massachusetts Bethesda-Chevy Chase High School, a public school in Montgomery County, Maryland Bethune-Cookman College, the former name of Bethune-Cookman University, a historically black college in Daytona Beach, Florida Brevard Community College, a community college in Brevard County, Florida Bristol Community College, a community college in Fall River, Massachusetts Bronx Community College, a community college in The Bronx, New York Brookdale Community College, a community college in Lincroft, Monmouth County, New Jersey Broome Community College, a two-year college in Broome County, New York Broward Community College, a community college in Broward County, Florida Brunswick Community College, a two-year college in Brunswick County, North Carolina Rowan College at Burlington County, a community college in Burlington County, New Jersey formerly named Burlington County College Butler Community College, a college in El Dorado, Kansas Science, technology, management Basal cell carcinoma, the most common skin cancer Behavior Change Communication Body-centered cubic, a form of atomic arrangement in a crystal lattice Borland C++, a C and C++ compiler used in C++Builder British Colour Council, a defunct industry standards organization Burkholderia cepacia complex, a bacterial pathogen Business Controls Corporation, best known for its SB-5 Cobol application software generator Places Baltimore Convention Center, in downtown Baltimore, Maryland Batam City Condominium, a skyscraper in Batam, Indonesia Beccles railway station, in England (National Rail station code BCC) Bessemer Civic Center, a performing arts and convention center in Bessemer, Alabama Bosmal City Centar, a skyscraper and residential building in Sarajevo Bramalea City Centre, an indoor shopping mall in Brampton, Ontario Brickell City Centre, mixed-use development in Miami, Florida Brunstad Conference Center, near Oslo, Norway Beltsville Communications Center, former name of the Beltsville Messaging Center, a U.S. Department of State facility Government Bangalore City Corporation, the governing council for Bangalore Bankstown City Council Birmingham City Council Brisbane City Council, the governing council for Brisbane Buffalo Common Council, the legislative branch of the Buffalo, New York municipal government Boston City Council Bristol City Council, the governing body of Bristol, UK California Bureau of Cannabis Control, the state regulator Orange County Board of County Commissioners, the governing body of Orange County, Florida Politics Blue Collar Caucus, an American Democratic Party caucus created in 2016 Blue Collar Conservativism, A British Conservative Party created in 2019 Religion Beaver Creek Camp, a Salvation Army camp in Saskatchewan, Canada Beth Chayim Chadashim, a Jewish synagogue in Los Angeles, California Bristol Community Church, a charismatic church in Kingswood, Bristol, England Brunstad Christian Church Boston Church of Christ, a part of International Churches of Christ Buddhist Cultural Centre Sports BCC Lions, a Nigerian football team Telecommunication Blind carbon copy (Bcc:), the practice of sending an e-mail to multiple recipients without disclosing the complete list of recipients Block check character, a character added to a transmission block to facilitate error detection in telecommunications Broadcasting Corporation of China, a broadcasting company of the Republic of China (Taiwan) BCC, an electrical retailer based in the Netherlands, owned by Kesa Electricals Other Bear Creek 3 Airport's IATA airport code Birch Carroll & Coyle, an Australian chain of cinema multiplexes Black Country Communion, a rock supergroup Boise Cascade Corporation, an American pulp and paper company Boonville Correctional Center, a medium security state penitentiary Boot Camp Clik, a hip hop supergroup from Brooklyn, New York Border Crossing Card, a document that allows limited entry into the United States by visitors Brazilian Cultural Center, a mission within several Brazilian diplomatic posts. Breast Cancer Campaign, a UK-based breast cancer charity providing funding for medical research Breast Cancer Care, a UK-based breast cancer charity providing information and support Bricx Command Center, an Integrated Development Environment for the Not eXactly C (NXC) language. British Carnatic Choir, a UK-based choir group By Common Consent, a prominent Mormon blog The Big Comfy Couch, A Canadian television series The Bulletin of the Center for Children's Books, an academic journal in the United States	[ 0.4653063714504242, 0.3269573450088501, -0.023670578375458717, 0.3358796238899231, 0.31100165843963623, 0.11653731763362885, -0.5286475419998169, 0.8769253492355347, -0.46576130390167236, 0.1631220430135727, -0.28793030977249146, 0.1540527194738388, 0.4845484495162964, 0.4941456913948059, 0.33196163177490234, -0.04405045136809349, 0.6914902925491333, 0.4540778398513794, -0.04017278924584389, -0.38509488105773926, -0.6076198816299438, 0.2499343454837799, 0.6142597198486328, -0.019100595265626907, 0.07613775134086609, 0.462560772895813, 0.17947404086589813, 0.2809397280216217, -0.11300624161958694, -0.4133780002593994, 0.5630273818969727, 0.24346093833446503, 0.41206151247024536, 0.11057107895612717, 0.39590898156166077, -0.34923091530799866, 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232487	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Education%20in%20New%20Zealand	Education in New Zealand	The education system in New Zealand is a three-tier model which includes primary and intermediate schools, followed by secondary schools (high schools) and tertiary education at universities and polytechnics. The academic year in New Zealand varies between institutions, but generally runs from early February until mid-December for primary schools, late January to late November or early December for secondary schools and polytechnics, and from late February until mid-November for universities. In 2009, the Programme for International Student Assessment (PISA), published by the Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD), ranked New Zealand 7th best at science and reading in the world, and 13th in maths. The Education Index, published as part of the UN's Human Development Index consistently ranks New Zealand among the highest in the world. Following a general knowledge survey, a report is set to be released in 2020 to discover whether or not New Zealand's education curriculum is fit for purpose. The Human Rights Measurement Initiative finds that New Zealand is doing 85.4% of what should be possible at its level of income for the right to education. History Prior to the arrival of Europeans, Māori ran schools to pass on tradition knowledge including songs, chants, tribal history, spiritual understanding and knowledge of medicinal plants. These wānanga were usually run by elders called tohunga, respected for their tribal knowledge and teaching was confined to the rangatira (chiefly) class. Reading and writing were unknown, but wood carving was well developed. Formal European-style schooling was first introduced in 1815 and was well established in 1832 by the London Missionary Society missionaries, who learnt Māori and built the first schools in the Bay of Islands. Both children and adults were taught. The main resources were the Christian New Testament and slates, and teaching was in the Māori language. For many years the Bible was the only literature used in teaching, and this became a major factor in how Māori viewed the European world. In the 1850s a Māori trade school was established at Te Awamutu by John Gorst to teach Māori practical skills associated with European-style farming, but in 1863 was burnt down by Rewi Maniapoto in the early stages of New Zealand Wars. Teaching by missionaries and in Native schools was in Māori between 1815 and 1900. The Young Māori Party MPs, especially Māui Pōmare and Āpirana Ngata, advocated the teaching of Māori children using English, as well as teaching hygiene to lower the Māori sickness and death rates. Pōmare was knighted after WW1 for his work in improving Māori learning and integration into New Zealand society. The absence of a national education system meant that the first sizable secondary education providers were grammar schools and other private institutions. The first grammar school in New Zealand, Auckland Grammar School, was established in 1850 and formally recognised as an educational establishment in 1868 through the Auckland Grammar School Appropriation Act. The Canterbury Provincial Council passed its first Educational Ordinance in 1857, appointed a Board of Education in 1863, and had eighty-four school districts by 1873 when it changed funding from school fees to rating land to provide free secular primary education in its schools. New Zealand did not establish a national state education system until 1 January 1878, largely modelled on the Canterbury system. Early childhood education Many children attend some form of early childhood education before they begin school, such as: Playcentre (age one to school age) Kindergarten (age three to school age) Kohanga Reo Licensed Early Childhood Centres (age 0 to school age) (usually privately owned) Chartered Early Childhood Centres (age 0 to school age) (state funded) Primary and secondary education All New Zealand citizens, and those entitled to reside in New Zealand indefinitely, are entitled to free primary and secondary schooling from their 5th birthday until the end of the calendar year following their 19th birthday. Education is compulsory between a student's 6th and 16th birthdays; however most students start primary school on (or shortly after) their 5th birthday, and the vast majority (around 84%) stay in school until at least their 17th birthday. In exceptional cases, 15-year-olds can apply for an early leaving exemption from the Ministry of Education (MOE). Disabled students with special educational needs can attend day specialist schools until the end of the calendar year they turn 21. Families wishing to home-school their children can apply for an exemption. To get an exemption from enrolment at a registered school, they must satisfy the Secretary of Education that their child will be taught "as regularly and as well as in a registered school". There are three main categories of schools in New Zealand: state (public) schools, state-integrated schools (mostly faith-based), and private (independent) schools. State schools educate approximately 84.9% of students, state-integrated schools educate 11.3%, and private schools educate 3.6%. Years of schooling New Zealand schools designate school class levels based on the years of schooling of the student cohort, using 13 academic year levels, numbered 1 through to 13. a system of Forms, Standards and Juniors/Primers was used. Students turning five enter at Year 1 if they begin school at the beginning of the school year or before the cut-off date (31 March in legislation, later for most schools). Students who turn five late in the year may start in Year 0 or stay in Year 1 for the next school year, depending on their academic progress. The Ministry of Education draws a distinction between academic and funding year levels, the latter being based on when a student first starts school—students first starting school after July, who therefore do not appear on the July roll returns, are classified as being in Funding Year 0 that year, and are recorded as being in Year 1 on the next year's roll returns. Primary education lasts eight years (Years 0–8). Depending on the area, the last two years of primary education may be taken at a primary school, at a secondary school, or at a separate intermediate school. Primary schools that go up to year 8 are known as full primaries. Students generally transition to secondary education at age 12–13. Secondary education, also known as high school or college, lasts five years (Years 9–13). Curriculum and qualifications All state and state integrated schools follow the national curriculum: The New Zealand Curriculum (NZC) for English-medium schools and Te Marautanga o Aotearoa (TMoA) for Māori-medium schools. Private schools do not need to follow the national curriculum, but must have a curriculum that is at least equivalent to NZC or TMoA. The New Zealand Curriculum has eight levels, numbered 1 to 8, and eight major learning areas: English, the arts, health and physical education, learning languages, mathematics and statistics, science, social sciences, and technology. Te Marautanga o Aotearoa includes a ninth learning area, Māori language. The main secondary school qualification in New Zealand is the National Certificate of Educational Achievement (NCEA), which is offered in all state and state-integrated schools. Some schools offer Cambridge International Examinations (CIE) or the International Baccalaureate (IB) alongside NCEA. Types of schools by funding New Zealand has three types of schools: state schools, which are government owned and funded; state integrated schools, which are government funded but may charge compulsory fees; and private schools, with set annual fees. State schools State schools, or public schools, are government funded and operated, and are free to New Zealand citizens and permanent residents. Students and parents however are expected to pay for stationery, uniforms, textbooks and school trips. Schools may ask for donations to supplement their government operational funding. While it is completely voluntary to pay the donation, some schools have been reported coercing parents into paying the donation by withholding school reports and not allowing students on trips for non-payment; some schools, especially those in affluent areas, request donations in excess of $1000 per year. Each state school is governed by an elected Board of Trustees, consisting of the school principal, a number of trustees (usually 5) elected by the parents of the students, one staff trustee elected by the school staff, and in secondary schools, one student trustee elected by the students. State schools follow the national curriculum, and are required to remain secular. Around 85% of students are enrolled in state schools. State-integrated schools State-integrated schools are former private schools which have chosen to integrate into the state education system, becoming state schools but retaining their "special character": being run by a religious community or a specialist group. They were established in 1975 after the near-collapse of the then-private Catholic school system, which had run into financial difficulties and threatened to overwhelm the state school system were they to close. The majority of state-integrated schools are Catholic, but other Christian denominations, religions and educational philosophies are also represented. The private school owners stay on as proprietors, and sit on the school's board of trustees to ensure the special character is maintained. State-integrated schools charge "attendance dues" to parents to cover the costs of the still privately owned land and buildings, and to pay off any debts accrued by the school prior to integration. Typical attendance dues range between $240 and $740 per year for Catholic schools, and between $1,150 and $2,300 per year for non-Catholic state-integrated schools. Around 10% of students are enrolled in state-integrates schools. Private schools Private schools are not funded by the government, relying on tuition fees paid by students' parents to operate, typically around NZ$20,000 per year. In 2010, 4% of school-age children attended private schools. Alternative schooling Charter schools in New Zealand were state-funded schools which operated outside of the normal state system, and did not follow the national curriculum. They began in 2014 with five small schools. Charter schools did not have to operate with any registered or trained teachers; teachers were not required to have current practicing certificates. Beginning in 2017 and culminating in September 2018 all former charter schools had become state-integrated schools. Parents may home-school their own children, if they can prove that their child will be "taught at least as regularly and as well as in a registered school", and receive an annual grant to help with costs, including services from The Correspondence School. The percentage of children home-schooled is well under 2% even in the Nelson region, the area where the concept is most popular. Types of schools by years While there is overlap in some schools, primary school traditionally runs from Year 0 to Year 8 and secondary school from Year 9 to Year 13. Depending on the area, Years 7 and 8 may be taken either at a "full" primary school (in contrast to a Year 0–6 "contributing" primary school), a separate intermediate school, or at a Year 7–13 secondary school. Schools catering for both primary school and secondary school students (Years 1 to 13) are common among private schools, and also state schools in areas where the population does not justify separate primary and secondary schools (the latter are termed "area schools"). The main six types of schools are: Contributing primary school: Years 0–6 (ages 5–11; 4 in some cases). There are no private contributing primaries. Full primary school: Years 1–8 (ages 5–13). Common among integrated and private schools. Intermediate school: Years 7–8 (ages 10–13). Only two non-state intermediate schools exist. Secondary school: Years 9–13 (ages 13–18). Year 7–13 secondary school or Secondary school with intermediate: Years 7–13 (ages 10–18). Common among integrated and private schools, and state schools in Invercargill and South Island provincial areas. Composite school or Area school: Years 1–13 (ages 5–18). Common among integrated and private schools. There are some schools that fall outside the traditional year groupings. All of the following types of schools are rare, with less than ten of each type existing. Middle school: Years 7–10 (ages 10–15). Only six exist. Senior school: Years 11–13 (ages 14–18). Only four exist (Albany Senior High School in Auckland, Auckland International College in Auckland, Rototuna Senior High School in Hamilton and Ormiston Senior College in Auckland). In addition, there are three other types of schools defined by the Ministry of Education: Correspondence school: Preschool – Year 13 (Preschool – age 19). Serves distance education, for those in remote areas or for individual subjects not offered by a school. The only school of this type is the national correspondence school: Te Aho o Te Kura Pounamu. Special school: Preschool – age 21. Serves special education to those with intellectual impairments, visual or hearing impairments, or learning and social difficulties, who receive Ongoing Resourcing Scheme (ORS) funding. Teen parent unit: Years 9–15 (age 12–19). Serves teenage parents in continuing secondary school education. They are under the jurisdiction of a hosting secondary school, but are largely autonomous. Types of school by function Normal schools — designated as major practicum sites for trainee teachers Model schools State school enrolment schemes Geographically based state school enrolment schemes were abolished in 1991 by the Fourth National Government and the Education Amendment Act 1991. Although this greatly opened up the choice of schools for students, it had undesirable consequences. Popular high-decile schools experienced large roll growths, while less popular low-decile school experienced roll declines. Schools could operate a roll limit if there was a risk of overcrowding, but enrolments under this scheme were on a "first come, first served" basis, potentially excluding local students. The Education Amendment Act 2000, enacted by the Fifth Labour Government, partially solved this problem by putting in place a new "system for determining enrolment of students in circumstances where a school has reached its roll capacity and needs to avoid overcrowding." Schools which operate enrolment schemes have a geographically defined "home zone". Residence in this zone, or in the school's boarding house (if it has one) gives right of entry to the School. Students who live outside the school's home zone can be admitted, if there are places available, in the following order of priority: special programmes; siblings of currently enrolled students; siblings of past students; children of past students; children of board employees and staff; all other students. If there are more applications than available places then selection must be through a randomly drawn ballot. The system is complicated by some state schools having boarding facilities for students living beyond the school's zone. Typically these students live in isolated farming regions in New Zealand, or their parents may live or work partly overseas. Many secondary schools offer limited scholarships to their boarding establishment to attract talented students in imitation of private school practice. As of September 2010, 700 of New Zealand's 2550 primary and secondary schools operate an enrolment scheme, while the remaining 1850 schools are "open enrolment", meaning any student can enrol in the school without rejection. Enrolment schemes mostly exist in major towns and cities where school density is high and school choice is active; they rarely exist for primary schools in rural areas and secondary schools outside the major towns and cities, where school density is low and school choice is limited by the distance to the nearest alternative school. Critics have suggested that the system is fundamentally unfair as it restricts the choice for parents to choose schools and schools to choose their students although it does allow all students living in the community to have entry, as of right, regardless of their academic or social profile. In addition, there is evidence that property values surrounding some more desirable schools become inflated, thus restricting the ability of lower socio-economic groups to purchase a house in the zone, though this is off set by the fact that students are accepted from rental accommodation or from homes where they are boarding with a bona fide relative or friend living in the zone. Some parents have purposely flouted zone boundaries by giving false addresses, such as that of a business they own in the zone, or by renting homes in the zone only through the enrolment process and moving out before the student commences school. Schools are now requesting rates invoices, tenancy agreements, or power and telephone bills from parents to prove their residential address, Some schools have gone as far as requiring parents to make a statutory declaration before a Justice of the Peace or similar that they live in the school zone, which makes it impossible for a parent to cheat the zone without also committing a criminal offence (making a false statutory declaration is punishable by up to three years' imprisonment). Māori language in education While English is the dominant language of education throughout New Zealand, in recent years there have been ongoing efforts to raise the availability of Māori language education in New Zealand as one of New Zealand's three official languages. Prior to the arrival of the first European settlers in what would become New Zealand, traditional educational systems in Māori society (a ritual transfer of knowledge for most Māori, and the more formal whare wānanga—“house of learning”—model primarily for those of chiefly lineage) were naturally conducted through the medium of the Māori language. In 1816, the first mission school was opened to teach the Māori in the Bay of Islands. Here too, instruction was conducted primarily in the Māori language. Though English-medium education would have also been available for children of European settlers from nearly their first arrival, ethnic Māori continued to learn primarily through the medium of the Māori language for many years. It was not until the Native Schools Act was passed in 1867 that a systematic government preference was articulated for the English language as a medium of instruction for Māori children. And even with the passage of the act, the English-language provision was not rigorously enforced until 1900. Starting in 1903, a government policy to discourage, and even punish, the use of the Māori language in playgrounds was enacted. In the early 1930s the director of Education blocked an initiative by the New Zealand Federation of Teachers to have the Māori language added to the curriculum. Though not the only factor, the ban on the Māori language in education contributed to the widespread loss of Māori-language ability. By 1960 the number of Māori who could speak the language had fallen to 25% from 95% in 1900. Focus on falling Māori academic achievement in the 1960s coupled with the loss of the language, led to heavy lobbying by Ngā Tamatoa and the Te Reo Māori Society in the 1970s for the introduction of the language into the schools. This was accompanied by the establishment of Māori Studies programs in each of the Teacher Colleges by 1973. The 1980s then marked a pivotal decade in the revival of Māori-medium education, with the establishment of the first kōhanga reo (“language nest” – essentially a total immersion Māori-medium pre-school and kindergarten) in 1981, the first kura kaupapa (established at Hoani Waititi Marae, West Auckland) in 1985, a finding by the Waitangi Tribunal that the Māori language is guaranteed protection under Article II of the Treaty of Waitangi in 1986, and the passage of the Māori Language Act in 1987, recognizing Māori as an official language. Under New Zealand's current education laws, Māori language education is available in many locations throughout the country, both as a subject in a normal English-medium school as well as through immersion in a Māori-medium school set up under Section 155 (s155) or Section 156 (s156) of the Education Act 1990. The full immersion schools are commonly referred to as Kura Kaupapa Māori. Though enrolment numbers in Māori language programs have remained relatively stable in the last 5 years, both the raw total as well as the percentage of students enrolled have fallen since a high mark set in 2004. The decrease has primarily been among ethnic Māori themselves. See table below. The definitions provided by the New Zealand Ministry of Education are as follows: Māori Medium: Māori Medium includes students who are taught the curriculum in the Māori language for at least 51 percent of the time (Māori Language Immersion levels 1–2). Māori Language in English Medium: Māori Language in English Medium includes students who are learning the Māori language as a language subject, or who are taught the curriculum in the Māori language for up to 50 percent of the time (Māori Language Immersion levels 3–5). No Māori Language in Education: No Māori Language in Education includes those students who are only introduced to the Māori language via Taha Māori, i.e. simple words, greetings or songs in Māori (Māori Immersion Level 6), and students who are not involved in Māori language education at any level. Information taken from Education Counts (accessed 22 May 2013) School times The school day starts anywhere from 8:00-9:00 am and finishes around 3:00 pm. The school year starts at the end of January and finishes in mid-December, with the six-week summer holidays making up the second half of December and most of January. The year split up into four terms, each lasting around ten weeks with two-week breaks in between. Typically, term 1 lasts from late January to mid-April, term 2 from early May to early July, term 3 from late July to late September, and term 4 from early October to mid-December, but term dates may be adjusted because of major sporting events or viral outbreaks. Tertiary education Tertiary education in New Zealand is used to describe all aspects of post-school education and training. This ranges from informal non-assessed community courses in schools through to undergraduate degrees and advanced, research-based postgraduate degrees. Tertiary education is regulated within the New Zealand Qualifications Framework, a unified system of national qualifications in schools, vocational education and training. Funding Primary and secondary State and state integrated schools are allocated funding from the Government on a per-student basis to fund the running of the school. Smaller schools receive additional funding due to the added fixed costs of running them compared to larger schools, and schools also receive funding based on the school's socio-economic decile rating, with low-decile schools (i.e. those in poorer areas) receiving more funds. They may also receive funds from other activities, such as hiring out school facilities outside school hours to outside groups. Schools also ask for a voluntary donation from parents, informally known as "school fees", to cover extra expenses not covered by the government funding. This may range from $40 per child up to $800 per child in high decile state schools, to over $4000 in state integrated schools. The payment of this fee varies widely according to how parents perceive the school. Typically parents will also outlay $500–$1000 per year for uniforms, trips, social events, sporting equipment and stationery at state schools. Most state integrated schools also charge "attendance dues", a compulsory fee paid to the school's proprietors to cover the cost of maintaining and upgrading school land and buildings. Unlike voluntary donations, attendance dues are not optional and parents are contractually and legally required to pay them, and schools can take action to collect these or cancel the enrolment of a student if they are not paid. Private schools rely mainly on tuition fees paid to the school by the parents of the students, although some funding is provided by the government. As of 2013, private schools receives from the Government (exclusive of GST) $1013 for every Year 1 to 6 student, $1109 for every Year 7 and 8 student, $1420 for every Year 9 and 10 student, and $2156 for every Year 11 to 13 student. However, the government funding is more of a partial tax rebate, as the GST payable to the government on the tuition fees collected often exceeds the government funding received in turn. Salaries and wages for teaching staff in state and state integrated schools are paid directly from the Ministry of Education to the employee, and are not paid out of a school's funding. The salaries are fixed nationwide, and are based on the teacher's qualifications, years of service and workload, with middle and senior management awarded extra pay through "units". In 1991, following the decentralisation of school administration (the "Tomorrow's Schools" reforms), there was an attempt to move the responsibilities of paying teachers' salaries from the ministry to each school's Board of Trustees, in which each board would receive a lump sum from the government for all costs, including the payment of salaries. Known as "Bulk Funding", the proposal met strong opposition from teachers and their unions, particularly the Post Primary Teachers' Association, and wildcat strike action occurred among teachers as some schools' boards of trustees gradually elected to move to the new system. Bulk Funding was eventually scrapped in July 2000. Special needs students are entitled to Ongoing Resource Scheme (ORS) funding, which is used for facilitating the adaption of the curriculum to fit the student, funding of teacher aides and specialists, and procuring any special equipment required. There are three levels of funding based on the student's needs: very high, high or combined moderate. For example, a student who is totally blind or deaf is classified as very high needs, while a student who is partially sighted (6/36 or worse) or severely or profoundly deaf (71 dB loss or worse) is classified as high needs. ORS funding is permanent, so it continues until the student leaves school. Tertiary education Funding for tertiary education in New Zealand is through a combination of government subsidies and student fees. The government funds approved courses by a tuition grant based on the number of enrolled students in each course and the amount of study time each course requires. Courses are rated on an equivalent full-time Student (EFTS) basis. Students enrolled in courses can access Student Loans and Student Allowances to assist with fees and living costs. Funding for Tertiary Institutions has been criticised recently due to high fees and funding not keeping pace with costs or inflation. Some also point out that high fees are leading to skills shortages in New Zealand as high costs discourage participation and graduating students seek well paying jobs off shore to pay for their student loans debts. Students Most tertiary education students rely on some form of state funding to pay for their tuition and living expenses. Mostly, students rely on state provided student loans and allowances. Secondary school students sitting the state run examinations are awarded scholarships, depending on their results, that assist in paying some tuition fees. Universities and other funders also provide scholarships or funding grants to promising students, though mostly at a postgraduate level. Some employers will also assist their employees to study (full-time or part-time) towards a qualification that is relevant to their work. People who receive state welfare benefits and are retraining, or returning to the workforce after raising children, may be eligible for supplementary assistance, however students already in full or part-time study are not eligible for most state welfare benefits. Student allowances Student Allowances, which are non-refundable grants to students of limited means, are means tested and the weekly amount granted depends on residential and citizenship qualifications, age, location, marital status, dependent children as well as personal, spousal or parental income. The allowance is intended for living expenses, so most students receiving an allowance will still need a student loan to pay for their tuition fees. Student loans The Student Loan Scheme is available to all New Zealand citizens and permanent residents. It covers course fees, course related expenses, and can also provide a weekly living allowance for full-time students. The loan must be repaid at a rate dependent on income and repayments are normally recovered via the income tax system by wage deductions. Low income earners and students in full-time study can have the interest on their loans written off. On 26 July 2005, the Labour Party announced that they would abolish interest on Student Loans, if re-elected at the September election, which they were. From April 2006, the interest component on Student Loans was abolished for students who live in New Zealand. This has eased pressure on the government from current students. However, it caused resentment from past students many of whom have accumulated large interests amounts in the years 1992–2006. Educational standards in New Zealand In 1995 New Zealand students finished 18th out of 24 countries on an international survey, Trends in International Mathematics and Science Study (TIMSS). There was considerable public concern so the Government created a taskforce to address the problem. In 2001, the Ministry introduced the Numeracy Development Project, which was supposed to lift student performance. Instead, the new teaching methods appear to have "confused teachers, children and parents by presenting multiple alternative problem-solving strategies but neglecting basic knowledge" and over the next few years New Zealand's rating dropped even further. In December 2012, the latest TIMSS survey found New Zealand 9-year-olds ranked 34th out of 53 countries — and were bottom equal among developed nations. Almost half could not add 218 and 191 compared to 73% internationally. Ministry of Education figures show the number of 12-year-olds who were able to answer simple multiplication questions correctly dropped from "47% in 2001 — the year new maths teaching methods were introduced — to 37% in 2009". The problem flows on to high schools, where "there are still students who have difficulty with the very basics such as knowledge about whole numbers and decimals". Sir Vaughan Jones, New Zealand's foremost mathematician, is concerned about the way maths is now taught in New Zealand arguing that children need to learn how to multiply and add and really understand those processes before moving on. Jones said children "need to know basic arithmetic before they try to start problem solving". In December 2012 a broader ranking process put New Zealand eighth out of 40 countries — seemingly giving the country one of the top education systems in the world. This ranking came from The Learning Curve global education report, published by education firm Pearson. The report assesses performance rates of pupils in reading, writing and maths and is based on data from the Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development. However, the validity of Pearsons' testing process for students has been questioned following the discovery of numerous errors in its tests and controversy regarding a question about a talking pineapple. On a more general note, the Pearson report said the quality of teaching was key factor in a successful education system but also highlighted the importance of an underlying culture focused on children's learning. The report noted that Hong Kong, Japan and Singapore, which were all ahead of New Zealand, had societies "where education and learning was of the greatest importance and where parents were very much involved with their children's education". Māori and Pacific Island standards According to former Education Minister Hekia Parata, New Zealand needs to raise the academic achievement of its Māori and Pacific Island students to match those of Pākehā students. In 2013, she said that the PISA international standard showed Pākehā were ranked second in the world, Māori were 34th equal and Pacific students were ranked 44th. School bullying Bullying is a widespread issue in New Zealand schools. In 2007, one in five New Zealand high school students reported being cyber-bullied. In regard to physical bullying, an international study in 2009 found New Zealand had the second highest incidence of bullying out of the 40 countries surveyed. In 2009, the Ombudsman launched an investigation into school bullying and violence after serious incidents at Hutt Valley High School in Lower Hutt, which included students being dragged to the ground, sexually assaulted, a student "being beaten unconscious and a student being burnt with a lighter". The Ombudsman's report recommended schools' guidelines be amended to make anti-bullying programmes compulsory in schools. Post Primary Teachers' Association president Robin Duff said the report illustrated a systemic failure by the Ministry of Education to help schools deal with bullying. The Government responded by putting $60 million into a Positive Behaviour for Learning plan but the results were less than satisfactory. In March 2013, Secondary Principals Association president Patrick Walsh asked the Ministry to "urgently draft a comprehensive bullying policy for schools, after being surprised to find it did not have one." Mr Walsh believes that since schools are supposed to be self-managing, each school has "work it out" for themselves which "would mean that all 2500 schools all have to reinvent the wheel". See also Charter schools in New Zealand History of education in New Zealand Homeschooling in New Zealand Environmental education in New Zealand National Certificate of Educational Achievement New Zealand Qualifications Authority Student Job Search References Further reading Passow, A. Harry et al. The National Case Study: An Empirical Comparative Study of Twenty-One Educational Systems. (1976) online External links edCentre — gateway to New Zealand education (government website) Stats NZ - Education Statistics Information on education in New Zealand, OECD — Contains indicators and information about New Zealand and how it compares to other OECD and non-OECD countries Find New Zealand universities and courses — A complete guide to study in New Zealand Diagram of New Zealand's education system, OECD — Using 1997 ISCED classification of programmes and typical ages. 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232488	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/FDD	FDD	FDD may refer to: Politics CNDD-FDD, a political party in Burundi Forum for Democracy and Development, a political party in Zambia KAZE-FDD, a political party in Burundi Science and technology Floppy disk drive Frequency-division duplex, a telecommunications duplex indexing method Frequency domain decomposition, a system identification technique LTE-FDD, a 4G telecommunications technology and standard Timex FDD, a nearly complete computer by Timex UMTS-FDD, an air interface standard in 3G mobile telecommunications networks Fault detection and diagnostics, by Automated Logic Corporation Other uses Feature-driven development, a project management approach Forces for the Defense of Democracy, a rebel group in Burundi Foundation for Defense of Democracies, a policy institute based in Washington, D.C., US Franchise disclosure document (2008), UFDD/UFOC Uniform Franchise Offering Circular The Danish Scout Council, formerly the Fællesrådet for Danmarks Drengespejdere "F.D.D.", the opening theme to the anime Chaos;Head sung by Kanako Itō	[ 0.3296840488910675, 0.1736876219511032, 0.08013561367988586, 0.1864759773015976, -0.289507120847702, 0.16525469720363617, -0.08943359553813934, 0.20178143680095673, -0.42890891432762146, -0.3908199369907379, -0.527396023273468, 0.5391099452972412, -0.5508830547332764, -0.07734812051057816, 0.28862157464027405, 0.7170826196670532, 0.08329267799854279, 0.10891102999448776, 0.025328323245048523, -0.13060328364372253, -0.3173363506793976, -0.21359135210514069, 0.12613250315189362, -0.10909757018089294, -0.1373991221189499, -0.09300439059734344, 0.7838318943977356, 0.31218916177749634, -0.0032850923016667366, 0.20662730932235718, 0.30871179699897766, 0.3617785573005676, -0.12743425369262695, 0.0272231325507164, -0.17121204733848572, 0.2583741247653961, -0.12980039417743683, -0.30069005489349365, 0.1085178405046463, -0.4103955328464508, 0.2082003802061081, -0.5156428813934326, 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232492	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/HDD	HDD	HDD may refer to: H. D. Deve Gowda, former Prime Minister of India Hard disk drive Hand Drawn Dracula, a record label Head-down display Heating degree day High definition display Honorary Doctor of Divinity Horizontal Directional Drilling Hyderabad Airport (Sindh), in Pakistan ; see Device file § naming conventions Hard Drive Divinity, the transformed state of CPUs in Hyperdimension Neptunia Handan East railway station, China Railway pinyin code HDD	[ 0.08231867849826813, 0.24238654971122742, -0.0974663719534874, -0.050527721643447876, -0.49699920415878296, -0.1332944631576538, 0.30830445885658264, 0.3341512382030487, -0.041342414915561676, -0.6736568808555603, -0.5348421335220337, 0.31077075004577637, 0.3424395024776459, 0.11029743403196335, 0.5279617309570312, 0.5851938128471375, 0.4559195339679718, 0.8047574162483215, -0.18191465735435486, -0.3140004277229309, -0.1747954785823822, -0.45440393686294556, -0.2998847961425781, -0.7337191700935364, -0.1391524225473404, -0.07419697195291519, 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232493	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/IOW	IOW	IOW or iow may refer to: Isle of Wight, an island in the English channel, frequently abbreviated IoW or IOW (e.g. Chapman code) Iowa City Municipal Airport, IATA code: IOW, an airport in the United States Leibniz Institute for Baltic Sea Research, abbreviated IOW in German Iowa-Oto language, ISO 639-3 code iow In Other Words, a common abbreviation	[ 0.6287883520126343, -0.4157148003578186, -0.138469398021698, -0.3949534296989441, -0.081302210688591, 0.45604708790779114, 0.17952492833137512, 0.26266616582870483, -0.5457166433334351, -0.16858339309692383, -0.6212571859359741, 0.4258279502391815, 0.0001947522978298366, -0.09898819029331207, 0.1622503697872162, 0.29713141918182373, 0.3513888120651245, 0.7191207408905029, -0.584971010684967, -0.39572128653526306, -0.035171933472156525, -0.1535845398902893, -0.0853893905878067, -0.4965880811214447, 0.2582009732723236, -0.3190996050834656, 0.5558274388313293, -0.579522430896759, 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232495	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Motivation	Motivation	Motivation is what explains why people or animals initiate, continue or terminate a certain behavior at a particular time. Motivational states are commonly understood as forces acting within the agent that create a disposition to engage in goal-directed behavior. It is often held that different mental states compete with each other and that only the strongest state determines behavior. This means that we can be motivated to do something without actually doing it. The paradigmatic mental state providing motivation is desire. But various other states, such as beliefs about what one ought to do or intentions, may also provide motivation. Various competing theories have been proposed concerning the content of motivational states. They are known as content theories and aim to describe what goals usually or always motivate people. Abraham Maslow's hierarchy of needs and the ERG theory, for example, posit that humans have certain needs, which are responsible for motivation. Some of these needs, like for food and water, are more basic than other needs, such as for respect from others. On this view, the higher needs can only provide motivation once the lower needs have been fulfilled. Behaviorist theories try to explain behavior solely in terms of the relation between the situation and external, observable behavior without explicit reference to conscious mental states. Motivation may be either intrinsic, if the activity is desired because it is inherently interesting or enjoyable, or extrinsic, if the agent's goal is an external reward distinct from the activity itself. It has been argued that intrinsic motivation has more beneficial outcomes than extrinsic motivation. Motivational states can also be categorized according to whether the agent is fully aware of why he acts the way he does or not, referred to as conscious and unconscious motivation. Motivation is closely related to practical rationality. A central idea in this field is that we should be motivated to perform an action if we believe that we should perform it. Failing to fulfill this requirement results in cases of irrationality, known as akrasia or weakness of the will, in which there is a discrepancy between our beliefs about what we should do and our actions. Research on motivation has been employed in various fields. In the field of business, a central question concerns work motivation, for example, what measures an employer can use to ensure that his employees are motivated. Motivation is also of particular interest to educational psychologists because of its crucial role in student learning. Specific interest has been given to the effects of intrinsic and extrinsic motivation in this field. Definition Motivation is commonly defined as what explains why people or animals initiate, continue or terminate a certain behavior at a particular time. Motivational states come in various degrees of strength. The higher the degree, the more likely it is that the state has an influence on behavior. This is often linked to forces acting from within the agent that result in goal-directed behavior. One problem with defining motivation in terms of internal forces is that it is very difficult to measure them, which is why empirically-minded theorists often prefer definitions that are more closely linked to observable behavior. One approach is to define motivation in terms of the flexibility of the animal's behavior. This flexibility involves goal-directed behavior that changes as the animal learns through new experiences. Rats, for example, can learn to traverse through complicated mazes in order to satisfy their hunger. The feeding behavior of flies, on the other hand, is not flexible in this sense. On this view, we are justified to ascribe motivational states to rats but not to flies. But it has been argued that there are cases of motivation without flexible behavior. A totally paralyzed person, for example, could still have motivation despite being unable to engage in behavior. This means that flexibility may still be a sufficient but not a necessary mark of motivation. Some definitions stress the continuity between human and animal motivation but others draw a clear distinction between the two. This is often motivated by the idea that human agents act for reasons and commit themselves to the intentions they form while animals just follow their strongest desire. Causalist definitions stress the causal relation between motivation and the resulting behavior. Non-causalist definitions, on the other hand, hold that motivation explains behavior in a non-causal way. Motivation and mental states Behaviorists have tried to explain motivation solely in terms of the relation between the situation and external, observable behavior. But the same entity often behaves differently despite being in the same situation as before. This suggests that explanation needs to make reference to internal states of the entity that mediate the link between stimulus and response. Among these internal states, psychologists and philosophers are most interested in mental states. The paradigmatic mental state providing motivation is desire. But it has been argued that various other states, such as beliefs about what one ought to do or intentions, can also provide motivation. An important distinction is between states that provide motivation whenever they are present, sometimes referred to as "essentially motivation-constituting attitudes" while other states provide motivation contingent on certain circumstances or other states. It has been argued that a desire to perform an action, a so-called action-desire, always provides motivation. This is even the case if the agent decides against performing the action because there are other more pressing issues. An instrumental belief about how to reach a certain goal, on the other hand, provides motivation contingent on the agent currently having this goal. We can desire many things besides actions, like that our favorite soccer team wins their next match or that world peace is established. Whether these desires provide motivation depends, among other things, on whether the agent has the ability to contribute to their realization. While some theorists accept the idea that desire is essential to motivation, others have argued that we can act even without desires. The motivation may instead be based, for example, on rational deliberation. On this view, attending a painful root canal treatment is in most cases motivated by deliberation and not by a desire to do so. So desire may not be essential to motivation. But it is open to opponents of the thesis that there is motivation without desires to reject the analysis of such examples. Instead, they may argue that attending the root canal treatment is desired in some sense, even if there is also a very vivid desire present against doing so. Another important distinction is between occurrent and standing desires. Occurrent desires are either conscious or otherwise causally active, in contrast to standing desires, which exist somewhere in the back of one's mind. If Dhanvi is busy convincing her friend to go hiking this weekend, for example, then her desire to go hiking is occurrent. But many of her other desires, like to sell her old car or to talk with her boss about a promotion, are merely standing during this conversation. Only occurrent desires can act as sources of motivation. But not all occurrent desires are conscious. This leaves open the possibility of unconscious motivation. Some psychological theories claim that motivation exists purely within the individual, but socio-cultural theories express motivation as an outcome of participation in actions and activities within the cultural context of social groups. Strength of desire and action Some theorists, often from a Humean tradition, deny that states other than desires can motivate us. When such a view is combined with the idea that desires come in degrees, it can naturally lead to the thesis that we always follow our strongest desire. This theory can be modified in the way that we always follow the course of action with the highest net force of motivation. This accounts for cases where several weaker desires all recommend the same course of action and together trump the strongest desire. Various types of objections have been raised against this thesis. Some base their arguments on the assumption that we have free will, meaning that it is up to the agent what we do. From this position, it is natural to reject a point of view that lets behavior be determined by desires and not by the agent. Others point to counterexamples, like when the agent acts out of a sense of duty even though he has a much stronger desire to do something else. One line of argumentation holds that there is an important difference between the motivation based on a desire and an intention to act: an intention involves some kind of commitment to or identification with the intended course of action. This happens on the side of the agent and is not present in regular desires. This approach can be combined with the view that desires somehow contribute to the formation of intentions based on their strength. It has been argued that this distinction is important for the difference between human agency and animal behavior. On this view, animals automatically follow their strongest desire while human agents act according to their intention which may or may not coincide with their strongest desire. Content theories Theories articulating the content of motivation: what kinds of things people find motivating are among the earliest theories in motivation research history. Because content theories focus on which categories of goal (needs) motivate people, content theories are related to need theories. Maslow's hierarchy of needs Content theory of human motivation includes both Abraham Maslow's hierarchy of needs and Herzberg's two-factor theory. Maslow's theory is one of the most widely discussed theories of motivation. Abraham Maslow believed that man is inherently good and argued that individuals possess a constantly growing inner drive that has great potential. The needs hierarchy system is a commonly used scheme for classifying human motives. Maslow’s hierarchy of needs emphasizes certain characteristics like family and community that involve the needs to be met. The basic needs, safety, love and belonging, and esteem have to be met first in order for the individual to actually reach self-actualization. The needs can overlap within the pyramid, but the lower needs have to be met first in order to move up. Some basic needs can include food and shelter. The need of safety has to do with receiving protection. For the individual to feel love/belonging they have to feel some type of attachment by giving and receiving love. Having competence and control in personal life has to do with meeting the need of esteem. Not being able to meet the lower and higher needs can have a detrimental effect on mental health. This could lead to symptoms of depression, and lower self-esteem during adolescent years. If safety needs are not met during adolescence, then the individual will have less confidence. A study found that just having support from the community, friends can lead to decreased emotional challenges. It is important to satisfy these needs in order to reduce emotional and mental challenges over time. Maslow (1954) developed the hierarchy of needs consisting of five hierarchic classes. According to Maslow, people are motivated by unsatisfied needs. The needs, listed from basic (lowest-earliest) to most complex (highest-latest), are as follows: Physiology (hunger, thirst, sleep, etc.) Safety/Security/Shelter/Health Social/Love/Friendship Self-esteem/Recognition/Achievement Self actualization/achievement of full potential The basic requirements build upon the first step in the pyramid: physiology. If there are deficits on this level, all behavior will be oriented to satisfy this deficit. Essentially, if someone has not slept or eaten adequately, they would not be interested in their self-esteem desires. Subsequently, people that have the second level, awakens a need for security and so on and so forth. After securing those two levels, the motives shift to the social sphere, the third level. Psychological requirements comprise the fourth level, while the top of the hierarchy consists of self-realization and self-actualization. Maslow's hierarchy of needs theory can be summarized as follows: Human beings have wants and desires which, when unsatisfied, may influence behavior. Differing levels of importance to human life are reflected in a hierarchical structure of needs. Needs at higher levels in the hierarchy are held in abeyance until lower-level needs are at least minimally satisfied. Needs at higher levels of the hierarchy are associated with individuality, humanness, and psychological health. Herzberg's two-factor theory Frederick Herzberg's two-factor theory concludes that certain factors in the workplace result in job satisfaction (motivators), while others (hygiene factors), if absent, lead to dissatisfaction but are not related to satisfaction. The name hygiene factors are used because, like hygiene, the presence will not improve health, but absence can cause health deterioration. The factors that motivate people can change over their lifetime. Some claimed motivating factors (satisfiers) were: Achievement, recognition, work itself, responsibility, advancement, and growth. Some hygiene factors (dissatisfiers) were: company policy, supervision, working conditions, interpersonal relations, salary, status, job security, and personal life. Alderfer's ERG theory Alderfer, building on Maslow's hierarchy of needs, posited that needs identified by Maslow exist in three groups of core needs — existence, relatedness, and growth, hence the label: ERG theory. The existence group is concerned with providing our basic material existence requirements. They include the items that Maslow considered to be physiological and safety needs. The second group of needs is relatedness- the desire we have to maintain important personal relationships. These social and status desires require interaction with others if they are to be satisfied, and they align with Maslow's social need and the external component of Maslow's esteem classification. Finally, Alderfer isolates growth needs as an intrinsic desire for personal development. All these needs should be fulfilled to greater wholeness as a human being. Self-Determination Theory Self-Determination Theory is an approach to human motivation and personality that uses traditional empirical methods while employing an organismic metatheory that highlights the importance of humans evolved inner resources for personality development and behavioral self-regulation (Ryan, Kuhn, & Deci, 1997). It takes a look into people’s psychological needs and growth tendencies that reveal their personality and level of self-determination. Competence, relatedness, autonomy are important conditions that play a huge part in one’s motivation and engagement in activities, because it determines a person's well-being. The social environment, with the correct amount of support, can help fulfill basic psychological needs. These basic psychological needs are autonomy, competence and relatedness. These basic needs can create behaviors that result from personal support which leads to being engaged in a certain environment and provides relationships that are important. Two types of motivation found in the self-determination theory are called amotivation and autonomous motivation. These types of motivations can lead to intrinsic and extrinsic actions. The amotivation can derive from feelings of inadequacy which leads to having a lack of motivation. The person feels their environment is controlled through monitoring and rewards. The person only feels motivation because of external rewards or to avoid punishment. On the other hand, autonomous motivation comes from the person’s own lifestyle and engaging in a task is done innately. Having a supportive social environment can help bring out behaviors from autonomous motivations. Classical and operant conditioning In classical (or respondent) conditioning, behaviour is understood as responses triggered by certain environmental or physical stimuli. They can be unconditioned, such as in-born reflexes, or learned through the pairing of an unconditioned stimulus with a different stimulus, which then becomes a conditioned stimulus. In relation to motivation, classical conditioning might be seen as one explanation as to why an individual performs certain responses and behaviors in certain situations. For instance, a dentist might wonder why a patient does not seem motivated to show up for an appointment, with the explanation being that the patient has associated the dentist (conditioned stimulus) with the pain (unconditioned stimulus) that elicits a fear response (conditioned response), leading to the patient being reluctant to visit the dentist. In operant conditioning, the type and frequency of behaviour are determined mainly by its consequences. If a certain behaviour, in the presence of a certain stimulus, is followed by a desirable consequence (a reinforcer), the emitted behaviour will increase in frequency in the future, in the presence of the stimulus that preceded the behaviour (or a similar one). Conversely, if the behaviour is followed by something undesirable (a punisher), the behaviour is less likely to occur in the presence of the stimulus. In a similar manner, the removal of a stimulus directly following the behaviour might either increase or decrease the frequency of that behaviour in the future (negative reinforcement or punishment). For instance, a student that gained praise and a good grade after turning in a paper, might seem more motivated in writing papers in the future (positive reinforcement); if the same student put in a lot of work on a task without getting any praise for it, he or she might seem less motivated to do school work in the future (negative punishment). If a student starts to cause trouble in the class gets punished with something he or she dislikes, such as detention (positive punishment), that behaviour would decrease in the future. The student might seem more motivated to behave in class, presumably in order to avoid further detention (negative reinforcement). The strength of reinforcement or punishment is dependent on schedule and timing. A reinforcer or punisher affects the future frequency of a behaviour most strongly if it occurs within seconds of the behaviour. A behaviour that is reinforced intermittently, at unpredictable intervals, will be more robust and persistent, compared to one that is reinforced every time the behaviour is performed. For example, if the misbehaving student in the above example was punished a week after the troublesome behaviour, that might not affect future behaviour. In addition to these basic principles, environmental stimuli also affect behavior. Behaviour is punished or reinforced in the context of whatever stimuli were present just before the behaviour was performed, which means that a particular behaviour might not be affected in every environmental context, or situation, after it is punished or reinforced in one specific context. A lack of praise for school-related behaviour might, for instance, not decrease after-school sports-related behaviour that is usually reinforced by praise. The various mechanisms of operant conditioning may be used to understand the motivation for various behaviours by examining what happens just after the behaviour (the consequence), in what context the behaviour is performed or not performed (the antecedent), and under what circumstances (motivating operators). Incentive motivation Incentive theory is a specific theory of motivation, derived partly from behaviorist principles of reinforcement, which concerns an incentive or motive to do something. The most common incentive would be a compensation. Compensation can be tangible or intangible; it helps in motivating the employees in their corporate lives, students in academics, and inspires people to do more and more to achieve profitability in every field. Studies show that if the person receives the reward immediately, the effect is greater, and decreases as delay lengthens. Repetitive action-reward combination can cause the action to become a habit "Reinforcers and reinforcement principles of behaviour differ from the hypothetical construct of reward." A reinforcer is anything that follows an action, with the intention that the action will now occur more frequently. From this perspective, the concept of distinguishing between intrinsic and extrinsic forces is irrelevant. Incentive theory in psychology treats motivation and behaviour of the individual as they are influenced by beliefs, such as engaging in activities that are expected to be profitable. Incentive theory is promoted by behavioral psychologists, such as B.F. Skinner. Incentive theory is especially supported by Skinner in his philosophy of Radical behaviorism, meaning that a person's actions always have social ramifications: and if actions are positively received people are more likely to act in this manner, or if negatively received people are less likely to act in this manner. Incentive theory distinguishes itself from other motivation theories, such as drive theory, in the direction of the motivation. In incentive theory, stimuli "attract" a person towards them, and push them towards the stimulus. In terms of behaviorism, incentive theory involves positive reinforcement: the reinforcing stimulus has been conditioned to make the person happier. As opposed to in drive theory, which involves negative reinforcement: a stimulus has been associated with the removal of the punishment—the lack of homeostasis in the body. For example, a person has come to know that if they eat when hungry, it will eliminate that negative feeling of hunger, or if they drink when thirsty, it will eliminate that negative feeling of thirst. Motivating operations Motivating operations, MOs, relate to the field of motivation in that they help improve understanding aspects of behaviour that are not covered by operant conditioning. In operant conditioning, the function of the reinforcer is to influence future behavior. The presence of a stimulus believed to function as a reinforcer does not according to this terminology explain the current behaviour of an organism – only previous instances of reinforcement of that behavior (in the same or similar situations) do. Through the behavior-altering effect of MOs, it is possible to affect the current behaviour of an individual, giving another piece of the puzzle of motivation. Motivating operations are factors that affect learned behaviour in a certain context. MOs have two effects: a value-altering effect, which increases or decreases the efficiency of a reinforcer, and a behavior-altering effect, which modifies learned behaviour that has previously been punished or reinforced by a particular stimulus. When a motivating operation causes an increase in the effectiveness of a reinforcer or amplifies a learned behaviour in some way (such as increasing frequency, intensity, duration, or speed of the behavior), it functions as an establishing operation, EO. A common example of this would be food deprivation, which functions as an EO in relation to food: the food-deprived organism will perform behaviors previously related to the acquisition of food more intensely, frequently, longer, or faster in the presence of food, and those behaviours would be especially strongly reinforced. For instance, a fast-food worker earning a minimal wage, forced to work more than one job to make ends meet, would be highly motivated by a pay raise, because of the current deprivation of money (a conditioned establishing operation). The worker would work hard to try to achieve the raise, and getting the raise would function as an especially strong reinforcer of work behaviour. Conversely, a motivating operation that causes a decrease in the effectiveness of a reinforcer, or diminishes a learned behavior related to the reinforcer, functions as an abolishing operation, AO. Again using the example of food, satiation of food prior to the presentation of a food stimulus would produce a decrease on food-related behaviors, and diminish or completely abolish the reinforcing effect of acquiring and ingesting the food. Consider the board of a large investment bank, concerned with a too-small profit margin, deciding to give the CEO a new incentive package in order to motivate him to increase firm profits. If the CEO already has a lot of money, the incentive package might not be a very good way to motivate him, because he would be satiated on the money. Getting even more money wouldn't be a strong reinforcer for profit-increasing behavior, and wouldn't elicit increased intensity, frequency, or duration of profit-increasing behavior. William McDougall's purposive psychology Purposive psychology, also known as hormic psychology, emphasizes that actions by people are done for a purpose or with specific intent. This is a behaviorist theory that states behavior is a reflex because of internal/intrinsic motivation. Drives A drive or desire can be described as an urge that activates behavior that is aimed at a goal or an incentive. These drives are thought to originate within the individual and may not require external stimuli to encourage the behavior. Basic drives could be sparked by urges such as hunger, which motivates a person to seek food whereas more subtle drives might be the desire for praise and approval, which motivates a person to behave in a manner pleasing to others. Another basic drive is the sexual drive which like food motivates us because it is essential to our survival. The desire for sex is wired deep into the brain of all human beings as glands secrete hormones that travel through the blood to the brain and stimulates the onset of sexual desire. The hormone involved in the initial onset of sexual desire is called Dehydroepiandrosterone (DHEA). The hormonal basis of both men and women's sex drives is testosterone. Types of motivation Intrinsic and extrinsic Intrinsic Intrinsic motivation exists within the individual and is driven by satisfying internal rewards rather than relying on external pressures or extrinsic rewards. It involves an interest in or enjoyment of the activity itself. For example, an athlete may enjoy playing football for the experience, rather than for an award. Activities involving their own inherent reward provide motivation that is not dependent on external rewards. Pursuing challenges and goals comes easier and is more enjoyable when one is intrinsically motivated to complete a certain objective; for example, because the individual is more interested in learning, rather than achieving the goal. It has been argued that intrinsic motivation is associated with increased subjective well-being and that it is important for cognitive, social, and physical development. It can also be observed in animal behaviour, for example, when organisms engage in playful and curiosity-driven behaviours in the absence of reward. According to some theorists, the two necessary elements for intrinsic motivation are self-determination or autonomy and competence. On this view, the cause of the behaviour must be internal, and the individual who engages in the behaviour must perceive that the task increases their competence. Social-contextual events like feedback and reinforcement can cause feelings of competence and therefore contribute to intrinsic motivation. However, feelings of competence will not increase intrinsic motivation if there is no sense of autonomy. In situations where choices, feelings, and opportunities are present, intrinsic motivation is increased because people feel a greater sense of autonomy. Some studies suggest that there is a negative correlation between external rewards and intrinsic motivation, i.e. that by providing high external rewards for an activity, the intrinsic motivation for engaging in it tends to be lower. Various studies have focused on the intrinsic motivation of students. They suggest that intrinsically motivated students are more likely to engage in the task willingly as well as work to improve their skills, which tends to increase their capabilities. Students are likely to be intrinsically motivated if they... attribute their educational results to factors under their own control, also known as autonomy or locus of control believe they have the skills to be effective agents in reaching their desired goals, also known as self-efficacy beliefs are interested in mastering a topic, not just in achieving good grades Traditionally, researchers thought of motivations to use computer systems to be primarily driven by extrinsic purposes; however, many modern systems have their use driven primarily by intrinsic motivations. Examples of such systems used primarily to fulfill users' intrinsic motivations include online gaming, virtual worlds, online shopping, learning/education, online dating, digital music repositories, social networking, online pornography, gamified systems, and general gamification. Intrinsic motivation tends to be more long-lasting, self-sustaining, and satisfying than extrinsic motivation. For this reason, many efforts in education aim to modify intrinsic motivation with the goal of promoting student learning performance and creativity. But various studies suggest that intrinsic motivation is hard to modify or inspire. Attempts to recruit existing intrinsic motivators require an individualized approach: they involve identifying and making relevant the different motivators needed to motivate different students. This usually requires additional skills from the instructor. Mindfulness has been found to be an intraindividual factor that supports autonomous motivation and thereby contributes to intrinsic motivation. Extrinsic Extrinsic motivation occurs when an individual is driven by external influences. These can be either rewarding (money, good grades, fame, etc.) or punishing (threat of punishment, pain, etc.). The distinction between intrinsic and extrinsic motivation lies within the driving force behind the action. When someone is intrinsically motivated, they engage in an activity because it is inherently interesting, enjoyable, or satisfying. With extrinsic motivation, the agent's goal is a desired outcome distinct from the activity itself. The agent can have both intrinsic and extrinsic motives for the same activity, but usually one type of motivation outweighs the other. Playing tennis to receive an award is an example of extrinsic motivation, while playing because one enjoys the game involves intrinsic motivation. Some studies indicate that extrinsic rewards can lead to overjustification and a subsequent reduction in intrinsic motivation. In one study demonstrating this effect, children who expected to be (and were) rewarded with a ribbon and a gold star for drawing pictures spent less time playing with the drawing materials in subsequent observations than children who were assigned to an unexpected reward condition. This indicates that there is a tendency to care less about the activity itself if a reward is expected. However, other studies suggest that positive or negative extrinsic rewards can also increase intrinsic motivation. This leads us to the assumption that the effects of extrinsic motivation on intrinsic motivation may depend on the type of reward. According to the article "Self-Determination Theory and the Facilitation of Intrinsic Motivation, Social Development and Well-Being" a lot of what we do after childhood is not inspired by intrinsic motivation because we are not solely doing things anymore to satisfy our intrinsic motivations, but is instead done more to satisfy our extrinsic motivations since we must adhere to social pressures which force us to do things that are not intrinsically motivating. One advantage of extrinsic motivation is that it can be used relatively easily to motivate other people to work towards goal completion. One disadvantage is that the quality of work may need to be monitored since the agent might otherwise not be motivated to do a good job. Extrinsic motivation fueling engagement in the activity soon ceases once external rewards are removed. It has also been suggested that extrinsic motivators may diminish in value over time, making it more difficult to motivate the same person in the future. Johnmarshall Reeve distinguishes between four types of extrinsic motivation that involve different degrees of autonomy: external regulation, introjected regulation, identified regulation, and integrated regulation. External regulation is the least autonomous form of extrinsic motivation. In it, only the consequence of an action counts for the agent. For example, if a student wants a good grade, they are motivated to study for that grade. Introjected regulation arises from the agent's impression of what they should do. For instance, a student knows that they "should" study and does not want to feel the guilt that comes with not studying, so they do. Identified regulation comes from what the agent believes is personally important. In the example of the student, they may have an understanding that studying is important to their success and will pursue their studies for that reason. Integrated regulation is the most autonomous form of extrinsic motivation and occurs when motivation arises from the impression of personal identity. This type of extrinsic motivation is very close to intrinsic motivation, but is not quite there yet. This is because the individual is motivated to engage in an activity by how well it expresses their values instead of by pure interest and enjoyment. In this case, a student studies because doing so expresses their core values and reflects how they see themselves as a person. A student intrinsically motivated to study would do so purely because they thought studying was interesting and fun. Unconscious and conscious Conscious motivation involves motives of which the agent is aware. In the case of unconscious motivation, on the other hand, the agent may be partially or fully unaware of why he acts the way he does. Unconscious The conscious-unconscious distinction plays an important role in Sigmund Freud's psychoanalytical theories. According to him, the unconscious contains various repressed parts of the mind, like anxiety-inducing thoughts and socially unacceptable ideas. He identifies censorship as a force that keeps the repressed parts from entering consciousness. But unconscious instinctual impulses can nonetheless have a great influence on behavior in the form of unconscious motivation. When these instincts serve as a motive, the person is only aware of the goal of the motive, and not its actual source. Freud divides these instincts into sexual instincts, death instincts, and ego or self-preservation instincts. Sexual instincts are those that motivate humans to stay alive and ensure the continuation of mankind. On the other hand, Freud also maintains that humans have an inherent drive for self-destruction: the death instinct. Similar to the devil and angel that everyone has on their shoulder, the sexual instinct and death instinct are constantly battling each other to both be satisfied. The death instinct can be closely related to Freud's other concept, the id, which is our need to experience pleasure immediately, regardless of the consequences. The last type of instinct that contributes to motivation is the ego or self-preservation instinct. This instinct is geared towards assuring that a person feels validated in whatever behavior or thought they have. The mental censor, or door between the unconscious and preconscious, helps satisfy this instinct. For example, one may be sexually attracted to a person, due to their sexual instinct, but the self-preservation instinct prevents them to act on this urge until that person finds that it is socially acceptable to do so. Quite similarly to his psychic theory that deals with the id, ego, and superego, Freud's theory of instincts highlights the interdependence of these three instincts. All three serve as checks and balances system to control what instincts are acted on and what behaviors are used to satisfy as many of them at once. Priming is another source of unconscious motivation. It is a phenomenon whereby exposure to one stimulus influences a response to a subsequent stimulus, without conscious guidance or intention. For example, when someone is exposed to the word "cancer", they are afterward less likely to smoke a cigarette offered to them. There are various forms of priming but Visual and Semantic priming are the most relevant for motivation. Because of this link to external stimuli, priming is closely related to exposure theory, which states that people tend to like things that they have been exposed to before. This is used by advertising companies to get people to buy their products. In product placements in movies and TV shows, for example, we see a product in our favorite movie, which makes us more inclined to buy that product when we see it again. Another example comes from former drug users, who are more tempted to relapse when exposed to stimuli associated with the drug. Conscious Freud relied heavily upon the theories of unconscious motivation as explained above. This approach has been criticized by Gordan Allport, who holds that conscious motives are the main source of motivation. Neuroscience Two parts usually define motivation as a desire to act: the directional (such as directed towards a positive stimulus or away from a negative one) and the activated "seeking phase" and consummatory "liking phase". This type of motivation has neurobiological roots in the basal ganglia and mesolimbic (dopaminergic) pathways. Activated "seeking" behaviour, such as locomotor activity, is influenced by dopaminergic drugs, and microdialysis experiments reveal that dopamine is released during the anticipation of a reward. The "wanting behaviour" associated with a rewarding stimulus can be increased by microinjections of dopamine and dopaminergic drugs in the dorsorostral nucleus accumbens and posterior ventral palladum. Opioid injections in this area produce pleasure; however, outside of these hedonic hotspots, they create an increased desire. Furthermore, depletion or inhibition of dopamine in neurons of the nucleus accumbens decreases appetitive but not consummatory behaviour. Dopamine, further implicated in motivation as administration of amphetamine, increases the breakpoint in a progressive ratio self-reinforcement schedule; subjects will be willing to go to greater lengths (e.g. press a lever more times) to obtain a reward. In situations where memory influences the motivational state, the hippocampus is activated. This can be apparent in circumstances where contextual details is needed to achieve their desired goals. Motivational reasons and rationality Motivational reasons are practical reasons an agent has for favoring a certain course of action. They are contrasted with normative reasons, which determine what the agent should do from an impartial point of view. For example, Jane suffers from high blood pressure, which is a normative reason not to have a big piece of chocolate cake. Its deliciousness, on the other hand, is Jane's motivating reason to have a serving anyway. We can have normative reasons without being aware of them, which is not the case for motivating reasons. It is possible for unconscious states to affect our behavior in various ways. But these states and their contents are not considered motivating reasons in such cases. Taken in the widest sense, there are forms of motivation that do not involve motivating reasons. A second difference is that normative reasons are factive while motivating reasons may deceive the agent. So having high blood pressure can only be a normative reason for Jane if she actually has high blood pressure. But the cake's deliciousness can be a motivating reason even if the cake is not delicious at all. In this case, the motivation is based on a false belief. But ideally, motivational reasons and normative reasons coincide: the agent is motivated by facts determining what he should do. A closely related issue concerns the relation between what we believe we ought to do, so-called ought-beliefs, and what we are motivated to do or actually intend to do. Philosopher John Broome holds that this relation is at the core of enkratic rationality: "Rationality requires of you that, if you believe you ought to F, then you intend to F". He thinks that the process of reasoning is responsible for getting our intentions in line with our ought-beliefs. The requirements of rationality are not always fulfilled, resulting in cases of irrationality. A person is said to suffer from akrasia or weakness of the will if they fail to satisfy the enkratic requirement, i.e. if they do something different from what they believe they should do. An author who believes he ought to work on his new book but ends up watching TV instead is an example of a case of akrasia. Accidie is a closely related phenomenon in which the agent believes that there is something important to be done but lacks any motivation to engage in this action due to listlessness. Practical applications The control of motivation is only understood to a limited extent. There are many different approaches to motivation training, but many of these are considered pseudoscientific by critics. To understand how to control motivation it is first necessary to understand why many people lack motivation. Like any theory, motivational theory makes predictions about what will work in practice. For instance, Douglas McGregor's Theory Y makes the assumption that the average person not only accepts, but also seeks out responsibility, enjoys doing work and, therefore, is more satisfied when they have a wider range of work to do. The practical implication is that, as a firm gives individuals greater responsibilities, they will feel a greater sense of satisfaction and, subsequently, more commitment to the organization. Likewise allocating more work is predicted to increase engagement. Additionally, Malone argues that the delegation of responsibility encourages motivation because employees have creative control over their work and increase productivity as many people can work collaboratively to solve a problem rather than just one manager tackling it alone. Others have argued that participation in decision making boosts morale and commitment to the organization, subsequently increasing productivity. Likewise, if teams and membership increase motivation (as reported in the classic Hawthorn Western Electric Company studies) incorporating teams make provide incentives to work. In general, motivation theory is often applied to employee motivation. Applications in business Within Maslow's hierarchy of needs (first proposed in 1943), at lower levels (such as physiological needs) money functions as a motivator; however, it tends to have a motivating effect on staff that lasts only for a short period (in accordance with Herzberg's two-factor model of motivation of 1959). At higher levels of the hierarchy, praise, respect, recognition, empowerment and a sense of belonging are far more powerful motivators than money, as both Abraham Maslow's theory of motivation and Douglas McGregor's theory X and theory Y (originating in the 1950s and pertaining to the theory of leadership) suggest. According to Maslow, people are motivated by unsatisfied needs. The lower-level needs (such as Physiological and Safety needs) must be satisfied before addressing higher-level needs. One can relate to Maslow's Hierarchy of Needs theory with employee motivation. For example, if managers attempt to motivate their employees by satisfying their needs; according to Maslow, they should try to satisfy the lower-level needs before trying to satisfy the upper-level needs - otherwise the employees will not become motivated. Managers should also remember that not everyone will be satisfied with the same needs. A good manager will try to figure out which levels of needs are relevant to a given individual or employee. Maslow places money at the lowest level of the hierarchy and postulates other needs as better motivators to staff. McGregor places money in his Theory X category and regards it as a poor motivator. Praise and recognition (placed in the Theory Y category) are considered stronger motivators than money. Motivated employees always look for better ways to do a job. Motivated employees are more quality-oriented. Motivated workers are more productive. The average workplace lies about midway between the extremes of high threat and high opportunity. Motivation by threat is a dead-end strategy, and naturally, staff are more attracted to the opportunity side of the motivation curve than the threat side. Lawrence Steinmetz (1983) sees motivation as a powerful tool in the work environment that can lead to employees working at their most efficient levels of production. Nonetheless, Steinmetz also discusses three common character-types of subordinates: ascendant, indifferent, and ambivalent—who all react and interact uniquely, and must be treated, managed, and motivated accordingly. An effective leader must understand how to manage all characters, and more importantly, the manager must utilize avenues that allow room for employees to work, grow, and find answers independently. A classic study at Vauxhall Motors' UK manufacturing plant challenged the assumptions of Maslow and Herzberg were by. Goldthorpe et al. (1968) introduced the concept of orientation to work and distinguished three main orientations: instrumental (with work seen as a means to an end) bureaucratic (where work serves as a source of status, security, and immediate reward) solidaristic (which prioritizes group loyalty) Other theories expanded and extended those of Maslow and Herzberg. These included the 1930s force-field analysis of Kurt Lewin, Edwin A. Locke's goal-setting theory (mid-1960s onwards) and Victor Vroom's expectancy theory of 1964. These tend to stress cultural differences and the fact that different factors tend to motivate individuals at different times. According to the system of scientific management developed by Frederick Winslow Taylor (1856-1915), pay alone determines a worker's motivation, and therefore management need not consider psychological or social aspects of work. In essence, scientific management bases human motivation wholly on extrinsic rewards and discards the idea of intrinsic rewards. In contrast, David McClelland (1917-1998) believed that workers could not be motivated by the mere need for money—in fact, extrinsic motivation (e.g., money) could extinguish intrinsic motivation such as achievement motivation, though money could be used as an indicator of success for various motives, e.g., keeping score. In keeping with this view, his consulting firm, McBer & Company (1965-1989), had as its first motto "To make everyone productive, happy, and free". For McClelland, satisfaction lay in aligning peoples' lives with their fundamental motivations. Elton Mayo (1880-1949) discovered the importance of the social contacts a worker has at the workplace and found that boredom and repetitiveness of tasks lead to reduced motivation. Mayo believed that workers could be motivated by acknowledging their social needs and making them feel important. As a result, employees were given the freedom to make decisions on-the-job and greater attention was paid to informal work-groups. Mayo named his model the Hawthorne effect. His model has been judged as placing undue reliance on social contacts within work situations for motivating employees. In 1981 William Ouchi introduced Theory Z, a hybrid management approach consisting of both Japanese and American philosophies and cultures. Its Japanese segment is much like the clan culture where organizations focus on a standardized structure with a heavy emphasis on socialization of its members. All underlying goals are consistent across the organization. Its American segment retains formality and authority amongst members and the organization. Ultimately, Theory Z promotes common structure and commitment to the organization, as well as constant improvement of work efficacy. In Essentials of Organizational Behavior (2007), Robbins and Judge examine recognition programs as motivators, and identify five principles that contribute to the success of an employee-incentive program: recognition of employees' individual differences, and clear identification of behavior deemed worthy of recognition allowing employees to participate linking rewards to performance rewarding of nominators visibility of the recognition process Modern organizations which adopt non-monetary employee motivation methods rather than tying it with tangible rewards. When the reward is aimed at fulfilling employee contribution, participation, and individual satisfaction, it boosts their morale. Provide a positive work environment Encourage team contribution and rewards Feedback Give challenging roles Job characteristics model The Job characteristics Model (JCM), as designed by Hackman and Oldham attempts to use job design to improve employee motivation. They suggest that any job can be described in terms of five key job characteristics: Skill variety – the degree to which the job requires the use of different skills and talents Task identity – the degree to which the job has contributed to a clearly identifiable larger project Task significance – the degree to which the job affects the lives or work of other people Autonomy – the degree to which the worker has independence, freedom and discretion in carrying out the job Task feedback – the degree to which the worker is provided with clear, specific, detailed, actionable information about the effectiveness of his or her job performance The JCM links the core job dimensions listed above to critical psychological states which results in desired personal and work outcomes. This forms the basis of this 'employee growth-need strength." The core dimensions listed above can be combined into a single predictive index, called the motivating potential score (MPS). The MPS can be calculated, using the core dimensions discussed above, as follows: Jobs high in motivating potential must be high on both Autonomy and Feedback, and also must be high on at least one of the three factors that lead to experienced meaningfulness. If a job has a high MPS, the job characteristics model predicts motivation, performance, and job satisfaction will be positively affected and the likelihood of negative outcomes, such as absenteeism and turnover, will be reduced. Employee recognition programs Employee recognition is not only about gifts and points. It is about changing the corporate culture in order to meet goals and initiatives and most importantly to connect employees to the company's core values and beliefs. Strategic employee recognition is seen as the most important program not only to improve employee retention and motivation but also to positively influence the financial situation. The difference between the traditional approach (gifts and points) and strategic recognition is the ability to serve as a serious business influencer that can advance a company's strategic objectives in a measurable way. "The vast majority of companies want to be innovative, coming up with new products, business models, and better ways of doing things. However, innovation is not so easy to achieve. A CEO cannot just order it, and so it will be. You have to carefully manage an organization so that, over time, innovations will emerge." Applications in education Motivation is of particular interest to educational psychologists because of the crucial role it plays in student learning. However, the specific kind of motivation that is studied in the specialized setting of education differs qualitatively from the more general forms of motivation studied by psychologists in other fields. Motivation in education can have several effects on how students learn and how they behave towards the subject matter. It can: Direct behavior toward particular goals Lead to increased effort and energy Increase initiation of, and persistence in, activities Enhance cognitive processing Determine what consequences are reinforcing Lead to improved performance. Because students are not always internally motivated, they sometimes need situated motivation, which is found in environmental conditions that the teacher creates. If teachers decided to extrinsically reward productive student behaviors, they may find it difficult to extricate themselves from that path. Consequently, student dependency on extrinsic rewards represents one of the greatest detractors from their use in the classroom. The majority of new student orientation leaders at colleges and universities recognize that the distinctive needs of students should be considered in regard to orientation information provided at the beginning of the higher education experience. Research done by Whyte in 1986 raised the awareness of counselors and educators in this regard. In 2007, the National Orientation Directors Association reprinted Cassandra B. Whyte's research report allowing readers to ascertain improvements made in addressing specific needs of students over a quarter of a century later to help with academic success. Generally, motivation is conceptualized as either intrinsic or extrinsic. Classically, these categories are regarded as distinct. Today, these concepts are less likely to be used as distinct categories, but instead as two ideal types that define a continuum: Intrinsic motivation occurs when people are internally motivated to do something because it either brings them pleasure, they think it is important, or they feel that what they are learning is significant. It has been shown that intrinsic motivation for education drops from grades 3-9 though the exact cause cannot be ascertained. Also, in younger students it has been shown that contextualizing material that would otherwise be presented in an abstract manner increases the intrinsic motivation of these students. Extrinsic motivation comes into play when a student is compelled to do something or act a certain way because of factors external to him or her (like money or good grades). Whyte researched and reported about the importance of locus of control and academic achievement. Students tending toward a more internal locus of control are more academically successful, thus encouraging curriculum and activity development with consideration of motivation theories. Academic motivation orientation may also be tied with one's ability to detect and process errors. Fisher, Nanayakkara, and Marshall conducted neuroscience research on children's motivation orientation, neurological indicators of error monitoring (the process of detecting an error), and academic achievement. Their research suggests that students with high intrinsic motivation attribute performance to personal control and that their error-monitoring system is more strongly engaged by performance errors. They also found that motivation orientation and academic achievement were related to the strength in which their error-monitoring system was engaged. Motivation has been found to be an important element in the concept of andragogy (what motivates the adult learner), and in treating Autism Spectrum Disorders, as in pivotal response treatment. Motivation has also been found critical in adolescents compliance to health suggestions, since "commitment requires belief in potentially negative and serious consequences of not acting." Doyle and Moeyn have noted that traditional methods tended to use anxiety as negative motivation (e.g. use of bad grades by teachers) as a method of getting students to work. However, they have found that progressive approaches with focus on positive motivation over punishment has produced greater effectiveness with learning, since anxiety interferes with performance of complex tasks. Symer et al. attempted to better define those in medical training programs who may have a ”surgical personality.” They evaluated a group of eight hundred and one first-year surgical interns to compare motivational traits amongst those who did and did not complete surgical training. There was no difference noted between the 80.5% who completed training when comparing their responses to the 19.5% who did not complete training using the validated Behavior Inhibitory System/Behavior Approach System. They concluded based on this that resident physician motivation is not associated with completion of a surgical training program. It may appear that the reason some students are more engaged and perform better in class activities relative to other students is because some are more motivated than others. However, current research suggests that motivation is "dynamic, context sensitive, and changeable." Thus, students have the flexibility to alter their motivation for engaging in an activity or learning, even if they were not intrinsically motivated in the first place. While having this type of flexibility is important, research reveals that a teacher's teaching style and the school environment may play a factor in student motivation. According to Sansone and Morgan, when students are already motivated to engage in an activity for their own personal pleasure and then a teacher provides the student with feedback, the type of feedback given can change the way that student views the activity and can even undermine their intrinsic motivation. Maclellan also looked at the relationship between tutors and students and in particular, and the type of feedback the tutor would give to the student. Maclellan's results showed that praise or criticism directed towards the student-generated a feeling of “fixed intelligence” while praise and criticism directed towards the effort and strategy used by the student generated a feeling of “malleable intelligence.” In other words, feedback concerning effort and strategy leaves students knowing that there is room for growth. This is important because when students believe their intelligence is “fixed,” their mindset can prevent skill development because students will believe that they only have a “certain amount” of understanding on a particular subject matter and might not even try. Therefore, it's crucial that a teacher is aware of how the feedback they give to their students can both positively and negatively impact the student's engagement and motivation. In a correlational study, Katz and Shahar used a series of questionnaires and Likert-style scales and gave them to 100 teachers to see what makes a motivating teacher. Their results indicate that teachers who are intrinsically motivated to teach and believe that students should be taught in an autonomous style are the types of teachers that promote intrinsic motivation in the classroom. Deci, Sheinman, and Nezlek also found that when teachers adapted to an autonomous teaching style, students were positively affected and became more intrinsically motivated to achieve in the classroom. However, while the students were quick to adapt to the new teaching style the impact was short-lived. Thus, teachers are limited in the way they teach because they'll feel a pressure to act, teach, and provide feedback in a certain way from the school district, administration, and guardians. Furthermore, even if students do have a teacher that promotes an autonomous teaching style, their overall school environment is also a factor because it can be extrinsically motivating. Examples of this would be posters around school promoting pizza parties for the highest grade point average or longer recess times for the classroom that brings more canned food donations. In conclusion, it is not a matter of whether a student is motivated, unmotivated, or more motivated than other students- it's a matter of understanding what motivates students before providing a certain type of feedback. Furthermore, it is also important to note that despite the classroom environment and the teacher's teaching style, the overall school environment plays a role in students’ intrinsic motivation. Indigenous education and learning For many indigenous students (such as Native American children), motivation may be derived from social organization; an important factor educators should account for in addition to variations in sociolinguistics and cognition. While poor academic performance among Native American students is often attributed to low levels of motivation, top-down classroom organization is often found to be ineffective for children of many cultures who depend on a sense of community, purpose, and competence in order to engage. Horizontally structured, community-based learning strategies often provide a more structurally supportive environment for motivating indigenous children, who tend to be driven by "social/affective emphasis, harmony, holistic perspectives, expressive creativity, and nonverbal communication." This drive is also traceable to a cultural tradition of community-wide expectations of participation in the activities and goals of the greater group, rather than individualized aspirations of success or triumph. Also, in some indigenous communities, young children can often portray a sense of community-based motivation through their parent-like interactions with siblings. Furthermore, it is commonplace for children to assist and demonstrate for their younger counterparts without being prompted by authority figures. Observation techniques and integration methods are demonstrated in such examples as weaving in Chiapas, Mexico, where it is commonplace for children to learn from "a more skilled other" within the community. The child's real responsibility within the Mayan community can be seen in, for example, weaving apprenticeships; often, when the "more skilled other" is tasked with multiple obligations, an older child will step in and guide the learner. Sibling guidance is supported from early youth, where learning through play encourages horizontally structured environments through alternative educational models such as "Intent Community Participation." Research also suggests that formal Westernized schooling can actually reshape the traditionally collaborative nature of social life in indigenous communities. This research is supported cross-culturally, with variations in motivation and learning often reported higher between indigenous groups and their national Westernized counterparts than between indigenous groups across international continental divides. Also, in some indigenous communities in the Americas, motivation is a driving force for learning. Children are incorporated and welcomed to participate in daily activities and thus feel motivated to participate due to them seeking a sense of belonging in their families and communities. Children's participation is encouraged and their learning is supported by their community and family, furthering their motivation. Children are also trusted to be active contributors. Their active participation allows them to learn and gain skills that are valuable and useful in their communities. As children transition from early childhood to middle childhood, their motivation to participate changes. In both the Indigenous communities of Quechua people and Rioja in Peru, children often experience a transition in which they become more included in their family's and community's endeavors. This changes their position and role in their families to more responsible ones and leads to an increase in their eagerness to participate and belong. As children go through this transition, they often develop a sense of identity within their family and community. The transition from childhood to adolescence can be seen in the number of work children partake in as this changes over time. For example, Yucatec Mayan children's play time decreases from childhood to adolescence and as the child gets older, is replaced for time spent working. In childhood, the work is initiated by others whereas in adolescence it is self-initiated. The shift in the initiation and the change in time spent working versus playing shows the children's motivation to participate in order to learn. This transition between childhood and adolescence increases motivation because children gain social responsibility within their families. In some Mexican communities of Indigenous-heritage, the contributions that children make within their community is essential to being social beings, establishes their developing roles, and also helps with developing their relationship with their family and community. As children gain more roles and responsibilities within their families, their eagerness to participate also increases. For example, Young Mayan children of San Pedro, Guatemala learn to work in the fields and family run businesses because they are motivated to contribute to their family. Many San Pedro women learned to weave by watching their mothers sew when they were children, sometimes earning their own wool through doing small tasks such as watching young children of busy mothers. Eager to learn and contribute, these young girls helped other members of their community in order to help their mothers with their weaving businesses or through other tasks such as helping carry water while young boys helped with tasks such as carrying firewood alongside their fathers. Children's motivation to learn is not solely influenced by their desire to belong but also their eagerness to see their community succeed. Children from Navajo communities were shown to have higher levels of social concern than Anglo American children in their schools. By having high levels of social concern the indigenous children are showing concern for not only their learning but also their peers, which serves as an example of their instilled sense of responsibility for their community. They wish to succeed as a united group rather than just themselves. In order to be knowledgeable contributors, children must be aware of their surroundings and the community's goals. Children's learning in Indigenous-heritage communities is mainly based upon observing and helping out others in their community. Through this type of participation within their community, they gain purpose and motivation for the activity that they are doing within their community and become active participants because they know they are doing it for their community. Applications in game design Motivational models are central to game design, because without motivation, a player will not be interested in progressing further within a game. Several models for gameplay motivations have been proposed, including Richard Bartle's. Jon Radoff has proposed a four-quadrant model of gameplay motivation that includes cooperation, competition, immersion and achievement. The motivational structure of games is central to the gamification trend, which seeks to apply game-based motivation to business applications. In the end, game designers must know the needs and desires of their customers for their companies to flourish. There have been various studies on the connection between motivation and games. One particular study was on Taiwanese adolescents and their drive of addiction to games. Two studies by the same people were conducted. The first study revealed that addicted players showed higher intrinsic than extrinsic motivation and more intrinsic motivation than the non-addicted players. It can then be said that addicted players, according to the studies findings, are more internally motivated to play games. They enjoy the reward of playing. There are studies that also show that motivation gives these players more to look for in the future such as long-lasting experience that they may keep later on in life. See also Adaptive performance Addiction Amotivational syndrome Employee engagement Enthusiasm Equity theory Frustration Happiness at work Health action process approach Hedonic motivation Humanistic psychology I-Change Model Incentives Learned industriousness Motivation crowding theory Motivational intensity Positive education Positive psychology in the workplace Regulatory focus theory Rubicon model (psychology) Sexual motivation and hormones Work engagement Work motivation References Further reading Experimental psychology Cognition	[ 0.1578330546617508, -0.02302504889667034, -0.5179463028907776, 0.3527446389198303, -0.023387553170323372, -0.1741657555103302, 0.6416194438934326, 0.15812766551971436, 0.08048535883426666, -0.3513448238372803, -0.2573229670524597, 0.6621823310852051, -0.48328346014022827, 0.014011887833476067, -0.6017203330993652, 0.355465292930603, 0.39937496185302734, 0.38954266905784607, -0.07378848642110825, -0.15381686389446259, -0.6996589303016663, 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232496	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/BTW	BTW	BTW or btw may refer to: BTW (company), a Chinese manufacturer British Traditional Wicca, a set of Wiccan traditions originating in the New Forest region Buckfast Tonic Wine, a fortified wine licensed from Buckfast Abbey in Devon The Brotherhood of Timber Workers, 1910s labor union Burlington Trailways, an Inter-city bus company "By the way", popularized in internet slang Codes btw - ISO 639-3 code for Butuanon language BTW - IATA airport code for Batu Licin Airport, Indonesia See also By the Way (disambiguation)	[ 1.2200648784637451, 0.2217777669429779, -0.13775797188282013, -0.1569177657365799, 0.07698637992143631, 0.20657725632190704, 0.4357120096683502, 0.4616728127002716, 0.035239603370428085, 0.038432806730270386, -0.35749757289886475, -0.05876042693853378, 0.1604526937007904, 0.4564362168312073, -0.6077679395675659, -0.0505923368036747, 0.5060526728630066, 0.43998226523399353, -0.08851932734251022, -0.6437965035438538, 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232497	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/BRB	BRB	BRB may refer to: Bank of the Republic of Burundi or Banque de la République du Burundi, the official name in French of the central bank of Burundi Barbados, ISO country code BRB, country in the Caribbean Sea Barreirinhas Airport, IATA Code BRB, airport in Barreirinhas, Brazil "Be right back", in Internet/chat slang, also sometimes treated as a synonym of "bathroom break" The Beatles: Rock Band, 2009 music video game Benefits Review Board, a part of the United States Department of Labor Beta Ray Bill, a fictional character from the Marvel universe Beveled rim bowl, clay bowls most common in the 4th millennium B.C. Bibliothèque royale de Belgique, the Royal Library of Belgium Big red button, a type of command button Birmingham Royal Ballet, a ballet company Blaire Reinhard Band, a New Jersey rock band Blood-retinal barrier, cells in the eye that prevent certain substances from entering the tissue of the retina Brandenburg an der Havel, German car number plates BRB, town in Brandenburg, Germany BRB Internacional, a Spanish animation studio. Brienz Rothorn Bahn, a Swiss railway Brigade de répression du banditisme, a special police unit of the French Ministry of the Interior. British Railways Board, the former governing body of British Railways BRB (Residuary) Limited, its successor Britton-Robinson buffer Buckling restrained brace, a specialized earthquake bracing system "BRB", a song by Bazzi from the album Cosmic	[ 0.40671825408935547, 0.36990630626678467, 0.07704878598451614, -0.3352188169956207, 0.09021945297718048, 0.08931833505630493, 0.020000912249088287, 0.1908150166273117, -0.626657247543335, 0.23075459897518158, -0.2684438228607178, 0.35910993814468384, 0.008347773924469948, 0.3958018124103546, -0.34093841910362244, 0.6517053842544556, 0.4879928231239319, 0.3862423896789551, 0.4507627785205841, -0.3201177418231964, -0.29105886816978455, -0.07647725194692612, 0.32234251499176025, -0.3114226460456848, 0.054777830839157104, 0.21740010380744934, -0.028933165594935417, 0.39822232723236084, -0.3664117157459259, -0.30487966537475586, 0.556105375289917, 0.08188833296298981, 0.26587045192718506, 0.04637700691819191, 0.39660897850990295, 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232499	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reichswehr	Reichswehr	Reichswehr (lit. "Reich Defense") was the official name of the German armed forces from 1919 to 1935, during the Weimar Republic and the first years of the Third Reich. After Germany was defeated in World War I, and the Imperial German Army (Reichsheer) dissolved in order to be reshaped into a peacetime army, a provisional Reichswehr was formed in March 1919. Under the terms of the 1919 Treaty of Versailles, the rebuilt German army was subject to severe limitations in size and armament. After the limitations had been met, the official formation of the Reichswehr took place on January 1, 1921. The Reichswehr continued to exist under that name until Adolf Hitler's 1935 proclamation of the "restoration of military sovereignty", at which point it became part of the new Wehrmacht. The Reichswehr acted as a state within the state, and its leadership was an important political power factor in the Weimar Republic. The Reichswehr sometimes supported the democratic form of government, as it did in the Ebert-Groener Pact when it pledged its loyalty to the Republic, and sometimes backed anti-democratic forces through the Black Reichswehr, the illegal paramilitary groups it sponsored in contravention of the Versailles Treaty. The Reichswehr saw itself as a cadre army that would preserve the expertise of the old imperial military, and form the basis for rearmament. Structure of the Reichswehr Arms limitations under the Treaty of Versailles In Part V of the 1919 Versailles Peace Treaty, Germany had obligated itself to limit the size and armaments of its military forces so that they could be used only as border protection and for the maintenance of order within Germany. In accordance with the treaty's provisions, personnel strength was limited to a professional army of 100,000 men plus a 15,000-man navy. The establishment of a general staff was prohibited. Heavy weapons above defined calibers, armored vehicles, submarines and large warships were prohibited, as was any type of air force. The regulations were overseen by the Military Inter-Allied Commission of Control until 1927. Traditionally, conscription into the German army had been for a period of 1 to 3 years. After they had completed their terms of service, the discharged soldiers created a large pool of trained reserves. The Versailles Treaty fixed the term of service for Reichswehr officers at 25 years and for all others at 12 in order to prevent such a buildup of reservists. Founding On November 9, 1918, at the beginning the November Revolution that led to the collapse of the German Empire and the flight of Emperor Wilhelm II to the Netherlands, a republic was proclaimed from Berlin. On November 10, 1918 German Chancellor Friedrich Ebert and General Wilhelm Groener, acting in the name of the Supreme Army Command, concluded the Ebert-Groener Pact. In it Groener assured Ebert of the loyalty of the armed forces, and in return Ebert promised that the government would take prompt action against leftist uprisings, call a national assembly, keep the military command within the professional officer corps and, most importantly, retain the military’s traditional ‘state within the state’ status. One day later the Armistice of Compiègne was signed. The new government agreed to the speedy evacuation of occupied territories. The withdrawal on the Western Front began on November 12, and by January 17, 1919, the areas on the left bank of the Rhine were free of German military forces. The task was then to gradually disarm these units of the ‘Old Army’, which still numbered several million soldiers. This was done at previously designated demobilization sites, usually the respective home garrisons. For the regiments with garrisons on the left bank of the Rhine, demobilization sites were designated in the interior of the Reich. The Council of the People's Deputies - the de facto government of Germany from November 1918 until February 1919 - and the Supreme Army Command intended to transfer remaining units to a peacetime army following demobilization. On March 6, 1919 the Weimar National Assembly passed the law on the formation of a provisional army to be made up of 43 brigades. It authorized the Reich President "to dissolve the existing army and to form a provisional Reichswehr which, until the creation of a new armed force to be ordered by Reich law, would protect the borders of the Reich, enforce the orders of the Reich government, and maintain domestic peace and order." A similarly worded law on the formation of a provisional navy dated April 16, 1919 authorized it to “secure the German coasts, enable safe maritime traffic by clearing mines, acting as maritime police and otherwise assisting merchant shipping, ensure the undisturbed exercise of fishing, enforce the orders of the Reich Government in conjunction with the Reichswehr, and maintain peace and order." The strength of the navy was to be 20,000 men. From October 1, 1919 to April 1, 1920, the forces of the Provisional Reich Army were moved into the 400,000-strong ‘Transitional Army’ consisting of 20 brigades. At the same time, the old army’s units and duties were eliminated. After falling to 150,000 men in October 1920, the brigades were replaced by regiments and the final army strength of 100,000 was reached by January 1, 1921. The Reichswehr was officially formed on January 1, 1921, with the Defense Law of March 23, 1921 regulating the details. The soldiers’ oath was sworn to the Weimar Constitution. Structure The Reichswehr was divided into the Reichsheer (army) and the Reichsmarine (navy). The Reichsheer consisted of seven infantry and three cavalry divisions, with all units renumbered. The Reich’s territory was divided into seven military districts. There were two group commands, No. 1 in Berlin and No. 2 in Kassel. The navy was allowed a limited number of certain types of ships and boats, with no submarines. It was divided into Naval Station Baltic Sea and Naval Station North Sea. Under the terms of the Versailles Treaty, the service period for enlisted men and non-commissioned officers in both the army and the navy was 12 years, with 25 years for officers. The 1921 Defense Law ended the military sovereignty of the states but left Saxony, Württemberg, Baden and Bavaria with limited independence. The Free State of Bavaria was special in that Military District VII covered the entire territory of the state with the exception of the Palatinate, and only Bavarians served in the 7th (Bavarian) Division. Until 1924 this unit, as the Bavarian Reichswehr, enjoyed certain rights of autonomy with respect to the Reich government. Reichswehr commanders According to the Weimar Constitution, the Reich President had "supreme command over the entire armed forces of the Reich". In general, however, he could act only if there was a countersignature by a member of the government. In terms of authority, this was the Reich Minister of the Armed Forces. Two Reich presidents held office during the Weimar Republic: Friedrich Ebert until 1925, followed by Paul von Hindenburg. The first Reich Minister of the Armed Forces was Gustav Noske, who was replaced by Otto Geßler after the Kapp Putsch in 1920. Wilhelm Groener took office in 1928, and his deputy Kurt von Schleicher replaced him in 1932. Schleicher continued to hold office on a provisional basis during his two-month chancellorship. Prior to Hitler's appointment as Reich Chancellor, Hindenburg unilaterally - not at the Chancellor's recommendation as required by the constitution - appointed Werner von Blomberg as Reich Minister of the Armed Forces. The head of the army command was initially Walther Reinhardt. After the Kapp Putsch, Hans von Seeckt took over this post; he had both the Communist Party of Germany (KPD) and the Nazi Party banned in 1923. Wilhelm Heye followed him in 1926. Heye was succeeded in 1930 by Kurt Freiherr von Hammerstein-Equord, who tendered his resignation on December 27, 1933. He was succeeded by Werner von Fritsch. Social composition Given the limited size of the army, careful selection of personnel was possible. Experienced leaders came from the ‘Old Army’ of the Empire. In 1925, 24% of the officers were from the former nobility, down from 30% in 1913, just before the start of World War I. This continued the long-term trend of a reduction in the percentage of noble officers. Large parts of the officer corps held a conservative, monarchist worldview and rejected the Weimar Republic. Especially within the former nobility, however, the stance towards National Socialism was not entirely uncritical. The Reichswehr leadership and officer corps successfully resisted the democratization of the troops. Preference was given to recruits from the predominantly conservative rural areas of Germany. The Reichswehr leadership considered them not only physically superior to young men from the cities but also as able to stand up against the "temptations" of social democracy. In 1926 Reichstag President Paul Löbe proposed to make recruitment dependent on physical fitness only, in order to make the composition of the Reichswehr reflect more closely that of society as a whole. The proposal led to fierce opposition from conservative circles and the Reichswehr, who believed that opening the Reichswehr to all social groups would lower its effectiveness. Löbe’s proposal did not pass. The Reichswehr saw itself as a ‘cadre army’ or ‘Leader army’ (‘Führerarmee’), which meant that every soldier was trained in the skills needed to gain higher levels of responsibility. This was to become a basic prerequisite for the rapid growth of the army after the proclamation of military sovereignty by the Nazi regime in 1935. Officers in the Reichswehr Under the terms of the Versailles Treaty, the Army of the Reichswehr was allowed 4,000 officers, while the Navy could have 1,500 officers and deck officers. The actual Reichswehr officer corps numbered 3,718, down from 227,081 in 1918, of whom 38,118 were career officers. The officers transferred to the Reichswehr were almost all general staff officers. Of the approximately 15,000 men who had been promoted to officers during the war, the Reichswehr took on only a few, as these front-line officers were seen as alien to officer life in the mess hall, barracks and society. Democratically-minded officers were not accepted into the force. Radical nationalist officers were with few exceptions removed, especially after the Kapp Putsch. The political attitude of the officer corps was monarchist, although outwardly they posed as loyal to the Republic. Even though the German nobility, which was officially abolished in August 1919, had accounted for only 0.14% of the pre-war German population, an average of 23.8% of the officers in the Reichswehr were from noble backgrounds. The proportion of former noble officers in the individual branches of the armed forces varied greatly. In 1920 they made up 50% of the officers in the cavalry but only 5% in the infantry and 4% in the sappers. Of the approximately 1,000 non-commissioned officers promoted to officers in 1919, only 117, or 3.5%, remained as officers in the Reichswehr by 1928. Since the Reich government did not bring the officer candidate recruitment process under state control, regimental commanders in the Reichswehr continued to be responsible for selecting officer candidates, as they had in the old Imperial Army. Those admitted came almost exclusively from circles traditionally close to the military. In 1926, 96% of the officer candidates came from the upper social classes and nearly 50% from officer families. The homogeneity of the Reichswehr officer corps was in fact greater than it had been during the Empire. In 1912/13 only 24% of officers had come from families of active or former officers. The Reichswehr in the Weimar Republic By assuring Reich Chancellor Ebert of its loyalty in the November 1918 Ebert-Groener Pact, the military had ensured the survival of the new government. In the crisis-ridden early 1920s, the Republic used the Reichswehr primarily to fight insurgent left-wing forces, such as during the Spartacist uprising in Berlin in 1919. Cooperation with the Freikorps Wherever the Treaty of Versailles tied the Reichswehr’s hands or its own manpower was insufficient, it left ‘national defense’ – e.g. border skirmishes against Polish and Lithuanian irregulars, deployment against the Ruhr Red Army in the demilitarized Rhineland – to the Freikorps, which although officially disbanded in 1920 continued to operate. The Reichswehr cooperated with nationalist Freikorps units when it took action against leftist governments in Thuringia and Saxony in October and November 1923 during the so-called ‘Reich Executions’ – interventions against an individual state led by the central government to enforce national law. The Reichswehr generals also maintained close contacts with politically right-wing, anti-republican military associations such as the Stahlhelm and Kyffhäuserbund, although the Reichswehr officially described itself as ‘apolitical’. Passivity during the Kapp Putsch In March 1920 Germany’s political leadership did not use the Reichswehr against the Kapp Putsch, a failed coup attempt against the Weimar Republic. It occurred after the government tried to demobilize two Freikorps brigades and one of them refused to disband. Hans von Seeckt, the chief of the Troop Office - the disguised general staff of the Reichswehr - had previously spoken out against taking action, reportedly saying that “Reichswehr does not fire on Reichswehr”. Seeckt however had no command authority. The Chief of Army Command, and thus the highest military officer, Walther Reinhardt, was in favor of using loyal Reichswehr units to suppress the putsch, but neither Reichswehr Minister Gustav Noske nor the Reich government gave the order to deploy. (By contrast, the left-wing Ruhr Uprising, which began during the Kapp Putsch in the Ruhr and Saxony, was ruthlessly put down with the active involvement of the Reichswehr.) As a result of the Kapp putsch attempt, the Reich Minister of Defense, Gustav Noske of the Social Democratic Party (SPD), was replaced by Otto Geßler of the German Democratic Party (DDP). Circumvention of the Treaty of Versailles Reichswehr leadership began early on to circumvent the arms restrictions in the Versailles Treaty through a series of secret and illegal measures. These included the clandestine establishment of the Black Reichswehr, unauthorized weapons testing in the Soviet Union, the establishment of a Leaders’ Assistant Training School which was intended to compensate for the forbidden General Staff training, and the maintenance of the General Staff in a newly created Troop Office (‘Truppenamt’). Under the code name ‘Statistical Society’, plans for an armaments industry were worked out with the Reich Federation of German Industry. With the help of retired officers, sports schools for training infantrymen were founded, most of them near former military training areas, where exercise instructors for military sports were trained. This took place, especially in northern Germany, with the support of the Stahlhelm, a veterans’ organization that was part of the Black Reichswehr. Other aids in military training included the use of dummy tanks for exercise purposes. Secret cooperation with the Soviet Union In February 1923 the new Chief of the Troop Office, Major General Otto Hasse, traveled to Moscow for secret negotiations. Germany was to support the development of Soviet industry and Red Army commanders were to receive general staff training in Germany. In return, the Reichswehr was able to expand secretly in contravention of the Treaty of Versailles. It was given the opportunity to obtain artillery ammunition from the Soviet Union, to train aviation and tank specialists on Soviet soil, and to have chemical warfare agents manufactured and tested. A secret Reichswehr aviation school and testing facility was established at Lipetsk, where some 120 military pilots, 100 aerial observers, and numerous ground personnel were trained as the core of a future German air force. At Kazan, tank specialists were trained, but not until 1930 and to a number of only about thirty. At the Tomka gas test site near Saratov, chemical warfare agents were jointly tested and developed. In December 1926 the Social Democrat Philipp Scheidemann disclosed the collaboration with the Soviet Union to the Reichstag, toppling the government under Wilhelm Marx. In 1931, Carl von Ossietzky and Walter Kreiser were convicted of espionage in the Weltbühne Trial for a 1929 report in the weekly Weltühne on the collaboration, which was by then already known. The crisis in Bavaria and the Beer Hall Putsch In response to unrest in Bavaria, Reich President Friedrich Ebert transferred executive power to Reichswehr Minister Geßler in November 1923. True power thus rested with Hans von Seeckt, the head of the army command, who prevented a ‘Reich intervention’ (see also Cooperation with the Freikorps above) against the Bavarian government under Gustav Ritter von Kahr. Kahr had been named State Commissioner when the Bavarian Prime Minister declared martial law. Kahr had designs to overthrow the Weimar Republic and was at first co-operating with Adolf Hitler but then broke with him before Hitler began the Beer Hall Putsch on November 8. The Reichswehr’s Bavarian military district commander, Otto von Lossow, supported Kahr and refused to carry out orders from Geßler to suppress the unrest. Ebert and Seeckt then relieved him of his command, although Seeckt sympathized with the government in Munich. In February 1924, Seeckt relinquished the executive powers he had received through Ebert. Seeckt and the events of 1924 - 1932 The 1925 Locarno Treaties ruled out any forcible change in Germany’s western borders, and in 1926 Germany joined the League of Nations. While war continued to be seen in the Reichswehr as a means to achieve political goals, government policy under the Locarno Treaties and the Dawes Plan, which resolved the issue of German reparations payments to the victorious powers, was oriented more toward maintaining peace and international understanding. Seeckt and his officers were opposed to joining the League of Nations and saw their existence threatened by the pacifism of Germany’s left. After the election of Paul von Hindenburg as Reich President in 1925, his status as victor in the 1914 Battle of Tannenberg made him a figure with whom Reichswehr soldiers identified. Seeckt was forced to resign on October 9, 1926 because he had invited the son of the former emperor Wilhelm II to attend army maneuvers in the uniform of the old imperial First Foot Guards without first seeking government approval. It created a storm when the republican press publicized the transgression. Reichswehr Minister Otto Geßler told President von Hindenburg that Seeckt had to resign or he would himself resign. He was supported by the cabinet, so Hindenburg asked for and received Seeckt's resignation. Seeckt was succeeded by Wilhelm Heye, although it was primarily Kurt von Schleicher, then head of department in the Reichswehr Ministry, who gained additional power. Under his leadership, the Reichswehr intervened in politics more often in order to achieve its goals, with the result that the Republic and the Reichswehr moved closer together. In February 1927 the Military Inter-Allied Commission of Control, which until then had supervised disarmament, withdrew from Germany. The 1928 decision to build the pocket battleship Deutschland, which was in compliance with the provisions of the Treaty of Versailles and was a matter of prestige, caused problems for the Social Democrat Reich Chancellor Hermann Müller because his party had campaigned against the ship but its cabinet members voted for it in order to save the coalition government. For the Reichswehr leadership, the vote to build was a landmark political decision. The 1929 budget included the first installment for the Deutschland’s sister ship, the Admiral Scheer. The rapprochement between the Republic and the Reichswehr brought the greatest gains to the Reichswehr. It achieved an increase in the defense budget, and criticism of the increase was seen as an attack on the Reichswehr and thus on the state. The end of the Weimar Republic Because of Reich President Hindenburg’s support for the Reichswehr, the presidential cabinets from 1930 onward increased its power. Chancellor Heinrich Brüning was embraced as a former soldier by the Reichswehr, and he spared it from his unpopular austerity measures. Franz von Papen and General Kurt von Schleicher, the two Reich Chancellors who followed Brüning, considered using the Reichswehr to abolish democracy. In addition, one of the presidential cabinets’ main objectives was a revision of the Treaty of Versailles in the interest of the Reichswehr. In 1931 and 1932, a series of actions by the Reichswehr and its leadership showed its increasing power and drift towards the Nazis: - When the Harzburg Front, an anti-democratic alliance that included the Nazi Party, was formed in 1931, high-ranking members of the Reichswehr were present. - In 1932 Defense Minister Groener, under pressure from several German states, outlawed the Nazi Sturmabteilung (SA) and Schutzstaffel (SS). He did this in his capacity as acting Minister of the Interior, whereas his goal as Defense Minister was to integrate the SA into a non-partisan paramilitary force. Kurt von Schleicher, Groener’s subordinate at the Ministry of Defense, told him that by outlawing the SA he had lost the trust of the Reichswehr, and as a result he resigned as Defense Minister. - On September 13, 1932, on the initiative of Generals Groener and von Schleicher, the Reich Board for Youth Training was founded for the military education of German youth. In July 1933, under Hitler’s chancellorship, it became part of the SA. - In the so-called Prussian coup d'état of July 1932, violent unrest in Berlin, particularly a bloody clash between the SA and communists, led Chancellor Franz von Papen to use an emergency decree issued by President von Hindenburg under Article 48 of the Weimar Constitution to temporarily transfer executive power in Berlin and Prussia to the Reichswehr. According to historian Klaus-Jürgen Müller, the German military strove for Germany to obtain a "position of world power". He identified two tendencies that were united in this long-term goal but advocated different methods. One "adventurous" direction, represented by Hans von Seeckt, espoused a German-Soviet war of revenge against Poland and France. The other, more "modern" direction, represented by Kurt von Schleicher, which prevailed at the end of the 1920s, relied on a combination of political, military and economic factors. Firstly, Germany's economic position was to be strengthened and France relegated to the role of a junior partner. The supremacy thus gained in Europe was to form the basis for a position of world power. Müller sees in this one of the "lines of continuity" of German development from the Empire to National Socialism and the cause of an "entente" between groups of the traditional military elites and the Hitler movement in 1933. Hitler was dependent on their support in seizing power, while the latter in turn needed Hitler's supporters as a "mass base". State within the state In spite of Wilhelm Groener’s 1918 assurance in the Ebert-Groener Pact of the military’s loyalty to the government, most military leaders refused to accept the democratic Weimar Republic as legitimate. The Reichswehr under the leadership of Hans von Seeckt operated largely outside of the control of the politicians. Members of the Reichswehr did not have the right to vote, were subject to internal Reichswehr jurisdiction, and were thus detached from the social and political world. Because of the Ebert-Groener Pact and its direct subordination to the Reich president, the Reichswehr was able to ensure itself of extensive internal autonomy. It used this to refuse to obey the Reich government, as it did for example during the Kapp Putsch. This autonomy, which included the selection of personnel as well as its code of values and belief that it served the state rather than the form of government, combined with its own jurisdiction under the Reich president to make the Reichswehr a ‘state within a state’ that was difficult to control. In 1928 the Reichswehr created the Ministeramt or Office of Ministerial Affairs under Kurt von Schleicher to lobby politicians. The German historian Eberhard Kolb wrote that “from the mid-1920s onwards the Army leaders had developed and propagated new social conceptions of a militarist kind, tending towards a fusion of the military and civilian sectors and ultimately a totalitarian military state.” The Reichswehr under Hitler After becoming Chancellor at the end of January 1933, Adolf Hitler presented his government program to the generals on February 3. Among other things, he promised them that the Reichswehr would remain Germany's sole armed force and announced the reintroduction of conscription. The Reichswehr hoped for increased efforts to revise the Treaty of Versailles and the building of a strong military and firm state leadership. But it also feared that the Reichswehr would be supplanted by the 3 million-member SA. SA leader Ernst Röhm and his colleagues thought of their force as the future army of Germany, replacing the smaller Reichswehr and its professional officers. The Reichswehr supported Hitler in taking power away from the SA in the summer of 1934. Röhm wanted to become Minister of Defense, and in February 1934 demanded that the much smaller Reichswehr be merged into the SA to form a true people's army. This alarmed both political and military leaders, and to forestall the possibility of a coup, Hitler sided with conservative leaders and the military. Röhm and the leadership of the SA were murdered, along with many other political adversaries of the Nazis, including Reichswehr generals Kurt von Schleicher and Ferdinand von Bredow, in the Night of the Long Knives (June 30 – July 2, 1934). The Reichswehr officer corps acknowledged the murders without objection. During 1933 and 1934 the Reichswehr began a secret program of expansion. In December 1933 the army staff decided to increase the active strength to 300,000 men in 21 divisions. On April 1, 1934, between 50,000 and 60,000 new recruits entered the force and were assigned to special training battalions. The original seven infantry divisions of the Reichswehr were expanded to 21, with military district headquarters increased to the size of a corps headquarters on October 1, 1934. These divisions used cover names to hide their divisional size, but during October 1935, they were dropped. Also during October 1934, the officers who had been forced to retire in 1919 were recalled. Those who were no longer fit for combat were assigned to administrative positions, thus releasing fit officers for front-line duties. On August 2, 1934, the day Reich President Paul von Hindenburg died, Reichswehr Minister Werner von Blomberg, who was originally to have helped ‘tame’ the Nazis, had the Reichswehr swear its oath personally to Hitler. Under the Weimar Republic the oath had been to the constitution. On March 1, 1935, the Luftwaffe was established and on March 16 universal conscription reintroduced, both of which violated the Treaty of Versailles. In the same act the Reichswehr was renamed the ‘Wehrmacht’. On June 1, 1935, the Reichsheer (the army contingent of the Reichswehr) was renamed ‘Heer’ (‘army’) and the Reichsmarine ‘Kriegsmarine’ (‘war navy’). See also Ministry of the Reichswehr Weimar paramilitary groups References Citations Bibliography External links Axis History Factbook — Reichswehr Feldgrau's overview of the Reichswehr The Archives of technical Manuals 1900–1945 (includes the Reichswehr-regulations) Military of the Weimar Republic Military history of Germany	[ 0.17833392322063446, 0.6877542734146118, -0.38793981075286865, -0.31354016065597534, -1.2677172422409058, -0.3533565104007721, 0.9915094971656799, 0.18245913088321686, 0.029415013268589973, -0.6571813225746155, -0.2521705627441406, 0.044135238975286484, 0.18785017728805542, 0.6507343649864197, 0.07287492603063583, 0.41244232654571533, -0.2256539762020111, 0.34737345576286316, 0.12424886226654053, -0.7869378328323364, -0.2268219292163849, 0.18661072850227356, 0.003979185596108437, 0.0889991968870163, 0.20440295338630676, -0.3162505626678467, 0.6908184885978699, -0.5425527095794678, -0.04946001619100571, 0.2644082307815552, -0.11317302286624908, 0.560070812702179, 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232502	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Free-trade%20zone	Free-trade zone	A free-trade zone (FTZ) is a class of special economic zone. It is a geographic area where goods may be imported, stored, handled, manufactured, or reconfigured and re-exported under specific customs regulation and generally not subject to customs duty. Free trade zones are generally organized around major seaports, international airports, and national frontiers—areas with many geographic advantages for trade. Definition The World Bank defines free trade zones as "in, duty-free areas, offering warehousing, storage, and distribution facilities for trade, transshipment, and re-export operations". Free-trade zones can also be defined as labor-intensive manufacturing centers that involve the import of raw materials or components and the export of factory products, but this is a dated definition as more and more free-trade zones focus on service industries such as software, back-office operations, research, and financial services. Synonyms Free-trade zones are referred to as "foreign-trade zones" in the United States (Foreign Trade Zones Act of 1934), where FTZs provide customs-related advantages as well as exemptions from state and local inventory taxes. In other countries, they have been called "duty-free export processing zones," "export-free zones," "export processing zones," "free export zones," "free zones," "industrial free zones," "investment promotion zones," "maquiladoras," and "special economic zones". Some were previously called "free ports". Free zones range from specific-purpose manufacturing facilities to areas where legal systems and economic regulation vary from the normal provisions of the country concerned. Free zones may reduce taxes, customs duties, and regulatory requirements for registration of business. Zones around the world often provide special exemptions from normal immigration procedures and foreign investment restrictions as well as other features. Free zones are intended to foster economic activity and employment that could occur elsewhere. Export-processing zone An export-processing zone (EPZ) is a specific type of FTZ usually set up in developing countries by their governments to promote industrial and commercial exports. According to the World Bank, "an export processing zone is an industrial estate, usually a fenced-in area of 10 to 300 hectares, that specializes in manufacturing for export. It offers firms free trade conditions and a liberal regulatory environment. Its objectives are to attract foreign investors, collaborators, and buyers who can facilitate entry into the world market for some of the economy's industrial goods, thus generating employment and foreign exchange". Most FTZs are located in developing countries; Brazil, Colombia, India, Indonesia, El Salvador, China, the Philippines, Malaysia, Bangladesh, Nigeria, Pakistan, Mexico, the Dominican Republic, Costa Rica, Honduras, Guatemala, Kenya, Sri Lanka, Mauritius, and Madagascar all have EPZ programs. In 1997, 93 countries had set up export processing zones, employing 22.5 million people, and five years later, in 2003, EPZs in 116 countries employed 43 million people. Brazil In Brazil, 25 Export-Processing Zones have been authorized in 17 states, and 19 of them have been implemented. Brazilian government launched the first Export processing zones in 1988, aiming to fight the unbalances in the country. First EPZ area in operation was located near of the Port of Pecém in Ceará. Companies in these areas are benefited from tax exemptions and incentives at the ICMS Tax (State Value-Added Tax). Some Brazilian states offer other regional incentives. Companies also can take advantage of a Foreign exchange treatment supported by the law that created the EPZ and proximity of Custom authorities with offices inside the EPZ. China China has specific rules differentiating an EPZ from a FTZ. For example, 70% of goods in EPZs must be exported, but there is no such quota for FTZs. Background The world's first-documented free-trade zone was established on the Greek Island of Delos in 166 BCE. It lasted until about 69 BCE when the island was overrun by pirates. The Romans had many civitas libera, or free cities, some of which could coin money, establish their own laws, and not pay an annual tribute to the Roman Emperor. These continued through at least the first millennium CE. In the 12th century, the Hanseatic League began operating in Northern Europe and established trading colonies throughout Europe. These Free Trade Zones included Hamburg and the Steelyard in London. The Steelyard, like other Hansa stations, was a separate walled community with its own warehouses, weighing house, chapel, counting houses, and residential quarters. In 1988, remains of the former Hanseatic trading house, once the largest medieval trading complex in Britain, were uncovered by archaeologists during maintenance work on Cannon Street Station. Shannon, Ireland (Shannon Free Zone), established in 1959, has claimed to be the first "modern" free trade zone. The Shannon Zone was started to help the city airport adjust to a radical change in aircraft technology that permitted longer range aircraft to skip previously-required refueling stops in Shannon. It was an attempt by the Irish government to maintain employment around the airport so that the airport would continue to generate revenue for the Irish economy. It was hugely successful and is still in operation today. Other free zones to note are the Kandla Free Zone in India, which started in about 1960, and the Kaohsiung Export Processing Zone in Taiwan, which started in 1967. The number of worldwide free-trade zones proliferated in the late 20th century. Corporations setting up in a zone may be given a number of regulatory and fiscal incentives, such as the right to establish a business, the right to import parts and equipment without duty, the right to keep and use foreign exchange earnings, and sometimes income or property tax breaks. There may also be other incentives relating the methods of customs control and filing requirements. The rationale is that the zones will attract investment, create employment, and thus reduce poverty and unemployment, stimulating the area's economy. These zones are often used by multinational corporations to set up factories to produce goods (such as clothing, shoes, and electronics). Free-trade zones should be distinguished from free trade areas. A free trade zone is normally established in a single country, although there are a few exceptions where a free zone may cross a national border, such as the Syrian/Jordanian Free Trade Zone. Free trade areas are set up between countries; for example, the Latin America Free Trade Association (LAFTA) was created in the 1960 Treaty of Montevideo by Argentina, Brazil, Chile, Mexico, Paraguay, Peru, and Uruguay; and the North American Free Trade Agreement was established between Mexico, the United States, and Canada. In free trade areas, tariffs are only lowered between member countries. They should also be distinguished from customs unions, like the former European Economic Community, where several countries agree to unify customs regulations and eliminate customs between the union members. Free-trade zones have more recently been also called special economic zones in some countries. Special economic zones (SEZs) have been established in many countries as testing grounds for the implementation of liberal market economy principles. SEZs are viewed as instruments to enhance the acceptability and the credibility of the transformation policies and to attract domestic and foreign investment. The change in terminology has been driven by the formation of the World Trade Organization (WTO), which prohibits members from offering certain types of fiscal incentives to promote the exports of goods, thus why the term Export Processing Zone (EPZ) is no longer used with newer zones. For example, India converted all of its EPZs to SEZs in 2000. In 1999, there were 43 million people working in about 3,000 FTZs spanning 116 countries and producing clothes, shoes, sneakers, electronics, and toys. The basic objectives of economic zones are to enhance foreign exchange earnings, develop export-oriented industries, and generate employment opportunities. US Foreign-Trade Zone Board and ASF In the US, the Foreign Trade Zone Board is led by the Secretary of Commerce and the Secretary of the Treasury. In January 2009, the Foreign-Trade Zones Board adopted an FTZ Board staff proposal to make what it called the Alternative Site Framework (ASF) as a means of designating and managing general-purpose FTZ sites through reorganization. The ASF provides Foreign-Trade Zone grantees greater flexibility to meet specific requests for zone status by utilizing the minor boundary modification process. The theory of the ASF is that by more closely linking the amount of FTZ-designated space to the amount of space activated with Customs and Border Protection, Zone users would have better and quicker access to benefits. When an FTZ grantee evaluates whether or not to expand its FTZ project in order to improve the ease in which the Zone may be utilized by existing companies, as well as how it attracts new prospective companies, the Alternative Site Framework (ASF) should be considered. The ASF may be an appropriate option for certain Foreign-Trade Zone projects, but the decision of whether to adopt the new framework and what the configuration of the sites should be requires careful analysis and planning. Regardless of the choice to expand the FTZ project, the sites should be selected and the application drafted in such a manner as to receive swift approval while maximizing benefit to those that locate in the Zone. Successful zone projects are generally the result of a plan developed and implemented by individuals who understand all aspects of the FTZ program. The Foreign Trade Zone Board (FTZB) approves the reorganization of Foreign Trade Zone (FTZ) 32 under the alternative site framework. The application submitted by its grantee, The Greater Miami Foreign Trade Zone was approved and officially ordered by the FTZB on January 8, 2013. From California to Oklahoma, North Carolina, and New York State, FTZs all across the nation have recently been making use of the flexible opportunities offered by the Alternative Site Framework (ASF) program. The ASF program is designed to serve zone projects that want the flexibility to both attract users/operators to certain fixed sites but also want the ability to serve companies at other locations where the demand for FTZ services will arise in the future. FTZ 32 was founded in 1979 and processes over $1 billion in goods with products from more than 65 countries and exported to more than 75 countries worldwide with speed and efficiency. According to the official order from the FTZB, FTZ 32 existing site 1, Miami Free Zone, will be classified as a magnet site. UAE Free Zones Due to growing business opportunities in the United Arab Emirates (UAE), the UAE government has introduced 'Free Zones' to make it easier for foreigners to invest and operate in the UAE. In these Free Zones, investors benefit from maintaining full business ownership and receiving tax exemptions. Some of the benefits of setting up business in UAE Free Zones are: Tax exemption 100% ownership of business (Outside freezone, you are required to get a local sponsor) Bank accounts can be opened in a business's name Reasonable renewal fees 100% import and export tax exemptions 100% repatriation of profits and capital No personal income tax Currently, there are 45 FTZs active in UAE. Kuwait Free Trade Zone Kuwait's free trade zone (FTZ) was formally launched into existence in 1999 to expand businesses and lure the export industry. The zone is located in the western part of the commercial port of Shuwaikh. It is the only free trade zone in the country. Criticism Sometimes the domestic government pays part of the initial cost of factory setup, loosens environmental protections and rules regarding negligence and the treatment of workers, and promises not to ask payment of taxes for the next few years. When the taxation-free years are over, the corporation that set up the factory without fully assuming its costs is often able to set up operations elsewhere for less expense than the taxes to be paid, giving it leverage to take the host government to the bargaining table with more demands, but parent companies in the United States are rarely held accountable. Political writer Naomi Klein has also criticized the transient nature of FTZs, noting the factory closures connected to the 1997 Asian financial crisis. She criticized the low wages and long hours, citing workdays of twelve or more hours in Indonesia, Philippines, Southern China, and Sri Lanka circa 2000. See also Aggressive legalism Bonded logistics park Foreign trade zones of the United States Free economic zone Free-trade area Free trade Index of international trade topics List of free-trade zones List of free-trade zones in Dubai Shanghai Free-Trade Zone Special economic zone Factory (trading post) References External links Hualingfiz.ge Free Industrial Zone Tax avoidance Commercial policy Zone	[ 0.34150171279907227, -0.33616903424263, 0.23943457007408142, 0.06763996928930283, 0.443304181098938, -0.49373865127563477, -0.10335609316825867, 0.7424056529998779, -0.538135826587677, -0.1958601027727127, -1.0768409967422485, -0.23637090623378754, -0.5070806741714478, 0.30400219559669495, 0.1613112986087799, 0.42808154225349426, 0.21776971220970154, 0.19813662767410278, 0.051849253475666046, -0.15463967621326447, -0.001516820047982037, 0.031929247081279755, 0.19104745984077454, -0.2199438065290451, 0.19797340035438538, -0.8202608823776245, 0.24495890736579895, 0.32549142837524414, 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232505	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/CVH	CVH	CVH may refer to: Ford CVH engine, an engine used in Ford vehicles from 1980 to 2004 CVH, IATA airport code of Caviahue Airport (Argentina) Credit Valley Hospital, a regional hospital located in Mississauga, Ontario Connecticut Valley Hospital, a psychiatric hospital in Middletown, Connecticut Common variable immunodeficiency, also known by the older name of common variable hypogammaglobulinemia (CVH)	[ 0.038025882095098495, 0.5444268584251404, 0.1511480212211609, 0.061684828251600266, 0.13089688122272491, 0.08828902989625931, 0.104629747569561, 0.07227578014135361, 0.01295678410679102, 0.1865798383951187, -0.03231784701347351, 0.6166737675666809, 0.2575463354587555, 0.4941506087779999, -0.014062654227018356, 0.43831825256347656, 0.6355580687522888, 0.6516243815422058, -0.03746652975678444, -0.21299690008163452, -0.19488053023815155, -0.6352946162223816, 0.6276441812515259, 0.04140583425760269, -0.7346241474151611, 0.01463771890848875, 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232511	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The%20Dictators	The Dictators	The Dictators are an American punk rock band formed in New York City in 1973. Critic John Dougan said that they were "one of the finest and most influential proto-punk bands to walk the earth." Origins The band was formed in 1972 by Andy "Adny" Shernoff who was attending The State University of New York at New Paltz and Ross "The Boss" Friedman who was playing in the local band, Total Crudd. Scott "Top Ten" Kempner was asked to join, and the trio rented a house in Kerhonkson, New York, where they lived and rehearsed with various drummers. The original recording line-up consisted of vocalist/bassist/songwriter Andy Shernoff, lead guitarist Ross Friedman (aka Ross Funicello), rhythm guitarist Scott Kempner, and drummer Stu Boy King. It was this line-up–along with roadie/occasional vocalist and "Secret Weapon" Handsome Dick Manitoba–which recorded the band's 1975 debut album, The Dictators Go Girl Crazy! for Epic Records, produced by Sandy Pearlman and Murray Krugman (best known for their work with Blue Öyster Cult). The album sold poorly at the time but is now considered to be the starting point for American punk rock . Entertainment Weekly wrote "Go Girl Crazy's junk-generation culture and smart-aleck sensibility did provide an essential blueprint for '70s punk. With its TV references and homely vocals, this ground-breaking and long-unavailable album continues to inspire underground groups everywhere." Frustrated by the lack of sales, the band broke up for a few months in late 1975, but reconvened in early 1976, with bassist Mark "The Animal" Mendoza replacing Shernoff and Ritchie Teeter replacing King. After a few months Shernoff was persuaded to return to the group as the group's keyboardist. This line-up soon secured a contract with Asylum Records (at least partly due to the notoriety the group had developed following a well-publicized brawl between Manitoba and Wayne County) and released their second album, Manifest Destiny, in 1977. The album was produced by Pearlman and Krugman with songs written by Shernoff. Early in 1978, Mendoza had left the band (he soon joined Twisted Sister), and Shernoff had returned to his original position on bass guitar. It was this line-up of Manitoba, Shernoff, Friedman, Kempner, and Teeter which recorded Bloodbrothers (yet again produced by Pearlman and Krugman with songs written by Shernoff). It was the first album to feature Manitoba as the group's vocalist on all the songs, though Bruce Springsteen–a big fan of the group to this day–can be heard counting "1-2-1-2-3-4" during the album's opening track, "Faster and Louder." The album's "Baby, Let's Twist" was a minor hit on a number of East Coast radio stations, but the lack of mainstream success caused the band to split again the following year. Shortly before the split, drummer Mel Anderson had left Twisted Sister and joined The Dictators, replacing Teeter. 1980s After the break-up, Manitoba drove a taxi cab, Shernoff worked as a record producer and songwriter and Friedman worked first with the French hard-rock band Shakin' Street, then became a founding member of Manowar in 1982 (with whom he recorded the band's first six albums, leaving the band after the 1988 album Kings of Metal), and producing the first demo for Anthrax. The members of the band began reuniting occasionally and in 1981, ROIR released the cassette-only Fuck 'Em If They Can't Take a Joke produced by Andy Shernoff, which featured numbers from all three of the group's studio albums, covers of the Velvet Underground's "What Goes On" and Mott the Hoople's "Moon Upstairs," plus two new Shernoff numbers: "Loyola" and "New York New York". Other than occasional reunion shows, little was heard from The Dictators during the next five years. However, in late 1986 Shernoff and Manitoba (along with guitarist Daniel Rey) formed Wild Kingdom, releasing a version of "New York New York" on the 1988 soundtrack to Mondo New York. 1990s In 1990, MCA Records released the Wild Kingdom debut, ...And You? written and produced by Andy Shernoff, though they were now billed as Manitoba's Wild Kingdom to avoid a lawsuit from the TV show Wild Kingdom. By this time Rey had left the group and had been replaced by Friedman (the group was rounded out by drummer J.P. Patterson). ...And You? - a brief 25 minutes in length - received excellent reviews, with Rolling Stone calling it "the first great punk rock album of the '90s." The ...And You? album cover was a source of some controversy, since it was lifted from a World War II Nazi recruiting poster. It was not the first time members of the band (most of whom were Jewish) had been associated with charges of this sort since Go Girl Crazy had featured the songs "Master Race Rock" and "Back to Africa." By the 1990s, much about the lives of the band's members had changed markedly. Shernoff recorded and toured with The Fleshtones in 1989 and 1990, wrote and recorded with The Ramones, became a successful record producer and worked as a sommelier. Manitoba opened an East-Village bar called Manitoba's in 1999. Kempner had developed a certain degree of respect from roots-rock audiences due to his 1980s work with The Del-Lords. In 1992, he released his solo album Tenement Angels and joined The Brandos in 1993. Friedman's work with Manowar and Brain Surgeons had given him a certain cachet with heavy metal audiences. However, the group - first with Frank Funaro on drums, then again with Patterson - began recording a new Dictators album written and produced by Andy Shernoff in the late 1990s, which was eventually released as D.F.F.D. in 2001. AllMusic called the album a "non-stop barrage of spitfire precision rock. The material is, unbelievably, their best and most consistent ever for an album". 2000s The Dictators continued to perform to a devoted audience releasing a live album, Viva Dictators in 2005, produced by Shernoff. In 2007, they compiled an album of demos, rarities, and unreleased songs which were recorded at various times over their thirty-plus year career called Every Day Is Saturday on Norton Records. The title was a line in the song "Weekend" from the band's first album The Dictators Go Girl Crazy. Shernoff formed The Master Plan with The Fleshtones' Keith Streng, releasing Colossus of Destiny on Alive-Total Energy Records in 2003, and Maximum Respect on Green Mist Records in 2011. Manitoba sang with the surviving members of the MC5 and worked as a DJ in Little Steven's Underground Garage on Sirius XM Radio, till he was fired, then re-hired to work on Steven's station, which did not work out, as he left in January 2018. In October 2006, the band (Manitoba, Shernoff, Friedman, Patterson, Kempner) headlined the second and third to last shows ever at CBGB. The second to last show featured Blondie on the bill as well, and during the Dictators final song on the CBGB stage, they were joined by Tommy Ramone, the last surviving original member of The Ramones for a rendition of the Ramones song "Blitzkrieg Bop". In November 2007, Manitoba, along with author Amy Wallace, put out The Official Punk Rock Book of Lists on BackBeat Books, a small book company owned by Hal Leonard Publishing. Manitoba's Wild Kingdom reunited in May 2008 to play at the Joey Ramone Birthday Bash at The Fillmore New York at Irving Plaza, with a lineup featuring Manitoba, Shernoff, Friedman and Patterson. In July 2008, Kempner released his second solo album Saving Grace . In October 2008, The Dictators reunited for a series of four concerts in Spain. Ross The Boss released his debut solo album, New Metal Leader, in August 2008. He and his band have released their second album Hailstorm in 2010. Patterson released his second album, entitled The LP Is Dead, in November 2009 via No Fun Records. 2010s Kempner and the rest of The Del-Lords re-united in early 2010 for a successful tour of Spain. They are currently working on an album of all new material. Kempner's first solo album, Tenement Angels, was released on March 1, 2011 on GB Music. The release is on CD (remastered with a bonus track) and on vinyl. The LP is a limited edition on 500, and comes with a digital download and a hand signed poster by Kempner. Manitoba, Ross the Boss, Dean Rispler (ex-Murphys Law), JP Paterson, and Daniel Rey formed Manitoba in January 2012. In April 2013, the band changed its name to The Dictators NYC. A single "Supply and Demand," composed by Boss, Manitoba, and Manitoba's son Jake, and backed with a live version of the MC5's "Kick Out the Jams," was released in November 2015. In July 2017, it was announced that the band name would be changed back to Manitoba, "due to legal threats by ex-bandmates, Andy Shernoff and Scott Kempner". In December of that year the band announced it had broken up. Shernoff released his first solo EP Don't Fade Away on Yazoo Squelch Records in 2012. Critic Mark Deming wrote "the man is still writing excellent songs and singing them straight from the heart, which is what his best work has always been about, and it's great news that well over three decades into his career, he's still got fresh and worthwhile things to say." He released his second EP On The First Day, Man Created God in 2013 again on Yazoo Squelch records. In August 2015, he released a video collaboration with Lydia Lunch for the song "A Good Night To Say Goodbye". Another video to celebrate Joey Ramone's 65th birthday was released on May 15, 2016. Former member Richard Teeter, who played drums for The Dictators between 1976 and 1979, died on April 10, 2012, due to complications from esophageal cancer. He was 61. In November 2015, Go Girl Crazy! received an expanded and remastered CD reissue, featuring several unreleased selections and remixes of three tunes by Andrew W.K. On May 1, 2018, the Dictators original drummer, Stuart 'Stu Boy' King, died from pancreatic cancer. 2020s On May 28, 2020, Andy Shernoff announced that the Dictators were reforming to record some new material and possibly play live, with a line-up comprised by Shernoff on bass and vocals, Ross The Boss and Kempner on guitars and Albert Bouchard (formerly of Blue Öyster Cult) on drums. On January 8, 2021, Shernoff announced on Facebook that a new Dictators song and video would be released on January 15. On April 6 that year, the Dictators announced "Scott Kempner will be leaving the band due to health reasons." On October 18, the band announced that Keith Roth (David Johansen, Earl Slick. Cherie Currie, Cheetah Crome) would join the band on vocals and guitar. Members Andy Shernoff - bass (1973-1975, 1978-1980, 1995-present)), keyboards, lead vocals (1973-1975, 1976-1980, 1995-2008, 2020-present) Ross "The Boss" Friedman - lead guitar, backing vocals (1973-1975, 1976-1980, 1995-2008, 2020-present) Albert Bouchard - drums (2020-present) Keith Roth - vocals and guitar (2021-present) Former Richard Manitoba - lead vocals (1974-1975, 1976-1980, 1995-2008) Scott "Top Ten" Kempner - rhythm guitar (1973-1975, 1976-1980, 1995-2008, 2020-2021) Stu Boy King - drums (1974-1975, died 2018) Ritchie Teeter - drums (1976-1979; died 2012) Mark Mendoza - bass (1976-1977) Mel Anderson - drums (1979-1980) Frank Funaro - drums (1995-1998) J.P. Patterson - drums (1998-2008) Timeline Discography Studio albums Go Girl Crazy! (1975) Manifest Destiny (1977) #193 Billboard Top 200 Albums Bloodbrothers (1978) ...And You? (1990) (as Manitoba's Wild Kingdom) D.F.F.D. (2001) Live albums Fuck 'Em If They Can't Take a Joke (ROIR, 1981) The Dictators Live, New York, New York (ROIR, 1998) Viva Dictators (2005) Compilations Every Day Is Saturday (2007) Faster... Louder - The Dictators' Best 1975-2001 (2014) References External links Official website At CBGB Andyshernoff.com Interview with The Dictators by TruePunk.com Scott Kempner's MySpace Page Interview with Andy Shernoff on Food Is Not Love Kempner 7/08 Variety interview Punk rock groups from New York (state) ROIR artists Musical quartets Musical groups established in 1973 Protopunk groups Jews in punk rock	[ 0.15424945950508118, 0.12840262055397034, -0.41929081082344055, 0.23340262472629547, -0.39794060587882996, -0.15208658576011658, -0.021208424121141434, 0.34663668274879456, -0.31211984157562256, 0.08708827942609787, 0.18385319411754608, 0.8574529886245728, -0.8634157776832581, 0.3213927745819092, -0.6059327125549316, -0.08613666892051697, -0.2728016972541809, 0.08957405388355255, -0.33283936977386475, -0.062269650399684906, 0.1072947308421135, -0.13489492237567902, 0.5121400952339172, 0.09675528854131699, -0.3265874981880188, 0.5031635761260986, -0.025640474632382393, 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232519	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Karelo-Finnish%20Soviet%20Socialist%20Republic	Karelo-Finnish Soviet Socialist Republic	The Karelo-Finnish Soviet Socialist Republic (Karelo-Finnish SSR; ; ), also called Soviet Karelia or simply known as Karelia, was a republic of the Soviet Union. It existed from 1940 until it was made part of the Russian SFSR in 1956 as the Karelian Autonomous Soviet Socialist Republic. The latter became the Republic of Karelia, a federal subject of Russia, on 13 November 1991. History The Karelo-Finnish Soviet Socialist Republic was established by the Soviet government on 31 March 1940 by merging the KASSR with the Finnish Democratic Republic. The latter was created in territory ceded by Finland in the Winter War by the Moscow Peace Treaty, namely the Karelian Isthmus and Ladoga Karelia, including the cities of Viipuri and Sortavala. Virtually the entire Karelian population of the ceded areas, about 422,000 people, was evacuated to Finland, and the territories were settled by peoples from other parts of the Soviet Union. Creating a new Republic of the Union for an ethnic group that neither was large in absolute terms, nor constituted anything close to a majority in its territory, nor had been a separate independent nation prior to its incorporation into the USSR, was unprecedented in the history of the USSR. Some later historians believe that the elevation of Soviet Karelia from an Autonomous Soviet Socialist Republic (within the RSFSR) to an SSR was a political move as a "convenient means for facilitating the possible incorporation of additional Finnish territory" (or, possibly, the whole of Finland) into the USSR. In 1941, Finland re-annexed the territory that it had lost in 1940 and occupied most of the Karelian lands that had been within the USSR prior to 1940, including the capital Petrozavodsk (Petroskoi). In 1944, the Soviet Union recaptured the area. Soviet sovereignty was recognized by Finland in the Moscow Armistice and Paris Peace Treaty. The Finnish Karelians were evacuated to Finland again. In September 1944, the Karelian Isthmus with Vyborg (Viipuri) was transferred from the Karelo-Finnish SSR to the Leningrad Oblast of the RSFSR, but Ladoga Karelia remained a part of the republic. On 16 July 1956, the republic was incorporated into the Russian SFSR as the Karelian Autonomous Soviet Socialist Republic. This move can perhaps be explained in the context of the general post-war improvement of Finno-Soviet relations, which also included such steps as the Soviets' return of the Porkkala Naval Base leased territory to full Finnish sovereignty (January 1956), and leasing Maly Vysotsky Island and the Soviet section of the Saimaa Canal (conquered by the USSR in 1940 and 1944) back to Finland (1963). The abolition of the Karelian SSR in 1956 was the only case in the history of the USSR (1922–1991) of merging a member republic of the USSR into another republic. The state emblem of the Soviet Union had to be changed to reflect this, with one of the 16 ribbons symbolizing constituent republics removed. Soviet ruble money bearing the emblem was also changed accordingly. In the last days of the USSR, the Karelian ASSR became the Republic of Karelia, a subdivision of the Russian Federation, on 13 November 1991. Politics The chairman of the Karelo-Finnish Supreme Soviet (1940–1956) was Finnish communist Otto Wille Kuusinen. In the republic there was also a separate Karelo-Finnish Communist Party led in the 1940s by G.N. Kupriyanov. Yuri Andropov served for some years as the first secretary of the republic's Komsomol branch, the Leninist Communist Youth League of the Karelo-Finnish Soviet Socialist Republic. Chairmen of the Supreme Soviet Chairmen of the Presidium of the Supreme Soviet Chairmen of the Council of People's Commissars The Council of People's Commissars was renamed the Council of Ministers in 1946. See also Winter War Karelia Karelia (historical province of Finland) Karelian question in Finnish politics Republics of the Soviet Union First Secretary of the Karelian Communist Party References Former socialist republics Republics of the Soviet Union . 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232520	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/OMD	OMD	OMD may stand for: Science Osteomodulin, extracellular matrix protein Organic matter digestibility Organic mental disorders Orofacial myological disorders, diseases affecting facial muscles Oromandibular dystonia, neurological disease 3-O-Methyldopa, metabolite and drug Occult macular dystrophy, a rare genetic retinal disease Entertainment and media Orchestral Manoeuvres in the Dark, an English electronic band OMD Worldwide, a global media agency network Orcs Must Die!, a strategy video game Spider-Man: "One More Day", a 2007 four-part Spider-Man comic book crossover storyline Religion Ordo Frati Excalceatorum de B.M.V. de Mercede, the Discalced Mercedarians, Catholic religious order Clerics Regular of the Mother of God of Lucca members use the suffix of O.M.D. Ohio-Meadville District Other uses Olympus OM-D series of digital cameras One Million Degrees, a Chicago educational charity	[ 0.5939372777938843, 0.3264565169811249, 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232522	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Operation%20Chastise	Operation Chastise	Operation Chastise was an attack on German dams carried out on the night of 16/17 May 1943 by 617 Squadron RAF Bomber Command, later called the Dam Busters, using special "bouncing bombs" developed by Barnes Wallis. The Möhne and Edersee dams were breached, causing catastrophic flooding of the Ruhr valley and of villages in the Eder valley; the Sorpe Dam sustained only minor damage. Two hydroelectric power stations were destroyed and several more damaged. Factories and mines were also damaged and destroyed. An estimated 1,600 civilians – about 600 Germans and 1,000 forced labourers, mainly Soviet – were killed by the flooding. Despite rapid repairs by the Germans, production did not return to normal until September. The RAF lost 53 aircrew killed and 3 captured, with 8 aircraft destroyed. Background Before the Second World War, the British Air Ministry had identified the industrialised Ruhr Valley, especially its dams, as important strategic targets. The dams provided hydroelectric power and pure water for steel-making, drinking water and water for the canal transport system. Calculations indicated that attacks with large bombs could be effective but required a degree of accuracy which RAF Bomber Command had been unable to attain when attacking a well-defended target. A one-off surprise attack might succeed but the RAF lacked a weapon suitable for the task. Concept The mission grew out of a concept for a bomb designed by Barnes Wallis, assistant chief designer at Vickers. Wallis had worked on the Vickers Wellesley and Vickers Wellington bombers and while working on the Vickers Windsor, he had also begun work, with Admiralty support, on an anti-shipping bomb, although dam destruction was soon considered. At first, Wallis wanted to drop a bomb from an altitude of about , part of the earthquake bomb concept. No bomber aircraft was capable of flying at such an altitude or of carrying such a heavy bomb and Wallis proposed the six-engined Victory Bomber for this purpose but this was rejected. Wallis realized that a much smaller explosive charge would suffice if it exploded against the dam wall under the water but German reservoir dams were protected by heavy torpedo nets to prevent an explosive device from travelling through the water. Wallis devised a bomb (more accurately, a mine) in the shape of a cylinder, equivalent to a very large depth charge armed with a hydrostatic fuse, designed to be given a backspin of 500 rpm. Dropped at and from the release point, the mine would skip across the surface of the water before hitting the dam wall as its forward speed ceased. Initially the backspin was intended to increase the range of the mine but it was later realized that it would cause the mine, after submerging, to run down the side of the dam towards its base, thus maximising the explosive effect against the dam. This weapon was code-named Upkeep. Testing of the concept included blowing up a scale model dam at the Building Research Establishment, Watford, in May 1942 and then the breaching of the disused Nant-y-Gro dam in Wales in July. A subsequent test suggested that a charge of exploded under water would breach a full-size dam; crucially this weight would be within the carrying capacity of an Avro Lancaster. The first air drop trials were at Chesil Beach in December 1942; these used a spinning 4 ft 6 in sphere dropped from a modified Vickers Wellington, serial BJ895/G; the same aircraft was used until April 1943 when the first modified Lancasters became available. The tests continued at Chesil Beach and Reculver, often unsuccessfully, using revised designs of the mine and variations of speed and height. Avro Chief Designer Roy Chadwick adapted the Lancaster to carry the mine. To reduce weight, much of the internal armour was removed, as was the mid-upper (dorsal) gun turret. The dimensions of the mine and its unusual shape meant that the bomb-bay doors had to be removed and the mine hung partly below the fuselage. It was mounted on two crutches and before dropping it was spun by an auxiliary motor. Chadwick also worked out the design and installation of controls and gear for the carriage and release of the mine in conjunction with Barnes Wallis. The Avro Lancaster B Mk IIIs so modified were known as Lancaster B Mark III Special (Type 464 Provisioning). In February 1943, Air Vice-Marshal Francis Linnell at the Ministry of Aircraft Production thought the work was diverting Wallis from the development of the Vickers Windsor bomber (which did not become operational). Pressure from Linnell via the chairman of Vickers, Sir Charles Worthington Craven, caused Wallis to offer to resign. Sir Arthur Harris, head of Bomber Command, after a briefing by Linnell also opposed the allocation of his bombers. Wallis had written to an influential intelligence officer, Group Captain Frederick Winterbotham, who ensured that the Chief of the Air Staff, Air Chief Marshal Charles Portal, heard of the project. Portal saw the film of the Chesil Beach trials and was convinced. On 26 February 1943, Portal over-ruled Harris and ordered that thirty Lancasters were to be allocated to the mission and the target date was set for May, when water levels would be at their highest and breaches in the dams would cause the most damage. With eight weeks to go, the larger Upkeep mine that was needed for the mission and the modifications to the Lancasters had yet to be designed. Assignment The operation was given to No. 5 Group RAF, which formed a new squadron to undertake the dams mission. It was initially called Squadron X, as the speed of its formation outstripped the RAF process for naming squadrons. Led by 24-year-old Wing Commander Guy Gibson, a veteran of more than 170 bombing and night-fighter missions, twenty-one bomber crews were selected from 5 Group squadrons. The crews included RAF personnel of several nationalities, members of the Royal Australian Air Force (RAAF), Royal Canadian Air Force (RCAF) and Royal New Zealand Air Force (RNZAF). The squadron was based at RAF Scampton, about north of Lincoln. The targets selected were the Möhne Dam and the Sorpe Dam, upstream from the Ruhr industrial area, with the Eder Dam on the Eder River, which feeds into the Weser, as a secondary target. The loss of hydroelectric power was important but the loss of water to industry, cities and canals would have greater effect and there was potential for devastating flooding if the dams broke. Preparations Bombing from an altitude of , at an air speed of and at set distance from the target called for expert crews. Intensive night-time and low-altitude training began. There were also technical problems to solve, the first one being to determine when the aircraft was at optimum distance from its target. The Möhne and Eder Dams had towers at each end. A special targeting device with two prongs, making the same angle as the two towers at the correct distance from the dam, showed when to release the bomb. (The BBC documentary Dambusters Declassified (2010) stated that the pronged device was not used, owing to problems related to vibration and that other methods were employed, including a length of string tied in a loop and pulled back centrally to a fixed point in the manner of a catapult.) The second problem was determining the aircraft's altitude, as barometric altimeters lacked accuracy. Two spotlights were mounted, one under the aircraft's nose and the other under the fuselage, so that at the correct height their light beams would converge on the surface of the water. The crews practised at the Eyebrook Reservoir, near Uppingham, Rutland; Abberton Reservoir near Colchester; Derwent Reservoir in Derbyshire; and Fleet Lagoon on Chesil Beach. Wallis's bomb was first tested at the Elan Valley Reservoirs. The squadron took delivery of the bombs on 13 May, after the final tests on 29 April. At 18:00 on 15 May, at a meeting in Whitworth's house, Gibson and Wallis briefed the squadron's two flight commanders, Squadron Leader Henry Maudslay and Sqn Ldr H. M. "Dinghy" Young, Gibson's deputy for the Möhne attack, Flt Lt John V. Hopgood and the squadron bombing leader, Flight Lieutenant Bob Hay. The rest of the crews were told at a series of briefings the following day, which began with a briefing of pilots, navigators and bomb-aimers at about midday. Organisation Formation No. 1 was composed of nine aircraft in three groups (listed by pilot): Gibson, Hopgood and Flt Lt H. B. "Micky" Martin (an Australian serving in the RAF); Young, Flt Lt David Maltby and Flt Lt Dave Shannon (RAAF); and Maudslay, Flt Lt Bill Astell and Pilot Officer Les Knight (RAAF). Its mission was to attack the Möhne; any aircraft with bombs remaining would then attack the Eder. Formation No. 2, numbering five aircraft, piloted by Flt Lt Joe McCarthy (an American serving in the RCAF), P/O Vernon Byers (RCAF), Flt Lt Norman Barlow (RAAF), P/O Geoff Rice and Flt Lt Les Munro (RNZAF), was to attack the Sorpe. Formation No. 3 was a mobile reserve consisting of aircraft piloted by Flight Sergeant Cyril Anderson, Flt Sgt Bill Townsend, Flt Sgt Ken Brown (RCAF), P/O Warner Ottley and P/O Lewis Burpee (RCAF), taking off two hours later on 17 May, either to bomb the main dams or to attack three smaller secondary target dams: the Lister, the Ennepe and the Diemel. Two crews were unable to make the mission owing to illness. The Operations Room for the mission was at 5 Group Headquarters in St Vincents Hall, Grantham, Lincolnshire. The mission codes (transmitted in morse) were: Goner, meaning "bomb dropped"; Nigger, meaning that the Möhne was breached; and Dinghy, meaning that the Eder was breached. Nigger was the name of Gibson's dog, a black labrador retriever that had been run over and killed on the morning of the attack. Dinghy was Young's nickname, a reference to the fact that he had twice survived crash landings at sea where he and his crew were rescued from the aircraft's inflatable rubber dinghy. The attacks Outbound The aircraft used two routes, carefully avoiding known concentrations of flak, and were timed to cross the enemy coast simultaneously. The first aircraft, those of Formation No. 2 and heading for the longer, northern route, took off at 21:28 on 16 May. McCarthy's bomber developed a coolant leak and he took off in the reserve aircraft 34 minutes late. Formation No. 1 took off in groups of three at 10-minute intervals beginning at 21:39. The reserve formation did not begin taking off until 00:09 on 17 May. Formation No. 1 entered continental Europe between Walcheren and Schouwen, flew over the Netherlands, skirted the airbases at Gilze-Rijen and Eindhoven, curved around the Ruhr defences, and turned north to avoid Hamm before turning south to head for the Möhne River. Formation No. 2 flew further north, cutting over Vlieland and crossing the IJsselmeer before joining the first route near Wesel and then flying south beyond the Möhne to the Sorpe River. The bombers flew low, at about altitude, to avoid radar detection. Flight Sergeant George Chalmers, radio operator on "O for Orange", looked out through the astrodome and was astonished to see that his pilot was flying towards the target along a forest's firebreak, below treetop level. First casualties The first casualties were suffered soon after reaching the Dutch coast. Formation No. 2 did not fare well: Munro's aircraft lost its radio to flak and turned back over the IJsselmeer, while Rice flew too low and struck the sea, losing his bomb in the water; he recovered and returned to base. After the completion of the raid Gibson sympathised with Rice, telling him how he had also nearly lost his bomb to the sea. Barlow and Byers crossed the coast around the island of Texel. Byers was shot down by flak shortly afterwards, crashing into the Waddenzee. Barlow's aircraft hit electricity pylons and crashed 5 km east of Rees, near Haldern. The bomb was thrown clear of the crash and was examined intact by Heinz Schweizer. Only the delayed bomber piloted by McCarthy survived to cross the Netherlands. Formation No. 1 lost Astell's bomber near the German hamlet of Marbeck when his Lancaster hit high voltage electrical cables and crashed into a field. Attack on the Möhne Dam Formation No. 1 arrived over the Möhne lake and Gibson's aircraft (G for George) made the first run, followed by Hopgood (M for Mother). Hopgood's aircraft was hit by flak as it made its low-level run and was caught in the blast of its own bomb, crashing shortly afterwards when a wing disintegrated. Three crew members successfully abandoned the aircraft, but only two survived. Subsequently, Gibson flew his aircraft across the dam to draw the flak away from Martin's run. Martin (P for Popsie) bombed third; his aircraft was damaged, but made a successful attack. Next, Young (A for Apple) made a successful run, and after him Maltby (J for Johnny), when finally the dam was breached. Gibson, with Young accompanying, led Shannon, Maudslay and Knight to the Eder. Attack on the Eder Dam The Eder Valley was covered by heavy fog, but the dam was not defended with anti-aircraft positions as the difficult topography of the surrounding hills was thought to make an attack virtually impossible. With approach so difficult the first aircraft, Shannon's, made six runs before taking a break. Maudslay (Z for Zebra) then attempted a run but the bomb struck the top of the dam and the aircraft was severely damaged in the blast. Shannon made another run and successfully dropped his bomb. The final bomb of the formation, from Knight's aircraft (N for Nut), breached the dam. Attacks on the Sorpe and Ennepe Dams The Sorpe dam was the one least likely to be breached. It was a huge earthen dam, unlike the two concrete-and-steel gravity dams that were attacked successfully. Due to various problems, only two Lancasters reached the Sorpe Dam: Joe McCarthy (in T for Tommy, a delayed aircraft from the second wave) and later Brown (F for Freddie) from the third formation. This attack differed from the previous ones in two ways: the 'Upkeep' bomb was not spun, and due to the topography of the valley the approach was made along the length of the dam, not at right angles over the reservoir. McCarthy's plane was on its own when it arrived over the Sorpe Dam at 00:15 hours, and realised the approach was even more difficult than expected: the flight path led over a church steeple in the village of Langscheid, located on the hillcrest overlooking the dam. With only seconds to go before the bomber had to pull up, to avoid hitting the hillside at the other end of the dam, the bomb aimer George Johnson had no time to correct the bomb's height and heading. McCarthy made nine attempted bombing runs before Johnson was satisfied. The 'Upkeep' bomb was dropped on the tenth run. The bomb exploded but when he turned his Lancaster to assess the damage, it turned out that only a section of the crest of the dam had been blown off; the main body of the dam remained. Three of the reserve aircraft had been directed to the Sorpe Dam. Burpee (S for Sugar) never arrived, and it was later determined that the plane had been shot down while skirting the Gilze-Rijen airfield. Brown (F for Freddie) reached the Sorpe Dam: in the increasingly dense fog, after 7 runs, Brown conferred with his bomb aimer and dropped incendiary devices on either side of the valley, which ignited a fire which subsequently lifted the fog enough to drop a direct hit on the eighth run. The bomb cracked but failed to breach the dam. Anderson (Y for York) never arrived having been delayed by damage to his rear turret and dense fog which made his attempts to find the target impossible. The remaining two bombers were then sent to secondary targets, with Ottley (C for Charlie) being shot down en route to the Lister Dam. Townsend (O for Orange) eventually dropped his bomb at the Ennepe Dam without harming it. Possible attack on Bever Dam There is some evidence that Townsend might have attacked the by mistake rather than the Ennepe Dam. The War Diary of the German Naval Staff reported that the Bever Dam was attacked at nearly the same time that the Sorpe Dam was. In addition, the Wupperverband authority responsible for the Bever Dam is said to have recovered the remains of a "mine"; and Paul Keiser, a 19-year-old soldier on leave at his home close to the Bever Dam, reported a bomber making several approaches to the dam and then dropping a bomb that caused a large explosion and a great pillar of flame. In the book The Dambusters' Raid, author John Sweetman suggests Townsend's report of the moon's reflecting on the mist and water is consistent with an attack that was heading to the Bever Dam rather than to the Ennepe Dam, given the moon's azimuth and altitude during the bombing attacks. Sweetman also points out that the Ennepe-Wasserverband authority was adamant that only a single bomb was dropped near the Ennepe Dam during the entire war, and that this bomb fell into the woods by the side of the dam, not in the water, as in Townsend's report. Finally, members of Townsend's crew independently reported seeing a manor house and attacking an earthen dam, which is consistent with the Bever Dam rather than the Ennepe Dam. The main evidence supporting the hypothesis of an attack of the Ennepe Dam is Townsend's post-flight report that he attacked the Ennepe Dam on a heading of 355 degrees magnetic. Assuming that the heading was incorrect, all other evidence points toward an attack on the Bever Dam. Townsend reported difficulty in finding his dam, and in his post-raid report he complained that the map of the Ennepe Dam was incorrect. The Bever Dam is only about southwest of the Ennepe Dam. With the early-morning fog that filled the valleys, it would be understandable for him to have mistaken the two reservoirs. Return flight On the way back, flying again at treetop level, two more Lancasters were lost. The damaged aircraft of Maudslay was struck by flak near Netterden, and Young's (A for Apple) was hit by flak north of IJmuiden and crashed into the North Sea just off the coast of the Netherlands. On the return flight over the Dutch coast, some German flak aimed at the aircraft was aimed so low that shells were seen to bounce off the sea. Eleven bombers began landing at Scampton at 03:11 hours, with Gibson returning at 04:15. The last of the survivors, Townsend's bomber, landed at 06:15. It was the last to land because one of its engines had been shut down after passing the Dutch coast. Air Chief Marshal Harris was among those who came out to greet the last crew to land. List of aircraft involved Bomb damage assessment Bomber Command wanted a bomb damage assessment as soon as possible and the CO of 542 Squadron was informed of the estimated time of the attacks. A photo-reconnaissance Spitfire, piloted by Flying Officer Frank 'Jerry' Fray, took off from RAF Benson at 07:30 hours and arrived over the Ruhr River some hours after first light. Photos were taken of the breached dams and the huge floods. The pilot later described the experience: After the raid Three aircrew from Hopgood's aircraft parachuted but one later died from wounds and the others were captured. A crewman in Ottley's aircraft survived its crash. In total, therefore, 53 of the 133 aircrew who participated in the attack were killed, a casualty rate of almost 40 percent. Thirteen of those killed were members of the RCAF and two belonged to the RAAF. Of the survivors, 34 were decorated at Buckingham Palace on 22 June, with Gibson awarded the Victoria Cross. There were five Distinguished Service Orders, 10 Distinguished Flying Crosses and four bars, two Conspicuous Gallantry Medals, eleven Distinguished Flying Medals and one bar. Initial German casualty estimates from the floods were 1,294 killed, including 749 French, Belgian, Dutch and Ukrainian prisoners of war and labourers. Later estimates put the death toll in the Möhne Valley at about 1,600, including people who drowned in the flood wave downstream from the dam. After a public relations tour of North America, and time spent working in the Air Ministry in London writing the book published as Enemy Coast Ahead, Gibson returned to operations and was killed on a Mosquito operation in 1944. Following the Dams Raid, 617 Squadron was kept together as a specialist unit. A motto, Après moi le déluge ("After me the flood") and a squadron badge were chosen. According to Brickhill there was some controversy over the motto, with the original version Après nous le déluge ("After us the flood") being rejected by the Heralds as having inappropriate provenance (having been coined, reportedly, by Madame de Pompadour) and après moi le déluge having been said by Louis XV in an "irresponsible" context. The motto having been chosen by King George VI, the latter was finally deemed acceptable. The squadron went on to drop the Tallboy and Grand Slam bombs and attacked the German battleship , using an advanced bomb sight, which enabled the bombing of small targets with far greater accuracy than conventional bomb aiming techniques. In 1977, Article 56 of the Protocol I amendment to the Geneva Conventions, outlawed attacks on dams "if such attack may cause the release of dangerous forces from the works or installations and consequent severe losses among the civilian population". There is however an exception if "it is used for other than its normal function and in regular, significant and direct support of military operations and if such attack is the only feasible way to terminate such support". Effect on the war Tactical view The two direct mine hits on the Möhnesee dam resulted in a breach around wide and deep. The destroyed dam poured around 330 million tons of water into the western Ruhr region. A torrent of water around high and travelling at around swept through the valleys of the Möhne and Ruhr rivers. A few mines were flooded; 11 small factories and 92 houses were destroyed and 114 factories and 971 houses were damaged. The floods washed away about 25 roads, railways and bridges as the flood waters spread for around from the source. Estimates show that before 15 May 1943 steel production on the Ruhr was 1 million tonnes; this dropped to a quarter of that level after the raid. The Eder drains towards the east into the Fulda which runs into the Weser to the North Sea. The main purpose of the Edersee was then, as it is now, to act as a reservoir to keep the Weser and the Mittellandkanal navigable during the summer months. The wave from the breach was not strong enough to result in significant damage by the time it hit Kassel, approximately downstream. The greatest impact on the Ruhr armaments production was the loss of hydroelectric power. Two power stations (producing 5,100 kilowatts) associated with the dam were destroyed and seven others were damaged. This resulted in a loss of electrical power in the factories and many households in the region for two weeks. In May 1943 coal production dropped by 400,000 tons which German sources attribute to the effects of the raid. According to an article by German historian , at least 1,650 people were killed: around 70 of these were in the Eder Valley, and at least 1,579 bodies were found along the Möhne and Ruhr rivers, with hundreds missing. Of the bodies found downriver of the Möhne Dam, 1,026 were foreign prisoners of war and forced labourers in different camps, mainly from the Soviet Union. Worst hit was the city of Neheim (now part of Neheim-Hüsten) at the confluence of the Möhne and Ruhr rivers, where over 800 people perished, among them at least 493 female forced labourers from the Soviet Union. Some non-German sources cite an earlier total of 749 for all foreigners in all camps in the Möhne and Ruhr valleys as the casualty count at a camp just below the Eder Dam.) One source states that the raid was no more than a minor inconvenience to the Ruhr's industrial output, although that is contradicted by others. The bombing boosted British morale. In his book Inside the Third Reich, Albert Speer acknowledged the attempt: "That night, employing just a few bombers, the British came close to a success which would have been greater than anything they had achieved hitherto with a commitment of thousands of bombers." He also expressed puzzlement at the raids: the disruption of temporarily having to shift 7,000 construction workers to the Möhne and Eder repairs was offset by the failure of the Allies to follow up with additional (conventional) raids during the dams' reconstruction, and that represented a major lost opportunity. Barnes Wallis was also of this view; he revealed his deep frustration that Bomber Command never sent a high-level bombing force to hit the Möhne dam while repairs were being carried out. He argued that extreme precision would have been unnecessary and that even a few hits by conventional HE bombs would have prevented the rapid repair of the dam which was undertaken by the Germans. Strategic view The Dams Raid was, like many British air raids, undertaken with a view to the need to keep drawing German defensive effort back into Germany and away from actual and potential theatres of ground war, a policy which culminated in the Berlin raids of the winter of 1943–1944. In May 1943 this meant keeping the Luftwaffe aircraft and anti-aircraft defences away from the Soviet Union; in early 1944, it meant clearing the way for the aerial side of the forthcoming Operation Overlord. The considerable amount of labour and strategic resources committed to repairing the dams, factories, mines and railways could not be used in other ways, on the construction of the Atlantic Wall, for example. The pictures of the broken dams proved to be a propaganda and morale boost to the Allies, especially to the British, still suffering from the German bombing of the Baedeker Blitz that had peaked roughly a year earlier. Even within Germany, as evidenced by Gauleiters' reports to Berlin at the time, the German population regarded the raids as a legitimate attack on military targets and thought they were "an extraordinary success on the part of the English" [sic]. They were not regarded as a pure terror attack by the Germans, even in the Ruhr region, and in response the German authorities released relatively accurate (not exaggerated) estimates of the dead. An effect of the dam raids was that Barnes Wallis's ideas on earthquake bombing, which had previously been rejected, came to be accepted by 'Bomber' Harris. Prior to this raid, bombing had used the tactic of area bombardment with many light bombs, in the hope that one would hit the target. Work on the earthquake bombs resulted in the Tallboy and Grand Slam weapons, which caused damage to German infrastructure in the later stages of the war. They rendered the V-2 rocket launch complex at Calais unusable, buried the V-3 guns, and destroyed bridges and other fortified installations, such as the Grand Slam attack on the railway viaduct at Bielefeld. The most notable successes were the partial collapse of reinforced concrete roofs of U-boat pens at Brest, and the sinking of the battleship Tirpitz. Harris regarded the raid as a failure and a waste of resources. Memorials See also Attack on the Sui-ho Dam during the Korean War Dam failure Hydroelectric power station failures Operation Eisenhammer, a German plan to wreck critical Soviet hydroelectric turbines in World War II Operation Garlic, an attack by 617 Squadron on the Dortmund-Ems Canal In popular culture In 1954 a radio dramatisation of Paul Brickhill's book The Dam Busters was produced by Australasian Radio in 26 half-hour episodes. A 1955 film, The Dam Busters, was made about the raids and was very popular. Its depiction of the raid, along with a similar sequence in the film 633 Squadron, provided the inspiration for the Death Star trench run in Star Wars: A New Hope. The film is also watched on television by the character Pink in the 1982 film, Pink Floyd The Wall. In 1984, a home computer combat flight simulator The Dam Busters was made based on this operation. A 1989 British commercial for Carling Black Label lager reused footage from the attack sequence of the 1955 film, with a German sentry on top of the dam catching the perfectly spherical bombs in the manner of a football goalkeeper. The pilot of the attacking Lancaster then delivers the brand slogan: "I bet he drinks Carling Black Label!" A subsequent Carling commercial also used bouncing bomb imagery, this time to enable a British holidaymaker to beat the Germans to the sun beds. The adverts were criticised by the Independent Television Commission after complaint s, although "a spokeswoman for the German embassy in London dismissed the idea that Germans might find the commercial offensive, adding: 'I find it very amusing'". On 12 February 2003, the operation was the subject of an episode of the PBS series Secrets of the Dead, entitled "Bombing Nazi Dams". Channel 4 attempted to recreate the raid in 2003 using a modern-day RAF crew. "Dam Buster: World War II's Bouncing Bomb" (2005) was episode 12 of the first season of The History Channel's docudrama series Man, Moment, Machine, with the main focus on Wallis. On 1 September 2006, it was announced that Peter Jackson would produce a remake of the 1955 movie, to be directed by Christian Rivers with production starting in 2008. , production has not been started. On 16 May 2008, a commemorative event to mark the 65th anniversary was held at Derwent Reservoir, Derbyshire, including a flypast by the Battle of Britain Memorial Flight Lancaster, Spitfire and Hurricane. The event was attended by Les Munro, the only surviving pilot from the original raid at that time, and Richard Todd the actor who played Wing Commander Guy Gibson in the 1955 film. Vic Hallam's Derwent Valley Museum, located on top of the Derwent Reservoir Dam, also tells the tale of Squadron 617 and its training for Operation Chastise. In 2011, a project was initiated to recreate a Dambusters raid. Buffalo Airways would fly the mission, with their plane and pilots, and drop a replica of the bouncing bomb from their Douglas DC-4 against a replica dam. The project was televised in the documentary television show "Dambusters Fly Again in Canada", "Dambusters: Building the Bouncing Bomb" in the UK, and Nova episode "Bombing Hitler's Dams" in the U.S. The filming of the documentary was itself documented as part of the Ice Pilots NWT reality series that follows Buffalo Airways, in season 3 episode 2 "Dambusters". On 16 May 2013, a commemorative event to mark the 70th anniversary was held at Derwent Reservoir, Derbyshire, including a flypast by the Battle of Britain Memorial Flight Lancaster, Spitfire and Hurricane, followed by a pair of 617 Sqn Tornados. In September 2014, a second airworthy Lancaster was visiting Britain from the Canadian Warplane Heritage Museum in Ontario Canada, so two Lancaster bombers were available to conduct a memorial flypast over the Derwent reservoir during the 71st anniversary year of the raid. For the 75th anniversary in 2018, which was also the 100th anniversary of the RAF, a Lancaster flypast was planned but cancelled owing to high winds. A flypast was later conducted by an RAF Typhoon aircraft. For the 75th anniversary of the raid, Artist Dan Llywelyn Hall painted portraits for all 133 men who participated in the raid. The exhibition went on show at several different locations, including the International Bomber Command Centre in Lincoln on 13 May 2018. References Notes Bibliography Arthur, Max. Dambusters: A Landmark Oral History. London: Virgin Books, 2008. . Brickhill, Paul. The Dam Busters: An Account of 617 Squadron, R.A.F., 1943–45, with plates. London: Evans Bros., 1951. "Novelised" style. Covers entire wartime story of 617 Squadron. Churchill, Winston S. The Second World War, Volume IV: The Hinge of Fate. 2nd edition. London: Cassell, 1951. Cockell, Charles S. "The Science and Scientific Legacy of Operation Chastise." Interdisciplinary Science Reviews 27, 2002, pp. 278–286. Dildy, Douglas C. Dambusters: Operation Chastise, Osprey Raid Series No. 16. Oxford, UK: Osprey Publishing, 2010. . Falconer, Jonathan. The Dam Busters Story. Stroud, Gloucestershire, UK: Sutton Publishing, 2007. . Gibson, Guy. Enemy Coast Ahead. London: Pan Books, 1955. Gibson's own account. Hastings, Max. Operation Chastise: The RAF's Most Brilliant Attack of World War II. HarperCollins, New York, 2020. Robertson, J. H. The Story of the Telephone: A History of the Telecommunications Industry of Britain. London: Pitman & Sons Ltd., 1947. Speer, Albert. Inside the Third Reich: Memoirs. London: Cassell, 1999, First Edition 1970. (Translated from the German by Richard and Clara Winston; originally published in German as Erinnerungen [Recollections], Propyläen/Ullstein, 1969.) . Sweetman, John. Operation Chastise. London: Jane's, 1982. . Sweetman, John. The Dambusters Raid. London: Cassell, 1999. . External links The Dams Raid with context Official site of the Royal Air Force about Operation Chastise Archived 5-April-2017 Dambusters site with details of Operation Chastise including video footage and more Online Dambusters exhibition at the UK National Archives BBC Online – Myths and Legends – Home of the Dambusters 60th Anniversary BBC News. "Fly-past marks Dambusters anniversary" (photographs), Daily Telegraph, 16 May 2008. German history website about Operation Chastise G for George at the Australian War Memorial, Canberra German photography archive Website about Flt Lt David Maltby and his crew Dambusters weblog List of all 133 aircrew who took part in Operation Chastise 20 Historical Photographs from Operation Chastise Allied Psychological Warfare to Capitalise on the Dambusters Raid Dambusters site of Dambusters Museum Germany (in German) https://www.memorabletv.com/previews/the-dambusters-channel-4-7-apr-2003/ Chastise Dambusters Raid Dambusters Raid Dambusters Raid History of the Royal Air Force during World War II Conflicts in 1943 1943 in Germany May 1943 events	[ -0.0703258365392685, 0.18960855901241302, 0.04960102215409279, -0.32638365030288696, -0.12060387432575226, 0.24167878925800323, 1.0643445253372192, -0.4368659257888794, 0.15773217380046844, 0.2559589743614197, -0.74208664894104, 0.703628659248352, -0.205867201089859, 0.4480028748512268, 0.34653154015541077, 0.3060659170150757, 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232523	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/EMC	EMC	EMC may refer to: Arts and media eMC (hip hop group) EMC Publishing, LLC, an American publishing company Essential Media Communications, an Australian PR and polling company European Music Council, a cultural organization "E.M.C.", a song by Hawkwind from their 1988 album The Xenon Codex Science and medicine Emergency Medical Care, a Canadian ambulance service Endoplasmic reticulum membrane protein complex Environmental Modeling Center, one of the United States National Centers for Environmental Prediction Equilibrium moisture content European Medical Command European Muon Collaboration, a defunct physics collaboration EMC effect in deep inelastic scattering Extramacrochaetae, a D. melanogaster gene Technology Dell EMC, an American data management company, formerly called EMC Corporation Electromagnetic compatibility Energetically modified cement Enhanced Machine Controller, now LinuxCNC, software used to control CNC machines Transport Electro-Motive Corporation, an American rail car manufacturer EMC Motorcycles, a defunct British motorcycle manufacturer Evergreen Marine Corporation, a Taiwanese shipping company Other uses Early Middle Chinese Economic Management Council, an Irish cabinet subcommittee Electric membership corporation, a type of utility cooperative Encyclopedia of the Medieval Chronicle, a reference work Entrepreneurial Management Center, now the Lavin Entrepreneurship Center at San Diego State University Erode Municipal Corporation, in Tamil Nadu, India Evangelical Mennonite Conference, a Canadian Christian denomination Evangelical Methodist Church, an American Christian denomination See also EMC2 (disambiguation)	[ 0.6981701254844666, 0.4450191259384155, -0.12188487499952316, 0.179600328207016, -0.006888007279485464, -0.2309156209230423, -0.22209005057811737, 0.16239595413208008, -0.2676134705543518, 0.1363763064146042, -0.694674551486969, 0.45444029569625854, -0.03413674607872963, 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232526	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bertrand%27s%20postulate	Bertrand's postulate	In number theory, Bertrand's postulate is a theorem stating that for any integer , there always exists at least one prime number with A less restrictive formulation is: for every there is always at least one prime such that Another formulation, where is the -th prime, is for This statement was first conjectured in 1845 by Joseph Bertrand (1822–1900). Bertrand himself verified his statement for all integers . His conjecture was completely proved by Chebyshev (1821–1894) in 1852 and so the postulate is also called the Bertrand–Chebyshev theorem or Chebyshev's theorem. Chebyshev's theorem can also be stated as a relationship with , where is the prime-counting function (number of primes less than or equal to ): , for all . Prime number theorem The prime number theorem (PNT) implies that the number of primes up to x is roughly x/ln(x), so if we replace x with 2x then we see the number of primes up to 2x is asymptotically twice the number of primes up to x (the terms ln(2x) and ln(x) are asymptotically equivalent). Therefore, the number of primes between n and 2n is roughly n/ln(n) when n is large, and so in particular there are many more primes in this interval than are guaranteed by Bertrand's Postulate. So Bertrand's postulate is comparatively weaker than the PNT. But PNT is a deep theorem, while Bertrand's Postulate can be stated more memorably and proved more easily, and also makes precise claims about what happens for small values of n. (In addition, Chebyshev's theorem was proved before the PNT and so has historical interest.) The similar and still unsolved Legendre's conjecture asks whether for every n ≥ 1, there is a prime p, such that n2 < p < (n + 1)2. Again we expect that there will be not just one but many primes between n2 and (n + 1)2, but in this case the PNT doesn't help: the number of primes up to x2 is asymptotic to x2/ln(x2) while the number of primes up to (x + 1)2 is asymptotic to (x + 1)2/ln((x + 1)2), which is asymptotic to the estimate on primes up to x2. So unlike the previous case of x and 2x we don't get a proof of Legendre's conjecture even for all large n. Error estimates on the PNT are not (indeed, cannot be) sufficient to prove the existence of even one prime in this interval. Generalizations In 1919, Ramanujan (1887–1920) used properties of the Gamma function to give a simpler proof. The short paper included a generalization of the postulate, from which would later arise the concept of Ramanujan primes. Further generalizations of Ramanujan primes have also been discovered; for instance, there is a proof that with pk the kth prime and Rn the nth Ramanujan prime. Other generalizations of Bertrand's Postulate have been obtained using elementary methods. (In the following, n runs through the set of positive integers.) In 2006, M. El Bachraoui proved that there exists a prime between 2n and 3n. In 1973, Denis Hanson proved that there exists a prime between 3n and 4n. Furthermore, in 2011, Andy Loo proved that as n tends to infinity, the number of primes between 3n and 4n also goes to infinity, thereby generalizing Erdős' and Ramanujan's results (see the section on Erdős' theorems below). The first result is obtained with elementary methods. The second one is based on analytic bounds for the factorial function. Sylvester's theorem Bertrand's postulate was proposed for applications to permutation groups. Sylvester (1814–1897) generalized the weaker statement with the statement: the product of k consecutive integers greater than k is divisible by a prime greater than k. Bertrand's (weaker) postulate follows from this by taking k = n, and considering the k numbers n + 1, n + 2, up to and including n + k = 2n, where n > 1. According to Sylvester's generalization, one of these numbers has a prime factor greater than k. Since all these numbers are less than 2(k + 1), the number with a prime factor greater than k has only one prime factor, and thus is a prime. Note that 2n is not prime, and thus indeed we now know there exists a prime p with n < p < 2n. Erdős's theorems In 1932, Erdős (1913–1996) also published a simpler proof using binomial coefficients and the Chebyshev function ϑ, defined as: where p ≤ x runs over primes. See proof of Bertrand's postulate for the details. Erdős proved in 1934 that for any positive integer k, there is a natural number N such that for all n > N, there are at least k primes between n and 2n. An equivalent statement had been proved in 1919 by Ramanujan (see Ramanujan prime). Better results It follows from the prime number theorem that for any real there is a such that for all there is a prime such that . It can be shown, for instance, that which implies that goes to infinity (and, in particular, is greater than 1 for sufficiently large ). Non-asymptotic bounds have also been proved. In 1952, Jitsuro Nagura proved that for there is always a prime between and . In 1976, Lowell Schoenfeld showed that for , there is always a prime in the open interval . In his 1998 doctoral thesis, Pierre Dusart improved the above result, showing that for , , and in particular for , there exists a prime in the interval . In 2010 Pierre Dusart proved that for there is at least one prime in the interval . In 2016, Pierre Dusart improved his result from 2010, showing (Proposition 5.4) that, if , there is at least one prime in the interval . He also shows (Corollary 5.5) that, for , there is at least one prime in the interval . Baker, Harman and Pintz proved that there is a prime in the interval for all sufficiently large . Dudek proved that, for all , there is at least one prime between and . Consequences The sequence of primes, along with 1, is a complete sequence; any positive integer can be written as a sum of primes (and 1) using each at most once. The only harmonic number that is an integer is the number 1. See also Oppermann's conjecture Proof of Bertrand's postulate Notes Bibliography Chris Caldwell, Bertrand's postulate at Prime Pages glossary. External links A proof of the weak version in the Mizar system: http://mizar.org/version/current/html/nat_4.html#T56 Bertrand's postulate − A proof of the weak version at www.dimostriamogoldbach.it/en/ Theorems about prime numbers Mathematical theorems Theorems in algebra Number theory Prime numbers	[ -0.3993094563484192, -0.055490005761384964, -0.11484475433826447, 0.2067411243915558, -0.20161154866218567, 0.6140393614768982, 0.43603095412254333, -0.18990378081798553, -0.023571781814098358, -0.44353964924812317, -0.3829699158668518, 0.09588316828012466, -0.7190311551094055, 0.4295904338359833, 0.2129112333059311, 0.2939358055591583, 0.9292818903923035, 0.14322727918624878, -0.9871996641159058, -0.869513750076294, 0.4903525412082672, 0.15824569761753082, 0.24526944756507874, -0.16568784415721893, -0.16225917637348175, 0.39200493693351746, -0.0015938949072733521, -0.3188563883304596, 0.05563989654183388, 0.47140344977378845, -0.11745604127645493, 0.31241586804389954, 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232529	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alex%20Comfort	Alex Comfort	Alexander Comfort (10 February 1920 – 26 March 2000) was a British scientist and physician known best for his nonfiction sex manual, The Joy of Sex (1972). He was an author of both fiction and nonfiction, as well as a gerontologist, anarchist, pacifist, and conscientious objector. Early life and education Comfort was educated at Highgate School in London. While a student there, he attempted to develop a improved mix of gunpowder. During his experiments he inadvertently blew up his left hand, of which only the thumb remained. (Later in life, he claimed that his left hand proved "very useful for performing uterine inversions".) This story is used as evidence of his single-mindedness. He matriculated at Cambridge University's Trinity College to study medicine, qualifying during 1944 with both the Conjoint diplomas of Licentiate of the Royal College of Physicians (LRCP) London, Member of the Royal College of Surgeons (MRCS) England and the Cambridge Bachelor of Medicine and Bachelor of Surgery or MB BChir degrees. All in all, he accrued six degrees. Comfort had a passion for molluscs and joined the Conchological Society of Great Britain & Ireland when he was eighteen years old and made many contributions to the literature. Life and work Comfort served as a House Physician for the London Hospital and later became a lecturer in physiology at the London Hospital Medical College. During 1945 he obtained the Conjoint Board's Diploma in Child Health, and progressed to a PhD during 1950 and a DSc of University College, London during 1963. A pacifist, Comfort considered himself "an aggressive anti-militarist", and he believed that pacifism rested "solely upon the historical theory of anarchism". During World War Two, Comfort wrote a letter to the Tribune magazine (2 April 1943) denouncing the Allied bombing of civilians: The bombardment of Europe is not the work of soldiers nor of responsible statesmen. It is the work of bloodthirsty fools.... Night after night those Europeans who risk their liberty to listen can hear the emetic threatenings and boastings of bloody-minded and reactionary civilians. They contrast the alacrity and satisfaction which attend each contemptible operation with the subterfuge and sloth which we have displayed in such tasks of constructive policy as the admission to sanctuary of the Jewish refugees. In a letter to Horizon in 1942, Comfort claimed that a Nazi victory over the United Kingdom would lead to a literary renaissance, for which he was fiercely criticized by George Orwell in the Partisan Review. Comfort was an active member of the Peace Pledge Union (PPU) and Campaign for Nuclear Disarmament, and a conscientious objector in World War II. In 1951 Comfort was a signatory of the Authors' World Peace Appeal, but later resigned from its committee, claiming the AWPA had become dominated by Soviet sympathisers. Later in the decade he actively endorsed both the Direct Action Committee against Nuclear War, 1957, and the Committee of 100, 1960. Comfort was imprisoned for a month, with Bertrand Russell and other leading members of the Committee of 100, for refusing to be bound not to continue organising the Parliament Square/Trafalgar Square protest of 17 September 1961. Among the publications by Comfort concerning anarchism is Peace and Disobedience (1946), one of many pamphlets he wrote for Peace News and PPU, and Authority and Delinquency in the Modern State (1950). He exchanged public correspondence with George Orwell defending pacifism in the open letter/poem, "Letter to an American Visitor", under the pseudonym "Obadiah Hornbrooke". Comfort's book The Joy of Sex (1972) earned him worldwide fame and $3 million. But he was unhappy to become known as "Dr. Sex" and to have his other works given so little attention. Comfort devoted much of the 1950s and 1960s studying the biology of ageing (biogerontology) and popularised the subject. During 1969 he suggested that life expectancy (not simply maximum life span) could be extended to 120 years of age within the next 20 years. Although Comfort believed that ageing could be postponed, he did not believe that it could be eliminated, and he did not write about rejuvenation. One of Comfort's final letters was to The Guardian during 1989, protesting against the Thatcher government's introduction of the poll tax. Personal life The Joy of Sex made Comfort known internationally as "Dr. Sex" and soon thereafter he and his wife of thirty years divorced. A few months later, during 1973, Comfort married his mistress (and ex-wife's best friend) Jane Henderson, with whom he had been having an affair for more than a decade. The book's illustrations were based on photographs that Comfort and Henderson had taken together. The Center for the Study of Democratic Institutions, a liberal research institute, offered Comfort a job, and so, during 1973, the couple relocated to Santa Barbara, California, where it was located. They frequented the Sandstone Retreat, a clothing-optional community in California espousing "open sexuality", or swinging. In his 1981 nonfiction publication concerning sexuality in America, Thy Neighbor's Wife, Gay Talese noted, "Often the nude biologist Dr. Alex Comfort, brandishing a cigar, traipsed through the room between the prone bodies with the professional air of a lepidopterist strolling through the fields waving a butterfly net". Jane Henderson, however, eventually became tired of the "open love" community and Comfort became involved in lawsuits with his employer concerning a claimed breach of contract. During 1985, the couple returned to England, where they lived the remainder of their lives in Kent. During 1991, Comfort suffered a severe cerebral haemorrhage, after which his son from his first marriage acted as his caretaker and business manager. His second wife Jane Henderson died soon after the haemorrhage. He died on 26 March 2000; he was eighty years old. Partial bibliography Comfort, Alexander. 1967. The anxiety makers: some curious preoccupations of the medical profession. Nelson See also List of peace activists References External links AlexComfort.net – full text of 'Authority and Delinquency' and 'I and That: Notes on the Biology of Religion' Biography of Alex Comfort – with attention to his anarchist politics See the Alex Comfort Page in the Anarchist Encyclopedia Guardian obituary 1920 births 2000 deaths 20th-century British male writers 20th-century British non-fiction writers 20th-century British zoologists Alumni of University College London Anarchist writers Anarcho-pacifists Biogerontologists British anarchists British conscientious objectors British male non-fiction writers British pacifists British scientists Conchologists Free love advocates Life extensionists People educated at Highgate School	[ 0.10918882489204407, 0.4055447280406952, -0.33471181988716125, -0.19734419882297516, 0.15310032665729523, 0.7498595118522644, 0.24014917016029358, -0.2925609350204468, 0.2926635146141052, 0.015269998461008072, -0.1894729882478714, 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232530	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geraldine%20Ferraro	Geraldine Ferraro	Geraldine Anne Ferraro (August 26, 1935 March 26, 2011) was an American politician, diplomat, and attorney. She served in the United States House of Representatives from 1979 to 1985, and was the Democratic Party's vice presidential nominee in 1984, running alongside former vice president Walter Mondale; this made her the first female vice-presidential nominee representing a major American political party. She was also a journalist, author, and businesswoman. Ferraro grew up in New York City and worked as a public school teacher before training as a lawyer. She joined the Queens County District Attorney's Office in 1974, heading the new Special Victims Bureau that dealt with sex crimes, child abuse, and domestic violence. In 1978 she was elected to the U.S. House of Representatives, where she rose rapidly in the party hierarchy while focusing on legislation to bring equity for women in the areas of wages, pensions, and retirement plans. In 1984, former vice president and presidential candidate Walter Mondale, seen as an underdog, selected Ferraro to be his running mate in the upcoming election. Ferraro became the first widely recognized Italian American to be a major-party national nominee, although Al Smith was also part Italian in origin. She was also the first woman nominee for a major party to run for president or vice-president. The positive polling the Mondale-Ferraro ticket received when she joined soon faded, as damaging questions arose about her and her businessman husband's finances and wealth and her Congressional disclosure statements. In the general election, Mondale and Ferraro were defeated in a landslide by incumbent President Ronald Reagan and Vice President George H. W. Bush. Ferraro ran campaigns for a seat in the United States Senate from New York in 1992 and 1998, both times starting as the front-runner for her party's nomination before losing in the primary election. She served as the Ambassador to the United Nations Commission on Human Rights from 1993 until 1996 during the presidential administration of Bill Clinton. She also continued her career as a journalist, author, and businesswoman, and served in the 2008 presidential campaign of Senator Hillary Clinton. Ferraro died on March 26, 2011, from multiple myeloma, 12 years after being diagnosed. Early life and education Geraldine Anne Ferraro was born on August 26, 1935, in Newburgh, New York, the daughter of Antonetta L. Ferraro (née Corrieri), a first-generation Italian American seamstress, and Dominick Ferraro, an Italian immigrant (from Marcianise, Campania) and owner of two restaurants. She had three brothers born before her, but one died in infancy and another at age three. Ferraro attended the parochial school Mount Saint Mary's in Newburgh when she was young. Her father died of a heart attack in , when she was eight. Ferraro's mother soon invested and lost the remainder of the family's money, forcing the family to move to a low-income area in the South Bronx while Ferraro's mother worked in the garment industry to support them. Ferraro stayed on at Mount Saint Mary's as a boarder for a while, then briefly attended a parochial school in the South Bronx. Beginning in 1947, she attended and lived at the parochial Marymount Academy in Tarrytown, New York, using income from a family rental property in Italy and skipping seventh grade. At Marymount Ferraro was a member of the honor society, active in several clubs and sports, voted most likely to succeed, and graduated in 1952. Her mother was adamant that she get a full education, despite an uncle in the family saying, "Why bother? She's pretty. She's a girl. She'll get married." Ferraro attended Marymount Manhattan College with a scholarship while sometimes holding two or three jobs at the same time. During her senior year she began dating John Zaccaro of Forest Hills, Queens, who had graduated from Iona College with a commission in the U.S. Marine Corps. Ferraro received a Bachelor of Arts in English in 1956; she was the first woman in her family to gain a college degree. She also passed the city exam to become a licensed school teacher. Ferraro began working as an elementary school teacher in public schools in Astoria, Queens, "because that's what women were supposed to do." Unsatisfied, she decided to attend law school; an admissions officer said to her, "I hope you're serious, Gerry. You're taking a man's place, you know." She earned a Juris Doctor degree with honors from Fordham University School of Law in 1960, going to classes at night while continuing to work as a second-grade teacher at schools such as P.S. 57 during the day. Ferraro was one of only two women in her graduating class of 179. She was admitted to the bar of New York State in . Family, lawyer, prosecutor Ferraro became engaged to Zaccaro in and married him on , 1960. He became a realtor and businessman. She kept her birth name professionally, as a way to honor her mother for having supported the family after her father's death, but used his name in parts of her private life. The couple had three children, Donna (born 1962), John Jr. (born 1964), and Laura (born 1966). They lived in Forest Hills Gardens, Queens, and in 1971, added a vacation house in Saltaire on Fire Island. They would buy a condominium in Saint Croix in the U.S. Virgin Islands in 1983. While raising the children, Ferraro worked part-time as a civil lawyer in her husband's real estate firm for 13 years. She also occasionally worked for other clients and did some pro bono work for women in family court. She spent time at local Democratic clubs, which allowed her to maintain contacts within the legal profession and become involved in local politics and campaigns. While organizing community opposition to a proposed building, Ferraro met lawyer and Democratic figure Mario Cuomo, who became a political mentor. In 1970, she was elected president of the Queens County Women's Bar Association. Ferraro's first full-time political job came in , when she was appointed Assistant District Attorney for Queens County, New York, by her cousin, District Attorney Nicholas Ferraro. At the time, women prosecutors in the city were uncommon. Grumblings that she was the beneficiary of nepotism were countered by her being rated as qualified by a screening committee and by her early job performance in the Investigations Bureau. The following year, Ferraro was assigned to the new Special Victims Bureau, which prosecuted cases involving rape, child abuse, spouse abuse, and domestic violence. She was named head of the unit in 1977, with two other assistant district attorneys assigned to her. In this role, she became a strong advocate for abused children. She was admitted to the U.S. Supreme Court Bar in 1978. As part of the D.A. office, Ferraro worked long hours, and gained a reputation for being a tough prosecutor but fair in plea negotiations. Although her unit was supposed to turn over cases which were bound for trial to another division, she took an active role in trying some cases herself, and juries were persuaded by her summations. Ferraro was upset to discover that her superior was paying her less than equivalent male colleagues because she was a married woman and already had a husband. Moreover, Ferraro found the nature of the cases she dealt with debilitating; the work left her "drained and angry" and she developed an ulcer. She grew frustrated that she was unable to deal with root causes, and talked about running for legislative office; Cuomo, now Secretary of State of New York, suggested the United States Congress. House of Representatives Ferraro ran for election to the U.S. House of Representatives from New York's 9th Congressional District in Queens in 1978, after longtime Democratic incumbent James Delaney announced his retirement. The location for the television series All in the Family, the district, which stretched from Astoria to Ozone Park was known for its ethnic composition and conservative views. In a three-candidate primary race for the Democratic nomination, Ferraro faced two better-known rivals, the party organization candidate, City Councilman Thomas J. Manton and Patrick Deignan. Her main issues were law and order, support for the elderly, and neighborhood preservation. She labeled herself a "'small c' conservative" and emphasized that she was not a bleeding-heart liberal; her campaign slogan was "Finally, A Tough Democrat". Her Italian heritage also appealed to ethnic residents in the district. She won the three-way primary with 53 percent of the vote, and then captured the general election as well, defeating Republican Alfred A. DelliBovi by a 10-percentage-point margin in a contest in which dealing with crime was the major issue and personal attacks by DelliBovi were frequent. She had been aided by $130,000 in campaign loans and donations from her own family, including $110,000 in loans from Zaccaro, of which only $4,000 was legal. The source and nature of these transactions were declared illegal by the Federal Election Commission shortly before the primary, causing Ferraro to pay back the loans in , via several real estate transactions. In 1979, the campaign and Zaccaro paid $750 in fines for civil violations of election law. Despite being a newcomer to the House, Ferraro made a vivid impression upon arrival and quickly found prominence. She became a protégé of House Speaker Tip O'Neil, established a rapport with other House Democratic leaders, and rose rapidly in the party hierarchy. She was elected to be the Secretary of the House Democratic Caucus for 1981–1983 and again for 1983–1985; this entitled her to a seat on the influential Steering and Policy Committee. In 1983, she was named to the powerful House Budget Committee. She also served on the Public Works and Transportation Committee and the Post Office and Civil Service Committee, both of which allowed Ferraro to push through projects to benefit her district. In particular, she assisted the successful effort of the Ridgewood and Glendale neighborhoods to get their ZIP codes changed from Brooklyn to their native Queens. Male colleagues viewed her with respect as someone who was tough and ambitious and in turn she was, as The New York Times later wrote, "comfortable with the boys". Ferraro was active in Democratic presidential politics as well. She served as one of the deputy chairs for the 1980 Carter-Mondale campaign. Following the election, she served actively on the Hunt Commission that in 1982, rewrote the Democratic delegate selection rules; Ferraro was credited as having been the prime agent behind the creation of superdelegates. By 1983, she was regarded as one of the up-and-coming stars of the party. She was the Chairwoman of the Platform Committee for the 1984 Democratic National Convention, the first woman to hold that position. There she held multiple hearings around the country and further gained in visibility. While in Congress, Ferraro focused much of her legislative attention on equity for women in the areas of wages, pensions, and retirement plans. She was a cosponsor of the 1981 Economic Equity Act. On the House Select Committee on Aging, she concentrated on the problems of elderly women. In 1984, she championed a pension equity law revision that would improve the benefits of people who left work for long periods and then returned, a typical case for women with families. The Reagan administration, at first lukewarm to the measure, decided to sign it to gain the benefits of its popular appeal. Ferraro also worked on some environmental issues. During 1980, she tried to prevent the federal government from gaining the power to override local laws on hazardous materials transportation, an effort she continued in subsequent years. In , she led passage of a Superfund renewal bill and attacked the Reagan administration's handling of environmental site cleanups. Ferraro took a congressional trip to Nicaragua at the start of 1984, where she spoke to the Contras. She decided that the Reagan Administration's military interventions there and in El Salvador were counterproductive towards reaching U.S. security goals, and that regional negotiations would be better. In all, Ferraro served three two-year terms, being re-elected in 1980 and 1982. Her vote shares increased to 58 percent and then 73 percent and much of her funding came from political action committees. While Ferraro's pro-choice views conflicted with those of many of her constituents as well as the Catholic Church to which she belonged, her positions on other social and foreign policy issues were in alignment with the district. She broke with her party in favoring an anti-busing amendment to the Constitution. She supported deployment of the Pershing II missile and the Trident submarine, although she opposed funding for the MX missile, the B-1B bomber, and the Strategic Defense Initiative. While in the House, Ferraro's political self-description evolved to "moderate". In 1982, she said her experiences as assistant district attorney had changed some of her views: "... because no matter how concerned I am about spending, I have seen first hand what poverty can do to people's lives and I just can't, in good conscience, not do something about it." For her six years in Congress, Ferraro had an average 78 percent "Liberal Quotient" from Americans for Democratic Action and an average 8 percent rating from the American Conservative Union. The AFL-CIO's Committee on Political Education gave her an average approval rating of 91 percent. 1984 vice-presidential candidacy As the 1984 U.S. presidential election primary season neared its end and Walter Mondale became the likely Democratic nominee, the idea of picking a woman as his vice-presidential running mate gained considerable momentum. The National Organization for Women and the National Women's Political Caucus pushed the notion, as did several top Democratic figures such as Speaker Tip O'Neill. Women mentioned for the role included Ferraro and Mayor of San Francisco Dianne Feinstein, both of whom were on Mondale's five-person short list. Mondale selected Ferraro to be his vice-presidential candidate on , 1984. She stated, "I am absolutely thrilled." The Mondale campaign hoped that her selection would change a campaign in which he was well behind; in addition to attracting women, they hoped she could attract ethnic Democrats in the Northeast U.S. who had abandoned their party for Reagan in 1980. Her personality, variously described as blunt, feisty, spirited, and somewhat saucy, was also viewed as an asset. In turn, Mondale accepted the risk that came with her inexperience. As Ferraro was the first woman to run on a major party national ticket in the United States, and the first Italian American, her nomination at the 1984 Democratic National Convention was one of the most emotional moments of that gathering, with female delegates appearing joyous and proud at the historic occasion. In her acceptance speech, Ferraro said, "The daughter of an immigrant from Italy has been chosen to run for vice president in the new land my father came to love." Convention attendees were in tears during the speech, not just for its significance for women but for all those who had immigrated to America. The speech was listed as number 56 in American Rhetoric's Top 100 Speeches of the 20th Century. Ferraro gained immediate, large-scale media attention. At first, journalists focused on her novelty as a woman and her poor family background, and their coverage was overwhelmingly favorable. Nevertheless, Ferraro faced many press questions about her foreign policy inexperience, and responded by discussing her attention to foreign and national security issues in Congress. She faced a threshold of proving competence that other high-level female political figures have had to face, especially those who might become commander-in-chief; the question "Are you tough enough?" was often directed to her. Ted Koppel questioned her closely about nuclear strategy and during Meet the Press she was asked, "Do you think that in any way the Soviets might be tempted to try to take advantage of you simply because you are a woman?" The choice of Ferraro was viewed as a gamble, and pundits were uncertain whether it would result in a net gain or loss of votes for the Mondale campaign. While her choice was popular among Democratic activists, polls immediately after the announcement showed that only 22 percent of women were excited about Ferraro's selection, versus 18 percent who agreed that it was a "bad idea". By a three-to-one margin, voters thought that pressure from women's groups had led to Mondale's decision rather than his having chosen the best available candidate. Nonetheless, in the days after the convention Ferraro proved an effective campaigner, with a brash and confident style that forcefully criticized the Reagan administration and sometimes almost overshadowed Mondale. Mondale had been 16 points behind Reagan in polls before the pick, and after the convention he pulled even for a short time. By the last week of July, however, questions—due initially to reporting by The New York Times—began about Ferraro's finances, the finances of her husband, John Zaccaro, and their separately filed tax returns. (While the Mondale campaign had anticipated some questions, it had only spent 48 hours on vetting Ferraro's family's finances.) This was also the first time the American media had to deal with a national candidate's husband. Ferraro said she would release both their returns within a month, but maintained she was correct not to have included her husband's financial holdings on her past annual Congressional disclosure statements. The media also reported on the FEC's past investigation into Ferraro's 1978 campaign funds. Although Ferraro and Zaccaro's finances were often interwoven on paper, with each half partners in Zaccaro's company, Ferraro had little knowledge of his business, or even how much he was worth. Zaccaro did not understand the greater public exposure that his wife's new position brought to their family, and resisted releasing his financial information. On , Ferraro announced that her husband would not in fact be releasing his tax returns, on the grounds that to do so would disadvantage his real estate business and that such a disclosure was voluntary and not part of election law. She joked, "So you people married to Italian men, you know what it's like." (This remark was alternately reported as, "If you're married to an Italian man, you know what it's like." The first formulation was reported by the Associated Press, the second by United Press International. Ferraro's 1985 memoir uses a variation of the first formulation: "'You people who are married to Italian men, you know what it's like,' I quipped.") The tax announcement dominated television and newspapers, as Ferraro was besieged by questions regarding her family finances. Furthermore, her remark about Italian men brought criticism for ethnic stereotyping, especially from fellow Italian Americans. As she later wrote, "I had created a monster." Republicans saw her finances as a "genderless" issue that they could attack Ferraro with without creating a backlash, and some Mondale staffers thought Ferraro might have to leave the ticket. The Philadelphia Inquirer went even further in its investigations, seeking to link Zaccaro to organized crime figures, and The New York Times revealed that he was the landlord of a company owned by Gambino crime family member and pornography tycoon Robert DiBernardo, but most publishers avoided this topic and law enforcement officials downplayed the allegations. A week after her previous statement, Ferraro said Zaccaro had changed his mind and would indeed release his tax records, which was done on . The full statements included notice of payment of some $53,000 in back federal taxes that she owed due to what was described as an accountant's error. Ferraro said the statements proved overall that she had nothing to hide and that there had been no financial wrongdoing. The disclosures indicated that Ferraro and her husband were worth nearly $4 million, had a full-time maid, and owned a boat and the two vacation homes. Much of their wealth was tied up in real estate rather than being disposable income, but the disclosures hurt Ferraro's image as a rags-to-riches story. Ferraro's strong performance at an press conference covering the final disclosure—where she answered all questions for two hours—effectively ended the issue for the remainder of the campaign, but significant damage had been done. No campaign issue during the entire 1984 presidential campaign received more media attention than Ferraro's finances. The exposure diminished Ferraro's rising stardom, removed whatever momentum the Mondale–Ferraro ticket gained out of the convention, and delayed formation of a coherent message for the fall campaign. Sharp criticism from Catholic Church authorities put Ferraro on the defensive during the entire campaign, with abortion opponents frequently protesting her appearances with a level of fervor not usually encountered by pro-choice Catholic male candidates such as Mario Cuomo and Ted Kennedy. In a 1982 briefing for Congress, Ferraro had written that "the Catholic position on abortion is not monolithic and there can be a range of personal and political responses to the issue." Ferraro was criticized by Cardinal John O'Connor, the Catholic Archbishop of New York, and James Timlin, the Bishop of Scranton, for misrepresenting the Catholic Church's position on abortion. After several days of back-and-forth debate in the public media, Ferraro finally conceded that, "the Catholic Church's position on abortion is monolithic" but went on to say that "But I do believe that there are a lot of Catholics who do not share the view of the Catholic Church". Ferraro was also criticized for saying that Reagan was not a "good Christian" because, she said, his policies hurt the poor. To defend Ferraro, the pro-choice group Catholics for a Free Choice placed an October 7, 1984, full-page ad in The New York Times titled "A Catholic Statement on Pluralism and Abortion". Ferraro drew large crowds on the campaign trail, many of whom wished to see the history-making candidate in person, who often chanted, "Ger-ry! Ger-ry!" Mondale and Ferraro rarely touched during their appearances together, to the point that he would not even place his palm on her back when they stood side by side; Ferraro later said this was because anything more and "people were afraid that it would look like, 'Oh, my God, they're dating.'". There was one vice-presidential debate between Congresswoman Ferraro and Vice President George H. W. Bush. Held on , the result was proclaimed mostly even by the press and historians; women voters tended to think Ferraro had won, while men, Bush. At it, Ferraro criticized Reagan's initial refusal to support an extension to the Voting Rights Act. Her experience was questioned at the debate and she was asked how her three terms in Congress stacked up with Bush's extensive government experience. To one Bush statement she said, "Let me just say first of all, that I almost resent, Vice President Bush, your patronizing attitude that you have to teach me about foreign policy." She strongly defended her position on abortion, which earned her applause and a respectful reply from her opponent. In the days leading up to the debate, Second Lady of the United States Barbara Bush had publicly referred to Ferraro as "that four-million-dollar—I can't say it, but it rhymes with 'rich'." Barbara Bush soon apologized, saying she had not meant to imply Ferraro was "a witch". Peter Teeley, Vice President Bush's press secretary, had dispensed with rhymes as he said of Ferraro just prior to the debate, "She's too bitchy. She's very arrogant. Humility isn't one of her strong points and I think that comes through." Teeley declined to apologize for the remark, saying it had no sexist implications and the Ferraro campaign was being "hypersensitive" in complaining about it. On October 18 the New York Post accurately reported that Ferraro's father had been arrested for possession of numbers slips in Newburgh shortly before his death, and inaccurately speculated that something mysterious had been covered up about that death. Ferraro's mother had never told her about his arrest; she had been also arrested as an accomplice but released after her husband's death. The printing of the story led Ferraro to state that Post publisher Rupert Murdoch "does not have the worth to wipe the dirt under [my mother's] shoes." Ferraro's womanhood was consistently discussed during the campaign; one study found that a quarter of newspaper articles written about her contained gendered language. Throughout, Ferraro kept campaigning, taking on the traditional running mate role of attacking the opposition vigorously. By the end, she had traveled more than Mondale and more than Reagan and Bush combined. On November 6, Mondale and Ferraro lost the general election in a landslide. They received only 41 percent of the popular vote compared to Reagan and Bush's 59 percent, and in the Electoral College won only Mondale's home state of Minnesota and the District of Columbia. The ticket even lost Ferraro's congressional district, which had long been one of the more conservative districts in New York City; it tended to vote Republican in presidential races. Ferraro's presence on the ticket had little measurable effect overall. Reagan captured 55 percent of women voters and about the same share of Catholic voters, the latter being the highest level yet for a Republican presidential candidate. Of the tenth of voters who decided based on the vice-presidential candidates, 54 percent went to Mondale–Ferraro, establishing that Ferraro provided a net gain to the Democrats of 0.8 percent. Reagan's personal appeal and campaign themes of prosperity and "It's morning again in America" were quite strong, while Mondale's liberal campaign alienated Southern whites and northern blue-collar workers who usually voted Democratic. Political observers generally agree that no combination of Democrats could have won the election in 1984. Mondale himself would later reflect that "I knew that I was in for it with Reagan" and that he had no regrets about choosing Ferraro. After the election, the House Ethics Committee found that Ferraro had technically violated the Ethics in Government Act by failing to report, or reporting incorrectly, details of her family's finances, and that she should have reported her husband's holdings on her Congressional disclosure forms. However, the committee concluded that she had acted without "deceptive intent", and since she was leaving Congress anyway, no action against her was taken. Ferraro said, "I consider myself completely vindicated." The scrutiny of her husband and his business dealings presaged a trend that women candidates would face in American electoral politics. Ferraro is one of only four U.S. women to run on a major party national ticket. The others are Governor of Alaska Sarah Palin, the 2008 Republican vice-presidential nominee; Hillary Clinton, the 2016 Democratic presidential nominee; and United States Senator for California Kamala Harris, the 2020 Democratic vice-presidential nominee and the first to be on a winning ticket. The campaign did lead to the greater adoption of the honorific "Ms." Although The New York Times refused to use it at the time for her, the paper's iconoclastic columnist and language expert William Safire became convinced it ought to be part of the English language by the case of Ferraro, who was a married woman who used her birth surname professionally rather than her husband's (Zaccaro). Safire wrote in August 1984 that it would be equally incorrect to call her "Miss Ferraro" (as she was married) or "Mrs. Ferraro" (as her husband was not "Mr. Ferraro", although this is the formulation the Times used), and that calling her "Mrs. Zaccaro" would confuse the reader. Two years after the campaign, the Times finally changed its policy and began using "Ms." First Senate run and ambassadorship Ferraro had relinquished her House seat to run for the vice-presidency. Her new-found fame led to an appearance in a Diet Pepsi commercial in 1985. She published Ferraro: My Story, an account of the campaign with some of her life leading up to it, in . It was a best seller and earned her $1 million. She also earned over $300,000 by giving speeches. Despite the one-sided national loss in 1984, Ferraro was still viewed as someone with a bright political future. Many expected her to run in the 1986 United States Senate election in New York against first-term Republican incumbent Al D'Amato, and during 1985 she did Upstate New York groundwork towards that end. A Senate candidacy had been her original plan for her career, before she was named to Mondale's ticket. But in , she said she would not run, due to an ongoing U.S. Justice Department probe on her and her husband's finances stemming from the 1984 campaign revelations. Members of Ferraro's family were indeed facing legal issues. Her husband John Zaccaro had pleaded guilty in , to fraudulently obtaining bank financing in a real estate transaction and had been sentenced to 150 hours of community service. Then in , he was indicted on unrelated felony charges regarding an alleged 1981 bribery of Queens Borough President Donald Manes concerning a cable television contract. A full year later, he was acquitted at trial. The case against him was circumstantial, a key prosecution witness proved unreliable, and the defense did not have to present its own testimony. Ferraro said her husband never would have been charged had she not run for vice president. Meanwhile, in , the couple's son John had been arrested for possession and sale of cocaine. He was convicted, and in , sentenced to four months imprisonment; Ferraro broke down in tears in court relating the stress the episode had placed on her family. Ferraro worked on an unpublished book about the conflicting rights between a free press and being able to have fair trials. Asked in , whether she would have accepted the vice-presidential nomination had she known of all the family problems that would follow, she said, "More than once I have sat down and said to myself, oh, God, I wish I had never gone through with it ... I think the candidacy opened a door for women in national politics, and I don't regret that for one minute. I'm proud of that. But I just wish it could have been done in a different way." Ferraro remained active in raising money for Democratic candidates nationwide, especially women candidates. She founded the Americans Concerned for Tomorrow political action committee, which focused on getting ten women candidates elected in the 1986 Congressional elections (eight of whom would be successful). During the 1988 presidential election, Ferraro served as vice chair of the party's Victory Fund. She also did some commentating for television. Ferraro was a fellow at the Harvard Institute of Politics from 1988 to 1992, teaching in-demand seminars such as "So You Want to be President?" She also took care of her mother, who suffered from emphysema for several years before her death in early 1990. By October 1991, Ferraro was ready to enter elective politics again, and ran for the Democratic nomination in the 1992 United States Senate election in New York. Her opponents were State Attorney General Robert Abrams, Reverend Al Sharpton, Congressman Robert J. Mrazek, and New York City Comptroller and former Congresswoman Elizabeth Holtzman. Abrams was considered the early front-runner. The D'Amato campaign feared facing Ferraro the most among these, as her Italian ancestry, effective debating and stump speech skills, and her staunch pro-choice views would eat into several of D'Amato's usual bases of support. Ferraro emphasized her career as a teacher, prosecutor, congresswoman, and mother, and talked about how she was tough on crime. Ferraro drew renewed attacks during the primary campaign from the media and her opponents over Zaccaro's finances and business relationships. She objected that a male candidate would not receive nearly as much attention regarding his wife's activities. Ferraro became the front-runner, capitalizing on her star power from 1984, and using the campaign attacks against her as an explicitly feminist rallying point for women voters. As the primary date neared, her lead began to dwindle under the charges, and she released additional tax returns from the 1980s to try to defray the attacks. Holtzman, who was trailing last in polls, borrowed over $400,000 from Fleet Bank to run a negative ad accusing Ferraro and Zaccaro of taking more than $300,000 in rent in the 1980s from a pornographer with belonging to the Gambino crime family. Ferraro said there had been efforts to oust the man, Robert DiBernardo, after reports of the tenancy originated during her 1984 vice-presidential campaign, but he had remained in the building for three more years. In addition, a report by an investigator for the New York State Organized Crime Task Force found its way to the media via a tip from a Holtzman aide; it said that Zaccaro had been seen meeting with the DiBernardo in 1985. Ferraro said in response that those two had never met. The final debates were nasty, and Holtzman in particular constantly attacked Ferraro's integrity and finances. In an unusual election-eve television broadcast, Ferraro talked about "the ethnic slur that I am somehow or other connected to organized crime. There's lots of innuendo but no proof. However, it is made plausible because of the fact that I am an Italian-American. This tactic comes from the poisoned well of fear and stereotype ..." On the , 1992, primary, Abrams edged out Ferraro by less than a percentage point, winning 37 percent of the vote to 36 percent, with Sharpton and Holtzman well behind. Ferraro did not concede she had lost for two weeks. Abrams spent much of the remainder of the campaign trying to get Ferraro's endorsement. Ferraro, enraged and bitter after the nature of the primary, ignored Abrams and accepted Bill Clinton's request to campaign for his presidential bid instead. She was eventually persuaded by Governor Mario Cuomo and state party leaders into giving an unenthusiastic endorsement with just three days to go before the general election, in exchange for an apology by Abrams for the tone of the primary. D'Amato won the election by a very narrow margin. Overall the 1992 U.S. Senate elections saw five victories that it became known as the "Year of the Woman". The Ferraro-Holtzman fighting of the campaign was viewed as a disaster by many feminists, however, with Ferraro denied her political comeback while Holtzman also politically damaged herself. The feud between Ferraro and Holtzman from the 1992 Senate primary lingered, as the following year Ferraro supported Assemblyman Alan Hevesi's successful primary challenge that unseated Holtzman as New York City Comptroller; Ferraro denied that her endorsement was motivated by revenge against Holtzman, saying it was due to his liberal State Assembly voting record. Following the Senate primary loss, Ferraro became a managing partner in the New York office of Keck, Mahin & Cate, a Chicago-based law firm. There she organized the office and spoke with clients, but did not actively practice law and left before the firm fell into difficulties. Ferraro's second book, a collection of her speeches, was titled Changing History: Women, Power and Politics and was published in 1993. President Clinton appointed Ferraro as a member of the United States delegation to United Nations Commission on Human Rights in . She attended the World Conference on Human Rights in Vienna as the alternate U.S. delegate. Then in , Clinton promoted her to be United States Ambassador to the United Nations Commission on Human Rights, saying that Ferraro had been "a highly effective voice for the human rights of women around the world." The Clinton administration named Ferraro vice-chair of the U.S. delegation to the landmark Fourth World Conference on Women in Beijing; in this role she picked a strong team of experts in human rights issues to serve with her. During her stint on the commission, it for the first time condemned anti-Semitism as a human rights violation, and also for the first time prevented China from blocking a motion criticizing its human rights record. Regarding a previous China motion that had failed, Ferraro had told the commission, "Let us do what we were sent here to do—decide important questions of human rights on their merits, not avoid them." Ferraro held the U.N. position into 1996. Commentator and second Senate run In February 1996, Ferraro joined the high-visibility CNN political talk show Crossfire, as the co-host representing the "from the left" vantage. She kept her brassy, rapid-fire speech and New York accent intact, and her trial experience from her prosecutor days was a good fit for the program's format. She sparred effectively with "from the right" co-host Pat Buchanan, for whom she developed a personal liking. The show stayed strong in ratings for CNN, and the job was lucrative. She welcomed how the role "keeps me visible [and] keeps me extremely well informed on the issues." At the start of 1998, Ferraro left Crossfire and ran for the Democratic nomination again in the 1998 United States Senate election in New York. The other candidates were Congressman Charles Schumer and New York City Public Advocate Mark J. Green. She had done no fundraising, out of fear of conflict of interest with her Crossfire job, but was nonetheless immediately perceived as the front-runner. Indeed, December and January polls had her 25 percentage points ahead of Green in the race and even further ahead of Schumer. Unlike the previous campaigns, her family finances never became an issue. However, she lost ground during the summer, with Schumer catching up in the polls by early August and then soon passing her. Schumer, a tireless fundraiser, outspent her by a five-to-one margin, and Ferraro failed to establish a political image current with the times. In the , 1998 primary, she was beaten soundly by Schumer by a 51 percent to 26 percent margin. Unlike 1992, the contest was not divisive, and Ferraro and third-place finisher Green endorsed Schumer at a unity breakfast the following day. Schumer would go on to decisively unseat D'Amato in the general election. The 1998 primary defeat brought an end to Ferraro's political career. The New York Times wrote at the time: "If Ms. Ferraro's rise was meteoric, her political career's denouement was protracted, often agonizing and, at first glance, baffling." She still retained admirers, though. Anita Perez Ferguson, president of the National Women's Political Caucus, noted that female New York political figures in the past had been reluctant to enter the state's notoriously fierce primary races, and said: "This woman has probably been more of an opinion maker than most people sitting for six terms straight in the House of Representatives or Senate. Her attempts, and even her losses, have accomplished far beyond what others have accomplished by winning." Business career, illness and medical activism In 1980, Ferraro co-founded the National Organization of Italian American Women, which sought to support the educational and professional goals of its members and put forward positive role models in order to fight ethnic stereotyping, and was still a distinguished member of its board at the time of her death. Ferraro was connected with many other political and non-profit organizations. She was a board member of the National Democratic Institute for International Affairs, and a member of the Council on Foreign Relations. She became president of the newly established International Institute for Women's Political Leadership in 1989. In 1992, she was on the founding board of Project Vote Smart. By 1993, she was serving on the Fordham Law School Board of Visitors, as well as on the boards of the National Breast Cancer Research Fund, the New York Easter Seal Society, and the Pension Rights Center, and was one of hundreds of public figures on the Planned Parenthood Federation of America's Board of Advocates. In 1999, she joined the board of the Bertarelli Foundation, and in 2003, the board of the National Women's Health Resource Center. During the 2000s she was on the board of advisors to the Committee to Free Lori Berenson. Framing a Life: A Family Memoir was published by Ferraro in . It depicts the life story of her mother and immigrant grandmother; it also portrays the rest of her family, and is a memoir of her early life, but includes relatively little about her political career. Ferraro had felt unusually tired at the end of her second senate campaign. In , she was diagnosed with multiple myeloma, a form of blood cancer where plasma cells secrete abnormal antibodies known as Bence-Jones proteins, which can cause bones to disintegrate and dump toxic amounts of calcium into the bloodstream. She did not publicly disclose the illness until , when she went to Washington to successfully press in Congressional hearings for passage of the Hematological Cancer Research Investment and Education Act. A portion of the Act created the Geraldine Ferraro Cancer Education Program, which directs the U.S. Secretary of Health and Human Services to establish an education program for patients of blood cancers and the general public. Ferraro became a frequent speaker on the disease, and an avid supporter and honorary board member of the Multiple Myeloma Research Foundation. Though initially given only three to five years to live, by virtue of several new drug therapies and a bone marrow transplant in 2005, she would beat the disease's Stage 1 survival mean of 62 months by over a factor of two. Her advocacy helped make the new treatments approved and available for others as well. For much of the last decade of her life, Ferraro was not in remission, but the disease was managed by continually adjusting her treatments. Ferraro joined Fox News Channel as a regular political commentator in . By 2005, she was making sporadic appearances on the channel, which continued into 2007, and beyond. She partnered with Laura Ingraham, starting in , in writing the alternate-weeks column "Campaign Countdown" on the 2000 presidential election for The New York Times Syndicate. During the 2000s, Ferraro was an affiliated faculty member at the Georgetown Public Policy Institute. In January 2000, Ferraro and Lynn Martin—a former Republican Congresswoman and U.S. Secretary of Labor who had played Ferraro in George H. W. Bush's debate preparations in 1984—co-founded, and served as co-presidents of, G&L Strategies, a management consulting firm underneath Weber McGinn. Its goal was to advise corporations on how to develop more women leaders and make their workplaces more amenable to female employees. G&L Strategies subsequently became part of Golin Harris International. In , Ferraro was made executive vice president and managing director of the public affairs practice of the Global Consulting Group, an international investor relations and corporate communications component of Huntsworth. There she worked with corporations, non-profit organizations, state governments and political figures. She continued there as a senior advisor working about two days a month. After living for many years in Forest Hills Gardens, Queens, she and her husband moved to Manhattan in 2002. She republished Ferraro: My Story in 2004, with a postscript summarizing her life in the twenty years since the campaign. Ferraro was a member of the board of directors of Goodrich Petroleum beginning in . She was also a board member for New York Bancorp in the 1990s. Ferraro became a principal in the government relations practice of the Blank Rome law firm in , working both in New York and Washington about two days a week in their lobbying and communications activities. As she passed the age of 70, she was thankful for still being alive, and said "This is about as retired as I get, which is part time," and that if she fully retired, she would "go nuts". 2008 presidential election involvement In December 2006, Ferraro announced her support for Democratic presidential candidate Hillary Clinton. Later, she vowed to help defend Clinton from being "swiftboated" in a manner akin to 2004 presidential candidate John Kerry. She assisted with fundraising by assuming an honorary post on the finance committee for Clinton's 2008 presidential campaign. A heated nomination battle emerged between Clinton and Barack Obama. Ferraro became livid and distraught when one of her daughters voted for Obama in the Massachusetts primary, saying "What is the matter with you? You know Hillary. You have seen my involvement with her." When her daughter responded by noting that Obama was inspirational, Ferraro snapped, "What does he inspire you to do, leave your husband and three kids and your practice and go work for Doctors Without Borders?" This was seen as an example of a generational difference among American women; in contrast to Ferraro's generation, younger women saw nothing special about electing a woman president (especially one with Clinton's history) compared to what writer Anne Kornblut called "the milestone of electing an African American president". According to Kornblut, younger voters saw "Clinton [as] both a relic of that era and a victim of its success. She was the wrong woman at the wrong time; she was a Clinton; she hadn't gotten there on her own". The campaign between the two also saw racial dust-ups caused by perceptions of remarks made by campaign surrogates. In March 2008 Ferraro gave an interview with the Daily Breeze in which she said: "If Obama was a white man, he would not be in this position. And if he was a woman (of any color) he would not be in this position. He happens to be very lucky to be who he is. And the country is caught up in the concept." (Ferraro had made a similar comment in 1988 disparaging Jesse Jackson's candidacy in the party's presidential primaries, saying that because of his "radical" views, "if Jesse Jackson were not black, he wouldn't be in the race.") Ferraro justified the statements by referring to her own run for vice president. Echoing a statement she wrote about herself in 1988, Ferraro said that "I was talking about historic candidacies and what I started off by saying (was that) if you go back to 1984 and look at my historic candidacy, which I had just talked about all these things, in 1984, if my name was Gerard Ferraro instead of Geraldine Ferraro, I would have never been chosen as a vice-presidential candidate. It had nothing to do with my qualification." Her comments resonated with some older white women, but generated an immediate backlash elsewhere. There was strong criticism and charges of racism from many supporters of Obama and Obama called them "patently absurd". Clinton publicly expressed disagreement with Ferraro's remarks, while Ferraro vehemently denied she was a racist. Again speaking to the Breeze, Ferraro responded to the attacks by saying: "I really think they're attacking me because I'm white. How's that?" Ferraro resigned from Clinton's finance committee on , 2008, two days after the firestorm began, saying that she didn't want the Obama camp to use her comments to hurt Clinton's campaign. Ferraro continued to engage the issue and criticize the Obama campaign via her position as a Fox News Channel contributor. By early April, Ferraro said people were deluging her with negative comments and trying to get her removed from one of the boards she was on: "This has been the worst three weeks of my life." Ferraro stated in mid- that Clinton had "raised this whole woman candidate thing to a whole different level than when I ran". She thought Obama had behaved in a sexist manner and that she might not vote for him. During September 2008, Ferraro gained attention yet again after the announcement of Sarah Palin as the Republican vice-presidential nominee, the first such major party bid for a woman since her own in 1984. Palin mentioned Ferraro as well as Clinton as forerunners in her introductory appearance. In reaction to the nomination, Ferraro said, "It's great to be the first, but I don't want to be the only. And so now it is wonderful to see a woman on a national ticket." Ferraro speculated that the pick might win Republican presidential nominee John McCain the election, but said that she was supporting Obama now due to his running mate selection of Joe Biden having resolved her concerns about Obama's lack of experience in certain areas. Ferraro criticized the media's scrutiny of Palin's background and family as gender-based and saw parallels with how she was treated by the media during her own run; a University of Alabama study also found that media framing of Ferraro and Palin was similar and often revolved around their nominations being political gambles. A Newsweek cover story detected a change in how women voters responded to a female vice presidential candidate from Ferraro's time to Palin's, but Ferraro correctly predicted that the bounce that McCain received from the Palin pick would dissipate. In a friendly joint retrospective of her 1984 debate with George H. W. Bush, Ferraro said she had had more national issues experience in 1984 than Palin did now, but that it was important that Palin make a good showing in her vice presidential debate so that "little girls [could] see someone there who can stand toe to toe with [Biden]." McCain and Palin ended up losing, but regardless of the 1984 or 2008 election result, Ferraro said that "Every time a woman runs, women win." Later years and death After her 1998 diagnosis, Ferraro continued to battle multiple myeloma, making repeated visits to hospitals during her last year and undergoing difficult procedures. Much of her care took place at Dana-Farber Cancer Institute in Boston, where she also acted as an informal advocate for other patients. She was able to make a joint appearance with Palin on Fox News Channel's coverage of the November 2010 midterm elections. In she went to Massachusetts General Hospital to receive treatment for pain caused by a fracture, a common complication of multiple myeloma. Once there, however, doctors discovered she had come down with pneumonia. Unable to return to her New York home, Ferraro died at Massachusetts General on , 2011. In addition to her husband and three children, who were all present, she was survived by eight grandchildren. President Obama said upon her death that "Geraldine will forever be remembered as a trailblazer who broke down barriers for women, and Americans of all backgrounds and walks of life," and said that his own two daughters would grow up in a more equal country because of what Ferraro had done. Mondale called her "a remarkable woman and a dear human being ... She was a pioneer in our country for justice for women and a more open society. She broke a lot of molds and it's a better country for what she did." George H. W. Bush said, "Though we were one-time political opponents, I am happy to say Gerry and I became friends in time – a friendship marked by respect and affection. I admired Gerry in many ways, not the least of which was the dignified and principled manner she blazed new trails for women in politics." Sarah Palin paid tribute to her on Facebook, expressing gratitude for having been able to work with her the year before and saying, "She broke one huge barrier and then went on to break many more. May her example of hard work and dedication to America continue to inspire all women." Bill and Hillary Clinton said in a statement that, "Gerry Ferraro was one of a kind – tough, brilliant, and never afraid to speak her mind or stand up for what she believed in – a New York icon and a true American original." A funeral Mass was held for her on March 31 at the Church of St. Vincent Ferrer in New York, the site where Ferraro and Zaccaro had been married and had renewed their vows on their 50th anniversary the year before. Figures from local, state, and national politics were present, and Mondale and both Clintons were among the speakers. She is buried in St. John Cemetery in Middle Village, Queens, within her old congressional district. When Hillary Clinton finally captured the Democratic nomination in the 2016 presidential election, becoming the first woman to do so for a major party, there was considerable media commentary recalling, and relating this to, Ferraro's breakthrough 32 years earlier. Awards and honors Ferraro was inducted into the National Women's Hall of Fame in 1994. Ferraro received honorary degrees during the 1980s and early 1990s, from Marymount Manhattan College (1982), New York University Law School (1984), Hunter College (1985), Plattsburgh College (1985), College of Boca Raton (1989), Virginia State University (1989), Muhlenberg College (1990), Briarcliffe College for Business (1990), and Potsdam College (1991). She subsequently received an honorary degree from Case Western Reserve University (2003). During her time in Congress, Ferraro received numerous awards from local organizations in Queens. In 2007, Ferraro received a Lifetime Achievement Award from the Sons of Italy Foundation. In 2008, Ferraro was the initial recipient of the annual Trailblazer Award from the National Conference of Women's Bar Associations, and received the Edith I. Spivack Award from the New York County Lawyers' Association. In 2009, legislation passed the House of Representatives calling for a post office in Long Island City in Queens to be renamed for Ferraro, and in 2010, the Geraldine A Ferraro Post Office was accordingly rededicated. In the fall of 2013, P.S. 290 in Maspeth in Queens was renamed the Geraldine A. Ferraro Campus. In 2018 she was chosen by the National Women's History Project as one of its honorees for Women's History Month in the United States. Electoral history Democratic primary for New York's 9th congressional district, 1978 Geraldine Ferraro – 10,254 (52.98%) Thomas J. Manton – 5,499 (28.41%) Patrick C. Deignan – 3,603 (18.61%) New York's 9th congressional district, 1978 Geraldine Ferraro (D) – 51,350 (54.17%) Alfred A. DelliBovi (R, Conservative) – 42,108 (44.42%) Theodore E. Garrison (Liberal) – 1,329 (1.40%) New York's 9th congressional district, 1980 Geraldine Ferraro (D) (Inc.) – 63,796 (58.34%) Vito P. Battista (R, Conservative, Right to Life) – 44,473 (40.67%) Gertrude Geniale (Liberal) – 1,091 (1.00%) New York's 9th congressional district, 1982 Geraldine Ferraro (D) (Inc.) – 75,286 (73.22%) John J. Weigandt (R) – 20,352 (19.79%) Ralph G. Groves (Conservative) – 6,011 (5.85%) Patricia A. Salargo (Liberal) – 1,171 (1.14%) 1984 Democratic National Convention (Vice-Presidential tally) Geraldine Ferraro – 3,920 Shirley Chisholm – 3 1984 United States presidential election Ronald Reagan/George H. W. Bush (R) (Inc.) – 54,166,829 (58.5%) and 525 electoral votes (49 states carried) Walter Mondale/Geraldine Ferraro (D) – 37,449,813 (40.4%) and 13 electoral votes (1 state and D.C. carried) David Bergland/Jim Lewis (L) – 227,204 (0.2%) and 0 electoral votes Democratic primary for the United States Senate, 1992 Robert Abrams – 426,904 (37%) Geraldine Ferraro – 415,650 (36%) Al Sharpton – 166,665 (14%) Elizabeth Holtzman – 144,026 (12%) Democratic primary for the United States Senate, 1998 Chuck Schumer – 388,701 (50.83%) Geraldine Ferraro – 201,625 (26.37%) Mark Green – 145,819 (19.07%) Eric Ruano-Melendez – 28,493 (3.73%) See also Women in the United States House of Representatives Citations General bibliography External links Text of speech accepting Democratic Party nomination for Vice President of the United States, , 1984 FBI file on Geraldine Ferraro "Geraldine Ferraro" – Video produced by Makers: Women Who Make America Geraldine Ferraro: Paving the Way – Documentary film about Geraldine Ferraro "Geraldine A. Ferraro collected news and commentary" at The New York Times \|- \|- \|- 1935 births 2011 deaths 20th-century American politicians 20th-century American women writers 20th-century American non-fiction writers 20th-century Roman Catholics 20th-century American women politicians 21st-century Roman Catholics American autobiographers American feminists American politicians of Italian descent American prosecutors 20th-century American women lawyers Deaths from multiple myeloma Deaths from cancer in Massachusetts Democratic Party (United States) vice presidential nominees Democratic Party members of the United States House of Representatives American women ambassadors Ambassadors of the United States Female members of the United States House of Representatives Female candidates for Vice President of the United States Fordham University School of Law alumni Georgetown University faculty Harvard University staff Marymount Manhattan College alumni Members of the United States House of Representatives from New York (state) New York (state) Democrats New York (state) lawyers People from Forest Hills, Queens Politicians from Newburgh, New York Representatives of the United States to the United Nations Human Rights Council 1984 United States vice-presidential candidates Women autobiographers Women in New York (state) politics Writers from Queens, New York American women non-fiction writers Catholics from New York (state) 20th-century American lawyers American women academics Catholic feminists 21st-century American women American lawyers and judges of Italian descent	[ -0.3432038128376007, -0.31055372953414917, -0.5726556777954102, -0.051334768533706665, 0.2399798184633255, 0.6112048029899597, 0.4258522689342499, -0.1362207531929016, -0.5627428889274597, 0.13447503745555878, 0.07701268792152405, 0.9090782999992371, -0.0301797054708004, 0.34471672773361206, -0.08671236783266068, -0.10947895050048828, -0.030575549229979515, 0.28729623556137085, -0.1616513431072235, 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232535	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hypergraph	Hypergraph	In mathematics, a hypergraph is a generalization of a graph in which an edge can join any number of vertices. In contrast, in an ordinary graph, an edge connects exactly two vertices. Formally, an undirected hypergraph is a pair where is a set of elements called nodes or vertices, and is (in an undirected hypergraph) a set of non-empty subsets of called hyperedges or edges. Therefore, is a subset of , where is the power set of . The size of the vertex set is called the order of the hypergraph, and the size of edges set is the size of the hypergraph. A directed hypergraph differs in that its hyperedges are not sets, but an ordered pair of subsets of , constituting the tail and head of the hyperedge. While graph edges connect only 2 nodes, hyperedges connect an arbitrary number of nodes. However, it is often desirable to study hypergraphs where all hyperedges have the same cardinality; a k-uniform hypergraph is a hypergraph such that all its hyperedges have size k. (In other words, one such hypergraph is a collection of sets, each such set a hyperedge connecting k nodes.) So a 2-uniform hypergraph is a graph, a 3-uniform hypergraph is a collection of unordered triples, and so on. An undirected hypergraph is also called a set system or a family of sets drawn from the universal set. Hypergraphs can be viewed as incidence structures. In particular, there is a bipartite "incidence graph" or "Levi graph" corresponding to every hypergraph, and conversely, most, but not all, bipartite graphs can be regarded as incidence graphs of hypergraphs. Hypergraphs have many other names. In computational geometry, an undirected hypergraph may sometimes be called a range space and then the hyperedges are called ranges. In cooperative game theory, hypergraphs are called simple games (voting games); this notion is applied to solve problems in social choice theory. In some literature edges are referred to as hyperlinks or connectors. The collection of hypergraphs is a category with hypergraph homomorphisms as morphisms. Applications Undirected hypergraphs are useful in modelling such things as satisfiability problems, databases, machine learning, and Steiner tree problems. They have been extensively used in machine learning tasks as the data model and classifier regularization (mathematics). The applications include recommender system (communities as hyperedges), image retrieval (correlations as hyperedges), and bioinformatics (biochemical interactions as hyperedges). Representative hypergraph learning techniques include hypergraph spectral clustering that extends the spectral graph theory with hypergraph Laplacian, and hypergraph semi-supervised learning that introduces extra hypergraph structural cost to restrict the learning results. For large scale hypergraphs, a distributed framework built using Apache Spark is also available. Directed hypergraphs can be used to model things including telephony applications, detecting money laundering, operations research, and transportation planning. They can also be used to model Horn-satisfiability. Generalizations of concepts from graphs Many theorems and concepts involving graphs also hold for hypergraphs, in particular: Matching in hypergraphs; Vertex cover in hypergraphs (also known as: transversal); Line graph of a hypergraph; Hypergraph grammar - created by augmenting a class of hypergraphs with a set of replacement rules; Ramsey's theorem; Erdős–Ko–Rado theorem; Kruskal–Katona theorem on uniform hypergraphs; Hall-type theorems for hypergraphs. In directed hypergraphs: transitive closure, and shortest path problems. Hypergraph drawing Although hypergraphs are more difficult to draw on paper than graphs, several researchers have studied methods for the visualization of hypergraphs. In one possible visual representation for hypergraphs, similar to the standard graph drawing style in which curves in the plane are used to depict graph edges, a hypergraph's vertices are depicted as points, disks, or boxes, and its hyperedges are depicted as trees that have the vertices as their leaves. If the vertices are represented as points, the hyperedges may also be shown as smooth curves that connect sets of points, or as simple closed curves that enclose sets of points. In another style of hypergraph visualization, the subdivision model of hypergraph drawing, the plane is subdivided into regions, each of which represents a single vertex of the hypergraph. The hyperedges of the hypergraph are represented by contiguous subsets of these regions, which may be indicated by coloring, by drawing outlines around them, or both. An order-n Venn diagram, for instance, may be viewed as a subdivision drawing of a hypergraph with n hyperedges (the curves defining the diagram) and 2n − 1 vertices (represented by the regions into which these curves subdivide the plane). In contrast with the polynomial-time recognition of planar graphs, it is NP-complete to determine whether a hypergraph has a planar subdivision drawing, but the existence of a drawing of this type may be tested efficiently when the adjacency pattern of the regions is constrained to be a path, cycle, or tree. An alternative representation of the hypergraph called PAOH is shown in the figure on top of this article. Edges are vertical lines connecting vertices. Vertices are aligned on the left. The legend on the right shows the names of the edges. It has been designed for dynamic hypergraphs but can be used for simple hypergraphs as well. Hypergraph coloring Classic hypergraph coloring is assigning one of the colors from set to every vertex of a hypergraph in such a way that each hyperedge contains at least two vertices of distinct colors. In other words, there must be no monochromatic hyperedge with cardinality at least 2. In this sense it is a direct generalization of graph coloring. Minimum number of used distinct colors over all colorings is called the chromatic number of a hypergraph. Hypergraphs for which there exists a coloring using up to k colors are referred to as k-colorable. The 2-colorable hypergraphs are exactly the bipartite ones. There are many generalizations of classic hypergraph coloring. One of them is the so-called mixed hypergraph coloring, when monochromatic edges are allowed. Some mixed hypergraphs are uncolorable for any number of colors. A general criterion for uncolorability is unknown. When a mixed hypergraph is colorable, then the minimum and maximum number of used colors are called the lower and upper chromatic numbers respectively. See http://spectrum.troy.edu/voloshin/mh.html for details. Properties of hypergraphs A hypergraph can have various properties, such as: Empty - has no edges. Non-simple (or multiple) - has loops (hyperedges with a single vertex) or repeated edges, which means there can be two or more edges containing the same set of vertices. Simple - has no loops and no repeated edges. -regular - every vertex has degree , i.e., contained in exactly hyperedges. 2-colorable - its vertices can be partitioned into two classes U and V in such a way that each hyperedge with cardinality at least 2 contains at least one vertex from both classes. An alternative term is Property B. Two stronger properties are bipartite and balanced. -uniform - each hyperedge contains precisely vertices. -partite - the vertices are partitioned into parts, and each hyperedge contains precisely one vertex of each type. Every -partite hypergraph (for ) is both -uniform and bipartite (and 2-colorable). Downward-closed - every subset of an undirected hypergraph's edges is a hyperedge too. A downward-closed hypergraph is usually called an abstract simplicial complex. An abstract simplicial complex with the augmentation property is called a matroid. Related hypergraphs Because hypergraph links can have any cardinality, there are several notions of the concept of a subgraph, called subhypergraphs, partial hypergraphs and section hypergraphs. Let be the hypergraph consisting of vertices and having edge set where and are the index sets of the vertices and edges respectively. A subhypergraph is a hypergraph with some vertices removed. Formally, the subhypergraph induced by is defined as An alternative term is the restriction of H to A. An extension of a subhypergraph is a hypergraph where each hyperedge of which is partially contained in the subhypergraph is fully contained in the extension . Formally with and . The partial hypergraph is a hypergraph with some edges removed. Given a subset of the edge index set, the partial hypergraph generated by is the hypergraph Given a subset , the section hypergraph is the partial hypergraph The dual of is a hypergraph whose vertices and edges are interchanged, so that the vertices are given by and whose edges are given by where When a notion of equality is properly defined, as done below, the operation of taking the dual of a hypergraph is an involution, i.e., A connected graph G with the same vertex set as a connected hypergraph H is a host graph for H if every hyperedge of H induces a connected subgraph in G. For a disconnected hypergraph H, G is a host graph if there is a bijection between the connected components of G and of H, such that each connected component G' of G is a host of the corresponding H'. The 2-section (or clique graph, representing graph, primal graph, Gaifman graph) of a hypergraph is the graph with the same vertices of the hypergraph, and edges between all pairs of vertices contained in the same hyperedge. Incidence matrix Let and . Every hypergraph has an incidence matrix. For an undirected hypergraph, where The transpose of the incidence matrix defines a hypergraph called the dual of , where is an m-element set and is an n-element set of subsets of . For and if and only if . For a directed hypergraph, the heads and tails of each hyperedge are denoted by and respectively. where Incidence graph A hypergraph H may be represented by a bipartite graph BG as follows: the sets X and E are the partitions of BG, and (x1, e1) are connected with an edge if and only if vertex x1 is contained in edge e1 in H. Conversely, any bipartite graph with fixed parts and no unconnected nodes in the second part represents some hypergraph in the manner described above. This bipartite graph is also called incidence graph. Adjacency matrix A parallel for the adjacency matrix of a hypergraph can be drawn from the adjacency matrix of a graph. In the case of a graph, the adjacency matrix is a square matrix which indicates whether pairs of vertices are adjacent. Likewise, we can define the adjacency matrix for a hypergraph in general where the hyperedges have real weights with Cycles In contrast with ordinary undirected graphs for which there is a single natural notion of cycles and acyclic graphs, there are multiple natural non-equivalent definitions of acyclicity for hypergraphs which collapse to ordinary graph acyclicity for the special case of ordinary graphs. A first definition of acyclicity for hypergraphs was given by Claude Berge: a hypergraph is Berge-acyclic if its incidence graph (the bipartite graph defined above) is acyclic. This definition is very restrictive: for instance, if a hypergraph has some pair of vertices and some pair of hyperedges such that and , then it is Berge-cyclic. Berge-cyclicity can obviously be tested in linear time by an exploration of the incidence graph. We can define a weaker notion of hypergraph acyclicity, later termed α-acyclicity. This notion of acyclicity is equivalent to the hypergraph being conformal (every clique of the primal graph is covered by some hyperedge) and its primal graph being chordal; it is also equivalent to reducibility to the empty graph through the GYO algorithm (also known as Graham's algorithm), a confluent iterative process which removes hyperedges using a generalized definition of ears. In the domain of database theory, it is known that a database schema enjoys certain desirable properties if its underlying hypergraph is α-acyclic. Besides, α-acyclicity is also related to the expressiveness of the guarded fragment of first-order logic. We can test in linear time if a hypergraph is α-acyclic. Note that α-acyclicity has the counter-intuitive property that adding hyperedges to an α-cyclic hypergraph may make it α-acyclic (for instance, adding a hyperedge containing all vertices of the hypergraph will always make it α-acyclic). Motivated in part by this perceived shortcoming, Ronald Fagin defined the stronger notions of β-acyclicity and γ-acyclicity. We can state β-acyclicity as the requirement that all subhypergraphs of the hypergraph are α-acyclic, which is equivalent to an earlier definition by Graham. The notion of γ-acyclicity is a more restrictive condition which is equivalent to several desirable properties of database schemas and is related to Bachman diagrams. Both β-acyclicity and γ-acyclicity can be tested in polynomial time. Those four notions of acyclicity are comparable: Berge-acyclicity implies γ-acyclicity which implies β-acyclicity which implies α-acyclicity. However, none of the reverse implications hold, so those four notions are different. Isomorphism, symmetry, and equality A hypergraph homomorphism is a map from the vertex set of one hypergraph to another such that each edge maps to one other edge. A hypergraph is isomorphic to a hypergraph , written as if there exists a bijection and a permutation of such that The bijection is then called the isomorphism of the graphs. Note that if and only if . When the edges of a hypergraph are explicitly labeled, one has the additional notion of strong isomorphism. One says that is strongly isomorphic to if the permutation is the identity. One then writes . Note that all strongly isomorphic graphs are isomorphic, but not vice versa. When the vertices of a hypergraph are explicitly labeled, one has the notions of equivalence, and also of equality. One says that is equivalent to , and writes if the isomorphism has and Note that if and only if If, in addition, the permutation is the identity, one says that equals , and writes . Note that, with this definition of equality, graphs are self-dual: A hypergraph automorphism is an isomorphism from a vertex set into itself, that is a relabeling of vertices. The set of automorphisms of a hypergraph H (= (X, E)) is a group under composition, called the automorphism group of the hypergraph and written Aut(H). Examples Consider the hypergraph with edges and Then clearly and are isomorphic (with , etc.), but they are not strongly isomorphic. So, for example, in , vertex meets edges 1, 4 and 6, so that, In graph , there does not exist any vertex that meets edges 1, 4 and 6: In this example, and are equivalent, , and the duals are strongly isomorphic: . Symmetry The of a hypergraph is the maximum cardinality of any of the edges in the hypergraph. If all edges have the same cardinality k, the hypergraph is said to be uniform or k-uniform, or is called a k-hypergraph. A graph is just a 2-uniform hypergraph. The degree d(v) of a vertex v is the number of edges that contain it. H is k-regular if every vertex has degree k. The dual of a uniform hypergraph is regular and vice versa. Two vertices x and y of H are called symmetric if there exists an automorphism such that . Two edges and are said to be symmetric if there exists an automorphism such that . A hypergraph is said to be vertex-transitive (or vertex-symmetric) if all of its vertices are symmetric. Similarly, a hypergraph is edge-transitive if all edges are symmetric. If a hypergraph is both edge- and vertex-symmetric, then the hypergraph is simply transitive. Because of hypergraph duality, the study of edge-transitivity is identical to the study of vertex-transitivity. Partitions A partition theorem due to E. Dauber states that, for an edge-transitive hypergraph , there exists a partition of the vertex set such that the subhypergraph generated by is transitive for each , and such that where is the rank of H. As a corollary, an edge-transitive hypergraph that is not vertex-transitive is bicolorable. Graph partitioning (and in particular, hypergraph partitioning) has many applications to IC design and parallel computing. Efficient and scalable hypergraph partitioning algorithms are also important for processing large scale hypergraphs in machine learning tasks. Further generalizations One possible generalization of a hypergraph is to allow edges to point at other edges. There are two variations of this generalization. In one, the edges consist not only of a set of vertices, but may also contain subsets of vertices, subsets of subsets of vertices and so on ad infinitum. In essence, every edge is just an internal node of a tree or directed acyclic graph, and vertices are the leaf nodes. A hypergraph is then just a collection of trees with common, shared nodes (that is, a given internal node or leaf may occur in several different trees). Conversely, every collection of trees can be understood as this generalized hypergraph. Since trees are widely used throughout computer science and many other branches of mathematics, one could say that hypergraphs appear naturally as well. So, for example, this generalization arises naturally as a model of term algebra; edges correspond to terms and vertices correspond to constants or variables. For such a hypergraph, set membership then provides an ordering, but the ordering is neither a partial order nor a preorder, since it is not transitive. The graph corresponding to the Levi graph of this generalization is a directed acyclic graph. Consider, for example, the generalized hypergraph whose vertex set is and whose edges are and . Then, although and , it is not true that . However, the transitive closure of set membership for such hypergraphs does induce a partial order, and "flattens" the hypergraph into a partially ordered set. Alternately, edges can be allowed to point at other edges, irrespective of the requirement that the edges be ordered as directed, acyclic graphs. This allows graphs with edge-loops, which need not contain vertices at all. For example, consider the generalized hypergraph consisting of two edges and , and zero vertices, so that and . As this loop is infinitely recursive, sets that are the edges violate the axiom of foundation. In particular, there is no transitive closure of set membership for such hypergraphs. Although such structures may seem strange at first, they can be readily understood by noting that the equivalent generalization of their Levi graph is no longer bipartite, but is rather just some general directed graph. The generalized incidence matrix for such hypergraphs is, by definition, a square matrix, of a rank equal to the total number of vertices plus edges. Thus, for the above example, the incidence matrix is simply See also Combinatorial design Factor graph Greedoid Incidence structure Multigraph P system Sparse matrix-vector multiplication Notes References External links PAOHVis: open-source PAOHVis system for visualizing dynamic hypergraphs. 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232537	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chris%20Foss	Chris Foss	Christopher F. Foss (born 1946 in Guernsey, Channel Islands) is a British artist and science fiction illustrator. He is best known for his science fiction book covers and the black and white illustrations for the original editions of The Joy of Sex. Career Early work Foss started working as an artist in his teens, in Guernsey, creating signage for local companies. He went to a boarding school in Dorset; his master encouraged him to train for an art scholarship. While studying at Magdalene College, Cambridge, he started pursuing professional magazine commissions, including the then recently launched Penthouse magazine. Science-fiction illustrations Books featuring Foss illustrations include the 1970s British paperback covers for Isaac Asimov's Foundation Trilogy, several of Edmund Cooper novels, and E. E. "Doc" Smith's Lensman and Skylark series. Some of the art he did produce was specific to the stories and some examples of this are the covers he did for the Grafton publications of the Demon Princes novels by Jack Vance in the late 1980s, Star King, The Killing Machine, The Palace of Love, The Face and The Book of Dreams. Not being a fan of science fiction, Foss typically did not read the books he illustrated, preferring to paint scenes entirely from his imagination. In 1975, Foss was hired by director Alejandro Jodorowsky for an intended film version of the science-fiction novel Dune by author Frank Herbert. He delivered several conceptual studies published in the book 21st Century Foss, , containing a foreword by Jodorowsky. The project failed. In 1977 Foss worked for several months on studies for the movie Alien (not being used in the movie) and also did some designs of the planet Krypton for the movie Superman. Some of his crystal structures for the planet were realised in the movie, although they were used as ice-structures. During this period Chris Foss illustrated the sleeve of the album Clear Air Turbulence for the Ian Gillan Band. Painter Glenn Brown controversially appropriated individual space scene paintings by Foss and in the one case copying and altering it (Exercise One (for Ian Curtis), 1995) and in the other, leaving it entirely unchanged (Dark Angel (for Ian Curtis), 2002). The titles of these works reference the vocalist of the band Joy Division, who died by his own hand. Chris Foss created much of the color concept art for Sweetpea Entertainment's Traveller franchise, as produced by Imperium Games. He produced 12 pages of artwork for the new Traveller edition's first supplement, Starships (1996). He also illustrated a number of covers for Imperium's Traveller. Diary of a Spaceperson In 1990, Foss released a book, Diary of a Spaceperson (published by Paper Tiger; ), that was vague about many of the details of its production. It is a tome of his work to date. However, there is no way of knowing what that date is, which in some way provides some potency to the story within, as it is stated in the foreword that "the contents of the book are extracts of a 'spaceperson's diary' and are duplicated within", and "that the dates published within are of no meaning". Although there is a vast number of his paintings within the book, hardly a large percentage of what he has produced is featured, and the fictional diary text itself also bears little connection to the paintings, except in some contrived ways. There is also no mention of the actual or original titles for any of the featured artworks, but many have been seen on the covers of authors' science fiction. It also features many sketches in various states of completion, some of which are seen completed and painted in other parts of the book. In fact only some of the images, all of which feature architecture and craft, are rendered in paint; the rest of the works are nudes and sketches of women. The Joy of Sex In contrast, Foss's numerous illustrations for the sex manual The Joy of Sex are done in a much softer, natural style. The illustrations were based on photographs taken by Chris in his studio in Fulham, London. Film work 1977 Jodorowsky version of Dune, spaceship and vehicle design. 1978 Superman by Richard Donner. Planet Krypton and set design (not used) 1979 Alien by Ridley Scott. Spaceship design (not used) 1980 Flash Gordon by Mike Hodges. Redesign of Gordon's rocket cycle 1995 Die Sturzflieger (German Sc-fi comedy) Spaceship design 2000 A.I. Artificial Intelligence under Stanley Kubrick, until Kubrick's death in 1999 2014 Guardians of the Galaxy under James Gunn, who brought him on board to design the film's various spacecraft. Bibliography Foss, Chris. 21st Century Foss. Dragon's Dream, 1978. . Foss, Chris. Hardware: The Definitive SF Works of Chris Foss. Titan Publishing, 2011. References External links Chris Foss's Official site A gallery of Foss's French books covers About Chris Foss in French New Scientist interview with Chris Foss 1946 births Living people British illustrators British speculative fiction artists Science fiction artists Guernsey people	[ -0.3974493145942688, 0.709432065486908, 0.19328543543815613, -0.31771087646484375, -0.47106337547302246, 0.22015930712223053, 0.38929107785224915, 0.6236087083816528, -0.7273246049880981, -0.2429109513759613, 0.019404882565140724, -0.09941192716360092, 0.21028836071491241, 0.09345000982284546, 0.23134289681911469, 0.03750905022025108, -0.3863653540611267, 0.8057467937469482, -0.5602995753288269, -0.12890827655792236, -0.06311046332120895, -0.3040385842323303, 0.16700801253318787, -0.4567427933216095, -0.09974823147058487, 0.027902530506253242, 0.5743408799171448, -0.14265508949756622, -0.06367596238851547, -0.06514058262109756, 0.16476763784885406, 0.37048134207725525, 0.013754923827946186, 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232539	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Imogen%20Cunningham	Imogen Cunningham	Imogen Cunningham (; April 12, 1883 – June 23, 1976) was an American photographer known for her botanical photography, nudes, and industrial landscapes. Cunningham was a member of the California-based Group f/64, known for its dedication to the sharp-focus rendition of simple subjects. Early life Cunningham was born in Portland, Oregon to father Isaac Burns Cunningham and mother Susan Elizabeth Cunningham (née Johnson). Her parents were from Missouri, though both of their families originally came from Virginia. Cunningham was the fifth of 10 children. Although art was not included in the traditional school curriculum, as a child Cunningham took art lessons on weekends and during vacations. She grew up in Seattle, Washington and attended the Denny School at 5th and Battery Streets in Seattle. In 1901, at the age of eighteen, Cunningham bought her first camera, a 4x5 inch view camera, via mail order from the American School of Art in Scranton, Pennsylvania. She entered the University of Washington in 1903, where she became a charter member of the Washington Alpha chapter of Pi Beta Phi fraternity for Women. It was not until 1906, while studying at the University of Washington in Seattle, that she was inspired to take up photography again by an encounter with the work of Gertrude Käsebier. Her first photographs in 1906 were portraits taken with a 4-by-5-inch-format camera. With the help of her chemistry professor, Horace Byers, she began to study the chemistry behind photography while paying for her tuition by photographing plants for the botany department. In 1907, Cunningham graduated from University of Washington with a degree in chemistry. Her thesis was titled "Modern Processes of Photography." While there, she served as class vice-president, participated in the German Club and Chemistry Club, and was on the yearbook staff. Career After graduating from college in 1907, Cunningham went to work for Edward S. Curtis in his Seattle studio, gaining knowledge about the portrait business and practical photography. Cunningham worked for Curtis on his project of documenting American Indian tribes for the book The North American Indian, which was published in twenty volumes between 1907 and 1930. Cunningham learned the technique of platinum printing under Curtis's supervision and became fascinated by the process. Germany In 1909, Cunningham was awarded the Pi Beta Phi Graduate Fellowship. This grant allowed her to work at the Technische Hochschule in Dresden, where she helped the photographic chemistry department find cheaper solutions for the expensive and rare platinum used for printing. Using this fellowship, Cunningham traveled to Germany to study with Professor Robert Luther at the Technische Hochschule in Dresden, Germany. In Dresden she concentrated on her studies and didn't take many photographs. In May 1910, she finished her paper, "About the Direct Development of Platinum Paper for Brown Tones", describing her process to increase printing speed, improve clarity of highlights tones, and produce sepia tones. On her way back to Seattle, she met with photographers Alvin Langdon Coburn (in London) and Alfred Stieglitz and Gertrude Käsebier in New York. Seattle In Seattle, Cunningham opened a studio and later won acclaim for portraiture and pictorial work. Most of her studio work of this time consisted of sitters in their own homes, in her living room, or in the woods surrounding Cunningham's cottage. At one point she and her friend Roi Partridge, a Seattle artist and print maker, climbed up to the Alpine wild flower fields on Mt. Rainier where Roi posed nude as a mystical woodland faun. Her images were shown by the Seattle Fine Arts Society and were later published in the Seattle newspaper the Town Crier, where they caused a scandal due to a woman photographing a male nude. One critic wrote that her work was vulgar and charged her with being an immoral woman, but Cunningham stated that, "It didn't make a single bit of difference in my business. Nobody thought worse of me." Cunningham didn't revisit those photographs for another fifty-five years. Cunningham was also known to take nude photos of herself of which her granddaughter, Meg Partridge, said: "Her self-portraits really show her sense of humor, and she was smart about her career. She actively published her work in magazines and newspapers. She had a good eye, but she was a great editor. She knew how to edit her work, so what the world sees is an impressive selection of work." She became a sought-after photographer and exhibited at the Brooklyn Institute of Arts and Sciences in 1913. In 1914, Cunningham's portraits were shown at An International Exhibition of Pictorial Photography in New York. Wilson's Photographic Magazine published a portfolio of her work. The next year, she married Partridge. Between 1915 and 1920, Cunningham continued her work and had three children (Gryffyd, Rondal, who also became a photographer, and Padraic) with Partridge. California In 1917, the family moved to San Francisco, and in 1920 they moved to the Mills College campus in Oakland, where Partridge taught art. Cunningham refined her style, taking a greater interest in pattern and detail and becoming increasingly interested in botanical photography, especially flowers. Between 1923 and 1925 she carried out an in-depth study of the Magnolia flower. In 1933, Cunningham founded the California Horticultural Society in which her images were so detailed and clear that many horticulturalist and scientists used her images in their studies. Later in the decade she turned her attention toward industry, creating several series of industrial landscapes in Los Angeles and Oakland. In 1929, Edward Weston nominated 10 of Cunningham's photographs (8 botanical, 1 industrial, and 1 nude) for inclusion in the "Film und Foto" exhibition. Her renowned Two Callas debuted in that exhibition. Cunningham once again changed direction, becoming more interested in the human form, particularly hands, and she was fascinated with the hands of artists and musicians. This interest led to her employment by Vanity Fair, photographing stars without make-up. Group f/64 As Cunningham moved away from pictorialism to embrace sharp-focus photography she joined with like-minded photographers, including Ansel Adams, Edward Weston, and Willard Van Dyke. Together these individuals formed Group f/64 to promote a more relevant and meaningful style of photography, that rejected soft and pictorial and promoted what they called "pure or straight photography." In an interview Cunningham mentioned that the f/64 group "Is not only American, its Western American. It isn't even American. Its western." She also mentioned, "This does not mean that we all used the small aperture, but we were for reality. That was what we talked about too. Not being phony, you know." Vanity Fair In 1934, Cunningham was invited to do some work in New York for Vanity Fair. Her husband wanted her to wait until he could travel with her, but she refused. They divorced that year. She continued with Vanity Fair until it stopped publication in 1936. Her work with Vanity Fair, Sunset and other magazines included portraits of Gertrude Stein, Minor White, James Broughton, Martha Graham, August Sander, Man Ray and Theodore Roethke. Later career Street photography In the 1940s, Cunningham turned to documentary street photography, which she executed as a side project while supporting herself with her commercial and studio photography. In 1945, Cunningham was invited by Ansel Adams to accept a position as a faculty member for the art photography department at the California School of Fine Arts. Dorothea Lange and Minor White joined as well. Mentorship In 1964, Imogen Cunningham met the photographer Judy Dater while leading a workshop focusing on the life and work of Edward Weston in Big Sur Hot Springs, California which later became the Esalen Institute. Dater was greatly inspired by Cunningham's life and work. Cunningham is featured in one of Dater's most popular photographs, Imogen and Twinka at Yosemite, which depicts elderly Cunningham encountering nude model Twinka Thiebaud behind a tree in Yosemite National Park. The two shared an interest in portraiture and remained friends until Cunningham's death in 1976. Three years later, Dater published Imogen Cunningham: A Portrait, containing interviews with many of Cunningham's photographic contemporaries, friends, and family along with photographs by both Dater and Cunningham. In 1973, her work was exhibited at the Rencontres d'Arles photography festival in France through the group exhibition: Trois photographes américaines, Imogen Cunningham, Linda Connor, Judy Dater. Awards 1967: Fellow of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences 1968: Honorary Doctorate of Fine Arts degree from the California College of Arts and Crafts in Oakland 1970: Guggenheim fellowship in Creative Arts for Photography [Unknown year]: Dorothea Lange Award – first recipient 2004: Hall of Fame Inductee, International Photography Hall of Fame and Museum Personal life On February 11, 1915, Cunningham married etching artist, printmaker and teacher Roi Partridge. They had three sons: Gryffyd Partridge and twins Rondal Partridge and Padraic Partridge. The couple divorced in 1934. Rondal's daughter, Meg Partridge, cataloged Cunningham's work. As of 1940, Cunningham lived in Oakland, California, though she had studios in various locations in San Francisco. Cunningham continued to take photographs until shortly before her death at age 93, on June 23, 1976, in San Francisco, California. Cunningham was named Imogen after the heroine of Shakespeare's Cymbeline. Works and publications Books Chronological by date of publication Cunningham, Imogen. Modern Processes of Photography. Thesis, University of Washington, 1907. Cunningham, Imogen. "After Ninety." Seattle and London: University of Washington Press, 1977. , and 0-295-95673-9(pbk.) Cunningham, Imogen, and Richard Lorenz. Imogen Cunningham: Portraiture. Boston: Little, Brown and Co, 1997. Cunningham, Imogen, and Richard Lorenz. Imogen Cunningham: On the Body. Boston: Bullfinch Press, 1998. Cunningham, Imogen, Richard Lorenz, and Manfred Heiting. Imogen Cunningham, 1883–1976. Köln: Taschen, 2001. Cunningham, Imogen, and Richard Lorenz. Imogen Cunningham: Flora. 2001. Cunningham, Imogen, Meg Partridge, John Wood, Elizabeth Partridge, Rondal Partridge, John Marcy, Pam Clark, and Crissy Welzen. Imogen Cunningham: Platinum and Palladium. South Dennis, Mass.: 21st Editions, Steven Albahari, 2012. Cunningham, Imogen, William Morris, John Wood, Pam Clark, Crissy Welzen, Sam Klimek, Arthur Larson, Sarah Creighton, and Steven Albahari. Imogen Cunningham: Symbolist ; with Poetry and Prose by William Morris. South Dennis, Mass.: 21st Editions, Steven Albahari, 2013. Exhibition catalogs Chronological by date of exhibition Cunningham, Imogen. Imogen Cunningham: Photographs 1921–1967. Stanford, Calif.: Leland Stanford Junior University, 1967. Exhibition held March 31 to April 23, 1967, Stanford Art Gallery, Leland Stanford Junior University. Massar, Phyllis Dearborn, and Imogen Cunningham. Photographs by Imogen Cunningham. New York, N.Y.: Metropolitan Museum of Art, 1973. Catalog of an exhibition held on the balcony of the Blumenthal Patio, Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York, Apr. 24 – July 2, 1973. Cunningham, Imogen, and Margery Mann. Imogen!: Imogen Cunningham Photographs, 1910–1973. 1974. Published in connection with an exhibition shown at the Henry Art Gallery, University of Washington, March 23 – April 21, 1974 Cunningham, Imogen, and Richard Lorenz. Imogen Cunningham: Frontiers : Photographs 1906–1976. Berkeley, Calif: The Trust, 1978. An exhibition organized by the Imogen Cunningham Trust in 1978 ; essay by Richard Lorenz. Cunningham, Imogen. The Photography of Imogen Cunningham: A Centennial Selection. New York, N.Y.: The Museum, 1985. Centennial celebration at Whitney Museum of American Art at Philip Morris, December 13, 1985 – January 30, 1986. Cunningham, Imogen, and Richard Lorenz. Imogen Cunningham: MEJE fotografieje 1906–1976. Ljubljana: Moderna Galerija, 1987. Exhibition "Imogen Cunningham" held at the Moderna Galerija, Ljubljana, March 10–31, 1987. In Slovenian. Cunningham, Imogen, and Richard Lorenz. Imogen Cunningham: frontiers : fotografie 1906–1976. Roma: U.S.I.S., 1987. Exhibition held at Villa Croce, Genova, Oct. 28 – November 22, 1987. Cunningham, Imogen, and Richard Lorenz. Imogen Cunningham: fronteras, fotografías, 1906–1976. [Madrid]: [Círculo de Bellas Artes], 1988. Círculo de Bellas Artes, Madrid, 26 de enero al 28 de febrero de 1988. Exposición organizada por the Imogen Cunningham Trust, Berkeley, California, Círculo de Bellas Artes, Embajada de los Estados Unidos ; ensayo de R. Lorenz. Heyman, Therese Thau, Mary Street Alinder, and Naomi Rosenblum. Seeing Straight: The F.64 Revolution in Photography. Oakland, Calif: Oakland Museum, 1992. Published to coincide with a major traveling exhibition, organized by the Oakland Museum in 1992, which re-creates the original 1932 exhibition by Group f.64. Cunningham, Imogen. Imogen Cunningham: die Poesie der Form. Schaffhausen: Edition Stemmle, 1993. Catalog of an exhibition held August 28 through October 3, 1993 at the Fotografie Forum Frankfurt. German and English. San Francisco Camerawork, and Alliance français de San Francisco. Imogen Cunningham: Paris in the Sixties = Imogen Cunningham : Paris Dans Les Années Soixante. San Francisco: Alliance français de San Francisco, 1993. Catalogue of a traveling exhibition held in San Francisco, Oct. 14 – November 10, 1993, organized by San Francisco Camerawork and the Alliance français de San Francisco. English and French. Venues in the United States: Denver, Atlanta, and Boston ; venues in France: Arles, Paris. Cunningham, Imogen, and Richard Lorenz. Imogen Cunningham: A Retrospective Exhibition, September 15 – November 4, 1995, Howard Greenberg Gallery. New York (120 Wooster St. 10012): Howard Greenberg Gallery, 1995. Exhibition held Sep 15 – November 4, 1995. Organized by Richard Lorenz in association with the Imogen Cunningham Trust. Cunningham, Imogen. Imogen Cunningham: Vintage Photographs 1910–1973. New York: John Stevenson Gallery, 2006. Exhibition catalog: September 2006. Includes CD-ROM. Cunningham, Imogen. Imogen Cunningham. Santa Barbara CA: East West Gallery, 2007. Catalog of an exhibition titled "Paired: Imogen Cunningham and Rondal Partridge, featuring works by Horace Bristol", held at East West Gallery, Santa Barbara, October 5, 2007 to January 5, 2008. Cunningham, Imogen, and Mónica Fuentes Santos. Imogen Cunningham. 2012. Published in conjunction with an exhibition held at Fundación MAPFRE, Madrid, Spain, September 2012 – January 2013, and Kulturhuset, Stockholm, May–September 2013 Martineau, Paul. Imogen Cunningham: A Retrospective. 2020. Published to accompany an exhibition held at the J. Paul Getty Museum, Los Angeles, CA, March – June 2022, and the Seattle Art Museum, November 2021 – February 2022. Films, videos Padula, Fred. Two Photographers: Wynn Bullock and Imogen Cunningham. Fred Padula, 1967. Korty, John. Imogen Cunningham, Photographer. John Korty, 1972. Cunningham, Imogen, Ann Hershey, and Shera Thompson. Never give up—Imogen Cunningham. New Brunswick, NJ: Phoenix/BFA Films & Video, 1975. Features an interview with and autobiographical study of Imogen Cunningham and her photographic work of over 70 years. Cunningham, Imogen. Imogen Cunningham at 93. New York: Carousel Films, 1976. Producer, CBS News. Cunningham, Imogen, and Meg Partridge. Portrait of Imogen. Valley Ford, CA: Distributed by Pacific Pictures, 1987. Photographer Imogen Cunningham presents more than 250 of her own photographs through informal recorded interviews when she was in her late eighties. See also Portrait of Imogen Group f/64 References Further reading Cunningham, Imogen. Photographs. Seattle: University of Washington Press, 1970. Cunningham, Imogen, and Judy Dater. Imogen Cunningham: A Portrait. Boston: New York Graphic Society, 1979. Cunningham, Imogen, and Amy Rule. Imogen Cunningham: Selected Texts and Bibliography. Boston: G.K. Hall, 1992. World photographers reference series, v. 2. Lorenz, Richard, and Imogen Cunningham. Imogen Cunningham: Ideas Without End : a Life in Photographs. San Francisco: Chronicle Books, 1993. Alinder, Mary Street. Group F.64: Edward Weston, Ansel Adams, Imogen Cunningham, and the Community of Artists Who Revolutionized American Photography. New York, NY : Bloomsbury, 2014. External links Imogen Cunningham Trust Imogen Cunningham papers, 1903-1991 at Archives of American Art 1883 births 1976 deaths American portrait photographers American women photographers Photographers from California Fellows of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences Artists from the San Francisco Bay Area Artists from Portland, Oregon Pacific Northwest artists Photographers from Oregon San Francisco Art Institute faculty University of Washington College of Arts and Sciences alumni 20th-century American photographers 20th-century American women artists 20th-century women photographers American women academics	[ 0.5170166492462158, -0.3240215480327606, -0.9242991209030151, 0.17495524883270264, 0.1440816968679428, 0.6417785882949829, 0.2483331263065338, -0.09396843612194061, -0.5330410599708557, -0.036732885986566544, 0.06039585918188095, 0.02113676443696022, -0.05360431224107742, 0.24688318371772766, -0.10849753022193909, -0.10169263929128647, -0.26007094979286194, 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232541	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Edward%20Weston	Edward Weston	Edward Henry Weston (March 24, 1886 – January 1, 1958) was a 20th-century American photographer. He has been called "one of the most innovative and influential American photographers..." and "one of the masters of 20th century photography." Over the course of his 40-year career Weston photographed an increasingly expansive set of subjects, including landscapes, still-lifes, nudes, portraits, genre scenes and even whimsical parodies. It is said that he developed a "quintessentially American, and especially Californian, approach to modern photography" because of his focus on the people and places of the American West. In 1937 Weston was the first photographer to receive a Guggenheim Fellowship, and over the next two years he produced nearly 1,400 negatives using his 8 × 10 view camera. Some of his most famous photographs were taken of the trees and rocks at Point Lobos, California, near where he lived for many years. Weston was born in Chicago and moved to California when he was 21. He knew he wanted to be a photographer from an early age, and initially his work was typical of the soft focus pictorialism that was popular at the time. Within a few years, however he abandoned that style and went on to be one of the foremost champions of highly detailed photographic images. In 1947 he was diagnosed with Parkinson's disease and he soon stopped photographing. He spent the remaining ten years of his life overseeing the printing of more than 1,000 of his most famous images. Life and work 1886–1906: Early life Weston was born in Highland Park, Illinois, the second child and only son of Edward Burbank Weston, an obstetrician, and Alice Jeanette Brett, a Shakespearean actress. His mother died when he was five years old and he was raised mostly by his sister Mary, whom he called "May" or "Maisie". She was nine years older than he, and they developed a very close bond that was one of the few steady relationships in Weston's life. His father remarried when he was nine, but neither Weston nor his sister got along with their new stepmother and stepbrother. After May was married and left their home in 1897, Weston's father devoted most of his time to his new wife and her son. Weston was left on his own much of the time; he stopped going to school and withdrew into his own room in their large home. As a present for his 16th birthday Weston's father gave him his first camera, a Kodak Bull's-Eye No. 2, which was a simple box camera. He took it on vacation in the Midwest, and by the time he returned home his interest in photography was enough to lead him to purchase a used 5 × 7 inch view camera. He began photographing in Chicago parks and a farm owned by his aunt, and developed his own film and prints. Later he would remember that even at that early age his work showed strong artistic merit. He said, "I feel that my earliest work of 1903 ‒ though immature ‒ is related more closely, both with technique and composition, to my latest work than are several of my photographs dating from 1913 to 1920, a period in which I was trying to be artistic." In 1904 May and her family moved to California, leaving Weston further isolated in Chicago. He earned a living by taking a job at a local department store, but he continued to spend most of his free time taking photos, Within two years he felt confident enough of his photography that he submitted his work to the magazine Camera and Darkroom, and in the April 1906 issue they published a full-page reproduction of his picture Spring, Chicago. This is the first known publication of any of his photographs. In September 1904, Weston took part in the men's double American round archery event at the 1904 Summer Olympics with his father also taking part in the same event. 1906–23: Becoming a photographer At his sister's urging Weston left Chicago in the spring of 1906 and moved near May's home in Tropico, California (now a neighborhood in Glendale). He decided to stay there and pursue a career in photography, but he soon realized he needed more professional training. A year later he moved to Effingham, Illinois, to enroll in the Illinois College of Photography. They taught a nine-month course, but Weston finished all of the class work in six months. The school refused to give him a diploma unless he paid for the full nine months; Weston refused and instead moved back to California in the spring of 1908. He briefly worked at the photography studio of George Steckel in Los Angeles, as a negative retoucher. Within a few months he moved to the more established studio of Louis Mojonier. For the next several years he learned the techniques and business of operating a photography studio under Mojonier's direction. Within days of his visit to Tropico, Weston was introduced to his sister's best friend, Flora May Chandler. She was a graduate of the Normal School, later to become UCLA. She assumed the position of a grade-school teacher in Tropico. She was seven years older than Weston and a distant relative of Harry Chandler, who at that time was described as the head of "the single most powerful family in Southern California". This fact did not go unnoticed by Weston and his biographers. On January 30, 1909, Weston and Chandler married in a simple ceremony. The first of their four sons, Edward Chandler Weston (1910–1993), known as Chandler, was born on April 26, 1910. Named Edward Chandler, after Weston and his wife, he later became an excellent photographer on his own. He clearly learned much by being an assistant to his father in the bungalow studio. In 1923 he bid farewell to his mother and sibling brothers and sailed off to Mexico with his father and his then-muse, Tina Modotti. He gave up any aspirations in pursuing photography as a career after his adventures in Mexico. The lifestyle of fame and its fortune affected him greatly. His later photographs, as a hobbyist, albeit rare, certainly reflect an innate talent for the form. In 1910 Weston opened his own business, called "The Little Studio", in Tropico. His sister later asked him why he opened his studio in Tropico rather than in the nearby metropolis of Los Angeles, and he replied "Sis, I'm going to make my name so famous that it won't matter where I live." For the next three years he worked, alone and sometimes with the assistance of family members in his studio. Even at that early stage of his career he was highly particular about his work; in an interview at that time he said "[photographic] plates are nothing to me unless I get what I want. I have used thirty of them at a sitting if I did not secure the effect to suit me." His critical eye paid off for him and he quickly gained more recognition for his work. He won prizes in national competitions, published several more photographs and wrote articles for magazines such as Photo-Era and American Photography, championing the pictorial style. On December 16, 1911, Weston's second son, Theodore Brett Weston (1911–1993), was born. He became a long-time artistic collaborator with his father and an important photographer on his own. Sometime in the fall of 1913, Los Angeles photographer, Margrethe Mather visited Weston's studio because of his growing reputation, and within a few months they developed an intense relationship. Weston was a quiet Midwestern transplant to California, and Mather was a part of the growing bohemian cultural scene in Los Angeles. She was very outgoing and artistic in a flamboyant way, and her permissive sexual morals were far different from the conservative Weston at the time – Mather had been a prostitute and was bisexual with a preference for women. Mather presented a stark contrast to Weston's home life; his wife Flora was described as a "homely, rigid Puritan, and an utterly conventional woman, with whom he had little in common since he abhorred conventions" ‒ and he found Mather's uninhibited lifestyle irresistible and her photographic vision intriguing. He asked Mather to be his studio assistant, and for the next decade they worked closely together, making individual and jointly signed portraits of writers Carl Sandburg and Max Eastman. A joint exhibition of their work in 2001 revealed that during this period Weston emulated Mather's style and, later, her choice of subjects. On her own Mather photographed "fans, hands, eggs, melons, waves, bathroom fixtures, seashells and birds wings, all subjects that Weston would also explore." A decade later he described her as "the first important person in my life, and perhaps even now, though personal contact has gone, the most important." In early 1915 Weston began keeping detailed journals he later came to call his "Daybooks". For the next two decades he recorded his thoughts about his work, observations about photography, and his interactions with friends, lovers and family. On December 6, 1916, a third son, Lawrence Neil Weston, was born. He also followed in the footsteps of his father and became a well-known photographer. It was during this period that Weston first met photographer Johan Hagemeyer, whom Weston mentored and lent his studio to from time to time. Later, Hagemeyer would return the favor by letting Weston use his studio in Carmel after he returned from Mexico. For the next several years Weston continued to earn a living by taking portraits in his small studio which he called "the shack". Meanwhile, Flora was spending all of her time caring for their children. Their fourth son, Cole Weston (1919–2003), was born on January 30, 1919, and afterward she rarely had time to leave their home. Over the summer of 1920 Weston met two people who were part of the growing Los Angeles cultural scene: Roubaix de l'Abrie Richey, known as "Robo" and a woman he called his wife, Tina Modotti. Modotti, who was then known only as a stage and film actress, was never married to Robo, but they pretended to be for the sake of his family. Weston and Modotti were immediately attracted to each other, and they soon became lovers. Richey knew of Modotti's affair, but he continued to be friends with Weston and later invited him to come to Mexico and share his studio. The following year Weston agreed to allow Mather to become an equal partner in his studio. For several months they took portraits that they signed with both of their names. This was the only time in his long career that Weston shared credit with another photographer. Sometime in 1920 he began photographing nude models for the first time. His first models were his wife Flora and their children, but soon thereafter he took at least three nude studies of Mather. He followed these with several more photographs of nude models, the first of dozens of figure studies he would make of friends and lovers over the next twenty years. Until now Weston had kept his relationships with other women a secret from his wife, but as he began to photograph more nudes Flora became suspicious about what went on with him and his models. Chandler recalled that his mother regularly sent him on "errands" to his father's studio and asked him to tell her who was there and what they were doing. One of the first who agreed to model nude for Weston was Modotti. She became his primary model for the next several years. In 1922 he visited his sister May, who had moved to Middletown, Ohio. While there he made five or six photographs of the tall smoke stacks at the nearby Armco steel mill. These images signaled a change in Weston's photographic style, a transition from the soft-focus pictorialism of the past to a new, cleaner-edge style. He immediately recognized the change and later recorded it in his notes: "The Middletown visit was something to remember...most of all in importance was my photographing of 'Armco'...That day I made great photographs, even Stieglitz thought they were important!" At that time New York City was the cultural center for photography as an art form in America, and Alfred Stieglitz was the most influential figure in photography. Weston badly wanted to go to New York to meet with him, but he did not have enough money to make the trip. His brother-in-law gave him enough money to continue on from Middletown to New York City, and he spent most of October and early November there. While there he met artist Charles Sheeler and photographers Clarence H. White, Gertrude Kasebier, as well as Stieglitz. Weston wrote that Stieglitz told him, "Your work and attitude reassures me. You have shown me at least several prints which have given me a great deal of joy. And I can seldom say that of photographs." Soon after Weston returned from New York, Robo moved to Mexico and set up a studio there to create batiks. Within a short while he had arranged for a joint exhibition of his work and of photographs by Weston, Mather and a few others. In early 1923 Modotti left by train to be with Robo in Mexico, but he contracted smallpox and died shortly before she arrived. Modotti was grief-stricken, but within a few weeks she felt well enough that she decided to stay and carry out the exhibition that Robo had planned. The show was a success, and due in no small part to his nude studies of Modotti, it firmly established Weston's artistic reputation in Mexico. After the show closed Modotti returned to California, and Weston and she made plans to return to Mexico together. He wanted to spend a couple of months there photographing and promoting his work, and, conveniently, he could travel under the pretense of Modotti being his assistant and translator. The week before he left for Mexico, Weston briefly reunited with Mather and took several nudes of her lying in the sand at Redondo Beach. These images were very different from his previous nude studies – sharply focused and showing her entire body in relation to the natural setting. They have been called the artistic prototypes for his most famous nudes, those of Charis Wilson which he would take more than a decade later. 1923–27: Mexico On July 30, 1923, Weston, his son Chandler, and Modotti left on a steamer for the extended trip to Mexico. His wife, Flora, and their other three sons waved goodbye to them at the dock. It's unknown what Flora understood or thought about the relationship between Weston and Modotti, but she is reported to have called out at the dock, "Tina, take good care of my boys." They arrived in Mexico City on August 11 and rented a large hacienda outside of the city. Within a month he had arranged for an exhibition of his work at the Aztec Land Gallery, and on October 17 the show opened to glowing press reviews. He was particularly proud of a review by Marius de Zayas that said "Photography is beginning to be photography, for until now it has only been art." The different culture and scenery in Mexico forced Weston to look at things in new ways. He became more responsive to what was in front of him, and he turned his camera on everyday objects like toys, doorways and bathroom fixtures. He also made several intimate nudes and portraits of Modotti. He wrote in his Daybooks: The camera should be used for a recording of life, for rendering the very substance and quintessence of the thing itself...I feel definite in the belief that the approach to photography is through realism. Weston continued to photograph the people and things around him, and his reputation in Mexico increased the longer he stayed. He had a second exhibition at the Aztec Land Gallery in 1924, and he had a steady stream of local socialites asking him to take their portraits. At the same time, Weston began to miss his other sons back in the U.S. As with many of his actions, though, it was a woman who motivated him most. He had recently corresponded with a woman he had known for several years named Miriam Lerner, and as her letters became more passionate he longed to see her again. He and Chandler returned to San Francisco at the end of 1924, and the next month he set up a studio with Johan Hagemeyer. Weston seemed to be struggling with his past and his future during this period. He burned all of his pre-Mexico journals, as though trying to erase the past, and started a new series of nudes with Lerner and with his son Neil. He wrote that these images were "the start of a new period in my approach and attitude towards photography." His new relationship with Lerner did not last long, and in August 1925 he returned to Mexico, this time with his son Brett. Modotti had arranged a joint show of their photographs, and it opened the week he returned. He received new critical acclaim and six of his prints were purchased for the State Museum. For the next several months he concentrated once again on photographing folk art, toys and local scenes. One of his strongest images of this period is of three black clay pots that art historian Rene d'Harnoncourt described as "the beginning of a new art." In May 1926 Weston signed a contract with writer Anita Brenner for $1,000 to make photographs for a book she was writing about Mexican folk art. In June he, Modotti and Brett started traveling around the country in search of lesser known native arts and crafts. His contract required him to give Brenner three finished prints from 400 8x10 negatives, and it took him until November of that year to complete the work. During their travels, Brett received a crash course in photography from his father, and he made more than two dozen prints which his father judged to be of exceptional quality. By the time they returned from their trip, Weston and Modotti's relationship had crumbled, and within less than two weeks he and Brett returned to California. He never traveled to Mexico again. 1927–35: Glendale to Carmel Weston initially returned to his old studio in Glendale (previously called Tropico). He hastily arranged a dual exhibition at University of California of the photographs that he and Brett had made the year before. The father showed 100 prints and the son showed 20. Brett was only 15 years old at the time. In February he started a new series of nudes, this time of dancer Bertha Wardell. One of this series, of her kneeling body cut off at the shoulders, is one of Weston's most well-known figure studies. At this same time he met Canadian painter Henrietta Shore, whom he asked to comment on the photos of Wardell. He was surprised by her honest critique: "I wish you would not do so many nudes – you are getting used to them, the subject no longer amazes you ‒ most of these are just nudes." He asked to look at her work and was intrigued by her large paintings of sea shells. He borrowed several shells from her, thinking he might find some inspiration for a new still life series. Over the next few weeks he explored many different kinds of shell and background combinations – in his log of photographs taken for 1927 he listed fourteen negatives of shells. One of these, simply called Nautilus, 1927" (sometimes called Shell, 1927), became one of his most famous images. Modotti called the image "mystical and erotic," and when she showed it to Rene d'Harnoncourt he said he felt "weak at the knees." Weston is known to have made at least twenty-eight prints of this image, more than he had made of any other shell image. In September of that year Weston had a major exhibition at the Palace of the Legion of Honor in San Francisco. At the opening of the show he met fellow photographer Willard Van Dyke, who later introduced Weston to Ansel Adams. In May 1928, Weston and Brett made a brief but important trip to the Mojave Desert. It was there that he first explored and photographed landscapes as an art form. He found the stark rock forms and empty spaces to be a visual revelation, and over a long weekend he took twenty-seven photographs. In his journal he declared "these negatives are the most important I have ever done." Later that year he and Brett moved to San Francisco, where they lived and worked in a small studio owned by Hagemeyer. He made portraits to earn an income, but he longed to get away by himself and get back to his art. In early 1929 he moved to Hagemeyer's cottage in Carmel, and it was there that he finally found the solitude and the inspiration that he was seeking. He placed a sign in studio window that said, "Edward Weston, photographer, Unretouched Portraits, Prints for Collectors." He started making regular trips to nearby Point Lobos, where he would continue to photograph until the end of his career. It was there that he learned to fine-tune his photographic vision to match the visual space of his view camera, and the images he took there, of kelp, rocks and wind-blown trees, are among his finest. Looking at his work from this period, one biographer wrote: "Weston arranged his compositions so that things happened on the edges; lines almost cross or meet and circular lines just touch the edges tangentially; his compositions were now created exclusively for a space with the proportions of eight by ten. There is no extraneous space nor is there too little." In early April 1929, Weston met photographer Sonya Noskowiak at a party, and by the end of the month she was living with him. As with many of his other relationships, she became his model, muse, pupil and assistant. They would continue to live together for five years. Intrigued by the many kinds and shapes of kelp he found on the beaches near Carmel, in 1930 Weston began taking close-ups of vegetables and fruits. He made a variety of photographs of cabbage, kale, onions, bananas, and finally, his most iconic image, peppers. In August of that year Noskowiak brought him several green peppers, and over a four-day period he shot at least thirty different negatives. Of these, Pepper No. 30, is among the all-time masterpieces of photography. Weston had a series of important one-man exhibitions in 1930–31. The first was at Alma Reed's Delphic Studio Gallery in New York, followed closely by a mounting of the same show at the Denny Watrous Gallery in Carmel. Both received rave reviews, including a two-page article in the New York Times Magazine. These were followed by shows at the De Young Museum in San Francisco and the Galerie Jean Naert in Paris. Although he was succeeding professionally his personal life was very complex. For most of their marriage, Flora was able to take care of their children because of an inheritance from her parents. However, the Wall Street crash of 1929 had wiped out most of her savings, and Weston felt increased pressure to help provide more for her and his sons. He described this time as "the most trying economic period of my life." In 1932, The Art of Edward Weston, the first book devoted exclusively to Weston's work, was published. It was edited by Merle Armitage and dedicated to Alice Rohrer, an admirer and patron of Weston whose $500 donation helped pay for the book to be published. During the same time a small group of like-minded photographers in the San Francisco area, led by Van Dyke and Ansel Adams, began informally meeting to discuss their common interest and aesthetics. Inspired by Weston's show at the De Young Museum the previous year, they approached the museum with the idea of mounting a group exhibition of their work. They named themselves Group f/64, and in November 1932, an exhibition of 80 of their prints opened at the museum. The show was a critical success. In 1933 Weston bought a 4 × 5 Graflex camera, which was much smaller and lighter than the large view camera he had used for many years. He began taking close-up nudes of Noskowiak and other models. The smaller camera allowed him to interact more with his models, while at the same time the nudes he took during this period began to resemble some of the contorted root and vegetables he had taken the year before. In early 1934, "a new and important chapter opened" in Weston's life when he met Charis Wilson at a concert. Even more than with his previous lovers, Weston was immediately captivated by her beauty and her personality. He wrote: "A new love came into my life, a most beautiful one, one which will, I believe, stand the test of time." On April 22 he photographed her nude for the first time, and they entered into an intense relationship. He was still living with Noskowiak at that time, but within two weeks he asked her to move out, declaring that for him other women were "as inevitable as the tides". Perhaps because of the intensity of his new relationship, he stopped writing in his Daybooks at this same time. Six months later he wrote one final entry, looking back from April 22: After eight months we are closer together than ever. Perhaps C. will be remembered as the great love of my life. Already I have achieved certain heights reached with no other love. 1935–45: Guggenheim grant to Wildcat Hill In January 1935 Weston was facing increasing financial difficulties. He closed his studio in Carmel and moved to Santa Monica Canyon, California, where he opened a new studio with Brett. He implored Wilson to come and live with him, and in August 1935 she finally agreed. While she had an intense interest in his work, Wilson was the first woman Weston had lived with since Flora who had no interest in becoming a photographer. This allowed Weston to concentrate on her as his muse and model, and in turn Wilson devoted her time to promoting Weston's art as his assistant and quasi-agent. Almost immediately he began taking a new series of nudes with Wilson as the model. One of the first photographs he took of her, on the balcony of their home, became one of his most published images (Nude (Charis, Santa Monica)). Soon after they took the first of several trips to Oceano Dunes. It was there that Weston made some of his most daring and intimate photographs of any of his models, capturing Wilson in completely uninhibited poses in the sand dunes. He exhibited only one or two of this series in his lifetime, thinking several of the others were "too erotic" for the general public. Although his recent work had received critical acclaim, he was not earning enough income from his artistic images to provide a steady income. Rather than going back to relying solely on portraiture, he started the "Edward Weston Print of the Month Club", offering selections of his photos for a monthly $5 subscription. Each month subscribers would receive a new print from Weston, with a limited edition of 40 copies of each print. Although he created these prints with the same high standards that he did for his exhibition prints, it is thought that he never had more than eleven subscribers. At the suggestion of Beaumont Newhall, Weston decided to apply for a Guggenheim Foundation grant (now known as a Guggenheim Fellowship). He wrote a two-sentence description about his work, assembled thirty-five of his favorite prints, and sent it in. Afterward Dorothea Lange and her husband suggested that the application was too brief to be seriously considered, and Weston resubmitted it with a four-page letter and work plan. He did not mention that Wilson had written the new application for him. On March 22, 1937, Weston received notification that he had been awarded a Guggenheim grant, the first ever given to a photographer. The award was $2,000 for one year, a significant amount of money at that time. He was able to further capitalize on the award by arranging to provide the editor of AAA Westway Magazine with 8–10 photos per month for $50 during their travels, with Wilson getting an additional $15 monthly for photo captions and short narratives. They purchased a new car and set out on Weston's dream trip to go and photograph whatever he wanted. Over the next twelve months they made seventeen trips and covered 16,697 miles according to Wilson's detailed log. Weston made 1,260 negatives during the trip. The freedom of this trip with the "love of his life", combined with all of his sons now reaching the age of adulthood, gave Weston the motivation to finally divorce his wife. They had been living apart for sixteen years. Due to the success of the past year, Weston applied for and received a second year of Guggenheim support. Although he wanted to do some additional traveling, he intended to use most of the money to allow him to print his past year's work. He commissioned Neil to build a small home in the Carmel Highlands on property owned by Wilson's father. They named the place "Wildcat Hill" because of the many domestic cats that soon occupied the grounds. Wilson set up a writing studio in what was intended to be a small garage behind the house, and she spent several months writing and editing stories from their travels. In 1939, Seeing California with Edward Weston was published, with photographs by Weston and writing by Wilson. Finally relieved from the financial stresses of the past and inordinately happy with his work and his relationship, Weston married Wilson in a small ceremony on April 24. Buoyed by the success of their first book, in 1940 they published California and the West. The first edition, featuring 96 of Weston's photos with text by Wilson, sold for $3.95. Over the summer, Weston taught photography at the first Ansel Adams Workshop at Yosemite National Park. Just as the Guggenheim money was running out, Weston was invited to illustrate a new edition of Walt Whitman's Leaves of Grass. He would receive $1,000 for photographs and $500 travel expenses. Weston insisted on having artistic control of the images he would take and insisted that he would not be taking literal illustrations of Whitman's text. On May 28 he and Wilson began a trip that would cover 20,000 miles through 24 states; he took between 700 and 800 8x10 negatives as well as dozens of Graflex portraits. On December 7, 1941, Pearl Harbor was attacked, and the United States entered World War II. Weston was near the end of the Whitman trip, and he was deeply affected by the outbreak of the war. He wrote: "When the war broke out we scurried home. Charis did not want to scurry. I did." He spent the first few months of 1942 organizing and printing the negatives from the Whitman trip. Of the hundreds of images he took, forty-nine were selected for publication. Due to the war, Point Lobos was closed to the public for several years. Weston continued to work on images centered on Wildcat Hill, including shots of the many cats that lived there. Weston treated them with the same serious intent that he applied to all of his other subjects, and Charis assembled the results into their most unusual publication, The Cats of Wildcat Hill, which was finally published in 1947. The year 1945 marked the beginning of significant changes for Weston. He began to experience the first symptoms of Parkinson's disease, a debilitating ailment that gradually stole his strength and his ability to photograph. He withdrew from Wilson, who at the same time began to become more involved in local politics and the Carmel cultural scene. A strength that originally brought them together – her lack of interest in becoming a photographer herself – eventually led to their break-up. She wrote, "My flight from Edward was also partly an escape from photography, which had taken up so much room in my life for so many years." While working on a major retrospective exhibition for the Museum of Modern Art, he and Wilson separated. Weston returned to Glendale since the land for their cabin at Wildcat Hill still belonged to Wilson's father. Within a few months she moved out and arranged to sell the property to him. 1946–58: Final years In February 1946, Weston's major retrospective opened at the Museum of Modern Art in New York. He and Beaumont Newhall selected 313 prints for the exhibition, and eventually 250 photographs were displayed along with 11 negatives. At that time many of his prints were still for sale, and he sold 97 prints from the exhibit at $25 per print. Later that year, Weston was asked by Dr. George L. Waters of Kodak to produce 8 × 10 Kodachrome transparencies for their advertising campaign. Weston had never worked in color before, primarily because he had no means of developing or printing the more complicated color process. He accepted their offer in no small part because they offered him $250 per image, the highest amount he would be paid for any single work in his lifetime. He eventually sold seven color works to Kodak of landscapes and scenery at Point Lobos and nearby Monterey harbor. In 1947 as his Parkinson's disease progressed, Weston began looking for an assistant. Serendipitously, an eager young photographic enthusiast, Dody Weston Thompson, contacted him in search of employment. Weston mentioned he had just that morning written a letter to Ansel Adams, looking for someone seeking to learn photography in exchange for carrying his bulky large-format camera and to provide a much needed automobile. There was a swift meeting of creative minds. For the remainder of 1947 through the beginning of 1948, Dody commuted from San Francisco on weekends to learn from Weston the basics of photography. In early 1948, Dody moved into "Bodie House," the guest cottage at Edward's Wildcat Hill compound, as his full-time assistant. By late 1948 he was no longer physically able to use his large view camera. That year he took his last photographs, at Point Lobos. His final negative was an image he called, "Rocks and Pebbles, 1948". Although diminished in his capacity, Weston never stopped being a photographer. He worked with his sons and Dody to catalog his images and especially to oversee the publication and printing of his work. In 1950 there was a major retrospective of his work at the Musee National d'Art Moderne in Paris, and in 1952 he published a Fiftieth Anniversary portfolio, with images printed by Brett. During this time he worked with Cole, Brett, and Dody Thompson (Brett's wife by 1952), to select and have them print a master set of what he considered his best work. They spent many long hours together in the darkroom, and by 1956 they had produced what Weston called "The Project Prints", eight sets of 8" × 10" prints from 830 of his negatives. The only complete set today is housed at the University of California, Santa Cruz. Later that same year the Smithsonian Institution displayed nearly 100 of these prints at a major exhibit, "The World of Edward Weston", paying tribute to his accomplishments in American photography. Weston died at his home on Wildcat Hill on New Year's Day, 1958. His sons scattered his ashes into the Pacific Ocean at an area then known as Pebbly Beach on Point Lobos. Due to Weston's significant influence in the area, the beach was later renamed Weston Beach. He had $300 in his bank account at the time of his death. Equipment and techniques Cameras and lenses During his lifetime Weston worked with several cameras. He began as a more serious photographer in 1902 when he purchased a 5 × 7 camera. When he moved to Tropico, now part of Glendale, and opened his studio in 1911, he acquired an enormous 11 x 14 Graf Variable studio portrait camera. Roi Partridge, Imogen Cunningham's husband, later made an etching of Weston in his studio, dwarfed by the giant camera in front of him. After he began taking more portraits of children, he bought a 3 ¼ x 4 ¼ Graflex in 1912 to better capture their quickly changing expressions. When he went to Mexico in 1924 he took an 8 × 10 Seneca folding-bed view camera with several lenses, including a Graf Variable and a Wollensak Verito. While in Mexico he purchased a used Rapid Rectilinear lens which was his primary lens for many years. The lens, now in the George Eastman House, did not have a manufacturer's name. He also took to Mexico a 3¼ × 4¼ Graflex with a ƒ/4.5 Tessar lens, which he used for portraits. In 1933 he purchased a 4 × 5 R. B. Auto-Graflex] and used it thereafter for all portraits. He continued to use the Seneca view camera for all other work. In 1939 he listed the following items as his standard equipment: 8 x 10 Century Universal Triple convertible Turner Reich, 12", 21", 28" K2, G, A filters 12 film holders Paul Ries Tripod He continued to use this equipment throughout his life. Film Prior to 1921 Weston used an orthochromatic sheet film, but when panchromatic film became widely available in 1921 he switched to it for all of his work. According to his son Cole, after Agfa Isopan film came out in the 1930s Weston used it for his black-and-white images for the rest of his life. This film was rated at about ISO 25, but the developing technique Weston used reduced the effective rating to about ISO 12. The 8 × 10 cameras he preferred were large and heavy, and due to the weight and the cost of the film he never carried more than twelve sheet film holders with him. At the end of each day, he had to go into a darkroom, unload the film holders and load them with new film. This was especially challenging when he was traveling since he had to find a darkened room somewhere or else set up a makeshift darkroom made from heavy canvas. In spite of the bulky size of the view camera, Weston boasted he could "set up the tripod, fasten the camera securely to it, attach the lens to the camera, open the shutter, study the image on the ground glass, focus it, close the shutter, insert the plate holder, cock the shutter, set it to the appropriate aperture and speed, remove the slide from the plate holder, make the exposure, replace the slide, and remove the plate holder in two minutes and twenty seconds." The smaller Graflex cameras he used had the advantage of using film magazines that held either 12 or 18 sheets of film. Weston preferred these cameras when taking portraits because he could respond more quickly to the sitter. He reported that with his Graflex he once made three dozen negatives of Tina Modotti within 20 minutes.In 1946 a representative from Kodak asked Weston to try out their new Kodachrome film, and over the next two years he made at least 60 8 x 10 color images using this film." They were some of the last photographs he took, since by late 1948 he was no longer able to operate a camera due to the effects of his Parkinson's disease. Exposures During the first 20 years of his photography Weston determined all of his exposure settings by estimation based on his previous experiences and the relatively narrow tolerances of the film at that time. He said, "I dislike to figure out time, and find my exposures more accurate when only "felt"." In the late 1930s he acquired a Weston exposure meter and continued to use it as an aid to determine exposures throughout his career. Photo historian Nancy Newhall wrote that "Young photographers are confused and amazed when they behold him measuring with his meter every value in the sphere where he intends to work, from the sky to the ground under his feet. He is "feeling the light" and checking his own observations. After which he puts the meter away and does what he thinks. Often he adds up everything ‒ filters, extension, film, speed, and so on ‒ and doubles the computation." Weston, Newhall noted, believed in "massive exposure", which he then compensated for by hand-processing the film in a weak developer solution and individually inspecting each negative as it continued to develop to get the right balance of highlights and shadows. The low ISO rating of the sheet film Weston used necessitated very long exposures when using his view camera, ranging from 1 to 3 seconds for outdoor landscape exposures to as long as 4½ hours for still lifes such as peppers or shells. When he used one of the Graflex cameras the exposure times were much shorter (usually less than ¼ second), and he was sometimes able to work without a tripod. Darkroom Weston always made contact prints, meaning that the print was exactly the same size as the negative. This was essential for the platinum printing that he preferred early in his career, since at that time the platinum papers required ultra-violet light to activate. Weston did not have an artificial ultra-violet light source, so he had to place the contact print directly in sunlight to expose it. This limited him to printing only on sunny days. When he wanted a print that was larger than the original negative size, he used an enlarger to create a larger inter-positive, then contact printed it to a new negative. The new larger negative was then used to make a print of that size. This process was very labor-intensive; he once wrote in his Daybooks "I am utterly exhausted tonight after a whole day in the darkroom, making eight contact negatives from the enlarged positives." In 1924 Weston wrote this about his darkroom process, "I have returned, after several years use of Metol-Hydroquinine open-tank" developer to a three-solution Pyro developer, and I develop one at a time in a tray instead of a dozen in a tank." Each sheet of film was viewed under either a green or an orange safelight in his darkroom, allowing him to control the individual development of a negative. He continued to use this technique for the rest of his life. Weston was known to extensively use dodging and burning to achieve the look he wanted in his prints. Paper Early in his career Weston printed on several kinds of paper, including Velox, Apex, Convira, Defender Velour Black and Haloid. When he went to Mexico he learned how to use platinum and palladium paper, made by Willis & Clement and imported from England. After his return to California, he abandoned platinum and palladium printing due to the scarcity and increasing price of the paper. Eventually he was able to get most of the same qualities he preferred with Kodak's Azo glossy silver gelatin paper developed in Amidol. He continued to use this paper almost exclusively until he stopped printing. Writings Weston was a prolific writer. His Daybooks were published in two volumes totaling more than 500 pages in the first edition. This does not include the years of the journal he kept between 1915 and 1923; for reasons he never made clear he destroyed those before leaving for Mexico. He also wrote dozens of articles and commentaries, beginning in 1906 and ending in 1957. He hand-wrote or typed at least 5,000 letters to colleagues, friends, lovers, his wives and his children. In addition, Weston kept very thorough notes on the technical and business aspects of his work. The Center for Creative Photography at the University of Arizona, which now houses most of Weston's archives, reports that it houses 75 linear feet of pages from his Daybooks, correspondence, financial records, memorabilia, and other personal documents in his possession when he died. Among Weston's most important early writings are those that provide insights into his development of the concept of previsualization. He first spoke and wrote about the concept in 1922, at least a decade before Ansel Adams began utilizing the term, and he continued to expand upon this idea both in writing and in his teachings. Historian Beaumont Newhall noted the significance of Weston's innovation in his book The History of Photography, saying "The most important part of Edward Weston's approach was his insistence that the photographer should previsualize the final print before making the exposure." In his Daybooks he provided an unusually detailed record of his evolution as an artist. Although he initially denied that his images reflect his own interpretations of the subject matter, by 1932 his writings revealed that he had come to accept the importance of artistic impression in his work. When combined with his photographs, his writings provide an extraordinarily vivid series of insights into his development as an artist and his impact of future generations of photographers. Quotations "Form follows function." Who said this I don't know, but the writer spoke well. I am not a technician and have no interest in technique for its own sake. If my technique is adequate to present my seeing then I need nothing more. I see no reason for recording the obvious. If there is symbolism in my work, it can only be the seeing of parts ‒ fragments ‒ as universal symbols. All basic forms are so closely related as to be visually equivalent. My own eyes are no more than scouts on a preliminary search, for the camera's eye may entirely change my idea. My work-purpose, my theme, can most nearly be stated as the recognition, recording and presentation of the interdependence, the relativity, of all things ‒ the universality of basic form. The camera sees more than the eye, so why not make use of it? This then: to photograph a rock, have it look like a rock, but be more than a rock. What then is the end toward which I work? To present the significance of facts, so that they are transformed from things seen to things known. When money enters in ‒ then, for a price, I become a liar ‒ and a good one I can be whether with pencil or subtle lighting or viewpoint. I hate it all, but so do I support not only my family, but my own work. Legacy As of 2013, two of Weston's photographs feature among the most expensive photographs ever sold. The Nude, 1925 taken in 1925 was bought by the gallerist Peter MacGill for $1.6 million in 2008. Nautilus of 1927 was sold for $1.1 million in 2010, also to MacGill. Major exhibitions 1970, the Rencontres d'Arles festival (France) presented an exhibition "Hommage à Edward Weston" and an evening screening of the film The Photographer (1948) by Willard Van Dyke. November 25, 1986 – March 29, 1987 Edward Weston in Los Angeles at Huntington Library 1986 Edward Weston: Color Photography at Center for Creative Photography, University of Arizona May 13 – August 27, 1989 Edward Weston in New Mexico at Museum of Fine Arts in Santa Fe Edward Weston : the Last Years in Carmel at The Art Institute of Chicago, June 2 – September 16, 2001, and at the San Francisco Museum of Modern Art, Mar. 1 – July 9, 2002. List of photographs The artistic career of Weston spanned more than forty years, from roughly 1915 to 1956. A prolific photographer, he produced more than 1,000 black-and-white photographs and some 50 color images. This list is an incomplete selection of Weston's better-known photographs. Notes References Sources Abbott, Brett. Edward Weston: Photographs from the J. Paul Getty Museum. Los Angeles: J. Paul Getty Museum, 2005. Alinder, Mary Street. Group f.64: Edward Weston, Ansel Adams, Imogen Cunningham, and the Community of Artists Who Revolutionized American Photography. New York: Bloomsbury USA, 2014. Bunnell, Peter C. Edward Weston on Photography. Salt Lake City: P. Smith Books, 1983. Bunnell, Peter C., David Featherston et al. EW 100: Centennial Essays in Honor of Edward Weston. Carmel, Calif. : Friends of Photography, 1986. Conger, Amy. Edward Weston in Mexico, 1923–1926. Albuquerque: University of New Mexico Press, 1983. Conger, Amy (1992). Edward Weston – Photographs From the Collection of the Center for Creative Photography. Tucson: Center for Creative Photography, University of Arizona, 1992. Conger, Amy. Edward Weston: The Form of The Nude. NY: Phaidon, 2006. Edward Weston : Color Photography. Tucson: Center for Creative Photography, University of Arizona, 1986. Enyeart, James. Edward Weston's California landscapes. Boston : Little, Brown, 1984. Foley, Kathy Kelsey. Edward Weston's Gifts to His Sister. Dayton: Dayton Art Institute, 1978. Heyman, There Thau. Seeing Straight: The f.64 Revolution in Photography. Oakland: Oakland Art Museum, 1992. Higgins, Gary. Truth, Myth and Erasure: Tina Modotti and Edward Weston. Tempe, Ariz. : School of Art, Arizona State University, 1991. Hochberg, Judith and Michael P. Mattis. Edward Weston: Life Work. Photographs from the Collection of Judith G. Hochberg and Michael P. Mattis. Revere, Pa.: Lodima Press, c2003. Hooks, Margaret. Tina Modotti: Photographer and Revolutionary. London: Pandora, 1993. Lowe, Sarah M. Tina Modotti and Edward Weston the Mexico Years. London: Merrell, 2004. Maddow, Ben. Edward Weston: Fifty Years; The Definitive Volume of His Photographic Work. Millerton, N.Y., Aperture, 1973. , Maggia, Filippo. Edward Weston. New York: Skira, 2013. Mora, Gilles (ed.). Edward Weston: Forms of Passion. NY: Abrams, 1995. Morgan, Susan. Portraits / Edward Weston. NY: Aperture, 1995. Newhall, Beaumont (1984). Edward Weston Omnibus: A Critical Anthology. Salt Lake City : Peregrine Smith Books, 1984. Newhall, Beaumont . Supreme Instants: The Photography of Edward Weston. Boston : Little, Brown, 1986. Newhall, Nancy (ed.). Edward Weston; The Flame of Recognition: His Photographs Accompanied by Excerpts from the Daybooks & Letters. NY: Aperture, 1971. Pitts, Terence. Edward Weston 1886–1958. Köln: Taschen, 1999. Stebins, Theodore E., Karen Quinn and Leslie Furth. Edward Weston : Photography and Modernism. Boston: Museum of Fine Arts, 1999. Stebins, Theodore E. Weston's Westons : Portraits and Nudes. Boston: Museum of Fine Arts, 1989. Travis, David. Edward Weston, The Last Years in Carmel. Chicago: Art Institute, 2001. Warren, Beth Gates. Artful Lives: Edward Weston, Margrethe Mather, and the Bohemians of Los Angeles. Los Angeles: J. Paul Getty Museum, 2011. Warren, Beth Gates. Edward Weston's Gifts to His Sister and Other Photographs. NY: Sotheby's, 2008. Warren, Beth Gates (2001). Margrethe Mather & Edward Weston: A Passionate Collaboration. NY: Norton, 2001. Watts, Jennifer A. (ed.). Edward Weston : A Legacy. London: Merrell, 2003. Weston, Edward (1964). The Daybooks of Edward Weston. Edited by Nancy Nehall. NY: Horizon Press, 1961–1964. 2 vols. Weston, Edward. My Camera on Point Lobos; 30 Photographs and Excerpts from E. W.’s Daybook. Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 1950. Weston, Paulette. Laughing Eyes: a Book of Letters Between Edward and Cole Weston 1923–1946. Carmel: Carmel Publishing Co., 1999. Wilson, Charis. Edward Weston Nudes: His Photographs Accompanied by Excerpts from the Daybooks & Letters. NY : Aperture, 1977. Wilson, Charis. Through Another Lens: My Years with Edward Weston. NY: Farrar, Straus and Giroux, 1998. Woods, John. Dune: Edward & Brett Weston. Kalispell, MT: Wild Horse Island Press, 2003. External links edward-weston.com Edward Weston Collection at the Center for Creative Photography Ben Maddow "Edward Weston Lecture" The Baltimore Museum of Art: Baltimore, Maryland, 1976. Retrieved June 26, 2012 The Eloquent Nude: The Love and Legacy of Edward Weston and Charis Wilson Documentary concerning Edward Weston, his muse Charis Wilson and photographer Ansel Adams. Encyclopædia Britannica Landscape photographers American portrait photographers 1886 births 1958 deaths History of platinum printing Photographers from California Artists from Chicago People from Highland Park, Illinois Deaths from Parkinson's disease Neurological disease deaths in California 20th-century American photographers Fine art photographers Olympic archers of the United States American male archers Archers at the 1904 Summer Olympics	[ 0.13909026980400085, -0.07001139968633652, -0.7809304594993591, 0.30087992548942566, 0.7878249883651733, 0.35594213008880615, 0.48758652806282043, 0.017932191491127014, -0.3105156123638153, -0.4399734139442444, -0.12475363165140152, 0.6517147421836853, -0.39040225744247437, -0.22318579256534576, -0.4011619985103607, 0.21183106303215027, -0.34724512696266174, 0.21840743720531464, -0.5607389807701111, -0.18986670672893524, -0.07976093888282776, -1.2672371864318848, 0.10995562374591827, -0.22574351727962494, -1.042253017425537, 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232544	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mitch%20Mitchell	Mitch Mitchell	John Graham "Mitch" Mitchell (9 July 194612 November 2008) was an English drummer and child actor, who was best known for his work in the Jimi Hendrix Experience for which he was inducted into the Rock and Roll Hall of Fame in 1992. He was inducted into the Modern Drummer Hall of Fame in 2009. Biography Early days Mitchell was born in Ealing, Middlesex, to Phyliss C (née Preston) and Thomas J Mitchell on 9 July 1946 (although several modern sources have incorrectly claimed that he was born in 1947). As a twelve year old, he had a leading role in the British film Bottoms Up (1960) with Jimmy Edwards. As a teenager he starred in a children's television programme, Jennings at School. Mitchell became a musician through working at Jim Marshall's drum shop on Saturdays while still at school. Among drummers, his chief influences were Elvin Jones and Tony Williams. One of his first bands was the Soul Messengers, formed at the Ealing Club with saxophonist Terry Marshall, son of Jim Marshall. Early in his career he gained considerable musical experience as a touring and session musician, working with Pete Nelson and the Travellers, Frankie Reid and the Casuals (1962), Johnny Harris and the Shades, the Pretty Things, Bill Knight & the Sceptres, the Riot Squad, and the Who as a session drummer while the band was in the process of replacing Doug Sandom with Keith Moon. In 1965, he also temporarily replaced Viv Prince as drummer in the Pretty Things. Georgie Fame and the Blue Flames From December 1965 until October 1966, Mitchell was the drummer of Georgie Fame and the Blue Flames, appearing on their 1966 album Sweet Things. In a 2015 interview, Fame recalled: "His main hero was jazz drummer Ronnie Stephenson and if you look at early film clips of Mitch, he had that Ronnie Stephenson look, the way he set his jaw. And he loved crashing around on the cymbals like Ronnie, but in my band I liked the arrangements pretty tight. When he started splashing around I'd say 'just play the hi-hat!'". The Jimi Hendrix Experience Mitchell auditioned for the Jimi Hendrix Experience on 6 October 1966 and was chosen over Aynsley Dunbar in a coin toss. Mitchell's fast, driving, jazz-influenced playing meshed well with Hendrix's open-ended, revolutionary approach to the electric guitar. He played on the three best-selling Experience studio albums, Are You Experienced (1967), Axis: Bold As Love (1968), and Electric Ladyland (1968). Mitchell remained with Hendrix after the Experience broke up when Noel Redding quit in June 1969. He performed with Hendrix's expanded lineup at Woodstock (August 1969). Mitchell was replaced briefly with Buddy Miles for the Band of Gypsys album (1970), but rejoined Hendrix (with Billy Cox on bass) for the April–September 1970 the Cry of Love Tour. He recorded most of the material for the posthumously-released Hendrix studio albums The Cry of Love (1971) (also listed as a co-producer), Rainbow Bridge (1971), and War Heroes (1972). Drum sets Mitchell debuted with the Hendrix Experience playing a Premier drum kit in England and Europe in 1967. When the Experience came to the US for the Monterey Pop Music Festival in June 1967 Mitchell was playing that same set. Later in the summer, Mitchell switched to a Ludwig drum set and stayed with Ludwig through the rest of the year, 1967, and continued with Ludwig in 1968 and 1969. In 1970, Mitchell switched to a double-bass Gretsch Drums set, his last year with the Hendrix Experience. With the exception of the 1969 Woodstock Music Festival, during which he played a Rodgers Powertone snare drum, during his time with the JHE, Mitch played a Ludwig Supraphonic 400, a 5- by 14-inch metal snare drum. Other projects In December 1968, Mitchell played with the Dirty Mac, an impromptu band assembled for The Rolling Stones Rock and Roll Circus. Others included John Lennon as vocalist and rhythm guitarist "Winston Leg-Thigh"; Yoko Ono providing improvised primal screams; Eric Clapton as guitarist, and Keith Richards as bassist. The group recorded a cover of "Yer Blues" as well as a jam called "Whole Lotta Yoko". While working with Hendrix from late 1969 until early 1970, Mitchell also collaborated with the Jack Bruce and Friends band fronted by ex-Cream bassist/vocalist Jack Bruce, with keyboardist Mike Mandel and jazz-fusion guitarist and future the Eleventh House frontman Larry Coryell. Post Hendrix After Hendrix' death, Mitchell finished production work with engineer Eddie Kramer on incomplete Hendrix recordings, resulting in the releases The Cry of Love and Rainbow Bridge. In 1972, he teamed up with guitarists Mike Pinera and April Lawton to form Ramatam. They recorded the first of Ramatam's two albums and were an opening act for Emerson, Lake & Palmer at a number of concerts. Mitchell and Hendrix had been offered spots in the band Keith Emerson and Greg Lake were forming, but Carl Palmer got the drum position instead. Ramatam never achieved commercial success, and Mitchell left the act before their second album was released. He also performed in concerts with Terry Reid, Jack Bruce, and Jeff Beck as a substitute for drummer Cozy Powell. Mitchell drummed alongside John Halsey in the 1970s jam band Hinkley's Heroes, the only time he played alongside another drummer. In 1974, he auditioned for Paul McCartney's band Wings but lost the part to Geoff Britton in another coin toss. For the rest of the 1970s through to the 1990s, Mitchell, semi-retired and living in Europe, continued to perform and occasionally record. In 1986, Mitchell teamed up with jazz musician Greg Parker and made a music video session of Led Zeppelin's "Black Dog". He did session work on Junior Brown's Long Walk Back album and participated in various Hendrix-related recordings, videos, and interviews. In 1999, Mitchell was part of the Gypsy Sun Experience, along with former Hendrix bassist Billy Cox and guitarist Gary Serkin. He also appeared on Bruce Cameron's album Midnight Daydream that included Billy Cox, Buddy Miles and Jack Bruce. Death He spent his final days celebrating Hendrix's music on the 2008 Experience Hendrix Tour. For nearly four weeks the tour travelled on an 18-city tour of the US, finishing in Portland, Oregon. The tour also featured Billy Cox, Buddy Guy, Jonny Lang, Robby Krieger, Kenny Wayne Shepherd, Eric Johnson, Cesar Rosas, David Hidalgo, Brad Whitford, Hubert Sumlin, Chris Layton, Eric Gales, and Mato Nanji. Five days after the tour ended Mitchell died in his sleep on 12 November, in his room at the Benson Hotel in Portland of "natural causes". Mitchell had been in ill health for many years due to an immune system disorder and cancer. Mitchell had earlier bouts with extreme fatigue but had recovered from them after a few days rest in the 2007 and 2008. But by the end of the 2008 show, Mitchell was playing only two or three songs and always with a backup drummer along side. At his last concert in Portland, Oregon, Mitchell looked so weak that his drum technician and tour manager asked him to sit out the entire show. The drum tech filled in for him on the drums on this, the last show of the tour and the last show of his life. After that last show of the 2008 "Experience Hendrix" tour, Mitchell had asked the "Experience Hendrix" tour with which he was touring to allow him to rest up few days from exhaustion. Over the objection of the tour manager, Mitchell protested over the concerns of the tour manager and drum tech asked to be allowed to "catch up on sleep" and then to be picked up after a few days rest and to be driven back up to the Seattle area by tour roadies. From Seattle, he had planned to return to his home in England. The tour manager, respected Mitchell's request but with spoken reservations about its wisdom. Unfortunately, the tour manager's concern was validated when Mitchell died in his sleep that same night. Press reports that he died from alcohol-related problems are contradicted by Mitchell's health history and are not accurate. Mitchell was the last surviving member of the original Jimi Hendrix Experience. Legacy Queen drummer Roger Taylor has described Mitchell as his early role model. He said: "I still think listening to Mitch Mitchell, especially the early stuff with Hendrix, is just fantastic". Matt Sorum, drummer with the Cult, Guns N' Roses, and Velvet Revolver, has praised his "pure musicianship" and called him "one of the greatest drummers of all time". In an interview with the Police drummer Stewart Copeland in the late 2000s, Copeland listed the Jimi Hendrix Experience debut album Are You Experienced as his favourite drum album of all time, and relates that as a child in school, he would walk around with drum beats in his head and wonder how Mitch Mitchell would carve out a rhythm were he to play that song. In 2016, Mitchell was named the eighth-greatest drummer of all time by Rolling Stone magazine. In 2021, a two hour Podcast Interview on Mitchell's drum sets was recorded on the "Drum History Podcast" web site. The interview tells the story of Mitchell's switch from child actor to drummer and covers the story of his three Ludwig drum sets. This 90 minute interview with drummer-historian Kevin J. Simon remains one of the most popular interviews ever recorded on the site. Click here to listen to the full interview. Discography For a more complete listing of Mitchell's recordings with Hendrix, see Jimi Hendrix discography and Jimi Hendrix posthumous discography. 1966: Georgie Fame — Sweet Things 1967: Wishful Thinking — Count to Ten(Decca F12598, UK, DK) 1967: The Jimi Hendrix Experience — Are You Experienced 1967: The Jimi Hendrix Experience — Axis: Bold As Love 1968: The Jimi Hendrix Experience — Electric Ladyland 1969: Martha Veléz — Fiends and Angels 1971: Jimi Hendrix — The Cry of Love 1971: Jimi Hendrix — Rainbow Bridge 1972: Jimi Hendrix — War Heroes 1972: Ramatam — Ramatam 1975: Mitch Mitchell - Squeeze My Little Finger / Put Your Faith in Me 1980: Roger Chapman — Mail Order Magic 1986: Greg Parker — Black Dog 1996: David Torn — What Means Solid, Traveller? 1998: Junior BrownLong Walk Back 1999: Bruce CameronMidnight Daydream References Further reading Herman, Gary (December 1981/January 1982)."The Continuing Experience of Mitch Mitchell". Modern Drummer. Griffith, Mark (April 2009). "The Jimi Hendrix Experience's Mitch Mitchell". Modern Drummer. External links Remembered at NPR www.MitchDrummer.com website that covers Mitch's life and music 1946 births 2008 deaths English male television actors English male child actors English rock drummers Death in Oregon People from Ealing The Jimi Hendrix Experience members Gypsy Sun and Rainbows members The Dirty Mac members British rhythm and blues boom musicians The Who Screaming Lord Sutch and the Savages members	[ 0.25004810094833374, 0.7541524171829224, -0.9696327447891235, -0.468593567609787, 0.42191413044929504, 0.5745992660522461, 0.370167076587677, -0.09915918856859207, -0.04567874222993851, 0.2445400059223175, 0.16508640348911285, 0.45085349678993225, -0.17738467454910278, 0.00091616774443537, -0.25441139936447144, 0.31148776412010193, 0.1741490215063095, -0.8672716617584229, 0.2449759542942047, -0.9538629055023193, 0.08922293782234192, -0.0521683394908905, -0.21508833765983582, 0.5220023989677429, -0.0087248170748353, 0.86570143699646, -0.18157579004764557, 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232550	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scottish%20Labour%20Party%20%281976%29	Scottish Labour Party (1976)	The Scottish Labour Party (SLP) was a socialist party in Scotland that was active between 1976 and 1981. It formed as a breakaway from the UK Labour Party. It won three council seats in 1977 but lost its MPs at the 1979 election and was dissolved two years later. History The party formed on 18 January 1976 as a breakaway from the UK Labour Party, by members disaffected with the then Labour Government's failure to secure a devolved Scottish Assembly, as well as with its social and economic agenda. The formation of the SLP was led by Jim Sillars, then MP for South Ayrshire, John Robertson, then MP for Paisley and Alex Neil, the UK Labour Party's senior Scottish researcher. The split came just before the resignation of Harold Wilson as prime minister and party leader and the election of James Callaghan as his successor. Within a few weeks of its formation, The Glasgow Herald reported that a System Three opinion poll showed the party was taking a quarter of the Labour Party's electoral support in Scotland. The same poll also gave the SLP a higher share of support in Scotland (8%) than the well-established Liberal Party (6%). Alex Neil was reported to be "staggered and delighted by this wonderful result" and warned that SLP could expect to make gains in areas of urban deprivation in the west of Scotland that usually supported Labour. Almost immediately the SLP became the focus for entryism from the International Marxist Group (IMG), and at the party's first congress in October 1976 the IMG was expelled, along with a number of branches whose members were not associated with the IMG. According to Henry Drucker's account, the IMG's role was rather limited; Sillars used this as an excuse for purging anyone he did not see entirely eye-to-eye with or represented a significant threat to his leadership. The expellees formed a rival Scottish Labour Party (Democratic Wing), and this in turn later renamed itself the Scottish Socialist League (SSL). Gradually, those members of the SSL who had not been associated with the IMG drifted out, and the SSL was reabsorbed into the Trotskyist Fourth International. The SLP had little electoral success, winning only three council seats at the 1977 local elections. It polled only 583 votes in the Garscadden by-election in 1978. At the 1979 general election, the SLP fought three seats, including Sillars' attempt at being re-elected (Robertson chose to step down). Sillars came close to retaining his seat in South Ayrshire, but this was clearly a personal vote built up over the years he had already served as an MP, as the other two candidates polled poorly indeed. This failure prompted the SLP to disband in 1981; and members either fell out of active politics, re-joined the Labour Party, or chose to join the Scottish National Party (SNP), which both Sillars and Neil did, with both rising to high office in the SNP. The SLP adventure is generally looked upon as an ambitious failure, but Sillars has himself put this down to a lack of planning before the decision to launch the party. Unlike the SLP, the Social Democratic Party (SDP) meticulously planned their breakaway from the Labour Party, and were much more successful. Sillars has claimed that the SLP did at least provide a forerunner to the SNP's later dialogue with the left. The SLP had a number of members who would later go on to achieve a name for themselves as mainstream Labour politicians, including John McAllion who became MP and then MSP for Dundee East, Maria Fyfe one time MP for Glasgow Maryhill, Colin Boyd, later Lord Advocate, Sheriff Shiona Waldron, and Charlie Gordon, later MSP for Glasgow Cathcart. These individuals chose to join (or in some cases re-join) the Labour Party rather than follow Sillars into the SNP. Electoral performance See also Scottish Workers Republican Party Scottish Labour Party (1994–present), modern party that is the UK Labour Party's devolved Scotland administrative subdivision. References Bibliography H. M. 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232552	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sara%20Carter	Sara Carter	Sara Elizabeth Carter (née Dougherty; later Sara Carter Bayes; July 21, 1898 – January 8, 1979) was an American country music musician, singer, and songwriter. Remembered mostly for her deep, distinctive, mature singing voice, she was the lead singer on most of the recordings of the historic Carter Family act in the 1920s and 1930s. In her earliest recordings her voice was pitched very high. Life and career Born in Copper Creek, Virginia, the daughter of William Sevier Dougherty and Nancy Elizabeth Kilgore, she married A. P. Carter on June 18, 1915, but they later divorced in 1936. They had three children: Gladys (Mrs. Millard), Janette (Mrs. Jett), and Joe. In 1927, she and A. P. began performing as the Carter Family, perhaps the first commercial rural country music group. They were joined by her cousin, Maybelle, who was married to A. P.'s brother, Ezra Carter. Later, Sara married Coy Bayes, A. P.'s first cousin, and moved to California in 1943, and the original group disbanded. In the late 1940s, Maybelle began performing with her daughters Helen, June, and Anita as The Carter Sisters and Mother Maybelle (the act was renamed The Carter Family during the 1960s). On Carter Family recordings, Sara is credited as author of the songs "Fifty Miles of Elbow Room" and "Keep on the Firing Line"; in truth she discovered these public domain songs when they were being sung at a Seventh-day Adventist church she visited. RCA gave her songwriter credit, as it did A.P. Carter on his public domain discoveries. The Carter family recordings of these tunes brought the songs worldwide fame. She wrote or co-wrote several other songs, including "My Foothills Home", "The Dying Soldier", "Lonesome Pine Special", "Farther On", and "Railroading on the Great Divide". Sara reunited with Maybelle in 1966 for a Columbia Records album titled “An Historic Reunion,” which was later re-issued on Bear Family Records, with additional songs, as “Sara and Maybelle Carter.” They performed together during the folk music craze of the 1960s at the Newport Folk Festival . The duo were featured as guests in a late 1960s episode of the Wilburn Brothers television show, singing "Little Moses" and "As the Band Played Dixie". Following this period, Sara retired to California, though she and Maybelle remained close for the rest of their lives and Sara and Coy journeyed yearly from California to Virginia by car, pulling a travel trailer. In the early 1970s, Sara and Maybelle reunited to appear on Johnny Cash’s network television show and to perform together at the first annual A.P. Carter Memorial Festival in Hiltons, Virginia. Family Tree Legacy Carter was inducted as part of the Original Carter Family in the Country Music Hall of Fame in 1970, along with Bill Monroe. In 1993, her image appeared on a U.S. postage stamp honoring the Carter Family. In 2001 she was inducted into the International Bluegrass Music Hall of Honor. On her 2008 album All I Intended to Be, Emmylou Harris includes the song "How She Could Sing the Wildwood Flower", co-written with Kate and Anna McGarrigle about the relationship between Sara and A. P., inspired by a documentary that the three of them saw on television. Death Sara Carter died in Lodi, California, aged 80, and is interred in the Mt. Vernon United Methodist Church graveyard in Hiltons, Virginia. The A. P. and Sara Carter House, A. P. Carter Homeplace, A. P. Carter Store, Maybelle and Ezra Carter House, and Mt. Vernon Methodist Church are listed on the National Register of Historic Places as components of the Carter Family Thematic Resource. See also Carter Family References Sources Wolfe, Charles (1998). "The Carter Family". In The Encyclopedia of Country Music. Paul Kingsbury, Editor. New York: Oxford University Press. pp. 84–5, 617. External links Sara Carter recordings at the Discography of American Historical Recordings. 1898 births 1979 deaths People from Russell County, Virginia Country musicians from Virginia American women country singers American country singer-songwriters Autoharp players 20th-century American singers Cash–Carter family American United Methodists The Carter Family members 20th-century American women singers 20th-century Methodists Singer-songwriters from Virginia	[ -0.37475284934043884, -0.1895066350698471, -1.0414050817489624, 0.04045385867357254, 0.27926206588745117, 1.1146152019500732, 1.143264889717102, -0.030338117852807045, -0.47844135761260986, -0.03856636956334114, -0.10022632777690887, 0.4570302963256836, -0.3984915316104889, 0.413886696100235, -1.1346112489700317, 0.19677405059337616, 0.040372733026742935, -0.1387840360403061, -0.12839220464229584, -0.23279716074466705, -0.24453389644622803, -0.26699021458625793, 0.25978848338127136, 0.25130772590637207, -0.15693292021751404, 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232553	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List%20of%20political%20parties%20in%20Scotland	List of political parties in Scotland	This article lists political parties in Scotland. Overview The Scottish National Party (SNP) is the main political party in Scotland which primarily supports Scotland becoming an independent nation. They have also supported further devolution as a progression towards independence. They are overall centre-left, and sometimes considered big-tent, advocating social democracy, nuclear disarmament and closer ties to the European Union. They were founded in 1934 and formed a permanent grouping in House of Commons in 1967. Their best election result in the 20th century was at the general election of October 1974 in which they won 11 of Scotland's 72 Westminster seats as well as around 30% of the popular vote, however they lost all but two of these seats in 1979. Support for the party was bolstered under the leadership of Alex Salmond, who in 2011 led the SNP to their best electoral performance to date, in which they became the first party in the devolved Scottish Parliament to win a majority of seats. They form the Scottish government, and are now led by Scotland's First Minister, Nicola Sturgeon. They have 64 Members of the Scottish Parliament (MSPs) and 45 Members of the Parliament of the United Kingdom (MPs). The Scottish Conservatives are the Scottish wing of the UK-wide Conservative Party. They were founded in 1965 out of the merger of the Scottish Unionist Party, which had been a dominant political force in Scotland for much of the early 20th century, winning the majority of votes and seats in the 1931 general election and 1955 general election. However the party went into decline, being reduced from 21 Scottish seats in 1983, to 10 in 1987. The 1997 general election was a catastrophe for the Scottish Conservatives, who were left with no Scottish seats whatsoever. However the party won 18 seats in the Scottish Parliament in the 1999 election due to proportional representation. From 2001 to 2017, the Conservatives held one Scottish seat in the UK parliament, but had its best result in the 21st century in the 2017 general election when it returned 13 seats and just short of a third of the vote. Like the wider UK Conservative Party, the party is a centre-right party, which promotes conservatism and British unionism. They currently have 31 MSPs, led in the Scottish Parliament by Douglas Ross, and 6 MPs, including Ross himself. Scottish Labour is the Scottish wing of the Great Britain-wide Labour Party. It was the most successful party in Scottish elections from 1964 to 2007. Like the wider UK Labour Party, they are centre-left and they promote British unionism. They first overtook the Conservatives as Scotland's largest party at the 1959 general election. In 1997, the UK Labour Party under Tony Blair offered Scotland a referendum on devolution which was passed with around 74% of the electorate in favour. From 1999 to 2007, they were in power in the Scottish Parliament through a coalition with the Liberal Democrats. From 2008 to 2011, the party was led by Iain Gray in the Scottish Parliament, who announced his resignation after the party's defeat at the 2011 Scottish election. Johann Lamont became leader in 2011 and resigned in 2014 after an internal dispute within the party. Subsequently, they were led by Jim Murphy, Kezia Dugdale and Richard Leonard. They currently have one MP and 22 MSPs. they are led by Anas Sarwar MSP. The Scottish Liberal Democrats are the Scottish wing of the Great Britain-wide Liberal Democrats party. It is a centrist, social liberal and British unionist party. The British Liberal Democrats they are part of were formed in 1988 when the Liberal Party and the Social Democratic Party merged. Their leader is Alex Cole-Hamilton. Since the formation of the Conservative–Liberal Democrat coalition at Westminster, support for the Liberal Democrats has fallen sharply, and the party won five seats at the 2011 Scottish parliamentary election. They also lost their Scottish MEP at the 2014 European elections. They also lost 10 of their 11 House of Commons seats at the 2015 general election, with Deputy Leader Alistair Carmichael the only MP managing to keep his seat. They currently have four MSPs and four MPs. The Scottish Greens sit between the centre-left and the left-wing. The party promotes green politics, Scottish independence, equality and radical democracy. It retains close ties with the Green Party of England and Wales and the Green Party Northern Ireland, having all originated in the breakup of the UK Green Party. However, all three parties are now fully independent. The Scottish Greens won their first seat in the Scottish Parliament in 1999 and currently have 7 MSPs, but have never returned any MPs. Reform UK Scotland is the Scottish wing of the UK-wide Reform UK. It is a Eurosceptic and right-wing populist party. The party gained its first elected representative in January 2021, when sitting independent MSP Michelle Ballantyne joined the party and became leader of the party in Scotland. Ballantyne was previously a Conservative MSP. She resigned from the party in November 2020, citing differences with the new leader Douglas Ross before joining. Ballantyne lost this seat in the 2021 Scottish Scottish Parliament election, leaving the party with no elected representatives in Scotland. The Alba Party is a Scottish independence supporting party formed in February 2021 and led by former First Minister of Scotland Alex Salmond. Shortly after it announced its plans to run in the 2021 Scottish Parliament election, two SNP MPs defected to the new party, making the Alba Party the fourth largest Scottish party at the Westminster Parliament after the SNP, Scottish Liberal Democrats and Scottish Conservatives. In the run up to the 2021 Scottish Parliament election there was a succession of SNP representatives defecting to the party. The party failed to win any seats in the 2021 Scottish Parliament election, after attracting only 1.7% of the vote. Parties with elected representation Scottish Parliament and/or House of Commons There are six parties in Scotland that have elected representation in either the Scottish Parliament or the House of Commons. All except the Scottish Greens, the Alba Party have representation in both. In addition, all parties have elected representation at the local government level. Local government There are several parties in Scotland that have elected representation only at the local government level. Council control Political control may be held by minority governments (min), coalitions (co), joint leadership arrangements (j.l.) or partnership working arrangements (p.w.). Last update 30 March 2021. Parties with no elected representation Notable registered parties There are a number of notable registered parties in Scotland with no elected representation. Some operate exclusively within Scotland, while others may also be active in other parts of the United Kingdom. Historical and deregistered parties Notable historical parties Notable deregistered parties See also Lists of political parties Politics of Scotland Elections in Scotland Notes References External links Electoral Commission official site of the Electoral Commission Political parties Political parties Scotland	[ 0.16431573033332825, 0.10223393887281418, 0.007346907164901495, -0.7107226252555847, -0.8143048286437988, -0.21218723058700562, 0.4025976359844208, 0.6022176146507263, -1.008744478225708, -0.08016563206911087, 0.042264051735401154, 0.06469456106424332, -0.49595093727111816, 0.4746219217777252, 0.2463134527206421, 0.7836002707481384, 0.08592996746301651, 1.104756236076355, 0.06757954508066177, 0.06165875867009163, -0.1386910229921341, 0.3210728168487549, 0.43070486187934875, 0.023283451795578003, -0.02919713780283928, 0.1971893310546875, 1.1976324319839478, -0.053000032901763916, 0.02755928412079811, -0.27753013372421265, -0.18925806879997253, 0.478373259305954, 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232554	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Richard%20Stockton	Richard Stockton	Richard Stockton may refer to: Richard Stockton (Continental Congressman) (1730–1781), delegate to the Continental Congress from New Jersey Richard Stockton (Brown), an 1888 marble sculpture Richard Stockton (U.S. senator) (1764–1828), United States senator from New Jersey and son of the New Jersey delegate to the Continental Congress Richard Stockton (playwright) (1932–1997), American playwright Dick Stockton (born 1942), American sportscaster, born Richard Edward Stokvis Dick Stockton (tennis) (born 1951), American tennis player Richard Stockton (Mississippi politician), Associate Justice of the Supreme Court of Mississippi See also Richard Stockton College, New Jersey, U.S.A.	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232556	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Richard%20Stockton%20%28Continental%20Congressman%29	Richard Stockton (Continental Congressman)	Richard Stockton (October 1, 1730 – February 28, 1781) was an American Founding Father, lawyer, jurist, legislator, and a signer of the Declaration of Independence. Early life Stockton was the son of John Stockton (1701–1758), a wealthy landowner who donated land and helped bring what is now Princeton University (then known as the College of New Jersey, located in Newark) to Princeton, New Jersey. He was born at the Stockton family home now known as Morven in the Stony Brook neighborhood of Princeton. He attended Samuel Finley's academy at Nottingham, which later became West Nottingham Academy, and the College of New Jersey located in Newark, graduating in 1748. He studied law with David Ogden of Newark, who was at that time the head of the legal profession in the province. Stockton was admitted to the bar in 1754 and soon rose to great distinction. In 1763 he received the degree of sergeant at law, the highest degree of law at that time. He was a longtime friend of George Washington. His wife was poet Annis Boudinot Stockton, sister of New Jersey statesman Elias Boudinot. The Stocktons had six children. Their son Richard Stockton became an eminent lawyer and prominent Federalist leader. Elias Boudinot was married to Stockton's sister Hannah Stockton (1736–1808). Stockton initially showed little interest in politics. He once wrote, "The public is generally unthankful, and I never will become a Servant of it, till I am convinced that by neglecting my own affairs I am doing more acceptable Service to God and Man." Stockton did, however, take an active role as a trustee of the College of New Jersey. Political career Stockton served the college, afterwards known as Princeton University, as a trustee 26 years. In 1766 and 1767, he gave up his law practice for the purpose of visiting England, Scotland, and Ireland. His fame preceded him, and he was received by the most eminent men of the kingdom. Stockton had the honor of personally presenting to King George III an address of the trustees of the College of New Jersey, acknowledging the repeal of the Stamp Act, and his address was favorably received by the king. He was consulted on the state of American affairs by such notable men as the Marquess of Rockingham with whom he spent a week at his country estate. He met with Edmund Burke, the Earl of Chatham, and many other distinguished members of Parliament who were friendly to the American colonies. In Scotland, his personal efforts resulted in the acceptance of the presidency of the college by the Reverend John Witherspoon. Witherspoon's wife had opposed her husband's taking the position, but her objections were overcome with the aid of his future son-in-law Benjamin Rush, who was a medical student in Edinburgh. This was an exceedingly important event in the history of higher education in America. One night in Edinburgh, Stockton was attacked by a robber and he defended himself skillfully with a small sword; the surprised and wounded robber fled. Stockton returned to America in August 1767. In 1768, Stockton had his first taste of government service when he was elevated to a seat in the New Jersey Provincial Council; in 1774 he was appointed to the provincial New Jersey Supreme Court. In 1768 he was elected to the American Philosophical Society. He first took a moderate stance in the troubles between the American colonies and Great Britain. In 1774 he drafted and sent to Lord Dartmouth "a plan of self-government for America, independent of Parliament, without renouncing the Crown." This Commonwealth approach was not acceptable to the king. When Parliament resolved to raise revenue in the colonies in 1775, Stockton declared the colonies "must each of them send one or two of their most ingenious fellows, and enable them to get into the House of Commons, maintain them there till they can maintain themselves, or else we shall be fleeced to some purpose." Revolutionary War In 1776, Stockton was elected to the Second Continental Congress, where he took a very active role. That August, when elections were held for the state governments of the new nation, Stockton and William Livingston each received the same number of votes to be the governor of New Jersey on the first ballot. Although Livingston later won the election by one vote, Stockton was unanimously elected to serve as the chief justice of the New Jersey Supreme Court, but he turned down that position to remain in Congress. Stockton was the first person from New Jersey to sign the Declaration of Independence. Stockton was sent by Congress, along with fellow signer George Clymer, on an exhausting two-month journey to Fort Ticonderoga in New York to assist the Continental Army in the American Revolutionary War. On his return to Princeton, he traveled 30 miles east to the home of a friend, John Covenhoven, to evacuate his family to safety. While there, on November 30, 1776, he and Covenhoven were captured in the middle of the night, dragged from their beds by Loyalists, stripped of their property and marched to Perth Amboy and turned over to the British. The day Stockton was captured, General William Howe had written a proclamation offering protection papers and a full and free pardon to those willing to remain in peaceable obedience to the king. As many took the pardon, Stockton eventually did but first was placed in irons and treated as a criminal. He was then moved to Provost Prison in New York, where he was intentionally starved and subjected to freezing cold weather. After nearly five weeks of brutal treatment, Stockton was released on parole, his health ruined. His estate, Morven, in Princeton was occupied by General Charles Cornwallis during Stockton's imprisonment. American historian William Stryker had written that "Morven[,] the home of the Hon. Richard Stockton, was denuded of its library and furniture." Stockton's treatment in the New York prisons prompted the Continental Congress to pass a resolution directing General George Washington to inquire into the circumstances; not long afterward, Stockton was paroled on January 13, 1777. The U.S. National Archives contains other messages showing that Washington duly contacted General Howe in New York regarding the exchange or release of Stockton and others. Dr. Benjamin Rush wrote, "At Princeton I met my wife's father who had been plundered of all his household furniture and stock by the British army, and carried a prisoner to New York, from whence he was permitted to return to his family upon parole." Howe's document that Stockton signed, giving his word of honor not to meddle in the American affairs during the war, was the parole Dr. Rush said Stockton was given when he was released from prison in New York. On March 25, 1777, General Howe and his brother Lord Howe wrote to Lord George Germain, secretary of state for the Colonies, "My Lord, We have the honor to enclose to your Lordship a state of the Declarations subscribed in consequence of our Proclamation of the 30th of November. 'Although none of the Leaders, nor principal Instigators and Abettors of the Rebellion, thought fit to avail themselves of the opportunity given them to return to their Duty', we have some satisfaction in observing that so considerable a number of His Majesty's deluded Subjects, of inferior Rank, in those Provinces where the Proclamation could be expect to have Effect, were disposed to relinquish the unjust Cause they had been once induced to support." 4,836 declarations were subscribed but Stockton, as a Signer of the Declaration of Independence and a leading rebel, never did, according to General Howe. In 1777, all members of Congress and Washington's Continental Army were required to take the oath of allegiance to the United States. Stockton as a prisoner of war and taken behind enemy lines was also required to take the oath. He was called before the Board, took the oath and was dismissed. Stockton did not turn in any protection papers as was required if one signed Howe's proclamation and were given a pardon. Because of the parole document Stockton signed with General Howe to gain his freedom, and giving his word of honor not to meddle in the war (required to be given a parole), Stockton resigned from Congress. It took nearly two years to regain his health, according to Dr. Rush. In Princeton a rumor started by Mr. Cochran, a Tory, claiming Stockton had taken General Howe's protection, caused Stockton to be spoken against for a short time, but "Mr. Cochran's known quarrel with him makes it very doubtful to candid persons," Rev. John Witherspoon wrote in a letter to his son David. "Common report, moreover, may be attributed to Judge Stockton some of the exploits of a distant cousin, Major Richard Stockton an obnoxious Tory, who did take Howe's protection and went over to the British until he was captured in Feb. 1777." The Major Richard Stockton referenced was, in fact, the first cousin of Richard “the Signer” Stockton, Major Richard Witham Stockton of Princeton, New Jersey, a commissioned officer in the British Army. Major Richard Witham Stockton remained loyal to the crown, and at the conclusion of hostilities, emigrated, along with members of his family and other United Empire Loyalist, to what would become New Brunswick, Canada. Death and legacy Nothing was ever written about doubts of Stockton's loyalty in any of the papers of members of Congress, or in any newspapers or books of the time. When his health permitted, Stockton attempted to earn a living by reopening his law practice and teaching new students. Two years after his parole from prison, he developed cancer of the lip that spread to his throat. He was never free of pain until he died on February 28, 1781, at Morven. His remains were conveyed to Nassau Hall, where a large audience of citizens, friends, and students of the college were in attendance. The eulogy was delivered by Rev. Doctor Samuel Smith, vice president of the College of New Jersey and son-in-law of Rev. John Witherspoon. Smith said, "The remains of a man who hath been long among the foremost of his country, for power, for wisdom, and for fortune; and who, if what honors this young country can bestow, if many and great personal talents, could save man from the grave, would not thus have been lamented here by you. Behold here 'the end of all perfection.' The office of a judge of the province, was never filled with more integrity and learning than it was by him, for several years before the revolution. Since that period, he hath represented New-Jersey in the congress of the United States. But a declining health, and a constitution worn out with application and with service, obliged him, shortly after, to retire from the line of public duty, and hath at length dismissed him from the world." On March 7, 1781, The New Jersey Gazette acknowledged Stockton's worth to his country: "The ability, dignity, and integrity, with which this gentleman discharged the duties of the several important offices to which he was called by the voice of this country are well known." For two generations his family had been Quakers, and it was his wish to be buried at the Stony Brook Meeting House Cemetery in Princeton. Stockton and his wife Annis were close friends of General Washington. After Stockton's death, Annis, one of America's first published female poets, became a favorite correspondent of Washington. Washington and his wife Martha were frequent visitors to Morven. In 1888, the state of New Jersey donated a marble statue of Stockton to the National Statuary Hall Collection at the United States Capitol. He is one of only six signers to be so honored. In 1969, the New Jersey Legislature passed legislation establishing a state college which was named after Stockton, to honor the memory of New Jersey's signer of the Declaration of Independence. Previously known as "Stockton State College", "Richard Stockton State College", and "Richard Stockton College of New Jersey", it is now known as Stockton University. A rest area on the southbound New Jersey Turnpike, south of Interstate 195, is named after Stockton. Family Stockton and his wife had six children, four daughters and two sons: Julia Stockton (married to Benjamin Rush, also a signer of the Declaration), Mary, Susan, Richard, Lucius and Abigail. Stockton's oldest son Richard was a lawyer and U.S. Senator representing New Jersey. His son, Commodore Robert Field Stockton, was a hero of the War of 1812 and in 1846 became the military governor of California and a Senator from New Jersey. See also Memorial to the 56 Signers of the Declaration of Independence References Further reading Glynn, His Sacred Honor Judge Richard Stockton a signer of the Declaration of Independence, 2006, p. 197 Patriots of the American Revolution, May/June 2010, Vol 3, Issue 3. A Signer of the Declaration of Independence Under Attack. External links Biography by Rev. Charles A. Goodrich, 1856 The Society of the Descendants of the Signers of the Declaration of Independence article on Stockton The Richard Stockton Statue at the Architect of the Capitol Appleton's cyclopædia of American Biography article on Stockton Richard Stockton at Richard Stockton College American Heritage article on Stockton and the Declaration of Allegiance. Members of the New Jersey Provincial Council Continental Congressmen from New Jersey 18th-century American politicians Justices of the Supreme Court of New Jersey Signers of the United States Declaration of Independence 1730 births 1781 deaths American Presbyterians Stockton family of New Jersey People from Princeton, New Jersey Princeton University alumni Deaths from cancer in New Jersey Deaths from oral cancer West Nottingham Academy alumni Burials in New Jersey Stockton University People of colonial New Jersey	[ -0.27420827746391296, 0.1836380660533905, -0.24676580727100372, 0.06558004021644592, 0.29893746972084045, 0.2904331386089325, 0.2287372201681137, 0.15141217410564423, -0.6891264915466309, -0.26174160838127136, -0.29110822081565857, 0.20500193536281586, -0.6539168357849121, 0.21857097744941711, -0.8206036686897278, 0.4275699555873871, 0.11427363008260727, -0.10513336211442947, -0.62489914894104, -0.15141691267490387, -0.17301706969738007, 0.29533323645591736, 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232557	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Richard%20Stockton%20%28U.S.%20senator%29	Richard Stockton (U.S. senator)	Richard Stockton (April 17, 1764March 7, 1828) was a lawyer who represented New Jersey in the United States Senate and later served in the United States House of Representatives. He was the first U.S. Attorney for the District of New Jersey, holding that office from 1789 to 1791, and ran unsuccessfully for vice president in the 1820 election as a member of the Federalist Party, which did not nominate a candidate for president. Stockton was a graduate of Princeton University. Life Stockton was born in Princeton, New Jersey, the son of Richard Stockton, a signer of the Declaration of Independence. He was tutored privately, and graduated from the College of New Jersey (now Princeton University) in 1779. He studied law, was admitted to the bar in 1784 and commenced practice in Princeton. He was elected as a Federalist to the United States Senate to fill the vacancy caused by the resignation of Frederick Frelinghuysen and served from November 12, 1796, to March 4, 1799, but declined to be a candidate for reelection. He was an unsuccessful candidate for Governor of New Jersey in 1801, 1803, and 1804. He was elected as a Federalist to the Thirteenth Congress, serving from March 4, 1813, to March 3, 1815, and declined to be a candidate for renomination to the Fourteenth Congress. Stockton was elected a member of the American Antiquarian Society in 1815. After leaving Congress, he resumed the practice of his profession. He died at Morven, near Princeton, and was interred in Princeton Cemetery in Princeton. Family In 1788, Stockton married Mary Field (1766–1837). They were the parents of nine children, including Mary Field, Richard, Julia, Robert Field, Horatio, Caroline, Samuel Witham, William Bradford, and Annis. His brother Lucius Horatio Stockton served as U.S. Attorney for the District of New Jersey. His son Commodore Robert F. Stockton was the Military Governor of California who defeated the Mexican army in 1846. He later became a senator from New Jersey like his father before him. His daughter Annie Stockton was the first wife of U.S. Senator John Renshaw Thomson. References External links Biographical Directory of the United States Congress, 1774-2005: The Continental Congress, September 5, 1774, to October 21, 1788, and the Congress of the United States, from the First Through the One Hundred Eighth Congresses, March 4, 1789, to January 3, 2005, Inclusive. p. 1983 United States Congress. U.S. Government Printing Office, (2005) Richard Stockton (1764-1828) at The Political Graveyard \|- \|- \|- 1764 births 1828 deaths Burials at Princeton Cemetery Federalist Party members of the United States House of Representatives Federalist Party United States senators Members of the American Antiquarian Society Members of the United States House of Representatives from New Jersey New Jersey Federalists New Jersey lawyers People from Princeton, New Jersey Princeton University alumni Stockton family of New Jersey United States Attorneys for the District of New Jersey United States senators from New Jersey 1820 United States vice-presidential candidates	[ -0.541288435459137, -0.015453130006790161, -0.6459214687347412, 0.19085031747817993, 0.3901955485343933, 0.6594521403312683, 0.5225199460983276, 0.5340777635574341, -1.2754353284835815, -0.6173050999641418, 0.28500309586524963, 0.1896289885044098, -0.7529013752937317, 0.2433135062456131, -0.46825048327445984, 0.5003272891044617, 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232560	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rick%20Cook%20%28writer%29	Rick Cook (writer)	James Richard Cook (1944 – January 13, 2022) was an American author of novels and stories. Personal life and death James Richard Cook was born in 1944. In the Society for Creative Anachronism, where he co-founded the Kingdom of Atenveldt, he was known as Sir Richard Ironsteed. Cook died on January 13, 2022. Published works Articles , Locus listed five articles published by Cook: With Stories , Locus listed 13 stories published by Cook: With With With Novels , Locus listed eight books published by Cook: The first in Cook's Wizardry series, the novel and its December second printing were originally sold for . Originally sold for . The sequel to Wizard's Bane, it originally sold for with cover art by Larry Schwinger. The third Wizardry novel originally sold for with cover art by Gary Ruddell. Originally sold for , with cover art by Gary Ruddell. The fourth book in the Wizardry series, it originally sold for with cover art by Cortney Skinner and Newell Convers. The fifth novel in the Wizardry series originally sold for and had cover art by Newell Convers and John Pierrard. Omnibus of Wizard's Bane and The Wizardry Compiled, it originally sold for , with cover art by Tom Kidd. References External links 1944 births 2022 deaths 20th-century American male writers 20th-century American novelists 20th-century American short story writers American fantasy writers American male novelists American male short story writers	[ 0.043362557888031006, 0.38250431418418884, -0.2926889955997467, 0.293795108795166, 0.5302694439888, 0.08562850207090378, 0.5913854241371155, 0.0206589475274086, -0.14073458313941956, -0.15274100005626678, -0.17373111844062805, 0.3476589322090149, -0.08162147551774979, -0.05436877906322479, -0.14540202915668488, 0.3466319143772125, 0.17052261531352997, -0.0309778843075037, -0.7428597807884216, -0.4479908347129822, -0.42006292939186096, -0.35568690299987793, 0.20019260048866272, -0.02910170517861843, -0.04875944182276726, 0.43408849835395813, -0.21289780735969543, -0.5400799512863159, -0.041860852390527725, 0.07287291437387466, -0.21715803444385529, 0.015356902964413166, 0.2771563231945038, -0.21313974261283875, -0.3456732928752899, 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232561	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Storm%20%28Marvel%20Comics%29	Storm (Marvel Comics)	Storm is a fictional character appearing in American comic books published by Marvel Comics. The character was created by writer Len Wein and artist Dave Cockrum, first appearing in Giant-Size X-Men #1 (May 1975). Descended from a long line of African witch-priestesses, Storm is a member of a fictional subspecies of humans born with superhuman abilities known as mutants. She is able to control the weather and atmosphere and is considered to be one of the most powerful mutants on the planet. Born Ororo Munroe to a tribal princess of Kenya and an African-American photojournalist father, Storm is raised in Harlem, New York City, United States and Cairo, Egypt. She was made an orphan after her parents were killed in the midst of an Arab–Israeli conflict. An incident at this time also traumatized Munroe, leaving her with claustrophobia that she would struggle with for life. Storm is a member of the X-Men, a group of mutant heroes fighting for peace and equal rights between mutants and humans. Under the tutelage of a master thief an adolescent Munroe became a skilled pickpocket, the means of which she meets through coincidence the powerful mutant Professor X. Professor X later convinces Munroe to join the X-Men and use her abilities for a greater cause and purpose. Possessing natural leadership skills and formidable powers of her own, Storm has led the X-Men at times and has been a member of teams such as the Avengers and the Fantastic Four as well. Created during the Bronze Age of Comic Books, Storm is the first major female character of African descent in comics. She is regarded by some as being Marvel Comics' most important female superhero, having drawn favorable comparison to DC Comics' most famous female lead Wonder Woman. When Marvel and DC Comics published a DC vs. Marvel miniseries in 1996, Storm was pitted against Wonder Woman in a one-on-one battle and emerged victorious due to winning a popular vote amongst readers. Storm is also part of one of the higher-profile romantic relationships in all of comics. Having married childhood sweetheart and fellow superhero Black Panther, the ruler of the fictional African nation of Wakanda, Munroe was made queen consort through marriage. The title was lost however when the two later divorced. Storm also holds a close relationship with female ninja Yukio; while the characters' relationship was originally conceived of as romantic, it was relegated to subtext after Marvel Comics' editor-in-chief Jim Shooter mandated that no same-gender couples could be depicted in comic books during his tenure at the company. Storm is one of the more prominent characters in the X-Men series, having appeared in various forms of media relating to the franchise, including animation, television, video games, and a series of films. The character was first portrayed in live-action by Halle Berry in 2000 film X-Men. Berry returned to portray the role in the films X2, X-Men: The Last Stand, and X-Men: Days of Future Past. The younger version of Storm was portrayed by Alexandra Shipp in the 2016 film X-Men: Apocalypse. Shipp had a cameo in Deadpool 2 and reprised her role in the 2019 film X-Men: Dark Phoenix. In 2011, Storm was ranked 42nd overall on IGN's "Top 100 Comic Books Heroes" list. Publication history 1975–1979: Origin and early stories Storm first appeared in 1975 in the comic book Giant-Size X-Men #1, written by Len Wein and pencilled by Dave Cockrum. In this comic, Wein uses a battle against the living island Krakoa to replace the first-generation X-Men of the 1960s with new X-Men. Storm was an amalgam of two characters Cockrum created: The Black Cat and Typhoon. The Black Cat had Storm's costume, minus the cape, and was submitted for the new X-Men's original lineup. However, during a hiatus in the new X-Men project, other female cat characters like Tigra were introduced, making the Black Cat redundant. Since the creative team did not want the X-Men to have an all-male lineup, editor Roy Thomas suggested that Cockrum make his character Typhoon, originally designed as a male, into the woman of the group. Cockrum liked the idea and outfitted Typhoon with The Black Cat's costume, a cape, and a new haircut with white hair. His collaborators feared that Storm's white hair would make her look like a grandmother, but Cockrum, confident that he could consistently draw the character so that she would appear young, insisted on this aspect of her appearance. Chris Claremont followed up Wein as the writer of the flagship title The Uncanny X-Men in 1975, writing many notable X-Men stories, among them God Loves, Man Kills and "Dark Phoenix Saga", which served as the basis for the films X2: X-Men United and X-Men: The Last Stand, respectively. In both arcs, Storm is written as a major supporting character. Claremont stayed the main writer of X-Men for the next 16 years and consequently wrote most of the publications containing Storm. Backstory In The Uncanny X-Men #102 (December 1976), Claremont established Storm's backstory. Storm's mother, N'Dare, was the princess of a tribe in Kenya and descended from a long line of African witch-priestesses with white hair, blue eyes, and a natural gift for sorcery. N'Dare falls in love with and marries American photojournalist, David Munroe. They move to Harlem in uptown New York City, where Ororo is born. They later moved to Egypt and lived there until they die during the Suez Crisis in a botched aircraft attack, leaving six-year-old Ororo as an orphan. Her violent claustrophobia is established as a result of being buried under tons of rubble after that attack. She becomes a skilled thief in Cairo under the benign Achmed el-Gibar and wanders into the Serengeti as a young woman. She is worshipped as a goddess when her powers appear before being recruited by Professor X for the X-Men. Claremont further fleshed out Storm's backstory in The Uncanny X-Men #117 (January 1979). He retroactively added that Professor X, who recruits her in Giant Size X-Men #1 of 1975, had already met her as a child in Cairo. As Ororo grows up on the streets and becomes a proficient thief under the tutelage of master thief Achmed el-Gibar, one of her most notable victims was Charles Francis Xavier, later Professor X. He is able to use his mental powers to temporarily prevent her escape and recognizes the potential in her. However, when Xavier is attacked mentally by Amahl Farouk, the Shadow King, the two men are preoccupied enough with their battle to allow the girl to escape. Both Xavier and the Shadow King recognize Storm as the young girl later. 1980s: Punk look and loss of powers In the following issues, Claremont portrayed Storm as a serene, independent character. Although Storm was initially written having trouble adjusting to Western culture, e.g. calling the obligation to wear clothing in public "absurd", in The Uncanny X-Men #139 (November 1980), Claremont established her as the leader of the X-Men after Cyclops takes a leave of absence, a position she holds in various incarnations. Claremont also established a maternal relationship between Storm and the 13-year-old X-Man Kitty Pryde. A short story by Claremont set during Storm's childhood in Kenya that ran in Marvel Team-Up #100 (December 1980), establishes that when she was 12 years old, Storm saved a young Black Panther from racist thugs. This story would later become the basis for later writers to establish a deeper relationship between both characters. In the early 1980s, adventures of Storm written by Claremont included a space opera arc, in which the X-Men fight parasitic beings called the Brood. Storm is infected with a Brood egg and contemplates suicide, but then experiences a last-minute save by the benign whale-like Acanti aliens. Storm's fellow X-Man Angel is abducted by a rogue mutant group called the Morlocks. The X-Men are outnumbered, and Storm is rendered sick by the Morlock called Plague. To save Kitty's life, Storm challenges the Morlocks' leader Callisto, in a duel to the death for the leadership of the Morlocks. Despite being violently sick, she defeats Callisto by stabbing her with a knife. Callisto is saved through the efforts of a Morlock healer, and Storm offers the Morlocks refuge at the Xavier Mansion, though they decline. In The Uncanny X-Men #173 (October 1983), Claremont and artist Paul Smith created a new look for Storm, abandoning her old costume for black leather top and pants, and changing her former veil of white hair into a punk mohawk. The change in appearance was inspired by the decision of colleague Walt Simonson to shave off his beard and mustache while on vacation with his wife, X-Men editor Louise Simonson. Upon their return, Simonson's daughter, Julie, upset at her father's new appearance, ran from the room. When the editors decided to change Storm's appearance, Smith submitted a number of designs to them, explaining in a 2008 interview: I did a number of portraits, all quite lovely and feminine. As a joke, I included a shot of her as Mr. T. You know, the kind of shot where they HAVE to go the other way. Weezie [X-Men editor Louise Simonson]'s response? 'They're going to hang us whichever way we go. Let's commit the murder.' I argued it was a joke and a monstrously bad idea but, given my departure following 175 was set prior to beginning my run, my vote didn't count. So I did what I could with what I had left... So we went with the Mohawk ...But once you get into the whole leather and stud thing it was a bad joke that got way out of hand. Julie Simonson's reaction to her father's new appearance would be mirrored in X-Man Kitty Pryde's heartbroken rejection of Storm's new look. In the story, Storm's outlook on life darkens after her struggles with the Brood. These changes alienate her from Kitty for a time. Storm is influenced in this by Yukio, a friend of Wolverine, and the two become fast friends; while the characters' relationship was originally conceived of as romantic, it was relegated to subtext after Marvel Comics' editor-in-chief Jim Shooter mandated that no same-gender couples could be depicted in comic books during his tenure at the company due to controversy in response to "A Very Personal Hell", a story Shooter had previously written in an issue of The Rampaging Hulk. Claremont wrote an arc in which fellow mutant Forge develops a mutant power neutralizing gun. The intended target is another X-Man, Rogue, but Storm is hit instead, taking away her powers. Forge takes her back to his home in Dallas, Texas to recover. They fall in love, but when she learns that Forge built the weapon that took her powers, she is heartbroken and leaves him. By 1986, the question arose of whether the X-Men would be led by Storm or by Cyclops, who was now married to Madelyne Pryor and an expectant husband. The two settled the matter in a duel in the Danger Room that saw Storm victorious. It was later revealed during the "Inferno" storyline that Madelyne's nascent psychic abilities had emerged during that duel, unbeknownst to her or anyone, and that she had subconsciously used those abilities to influence the duel. During the 1988 "Fall of the Mutants" storyline, Storm is trapped in another dimension with Forge, who restores her elemental powers. Following her rejoining the X-Men, they defeat a demonic enemy called the Adversary, in a battle in which the public believes the X-Men have died. They survive, with the help of the celestial being known as Roma. Using a spell Roma has cast upon them to be invisible to electronic equipment, the X-Men set up new headquarters in a small frontier village in the Australian Outback, after expelling a group of mutant-hunting cyborgs called Reavers who had been living there. Storm is captured by the cyborg Nanny. Although believed slain in that encounter, she resurfaced, having become amnesiac as a result of being physically regressed to childhood by Nanny. She is hunted by the evil telepath Shadow King and framed for murder, and finally returns to thieving. While she slowly starts to regain her memories, she meets with Gambit and they return to the X-Men together. In the following arc, "The X-Tinction Agenda", she is kidnapped by the mutant-exploiting nation of Genosha and is temporarily transformed into a brainwashed slave, but in the end, is restored physically and mentally to her adult prime. 1990s In October 1991, the X-Men franchise was re-launched, centering on the new eponymous X-Men comic. Claremont wrote Storm as the leader of the X-Men's Gold Team. The other team, Blue, was led by her colleague Cyclops, the X-Man she once succeeded as the leader. In the sister title Uncanny X-Men, now under Scott Lobdell, Lobdell continued on the romance between Storm and Forge, which culminated in Forge's proposal to wed in 1992. Storm's slight hesitation, however, is misinterpreted by Forge, who then rescinds his offer before it can be accepted. Lobdell waited until November 1993 before he wrote a reconciliation between the deeply pained Storm and Forge. In 1995, Lobdell continued an arc again pitting the X-Men against the Morlocks. As Claremont did with Callisto in 1983, Lobdell has Storm ending the battle by wounding her opponent in the heart. Here, Storm rips out one heart of the two-hearted Morlock girl Marrow, which has a bomb affixed to it. In February 1996, Storm got her first miniseries, the eponymous Storm. In the first arc of the series, Warren Ellis writes a story in which Storm is sucked into an alternate dimension and pitted against villain Mikhail Rasputin. 2000s In X-Treme X-Men, conceived by a newly reinstated Chris Claremont in July 2001, Storm was written as the leader of this team, and the central character of the book, until its end in issue #46 (June 2004). During this time, Storm enjoys a brief flirtation with younger fellow X-Man Slipstream and is kidnapped by the intergalactic warlord Khan. In the series, Storm also becomes the leader of the X-Treme Sanctions Executive, a special police task force of mutants policing mutants given worldwide authority. During the 2005 "Decimation" storyline, in which 90% of the mutants lose their powers, Storm is among the 198 mutants who retain their powers. Also that year, the miniseries Ororo: Before the Storm by writer Mark Sumerak retold her backstory in greater detail, concentrating on her relationship with surrogate father figure Achmed el-Gibar during her childhood. The following year, Marvel Comics announced that Storm would marry fellow African super hero Black Panther. Collaborating writer Eric Jerome Dickey explained that it was a move to explicitly target the female and African American audience. Storm's history with Black Panther, including the initial meeting of the characters, was retconned by Marvel during the lead up to their marriage. Initially, in Marvel Team-Up #100 (1980), Storm is seen at age twelve rescuing Black Panther from a white racist called Andreas de Ruyter, but in Dickey's miniseries, T'Challa saves Ororo (who is still twelve) from de Ruyter and his brother. A Black Panther #24 (2006) flashback is ambiguous when it comes to the physical aspect of their first meeting, while the miniseries depicts Ororo giving her virginity to T'Challa a few days after they meet. Collaborating writer Axel Alonso, editor of Black Panther, has stated: "Eric's story, for all intents and purposes (...) is Ororo's origin story." The relationship led to the marriage of the two most prominent black African Marvel Comics heroes in Black Panther #18 by writer Reginald Hudlin, July 2006, as a tie-in to the "Civil War" storyline. Marvel Comics editor-in-chief Joe Quesada was highly supportive of this marriage, stating it was the Marvel Comics equivalent of the marriage of "Lady Diana and Prince Charles", and he expected both characters to emerge strengthened. Shawn Dudley, the Emmy-Award Winning Costume Designer for TV's Guiding Light designed Storm's wedding dress, which was revealed in the April 17 issue of TV Guide, though the design was greatly altered for the comic event. In 2007, when Mister Fantastic and the Invisible Woman take time off from the Fantastic Four to work on their marriage in the aftermath of the "Civil War" storyline, Storm and Black Panther become temporary members of the Fantastic Four. Storm later returned to the Uncanny X-Men. Storm joins the reformed Astonishing X-Men #25 because she explains, Wakanda is a supporter of Mutantes Sans Frontieres and she believes she should be on the front line, however, she is also somewhat bored of her life as queen. The reemergence of the Shadow King later forces Storm to choose between her role as queen and her role as an X-Man. Confronting the Panther God Bast, Storm asserts that she is not limited to being one or the other or anything else and that she is unafraid to do whatever is necessary to fulfill those responsibilities. Regaining Bast's favor, the two defeat the Shadow King and Storm decides that she will remain Queen of Wakanda and remain with the X-Men, refusing to choose between them. Seeking to re-learn his limitations, T'Challa later leaves Africa and takes a new role as the guardian of Hell's Kitchen following the events of Shadowland; Though the two remain a couple, Storm sadly but respectfully accepts T'Challa's request for temporary isolation so that he can find himself. 2010s After the 2011 revamp of the X-Men related comic books Storm appears as the leader of a defensive, reconnaissance based team of X-Men in the ongoing X-Men title. In November that year, Storm joined the Avengers in The Avengers vol. 4 #19. She leaves the team to fight alongside the X-Men during the "Avengers vs. X-Men" storyline, which has her facing off against T'Challa when he sides with the Avengers. When a Phoenix-empowered Namor destroys Wakanda, Storm realizes the Phoenix Five are out of control and returns to help the Avengers. However, she is stunned when T'Challa tells her he has annulled their marriage. In April 2013, Marvel debuted a new all-female series simply named X-Men. Written by Brian Wood with art by Olivier Coipel, X-Men features a roster of Storm, Jubilee, Rogue, Kitty Pryde, Rachel Grey and Psylocke. In late 2013, Marvel debuted Amazing X-Men by writer Jason Aaron, which featured Storm as a member of the team. July 2014 saw the debut of a Storm solo series written by Greg Pak with art by Victor Inanez. In the aftermath of "Secret Wars" storyline, Storm became the leader of the Extraordinary X-Men. The aim of the team was to provide a safe haven for mutants following the release of the Terrigen Mist, which is toxic to mutants. To protects the mutants, Storm relocated the team to Limbo. During Civil War II, Storm sided with Captain Marvel and was pitted against Magneto. Despite the tension between mutants and the Inhumans, Storm attempted to build an alliance with Medusa. When Magneto's X-Men attacked New Attilan, Storm's team clashed with the former villain. Storm reluctantly led the X-Men into a war with the Inhumans.<ref>Extraordinary X-Men" 17 Marvel Comics.</ref> Following the war with the Inhumans, Storm steps down as leader of the X-Men and is replaced by Kitty Pryde. However, she continues to be a team member in X-Men: Gold. Additionally, Storm appears as a cast member of Black Panther and The Crew, before its cancellation. Storm's magical hammer, known as Stormcaster, briefly returned to her. Later, Munroe joins the X-Men: Red roster, led by the newly resurrected Jean Grey. During the Hunt for Wolverine, Storm helps the X-Men search for Logan in Madripoor. The mission results in a confrontation between the X-Men and the Femme Fatales, led by Viper. Historical significance Storm was one of the first black comic book characters, and the first black female, except for Misty Knight, who debuted in a comic dated March 1975, to play either a major or supporting role in the big two comic book houses, Marvel Comics and DC Comics. Within these two companies, her 1975 debut was only preceded by a few male black characters and Misty Knight. In Marvel Comics, preceding characters were Gabe Jones (debuted in 1963), Black Panther (1966), Bill Foster (1966), Spider-Man supporting characters Joe Robertson (1967), his son Randy (1968), Hobie Brown (the Prowler) & The Falcon (1969), Luke Cage (1972), Blade (1973), Abe Brown (1974), and Misty Knight (March 1975). In DC Comics, she was preceded by Teen Titans member Mal Duncan who debuted in 1970, Green Lantern wielder John Stewart (1971), and Mister Miracle protégé Shilo Norman (1973); she preceded DC's other black heroes, Legion of Super-Heroes member Tyroc (who debuted in 1976), Black Lightning (1977), Bumblebee (1977), Cyborg (1980), Vixen (1981) and Amazing-Man (1983). While not the first black character to be introduced, since her creation Storm has remained the most successful and recognizable black superhero. Gladys L. Knight, author of Female Action Heroes: A Guide to Women in Comics, Video games, Film, and Television (2010) wrote that "two defining aspects of her persona are her racial identity and her social status as a mutant." The X-Men have symbolically represented marginalized minorities and the debut of the X-Men series coincided with the Civil Rights Movement, in which their plight as mutants mirrored that of African Americans. Storm's creation in particular "was during the heyday of blaxploitation films." Fictional character biography Ever since her inception in 1975, Storm's biography has largely stayed the same. The framework was laid first by Chris Claremont, who fleshed out her backstory in The Uncanny X-Men #102 (1976), #113 (1978) and #117 (1979). Some reinterpretations were made in 2005 and 2006, where writers Mark Sumerak and Eric Jerome Dickey, respectively, rewrote part of her early history in the miniseries Ororo: Before the Storm and Storm vol. 2. According to established Marvel canon, Ororo Munroe is born in New York City as the child of Kenyan tribal princess N'Dare and American photographer David Munroe. When Ororo is six months old, she and her parents move to the Egyptian capital of Cairo. Five years later, during the Suez Crisis, a fighter jet crashes into her parents' house, killing them. Buried under tons of rubble, Ororo survives but is orphaned and left with intense claustrophobia. Her fear was once so intense that she was known to curl into a fetal position and approach a catatonic state. In late 2000s storylines, however, writers like Ed Brubaker and Christopher Yost have indicated that Storm had largely conquered her claustrophobia, and can freely move in tight spaces, even over long periods of time. After the death of her parents, Ororo wanders Cairo's back-alleys for a few weeks, until she is picked up by the benign street lord Achmed el-Gibar and becomes a prolific thief; among her victims is her future mentor Professor X who is there to meet the Shadow King. Following an inner urge, she wanders into the Serengeti as a teenager and meets T'Challa, who would become her future husband. Despite strong mutual feelings, the two part ways. In the Serengeti, Ororo first displays her mutant ability to control the weather. Sometime after this, she met the witch-priestess, Ainet, who took her in and became her surrogate mother. Once, when their village was going through a terrible drought, Storm commanded rain for days just to help them. By doing this, she threw off the natural order of nature, and droughts were formed over numerous villages, and hundreds of animals were killed. Sensing the damage she had done, Ainet told Storm of her kind but poorly considered gesture, and of the damage she caused. Ainet took this opportunity to explain to Ororo how her powers worked with nature, and how she could fix the problem by properly distributing rain. For a time, she is worshiped as a rain goddess to an African tribe, practicing nudism and tribal spirituality, before being recruited by Professor X into the X-Men. Ororo receives the code name "Storm" and is established as a strong, serene character. In her early career with the X-Men, she suffers a major claustrophobic attack, which prompts a revelation of her origin to her teammates. Jean Grey becomes a close friend as Ororo acclimatizes to the team and the United States, the two supporting each other as the only female X-Men.The Uncanny X-Men #100 When Magneto captures the team, Storm frees the X-Men from captivity. Storm is later captured by the White Queen, leading up to the X-Men's clash with Dark Phoenix. She becomes deputy leader of the X-Men, and supplants her colleague Cyclops as leader of the X-Men, a role she fills out during most of her time as a superhero. She briefly became "Rogue Storm", and even switched bodies with the White Queen. She is attacked by Dracula, and defeats Callisto, becoming the new leader of the Morlocks. Following her leadership of the Morlocks through combat with Callisto, Storm begins to develop a darker side. Eventually, the X-Men are invited to Japan for Wolverine's wedding to Mariko Yashida. It is here that she meets Wolverine's old friend Yukio, and the two become fast friends. Storm is inspired by Yukio, who encourages Storm to embrace her emerging darker side. This leads Storm to drastically change her outward appearance to match her inner self and thus don her iconic punk drab. In a storyline that began in 1984, Storm is deprived of her superhuman powers by an energy weapon fired by Henry Peter Gyrich; unknown to her, this device was designed by the mutant inventor Forge. The depowered Ororo subsequently meets and falls in love with Forge, but leaves him when she discovers that he is the inventor of the weapon behind her power loss. She helps Forge battle Dire Wraiths, before leaving him to rejoin the X-Men. She aids the New Mutants against the Shadow King Amahl Farouk. She next journeys to Asgard with the X-Men, where she is briefly enslaved by Loki. She is nearly killed in a confrontation with Andreas von Strucker. She defeats Cyclops in a competition to become the X-Men's leader. During the "Fall of the Mutants" storyline, she is reunited with Forge, regains her superhuman powers, and dies with the X-Men in giving her life force to defeat the Adversary; she is resurrected by Roma. She is reverted to childhood by the mutant Nanny, meets Gambit, and is finally returned to adulthood – however, she is enslaved by the Genoshans, but regains her free will and escapes captivity. Concerning her personal life, she is for a long time romantically involved with fellow X-Man Forge, and even considers marrying him before their relationship dissolves. After 90% of the mutants of the world lose their powers, Storm leaves the X-Men to go to Africa. She rekindles her relationship with T'Challa, now a superhero known as Black Panther, marries him, and becomes the queen of the kingdom of Wakanda. She joins the new Fantastic Four alongside her husband when Reed and Sue take a vacation. On a mission in space, the Watcher tells Black Panther and Storm that their children will have a special destiny. Upon Reed's and Sue's return to the Fantastic Four, Storm and the Black Panther leave, with Storm returning to the Uncanny X-Men to help out with events in Messiah Complex. After joining with the X-Men again, Storm is confronted by Cyclops over her position as an X-Man and a Queen. Cyclops reminds her that she made him choose between family and duty before, and she needs to make the same decision. Storm reacts by returning to Wakanda to face a despondent Black Panther, with the two seemingly falling out with each other, although it is later revealed that the Black Panther had been possessed by the Shadow King. After incapacitating the possessed T'Challa, Storm battles Cyclops, who had been mentally enthralled by the Shadow King to kill the other X-Men. After being forced to drive him out by striking Cyclops through the chest with a massive lightning bolt, the Shadow King then takes control of Storm, only to be devoured in vengeance by Bast, the Panther God, who had agreed to hide inside of Storm's mind to take revenge on the Shadow King for possessing T'Challa. Around the early 2010, Storm assumes a leadership position in a team operating from the island of Utopia, near San Francisco, after the X-Men: Schism. She took Cyclops's side in the Schism and thus becomes member of his new X-Tinction Team. After Avengers vs. X-Men, when T'Challa officially annuls their marriage, Storm returns to Wolverine's side and they both begin a relationship. During Marvel NOW! (early- to mid-2010s), she also goes back to a punk mohawk look with a new costume, and becomes a member of the Uncanny X-Force (with Psylocke, Spiral, Puck and a female Fantomex) and of an all-female incarnation of X-Men (with Jubilee, Rachel Grey, Rogue, Psylocke, Omega Sentinel and Monet/M). She also stars in her own short-lived solo title. After the Marvel Universe reboot in the Secret Wars crossover (2015), Storm returns to the fold in Extraordinay X-Men, trying to deal with a new plague called M-Pox. The M-Pox is based on the dispersal on the atmosphere of the Terrigen Mists, and this situation rises the tensions between mutants and Inhumans, culminating in the crossover Inhumans vs. X-Men'. ResurrXion When Kitty Pryde returns from space to lead the X-Men, Storm joins the her and a few familiar faces in the new X-Men Gold title. During the same period, she also rekindles her friendship with a resurrected Jean Grey and joins her Red team. Dawn of X In the new status quo for mutants post House of X and Powers of X, Professor X and Magneto invite all mutants to live on Krakoa and welcome even former enemies into their fold. Storm takes part in a quasi-religious ceremony to welcome their newly resurrected comrades, after an attack on an Orchis/Master Mold base in space. Storm is seen attacking the last compound of Orchis on Earth with Magneto, Polaris and Cyclops. She also is part of the Marauders crew with White Queen, Captain Kitty Pryde, Iceman, Pyro and Bishop. Another parallel storyline involves her attempts to find a cure for a technorganic infection. Later, after the Hellfire Gala and the terraforming of planet Mars, Storm leaves the Marauders and becomes the regent of Arakko and Voice of the Sol System. Powers and abilities Weather control Storm is one of the most powerful mutants on Earth and has demonstrated a plethora of abilities, most of which are facets of her power to manipulate the weather. Storm possesses the psionic ability to control all forms of weather over vast areas. She has been able to control both Earthly and extraterrestrial ecosystems. She can modify the temperature of the environment, control all forms of precipitation, humidity, and moisture (at a molecular level), generate lightning and other electromagnetic atmospheric phenomena, and has demonstrated excellent control over atmospheric pressure. She can incite all forms of meteorological tempests, such as tornadoes, thunderstorms, blizzards, and hurricanes, as well as mist. She can dissipate such weather to form clear skies as well. Her precise control over the atmosphere allows her to create special weather effects. She can create precipitation at higher or lower altitudes than normal, make whirlwinds travel pointing lengthwise in any direction, channel ambient electromagnetism through her body to generate electric blasts, flash freeze objects and people, coalesce atmospheric pollutants into acid rain or toxic fog, and, along with her natural ability of flight, summon wind currents strong enough to support her weight to elevate herself (or others) to fly at high altitudes and speeds. Her control is so great that she can even manipulate the air in a person's lungs. She can also control the pressure inside the human inner ear, an ability she uses to cause intense pain. She can also bend light using moisture in the air and her manipulation of mist and fog to appear partially transparent, and in later comics, nearly invisible. Storm has also demonstrated the ability to control natural forces that include cosmic storms, solar wind, ocean currents, and the electromagnetic field. She has demonstrated the ability to separate water molecules into oxygen and hydrogen via electrolysis, allowing her to breathe underwater. While in outer space, she is able to affect and manipulate the interstellar and intergalactic media. Storm can alter her visual perceptions so as to see the universe in terms of energy patterns, detecting the flow of kinetic, thermal and electromagnetic energy behind weather phenomena and can bend this energy to her will. Storm has been shown to be sensitive to the dynamics of the natural world, and her psionic powers over the weather are affected by her emotions. One consequence of this connection to nature is that she often suppresses extreme feelings to prevent her emotional state from resulting in violent weather. She has once sensed a diseased and dying tree on the X-Mansion grounds, detected objects within various atmospheric mediums—including water, and sensed the incorrect motion of a hurricane in the Northern Hemisphere and the gravitational stress on the tides by the Moon and Sun as well as the distortion of a planet's magnetosphere. Storm can view the Earth as weather patterns, and is able to precisely recognize her geographic position through interpretations of these patterns. Storm's mutant abilities are limited by her willpower and the strength of her body. Sentinels have considered Storm an Omega-level mutant on one occasion. Magical potential Storm's ancestry supports the use of magic and witchcraft. Many of her ancestors were sorceresses and priestesses. Storm's matrilineal powers have even been linked to the real-world Rain Queens of Balobedu, the region from which her Sorceress Supreme ancestor from the Hyborian Age, Ayesha, hails. The Mystic Arcana series deals with Storm's ancestor Ashake, who worships the Egyptian goddess Ma'at, also known as Oshtur – the mother of Agamotto. Oshtur appears to have strong favor for the bloodline of Ororo. For some unknown reason, since the dawn of Atlantis, this line of African women has been given distinguishing features of white hair, blue eyes, and powerful magic potential. Although Storm has not developed her magical potential, it has been hinted at. The Mystic Arcana series lists the characters with magic potential according to the Marvel Tarot deck. The Tarot asserts Storm as being "High Priestess", the First Tarot's choice one-third of the time. The other draws were the Scarlet Witch and Agatha Harkness. These three characters split the High Priestess card equally. A timeline-divergent Storm became the sorceress who taught sorcery to Magik and some of Storm's alternate universe selves possess considerable magical talent. On a separate note, it has been stated that Storm's spirit is so strong that she was able to host the consciousness of an avatar (or "manifestation body") of Eternity; in a gathering consisting of herself, Doctor Strange, Black Panther, Silver Surfer and the Fantastic Four, she and Doctor Strange were the only viable candidates. In Wakanda, Storm is called Hadari-Yao ("Walker of Clouds" in ancient Alkamite), a goddess who preserves the balance of natural things. Combat and thievery Storm's willpower is strong enough to defy Dracula's commands after he bites her. She is an expert thief, and a skilled, cunning and gifted hand-to-hand fighter, trained by Achmed el-Gibar, Professor X, Wolverine and T'Challa, the Black Panther. By using superior strategy, Storm has overcome physically stronger foes like Callisto and the Crimson Commando in hand-to-hand combat. Storm is an excellent marksman with handguns, and is proficient in the use of knives. Storm is also fluent in Russian, Arabic, and Swahili. As part of her paraphernalia, Storm carries a set of lock-picks (with which she has an extraordinary ability at picking locks, including her teeth while her physical coordination was reduced to the level of an infant) and her ancestral ruby, which allows inter-dimensional transportation with the help of her lightning. Physical abilities and traits Storm's weather powers allow her body to compensate for climate extremes; on one occasion as she was trying to control an unnatural storm she becomes overwhelmed as her body temperature rises too high. In The Official Handbook of the Marvel Universe – X-Men (2004), it is stated that her powers enable her to breathe while moving at any speed and protect her from air friction, while granting her protection from temperature extremes of heat and cold; the All-New Official Handbook of the Marvel Universe Update #1 (2007) states that Storm's body changes temperature in opposition to her environment so that the colder the environment the warmer her body gets, and the warmer the environment the colder her body gets. Her body compensates for rapid decreases or increases in atmospheric pressure. She can see in near-complete darkness and has superb dexterity. Storm has been described as having one of the strongest wills among the X-Men, making her highly resistant to psychic attacks especially in tandem with electrical fields she creates around herself. Telepaths have found it difficult to track her down and probe her thoughts. Several of these traits are independent of her mutant status and are a result of her ancestry. Also, when using her powers, Storm's eyes turn solid white. Storm has been stated to be an Omega-Level Mutant. Her potential is as of yet unrealized, and on one occasion the Super Giant stated that Storm was an "Omega-Level Mutate", grouping and targeting her with Omega-Level mutants such as Iceman and Rachel Grey. Her Omega-Level status was eventually confirmed. Storm's real name "Ororo" is translated in her language as "Beauty". Other versions In addition to her mainstream incarnation, the Marvel Comics character Storm has been depicted in other fictional universes. These alternative representations differ considerably from the details and events of the main "Storm" story, without affecting that story's narrative continuity. Age of Apocalypse In the hellish reality known as the Age of Apocalypse, Storm is a member of the X-Men, but more streetwise and tough, and her romantic interest is Quicksilver. Her appearance differs in that she has a black lightning tattoo over her left eye and a bob hair cut. Years after the fall of Apocalypse, Weapon X, the AoA version of Wolverine whose mind was twisted into making him the heir of Apocalypse, captured and renamed her as Orordius after using the Celestial technology on her to enslave and transform her into a blind seer made of living stone. Deadpool Corps Professor X runs an orphanage for troubled kids where Storm is the headmistress. Kid versions of Cyclops and Deadpool are sent to her office for causing trouble. Marvel Mangaverse In Marvel Mangaverse, Storm is a witch who trained with Abigail Hefton. She is later seen as a mutant. It is implied she was killed by The Hand. Marvel Zombies The basic premise of the various Marvel Zombies stories is that almost all super-powered beings on Earth have become flesh-eating zombies after being infected by an alien virus. Alongside Thor, Dr. Strange, Colossus, and Nightcrawler, Storm is one of the last super-humans on her world to become a zombie. Marriage to Forge New X-Men posits an alternative future for Storm in which she, under her birth name Ororo, marries Forge and lives a happy married life in his building, Eagle's Plaza in Dallas, Texas. NOW WHAT! (Marvel) In this universe, Spider-Storm appears who is a amalgamation of Storm and Spider-Man. She is a member of the X-Vengers. Amalgam Comics Amalgam Comics was a brief publishing collaboration between Marvel and DC Comics, enabling characters owned by both companies to interact, and creating characters that were composites of Marvel and DC characters. Here, Ororo is a mutant with superpowers who nearly drowns as a child, but is rescued by Queen Hippolyta of the Amazons. Hippolyta raises young Ororo as an Amazon princess beside her own daughter Diana (see Wonder Woman) on the island of Themiscyra. She eventually leaves her island home to enter "Man's World" as Amazon, Amalgam's fusion of Storm and Wonder Woman. She joins the JLX — a cross between the Justice League of DC Comics and Marvel's X-Men, consisting of similarly merged characters — and becomes their leader. Days of Future Past In the dystopian Days of Future Past storyline of Chris Claremont (1981), Storm is one of the last fighters of the mutant resistance and is killed by a horde of robotic, mutant-hunting Sentinels. Earth X In a contemporary alternative universe, the Earth X series (started 1999 by Jim Krueger), Storm is known as "Queen Storm" and is married to Black Panther, something that happens in the mainstream universe seven years later. Exiles Two versions of Storm have appeared in Exiles: A version of Storm that was similar to her mainstream counterpart was killed by the Phoenix in a world where Jean Grey manifested the Phoenix force in a manner reminiscent of The Dark Phoenix Saga. One of the more prominent versions of Storm is a sixteen-year-old version of Ororo Munroe who is a member of the ruthless reality-hopping team Weapon X. Mutant X (Marvel Comics) Bloodstorm is a fictional mutant vampire from an alternative universe within the Marvel Comics multiverse. She is an alternative reality version of the X-Men's Storm. Though introduced as a supporting character in Mutant X, she quickly became the breakout character of the series. Editors reported that the majority of fan mail to Mutant X was focused on her. Bloodstorm's history branches from her mainstream counterpart during the events of The Uncanny X-Men #159, in that she was not saved from the bite of Dracula and was transformed into a vampire. As she still retains her oath not to kill (in mainstream continuity she did not break that oath until The Uncanny X-Men #170, after her encounter with Dracula), Bloodstorm employs Forge and Kitty Pryde as food sources, draining from them enough to sustain herself but not to kill them. She leaves the X-Men and joins the team The Six. Limbo Storm In The Uncanny X-Men #160 and in the Magik (Illyana and Storm) limited series, an alternative Storm is introduced, who lives the remaining years of her life in the demonic realm of Limbo. Old Man Logan In the "Old Man Logan" storyline, Storm is among the X-Men who perish at the hands of Wolverine when he is tricked by Mysterio into believing his friends are super-villains attacking the mansion. Ultimate Marvel In the Ultimate Marvel continuity, Storm is a founding member of the "Ultimate X-Men", created by Mark Millar and Joe Quesada in February 2001. Millar, who wrote for the series until July 2003, established Storm as an illegal immigrant from Morocco who lived in Athens, Texas as a car thief prior joining the X-Men. In contrast to her mainstream counterpart, Ultimate Storm initially has trouble controlling her powers. For example, she once passes out after reluctantly summoning an electrical storm in order to destroy a fleet of Sentinels; her reluctance stemming from a past incident where she nearly electrocuted a playground full of children. When later writer Brian Michael Bendis seemingly killed Beast off in April 2004, a grief-stricken Storm drastically alters her appearance. This change parallels the transformation her mainstream counterpart goes through under Claremont and Smith. Subsequent writer Brian K. Vaughan wrote Storm to act as the team's conscience and started a relationship between her and Wolverine. In the "Ultimate X-Men: Shock and Awe" arc (2005), Vaughan inserted new elements into her back story by establishing Yuriko "Yuri" Oyama as Storm's archenemy. X-Men: Forever In this alternative reality (with a history identical to 616), Storm kills Wolverine for unknown reasons as an agent of the Consortium (as yet unrevealed) and betrays the X-Men. As the X-Men search for her in New York City, an adolescent Storm with short hair appears to Gambit, just as young as she had appeared to him before. When Beast checks bloodwork, both Storms are identical. At the series conclusion, with the adult Storm-clone, now calling herself 'Perfect Storm', having become Wakanda's Queen after killing the Black Panther, the other two Storms merge into another adult Storm, keeping Perfect Storm prisoner while taking her place as Wakanda's Queen to undo the harm she had caused. What If...? Marvel's What If comic book series, which imagines alternative realities for Marvel characters, has featured Storm several times. The depicted relationship between Wolverine and Storm was also shown in the X-Men animated series episode "X-Men: The Animated Series: 'One Man's Worth'" (1995). In other media Storm has made numerous appearances in other media, including the X-Men animated television series, X-Men: Evolution and Wolverine and the X-Men. She has appeared in six live-action X-Men films; she is portrayed by actress Halle Berry in four of the films and her younger self is portrayed by Alexandra Shipp in X-Men: Apocalypse and X-Men: Dark Phoenix. She has also been in a large number of video games: a guest appearance in Spider-Man: Web of Shadows and a playable character in every game in the X-Men Legends/Marvel: Ultimate Alliance/Marvel: Ultimate Alliance 2 series. Collected editions Reception In the 2007 Glyph Comics Awards, the Fan Award for Best Comic was won by Storm, by Eric Jerome Dickey, David Yardin & Lan Medina, and Jay Leisten & Sean Parsons. Storm was ranked as the 89th greatest comic book character of all time by Wizard magazine. IGN also ranked her as the 42nd greatest comic book hero of all time quoting that "fans have seen Storm as a thief, an X-Man, a fighter, and even a queen. Through it all, she remains one of the most relatable mutant heroes", #8 on their list of "The Top 25 X-Men" opining that "even though Cyclops may be the default leader of the X-Men, in particular because of his allegiance to The Dream, Storm is the better choice to be in charge", and 37th in their list of "The Top 50 Avengers". Storm was ranked 30th in Comics Buyer's Guide's "100 Sexiest Women in Comics" list in 2011. References External links World of Black Heroes: Storm Biography Storm profile at Marvel Database Project UncannyXmen.net Spotlight on Storm Storm profile at Comicvine African-American superheroes Avengers (comics) characters Black characters in films Black characters in video games Black people in comics Characters created by Dave Cockrum Characters created by Len Wein Comics characters introduced in 1975 Female characters in animation Female characters in film Female characters in television Fictional characters from New York City Fictional characters with weather abilities Fictional Kenyan people Fictional professional thieves Fictional queens Fictional tribal chiefs Marvel Comics female superheroes Marvel Comics film characters Marvel Comics mutants Marvel Comics orphans Superheroes who are adopted X-Men members	[ -0.45246028900146484, 0.14614395797252655, -0.3739888668060303, 0.04819956794381142, -0.3354141414165497, 0.21030354499816895, 0.7400001287460327, 0.5621955394744873, 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232565	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/National%20Party%20of%20Scotland	National Party of Scotland	The National Party of Scotland (NPS) was a centre-left political party in Scotland which was one of the predecessors of the current Scottish National Party (SNP). The NPS was the first Scottish nationalist political party, and the first which campaigned for Scottish self-determination. The National Party of Scotland was founded in 1928 by the amalgamation of the Scots National League (SNL), the Scottish National Movement (SNM) and the Glasgow University Scottish Nationalist Association (GUSNA). The NPS emerged from the consensus among members of these groups, and the Scottish Home Rule Association, that an independent political party, free of any connections to any existing parties, was the best way forward for achieving Scottish Home Rule. The NPS contested the 1929 and 1931 United Kingdom general elections, and a number of by-elections. In 1934 the NPS merged with the Scottish Party to form the Scottish National Party (SNP). Origins and history The NPS was formed in 1928 after John MacCormick of the Glasgow University Scottish Nationalist Association called a meeting of all those favouring the establishment of a party favouring Scottish Home Rule. The meeting was presided over by Robert Bontine Cunninghame Graham, who had been a Liberal Party, then Scottish Labour Party politician. The NPS was formed by the amalgamation of GUSNA with the Scots National League, Lewis Spence's Scots National Movement and the Scottish Home Rule Movement. On 23 June an inauguration took place in Stirling. The NPS was a left-of-centre party. The celebrated poet, Hugh MacDiarmid was a member, but was expelled on account of his communist views (ironically, he would later be expelled from the Communist Party of Great Britain for his Scottish Nationalist beliefs). Other figures besides MacDiarmid were involved. Eric Linklater stood as an NPS candidate in the 1933 East Fife by-election, and Neil Gunn played a role in aiding the NPS amalgamation with the Scottish Party. Merger In 1932 a home rule organisation, the Scottish Party, was formed by former members of the then Unionist Party, precursor of the modern Scottish Conservative and Unionist Party. MacCormick desired unity amongst the Scottish Nationalist movement and made contact with the Scottish Party. Increasingly the two parties began to co-operate, and when the Scottish Party chose to contest the Kilmarnock by-election in November 1933 the NPS endorsed their candidate. In 1934 the NPS and Scottish Party merged to form the Scottish National Party. Leaders of the National Party of Scotland Roland Muirhead, (1928–1932?) Electoral performance Lewis Spence was the first nationalist to stand for election. He contested Midlothian and Peebles Northern at a by-election in 1929 and came fourth, with 4.5% of the vote. The NPS contested many elections in its short existence but never managed to get any of its candidates elected to parliament. By-elections, 1929 1929 general election By-elections, 1929-1931 1931 general election By-elections, 1931-1933 Further reading Brand, Jack, The National Movement in Scotland, Routledge and Kegan Paul, 1978 Brand, Jack, ‘Scotland’, in Watson, Michael (ed.), Contemporary Minority Nationalism, Routledge, 1990 Richard J. Finlay, Independent and Free: Scottish Politics and the Origins of the Scottish National Party 1918-1945, John Donald Publishers, 1994 Hanham, H.J., Scottish Nationalism, Harvard University Press, 1969 Christopher Harvie, Scotland and Nationalism: Scottish Society and Politics 1707 to the Present, Routledge (4th edition), 2004 Gerry Hassan (ed.), The Modern SNP: From Protest to Power, Edinburgh University Press, 2009, Lloyd-Jones, N., "Liberalism, Scottish Nationalism and the Home Rule crisis, c.1886-1893", "English Historical Review" (August 2014) Lynch, Peter, SNP: The History of the Scottish National Party, Welsh Academic Press, 2002 John MacCormick, The Flag in the Wind: The Story of the National Movement in Scotland, Victor Gollancz Ltd, 1955 Mitchell, James, The Scottish Question, Oxford University Press, 2014 References Collection of material relating to the Scottish National Party at The Archives Hub Defunct political parties in Scotland Political history of Scotland Political 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232567	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dom%20P%C3%A9rignon%20%28monk%29	Dom Pérignon (monk)	Dom Pierre Pérignon, O.S.B. (; December 163814 September 1715), was a French Benedictine monk who made important contributions to the production and quality of Champagne wine in an era when the region's wines were predominantly still red. Popular myths frequently, but erroneously, credit him with the invention of sparkling Champagne, which did not become the dominant style of Champagne until the mid-19th century. The famous Champagne Dom Pérignon, the prestige cuvée of Moët & Chandon, is named for him. The remains of the monastery where he spent his adult life is now the property of that winery. Dom Pérignon was a contemporary of Louis XIV (1638-1715). Biography Pérignon was born to a clerk of the local marshal in the town of Sainte-Menehould in the ancient Province of Champagne in the Kingdom of France. He was born in December 1638 and was baptized on 4 January 1639. He was the youngest of his parents' seven children, as his mother died the following summer. His father's family owned several vineyards in the region. As a child Pérignon became a member of the boys' choir school operated by the Benedictine Abbey of Moiremont, studying there until 1651, when he went to study at the Jesuit college in Châlons-sur-Marne. When he was 17 he entered the Benedictine Order near the town of Verdun at the Abbey of Saint-Vanne, the leading monastery of the Congregation of St. Vanne. The congregation was a reform movement of monastic life, and he followed a regimen of prayer, study and manual labor, as prescribed in the Rule of St. Benedict. In 1668 he was transferred to the Abbaye Saint-Pierre d’Hautvillers, where he served as cellarer for the rest of his life. Under his stewardship, the abbey flourished and doubled the size of its vineyard holdings, while he worked to improve their product with the help of Dom Thierry Ruinart, a noted scholar of the abbey. When Pérignon died in 1715, as a sign of honor and respect, he was buried in a section of the abbey cemetery traditionally reserved only for abbots. That cemetery is now the property of the local commune. Influence on champagne production In Perignon's era, the in-bottle refermentation (now used to give sparkling wine its sparkle) was an enormous problem for winemakers. When the weather cooled off in the autumn, fermentation would sometimes stop before all the fermentable sugars had been converted to alcohol. If the wine was bottled in this state, it became a literal time bomb. When the weather warmed in the spring, dormant yeast roused themselves and began generating carbon dioxide that would at best push the cork out of the bottle, and at worst explode, starting a chain reaction. Nearby bottles, also under pressure, would break from the shock of the first breakage, and so on, which was a hazard to employees and to that year's production. Dom Pérignon thus tried to avoid refermentation. He did introduce some features that are hallmarks of Champagne today, particularly extensive blending of grapes from multiple vineyards. In 1718, the Canon Godinot published a set of wine-making rules that were said to be established by Dom Pérignon. Among these rules was the detail that fine wine should only be made from Pinot noir. Pérignon was not fond of white grapes because of their tendency to enter re-fermentation. Other rules that Godinot included was Pérignon's guidance to aggressively prune vines so that they grow no higher than three feet and produce a smaller crop. Harvest should be done in cool, damp conditions (such as early morning) with every precaution being taken to ensure that the grapes don't bruise or break. Rotten and overly large grapes were to be thrown out. Pérignon did not allow grapes to be trodden and favored the use of multiple presses to help minimize maceration of the juice and the skins. Pérignon was also an early advocate of wine-making using only natural processes, without the addition of foreign substances. Misconceptions with myths The quote attributed to Perignon – "Come quickly, I am tasting the stars!" – is supposedly what he said when tasting the first sparkling champagne. However, the first appearance of that quote appears to have been in a print advertisement in the late 19th century. A major proponent of the misconceptions surrounding Dom Pérignon came from one of his successors at the Abbey of Hautvillers, Dom Groussard, who in 1821 gave an account of Dom Pérignon "inventing" Champagne among other exaggerated tales about the Abbey in order to garner historical importance and prestige for the church. Groussard's myth achieved more than prestige for the church, it helped commercialize champagne at the turn of the twentieth century. The Syndicat du Commerce used the myth to promote Champagne and the Champagne region, producing a pamphlet called Le Vin de Champagne in 1896 that celebrated Perignon as the inventor of Champagne by following "ancient traditions." The myth served to protect Champagne made in Marne as the original sparkling wine and dismiss other wines as imitators. The myth also helped distance Champagne from its associations with aristocratic decadence and transform it as a drink made from a monk’s labor and persistence. The myths about Pérignon being the first to use corks and being able to name the precise vineyard by tasting a single grape likely originated from Groussard's account. Prior to blending he would taste the grapes without knowing the source vineyard to avoid influencing his perceptions. References to his "blind tasting of wine" have led to the common misconception that Dom Pérignon was blind. Contrary to popular belief, Dom Pérignon did not introduce blending to Champagne wines but rather the method of blending the grapes prior to sending them to press. See also History of Champagne List of wine personalities References Notes Stevenson, Tom. World encyclopedia of Champagne and Sparkling Wine. San Francisco, California: Wine Appreciation Guild (revised edition).. External links 1630s births 1715 deaths People from Marne (department) French Benedictines 17th-century French Roman Catholic priests 18th-century French Roman Catholic priests Wine merchants French winemakers Burials in Burgundy 17th-century French businesspeople 18th-century French businesspeople	[ -0.21731913089752197, 0.617458701133728, -0.21188655495643616, -0.5275871157646179, -0.2128487378358841, 0.5841866731643677, 1.0546067953109741, 0.3946346640586853, -0.9495450854301453, -0.29360905289649963, -0.3681899905204773, 0.16378073394298553, 0.013055852614343166, 0.13505436480045319, 0.4523458182811737, 0.07668622583150864, 0.7652261257171631, 0.3301047384738922, -0.09737147390842438, -0.7008792757987976, -0.17368943989276886, -0.3168593943119049, 0.00801350362598896, -0.2127743363380432, 0.05884658172726631, 0.4256836175918579, -0.43133023381233215, -0.06580517441034317, 0.10967732965946198, -0.2349829077720642, 0.2089318186044693, 0.7573099136352539, 0.13482800126075745, 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232571	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scottish%20Party	Scottish Party	The Scottish (Self-Government) Party was a Scottish nationalist political party formed in 1932 by a group of members of the Unionist Party who favoured the establishment of a Dominion Scottish Parliament within the British Empire. The Scottish Party differed from the existing National Party of Scotland (NPS) on the grounds that the NPS and the form of Scottish independence it advocated was ambiguous about the Empire, and they also disagreed with the left-of-centre platform of the NPS. Origins The Scottish Party emerged in November 1932 as a breakaway from the Cathcart Unionist Association in Glasgow. In June of that year, members of the Association had set up an 'Imperial Committee', which was a pro-Scottish Home Rule front. The committee arranged meetings, made statements in support of Home Rule, and produced a manifesto which proposed replacing the Westminster Parliament with an Imperial Parliament, containing representatives from the British Empire, and establishing dominion Parliaments for Scotland, England, and Wales. This provoked outrage amongst the leadership of the Unionist Party, who were opposed to the establishment of a Scottish Parliament. John Kevan McDowall, a Glasgow solicitor and the chairman of the committee, was accused by the Glasgow Unionist Association of disloyalty and unconstitutional practices. McDowall, Andrew Dewar Gibb, and around thirty other pro-home rule rebels resigned from the Unionist Party and founded the Scottish Party. Activities McDowall and Gibb were able to enlist the support of James Graham, 6th Duke of Montrose (who became the party's chairman) and Sir Alexander MacEwen, both champions of moderate Home Rule. Broadly, the Scottish Party consisted mainly of Unionist and Liberal elements (a mixture of lairds, provosts and business people). The party also included some distinguished figures in Scottish public life, such as John Bannerman, Sir Henry Keith and Sir Daniel Stevenson. The Scottish Party functioned more as a think tank than as an active political party. Its membership was less than 1,000, and it fielded one candidate, MacEwen, only in the 1933 Kilmarnock by-election. He was backed by the National Party of Scotland (NPS) but came fourth with 6,098 votes. Merger By 1933 the Scottish Party had received overtures from John MacCormick, secretary of the NPS, who sought to negotiate a merger between the two parties in order to unify these two elements of the Scottish independence movement. Gibb was especially enthusiastic about the merger, but it was met with scepticism from McDowell. In 1934 the NPS and Scottish Party merged to form the Scottish National Party. References Further reading Brand, Jack, The National Movement in Scotland, Routledge and Kegan Paul, 1978 Hanham, H.J., Scottish Nationalism, Harvard University Press, 1969 Christopher Harvie, Scotland and Nationalism: Scottish Society and Politics 1707 to the Present, Routledge (4th edition), 2004 Kemp, Arnold, The Hollow Drum: Scotland since the war, Mainstream, 1993 Lynch, Peter, SNP: The History of the Scottish National Party, Welsh Academic Press, 2002 Mitchell, James, The Scottish Question, Oxford University Press, 2014 Defunct political parties in Scotland Political parties established in 1932 Political parties disestablished in 1934 Scottish National Party Scottish nationalist parties 1932 establishments in Scotland 1934 disestablishments in Scotland	[ 0.2472449690103531, -0.5808416604995728, 0.5624602437019348, -0.7217023372650146, -0.6910731792449951, -0.13629449903964996, 0.3334532082080841, 0.10370378196239471, -0.340287983417511, -0.2518288493156433, -0.17143677175045013, 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232574	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Maybelle%20Carter	Maybelle Carter	"Mother" Maybelle Carter (born Maybelle Addington; May 10, 1909 – October 23, 1978) was an American country musician and originator of the "Carter scratch". She is best known as a member of the Original Carter Family act from the late 1920s until the early 1940s and was a member of the Carter Sisters and Mother Maybelle. Biography Maybelle Carter was born Maybelle Addington on May 10, 1909 in Nickelsville, Virginia, the daughter of Margaret Elizabeth (née Kilgore; 1879 – 1960) and Hugh Jackson Addington (1877 – 1929). On March 13, 1926, Maybelle married Ezra Carter. They had three daughters, Helen, June and Anita. Maybelle was a member of the Carter Family, formed in 1927 by her brother-in-law A. P. Carter, who was married to her cousin Sara, also a part of the trio. The Carter Family was one of the first commercial rural country music groups. Maybelle helped create the group's unique sound with her innovative style of guitar playing, using her thumb to play melody on the bass strings, and her index finger to fill out the rhythm. Her technique, sometimes known as the Carter Scratch, influenced the guitar's shift from rhythm to lead instrument. She was widely respected in the Grand Ole Opry community of the early 1950s, a matriarchal figure in country music circles who was popularly known as "Mother Maybelle" although only in her forties at the time. Maybelle and her daughters toured from the 1940s through the 1960s as "The Carter Sisters and Mother Maybelle", but after the death of A. P. Carter in 1960 the group revived the name "The Carter Family". They frequently toured with Johnny Cash, her son-in-law from 1968 on; the group were regular performers on Cash's weekly network variety show from 1969 to 1971. She briefly reunited with former Carter Family member Sara Carter during the 1960s folk music craze, with Sara singing lead and Maybelle providing harmony as before. Maybelle Carter made occasional solo recordings during the 1960s and 1970s, usually full-length albums. Her final such work, a two-record set released on Columbia Records, placed on Billboard'''s best-selling country albums chart in 1973 when she was 64. Maybelle was also featured on The Nitty Gritty Dirt Band's 1972 recording Will the Circle Be Unbroken. Maybelle Carter died in 1978 after a few years of poor health, and was interred next to her husband, Ezra, in Hendersonville Memory Gardens in Hendersonville, Tennessee. Two of their daughters – Helen and Anita – are buried nearby. Family tree Musicianship Guitar According to statements made by Carter during a transcribed public performance, she began studying guitar at age 13 when she acquired an instrument. She is often cited as a pioneering musician, being both an early female guitarist with national exposure and one of the first to use the guitar as a lead instrument in country music.Bunch, W. (2009). Mother Maybelle Carter Lauded as a True Trailblazer. Timesnews.net Writers have identified at least three or four styles played by Maybelle Carter. She often tuned her guitar down, sometimes as many as five frets, but sometimes used a capo to increase the instrument's range.Sokolow, F. (nd). The Carter Family Collection: 32 Songs from the Royal Family of Country Music. Hal-Leonard Corporation Her most famous and widely recorded style is sometimes called "the Carter Scratch", or "thumb-lead style". This technique involved playing a melody on the instrument's three bass strings while simultaneously strumming the three treble strings for rhythm. She used thumb and finger picks while playing. Another style, later popularized by other musicians, was essentially the reverse of the thumb-lead style. In this style, Carter finger-picked a melody on the three treble strings while brushing a rhythm on the bass strings with her thumb. It is often said that she first saw this style being played by African American musician Lesley Riddle. A third style of Carter's guitar playing involved rapid flatpicking in a country-blues rhythm. Her most obscure style was utilized on a few recordings by the Original Carter Family in the 1920s and early 1930s. It may be described as a Hawaiian-influenced slide technique that sometimes sounded like a modern dobro. Finally, if other musicians were playing a lead instrument, Maybelle would often strum chords on the guitar to accompany them.Seeger, M. & Carter, J. (2000). Guitary Styles of the Carter Family. (printed insert booklet) Homespunvideo Maybelle once filled in for Jimmie Rodgers during a recording session, perfectly mimicking his guitar playing style, in 1932. Rodgers was ill with tuberculosis at that time and had waning stamina during the session. Carter recorded her signature guitar piece, "Wildwood Flower," on numerous occasions, beginning with the original 1928 version. "The Cannon Ball," recorded with the Original Carter Family in 1930, is a good illustration of Carter's fingerpicking style with thumb/bass fill. Her final recording in the slide guitar style was "My Old Cottage Home" in 1931. "Coal Miner's Blues", recorded for Decca, is an excellent flat-picking illustration. Examples of guitar use by Carter on recordings she made with the Carter Sisters include "Fourteen Karat Nothing", "I'm Working on a Building", "Take Good Care of Him" — a rapid-tempo re-recording of "Waves on the Sea" — as well as a contemporary-sounding revision of "I'll Be All Smiles Tonight". She also played the guitar on many of her solo recordings. "Cumberland Gap," "Victory Rag", "Red Wing", and "Sweet Allie Lee" are good instrumental examples from her various solo albums.Various CD, album and single liner notes, labels and credits. Autoharp In the earliest days of recorded country music the autoharp was quite obscure. The Original Carter Family often used the instrument for rhythm, but it was played by Maybelle Carter's cousin and bandmate, Sara Carter, in her own intricate style. To the degree that the autoharp is currently played in country and roots music, Maybelle Carter is widely credited with its popularity. The autoharp was actually Maybelle's first instrument. She began tinkering with it as early as the age of four but did not turn a serious focus toward the instrument until around 1940. Traditionally the autoharp was strummed as a rhythm instrument. Maybelle developed (alone or perhaps independently of other musicians who did the same) a "pinch and pluck" technique that forms the basis of most modern autoharp playing styles. This technique allows for playing melodic lead notes on the instrument. Carter's style later evolved to add fill-in rhythm, similar to her guitar technique. While playing the autoharp, Maybelle would often press cord bars between notes. The effect was a sort of note slurring, a sound similar to that produced by a guitar hammer-on. It has been said that pianist Floyd Cramer was especially interested in these embellishments to Maybelle's playing and that they helped to shape his piano technique.Carter, M., et al. (1973). Mother Maybelle Carter Interview. Columbia Records As she began to feature the autoharp more and more in concerts and radio work, Carter became frustrated with trying to steady the instrument close enough to a microphone that was often shared by others. She utilized tables and music stands at first but later got the idea of holding the instrument, upside down, across her chest and playing along what was essentially the head of the harp (nearest the tuning pegs). Before then, musicians played below the cord bars at the opposite end. She discovered that this technique allowed more space for her complicated playing style and that it produced a sweeter tone. During at least one public performance Maybelle stated that autoharps began to be manufactured differently to accommodate the playing style she popularized. Maybelle Carter taught at least one workshop on autoharp playing in conjunction with her various appearances at Newport Folk Festivals. A moderator at the workshop noted that Maybelle should be credited with the first finger-picked autoharp solo to be captured on commercial recording, referencing "Fair and Tender Ladies" recorded by the Carter Sisters and Mother Maybelle on Columbia Records about 1950. She often played the autoharp in that group. Other examples include a simplistic but moving solo she added to "Mountain Lady" on the family's final album before her death. In addition to recordings with the Carter Sisters which featured her autoharp playing, Maybelle Carter often featured the instrument in her solo work. On her earliest solo album, in fact, she offered an old fiddle tune, "Liberty", for the session.Sunny Side Sentinel: Official Publication for the Carter Family, discography Issue Later, Smash Records issued an album of autoharp solos by Maybelle Carter, which included a few backing musicians and subtle background vocals by the Stephen Scott Singers. "Green Valley Waltz" and "Barbara Allen" were included along with 10 other titles. The bulk of her final solo album (from 1973) was composed of autoharp solos in which she was accompanied by a full band of studio musicians. Mother Maybelle frequently found studio work with other artists to capture the fresh sound she had created. She recorded at least two songs with Johnnie & Jack and at least two with the Wilburn Brothers. The latter collaboration registered a top-ten hit (on which Maybelle Carter was not credited), "Go Away with Me". She also played autoharp on Carl Smith's Sunday Down South gospel album. A similar pairing with Flatt & Scruggs led to the Songs of the Famous Carter Family album, on which Maybelle contributed mostly through her autoharp playing. In the 1960s Maybelle helped record an instructional record that was sold with an autoharp through a mail-order chain store. She contributed a demonstration of the instrument and a small amount of dialogue. Singing Mother Maybelle Carter added her voice to many records she made with the Original Carter Family, with her later group known as the Carter Sisters and Mother Maybelle (and later known as the Carter Family) and with other versions of the family group. She made many solo recordings featuring both her singing and playing. Finally she collaborated with a few other artists as a singer and musician. Original Carter Family The moniker "Original Carter Family" actually predates the breakup of the original group by several years, being used during the period of their radio programs on Mexican border stations. Apparently, other groups were using the name "Carter Family", so adding "Original" helped distinguish the trio. Eventually the name "Original Carter Family" came to be used to differentiate between the original trio, formed in the 1920s, and later versions of the group, particularly Maybelle and her daughters. Maybelle Carter worked with the Original Carter Family from about 1926 until about 1943 (when the group officially disbanded) on personal appearances, radio shows, and commercial recordings. The group reunited for a performance in May 1953 at the first Jimmie Rodgers Memorial Festival. They sang two songs, with A. P. Carter serving as emcee for their portion of the program. The performance was captured on a home movie camera but the film deteriorated in storage. An audio recording of the performance does survive. Maybelle sang harmony on two or three of the first six songs recorded by the family in 1927. Her vocal contributions to the group were subdued in the beginning but she gradually took on a more prominent role. It became routine for her to harmonize with the whole trio. She and Sara Carter frequently sang duets without A. P. In 1937 the two recorded a duet on "Hello Stranger" which featured both voices equally in an unusual call-and-response vocal arrangement. Maybelle sang opening phrases for all verses on the group's 1940 recording of "I'll Never Forsake You". During their final commercial session Maybelle's voice was slightly dominant to Sara's on selections such as "Why Do You Cry Little Darling," "You Tied a Love Knot in My Heart", and "You're Gonna Be Sorry You Let Me Down". On radio shows she would rarely sing lead for the group but sometimes played and sang solos. In the mid-1960s through the early 1970s, Maybelle and Sara would periodically reunite for personal appearances and television work, recording an album for Columbia during this time as well. Carter Sisters and Mother Maybelle Following A. P. Carter's death in 1960, the group previously known as the "Carter Sisters and Mother Maybelle" assumed "Carter Family" as their official band name. Maybelle Carter performed with this group, mostly with her three daughters but in various other versions of the group as well, from the late 1930s and early 1940s almost until her death in 1978. They toured, did many radio programs and TV appearances, and made a number of commercial recordings together. As the Carter Sisters & Mother Maybelle, the group made their first commercial recordings for RCA Victor in 1949. The sales were better than average but produced no major hits. Those recordings were among the first to be issued on the new 45-rpm single format. Maybelle sang lead on a number of the RCA recordings, including "My Darling's Home at Last", "Why Do You Weep Dear Willow", "Walk a Little Closer", "Don't Wait", and "I've Got a Home Up in Glory". One of the more popular recordings of that era to feature Maybelle was "Someone's Last Day"; on a radio transcription the emcee notes that "she gets more requests for it than any of them". By the early 1950s the group changed labels to Columbia. In that era Maybelle frequently sang a verse on a song with her daughters singing others. Likely the most popular recording from that era was a single featuring "Fair and Tender Ladies" one side and "Foggy Mountain Top" on the other. In the early 1960s the group featuring Maybelle and her daughters (now called simply the "Carter Family") moved to the Liberty label, where they had an album and at least one single released. Shortly thereafter they returned to Columbia, where the group remained under contract throughout Maybelle's life. It was on Columbia that almost all the group's significantly successful discs were released. Maybelle's role as a vocal soloist was diminished during this time, but she did a lot of harmony singing on those recordings and would periodically sing whole songs or verses within songs. Examples include "Homestead on the Farm", on the group's The Country Album; "Picture on the Wall", from the Three Generations collection; and an enduring rendition of "Will the Circle be Unbroken" on their Keep on the Sunny Side album. Solo career The first commercial recording to feature Maybelle as a headliner was the album Mother Maybelle Carter on the Briar label. It was recorded in 1959 but was not released until a couple of years later. Maybelle recruited the help of her daughters Helen and Anita as backing vocalists. Group members often utilized other family members on their various solo recordings. Some singles were released from the album. Further, a slightly edited version of the album was later released under the title Queen of the Autoharp on the Kapp label. That transaction offered more robust distribution. Maybelle sang several interesting selections including "Sweeter than the Flowers" and "My Native Home". Someone had the idea of adding the Carter Scratch to a reverberating electric guitar on some of the tracks. The strange effect was a sort of "Carter Family beach music" sound. Maybelle filled out the album with other vocal performances and some instrumentals. In the early to mid 1960s Maybelle Carter's solo work was recorded by Mercury Records and released on its subsidiary labels Smash and Cumberland. There were three albums and at least one non-album single. Representative solo vocals from those recordings include "Faded Coat of Blue" "Flowers Blooming in the Wildwood", and "Nobody's Darling on Earth". A single "Strumming My Guitaro" also featured Maybelle's work on a new autoharp-like instrument of the same name. Finally, "Foggy Mountain Top", an album cut, stands out as being apparently the only commercial recording Maybelle sang with her own banjo accompaniment. By the late 1960s Maybelle Carter and the entire family had re-signed with Columbia records. The label released another solo album on Maybelle, Living Legend, shortly thereafter. Vocal examples from that album include "Give Me Your Love and I'll Give You Mine," "We All Miss You Joe," and "A Letter from Home". One single from the album I Told them What You Were Fighting For was a small chart hit. A double album of instrumentals, discussed above, was also released. Collaborations with other artists As part of the Carter Family, and as a soloist, Maybelle often sang and/or played as a guest on other artists' recordings. Many times she went uncredited on the label. Likely her most commercially successful venture in this realm was her collaboration on the Nitty Gritty Dirt Band's album Will the Circle Be Unbroken from the early 1970s. Maybelle contributed dialogue during the sessions. She also sang lead and played on "Thinking Tonight of My Blue Eyes" and "Wildwood Flower". On the album's title track she played throughout the song and sang the first solo verse. She received a Grammy nomination and her only gold record for the performances. The album was a commercial success, peaking at number 4 on the country charts, as well as making a respectable showing on the pop charts. It was eventually certified at platinum sales. Maybelle and Johnny Cash released a top 40 single in 1973, "Pick the Wildwood Flower", which featured her guitar playing and brief dialogue. The single's B side, "Diamonds in the Rough", was a vocal duet accompanied by Maybelle's guitar playing. Awards, recognition, and legacy Her first major award from an organized music body came in 1966, when she was presented with a trophy that read "Mother of Country Music". Maybelle Carter was elected with the Original Carter Family to the Country Music Hall of Fame in 1970. She and Sara Carter became the first female performers to be inducted (simultaneously) into the institution. Maybelle Carter was nominated at the 15th Annual Grammy Awards (1972) in the category of Best Country Vocal Performance by a Duo or Group for "Will the Circle Be Unbroken" (Album). The Carter Family (Maybelle, Helen, June, and Anita) received the "Favorite Country Group" trophy from the American Music Awards in 1973. The following year Maybelle was individually honored with the first Tex Ritter Award by the International Fan Club Organization at Fan Fair in Nashville TN. Following Maybelle Carter's death the CBS network aired a television special called "The Unbroken Circle: A Tribute to Maybelle Carter" in 1979. The following year she and her daughters were given the "Gospel Act of the Year" by the Music City News Cover Awards Show. Maybelle received the "Acoustic Pioneer Award" from Frets Magazine in 1986. By 1992 Carter was inducted into the Autoharp Hall of Fame In 1993, her image appeared on a U.S. postage stamp honoring the Carter Family. She would rank No. 8 in CMT's 40 Greatest Women of Country Music in 2002. In 2005, she was portrayed by Sandra Ellis Lafferty in the Johnny Cash biographical film Walk the Line. Actress Frances Conroy portrayed her in the 2013 TV Movie "Ring of Fire". Carter has also been depicted in musicals such as "Keep on the Sunny Side and "Wildwood Flowers: The June Carter Story" by actresses and singers such as Joy Lynn White, Gina Stewart and Teresa Williams She was the subject of her granddaughter Carlene Carter's 1990 song "Me and the Wildwood Rose". Her death was the subject of Johnny Cash's song "Tears in the Holston River". Numerous other tribute songs have been written and recorded about Maybelle Carter. The Original Carter Family (with Maybelle) were inducted into the International Bluegrass Association's Hall of Honor in 2001 and were -given a Lifetime Achievement Grammy Award in 2005. In 2007 Carter was honored as one of the Library of Virginia's "Virginia Women in History" for her musical career. In 2010, Lipscomb University in Nashville named the stage in Collins Alumni Auditorium after her. The A. P. and Sara Carter House, A. P. Carter Homeplace, A. P. Carter Store, Maybelle and Ezra Carter House, and Mt. Vernon Methodist Church are listed on the National Register of Historic Places as components of the Carter Family Thematic Resource. Partial discography Singles Albums Guest singles Guest albums References Sources Wolfe, Charles. (1998). "Carter Family". In The Encyclopedia of Country Music. Paul Kingsbury, Editor. New York: Oxford University Press. pp. 84–85. Zwonitzer, Mark with Charles Hirshberg. (2002). Will You Miss Me When I'm Gone?: The Carter Family and Their Legacy in American Music''. New York: Simon & Schuster. External links Maybelle Carter recordings at the Discography of American Historical Recordings. 1909 births 1978 deaths People from Scott County, Virginia American banjoists American country guitarists American country singer-songwriters American women country singers American women guitarists Autoharp players Cash–Carter family Grand Ole Opry members Smash Records artists Top Rank Records artists American folk singers 20th-century American singers The Carter Family members 20th-century American women singers 20th-century American guitarists 20th-century American women guitarists	[ -0.13547822833061218, 0.014293140731751919, -0.7737531661987305, -0.35380688309669495, 0.4626719653606415, 1.0555580854415894, 0.11390123516321182, 0.6900519728660583, -0.17532353103160858, -0.5204892754554749, 0.5068437457084656, 0.444993793964386, -0.015491427853703499, 0.4905623495578766, -1.5330181121826172, 0.39628466963768005, -0.18592005968093872, -0.2319098263978958, -0.3432164788246155, 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232576	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Darl%20McBride	Darl McBride	Darl Charles McBride (born 1959) is an entrepreneur and CEO of Shout TV Inc. McBride is known as the former CEO of The SCO Group. On March 7, 2003, during McBride's tenure as CEO of the company, The SCO Group initiated litigation (SCO v. IBM) against IBM, alleging breach of contract and copyright infringement claims connected to Unix. The case is considered one of the top 10 technology battles of all time. SCO Group lost in a series of court battles, and was eventually forced into bankruptcy. Education and personal life McBride graduated from Brigham Young University with a degree in sociology and then earned a master's degree in industrial relations from the University of Illinois at Urbana–Champaign. While at the University of Illinois McBride was awarded a fellowship from IBM. McBride is fluent in Japanese and spent two years in Japan as a missionary for The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints. Career From 1988 to 1996, McBride was a manager at Novell, where he managed the business relationship with Novell KK (Japan) and later was promoted to vice president and general manager of the Novell Extended Networks Division for Novell Embedded Systems Technology (NEST). He later left Novell to become senior vice president of IKON Office Solutions. IKON fired him in 1998 after his involvement in the execution of 33 business acquisitions. McBride then sued IKON for $10 million, claiming breach of contract, nonpayment of wages, and fraud. IKON counter-sued, and the case was eventually settled. McBride was subsequently involved in two startups: SBI and Company, a professional services company, which he founded and served as CEO, and later PointServe, a software company of which he was also CEO. He raised venture capital for both of these companies. McBride was the president of Franklin Covey's online planning business from August 2, 2000 until a few months prior to joining the SCO Group as CEO. On April 9, 2010 McBride purchased the SCO Mobility intellectual property from The SCO Group for $100,000. The company is now known as Me Inc. and , McBride is president and CEO. McBride is currently developing mobile app SHOUT, a free trivia game that integrates with live sporting events and awards winners with cash and other prizes. The app has a deal with Deron Williams as its first celebrity endorser. On December 15, 2020, McBride filed for Chapter 13 bankruptcy in the state of Nevada. Linux controversy McBride has been controversial in the information technology industry for his role as the CEO of SCO in asserting broad claims of intellectual property ownership of the various UNIX operating systems derivatives developed by IBM under a license originally granted by AT&T Corporation. Open source, free software and Linux developers and supporters, and the computer industry at large have been outspoken and highly critical and skeptical of McBride and SCO's claims in these areas. Ty Mattingly, a former Novell Executive Vice President and co-worker of McBride was quoted as saying, "Congratulations. In a few short months you've dethroned Bill Gates as the most hated man in the industry." McBride claimed he received death threats as a result of the SCO-IBM lawsuits, and had a package of worms mailed to his home, prompting him to carry a firearm and to employ multiple bodyguards. During an interview, when asked about the popularity of the lawsuit against IBM, McBride answered: "We're either right or we're not. If we're wrong, we deserve people throwing rocks at us." Leadership of Caldera International/The SCO Group Under McBride's leadership, SCO saw a surge in stock price from under $2 in March 2003 to over $20 just 6 months later. Following several adverse rulings issued by the United States District Court in Utah, SCO's stock value dropped to under $1. On April 27, 2007, NASDAQ served notice that the company would be delisted if SCO's stock price did not increase above $1 for a minimum of 10 consecutive days over the course of 180 business days, ending October 22, 2007. On August 10, 2007, the United States District Court in Utah issued a ruling that Novell had retained copyright ownership of the System V UNIX copyrights and that SCO was in breach of its covenants to provide Novell with the previously agreed royalties to the Unix technology Novell had originally sold to SCO. Following this ruling, the value of SCO stock fell to just $0.44 per share, a one-day drop of more than 70%. On September 14, 2007, SCO filed for Chapter 11 bankruptcy protection, and by September 18 its share price had reached $0.18 per share. On December 21, 2007, SCO received NASDAQ delisting notice and trading was suspended on December 27, 2007. The stock price was $0.12 per share. Termination as SCO CEO position One of the reorganization plans put forward by SCO as part of its bankruptcy proceedings in Delaware required McBride to resign from SCO. The Memorandum of Understanding (MOU) between SCO and SNCP (Stephen Norris & Co. Capital Partners) included the note that "upon the effective date of the Proposed Plan of Reorganization, the existing CEO of the Company, Darl McBride, will resign immediately." The plan called for "a favorable resolution of the Novell/IBM Litigation". The plan was withdrawn by SCO following objections which highlighted the lack of detail given to the court and other interested parties about the plan. On October 14, 2009, McBride was terminated as Chief Executive Officer and President of The SCO Group. References External links Groklaw's complete list of all major legal filings in SCO v. IBM, both PDFs and text An Open Letter from Darl McBride 1959 births Living people American computer businesspeople People from Salt Lake City SCO–Linux disputes Businesspeople in software American Mormon missionaries in Japan American Latter Day Saints Brigham Young University alumni University of Illinois at Urbana–Champaign alumni American technology chief executives People from Mesa, Arizona	[ 0.44282203912734985, 0.12750276923179626, 0.15846823155879974, -0.4952270984649658, 0.033230964094400406, -0.1470145881175995, 0.20261763036251068, 0.12143459171056747, 0.056041330099105835, 0.17720064520835876, -0.2247551530599594, 0.5767606496810913, -0.10460533946752548, 0.20792549848556519, -0.2450999915599823, 0.7138029336929321, 0.016186699271202087, 0.38115715980529785, -0.5482997894287109, -0.8412869572639465, -0.3718371093273163, -0.5833830833435059, 0.4913197457790375, 0.34067362546920776, -0.1525467187166214, 0.6084743738174438, 0.3454706370830536, -0.3000011742115021, 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232577	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/William%20Bradford%20%28Rhode%20Island%20politician%29	William Bradford (Rhode Island politician)	William Bradford (November 4, 1729 – July 6, 1808) was a physician, lawyer, and politician, serving as United States Senator from Rhode Island and deputy governor of the state. Early life and education William Bradford was born at Plympton, Massachusetts to Lt. Samuel Bradford and Sarah Gray. He was a great-great-grandson of the William Bradford who had been Governor of the Plymouth Colony. The younger man first studied medicine at Hingham, Massachusetts and then practiced at Warren, Rhode Island. Career and revolution Bradford moved to Mount Hope Farm in Bristol, Rhode Island, where he was elected to the colonial assembly in 1761. He was elected to additional terms at various times up until 1803, and served as Speaker of the Assembly in several terms. He expanded his abilities with the study of law, was admitted to the bar in 1767, and established a practice at Bristol. He served as Deputy Governor of Rhode Island from November 1775 to May 1778. He served as major general in command of the colony's militia from June–October 1775 until being relieved by Major General Joshua Babcock. He was elected to the Continental Congress in 1776, but did not attend. Bradford served on the Committee of Safety of Bristol County, Rhode Island and from 1773 to 1776 on the Committee of Correspondence for the Rhode Island colony. When the British Navy bombarded Bristol on October 7, 1775, his home was among the buildings destroyed. He afterward went aboard ship to negotiate a cease fire. After the United States government was established, Bradford was elected to the United States Senate, taking office on March 4, 1793. He was the President pro tempore of the Senate from July 6, 1797 until he resigned from the Senate in October of that year. He returned to his home in Bristol and died there in 1808. Originally buried in Bristol's East Burying Ground, his grave was later moved to the Juniper Hill Cemetery. Personal life He married and had a family, including daughter Nancy Ann Bradford. In 1790, she married James DeWolf of Bristol, who was a successful slave trader and belonged to a large and influential family that also went into banking and insurance. He was elected to the US Senate in the 1820s. They were the great-great-grandparents of artist and publisher Charles Dana Gibson. References External links Wiliam Bradford entry at The Political Graveyard 1729 births 1808 deaths Presidents pro tempore of the United States Senate People from Bristol, Rhode Island People from Plympton, Massachusetts People from Warren, Rhode Island Rhode Island Federalists Rhode Island lawyers United States senators from Rhode Island Burials at Juniper Hill Cemetery People of colonial Rhode Island American people of English descent	[ -0.2689276933670044, -0.20921120047569275, -0.5646136403083801, 0.07408381253480911, 0.21681782603263855, 0.8979679942131042, 1.1355446577072144, 0.2992519736289978, -0.7256162166595459, -0.615429699420929, 0.18827249109745026, -0.054945554584264755, -0.5412135720252991, 0.5957354307174683, -0.5704062581062317, 0.6753895878791809, -0.12533451616764069, -0.2912590205669403, -0.5393378138542175, -0.2244589477777481, -0.07034891843795776, 0.02305310219526291, 0.5399564504623413, -0.15511290729045868, -0.5094560980796814, 0.1646529585123062, 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232581	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gambit%20%28Marvel%20Comics%29	Gambit (Marvel Comics)	Gambit (Remy Etienne LeBeau) is a fictional character appearing in American comic books published by Marvel Comics, commonly in association with the X-Men. The character was created by writer Chris Claremont and artist Jim Lee. Drawn by artist Mike Collins, Gambit made his first appearances in The Uncanny X-Men Annual #14 (July 1990) and The Uncanny X-Men #266 (Aug. 1990). Gambit belongs to a subspecies of humans called mutants, who are born with superhuman abilities. Gambit has the ability to mentally create, control, and manipulate pure kinetic energy to his desire. He is also incredibly knowledgeable and skilled in card throwing, hand-to-hand combat, and the use of a bō staff. Gambit is known to charge playing cards and other objects with kinetic energy, using them as explosive projectiles. He was part of a thieves' guild before becoming a member of the X-Men. Given his history, few X-Men trusted Gambit when he joined the group. There was consistently a source of stress between him and his on-again, off-again love interest and eventual wife Rogue. This was exacerbated when Gambit's connections to villain Mister Sinister were revealed, although some of his team members accept that Gambit honestly seeks redemption. Often portrayed as a "ladies' man," Gambit has shown a more vulnerable side of himself over the years, especially when it comes to Rogue. Gambit remains fiercely proud of his Louisiana heritage and speaks in a Cajun accent. Since his debut, Gambit has appeared in several solo series. As of 2013, there have been three attempts at an ongoing title starring the character. Gambit has also had two miniseries and starred prominently in Gambit & the X-Ternals, the X-Force replacement title during the Age of Apocalypse. Gambit was ranked 65th on IGN's "Top 100 Comic Book Heroes of All Time" stating that "Gambit is just the sort of tortured soul that X-readers love, and his continued presence in the TV and movie spinoffs cements his status as one of the greats," and in 2013, ComicsAlliance ranked Gambit as #4 on their list of the "50 Sexiest Male Characters in Comics". He has been featured in several animated series and video games based on the X-Men. Gambit made his live-action debut in the 2009 film X-Men Origins: Wolverine, portrayed by Taylor Kitsch. Publication history After a brief appearance in The Uncanny X-Men Annual #14 (July 1990), Gambit's first major role was in The Uncanny X-Men #266 (Aug. 1990). Because the story in the annual is set after the story in #266, there is some debate among collectors about which issue is the "true" first appearance. Gambit joined the X-Men and appeared in almost every issue until The Uncanny X-Men #281 before moving to the X-Men title for a number of years. When Storm created a splinter group to hunt for Destiny's diaries in the pages of X-Treme X-Men, Gambit joined her in issue #5 and co-starred for the remainder of the series. Gambit has starred or co-starred in four mini-series: Gambit Volume One (1993) and Gambit Volume Two (1997) explored the character's mysterious past and his ties to the New Orleans Thieves' Guild. Wolverine/Gambit: Victims (1995) teamed the two popular X-Men on a mystery involving what appears to be a modern-day Jack the Ripper. Gambit and Bishop (2001) was advertised as a sequel to the character's first series and involves the two X-Men in Stryfe's return. Gambit has starred in three ongoing series. The first, which lasted 25 issues and two annuals, ran from February 1999 to February 2001. The second lasted 12 issues and ran from Nov. 2004 to Aug. 2005. The third series lasted 17 issues, from Aug. 2012 to Sept. 2013. Additionally, Gambit & the X-Ternals, published in 1995, featured a group of renegade mutants led by Gambit who has been living on the edge of law during the Age of Apocalypse. In 2009, Gambit's past was explored in the one-shot X-Men Origins: Gambit. In 2010, the one-shot "Curse of the Mutants: Storm & Gambit" was released. In June 2011, he began co-starring in X-Men: Legacy. It was announced at the C2E2 convention by Marvel Comics that in August 2012 Gambit gets his own solo series that takes him back to his roots as a charismatic, cool, mutant master thief, written by James Asmus and drawn by Clay Mann. When asked about the upcoming series Asmus was quoted saying "This book focuses on the two most important aspects of Gambit: #1 that he's sexy, and #2 that he's the preeminent bad-ass thief of the Marvel Universe." Marvel canceled the series at issue #17. Gambit was one of the principal characters in the 2013 series All-New X-Factor written by Peter David and drawn by Carmine Di Giandomenico. The series was cancelled after issue #20, with David suggesting it would be some time before Marvel would consider featuring Gambit in a leading role again due to a persistently low sales record in this and previous titles. In October 2017, Gambit co-starred in his own comic with his love interest Rogue titled Rogue and Gambit, which was released in 2018. Fictional character biography Early life Remy Etienne LeBeau was born in New Orleans, Louisiana. He was kidnapped from the hospital where he was born, then raised by the LeBeau Clan Thieves' Guild, and given to the Antiquary as a tribute. They referred to the child as "Le Diable Blanc" ("the White Devil") and believed he was prophesied to unite the warring Thieves' and Assassins' Guilds. Soon after, Remy was placed in the care of Fagan's Mob, a gang of street thieves who raised the child and taught him the ways of thievery. After living as an orphan on the streets, a 10-year-old Remy attempted to pick the pocket of Jean-Luc LeBeau, then patriarch of the Thieves' Guild. Jean-Luc took the boy off the streets and adopted him into his own family. Remy's bio-kinetic charging abilities manifested early in his teens, although he kept his powers secret from his family and friends, practicing his powers away from prying eyes. When he was 15, he accompanied his cousin Etienne Marceaux on his "Tithing," the ritual initiation test of the Thieves' Guild. However, it went awry as they were assigned to steal from the powerful immortal mutant Candra, who quickly captured them. Candra recognized Remy from an encounter that had taken place in her past but in his future (due to a time travel mission to the 19th Century that Remy would take as an adult) and sold them to the deformed mutant gangster and child slave trader known as the Pig, who planned to sell them and others their age to HYDRA as boy soldiers. Remy used his powers to escape their holding pen, but the physically enhanced Pig quickly caught up to them. Remy discovered his signature attack when he picked up a playing card that Etienne had dropped, charged it, and threw it in the Pig's face, taking out his eye. Finally escaping his clifftop headquarters by diving into the sea, Remy was ultimately rescued by the Guild; Etienne drowned. Later during his teen years, Remy was first hired by Mister Sinister, then in the disguise of Dr. Nathaniel Essex. Essex wanted his stolen diaries back from the Weapon X program. Remy and the Thieves' Guild accepted the mission and sent out Remy to retrieve said diaries. Standing in the cold, scouting the Weapon X facility, Remy couldn't bear the cold and swore he would steal a long, stylish jacket in New Orleans after the mission, which he did. Upon entering the facility, Remy witnessed Wolverine escaping from his adamantium procedure and found the diaries. However, deeming them to be too dangerous for Essex to have them, as Remy didn't fully trust him, Remy burned the diaries. He headed back home, only to find a disappointed Thieves' Guild and Essex. In an attempt to reconcile the Thieves' and Assassins' Guilds, Remy married Bella Donna Boudreaux, granddaughter of the head Assassin, whom he met at the age of eight. Unfortunately, he was challenged by her brother Julien to a duel after the wedding. In the duel, Gambit killed Julien, and he was exiled from the city, ending his romantic relationship with Bella Donna. The Mutant Massacre After his exile from New Orleans, he wandered the world and became a master professional thief, making many contacts (and quite a few enemies). During this period, Gambit found he had an uncontrollable amount of energy flowing through him, to the point that he could not withstand it. Desperate, Gambit went to Mister Sinister for help. Sinister modified Gambit's power by removing a portion of Gambit's brain stem, making him significantly less powerful, but able to control the still considerably large amount of power in him. Years later, a much younger version of Mister Sinister surgically returned it, upon Gambit's request, when Gambit time-traveled to the 19th century. However, Sinister wanted the favor returned, so Gambit carried out various missions for him. For the last of these operations, Gambit gathered together a group of mercenaries which Sinister named the Marauders. Mister Sinister then ordered Gambit to lead Sabretooth, Blockbuster, Prism, and Riptide into the tunnels under New York City — while unknown to Gambit however — Mister Sinister had also ordered Scalphunter, Arclight, Harpoon, Malice, Scrambler and Vertigo into the tunnels. The group of Scalphunter followed the Morlock Tommy and their goal was to wipe out the Morlocks. Gambit was unable to prevent the Marauders from killing a considerable number of Morlocks, but he was able to save a single child named Sarah, who would grow up to be Marrow, the leader of the mutant terrorist group Gene Nation. Gambit long kept his involvement with Mister Sinister and his mission in the massacre a secret from his fellow X-Men, much to their eventual displeasure. X-Men After wandering around the world, he encountered a de-aged and powerless Storm, and helped her escape from the Shadow King. He then rescued her from Nanny and the Orphan-Maker, helping her battle them. Afterwards, the young amnesiac Storm, who had reverted to thieving to stay alive, joined Gambit, and she eventually brought him back to the X-Men. Soon after, Gambit helped the X-Men, X-Factor, and New Mutants battle the Genoshans. Only Wolverine expressed his doubts about the Cajun, which led to a Danger Room duel between the two. Gambit was able to triumph by using a robotic doppelganger of Lady Deathstrike to distract Wolverine while taking advantage of Wolverine's injuries, inflicted by the Reavers. Gambit and the X-Men were then taken to the Shi'ar galaxy by Lila Cheney. Alongside the X-Men and Starjammers, Gambit battled Deathbird, the Imperial Guard, and a band of Warskrulls. Upon their return to Earth, Gambit assisted the X-Men and X-Factor in battling the Shadow King, though he was temporarily controlled by the Shadow King. When the original five X-Men rejoined and the team was divided into two squads, Gambit became part of the Blue team under Cyclops' leadership. Alongside the X-Men, he battled Magneto and his newly formed Acolytes, Fenris, the Hand, Omega Red, and Sabretooth, and then Mojo. Gambit then fought Bishop and was attacked by his estranged wife Bella Donna. Gambit recounted how he had fled from New Orleans after killing his brother-in-law in self-defense. Alongside the X-Men, Gambit first encountered the second Ghost Rider. Gambit battled the Brood Queen and the Brood-possessed Ghost Rider, and witnessed the apparent death of his now ex-wife, Bella Donna. Gambit became romantically interested in one of his teammates, Rogue, and started flirting with her. Despite her off-putting manner and the obstacle of her uncontrollable mutant ability that prevented anyone from touching her, he began romancing and seducing Rogue. Their strong romantic relationship was originally written as a one time, flirtatious moment; ironically, their romantic relationship is listed as one of the longest and most popular on-going deep and close romantic relationships in the X-Men series, probably only second to Jean Grey and Cyclops. Although their early "courtship" portrayed him as very "devil may care" in his flirtation with her, later issues revealed that, beneath his bravado and swagger, he truly had genuine romantic feelings for her. Similarly, despite her initial aggressive rejection of his advances, Rogue found that she was not only flattered by his attention but that she felt equally romantically attracted to him. Many publishing years later, it had become apparent Remy had a dark secret. Sabretooth had hinted to it on numerous occasions during his "residency" at the X-Mansion, prompting Rogue to ask him to reveal whatever he knew about Gambit's past. Remy was captured and brought before a mock trial held by Magneto, the mutant Master of Magnetism, then disguised as Erik the Red. Rogue was forced to kiss him again, revealing that he had assembled the team of Marauders for Mr. Sinister that later killed most of the Morlocks. However, it was also revealed that Gambit saved a single girl from the Marauders during the massacre. This apparent revelation and absorbing Gambit's own guilty memories caused Rogue to reject him. Gambit was similarly cast out of the X-Men and was abandoned in the frozen wastes of Antarctica. Starving, and haunted by the betrayal of his lover, Gambit made his way back into Magneto's citadel, where he encountered the psionic essence of a dead mutant named Mary Purcell. The wraith-like Mary bonded with him, allowing him to survive until he reached the Savage Land, a hidden jungle nestled in the icy wasteland. There, Remy struck a deal with an enigmatic being known as the New Son. In exchange for passage back to America, Gambit agreed to run errands with the help of friend Jacob Gavin Jr. During this period, Remy's command over his abilities strengthened and amplified significantly. When Gambit's psyche absorption had worn off, Rogue spent months searching for him, to no avail. Gambit encountered Storm and Shadowcat when he attempted to steal the fabled Crimson Gem of Cyttorak for his new employer. He agreed to return to the X-Men, mainly for his self-respect and for Rogue. At one point, he became the field leader of a branch of X-Men. His romantic love for Rogue was still intact, but her inability to control her powers made her break it off out of fear of hurting him. Meanwhile, the New Son revealed his true identity as an alternate universe version of Gambit himself, after organizing an assassination game for a cadre of superpowered mercenaries with Remy as the target. During the final confrontation, Gambit burned out his enhanced abilities, thus returning to his original level of power. Bishop's future In Bishop's future timeline, Bishop stumbles upon a video from the past with Jean Grey making a frantic call to any X-Men she can find. She says that the X-Men have been betrayed by "one of their own" and it appears in the video that she is the last one left and is killed in the video. Disturbed by this, Bishop seeks "The Witness", a man who is said to be the last person who has ever seen the X-Men of the past alive. He enters a citadel of sorts where he confronts an old and withered but plucky man with long gray hair sitting on a throne, with two blonde women to either side of him. When Bishop confronts him as to who killed the X-Men the Witness acts as though he knows but refuses to tell and Bishop is thrown out of the citadel. When Bishop comes to the X-Men in their original timeline, he meets Gambit and is sure that he is the same old man in Bishop's future and that it was Gambit who was the "Traitor" that killed the X-Men. For some time, he continues to watch Gambit's every step until he is finally convinced sometime later that Gambit was not the Traitor (with Onslaught being revealed to be the traitor). The reason behind Gambit being called the Witness in Bishop's timeline has not been revealed. In the Messiah Complex, it was revealed that the Witness was killed by the Marauders in their efforts to destroy anyone with knowledge of the future. 2000s X-Treme X-Men: XSE When Storm leads a team of X-Men in search of Destiny's diaries, the thirteen-volume Books of Truth, Gambit volunteered to join them, but Rogue — afraid that her increasingly uncontrolled powers would bring him harm — flatly refused to allow him along. He returned to thievery instead and was soon after framed by mutant businessman Sebastian Shaw for the death of the Australian crime lord named Viceroy. With the assistance of Rogue, Storm's team of X-Treme X-Men, and former Triad member Red Lotus, Gambit was able to clear his name. Soon after, Remy was captured and his powers were used to open a portal intended for an alien invasion of Earth led by the interdimensional warlord Khan. The X-Treme team's enemy, the enhanced human named Vargas, used the invasion as a chance to attempt to kill more of Storm's team, particularly Rogue who was depicted by Destiny as slaying him. Rogue's attempt at rescuing and shielding Gambit got her stuck and Vargas used the opportunity to impale them both. Gambit was seriously wounded, but Beast's surgical skills and Rogue's pleading with Gambit on the astral plane, resulted in both surviving their ordeal. As they lost their mutant powers, they decided to sort out their romantic relationship by retiring from the X-Men temporarily and moving to California. Although he is powerless, Gambit later joins Storm in infiltrating the US President's Texan ranch for obtaining information on a closed-group meeting proposing worldwide policies on mutants. Rejoining the team Gambit and Rogue rejoined the X-Men soon after Sage jump-started their powers, and they were placed on Havok's team. In their first mission back, Gambit was temporarily blinded by one of his energized cards that went off by his face. Rogue tried to console Gambit during his recovery, but their romantic relationship became strained once more as he became more and more frustrated with his blindness and their lack of touch after Rogue's powers returned. He started lashing out at Rogue, most of the time verbally. As a result, Rogue took some time away from Gambit. While he lost his vision, Gambit developed an ability to read his playing cards like they were tarot cards and he was able to predict the attack by the Brotherhood. A little while later, during Christmas celebrations, Rogue asked Sage to once again jumpstart Gambit's powers, in the process, healing his vision. During the story arc with Golgotha, Gambit revealed some deep insecurities he had about his romantic relationship with Rogue, saying that "Maybe dis no-touching thing is getting to me... more den I thought". He also told Rogue that she should just get together with Logan, thinking that there was a hidden attraction between the two. As a result of the accusation, Logan kissed Rogue, but she broke it off before it caused any major damage. Gambit then began to realize what he was saying, questioning his romantic love for Rogue, but soon after began to suffer from hallucinations that he was fighting Mister Sinister. However, Rogue and Gambit soon realized that Golgotha made them say things they did not mean and before the final battle, they "kissed" through their spacesuit helmets. Once back at the mansion, Gambit and Rogue moved into the same room to try rebuilding some intimacy and began telepathic therapy with Emma Frost. They soon found out that with all the emotional baggage going on in their minds, they were still unable to make physical contact mentally. This would cause even more strain when the new student, Foxx, joins Gambit's team and attempts to seduce him. Horseman of Apocalypse Rogue's foster mother Mystique was displeased with Rogue's choice of lovers and infiltrated Xavier's Institute by shapeshifting into a student called Foxx. She joined Gambit's squad in an attempt to ruin his relationship with Rogue. After Gambit resisted her charms, Mystique reverted to her true form and then offered Gambit something significantly more difficult to refuse: she transformed into Rogue and offered Gambit a Rogue with whom he could have a physical relationship, claiming that she was only trying to help relieve the increasing frustrations between the two lovers; "... if one of you could have some physical release...". Rogue eventually discovered her mother's presence in the school and that Gambit knew she was there. Gambit denies that he slept with Mystique. Upon the return of Apocalypse, Gambit submitted himself to the villain and was transformed into one of Apocalypse's Horsemen, Death. Gambit intended to infiltrate himself into Apocalypse's ranks in order to protect the X-Men from the Dark Lord's eventual betrayal, but he miscalculated, as the transformation process warped his mind as well as his body. After becoming Death, Gambit's hair turned white and his skin turned deep black. Despite having his mind and body twisted, Gambit retained a large portion of his former self, stating to Apocalypse, "I'm both Death and Gambit", and he also remembered his love for Rogue as he could not bring himself to kill her. Gambit and Sunfire then returned to the Xavier Institute to claim Polaris. Gambit, in an attempt to free all ties with his old self, tried to kill Rogue and would have been successful had it not been for Pulse neutralizing Gambit's powers. After the X-Men defeated Apocalypse, Sunfire left with Gambit to help him clear Apocalypse's brainwashing and live as entirely new beings, only to then be approached by Mister Sinister. Marauders Gambit returned to his original appearance and powers (presumably with the aid of Mr. Sinister) and reemerged as a member of the Marauders. On a mission for Mr. Sinister (involving obtaining knowledge of the future) Gambit and Sunfire encountered Cable on the recently evacuated island of Providence. Before the fight Gambit said, "I dropped that whole new look, wit' the help of a friend." He then asked Cable for use of his super-computer to answer a question referring to the phrase "one minute before dawn," which tied into the then-upcoming Messiah Complex storyline. As a result, Gambit and Sunfire attacked him eventually forcing Cable to activate a self-destruct sequence destroying the entire island. Gambit and Sunfire escaped empty-handed. During the fight, Cable noted that Gambit's accent sounded 'forced' either for comic effect or perhaps to indicate that things may not be as 'back to normal' as they seem with Gambit. As Gambit returned to Mr. Sinister's base to discuss the next step of the plan, he reprimanded Mystique for shooting Rogue when they abducted her, being placated only by Mr. Sinister's assurance that Rogue was still needed and would survive. In a recent confrontation with Cannonball and Iceman, he seemed to sympathize with a beaten Cannonball. He interfered when Scalphunter was about to kill Cannonball by attacking Cannonball and by his actions he was able to save Cannonball from certain death. At the same time, he also destroyed Destiny's diaries, preventing Sinister and the Marauders from getting them. Messiah Complex During the 2007–2008 "Messiah Complex" storyline, Gambit is personally targeted by Wolverine during the X-Men's assault on Mister Sinister's Antarctic base. After being tortured by the Canadian mutant, Gambit reveals that Cable has the baby before Sinister manages to regain the advantage and drive the X-Men off with Gambit later revealed not to be harmed. Later, as Bishop attempts to kill the baby (after immobilizing Cable), Gambit and several of the Marauders quickly stop him with Gambit bringing a section of the ceiling down on Bishop. Knowing the X-Men will arrive in moments, the Marauders depart with the baby, but not before Gambit ponders what could make Bishop turn on the X-Men. Tracking Gambit using Cerebro, the X-Men find that the Marauders' hideout was on Muir Island. However, what they didn't know is that Gambit let them track him. It appears that Gambit, along with Mystique, has plans of their own for the newborn mutant as evidenced by his lack of surprise when he delivered the baby to Sinister, who then reveals himself to be Mystique as the real Sinister lies on the floor with shock etched into his face, and the fact that Mystique told Gambit that it is time for the next step. A flashback sequence shows that Mystique used Rogue's intensified powers to kill Sinister. In the present, she explains that everything she and Gambit have done has led to this moment as foretold by Destiny. Mystique touches the baby's face to Rogue's in the hope of sacrificing the child to save her. After an energy burst Gambit snatches the baby, saying that Rogue would never want an innocent life used to save hers. However, the child was unharmed by Rogue's touch. Gambit gives the baby to Xavier and says he wishes to stay with Rogue. Shortly after, Rogue awakens and tries to kill Mystique. However, somehow the baby cures her of her intensified powers, as well as any psyches she had ever absorbed; this leaves her with the psyche of only one other individual: Mystique. She tells Gambit she needs time alone and if he still cares for her, he would not follow. "Divided We Stand" In the 2008 "Divided We Stand" storyline, Gambit, received news that the Assassins Guild of New Orleans was approached to kill Charles Xavier, goes to track Xavier down and save him from possible danger. He manages to head off Xavier's attackers, defeating them in short order before he is joined by Xavier himself. They determine who the Assassins were supposed to kill next from a list Gambit pulls from one of the goons, which includes Juggernaut, Sebastian Shaw, and Carter Ryking (Hazard). Xavier makes the connection between himself, Ryking, and Juggernaut, but is at a loss with Shaw. They go to see Ryking, who was being held in a mental institution, only to find out that he had just died of a brain hemorrhage the night before. Gambit and Xavier then drive out to the Nuclear Research Facility at Alamogordo, the place where the fathers of Xavier, Juggernaut, and Ryking all worked at some point in their lives and is most likely where Mister Sinister was running his genetic operations on the X-gene. However, Xavier begins to suffer terrible headaches, and he and Gambit decide to wait it out in the desert for a few hours, where they are once again attacked by the Assassins Guild. Charles Xavier is abducted and taken to the Almagordo facility, where it is revealed that the employer of the assassins was Amanda Mueller, the head of the Black Womb Project, a former lover and protégée of Mister Sinister (as well as direct ancestress of the Summers' line), who plans to use Charles to activate Sinister's Cronus machine, so as to be able to revive herself with Essex's own superpowered essence. Meanwhile, Gambit manages to defeat the rest of the assassins with the assistance of Sebastian Shaw, and they form a temporary alliance of convenience to destroy the Cronus machine, which threatens Shaw as well and rescue Xavier. They ultimately manage to succeed with a desperate last-minute life-or-death gamble when Gambit directly charges Shaw with biokinetic energy, giving him enough power to utterly shatter the otherwise indestructible machine. He begins searching Australia for Rogue and is again in the company of Professor Xavier. Gambit, however, is unsure of this venture, mainly because of Rogue's request that she be left alone. He and Xavier both agreed that if Rogue did not wish for their help or presence, they would do as she wished and leave her be. When Gambit and Xavier make it over the plains, they find a completely mismatched landscape. Fearing it is Rogue's doing, they go in and find various parts of Rogue's past being projected around them, including her fight against Nimrod and being captured and beaten at Genosha. Gambit finds it hard to control his emotions seeing Rogue in so much pain, but Xavier reminds him that none of it is real. While in the Genosha prison cells, Gambit and Xavier find the Shi'ar parts hunters and they are told what is happening. They discover that Danger is the one causing the projections and is using Rogue's input from Danger Room sessions. Xavier decides it is better to find Danger first, coming to the conclusion that Danger is trying to push Rogue to some sort of realization. Eventually, Xavier, Gambit and a group of Shi'ar pirates managed to shut down Danger. However, the Professor reactivates her and she defeats the pirates in turn when they attack Gambit and Xavier. After this, it is revealed that Rogue's powers never truly developed past their initial "nascent" stage, which was the reason why her powers never functioned properly. The Professor, now aware of this fact, uses his telepathy to tear down the mental walls that kept Rogue's powers from developing as well as removing the mental echo of Mystique. Finally Rogue kisses Gambit, with no ill side effects, revealing that she is in control of her absorption power. Utopia Gambit along with Rogue and Danger decides to go to San Francisco in order to regroup with the other X-Men. On their way there they are intercepted by Pixie who teleports them into the city which is in a state of chaos due to the anti-mutant and pro-mutant movements. Cyclops sends all three out in order to locate several missing students and bring them home. Gambit locates Trance, Dragoness and Toad who are being pursued by H.A.M.M.E.R. agents. Ariel and Onyxx appear and take Trance away for safety. Later on he encounters Erg and Avalanche who attacks Ares. Gambit intervenes only to end up being swatted aside by Ares. Danger and Rogue come to his aid which eventually leads to Rogue absorbing Ares's powers. Gambit then blasts him unconscious. Having for the moment absorbed some of Ares's power, Rogue easily dispatches a small group of H.A.M.M.E.R. agents and proceeds to steal their tank, along with Gambit and Danger, in order to find the rest of the students and Trance who didn't make it back to base. Trance appears to be lost in the city and under the attack of Ms. Marvel from the Dark Avengers team. Gambit, Rogue and Danger team-up to defeat the powerful female warrior, and Rogue eventually manages to calm Trance down. Remy, Rogue, and Danger then depart back to the X-Men's base. After the battle between the X-Men and the Dark Avengers is over, Cyclops orders Gambit to destroy the Omega Machine chair that Osborn had built to neutralize mutant powers. Gambit makes his way into the H.A.M.M.E.R. headquarters. There, he fights H.A.M.M.E.R.'s mutate guards Hijack and Input. Hijack is easily defeated, however, Input is another story. The input uses his telepathic abilities to enter Gambit's head and discovers there are still left-overs from Remy's "Death" persona. Death re-emerges and defeats Input, and absorbed him into a playing card, which turns black upon doing so. Afterward, Remy somehow returns to normal, with a smile on his face. Gambit then completes his mission, destroys the chair, and returns to the X-Men. When he made it back to Utopia, Gambit got angry at Cyclops for letting Rogue go up against the villain Emplate all alone. Remy tried to argue with Cyclops, but suddenly got trouble with mood swings and left the group. He changed back into his Death persona and remembered how Apocalypse told him he would never be the same after undergoing the changing process. Gambit managed to calm himself down and transform back to his normal self, but he is worried about his condition. 2010s In the 2010 "X-Men: Second Coming" storyline, Gambit, along with Dazzler, Anole, Northstar, Cannonball, Pixie and Trance travel to Limbo to rescue Magik. Things go wrong when the ground starts to tremble and an army of monstrous demons attack the team. Dazzler calls upon Gambit for help during the attack, but Gambit sinks into the darkness, claiming "Remy's not home right now" leading the X-Men to be overwhelmed by the demons and Gambit transforming into his Death persona. As Death, Gambit was able to transform two of his teammates, Dazzler and Northstar, into beings like himself by hitting them with his charged cards. After battling Cannonball, Death-Gambit was stabbed by Magik and Pixie with their magical swords enabling Gambit to reassert control over his form once more. In the 2010–2011 "Curse of the Mutants" storyline in the X-Men vol. 3, Gambit and Storm were called upon to help steal the decapitated body of Dracula in order for the X-Men to resurrect Dracula in their fight against his son, Xarus. He continues to appear as a member of the team as a regular of the series, and also co-stars with X-23 in her self-titled series. He saves her from a burning building after she has been sent away following the events of Second Coming. She decides to pursue a quest to further discover about her past when Gambit decides to follow along to keep an eye on her. After 17 issues of traveling the world together Gambit and X-23 part ways, as Gambit decides to stay at the newly built Jean Grey School for Higher Learning, while X-23 travels to the Avengers Academy. In 2012, writer James Asmus had intended to re-imagine the character as bisexual, but "word came down we wouldn't be redefining the character as such". After the events of the Age of X, Gambit chooses not to wipe his memory. He admits the extent of his feelings to Rogue and tells her that he cannot tolerate her indecisiveness. He decides that they should be apart until she is willing to be with him for good. Gambit later joins the team of Legion, Rogue, Magneto, Frenzy, and Xavier, in search of Legion's lost personalities that would not cooperate with him after his troubles in the Age of X. Later on in the series, Gambit, Frenzy and Rogue travel to the Jean Grey High School of Higher Learning to become teachers and mentors of the school. Gambit's role at the school is as a senior staff member. In Astonishing X-Men #48, Gambit becomes one of the principal members of a new team of X-Men, composed of Wolverine, Iceman, Northstar, Karma, Cecilia Reyes, and Warbird. Gambit joins the newest incarnation of X-Factor. This version is a corporate superhero team sponsored by Serval Industries, which partners him with Polaris and Quicksilver. Kitty Pryde sends Gambit and Rogue on an undercover mission to the island Paraiso. Their mission, as an estranged couple requiring relationship therapy, was to investigate the disappearance of mutants. This results not only in them confronting their past, emotions, and relationship challenges but also finding that their memories and powers (as well as those of the missing mutants) are drained into their clones by a mutant called Lavish. Although they are severely weak, they fight against Lavish and the clones, restoring their memories and powers. The couple later decides to learn from their past mistakes and reunite. A conversation with Storm and Nightcrawler spurs him into proposing to Rogue at Kitty's and Colossus' cancelled wedding and to take advantage of all their friends being present. They are married by the rabbi who was present for officiating Kitty's wedding, with Nightcrawler and Iceman as Rogue's bridal party and with Storm and X-23 as Gambit's best women. While in space, their honeymoon is interrupted when they receive a message from Kitty Pryde about a secret package that they must find, however, the unknown package involves the Shi'ar Empire and several others are after it as well. They soon discover that the package is actually Xandra, who is the bio-engineered daughter of Xavier and Lilandra who can take any form at will. The newlyweds are soon caught by the Shi'ar but are able to free themselves, with the help of Cerise and the Starjammers they escape. Having read Rogue's mind, Xandra offers to fix her abilities so she can touch anyone, however, Rogue refuses, when Gambit questions her, she explains that the last time it happens, she never learned to control it herself. The ground is interrupted by the Imperial Guard and by Deathbird and a fight ensues. Realizing they're losing the fight, Xandra uses her abilities to make everything think she and Rogue were killed, after the Imperial Guard and Deathbird leave, they return, only to have Rogue's ability become uncontrollable as she can now absorb memories without touching anyone. Xandra explains that her powers have evolved, Rogue will have to learn to control it on her own, Gambit and Rogue return to Earth. Gambit and Rogue receive a mysterious gift, when they open it they are teleported into the Mojoverse. Mojo resets their lives by putting them in a Noir setting, however, due to Rogue's abilities she becomes self-aware, her abilities become unstable and ends up killing Remy in the process. This forces Mojo to constantly reset their lives to Fantasy, Western, Horror, Romance, Sci-Fi and Comedy. During a reality talk show, Gambit walks off and into a bar where he meets a mysterious woman who turns out to be Spiral. She restores his memory and makes Gambit an offer that if he steals something for her she'll help Rogue with her powers and help them escape. Spiral meets Rogue in her mind where she explains to her that until she became self-aware of what her abilities should be doing, Rogue was subconsciously controlling her powers. Powers and abilities Gambit is a mutant with the ability to convert the potential energy stored in an inanimate object into pure light kinetic energy, thus "charging" that item with highly explosive results. He prefers to charge smaller objects, such as his ever-present playing cards, as the time required to charge them is greatly reduced and they are much easier for him to throw. The only real limitation to this ability is the time required to charge the object: the larger it is the more time it takes to charge. Most charging takes place through direct skin contact. The power of his explosions is dependent on the mass of the object he is charging: for example, a charged playing card explodes with the force of a grenade. Gambit can also use his mutant abilities to accelerate an object's kinetic energy instead of converting its potential energy; for example, he can charge his Bo staff with enough kinetic energy and power to level a house. Gambit's ability to tap into kinetic energy also grants him incredible superhuman physical attributes (strength, speed, reflexes and reactions, agility, flexibility, dexterity, coordination, balance, and endurance), as his body constantly generates bio-kinetic energy and so is perfectly constructed for constant motion. This gives him an added edge that he has used to his advantage by developing a unique acrobatic fighting style. The charged potential energy always in his body grants him the ability to build up charges of static electricity, and shields his mind from detection and intrusion by even the strongest and most powerful telepaths such as Emma Frost, Jean Grey, and even Charles Xavier. The shield has the added effect of destabilizing touch-based abilities. Gambit also possesses an unusually strong and irresistible hypnotic charm that allows him to exert a subtle influence over sentient beings, leading them to believe what he says and agree with his suggestions. This charm is so strong and powerful that if given a chance, Gambit could even charm the Shadow King himself. The hypnotic charm does not work on those who know about it. During combat, Gambit customarily wears a suit of highly articulated light body armor and uses an extendable metal staff. He is extensively trained in martial arts, particularly Savate and the staff style art Bōjutsu. He is an excellent hand-to-hand combatant, applying street-fighting techniques and acrobatics. Gambit is a skilled card-thrower, so he throws his charged playing cards at opponents with great accuracy. He also excels in all aspects of thievery, as he was adopted by the patriarch of a Thieves Guild. Gambit was temporarily given the full strength and potential of his mutant abilities to battle his counterpart, New Son. At his full strength and power, Gambit can control all aspects of kinetic energy down even to the molecular level, allowing him to manipulate the potency of his bio-kinetic energy to burn, cause molecular discomfort, incinerate, create timed detonations (and manipulate the potency of the energy release), fire energy blasts, defy gravity, heal wounds, charge objects within his line of sight without contact, manipulate the flow of time & space and effectively exist as an energy being. Under such conditions, he holds sufficient power to cause another being to be unable to move—or unable to stop if in motion. He has been able to cause or simulate various energies by manipulating the kinetic energy present, such as infrared and microwaves, by increasing molecular agitation, or cold by reducing it. He was also able to use his powers to travel through space-time, cross dimensions, and remake realities outside of space-time by transforming himself into living energy which joined with the kinetic flow. Finally, Gambit was able to heal himself by stimulating his cellular activity. These enhanced powers were burnt out after fighting New Son, and Gambit has since returned to his original, somewhat lower power levels. However, after Sage jump-started his powers again, he was able to heal his blinded eyes. —thus implying he is again able to heal himself—and is also able again to charge living things with energy, as when he teamed up with Sebastian Shaw to destroy Mr. Sinister's machines. He was also given another boost when he was killed in an altercation with a drug lord and Faiza Hussain managed to restore him before it set in, enabling him to charge a bullet with twice as much explosive force than usual. He has later proven able to delay his explosions again, although this is difficult for him to accomplish. After Apocalypse used the Celestial Technology to transform Gambit into the Horseman Death, Gambit demonstrates the ability to convert inert materials into toxic substances (such as transforming breathable air into poisonous gases) and has the potential to ingest diseases and plagues. It is apparent that the Celestial Technology never left his system, as seen during a telepathic attack against him that temporarily brought out the Death persona, which eventually killed the attacker. He also showcased new abilities he had not used before in this form – such as his Death Charge, which fueled his projectiles with dark energies that have the effect of either disintegrating or entrapping beings within his cards. His new transformation also affords him the ability to control the trajectory in which the thrown cards fly in, giving him more control over their vector path while in motion. He could also convert people to his mindset like he did with Northstar, Dazzler and several demons while in limbo. Gambit's body did subsequently return to normal, suggesting that Gambit now has the ability to switch between his own and Death appearances. Collected editions Mini-series Third series Fourth series Fifth series X-Men: The Trial of Gambit Mr. & Mrs. X Other versions Age of Apocalypse In the Age of Apocalypse, Gambit was a member of the X-Men and one of Magneto's closest friends. Like his Earth-616 counterpart, Gambit too fell in love with Rogue, which prompted him to leave the X-Men when Rogue chose Magneto, whom she could touch due to the two possessing magnetism-based powers (she had permanently absorbed the powers and memories of Polaris just as she had done to Ms. Marvel on Earth-616). Gambit, as a member of the Thieves Guild, maintained a certain connection with Candra, who was also one of the Horsemen of Apocalypse, until she was killed. Despite having left the X-Men, Gambit still fought for "the Dream" in his own way. He assembled a group of thieves which he named "X-Ternals", who stole from Apocalypse's regime and the mutant aristocracy to provide food and medicines to the humans still living in New York. He also had an affair with Lila Cheney, despite the fact that he had not gotten over Rogue. When Magneto put into action his plan to save Charles Xavier, Gambit agreed to steal a shard of the M'Kraan Crystal with the aid of his X-Ternals. Gambit and the X-Ternals were chased by Mudir Rictor and later faced the Shi'ar. However, Gambit obtained the shard of the Crystal, giving up in exchange for it his undying love for Rogue. Gambit thought that he had now lost his ability to love. The group returned to Earth; however, Gambit lost both the Crystal shard and Magneto and Rogue's son, Charles, to the traitor Guido when he threatened to kill Lila. Despite this, Gambit was accepted back into the X-Men when they launched a mission to get into Apocalypse's citadel to rescue Magneto and put his plan into action. Gambit killed the crazed Colossus when his desire to save his sister Illyana threatened the mission. Following the death of Apocalypse and the fall of his regime, Gambit once again became a member of the X-Men. During the AoA's 10th anniversary, Gambit was part of the X-Men and helped Magneto eliminate the remaining forces still loyal to Apocalypse. This included helping the X-Men get rid of the Hellions. Magneto later became injured while telling the Morlocks that they were free, and when he was recuperating, Quicksilver detected mutant signatures of Apocalypse's former soldiers in Mexico. Magneto then left with Quicksilver, Gambit, and Sunfire. The Guthrie siblings later attacked the X-Men's base, taking Rogue and Charles Lensherr captive. Magneto, Sunfire, Gambit, and Quicksilver returned to the base and defeated the Guthries. Magneto then revealed his secret regarding Sinister, leading the X-Men to Sinister's lab in New York. The X-Men then fought the Sinister Six, and during the fight, Gambit, Nightcrawler, and Dazzler were sucked into Cloak. Nightcrawler managed to save Dazzler, but not Gambit, resulting in Gambit's presumed death, though it was not confirmed. The X-Men later buried their dead and created a tombstone for Gambit whose full text is not seen, but ending in "... luck always be on his side." However, it appears that luck was indeed at Gambit's side after all, as he was rescued in time from the Darkforce Dimension at some point and was greeted by the X-Men team later. When the X-Force team of Earth-616 came to the Age of Apocalypse to retrieve a Celestial life seed to prevent Warren to ascend as the new Apocalypse, Gambit was part of the Fantomex team to retrieve the seed from the deceased Celestial and he gives his life so the team could retrieve the object from the cosmic being. Bishop's future In the future timeline that is the home of the X-Man Bishop (Earth-1191), the X-Men were wiped out in 1996 by someone recorded only as 'The X-Traitor'. However, there was apparently one survivor of the attack, a man called "The Witness." He had a Cajun accent and long hair. He and Bishop had an antagonistic relationship at that time. When Bishop came to the past, he recognized Gambit's face as that of the Witness. Later, the Witness was revealed to have been living happily in New Orleans, unchanged from how Bishop will know him in 80 years' time. He met the young Remy Lebeau, and had a set of trophies from countless battles across time (fans noticed Captain America's shattered shield, the red power suit from The Greatest American Hero, and Hellboy's Right Hand of Doom). He claimed to be pantemporal, capable of seeing all things in all realities at all times. The fact that he was even capable of conversing with Bishop or anyone else in a linear fashion is apparently due to his sense of humor. Exiles In Exiles, Gambit of Earth-371 was the team leader of Weapon X (the ruthless counterpart to the heroic Exiles), having replaced Sabretooth. With Weapon X they had to work with Iron Man, the fascist monarch of Earth, to kill all of the Inhumans. They succeeded and went to the next reality. It appeared that he and Storm on his team had been in a relationship and that back in his alternative reality he and Storm (another one from his alternative reality) were married. Storm was now dead and replaced by Hyperion. In this mission, Weapon X was supposed to kill the ten remaining mutants in this reality, but this evil version of Hyperion wanted to be the ruler of this Earth. The heroes did not want to murder anyone, but a battle with Hyperion soon followed. Hyperion shot off Gambit's arm, forcing Gambit to retreat into the Morlock tunnels. Hyperion murdered most of the Weapon X team. Finally, the Exiles appeared and determined the true nature of the mission although they initially refused to go through with it. They were to kill six members of Weapon X and the Exiles. Hyperion and an evil version of Ms. Marvel (who had already taken care of most of the killing) forced them to fight. In the end, Hyperion was seemingly killed by Gambit after Blink had injured him sufficiently to make him vulnerable. Gambit was disintegrated in the blast. It was revealed later that Hyperion resurrected himself and took control of the Panoptichron. It was also revealed that every Weapon X and Exiles team member who died or was sent home were frozen into a crystal wall in that palace. When the Exiles found the place, there were many fallen heroes—-Gambit among them. Gambit's body is returned to his home dimension for burial in. New Exiles In New Exiles #2-4, a very different version of Gambit was shown. Still called Remy, attracted to Rogue and sometimes speaking approximate Cajun, this version was the son of Namor and Sue Storm. He has four siblings and the power to breathe underwater as well as the force field projection capabilities of his mother. He saved Rogue when she was injured and drowning to her death. He was then flown by her to his family, which they saved together. He then went on to join the Exiles team. House of M Gambit makes a brief appearance in House of M as a thief being caught by Carol Danvers. Marvel Zombies A zombie Gambit is seen as one of the dozens of super-powered zombies attacking Doctor Doom's castle trying to reach the uninfected humans inside. This is after being seen on S.H.I.E.L.D.'s helicarrier between Colossus and Magneto. This takes place in Marvel Zombies vs. The Army of Darkness. In Marvel Zombies #3, Gambit is one of the many zombies trying to slay and eat the Silver Surfer. Next, Gambit's chest is blasted through, then his head, from the jaw up, is knocked off, by the cosmically powered zombies. Mutant X In the Mutant X universe, Gambit was in a fatal accident when he was attempting to save his foster daughter. He was accompanied by Bloodstorm at the time and begged her to turn him into a vampire so that he didn't have to die. She reluctantly accepted his request and became Gambit's sire. He was very unhappy with the creature he had become, blaming Bloodstorm for what she had done to him, and ran away. Since his eyes were naturally red, no one in the Thieves' Guild noticed any difference in Gambit, only making it easier for him to continue to feed. For a time, Gambit worked to prevent Bloodstorm from feeding on sentient beings, such as the thieving Marauders and otherwise innocent vampire-wannabes. Later, Gambit was forced to join Havok's team The Six, and while there, received a partial cure for his vampirism from the Brute. With the serum he devised, it granted both Gambit and Bloodstorm a reprieve from their blood lust and gave them the ability to walk in the sunlight. However, Gambit's appreciation did not run deep. When the team was in crisis-fighting the combined might of the Goblyn Force, Count Dracula, and the Beyonder, Gambit stole the team's jet and flew away with his adopted daughter Raven, never to be seen again. New Son (Sun) Appearing in the 1999 Gambit solo run, Gambit is called New Son (Sun) (X-Cutioner II) in Earth-9923 reality. In his own reality, the New Sun's kinetic charging powers had flared out of control, burning the world and killing everyone. As a result, the New Sun hunted down and killed versions of himself in other realities to ensure that they would not repeat his mistakes. New Sun is not limited to inorganic matter and can convert matter into energy at a sub-molecular level so it vaporizes or explodes. He also has the ability to time travel, can propel himself by a wave-like aura and can transplant matter through time and space, as well as being able to biokinetically augment all his physical abilities to superhuman levels. In this reality, New Sun was never adopted by the Thieves Guild, so his real name is not "Remy LeBeau". New Sun was raised with his full power and intended to become the fulfillment of an ancient Guild prophecy to create Heaven on Earth. However, things went wrong when he charged up his power in a special ritual—a chain reaction was started that caused everyone on Earth beside himself to burn up. Failing to remake time, the New Sun traveled to other universes, hoping to prevent the same thing from happening there. However, he found many worlds in ruins, often because of that world's version of Gambit. Coming to the main Marvel Universe (616), he first attempted to create a new world where everyone would eventually be transported to, using the main reality's Gambit to help (without revealing to him who he truly was). When he learned that his plan wasn't possible, he tried to kill Gambit, transporting both of them to his destroyed homeworld before Gambit became a threat to the main universe's Earth world as well. During their final conflict, Gambit finally blasted the New Sun, burning out his recently increased powers, just as the New Sun died. Due to New Sun's immense power, it is speculated that New Sun was an omega-level mutant in his home dimension, and likely mutant alpha on Earth-9923; this, however, cannot be confirmed. Ultimate Marvel In this universe, Remy LeBeau is a Cajun thief, similar to the normal mainstream version. A flashback shows that Remy was beaten maliciously by his father. He was subsequently brought up by a thief who taught him the arts of stealing. His connection to Sinister has been hinted, but yet to be made clear, though it is noticeable that in flashbacks his father has red eyes like Mr. Sinister. When he confronted Hammerhead, the latter mentioned Sinister while bantering with Gambit. Later as an adult, Remy lived on the streets of New York, performing card tricks with his "magic", and he continued to steal. It also shows he has trouble controlling his powers wherein Ultimate X-Men #14, where he states to the mobsters he just defeated that he is a mutant but struggles with controlling his powers. He also does not have his bo staff at this time. At one point, Charles Xavier offered Gambit the chance to join the X-Men, but he refused. While trying to save a young girl's life, Gambit also faced Hammerhead and defeated him by making the mobster's adamantium skull explode. At some point Gambit met scouts in New Orleans who represented Andreas and Andrea Von Strucker, the Fenris Twins. The twins were presidents of Fenris International and secretly mutants. Their goal was to obtain mutant supremacy through economic empowerment. To accomplish this, they needed to find out the secrets of their business rivals. The twins made Gambit an offer that he could not refuse to participate in espionage activities. In addition to paying him, they cleaned up his accent and helped him control his powers. Gambit ran into the X-Men again at the Coney Island Fair where he was sent by the Fenris Twins to recruit Rogue. To accomplish this Gambit had to get her alone and away from the X-Men team. He accomplished this by defeating the entire team by playing to their desire to avoid any bystander injuries. He collapsed a giant Ferris wheel (i.e., the Wonder Wheel) taking much of the team out of the equation (knowing that they would go to rescue the people on the ride) and defeated Wolverine by threatening to explode Wolverine's skeleton, which would destroy a large part of the near area. He then proceeded to explode his bo staff in Wolverine's mouth, thus giving him enough time to take Rogue. The Fenris Twins felt Rogue would be an ideal employee since her powers (which include viewing others’ memories) would be useful for learning others' secrets. However, because of the unethical aspect of the job, Rogue refused. In response to seeing the fury of the twins, Gambit assisted Rogue in subduing the twins and escaping. As Rogue and Gambit escape, an enraged Wolverine finally tracks them down, beating Gambit badly with only his fists, preventing Gambit from making contact with his skeleton. Rogue stops Wolverine from killing Gambit and called him the true animal in this situation. Afterward, Gambit asked Rogue to come with him, commenting on how she and he were both alike. Rogue agreed and left the X-Men with him. In a battle with Juggernaut, Gambit appeared to suffer fatal injuries. As Rogue gave him a last kiss, she completely absorbed his powers and memory, killing him and getting control over her ability to siphon the memories and abilities of others. As of Ultimate X-Men Annual #2, Gambit's powers have faded from Rogue. X-Men: The End In this version, he is married to Rogue, and they have two children, a son (Olivier) and a daughter (Rebecca "Becca"). In the miniseries X-Men: The End: Heroes and Martyrs, Gambit was revealed to be the clone of Mister Sinister, created from Sinister's own pre-mutated DNA. Sinister wished to destroy his master, Apocalypse, and to do so he needed a body that had not been subject to Apocalypse's altering. He then engineered mutant powers for the clone, using the DNA of Cyclops. This technically makes him the third Summers brother; in that alternative reality. However, Apocalypse learned of Sinister's plan and had the child stolen and left it in the care of the Thieves Guild. It was originally believed that Gambit died in the series The End disguised as Sinister and trying to defeat the Shi'ar. However, in GeNEXT, a series about the children of the X-Men, Olivier talks about how he and his father (Gambit) have not really made contact since his mother (Rogue) died and that Gambit didn't have the heart to continue on as an X-Man. They only communicate through Rebecca. Age of X In the Age of X timeline, Gambit feels, for reasons unknown, compelled to rescue Rogue, who was being hunted by Moonstar and her team. They are seemingly killed by Magneto, but are later commissioned by him to break into a secret chamber. X-Men Noir In X-Men Noir, Remy LeBeau is depicted as the owner of the Creole Club, a nightclub and casino, also acting as an information source for his friend Thomas Calloway, a costumed detective and reporter for the Daily Bugle calling himself The Angel. He is, however, shown as an unscrupulous person, as he is not above collecting on debts with force. X-Men: Forever In X-Men: Forever he's referred to as Remy Picard. Old Man Logan In the "Old Man Logan" storyline, Gambit is among the X-Men who perish at the hands of Wolverine when he is tricked by Mysterio into believing his friends are super-villains attacking the mansion. Marvel Zombies: Resurrection Although Gambit is dead in this reality, Valerie Richards uses a hand taken from his corpse to destroy the source of the current zombie plague in the form of the Brood-infested Galactus. Reception IGN ranked Gambit as the 65th Greatest Comic Book Hero of All Time stating "that for some, Gambit's presence on the team has always been redundant, but others have fallen in love with his swagger, charm, and dark past. Gambit is just the sort of tortured soul that X-readers love, and his continued presence in the TV and movie spinoffs cements his status as one of the greats." In 2013, ComicsAlliance ranked Gambit as #4 on their list of the "50 Sexiest Male Characters in Comics". In other media Gambit made numerous animated appearances in cartoons such as X-Men, X-Men: Evolution and Wolverine and the X-Men. The character was portrayed by Taylor Kitsch in the live action X-Men Origins: Wolverine (2009). A Gambit spin-off was in development since at least May 2014, with Channing Tatum signed on to play the lead role. After five years of being stuck in development hell, the film was cancelled in May 2019. References External links Spotlight on Gambit at UncannyXmen.net GambitGuild.com / LeBeau Library Characters created by Chris Claremont Characters created by Jim Lee Comics characters introduced in 1990 Fictional bojutsuka Fictional Cajuns Fictional characters from New Orleans Fictional mercenaries Fictional professional thieves Fictional savateurs Fictional stick-fighters Male characters in film Marvel Comics film characters Marvel Comics male superheroes Marvel Comics martial artists Marvel Comics mutants Superheroes who are adopted X-Factor (comics) X-Men members	[ -0.16404564678668976, 0.3622680604457855, -0.6968766450881958, 0.06092590466141701, -0.1636832356452942, 0.28185734152793884, 0.8108283877372742, 0.37168923020362854, -0.402338445186615, -0.04761624336242676, -0.7049590349197388, 0.08134662359952927, -0.8258466720581055, 0.2750431299209595, 0.4459410011768341, 0.16710208356380463, -0.18149088323116302, 0.3470982313156128, -0.49183472990989685, -0.5208605527877808, 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232583	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Allele%20frequency	Allele frequency	Allele frequency, or gene frequency, is the relative frequency of an allele (variant of a gene) at a particular locus in a population, expressed as a fraction or percentage. Specifically, it is the fraction of all chromosomes in the population that carry that allele. Microevolution is the change in allele frequencies that occurs over time within a population. Given the following: A particular locus on a chromosome and a given allele at that locus A population of N individuals with ploidy n, i.e. an individual carries n copies of each chromosome in their somatic cells (e.g. two chromosomes in the cells of diploid species) The allele exists in i chromosomes in the population then the allele frequency is the fraction of all the occurrences i of that allele and the total number of chromosome copies across the population, i/(nN). The allele frequency is distinct from the genotype frequency, although they are related, and allele frequencies can be calculated from genotype frequencies. In population genetics, allele frequencies are used to describe the amount of variation at a particular locus or across multiple loci. When considering the ensemble of allele frequencies for many distinct loci, their distribution is called the allele frequency spectrum. Calculation of allele frequencies from genotype frequencies The actual frequency calculations depend on the ploidy of the species for autosomal genes. Monoploids The frequency (p) of an allele A is the fraction of the number of copies (i) of the A allele and the population or sample size (N), so Diploids If , , and are the frequencies of the three genotypes at a locus with two alleles, then the frequency p of the A-allele and the frequency q of the B-allele in the population are obtained by counting alleles. Because p and q are the frequencies of the only two alleles present at that locus, they must sum to 1. To check this: and If there are more than two different allelic forms, the frequency for each allele is simply the frequency of its homozygote plus half the sum of the frequencies for all the heterozygotes in which it appears. (For 3 alleles see ) Allele frequency can always be calculated from genotype frequency, whereas the reverse requires that the Hardy–Weinberg conditions of random mating apply. Example Consider a locus that carries two alleles, A and B. In a diploid population there are three possible genotypes, two homozygous genotypes (AA and BB), and one heterozygous genotype (AB). If we sample 10 individuals from the population, and we observe the genotype frequencies freq (AA) = 6 freq (AB) = 3 freq (BB) = 1 then there are observed copies of the A allele and of the B allele, out of 20 total chromosome copies. The frequency p of the A allele is p = 15/20 = 0.75, and the frequency q of the B allele is q = 5/20 = 0.25. Dynamics Population genetics describes the genetic composition of a population, including allele frequencies, and how allele frequencies are expected to change over time. The Hardy–Weinberg law describes the expected equilibrium genotype frequencies in a diploid population after random mating. Random mating alone does not change allele frequencies, and the Hardy–Weinberg equilibrium assumes an infinite population size and a selectively neutral locus. In natural populations natural selection (adaptation mechanism), gene flow, and mutation combine to change allele frequencies across generations. Genetic drift causes changes in allele frequency from random sampling due to offspring number variance in a finite population size, with small populations experiencing larger per generation fluctuations in frequency than large populations. There is also a theory that second adaptation mechanism exists – niche construction According to extended evolutionary synthesis adaptation occur due to natural selection, environmental induction, non-genetic inheritance, learning and cultural transmission. An allele at a particular locus may also confer some fitness effect for an individual carrying that allele, on which natural selection acts. Beneficial alleles tend to increase in frequency, while deleterious alleles tend to decrease in frequency. Even when an allele is selectively neutral, selection acting on nearby genes may also change its allele frequency through hitchhiking or background selection. While heterozygosity at a given locus decreases over time as alleles become fixed or lost in the population, variation is maintained in the population through new mutations and gene flow due to migration between populations. For details, see population genetics. See also Allele frequency net database Allele frequency spectrum Single-nucleotide polymorphism References External links ALFRED database EHSTRAFD.org – Earth Human STR Allele Frequencies Database VWA 17 Allele Frequency in Human Population (Poster) Allele Frequencies in Worldwide Populations Genetics concepts Population genetics Genetic genealogy	[ 0.35822591185569763, -0.48319366574287415, -0.6106361150741577, -0.030437851324677467, -0.2414647340774536, 0.38287898898124695, 0.21816477179527283, 0.39018377661705017, 0.4030512869358063, -1.0640552043914795, -0.24980290234088898, -0.13289181888103485, -0.5438054800033569, 0.7836300730705261, -0.3481896221637726, 0.5619753003120422, 0.0338459312915802, 0.6160725355148315, -0.23243260383605957, -0.2920725643634796, -0.0993661880493164, -0.06071901693940163, -0.08878938853740692, -0.30777767300605774, 0.03751792013645172, -0.47835034132003784, 0.23106104135513306, -0.16660422086715698, 0.8064538836479187, 0.3563440144062042, 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232584	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bishop%20%28Marvel%20Comics%29	Bishop (Marvel Comics)	Lucas Bishop is a fictional character appearing in American comic books published by Marvel Comics, particularly titles associated with the X-Men. He first appears as a member of Xavier's Security Enforcers (XSE), a mutant police force from a dystopian future of the Marvel Universe. He travels to the 20th century and joins the X-Men, a team he knew only as legends. Bishop experiences difficulty adjusting to the norms of the time period. Bishop made frequent appearances in the X-Men animated series of the 1990s. Bishop was portrayed by Omar Sy in the 2014 film X-Men: Days of Future Past. Publication history Created by Whilce Portacio and John Byrne, the character first appeared in The Uncanny X-Men #282 (November 1991). Bishop had four limited series. The first series is the self-titled Bishop series, where he tracked and fought Mountjoy. The series ran for four issues, from Dec. 1994 to March 1995. The second series to star Bishop is XSE, which showcased his past (future). The four-issue miniseries ran from Nov. 1996 to Feb. 1997. In the year of 1998, the series received a sequel titled, Bishop: Xavier's Security Enforcers. The sequel is a three-issue miniseries, which ran from Jan. to March of the year 1998. He also teamed up with Gambit to oppose Stryfe in the eight-issue Gambit and Bishop: Sons of the Atom. The series ran in the year of 2001. He also starred in the series Bishop: The Last X-Man (1999–2001), in which he was trapped in another alternate timeline. The fourteen-issue series ran from Aug. 1999 to Jan. 2001. He appeared regularly in District X (2004–2005), a police procedural set in a mutant ghetto in New York City. He was cast as a police officer in New York City’s "mutant town", but the series was canceled after 14 issues. He also starred in the House of M tie-in, Mutopia. Writer Sam Humphries revealed in an interview that Bishop would be back in our timeline and would be one of the first enemies of the new incarnation of Uncanny X-Force. Fictional character biography Early life Born about 80 years in the future of the Marvel Universe, Bishop was the son of Aboriginal mutant refugees who fled to America from Australia one day before Australia was devastated by a nuclear attack. He was raised in a mutant concentration camp in the aftermath of the Summers Rebellion, an uprising in which mutants and humans joined forces to destroy the Sentinels. Bishop has a distinctive M brand over his right eye, used to identify mutants in his era. After his parents were killed, Bishop was taken in by a man named LeBeau, also called Witness, who was reportedly the last man to see the legendary X-Men alive. According to LeBeau, Bishop's adoptive grandmother took Bishop away from him. Bishop and his younger sister, Shard, were then subsequently raised by his grandmother within the same mutant concentration camp in Brooklyn. Bishop's grandmother taught him many legends of the X-Men, who were old allies of hers. Depowered by unknown means, she had entered the camps in secret to raise her grandchildren. Upon her deathbed, she made Bishop swear to protect Shard. After the Rebellion, the mutants were "emancipated" and sent out of the camps to fend for themselves. Bishop and Shard, who were only children, were left alone. They lived on the streets, stealing in order to survive until coming under the care of a family friend, a war veteran named Hancock. Slightly blind, Hancock nevertheless took on the task of raising the two. One day, Bishop encountered an anti-human group of mutants called the Exhumes, who took Shard hostage just before the XSE arrived. Until that time, Bishop had admired the Exhumes, attributing to them his proud, idealized notion of the legendary X-Men. It wasn't until the XSE defeated the Exhume and saved his sister that Bishop knew he wanted to join the XSE. When Bishop was 15, Hancock was murdered by criminals who were promptly arrested by the XSE, and he and Shard enlisted in their ranks. Shard soon surpassed Bishop to become the youngest XSE officer. During a training class, Bishop's instructors and some of his fellow students were attacked and killed. Bishop rallied the survivors and led the struggle against the assailants until reinforcements arrived. Bishop gradually climbs the ranks of the XSE until finally becoming their commander. While on a mission to wipe out a nest of Emplates, mutant vampires that feed on bone marrow, Shard was critically injured. Bishop went to Witness for help. Witness, then imprisoned at the New York Stark Fujikawa building, agreed to transfer Shard's essence into a holographic matrix if Bishop would work for him for one year. Bishop agreed, leaving the XSE for a time. The details of Bishop's work during this period are unknown; Bishop appears reticent on the subject, later refusing to tell Shard of his actions. Immediately upon his re-installment as a commander in the XSE, Bishop and his XSE group the "Omega Squad" captured Trevor Fitzroy, a murderous ex-XSE trainee in the ruins of the Xavier Institute War Room. While there, Bishop discovered a damaged recording of Jean Grey, in which she spoke of a traitor destroying the X-Men from inside. Haunted by his discovery, Bishop confronts Witness for details, but receives only a vague, ambiguous response, leaving Bishop to suspect his former master of being more than simply a witness to the downfall of the X-Men. Joining the X-Men Fitzroy escaped from prison and used a large amount of mutant life-force to open a time portal and break out 93 mutant criminal "Lifers" in the process. Bishop found himself in the past in the time of his heroes, the X-Men. Bishop and the Omega Squad eventually "sanctioned" the Lifers, but did not get Fitzroy. Bishop encountered the X-Men for the first time but did not believe that they were really the X-Men. He then battled them but later allied with the X-Men in trying to stop Fitzroy. Malcolm and Randall, the two members of his Omega Squad, died in the process. Professor Charles Xavier offered him a place in the X-Men, and he was placed under Storm's tutelage. He fought and defeated Styglut. When he met Gambit, Bishop recognized him as possibly a younger version of the Witness and fought him. He soon met Mystique for the first time, and alongside the X-Men he battled the Morlocks and the Death Sponsors. Bishop assigned himself the role of Xavier's personal bodyguard, which he failed at when Stryfe, the evil double of Cable, critically wounded Xavier. Initially, the X-Men believed that Cable was the would-be assassin, so Wolverine and Bishop tracked down Cable, but then travelled to Cable's "Graymalkin" space station and joined with him in finding Stryfe. Citing his failure to protect Professor X, Bishop offered to resign from the X-Men. His resignation was rejected by Xavier, and then alongside the X-Men he battled the Acolytes. Age of Apocalypse When Professor Xavier's insane son, the mutant Legion, went back in time to assassinate Magneto, Bishop was one of the X-Men sent to stop him. When they failed and Legion accidentally killed Professor Xavier, Bishop was the only time-traveler to remain when history was altered and became the Age of Apocalypse. He eventually convinced the Magneto of that era that the existence of this reality was wrong, and with a great amount of sacrifice, managed to correct the error and stop Legion. After the timeline reset itself, Bishop received some of his counterpart's unsettling memories of the Age of Apocalypse. The traitor in the X-Men was eventually revealed to be Professor X in the form of Onslaught. Bishop's knowledge of the future was the only thing that stopped Onslaught from killing the X-Men. As Onslaught fired a massive blast of psionic energy at the distracted X-Men, Bishop threw himself in front of them and absorbed the blast that would have killed them. Onslaught, winded from such a massive attack, said that his blast was enough to kill a thousand mutants and "Another time, another place, I would have been proud". Bishop lost consciousness after absorbing the blast but soon recovered, although it was not enough to prevent Onslaught from nearly destroying all of humanity. He made peace with Gambit, who was not the traitor after all. Following this, Bishop was captured by Trevor Fitzroy's henchmen and taken to a distant possible future, detailed in the Bishop: The Last X-Man series. He again faced Fitzroy, with Bishop eventually killing him. He was temporarily returned to the present by Apocalypse who needed him as one of The Twelve, before finally returning permanently during the Maximum Security crossover. X-Treme X-Men Bishop was a founding member of Storm's splinter team of X-Men, whose mission was to search for the Books of Truth, the diaries of the precognitive mutant Destiny. They left against the will and knowledge of the main team, as the splinter group did not trust in Xavier or the others to use the diaries for the benefit of humanity. District X Bishop joined the Federal Bureau of Investigation. District X, or 'Mutant Town', had a high-population density. It was also a poverty-stricken area with high crime rates. Bishop was assigned to the area in order to resolve mutant-related crimes. Civil War In the Civil War: X-Men miniseries, Bishop sides with the ONE* to bring in the X-Men and the 198. He argues with Cyclops over allowing their escape and states his fear of what the future might hold. Val Cooper and Tony Stark let Bishop lead Micromax and Sabra into action against Domino, Shatterstar, and the rest of the 198. Bishop led them to the base where the 198 was hiding and told the X-Men to stand down upon their arrival. General Demetrius Lazer betrayed him by ensuring that Cyclops attacked Bishop. Though at first he simply absorbed it, the power was too much for him to control and he was overwhelmed. Bishop was forced to direct the energy he had absorbed upwards in a powerful blast that destroyed an ONE* Sentinel. He later teamed up with the X-Men to save the 198 from a bomb explosion and then went his own way, leaving the X-Men. Bishop was among Iron Man's pro-registration forces that guarded the Negative Zone prison. When Captain America's team breaks in, a fight ensues, putting Bishop at odds with his former teammates Storm and Cable. Messiah Complex In Messiah Complex, an event revitalized Bishop's timeline as a viable future: the birth of the first mutant child since M-Day. As the Marauders, on Mister Sinister's orders, try to gather anyone and anything with knowledge of the future, Bishop is the only target they were unable to locate and terminate. It is revealed that he had betrayed the X-Men and he attempted to kill the baby. Before he could succeed, he was thwarted by the Marauders, who escaped with the baby. As X-Men arrive on the scene, Bishop pretends to have attempted to retrieve the baby. As Multiple Man's duplicate and Layla Miller find out in their mission to one of the planet's possible futures (80 years in the future) that the birth of the child created, the child apparently kills a million people in an event dubbed the Six-Minute War, and the U.S. government incarcerates all the mutants into concentration camps, where Bishop is born, grows up, and sees his parents killed. As Multiple Man's dupe and Layla find out, Bishop wishes at a young age to have had the opportunity to kill the baby, so that while he would not be born, he would also not have to see his parents die, and to endure the horrors of life in the concentration camps. Layla kills the dupe so that the information conveyed to them by young Bishop can return to the present, to the Multiple Man prime, who conveys Bishop's treachery to the X-Men. The X-Men then attempted to alert X-Force of Bishop's betrayal, but he managed to block all of their communication channels. After arriving on Muir Island and fighting past the Marauders, Bishop found Cable attempting to escape with the baby and the two fight. Both mutants are then attacked by Predator X, who viciously rips off Bishop's right arm. Bishop cauterizes his torn shoulder on an unconscious Sunfire and in an attempt to shoot down a teleporting Cable, he misses and hits Professor X instead. Chasing the Mutant Messiah Bishop managed to escape the X-Men after he seemingly killed their mentor, and stole a nuclear powered bionic arm from Forge equipped with a timeslide device, which he uses to track down Cable and the newborn mutant. Upon finding them, he shoots Cable twice before being hindered by a local gang. With Cable severely weakened by blood loss, he makes a risky attack before the gang can find heavier weapons. He later manages to track down Cable, slaying several mutated beasts in the process, and shoot the Mutant Messiah. He also finds that in the future generated by his choice, Cable will be always revered as a messianic figure who tried his best to protect the child and saved humanity from the very beasts that Bishop unwillingly saved Cable from. It has been revealed that the Messiah child is still alive and Bishop has been captured by the X-Men. In his efforts to kill the child, Bishop has left several traps for Cable throughout the timestream, killing millions in the process, though he doesn't see them as people who actually exist but as people who wouldn't exist or come back to life if he kills Hope. Messiah War After multiple failings at killing Hope, Bishop locates and enlists the aid of Stryfe, promising him that he would aid him in killing Apocalypse and Cable. Stryfe and Bishop travel to a point in the future where Apocalypse is at his weakest and manage to defeat him. Stryfe builds an empire using Celestial technology and Bishop becomes his right-hand man, waiting for Cable and Hope to re-emerge. When they do appear along with X-Force, Hope is kidnapped. Bishop betrays Stryfe and his plot to kill Hope is foiled by Stryfe, who wants to make her his heir. Both attempts are foiled by Apocalypse, X-Force, and Cable. Cable manages to rescue Hope and escape yet again. Bishop escapes into the "near future" of the 21st century, reconstructing his arm, vowing to find Hope once again.<ref>Cable vol. 2 #12-15</ref> Homecoming After several years of running from Bishop, Hope finally decides that it is time to return to the present. During a battle, Bishop manages to knock out Cable. In a fit of rage, Hope's powers awaken and render Bishop unconscious. Hope then attempts to kill Bishop, but is stopped by Cable. They take Bishop's time machine and leave him stranded. Bishop is somehow transported with them and begins chasing them through time, in an attempt to kill Hope before they reach the present. In Cable vol. 2 #24, Hope and Cable return to the present time but Bishop follows them. He attacks them, running Cable through with a sword. As Cable is incapacitated, Hope rushes to his aid but is ultimately overpowered by Bishop. Cable takes out Bishop's time-traveling device from his techno-organic arm, performs some alterations on it, and places it in Bishop's robotic arm. Cable recovers enough to toss Bishop into the subway. As Bishop attempts to kill Hope one last time, he is transported to a barren and dead Earth (as a result of his efforts to limit Cable and Hope's attempts to find allies and shelter through different time periods) with a red sun in the sky (cause unknown). Bishop, being overconfident, attempts to travel back to the present time to continue his quest to kill Cable and Hope Summers, but due to Cable sabotaging Bishop's time-traveling device, this attempt causes his robotic arm to explode. This leaves him stranded in the year 6700 A.D. Bishop is last shown thinking to himself concerning Cable and Hope, "I was as much a father to that girl as you were. Whatever she becomes, it's because of me. I was doing the right thing. Wasn't I?" Return to the Present In Uncanny X-Force vol. 2 #1, Bishop makes his first appearance since being stranded in the future. He is shown arriving in 2013 Los Angeles and announcing "I'm baaack!" He battles the members of the new X-Force before it is revealed that his mind is apparently being possessed by the Demon Bear that once terrorized Danielle Moonstar. After a lengthy conflict, Psylocke manages to pull the Bear out of Bishop's mind. Storm also uses the opportunity to disrupt the part of Bishop's mind holding his memories of his hunt for Hope, in the hopes that she will thus restore her old friend. Bishop is later shown comatose as a result of his ordeal. He eventually regains his memories of Hope. The self-control he has learned during his time in the future helps him move past his former vendetta, even helping to save Hope's life when Stryfe attempted to manipulate them into attacking each other in revenge for their actions against him during their time-traveling search. Bishop is shown carrying out research in a library in London, preparing himself for the next 'scheduled' threat he recalls from his future history, when he becomes caught up in the latest attack by the Shadow King, which results in Charles Xavier being reborn in Fantomex's body. After the reborn Proteus and Shadow King are defeated, Xavier—now calling himself 'X'—erases the memories of his resurrection from most of the X-Men who worked with him, but he grants each of them a gift, stating that his gift to Bishop is the ability to put his quest to protect the future to the side at times and allow himself to enjoy his life in the present. Bishop later receives a warning (apparently by Kid Cable) about an unspecified, imminent event that would have catastrophic consequences on the X-Men's timeline. This leads him to Sugar Man's lab where the X-Man has a quick confrontation with the frightened villain before getting knocked unconscious. By the time Bishop wakes up, Sugar Man is dead with his body split in two. The event was soon afterward revealed to be the return of Nate Grey, who had found and used the Life Seed on himself. This not only made him recover his powers, but also increased them to the point of overriding the black X-shaped tattoo which was protecting him, and in the process twisted his mind. Nate then uses all his powers, though Jean tries to reason with him, to reshape the world in his image, a world where the X-Men no longer exist. Under the illusionary world, every type of human intimate interaction is forbidden, although this does not stop Bishop and Jean Grey from starting a relationship. This leads to the events of mini-series Prisoner X, where Bishop is take to be "reconditioned". Dawn of X and Krakoa In the new status quo for the X-Men (Dawn of X), helmed by writer Jonathan Hickman, Bishop is part of the crew of the Marauders, led by Kitty Pryde, and becomes Red Bishop of the Hellfire Club (comics). He is also one of the Krakoa's Great Captains—alongside Cyclops, Magik, and Gorgon—before becoming Captain Commander when Cyclops steps aside to lead the X-Men. During King in Black, Beast was able to convince Bishop to ignore his orders from Pryde and shoot to kill the symbiote-infected Cyclops and Storm, hinting that he's okay being used by different organizations against one another. He's also suggested the idea of fusing mutant DNA into new forms—inadvertently arguing for chimeras, which became a major part of Moira MacTaggert's previous failed timelines. Powers and abilities Bishop's mutant ability enables him to absorb all forms of radiant or conductive energy that are directed towards him and to release that energy from his body. This power is mostly passive, allowing Bishop to absorb energy at all times. He can release this energy in many different forms, usually as concussive blasts of biokinetic energy, even amplified compared to the absorbed amount. Bishop can also store absorbed energy within his personal reserves, whereupon the energy increases his strength and recuperative abilities as well as affording him a measure of invulnerability. He is also able to absorb magic energy (as seen when fighting "growing men" in Limbo) and the psychic energies of psionics as easily as all the other kinds. This does not prevent him from being read or manipulated by a telepath but only sustains him and helps him to slow them down and potentially exhaust them. It has been clearly stated that Bishop is also able to absorb and process kinetic energy similarly to Sebastian Shaw, but in a much less effective way. His powers make it difficult to harm him with energy-based attacks; however, he can become overloaded from absorbing too much energy, though his upper limits are unknown, even to himself; when Rogue was suffering a power overload after absorbing Skrull telepath Z'Cann, Bishop was pushed to his limit simply by grabbing Rogue as he tried to help her drain off her excess power. While he can achieve a sort of invulnerability, even against conventional attacks and depending on his energy reserves, some parts of at least the transformation process are also participatory, as for example after falling from a great height he transformed the kinetic energy into pure light and sound, but only could do so because he was conscious. Bishop is also resistant to most poisons. He can "let his spirit go" as seen in X-Treme X-Men Annual #1. However, it was never clearly explained what this actually means and if this is also part of his powers or if it was taught to him. He has also demonstrated the ability to instinctively know where he is and the present hour and date even if asleep, first mentioned in X-Treme X-Men #1. Although being the great-grandson of Gateway, a mutant possessing extensive dealings with time travel, this aspect is not one of Bishop's mutant powers. Bishop's explanation is that due to training; he knows where he is at all times. Bishop is a highly athletic man, an excellent hand-to-hand combatant with many years of armed and unarmed combat training, and a superb marksman with firearms. When he first came to the modern era, Bishop carried XSE guns from his time that fired laser beams and plasma charges. He also wore his XSE uniform, modeled after X-Men uniforms, which contained body armor. For a significant period of time, his right arm was a prosthetic, stolen from Forge. A nuclear-powered battle-ready arm, it incorporates in its design a time-travel device, the ability to channel his energy blasts through, and enhanced strength and resilience. It has since been destroyed after Bishop tried to use it to time travel from 6700 A.D. to 2010 to kill Cable and Hope Summers due to Cable tampering with the time traveling device within it. His real arm has apparently been re-grown after he was healed in the future by the remnants of humanity. Other versions Ultimate Marvel In Ultimate Marvel, a time-traveling Bishop appears in Ultimate X-Men #76. Moments after the battle with Cable concludes, he appears asking if he is too late to stop Cable. Wolverine knocks him unconscious and the X-Men interrogate him. He is wearing the same uniform as the members of Cable's squad and appears to be much older than the mainstream Bishop. He then leads the team into battle with Cable's squad. He fails to stop Cable from kidnapping Charles Xavier (everyone believes Xavier is dead) and is trapped in the present day, due to Cable's destruction of the device that allowed him to time travel. In Ultimate X-Men #80, Bishop has a conversation with his younger self, who is incarcerated, in which he tells him not to use his powers to escape. By Ultimate X-Men #84, Bishop has formed a new team of X-Men (consisting of Wolverine, Storm, Pyro, Dazzler, Angel, Psylocke, and himself). He is using the new team to stop a new wave of Sentinel attacks on mutants, caused by an unknown enemy, revealed in that issue to be the Fenris twins and Bolivar Trask. Wolverine appears to distrust Bishop, promising to gut him if he tries anything suspicious. Bishop was unconscious during the fight with the Fenris twins and the Sentinels, but when Psylocke's life was at risk, he woke up to defend her and revealed that she was his future wife. He killed both the Fenris twins with his abilities and went on to lead the New X-Men against the Sentinels. At the end of the battle, it was revealed to the reader that he was in fact working with Cable and that the entire "Cable" affair had been a ruse to make the X-Men a stronger team. The team remains unaware of the deception and Wolverine stabbed Bishop at the end of issue #90 when Bishop stopped Storm and Dazzler from being able to save Angel from being killed by Sinister before Bishop could reveal this. Bishop believes that it couldn't have happened any other way. Cable later reveals the ruse, but Wolverine shows no regret for killing Bishop. After the battle with Apocalypse is undone by the Phoenix, there is no evidence that Bishop has been returned to life, even though Angel was. His powers have been revealed as density control. For example, he destroyed a Sentinel robot by causing its shell to increase in density and crush its inner parts; Bishop then reduced his own density (or increased that of the air around him) and floated to the ground. He also has access to teleportation technology. Robert Kirkman later admitted that the Bishop mentioned earlier in the series is the same as the one he introduced; faced with the fact that this Bishop was already introduced into continuity when he would have preferred the character to work with Cable, Kirkman simply introduced him as an older version of the previously-mentioned Bishop. X-Men Noir In X-Men Noir, Bishop is depicted as the muscle for Remy LeBeau, the owner of a nightclub and casino called The Creole Club. X-Men: The End In X-Men: The End, the non-canon trilogy of miniseries by Chris Claremont, Bishop learns he has a teenage daughter, Aliyah, by Deathbird. She becomes Majestrix of the Shi'ar with her father as her Imperial Chancellor. In other media Television Bishop was featured in several episodes of the X-Men animated television series, voiced by Philip Akin. In his first appearance, he travels back in time to stop the assassination of Senator Kelly and prevent the Days of Future Past timeline from occurring (with Bishop assuming Kitty Pryde's role from the comic version of this tale). Bishop believes Gambit to be the assassin, but it is later revealed that Mystique attempts the assassination in the guise of Gambit. Upon returning to his own time after saving Kelly, he finds the world infected with a deadly plague. He returns in a later episode to stop the spread of Apocalypse's techno-organic virus, but he also faces resistance from Cable, who knows the virus is necessary as it will create antibodies needed for the stabilization of the mutant genetic code. Later, he appears in a set of episodes where he and his sister travel back in time to stop Trevor Fitzroy from killing the young Charles Xavier in the past, causing constant war between mutants and humans in the X-Men's time. The time travelers eventually manage to save Xavier, but Bishop is trapped in the Axis of Time during Apocalypse's attempt to control all of time in the "Beyond Good and Evil" episodes, during which he plays a pivotal role in Apocalypse's defeat. After Bishop leaves the Axis of Time, he reunites with his sister. Bishop appears in the Wolverine and the X-Men animated series, voiced by Kevin Michael Richardson. This version is a member of Professor X's future X-Men team in the Sentinel-dominated future and was trained by Wolverine at a young age. Film Bishop appears in the 2014 film X-Men: Days of Future Past, played by French actor Omar Sy. In the film, he is seen among the mutants that have met up with Professor X and Magneto at an abandoned Chinese monastery. In the final stand against the Sentinels, Bishop is killed when the Sentinels overload his energy absorption abilities and he explodes. These events are later erased by the altering of the timeline. Video games Bishop is a playable character in X-Men: Next Dimension. Bishop is a playable character in X-Men: Gamesmaster's Legacy. A younger version of Bishop makes a cameo in X-Men Legends, voiced by Grey DeLisle. The X-Men encounter him while fighting Sentinels on the streets of New York. Khary Payton voices Bishop who is a playable character in X-Men Legends II: Rise of Apocalypse. Bishop appears in Marvel: Ultimate Alliance 2, voiced by Emerson Brooks. He appears as an NPC for the Pro-Registration side and serves as a boss fight for the Anti-Registration Side. In n-Space versions (PlayStation 2, PlayStation Portable, Nintendo Wii and Nintendo DS), he is not a boss character, but still an NPC. When the heroes are fighting Tinkerer in a Repeater Tower to broadcast a jamming signal, Black Panther mentions over the radio that Bishop has been taken over by The Fold. Bishop appears in Marvel Heroes as an NPC voiced again by Emerson Brooks. The version who is being used by Doctor Doom to empower himself with a Cosmic Cube on the mutant is actually a clone created by Mister Sinister. Bishop appears as a playable character in the Facebook game Marvel: Avengers Alliance, and was the PVP Reward for the 10th PVP tournament. Bishop appears as a playable character in Marvel Contest of Champions. Bishop appears as a playable character in Marvel Future Fight. Books Bishop plays a small part in the X-Men: The Last Stand novelization by Chris Claremont. Bishop is a main character in the Spider-Man and X-Men novel trilogy Time's Arrow by Tom DeFalco with Jason Henderson (The Past), Adam-Troy Castro (The Present), and eluki bes shahar (The Future''), in which he and Spider-Man travel through time and into parallel universes. References External links World of Black Heroes: Lucas Bishop Biography UncannyXmen.net Spotlight on Bishop Characters created by John Byrne (comics) Characters created by Whilce Portacio Comics characters introduced in 1991 Fictional amputees Fictional bounty hunters Fictional characters displaced in time Fictional characters from parallel universes Fictional characters with energy-manipulation abilities Fictional cyborgs Fictional indigenous people of Australia Fictional mass murderers Fictional mercenaries Fictional police officers in comics Marvel Comics film characters Marvel Comics male superheroes Marvel Comics martial artists Marvel Comics mutants Marvel Comics orphans X-Men members	[ 0.23233714699745178, 0.333990216255188, -0.5316256880760193, 0.3690827786922455, -0.12709477543830872, -0.2615293264389038, 0.8055931329727173, 0.33258888125419617, 0.014611500315368176, 0.04793800413608551, -0.5202093124389648, -0.13226845860481262, -0.7622823715209961, 0.1605629324913025, 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232586	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sage%20%28Marvel%20Comics%29	Sage (Marvel Comics)	Sage, also known as Tessa, is a fictional character appearing in American comic books published by Marvel Comics. She has most often been associated with the X-Men and the Hellfire Club, whom she spied upon for Professor Charles Xavier. A mutant, Sage possesses a number of mental abilities and was originally presented as the personal assistant to the Hellfire Club's Sebastian Shaw, but an extended retcon revealed that she was one of the first mutants discovered by Professor Xavier. She has been a member of the original X-Men teams, Excalibur, the Exiles, and a cross-dimensional X-Men team similar to the Exiles known as the X-Treme X-Men. Sage appears in the television series The Gifted played by Hayley Lovitt. Publication history Tessa first appeared in The X-Men #132 (April 1980), and was created by Chris Claremont and John Byrne. Initially an agent of the Hellfire Club, decades later, she would join the X-Men and adopt the code-name "Sage" in X-Men #109 (February 2001). An extended retcon carried out by Claremont in X-Treme X-Men between 2002 and 2004 would later reveal that she had always been working for Professor X, serving as a spy for him within the Hellfire Club. The character is carried over to Uncanny X-Men during the Reload phase (2004), beginning with issue #444, but leaves the team in issue #455. She later reappears in New Excalibur (2005-2007) #1-24, mini-series X-Men: Die by the Sword (2007-2008) #1-5, Exiles (Vol. 2) #100, New Exiles (2008-2009) #1-18 and a cameo in Exiles (Vol. 3) #6. She returns to the fray in X-Treme X-Men (Vol. 2) (2012-2013) #6-13, and years later in Uncanny X-Men (Vol. 5) (2018) #10, House of X (mini-series) (2019) #1 and X-Force (Vol. 6) #1-present. Fictional character biography Sage's exact country of origin remains unrevealed, but she claims to have come from a war-torn region. By the time she reaches young adulthood, she is living by herself in Afghanistan. Although she tries to keep out of the conflicts between the rebels and the government, she is willing to use her guns and other weapons on anything that poses a threat. One day, she hears a call from a cave which is considered haunted by the locals. The voice (in her head) guides her deeper into the cavern, where she finds Charles Xavier, who is trapped underneath a pile of debris. His legs have been crushed during his battle with the alien Lucifer. Xavier senses that Sage is a mutant, and explains the meaning of her abilities. Although Sage says that this was about the same time he located Beast; in other accounts he found Sage first. Sage helps Xavier and tries to get him to a hospital, but during their journey down the mountain, they come across a United Nations relief convoy under attack by robbers, who have raped and killed the UN workers. Sage exacts revenge on their behalf and kills the robbers, though she later despises herself for being so brutal. Hellfire Club Years later, Sage meets up again with Xavier, who at the time is recruiting the original X-Men. Instead of being chosen for the first X-Men class, she is sent to spy on the Hellfire Club as Tessa, and to keep watch on Sebastian Shaw, something which returns to haunt her in the following years. While working at the Hellfire Club she encounters Psylocke, Jean Grey, and Emma Frost, who at this point is the White Queen. While she is able to successfully warn Psylocke away from the Hellfire Club, Tessa is later remorseful that she is unable to similarly prevent the corruption of Phoenix into the Black Queen. This transformation is a key factor in the creation of Dark Phoenix. Sometime during Tessa's time with the Hellfire Club, Sebastian Shaw and Emma Frost dare the man known as Elias Bogan to wager in a game of poker. Though he holds no official rank in the Inner Circle, the telepathic Bogan is one of the club's most important and powerful members; his patronage guarantees success in the organization. By the terms of the wager, if Shaw lost, Frost would "belong" to Bogan, but if Bogan's agent lost, then his fortune would be turned over to Shaw. Thanks to Tessa's advice and analytical skills, Bogan loses the game and is forced to honor the wager. Having never lost before, Bogan harbors a grudge against Tessa. During the X-Men's initial conflicts with the Hellfire Club, Tessa primarily maintains a background role and is seen as only Shaw's unusually intelligent assistant. Hints of her more complex role are indicated when she and Xavier are kidnapped by Donald Pierce, a renegade member of the club, with grudges against both organizations. Based on the interactions between Xavier and Tessa, it is unclear whether he is helping to maintain her cover or whether he feels as if he has lost his agent, since the interaction between the two is kept impersonal. The two are rescued by the nascent team of New Mutants, and Tessa takes Pierce into custody on behalf of the Hellfire Club. Tessa's next notable interaction with Xavier's students happens months later when the X-Men and Hellfire Club are hunting down Rachel Summers after her attempted murder of Selene, the newly installed Black Queen. In the middle of their fight, both teams are taken by surprise by Nimrod, a mutant-hunting robot from the future. Recognizing the more immediate threat, the two groups join forces and are able to severely damage Nimrod. The X-Men and Hellfire Club each sustain heavy losses and are forced to flee the scene quickly. Tessa offers Storm and the X-Men temporary sanctuary with the club, which later results in Magneto and Storm jointly accepting the role of White King in the Inner Circle. After the Hellfire Club Magneto becomes more actively involved with the Hellfire Club after the X-Men's supposed death in Dallas at the climax of the Fall of the Mutants. Tensions between Magneto and Sebastian Shaw grow until, finally, Magneto ousts Shaw from the group. Although Tessa remains with the Hellfire Club after his departure, her role diminishes. Shortly thereafter, the Upstarts begin to hunt down mutant leaders, starting with former and current leaders of the Inner Circle. Shinobi Shaw seemingly murders his father, Sebastian; Emma Frost is put into a coma. Tessa continues to serve as Shinobi's assistant, much as she had his father, and she also begins to use her telepathic skills more openly. After Tessa prevents Shinobi from solidifying his hold on the Hellfire Club, however, the younger Shaw ceases to work with her. Sebastian Shaw returns after a period of recuperation with the extradimensional Holocaust at his side. Seeking assistance in controlling this powerful mutant, Shaw calls Tessa back into his service. Her minor telepathic abilities are able to keep him in check since most telepaths in his native reality had been killed and he had not developed psychic defenses. The two lose Holocaust, though, when Onslaught decides he needs that mutant for his own purposes. Selene and her new amnesiac thrall Madelyne Pryor join with Shaw to regain their roles in the Hellfire Club. Suspicious of Pryor, Tessa attempts to telepathically probe her while she is sleeping, unwittingly reawakening Madelyne's memories of her tragic life and first death with the X-Men. Tessa is quickly overwhelmed and nearly killed. The only thing that stays Madelyne's hand is that Tessa's murder would have caused unnecessary complications. Instead, Pryor merely removes all memory of the conflict. Six-month gap Although it had been years since Tessa had outwitted him, Bogan kidnaps Sage and mentally dominates her. This possession permanently scars her mind. Bogan offers Tessa back to Shaw for everything he has. Shaw refuses and cuts his ties with Tessa. However, the X-Men become aware of Tessa's predicament, and Storm is able to rescue her. Out of gratitude, she stays with the X-Men, primarily in a support capacity, and resumes use of the name Sage. Fearful of mental domination by Bogan or another powerful telepath, Sage relinquished the use of her telepathic power and focused her force of will to maintain her mental shields. With the X-Men, Sage acts as a living computer, able to remember everything she sees and hears, and provide analysis. X-Treme X-Men After the X-Men learn of Destiny's prophetic diaries, the Books of Truth, Storm forms a splinter group that leaves the X-Mansion to hunt down the missing volumes. Sage is one of her first recruits. While the X-Treme team primarily makes use of her analytical skills, her mutant power to "jump-start" other mutants' abilities is used in a few critical junctures: saving the Beast's life by mutating him into a more animalistic, feline form; allowing Rogue temporary access and control of all powers she had ever absorbed; restoring Gambit's powers after injuries had overloaded them, and unlocking Slipstream's latent teleportation powers. During this period she forms a strong working relationship with Bishop in solving cases, most notably when the two briefly return to the X-Mansion to help investigate the attempted murder of Emma Frost. After the prophecies of the diaries are determined to be (apparently) invalid, the group still remains separate from the main team of X-Men due to differences in philosophy with Xavier. Storm petitions various world governments for official recognition as a mutant unit for policing mutant activity. Granted this authority, her unit is dubbed the X-Treme Sanctions Executive (X.S.E), and Sage becomes an officer of this unit. Although initially more mobile, the X.S.E. eventually returns to the X-Mansion as its base of operations. Sage's tenure with the team is abruptly ended when she rejoins the Hellfire Club to keep an eye on Sunspot (who has become the new Lord Imperial) to make sure he is not corrupted by power as Sebastian was. New Excalibur For reasons yet unknown, Sage leaves Sunspot's side and travels to England to join forces with the newly reformed New Excalibur. She helps them on various missions such as battling the Shadow King, and returning to ancient Camelot to prevent it from being prematurely destroyed. In a more subtle use of her observation abilities, Sage is instrumental in her teammate Nocturne's recovery from a debilitating stroke. In order to learn more about a mysterious new foe, Albion, and thwart his attempt to conquer Britain, Sage creates the new cover identity and persona of Diana Fox. This persona appears to be fully devoted to Albion and his goals. However, this bothers her teammate Wisdom as he fears she might fail the mission, similar to her time with the Hellfire Club. Her Diana Fox persona climbs up the rank of Albion's Shadow Captains as Britannia, and develops a rivalry with Lionheart. Like the rest of Albion's army, Sage is given a suit that emphasizes loyalty to him, as well as equipping her with flight and superhuman physical strength. Although she has the opportunity to kill Albion, one purpose of her infiltration, she is struck by an errant pulse from an ancient item used by Albion to extinguish power in England. Though Lionheart suspects her betrayal, Albion believes she was only trying to protect him. Wisdom's fears are realized after this when the Diana Fox persona takes complete control and Sage becomes fully committed to Albion's side. During this time, she slays two of New Excalibur's former allies in Shadow-X, Dark Cyclops and Dark Beast. A direct confrontation with her teammates in New Excalibur helps reassert Sage's original personality. Together with New Excalibur, Shadow-X, and now Lionheart, Sage defeats Albion and his Shadow Captains. X-Men: Die by the Sword and New Exiles Immediately after the defeat of the Shadow Captains, a party is held in honor of Excalibur. While the team enjoys the party, Sage feels guilt for her actions. The party is suddenly crashed by members of the Exiles; Psylocke and a Thunderbird from an alternate universe. They are then attacked by Rouge-Mort and drawn into a battle for the safety of the Multiverse from a psychotic Merlin and The Fury. They join forces with the rest of the Exiles, Roma and the Captain Britain Corps. The team defeats Merlin, but not before he manages to kill Roma. Prior to her death, Roma manages to transfer all of her knowledge about the Multiverse into Sage's mind, causing her to become overwhelmed; she fears for her sanity. Fearful of what would happen if someone on Earth ever gained the knowledge in her mind, Sage joins the Exiles. She suffers from hallucinations mixing her own memories with the information passed to her by Roma; furthermore, the Diana Fox persona re-emerges and attempts to take control once again. While the other Exiles go on missions, Sage largely remains at their base of operation, fighting the effects of Roma's memories and Diana Fox tenaciously every day until she drops from exhaustion. She refuses to lose possession of her mind, body, and soul. For a while she manages to calm down the phantoms, however, Diana Fox remains an aggressive presence in Sage's mind, fighting her for control. While diverting her focus to analyze Cat's uncontrolled ability to "cascade" through different alternate versions of herself, and Cat's empathic connection to the Crystal Palace, the phantoms in Sage's mind break free from their mental prison. Sage decides to confront them and Diana once and for all. During her struggle, she bonds with Cat, who had been trying to find a way to heal the dying Multiverse. Sage tells Cat that she is probably too close to the situation and that it is time for a fresh mind and a new perspective. She sends Cat away to join the rest of the team and prepares to find answers, just as Diana Fox shows up, wanting to fight. Sage and Diana fight each other but neither is yielding; they are too evenly matched and equally stubborn. As long as they fight each other, they cannot defeat the phantoms. The women decide to team up against a greater threat: the return of Merlin. During battles, Sage and Diana get a better understanding of each other and their motives. Merlin almost kills Sage. Knowing that she could never find answers to the collapsing of the Multiverse like Sage could, Diana decides to sacrifice herself to revive Sage for the greater good. Sage reabsorbs Diana and destroys the evil version of Merlin. Sage then follows her instincts and merges with the Crystal Palace, an act which stabilizes the Multiverse. This fate was intended for Cat, but being too young and too scared, she was unable to handle it. From then on, when the New Exiles communicate with the Crystal Palace, they do not address a computer, they speak to a living being: Sage. Sage was seen once more in the Crystal Palace. However she seems to have been permanently absorbed and rendered comatose along with her Exiles team. Return to X-Treme X-Men Like Sabretooth, she was apparently rescued, revived, or separated, as she was later seen helping Dazzler and an alternative reality Wolverine rescue a kid version of Nightcrawler from the robots of yet another alternative reality. As of the conclusion of the "X-Termination" storyline Sage returned to Earth-616. Return to the X-Men and Krakoa In 2018, Sage cameos in the 10-part storyline X-Men Disassembled when Jean Grey contacts several telepaths to defeat an empowered X-Man (Nate Grey). In mid- to late-2019, she guest stars in the dual mini-series House of X and Powers of X, written by Jonathan Hickman. In the new status quo for the X-titles, Dawn of X, the character is part of the cast of the X-Force relaunch (2019), and has cameos in other contemporary titles. In Krakoa, she works with Doug Ramsey to establish the Krakoa transit system to allow mutants to arrive at the island. Powers and abilities Sage is a mutant whose mind works in the same way as a supercomputer. Her mind has unlimited storage capacity, and she is able to immediately recall any information she has stored with perfect clarity. The speed of her thoughts allows her to analyze her surroundings for information in an instant, and track the probability of an event by piecing together stored and acquired data. She is able to perform multiple functions at once by allocating a portion of her brain to each task: Sage can replay a movie she has seen in her mind, play a game of internet chess, and focus on battling an opponent simultaneously without any one task distracting her from another. Sage's control of her mind gives her total control of her own body. She is able to perfectly recreate physical actions that she has seen once (so long as they are within her physical parameters), and she can control her bodily functions to a degree, like stopping her heart or breathing for as long as is safe. Sage is also able to 'see' a person's genetic code, reading their DNA sequences for latent and manifested mutations. This allows her to identify mutants, and understand how their powers work more thoroughly than they themselves do. Sage is able to selectively evolve existing genetic traits, as well as catalyze the untapped genetic potential of latent mutants. Once begun, the procedure is irreversible and can often result in unpredictable side effects. Sage possesses a degree of telepathic ability, allowing her to communicate with others over short distances, project psionic energy blasts, create illusions, and release an astral form within a limited range. By shutting down her telepathy, she is able to create a psychic firewall that blocks all manner of mental intrusion. The firewall can be used to deflect a psychic attack back at its source. Sage is skilled in the martial arts, and is formidable hand-to-hand combatant thanks to her having complete conscious control over her own body. Her analytical skills and facility with probability also extend to combat situations, allowing her to predict an opponent's attacks and initiate the optimal counter-attack. Sage is also self-taught in a wide range of firearms, which she can use with considerable skill and accuracy. Her computer-like mind makes it easy for her to learn new skills and languages. During her merge with the Exiles' home, the ancient Panoptichron (also known as the "Crystal Palace") Sage gained access to all of its functions. She could project her image as a hologram, as well as a solid body. She possessed awareness to the Palace's environment, and could teleport objects and living beings from any Earth in the Multiverse. Equipment Sage uses a pair of cybernetic sunglasses that allow her to access and interface with computers and data networks. She frequently carries and uses firearms and edged weapons, and is highly skilled in their use. Her firearms are sometimes loaded with stun ammunition. Other versions Mangaverse In X-Men Ronin, Tessa is part of the Hellfire Club, the daughter of Professor X, and Emma Frost's sister. What If? In the What If special, "What if.. Magneto and Professor X had formed the X-Men together?" an alternate version of Sage was depicted. In an alternative world where Professor Xavier and Magneto's ways did not part, Sage was found by both men and was never sent to spy on Sebastian Shaw in the Hellfire Club. As a result, Sage never helped that world's Shaw win his bet with Bogan, and Shaw lost Emma Frost to Bogan. Since Xavier had Sage around to find other mutants for him, he never developed his mutant-tracking computer, Cerebro. When Xavier finally began developing Cerebro, he used Sage to beta test it, comparing the readings of the device to the readings achieved with Sage's own mutant power. In this timeline, Sage served as Professor Xavier's Executive Assistant. New X-Men In the second volume of New X-Men, an alternate future is shown where Prodigy retains the knowledge he telepathically absorbs; Sage is shown to be Prodigy's secretary. She is responsible for convincing Jeffrey Garrett to destroy China and the death of Jay Guthrie in this alternate timeline. X-Men: The End In the alternate future presented in the X-Men: The End series of books. X-23, M, and Iceman are sent to Hong Kong to locate and capture the renegade X.S.E. member, Sage. However, Sage uses her considerable espionage skills to ambush X-23, attaching Malice's choker to her neck that temporarily overwhelms X-23. Sage has been using the choker to gather as much information from as many people as she can in hopes that she will eventually have access to all of the knowledge/information in the world. Sage removes the choker and attempts to flee just as Iceman arrives and freezes her in ice, allowing the group to safely take her into custody. In other media Novel In the novelization for the film X-Men: The Last Stand, Sage is a new student at the mansion being trained by Wolverine, along with Cannonball, Danielle Moonstar, and Gambit. Television Sage appears in the live-action TV-series The Gifted, portrayed by Hayley Lovitt. In the series she was a former member of the Mutant Underground having been homeless; until recruited by Lorna Dane and John Proudstar; until a raid by Trask Industries and Sentinel Services destroyed a safehouse. Sage and Esme Frost (with her sisters) planned to bring back the Hellfire Club under Reeve Payge to combat Trask's Hound program; until she is killed by her in the 2nd season. True to her comic counterpart, she has a supercomputer mind and is used as a computer analyst. Notes References External links Detailed biography on Sage at UncannyXmen.net Sage the living computer – Sage fansite (archived) Cyberpaths – Sage forums Characters created by Chris Claremont Characters created by John Byrne (comics) Comics characters introduced in 1980 Fictional mercenaries Fictional secret agents and spies Marvel Comics characters who have mental powers Marvel Comics martial artists Marvel Comics mutants Marvel Comics telepaths Marvel Comics female superheroes X-Men supporting characters Fictional characters with eidetic memory	[ 0.013821078464388847, -0.3043527901172638, -0.0821772888302803, 0.09152475744485855, 0.02070462703704834, 0.3711990714073181, 0.3006509840488434, -0.034466471523046494, -0.14301526546478271, -0.10560375452041626, -0.5035412311553955, 0.4858871102333069, -0.07967345416545868, 0.008659450337290764, -0.20676644146442413, 0.06648124009370804, -0.0764118954539299, 0.8613441586494446, -0.4863918125629425, -0.3817344903945923, -0.3502299189567566, 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232588	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Capital%20and%20Interest	Capital and Interest	Capital and Interest () is a three-volume work on finance published by Austrian economist Eugen Böhm von Bawerk (1851–1914). The first two volumes were published in the 1880s when he was teaching at the University of Innsbruck. The first volume of Capital and Interest, titled History and Critique of Interest Theories (1884), is an exhaustive survey of the alternative treatments of the phenomenon of interest: use theories, productivity theories, abstinence theories, and many more. In this work Böhm-Bawerk built upon the time preference ideas of Carl Menger, insisting that there is always a difference in value between present goods and future goods of equal quality, quantity, and form. Furthermore, the value of future goods diminishes as the length of time necessary for their completion increases. Böhm-Bawerk cited three reasons for this difference in value. First of all, in a growing economy, the supply of goods will always be larger in the future than it is in the present. Secondly, people have a tendency to underestimate their future needs due to carelessness and shortsightedness. Finally, entrepreneurs would rather initiate production with goods presently available, instead of waiting for future goods and delaying production. Also included was a critique of Marx's exploitation theory. Böhm-Bawerk argued that capitalists do not exploit workers; they accommodate workers – by providing them with income well in advance of the revenue from the output they helped to produce. Böhm-Bawerk's Positive Theory of Capital (1889), offered as the second volume of Capital and Interest, elaborated on the economy's time-consuming production processes and of the interest payments they entail. Book III, Value and Price, built on Menger's Principles to present a distinctly Austrian version of marginalism. To illustrate marginalism, he gave the following example: Further Essays on Capital and Interest (1921) was started as appendices to the second volume, but appeared as a third volume. All three volumes were recently published together as a bound set by Libertarian Press. Libertarian Press's edition was translated by Hans Sennholz and first published in 1959. The Ludwig von Mises Institute made available in 2007 the William Smart translations as Capital and Interest, The Positive Theory of Credit, and Recent Literature on Interest. References External links Capital and Interest by Eugen von Böhm-Bawerk 1884 non-fiction books 1889 non-fiction books 1921 non-fiction books 1959 non-fiction books Books by Eugen von Böhm-Bawerk Finance books Interest 1921 in economics	[ -0.11120908707380295, 0.042389336973428726, -0.4090726375579834, -0.07360531389713287, 0.27696800231933594, 0.8711541891098022, -0.5794016718864441, -0.29407623410224915, -0.242050901055336, -0.4242993891239166, -0.026364007964730263, 0.8061683177947998, 0.0019005669746547937, 0.18678916990756989, 0.3239056468009949, 0.0077628400176763535, -0.08751728385686874, -0.31206074357032776, 0.07302327454090118, -0.5207473635673523, -0.0886038988828659, 0.1391609162092209, 0.6279484629631042, -0.02737331949174404, 0.15854953229427338, -0.34471601247787476, 0.4212118685245514, 0.01615583337843418, -0.2873602509498596, -0.02634366787970066, -0.18901392817497253, 0.8711591958999634, -0.12787801027297974, 0.3919537365436554, -0.10142149031162262, 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232595	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mahmoud%20Abbas	Mahmoud Abbas	Mahmoud Abbas (; born 15 November 1935), also known by the kunya Abu Mazen (, ), is the president of the State of Palestine and the Palestinian National Authority. He has been the chairman of the Palestine Liberation Organization (PLO) since 11 November 2004, PNA president since 15 January 2005, and State of Palestine president since 8 May 2005. Abbas is also a member of the Fatah party and was elected chairman in 2009. Abbas was elected on 9 January 2005 to serve as President of the Palestinian National Authority until 15 January 2009, but extended his term until the next election in 2010, citing the PLO constitution, and on 16 December 2009 was voted into office indefinitely by the PLO Central Council. As a result, Fatah's main rival, Hamas, initially announced that it would not recognize the extension or view Abbas as the rightful president. Yet, Abbas is internationally recognized in his position(s) and Hamas and Fatah conducted numerous negotiations in the following years, leading to an agreement in April 2014 for a Unity Government (which lasted until October 2016) and to the recognition of his office by Hamas. Abbas was also chosen as the president of the State of Palestine by the PLO Central Council on 23 November 2008, a position he had held unofficially since 8 May 2005. Abbas served as the first prime minister of the Palestinian Authority from March to September 2003. Before being named Prime Minister, Abbas led the PLO Negotiations Affairs Department. Personal life and education Mahmoud Abbas was born on 15 November 1935 in Safed, in the Galilee region of Mandatory Palestine (now Israel). His family fled to Syria during the 1948 Palestine war. Before going to Egypt, Abbas graduated from the University of Damascus, where he studied law. Abbas later entered graduate studies at the Patrice Lumumba University in Moscow, where he earned a Candidate of Sciences degree (the Soviet equivalent of a PhD). His doctoral dissertation was "The Other Side: The Secret Relationship Between Nazism and Zionism". He is married to Amina Abbas and they had three sons. The eldest, Mazen Abbas, ran a building company in Doha and died in Qatar of a heart attack in 2002 at the age of 42. The kunya of Abu Mazen means "father of Mazen." Their second son is Yasser Abbas, a Canadian businessman who was named after former PA leader Yasser Arafat. The youngest son is Tareq, a business executive. Abbas has eight grandchildren, six of whom are part of the Seeds of Peace initiative bringing them in touch with young Israelis. Political activism and career In the mid-1950s, Abbas became heavily involved in underground Palestinian politics, joining a number of exiled Palestinians in Qatar, where he was Director of Personnel in the emirate's Civil Service. While there in 1961, he was recruited to become a member of Fatah, founded by Yasser Arafat and five other Palestinians in Kuwait in the late 1950s. At the time, Arafat was establishing the groundwork of Fatah by enlisting wealthy Palestinians in Qatar, Kuwait, and other Gulf States. According to Abu Daoud, part of the funds raised by Abbas were used, without the latter's knowledge, to implement the 1972 Munich massacre. He was among the first members of Fatah to call for talks with moderate Israelis, doing so in 1977. In a 2012 interview, he recalled, "[...] because we took up arms, we were in a position to put them down with credibility." Abbas has performed diplomatic duties, presenting a moderating contrast to the PLO's "revolutionary" policies. Abbas was the first PLO official to visit Saudi Arabia after the Gulf War in January 1993 to mend fences with the Gulf countries after the PLO's support of Iraq during the Persian Gulf War strained relations. In the Oslo I Accord, Abbas was the signatory for the PLO on 13 September 1993. He published a memoir, Through Secret Channels: The Road to Oslo (1995). In 1995, he and Israeli negotiator Yossi Beilin wrote the Beilin–Abu Mazen agreement, which was meant to be the framework for a future Israeli–Palestinian peace deal. It emerged in September 2016 that Abbas may have once worked for the KGB, as early as 1985 in Damascus, according to a document uncovered in the Mitrokhin Archive, where he is registered as agent "Krotov". Palestinian officials replied that at the time in question, the PLO collaborated with Moscow, and that Abbas was their liaison man in the Palestinian-Soviet friendship foundation. Prime minister By early 2003, as Israel and the United States refused to negotiate with Yasser Arafat, it was thought that Abbas would be a candidate for the kind of leadership role envisaged by both countries. As one of the few remaining founding members of Fatah, he had some degree of credibility within the Palestinian cause, and his candidacy was bolstered by the fact that other high-profile Palestinians were for various reasons not suitable (the most notable, Marwan Barghouti, was a prisoner in Israeli jail after having been convicted on charges of being responsible for multiple murders by an Israeli court). Abbas's reputation as a pragmatist garnered him favor with the West and some members of the Palestinian legislature. Under international pressure, on 19 March 2003, Arafat appointed Abbas Prime Minister of the Palestinian National Authority. According to Gilbert Achcar, the United States imposed Abbas on Arafat, the democratically elected leader, though the majority of Palestinians thought of the former as a Quisling. A struggle for power between Arafat and Abbas ensued. Abbas's term as prime minister was characterised by numerous conflicts between him and Arafat over the distribution of power. The United States and Israel accused Arafat of undermining Abbas and his government. Abbas hinted he would resign if not given more control over the administration. In early September 2003, he confronted the Palestinian parliament over this issue. Abbas came into conflict with Palestinian militant groups, notably the Palestinian Islamic Jihad Movement and Hamas because his pragmatic policies were opposed to their hard-line approach. Initially, he pledged not to use force against the militants in the interest of avoiding a civil war, and attempted negotiation. This was partially successful, resulting in a pledge from the two groups to honor a unilateral Palestinian cease-fire. However, continuing violence and Israeli "targeted killings" of known leaders forced Abbas to pledge a crackdown in order to uphold the Palestinian Authority's side of the Road map for peace. This led to a power struggle with Arafat over control of the Palestinian Security Services; Arafat refused to release control to Abbas, thus preventing him from using them on the militants. Abbas resigned as prime minister in September 2003, citing lack of support from Israel and the United States as well as "internal incitement" against his government. 2005 Presidential election After Yasser Arafat's death, Abbas was seen, at least by Fatah, as his natural successor. On 25 November 2004, Abbas was endorsed by Fatah's Revolutionary Council as its preferred candidate for the presidential election, scheduled for 9 January 2005. On 14 December, Abbas called for an end to violence in the Second Intifada and a return to peaceful resistance. Abbas told the Asharq Al-Awsat newspaper that "the use of arms has been damaging and should end." However, he refused, or was not able, to disarm Palestinian militants and use force against groups designated (by the Israeli government) as terrorist organisations. With Israeli forces arresting and restricting the movement of other candidates, Hamas's boycott of the election, and his campaign being given 94% of the Palestinian electoral campaign coverage on TV, Abbas's election was virtually ensured, and on 9 January Abbas was elected with 62% of the vote as President of the Palestinian National Authority. In his speech, he addressed a crowd of supporters chanting "a million shahids", stating: "I present this victory to the soul of Yasser Arafat and present it to our people, to our martyrs and to 11,000 prisoners". He also called for Palestinian groups to end the use of arms against Israelis. Presidency and PLO leadership Despite Abbas's call for a peaceful solution, attacks by militant groups continued after his election, in a direct challenge to his authority. The Palestinian Islamic Jihad Movement in Palestine launched a raid in Gaza on 12 January 2005, that killed one and wounded three Israeli military personnel. On 13 January, Palestinians from the Al-Aqsa Martyrs' Brigades, Hamas, and the Popular Resistance Committees launched a suicide attack on the Karni crossing, killing six Israelis. As a result, Israel shut down the damaged terminal and broke off relations with Abbas and the Palestinian Authority, stating that Abbas must now show a gesture of peace by attempting to stop such attacks. Abbas was formally sworn in as the President of the Palestinian National Authority in a ceremony held on 15 January, in the West Bank town of Ramallah. On 8 February 2005, Abbas met with Israeli Prime Minister Ariel Sharon at the Sharm el-Sheikh Summit to end the Second Intifada, and they both reaffirmed their commitment to the Roadmap for peace process. Sharon also agreed to release 900 Palestinian prisoners of the 7,500 being held at the time, and to withdraw from West Bank towns. On 9 August 2005, Abbas announced that legislative elections, originally scheduled for 17 July 2005, would take place in January 2006. On 20 August, he set the elections for 25 January. On 15 January 2006, Abbas declared that, despite unrest in Gaza, he would not change the election date, unless Israel were to prevent Palestinians in East Jerusalem from voting. The elections took place on 25 January 2006, and resulted in a decisive Hamas victory. On 16 January 2006, in the context of Fatah's election loss and Hamas' presumed future one party government, Abbas said that he would not run for office again at the end of his term. However, following international sanctions against a Hamas one party government, political and military conflicts between Hamas and Fatah, and the division of the country, which made new elections impossible, Abbas stayed president after the expiration of his four-year term on 15 January 2009. He extended his term for another year, using another interpretation of the Basic Law and the Election Law, so he could align the next presidential and parliamentary elections. Pointing to the Palestinian constitution, Hamas disputed the validity of this move, and considered Abbas's term to have ended, in which case Abdel Aziz Duwaik, Speaker of the Palestinian Legislative Council, would have become acting president. On 16 December 2009, the leadership of the Palestinian Central Council announced an indefinite extension of Abbas's term as president. Since then, Abbas has remained president of the Fatah-controlled areas of the Palestinian territories. In April 2014, Hamas withdrew its objection, in order to form a Unity Government with Fatah. He announced his resignation as leader of the PLO on 22 August 2015. As of December 2015, he was still acting as Chairman, pending approval by the Palestinian National Council. In 2021, local elections in Palestine were held amidst a rift between Abbas and Hamas. This was after he had indefinitely postponed the presidential election and parliamentary elections. Corruption allegations There are frequent allegations that officials of the Palestinian Authority, including Abbas, have systematically embezzled public funds. Abbas's mentor and predecessor, Yasser Arafat, was accused of embezzling billions of dollars of Palestinian money. This perceived corruption of the Fatah leadership is believed to have contributed to a convincing win by Hamas in the January 2006 parliamentary election. Fatah leaders were accused of siphoning funds from ministry budgets, passing out patronage jobs, accepting favors and gifts from suppliers and contractors. The source for specific allegations against Abbas was one of Arafat's most trusted aides, Mohammed Rashid, accused by the PA of embezzling hundreds of millions of dollars, who threatened to expose corruption scandals in the Palestinian Authority. For many years, Rashid served as Arafat's financial advisor and was given a free hand to handle hundreds of millions of dollars that were poured on the Palestinian Authority and the PLO by US, EU and Arab donors. According to Rashid, Abbas's net worth was $US100 million. On 10 July 2012, Abbas and his sons were attacked, in the US Congress, for their alleged corruption. The debate was entitled Chronic Kleptocracy: Corruption Within the Palestinian Political Establishment In his testimony before the House Committee on Foreign Affairs, Subcommittee on Middle East and South Asia, Elliott Abrams stated that "Corruption is an insidious destroyer not only of Palestinian public finance but of faith in the entire political system. And it has certainly had an impact on potential donors. I can tell you from my own experience, as an American official seeking financial assistance for the PA from Gulf Arab governments, that I was often told "why should we give them money when their officials will just steal it?"" The conspicuous wealth of Abbas's own sons, Yasser and Tarek, has been noted in Palestinian society since at least 2009, when Reuters first published a series of articles tying the sons to several business deals, including a few that had U.S. taxpayer support. In a Foreign Policy article, author Jonathan Schanzer suggested four ways in which the Abbas family has become rich. They include monopolies on American made cigarettes sold in the territories; USAid funding; public works projects, such as road and school construction, on behalf of the Palestinian Authority and special preferences for retail enterprises. It was strongly implied that the sons lineage was the main credential in receiving these contracts. One of his sons, Yasser Abbas, (but not brother Tarek or father Mahmoud) filed a $10 million libel lawsuit in the United States District Court, District of Columbia, in September 2012 against Foreign Policy Group LLC and Schanzer alleging "false and defamatory statements. It seems every statement will be challenged, in a jury trial, if the court accepts jurisdiction." Abbas also accused Schanzer of not contacting him for comment and of relying on untrustworthy sources of information. Abbas accused Schanzer of acting with malice and pursuing an agenda against the brothers, even though he also contended that he's a private citizen and not a public figure, so we wouldn't need to prove actual malice to win. In reply, the magazine has argued that Abbas's suit is aimed at intimidating his critics and stopping debate. "In the final analysis, the commentary falls well within the protections of both the First Amendment and the common law," lawyers for the magazine assert. Some analysts believed the Abbas family would not proceed with the case as it would allow Foreign Policy and Schanzer to dig in too deep into the PA's secret finances and records. However, the case proceeded. In September, 2013, U.S. District Judge Emmet Sullivan dismissed the suit using D.C.'s anti-SLAPP measure. Sullivan determined the lawsuit intended to censor, intimidate, and silence critics by burdening them with the cost of a legal defense until they abandoned their criticisms or opposition. The decision has been appealed. As part of the 2016 Panama Papers data leak, it was revealed that Abbas's son Tareq Abbas holds $1 million in shares of an offshore company associated with the Palestinian Authority. Relations with Israel On 23 January 2005, Israeli radio reported that Abbas had secured a thirty-day ceasefire from Hamas and Palestinian Islamic Jihad. On 12 February, lone Palestinians attacked Israel settlements and Abbas quickly fired some of his security officers for not stopping the attacks during the ceasefire. On 9 April 2005, Abbas said that the killing of three Palestinians in southern Gaza by Israeli soldiers was a deliberate violation of the declared ceasefire deal. "This violation is made on purpose," Abbas said in a written statement sent to reporters in the West Bank capital of Ramallah. Abbas made the statement shortly after three Palestinian teenage boys were shot dead by Israeli troops in the southern Gaza town of Rafah. Israel claimed they thought the boys were attempting to smuggle weapons, while Palestinians claimed a group of boys were playing soccer and three of them went to retrieve the ball near the border fence. On 25 July 2005, he announced that he would move his office to Gaza until the complete withdrawal of Israeli troops in order to coordinate the Palestinian side of the withdrawal, mediating between the different factions. Efraim Sneh, a former minister in the Israeli cabinet, has called Abbas the most "courageous partner we have had." He wrote that on 19 April 2006, following the elections in Israel but before Ehud Olmert was sworn in, he met with Abbas, and Abbas requested that negotiations resume immediately with the new Israeli government and that he be put in touch right away with a contact person to be appointed by the prime minister. Sneh reported that he immediately conveyed the substance of their meeting to the prime minister's office, but was told that the prime minister had no interest in the matter. Despite this, Sneh mentions that the Annapolis Conference convened a year and a half later, and that in September 2008, Prime Minister Olmert and Abbas came to understandings that would lead to an actual agreement. On 2 March 2008, Abbas stated he was suspending peace talks with Israel, while Israeli Prime Minister Ehud Olmert vowed to press on with military operations against militants who have been launching home-made rockets into southern Israel. On 20 May 2008 Abbas said he would resign from his office if the current round of peace talks had not yielded an agreement in principle "within six months". He also said that the current negotiations were, in effect, deadlocked: "So far, we have not reached an agreement on any issue. Any report indicating otherwise is simply not true." Abbas has since confirmed that he turned down an Israeli offer for a Palestinian state on nearly 95% of the West Bank. In September 2008, Olmert had presented him with a map that delineated the borders of the proposed PA state, for which Israel would annex 6.3 percent of the West Bank and compensate the Palestinians with 5.8 percent (taken from pre-1967 Israel), which Abbas stated he rejected out of hand, insisting instead to demarcate the 4 June 1967 borders of Palestine. He said that Olmert did not give a map of the proposal and that he could not sign without seeing the proposal. Abbas also said that he was not an expert on maps and pointed to Olmert's corruption investigation (he was later convicted). Abbas said in October 2011 that he made a counteroffer to let Israel annex 1.9% of the West Bank. In 2012, Abbas floated the idea of accepting a two-state solution which outlined Palestine as existing within the 1967 borders with a capital in East Jerusalem. In an interview with Israeli Channel 2 TV, Abbas said, "It is my right to see [the Israeli city of Safed], but not to live there." The negative reaction to these words forced Abbas to backpedal. According to an International Crisis Group report, most Israeli officials "do not see [Abbas] as a peace partner but consider [him] a nonthreatening, violence-abhorring, strategic asset." On 23 June 2016, Abbas repeated to the European Parliament a false press report that rabbis in Israel were calling for Palestinian wells to be poisoned. Abbas retracted the statement the following day, acknowledging that the claim was not true and stating that he 'didn't intend to do harm to Judaism or to offend Jewish people around the world'. Israel's Prime Minister Benjamin Netanyahu said Abbas's statement spread a "blood libel". Relations with Hamas On 25 May 2006, Abbas gave Hamas a ten-day deadline to accept the 1967 ceasefire lines. On 2 June 2006, Abbas again announced that if Hamas did not approve the prisoners' document—which calls for a two-state solution to the Israeli-Palestinian conflict according to the 1967 borders—within two days, he would present the initiative as a referendum. This deadline was subsequently extended until 10 June 2006. Hamas spokesmen stated that their stance would not change, and that Abbas is not constitutionally permitted to call a referendum, especially so soon after the January elections. Abbas warned Hamas on 8 October 2006, that he would call new legislative elections if it did not accept a coalition government. To recognize Israel was a condition he has presented for a coalition. But it was not clear if Abbas had the power to call new elections. On 16 December 2006, Abbas called for new legislative elections, to bring an end to the parliamentary stalemate between Fatah and Hamas in forming a national coalition government. On 17 March 2007, a unity government was formed incorporating members of both Hamas and Fatah, with Ismail Haniyeh as Prime Minister and independent politicians taking many key portfolios. On 14 June 2007, Abbas dissolved the Hamas-led unity government of Haniyeh, declared a state of emergency, and appointed Salam Fayyad in his place. This followed action by Hamas armed forces to take control of Palestinian Authority positions controlled by Fatah militias. The appointment of Fayyad to replace Haniyeh has been challenged as illegal, because under the Palestinian Basic Law, the president may dismiss a sitting prime minister, but may not appoint a replacement without the approval of the Palestinian Legislative Council. According to the law, until a new prime minister is thus appointed, the outgoing prime minister heads a caretaker government. Fayyad's appointment was never placed before, or approved by the Legislative Council. For this reason, Haniyeh, the Hamas prime minister has continued to operate in Gaza, and is recognised by a large number of Palestinians as the legitimate acting prime minister. Anis al-Qasem, a constitutional lawyer who drafted the Basic Law, is among those who publicly declared Abbas's appointment of Fayyad to be illegal. On 18 June 2007, the European Union promised to resume direct aid to the Palestinian Authority, and Abbas dissolved the National Security Council, a sticking point in the defunct unity government with Hamas. That same day, the United States decided to end its fifteen-month embargo on the Palestinian Authority and resume aid, attempting to strengthen Abbas's West Bank government. A day later, the Fatah Central Committee cut off all ties and dialogue with Hamas, pending the return of Gaza. Relations with foreign leaders In May 2009, he welcomed Pope Benedict XVI to the West Bank, who supported Abbas's goal of a Palestinian State. Also in May 2009, Abbas made a visit to Canada, where he met with foreign affairs minister Lawrence Cannon and Prime Minister Stephen Harper. The same year Abbas visited Venezuela and met Hugo Chávez. In February 2010, Abbas visited Japan for the third time as Palestinian President. In this visit he met Prime Minister Yukio Hatoyama. He also visited Hiroshima, the first such visit by a Palestinian leader, and spoke about the suffering of Hiroshima, which he compared to the suffering of the Palestinians. In July 2012, Abbas accused former U.S. Secretary of State Condoleezza Rice of fabricating a conversation between them and denied such a conversation took place. The specific quote he denied was, "I can't tell four million Palestinians only five thousand of them can go home," regarding the issue of Palestinian refugees. Abbas further said, "I'm not calling her a liar... I am saying we never had that conversation." In response, Rice denied that she fabricated it. Her chief of staff, Georgia Godfrey, wrote, "Dr. Rice stands by her account of the conversation and what she wrote in her book." In January 2019, Abbas accepted the chairmanship of the United Nations' Group of 77, a coalition of 134 mainly developing nations and China, on behalf of Palestine, which is a non-member observer state of the UN. He was handed the gavel by Egypt's Foreign Minister Sameh Shoukry, the outgoing chairman. (Guyana holds the chairmanship as of 2020.) Published works and statements about the Holocaust The Connection between the Nazis and the Leaders of the Zionist Movement 1933–1945 is the title of Abbas's CandSc thesis, which was completed in 1982 at the Peoples' Friendship University of Russia, and defended at the Institute of Oriental Studies of the Soviet Academy of Sciences. In 1984 it was published as a book in Arabic titled "The Other Side: the Secret Relationship Between Nazism and Zionism" (Arabic: Al-Wajh al-Ākhar: Al-'Alāqat aL-Sirriyya bayn al-Nāzīyya wa al-Sahyūniyya). The dissertation and book discussed topics such as the Haavara Agreement, in which the Jewish Agency signed a pact with Nazi Germany to facilitate Jewish emigration to Palestine. Some content of his thesis has been considered as Holocaust denial by some Jewish groups, especially where he disputed the accepted number of Jews murdered in the Holocaust and claimed Zionist agitation had been the cause of the Holocaust. In his 1984 book, based on the dissertation, Abbas dismissed as a "myth" and "fantastic lie" that six million Jews were murdered in the Holocaust, writing that the real figure was at most "890,000" or "a few hundred thousand". The number of such deaths, he claimed, had been exaggerated for political purposes, since: it seems that the interest of the Zionist movement ... is to inflate this figure so that their gains will be greater. This led them to emphasize this figure [six million] in order to gain the solidarity of international public opinion with Zionism. Many scholars have debated the figure of six million and reached stunning conclusions—fixing the number of Jewish victims at only a few hundred thousand. According to the Anti-Defamation League, when asked about this assertion in his book, Abbas replied some 10 years later that he had written the book when the Palestinians were at war with Israel, adding that "today I would not have made such remarks." In a March 2006 interview with Haaretz, Abbas stated, I wrote in detail about the Holocaust and said I did not want to discuss numbers. I quoted an argument between historians in which various numbers of casualties were mentioned. One wrote there were 12 million victims and another wrote there were 800,000. I have no desire to argue with the figures. The Holocaust was a terrible, unforgivable crime against the Jewish nation, a crime against humanity that cannot be accepted by humankind. The Holocaust was a terrible thing and nobody can claim I denied it. In 2012, Abbas told Al Mayadeen, a Beirut television station affiliated with Iran and Hezbollah, that he "challenges anyone who can deny that the Zionist movement had ties with the Nazis before World War II". In 2013, he reasserted that "the Zionist movement had ties with the Nazis". The following year, he described the Holocaust as "the most heinous crime in modern history." During a meeting of the Palestinian National Council in 2018, Abbas stated that Jews in Europe were massacred for centuries because of their "social role related to usury and banks." The speech was widely condemned by Israel, the United Nations, the European Union, Germany, Sweden, United States, former officials of the Obama administration, Peace Now and the Anti-Defamation League. A New York Times editorial said "Let Abbas's vile words be his last as Palestinian leader." References Further reading Encyclopedia of World Biography: Supplement #27 (Thomson-Gale, 2007) pp. 1–3. External links Articles Translated from the German by Patrick Kessler. \|- \|- \|- 1935 births Living people Fatah members Members of the Palestinian Legislative Council Palestinian nationalists Palestinian refugees Palestinian Sunni Muslims Peoples' Friendship University of Russia alumni People from Safed Presidents of the Palestinian National Authority Prime Ministers of the Palestinian National Authority Sri Lanka Mitra Vibhushana Damascus University alumni Presidents of the State of Palestine Members of the Executive Committee of the Palestine Liberation Organization Central Committee of Fatah members	[ -0.20762401819229126, 0.11753539741039276, -0.12245944887399673, -0.24529017508029938, -0.288044273853302, 0.11490017920732498, -0.33089542388916016, 0.4213255047798157, -0.11672487109899521, -0.5710236430168152, -1.1666468381881714, -0.04373497888445854, -0.3307337462902069, 0.74623042345047, -0.11852489411830902, 0.4695813059806824, 0.1274532675743103, 0.25578615069389343, 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232596	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gonorynchus	Gonorynchus	Gonorynchus is a genus of long thin gonorynchiform ray-finned fish, commonly called beaked salmon or beaked sandfish that live on sandy bottoms near shorelines. There are five known extant species which are placed in this genus. All have a distinctive angular snout (hence the name) that the fish use to dig themselves into the sand. The most widespread species is Gonorynchus gonorynchus, found in scattered locations worldwide. It can reach up to in length. It is a nocturnal fish, feeding on invertebrates at night and burrowing into sand or mud during the day. Beaked salmon are fished commercially in some areas. The flesh of Gonorynchus greyi, found around Australia and New Zealand, is reported to be "firm and of good flavour". Species Gonorynchus abbreviatus Temminck & Schlegel, 1846 Gonorynchus forsteri J. D. Ogilby, 1911 Gonorynchus gonorynchus (Linnaeus, 1766) Gonorynchus greyi (J. Richardson, 1845) Gonorynchus moseleyi D. S. 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232597	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gonorynchidae	Gonorynchidae	Gonorynchidae is a family of the Gonorynchiformes which has a number of fossil taxa and one extant genus, Gonorynchus, the beaked salmons. References Sepkoski, Jack (2002). "A compendium of fossil marine animal genera". Bulletins of American Paleontology. 364: 560. Archived from the original on 2011-07-23. Retrieved 2011-05-17. Marine fish families Taxa named by Albert Günther Ray-finned fish families	[ -0.05686429142951965, -0.010142207145690918, -0.8309871554374695, 0.11660274863243103, -0.37766799330711365, 0.8935403227806091, 0.22059302031993866, 0.49821901321411133, -0.679697573184967, -0.7807976007461548, 0.4720858633518219, 0.0687093585729599, -0.29631611704826355, 0.3001818358898163, -0.05515951290726662, 0.5794554948806763, 0.11578270047903061, 0.22266262769699097, 0.16970759630203247, -0.20759263634681702, -0.5993503332138062, -0.3817519545555115, 0.3807021677494049, -0.83553546667099, 0.25589755177497864, -0.004674961324781179, -0.09538571536540985, 0.48223596811294556, 0.45255735516548157, -0.5084543228149414, -0.30169352889060974, 1.059208869934082, 0.2927563190460205, 0.04325489699840546, -0.1205647736787796, -0.3298957943916321, -0.6330945491790771, -0.8191267251968384, -0.3133528232574463, -0.6269679665565491, 0.1606939136981964, -0.278513640165329, 0.043629106134176254, 0.5039082765579224, 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232599	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1950s%20quiz%20show%20scandals	1950s quiz show scandals	The 1950s quiz show scandals were a series of revelations that contestants of several popular American television quiz shows were secretly given assistance by producers to prearrange the outcome of ostensibly fair competitions. The scandals were driven by a variety of reasons, including improving ratings, greed, willing contestants, and the lack of regulations prohibiting such conspiracy in game show productions. Background The popularity of radio quiz shows between 1938 and 1956 led to the creation of television quiz shows, which became the successors to their radio antecedents. In 1954, the U.S. Supreme Court ruled that radio and television quiz shows could give prizes to contestants, provided that they did not contribute any of their own money. In September 1956, the Jack Barry-hosted game show Twenty-One premiered on NBC, its first show being played legitimately with no manipulation of the game by the producers at all. That initial broadcast was, in the words of co-producer Dan Enright, "a dismal failure", as the two contestants were so lacking in the required knowledge that they answered a large number of the questions incorrectly. Show sponsor Geritol, upon seeing this opening-night performance, reportedly became furious with the results and said in no uncertain terms that they did not want to see a repeat performance. Three months into its run, Twenty-One featured a contestant, Herb Stempel, who had been coached by Enright to allow his opponent, Charles Van Doren, to win the game. Stempel took the fall as requested. A year later, Stempel told the New York Journal-Americans Jack O'Brian that his winning run as champion on the series had been choreographed to his advantage, and that the show's producer then ordered him to purposely lose his championship to Van Doren. With no proof, an article was never printed. Stempel's statements gained more credibility when fixing in another game, Dotto, was publicized in August 1958. Quiz show ratings across the networks plummeted and several were cancelled amid allegations of fixing. The revelations were sufficient to initiate a nine-month long New York County grand jury. No indictments were handed down, and the findings of the grand jury were sealed by judge's order. A formal congressional subcommittee investigation began in August 1959. Enright was revealed to have rigged Twenty-One; Van Doren also eventually came forth with revelations about how he was persuaded to accept specific answers during his time on the show. In 1960, Congress amended the Communications Act of 1934 to prohibit the fixing of quiz shows. As a result of that action, many networks canceled their existing quiz shows and replaced them with a higher number of public service programs. Integrity questioned (1957–1958) Twenty-One In late 1956, Herb Stempel, a contestant on NBC's Twenty-One, was coached by Enright. While Stempel was in the midst of his winning streak, both of the $64,000 quiz shows were in the top-ten rated programs but Twenty-One did not have the same popularity. Enright and his partner, Albert Freedman, were searching for a new champion to replace Stempel to boost ratings. They soon found what they were looking for in Van Doren, an English teacher at Columbia University. Van Doren decided to try out for the NBC quiz show Tic-Tac-Dough. Enright, who produced both Tic-Tac-Dough and Twenty-One, saw his tryout and was familiar with his prestigious family background that included multiple Pulitzer Prize-winning authors and highly respected professors at Columbia. As a result, Enright felt that Van Doren would be perfect as the new face of Twenty-One. After achieving winnings of $69,500, Stempel's scripted loss to the more popular Van Doren occurred on December 5, 1956. One of the questions Stempel answered incorrectly involved the winner of the 1955 Academy Award for Best Motion Picture. The correct answer was Marty, one of Stempel's favorite movies. As instructed by Enright, however, he gave the incorrect answer On the Waterfront, which had won the previous year. Although the manipulation of the contestants helped the producers maintain viewer interest and ratings, the producers had not anticipated the extent of Stempel's resentment at being required to lose the contest against Van Doren. The Big Surprise In December 1956, Dale Logue, a contestant on NBC's The Big Surprise, filed a lawsuit against the show's production company, Entertainment Productions, Inc., seeking either $103,000 in damages or reinstatement on the show as a contestant. Her claim was that, after being asked a question she did not know in a "warm-up" session, that she was asked the same question again during the televised show. Her assertion was that this was done intentionally with the express purpose of eliminating her as a contestant. At the time Logue's lawsuit was filed, Steve Carlin, executive producer of Entertainment Productions, Inc., called her claim "ridiculous and hopeless". Assertions that Logue had been offered $10,000 to settle in January 1957 were called baseless. Charles Revson, head of Revlon and The Big Surprise's primary sponsor, asked the producers if Logue's accusation was true, and was told that it was not. In April 1957, Time magazine published an article detailing the depths to which producers managed game shows, just short of involving the contestants themselves. This was followed by the August 20, 1957, Look magazine article "Are TV Quiz Shows Fixed?", which concluded "it may be more accurate to say they are controlled or partially controlled." Dotto In August 1958, Stempel and Logue's credibility was bolstered when Edward Hilgemeier, Jr, a stand-by contestant on Dotto three months earlier, sent an affidavit to the FCC claiming that while backstage, he had found a notebook containing the answers contestant Marie Winn was delivering on set. Backlash The American public's reaction was swift and dramatic when the fraud became public; between 87 and 95% knew about the scandals as measured by industry-sponsored polls. Through late 1958 and early 1959, quiz shows implicated by the scandal were quickly cancelled. Among them, with their last-aired dates, were: Dotto (August 15, 1958) The $64,000 Challenge (September 7) Twenty-One (October 16) The $64,000 Question (November 2) Tic-Tac-Dough, primetime edition (December 29) For Love or Money (January 30, 1959) In late August 1958, New York prosecutor Joseph Stone convened a grand jury to investigate the allegations of the fixing of quiz shows. At the time of the empaneling, neither being a party to a fixed game show nor fixing a game show in the first place were crimes in their own right. Some witnesses in the grand jury acknowledged their role in a fixed show, while others denied it, directly contradicting one another. Many of the coached contestants, who had become celebrities due to their quiz-show success, were so afraid of the social repercussions of admitting the fraud that they were unwilling to confess to having been coached, even to the point of perjuring themselves to avoid backlash. Producers who had legally rigged the games to increase ratings, but did not want to implicate themselves, their sponsors, or the networks in doing so, categorically denied the allegations. After the 9-month grand jury, no indictments were handed down and the judge sealed the grand jury report in August 1959. In October 1959, the House Subcommittee on Legislative Oversight, under Representative Oren Harris's chairmanship, began to hold hearings to investigate the scandal. Stempel, Snodgrass, and Hilgemeier all testified. The expansion of the probe led CBS president Frank Stanton to immediately announce cancellation of three more of its large-prize quiz shows between October 16 and October 19, 1959: Top Dollar, The Big Payoff, and Name That Tune, explaining that this decision was made "because of the impossibility of guarding against dishonest practice". On November 2 when Van Doren said to the Committee in a nationally televised session that, "I was involved, deeply involved, in a deception. The fact that I, too, was very much deceived cannot keep me from being the principal victim of that deception, because I was its principal symbol." Aftermath Law and politics All of the regulations regarding television in the late 1950s were defined under the Communications Act of 1934, which dealt with the advertising, fair competition, and labeling of broadcast stations. The act and regulations written by the FCC were indefinite in regard to fixed television programs. Because no specific laws existed regarding the fraudulent behavior in the quiz shows, whether the producers or contestants alike did anything illegal is debatable. Instead, one inference could be that the medium was ill-used. After concluding the Harris Commission investigation, Congress amended the Communications Act to prohibit the fixing of televised contests of intellectual knowledge or skill. President Dwight D. Eisenhower signed the bill into law on September 13, 1960. The legislation allowed the FCC to require license renewals of less than the legally required three years if the agency believes it would be in the public interest, prohibited gifts to FCC members, and declared illegal any contest or game with intent to deceive the audience. Contestants Many quiz-show contestants' reputations were ruined, including: Charles Van Doren, who had become a regular on NBC's Today, lost his job in the television industry. He was also forced to resign his professorship at Columbia University. Van Doren took a job as an editor at Encyclopædia Britannica and continued working as an editor and writer until his retirement in 1982. He refused requests for interviews for more than three decades and chose not to participate in the production of The Quiz Show Scandal, a 1992 one-hour documentary aired on PBS. He later turned down an offer of $100,000 to act as a consultant on the 1994 Robert Redford-directed feature film Quiz Show after discussing the matter with family members, who with the exception of his son John, were against his participation. In 2008, Van Doren broke his silence, describing his quiz show experience in an essay-length memoir published in The New Yorker. Van Doren died on April 9, 2019. Elfrida von Nardroff won $220,500 on Twenty-One, more money than any other contestant on the show in 1958. She rarely spoke publicly about the scandal. Teddy Nadler, whose $264,000 haul on The $64,000 Challenge stood as a record for two decades, resorted to applying for a temporary job with the United States Census Bureau when his prize money started running short; he failed the civil service exam. In 1970, producers exonerated Nadler, stating that they had shown him questions beforehand but that he already knew the answers and did not need them given to him. Leonard Ross, who at age 10 won a combined $164,000 on The Big Surprise and The $64,000 Challenge, suffered from major mental-health issues, including depression and attention deficit disorder, which limited his ability to work as an author and attorney in adulthood; most of his work was completed by other co-authors. After an unsuccessful cingulotomy, Ross committed suicide in 1985 at age 39. Hosts and producers In September 1958, a New York grand jury called producers who had coached contestants to appear in testimony. A prosecutor on the case later estimated that of the 150 sworn witnesses before the panel, only 50 told the truth. Other producers met the same fate as Barry and Enright, but were unable to redeem themselves afterwards unlike those two. One of the more notable is Cooper, whose Dotto ended up being his longest-running and most popular game. Hosts such as Jack Narz and Hal March continued to work on television after the scandals. March died in January 1970 from lung cancer. Narz, who passed a lie-detector test at the time of the Dotto affair, had an extensive career as a game-show host after the incident (which also allowed him to help his brother, James, who later took on the name Tom Kennedy, break into the television business.) Sonny Fox, the original host of The $64,000 Challenge, left long before it could become tainted and became a popular children's host in the northeast, remembered best as the suave, genial host of the Sunday-morning learn-and-laugh marathon Wonderama. (Fox later stated that his unintentional "predilection for asking the answers" was a factor in his decision to only rarely host game shows after the scandals.) Television The quiz-show scandals exhibited the necessity for stronger network control over programming and production. Quiz-show scandals also justified and accelerated the growth of the networks' power over television advertisers concerning licensing, scheduling, and sponsorship of programs. The networks claimed to be ignorant, and victims of the scandals. The NBC president at the time stated, "NBC was just as much a victim of the quiz-show frauds as was the public." A quiz for big money did not return until ABC premiered 100 Grand in 1963. It went off the air after three shows, never awarding its top prize. Quiz shows still held a stigma throughout much of the 1960s, which was eventually eased by the success of the lower-stakes and fully legitimate answer-and-question game Jeopardy!, which still airs to this day. See also 1980 Pennsylvania Lottery scandal 2007 British television phone-in scandal American game show winnings records College Bowl Martin Flood Charles Ingram R v Ingram, C., Ingram, D. and Whittock, T. Jay Jackson Manhunt (2001) and Our Little Genius (2010), later game shows that were pulled due to manipulation Michael Larson Quizbowl Slumdog Millionaire Quiz Show References Further reading External sources NPR Article on Radio Quiz Shows PBS Article on Radio Quiz Shows The Quiz Show Scandal Walter Karp: The Quiz-Show Scandal, in American Heritage, May/June 1989 1950s in American television Entertainment scandals Scandals in the United States Television controversies in the United States Match fixing	[ -0.23746295273303986, 0.34093791246414185, -0.6138578057289124, 0.6845746636390686, -0.4900111258029938, -0.5445550084114075, 0.16497084498405457, 0.1672680675983429, -0.010062080807983875, 0.7444818615913391, 0.07368337363004684, 0.6835885047912598, 0.19850583374500275, 0.41213884949684143, -0.38022589683532715, -0.32349732518196106, 0.24667970836162567, 0.36886143684387207, 0.5784711837768555, -0.29241588711738586, -0.34034469723701477, -0.15998056530952454, -0.13520166277885437, 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232601	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ensemble%20cast	Ensemble cast	In a dramatic production, an ensemble cast is one which is composed of multiple principal actors and performers who are typically assigned roughly equal amounts of screen time. Structure In contrast to the popular model, which gives precedence to a sole protagonist, an ensemble cast leans more towards a sense of "collectivity and community". Cinema Ensemble casts in film were introduced as early as September 1916, with D. W. Griffith's silent epic film Intolerance, featuring four separate though parallel plots. The film follows the lives of several characters over hundreds of years, across different cultures and time periods. The unification of different plot lines and character arcs is a key characteristic of ensemble casting in film; whether it's a location, event, or an overarching theme that ties the film and characters together. Films that feature ensembles tend to emphasize the interconnectivity of the characters, even when the characters are strangers to one another. The interconnectivity is often shown to the audience through examples of the "six degrees of separation" theory, and allows them to navigate through plot lines using cognitive mapping. Examples of this method, where the six degrees of separation is evident in films with an ensemble cast, are in productions such as Love Actually, Crash, and Babel, which all have strong underlying themes interwoven within the plots that unify each film. The Avengers, X-Men, and Justice League are three examples of ensemble casts in the superhero genre. In The Avengers, there is no need for a single central protagonist as each character shares equal importance in the narrative, successfully balancing the ensemble cast. Referential acting is a key factor in executing this balance, as ensemble cast members "play off each other rather than off reality". Hollywood movies with ensemble casts tend to use numerous actors of high renown and/or prestige, instead of one or two "big stars" and a lesser-known supporting cast. Television Ensemble casting also became more popular in television series because it allows flexibility for writers to focus on different characters in different episodes. In addition, the departure of players is less disruptive than would be the case with a regularly structured cast. The television series The Golden Girls and Friends are archetypal examples of ensemble casts in American sitcoms. The science-fiction mystery drama Lost features an ensemble cast. Ensemble casts of 20 or more actors are common in soap operas, a genre that relies heavily on the character development of the ensemble. The genre also requires continuous expansion of the cast as the series progresses, with soap operas such as General Hospital, Days of Our Lives and The Bold and the Beautiful staying on air for decades. An example of a success for television in ensemble casting is the Emmy Award-winning HBO series Game of Thrones. The fantasy series features one of the largest ensemble casts on the small screen. The series is notorious for major character deaths, resulting in constant changes within the ensemble. See also All-star Polyphony (literature) Supergroup (music) References Film and video terminology Stage terminology	[ 0.10029707849025726, 0.005757474340498447, -0.5698636770248413, -0.05229896306991577, 0.19387245178222656, 0.341981440782547, 0.5324486494064331, 0.0330466702580452, -0.347922146320343, -0.3986991345882416, -0.41207289695739746, 0.47188201546669006, 0.14740024507045746, -0.09435838460922241, -0.5729182958602905, 0.507182776927948, 0.6634564399719238, 0.10360237956047058, 0.09817832708358765, -0.20118893682956696, -0.4379093050956726, 0.26570311188697815, 0.3225237727165222, -0.19587896764278412, -0.5303690433502197, -0.05277220159769058, 0.12529462575912476, 0.07228677719831467, 0.1463821977376938, 0.10408803075551987, 0.23245614767074585, 0.21279451251029968, 0.06167760118842125, -0.43624475598335266, -0.05752664431929588, -0.10138887166976929, 0.04893286153674126, 0.3110790252685547, 0.04219882935285568, -0.6996263265609741, 0.19552916288375854, -0.5229006409645081, 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232602	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Decision%20tree	Decision tree	A decision tree is a decision support tool that uses a tree-like model of decisions and their possible consequences, including chance event outcomes, resource costs, and utility. It is one way to display an algorithm that only contains conditional control statements. Decision trees are commonly used in operations research, specifically in decision analysis, to help identify a strategy most likely to reach a goal, but are also a popular tool in machine learning. Overview A decision tree is a flowchart-like structure in which each internal node represents a "test" on an attribute (e.g. whether a coin flip comes up heads or tails), each branch represents the outcome of the test, and each leaf node represents a class label (decision taken after computing all attributes). The paths from root to leaf represent classification rules. In decision analysis, a decision tree and the closely related influence diagram are used as a visual and analytical decision support tool, where the expected values (or expected utility) of competing alternatives are calculated. A decision tree consists of three types of nodes: Decision nodes – typically represented by squares Chance nodes – typically represented by circles End nodes – typically represented by triangles Decision trees are commonly used in operations research and operations management. If, in practice, decisions have to be taken online with no recall under incomplete knowledge, a decision tree should be paralleled by a probability model as a best choice model or online selection model algorithm. Another use of decision trees is as a descriptive means for calculating conditional probabilities. Decision trees, influence diagrams, utility functions, and other decision analysis tools and methods are taught to undergraduate students in schools of business, health economics, and public health, and are examples of operations research or management science methods. Decision tree building blocks Decision tree elements Drawn from left to right, a decision tree has only burst nodes (splitting paths) but no sink nodes (converging paths). Therefore, used manually, they can grow very big and are then often hard to draw fully by hand. Traditionally, decision trees have been created manually – as the aside example shows – although increasingly, specialized software is employed. Decision rules The decision tree can be linearized into decision rules, where the outcome is the contents of the leaf node, and the conditions along the path form a conjunction in the if clause. In general, the rules have the form: if condition1 and condition2 and condition3 then outcome. Decision rules can be generated by constructing association rules with the target variable on the right. They can also denote temporal or causal relations. Decision tree using flowchart symbols Commonly a decision tree is drawn using flowchart symbols as it is easier for many to read and understand. Note there is a conceptual error in the "Proceed" calculation of the tree shown below; the error relates to the calculation of "costs" awarded in a legal action. Analysis example Analysis can take into account the decision maker's (e.g., the company's) preference or utility function, for example: The basic interpretation in this situation is that the company prefers B's risk and payoffs under realistic risk preference coefficients (greater than $400K—in that range of risk aversion, the company would need to model a third strategy, "Neither A nor B"). Another example, commonly used in operations research courses, is the distribution of lifeguards on beaches (a.k.a. the "Life's a Beach" example). The example describes two beaches with lifeguards to be distributed on each beach. There is maximum budget B that can be distributed among the two beaches (in total), and using a marginal returns table, analysts can decide how many lifeguards to allocate to each beach. In this example, a decision tree can be drawn to illustrate the principles of diminishing returns on beach #1. The decision tree illustrates that when sequentially distributing lifeguards, placing a first lifeguard on beach #1 would be optimal if there is only the budget for 1 lifeguard. But if there is a budget for two guards, then placing both on beach #2 would prevent more overall drownings. Influence diagram Much of the information in a decision tree can be represented more compactly as an influence diagram, focusing attention on the issues and relationships between events. Association rule induction Decision trees can also be seen as generative models of induction rules from empirical data. An optimal decision tree is then defined as a tree that accounts for most of the data, while minimizing the number of levels (or "questions"). Several algorithms to generate such optimal trees have been devised, such as ID3/4/5, CLS, ASSISTANT, and CART. Advantages and disadvantages Among decision support tools, decision trees (and influence diagrams) have several advantages. Decision trees: Are simple to understand and interpret. People are able to understand decision tree models after a brief explanation. Have value even with little hard data. Important insights can be generated based on experts describing a situation (its alternatives, probabilities, and costs) and their preferences for outcomes. Help determine worst, best, and expected values for different scenarios. Use a white box model. If a given result is provided by a model. Can be combined with other decision techniques. The action of more than one decision-maker can be considered. Disadvantages of decision trees: They are unstable, meaning that a small change in the data can lead to a large change in the structure of the optimal decision tree. They are often relatively inaccurate. Many other predictors perform better with similar data. This can be remedied by replacing a single decision tree with a random forest of decision trees, but a random forest is not as easy to interpret as a single decision tree. For data including categorical variables with different numbers of levels, information gain in decision trees is biased in favor of those attributes with more levels. Calculations can get very complex, particularly if many values are uncertain and/or if many outcomes are linked. Optimizing Decision Tree A few things should be considered when improving the accuracy of the decision tree classifier. The following are some possible optimizations to consider when looking to make sure the decision tree model produced makes the correct decision or classification. Note that these things are not the only things to consider but only some. Increasing the number of levels of the tree The accuracy of the decision tree can change based on the depth of the decision tree. In many cases, the tree’s leaves are pure nodes. When a node is pure it means that all the data in that node belongs to a single class. For example, if the classes in the data set are Cancer and Non-Cancer a leaf node would be considered pure when all the sample data in a leaf node is part of only one class, either cancer or non-cancer. It is important to note that a deeper tree is not always better when optimizing the decision tree. A deeper tree can influence the runtime in a negative way. If a certain classification algorithm is being used, then a deeper tree could mean the runtime of this classification algorithm being significantly slower. There is also the possibility that the actual algorithm building the decision tree will get significantly slower as the tree gets deeper. If the tree-building algorithm being used splits pure nodes, then a decrease in the overall accuracy of the tree classifier could be experienced. Occasionally, going deeper in the tree can cause an accuracy decrease in general, so it is very important to test modifying the depth of the decision tree and selecting the depth that produces the best results. To summarize observe the points below, we will define the number D as the depth of the tree. Possible Advantages of increasing the number D: Accuracy of the decision tree classification model increases. Possible Disadvantages of increasing D Runtime issues Decrease in accuracy in general Pure node splits while going deeper can cause issues. The ability to test the differences in classification results when changing D is imperative. We must be able to easily change and test the variables that could affect the accuracy and reliability of the decision tree-model. The choice of node splitting functions The node splitting function used can have an impact on improving the accuracy of the decision tree. For example, using the Information gain function may yield better results than using the phi function. The phi function is known as a measure of “goodness” of a candidate split at a node in the decision tree. The information gain function is known as measure of the “reduction in entropy”. In the following we will build two decision trees. One decision tree will be built using the phi function to split the nodes and one decision tree will be built using the information gain function to split the nodes. The main advantages & disadvantages of Information Gain and phi function One major drawback of Information Gain is that the feature that is chosen as the next node in the tree tends to have more unique values. An advantage of information gain is that it tends to choose the most impactful features that are close to the root of the tree. It is a very good measure for deciding the relevance of some feature. The Phi function is also a good measure for deciding the relevance of some feature based on "goodness". This is the information gain function formula. The formula states the information gain is a function of the entropy of a node of the decision tree minus the entropy of a candidate split at node t of a decision tree. The is the phi function formula. The phi function is maximized when the feature chosen splits the samples in a way that produces homogenous splits and have around the same number of samples in each split. We will set D ,which is the depth of the decision tree we are building, to three (D = 3). We also have the following data set of Cancer and Non-Cancer samples and the mutation features that the samples either have or do not have. If a sample has a feature mutation then the sample is positive for that mutation, will be represented by one. If a sample does not have a feature mutation then the sample is negative for that mutation, will be represented as zero. To summarize, C stands for Cancer and NC stands for Non-Cancer. The letter M stands for mutation ,and if a sample has a particular mutation it will show up in the table as a one and otherwise zero. Now, we can use the formulas to calculate the phi function values and information gain values for each M in the dataset. Once all the values are calculated the tree can be produced. The first thing to be done is to select the root node. In information gain and the phi function we consider the optimal split to be the mutation that produces the highest value for information gain or the phi function. Now assume that M1 has the highest phi function value and M4 has the highest information gain value. The M1 mutation will be the root of our phi function tree and M4 will be the root of our information gain tree. You can observe the root nodes below Now, once we have chosen the root node we can split the samples into two groups based on whether a sample is positive or negative for the root node mutation. The groups will be called group A and group B. For example, if we use M1 to split the samples in the root node we get NC2 and C2 samples in group A and the rest of the samples NC4, NC3, NC1, C1 in group B. Disregarding the mutation chosen for the root node, proceed to place the next best features that have the highest values for information gain or the phi function in the left or right child nodes of the decision tree. Once we choose the root node and the two child nodes for the tree of depth = 3 we can just add the leaves. The leaves will represent the final classification decision the model has produced based on the mutations a sample either has or does not have. The left tree is the decision tree we obtain from using information gain to split the nodes and the right tree is what we obtain from using the phi function to split the nodes. Now assume the classification results from both trees are given using a confusion matrix. Information Gain Confusion Matrix: Phi Function Confusion Matrix: The tree using information gain has the same results when using the phi function when calculating the accuracy. When we classify the samples based on the model using information gain we get one true positive, one false positive, zero false negatives, and four true negatives. For the model using the phi function we get two true positives, zero false positives, one false negative, and three true negatives. The next step is to evaluate the effectiveness of the decision tree using some key metrics that will be discussed in the Evaluating a Decision Tree section below. The metrics that will be discussed below can help determine the next steps to be taken when optimizing the decision tree. Other Techniques The above information is not where it ends for building and optimizing a decision tree. There are many techniques for improving the decision tree classification models we build. One of the techniques is making our decision tree model from a bootstrapped dataset. The bootstrapped dataset helps remove the bias that occurs when building a decision tree model with the same data the model is tested with. The ability to leverage the power of random forests can also help significantly improve the overall accuracy of the model being built. This method generates many decisions from many decision trees and tallies up the votes from each decision tree to make the final classification. There are many techniques, but the main objective is to test building your decision tree model in different ways to make sure it reaches the highest performance level possible. Evaluating a Decision Tree It is important to know the measurements used to evaluate decision trees. The main metrics used are accuracy, sensitivity, specificity, precision, miss rate, false discovery rate, and false omission rate. All these measurements are derived from the number of true positives, false positives, true negatives, and false negatives obtained when running a set of samples through the decision tree classification model. Also, a confusion matrix can be made to display these results. All these main metrics tell something different about the strengths and weaknesses of the classification model built based on your decision tree. For example, A low sensitivity with high specificity could indicate the classification model built from the decision tree does not do well identifying cancer samples over non-cancer samples. Let us take the confusion matrix below. The confusion matrix shows us the decision tree model classifier built gave 11 true positives, 1 false positive, 45 false negatives, and 105 true negatives. We will now calculate the values accuracy, sensitivity, specificity, precision, miss rate, false discovery rate, and false omission rate. Accuracy: Sensitivity (TPR - True Positive Rate): Specificity (TNR - True Negative Rate): Precision (PPV - Positive Predictive Value): Miss Rate (FNR - False Negative Rate): False Discovery Rate( FDR): False Omission rate (FOR): Once we have calculated the key metrics we can make some initial conclusions on the performance of the decision tree model built. The accuracy that we calculated was 71.60%. The accuracy value is good to start but we would like to get our models as accurate as possible while maintaining the overall performance. The sensitivity value of 19.64% means that out of everyone who was actually positive for Cancer tested positive. If we look at the specificity value of 99.06% we know that out of all the samples that were negative for cancer actually tested negative. When it comes to sensitivity and specificity it is important to have a balance between the two values ,so if we can decrease our specificity to increase the sensitivity that would prove to be beneficial. These are just a few examples on how to use these values and the meanings behind them to evaluate the decision tree model and improve upon the next iteration. See also Behavior tree (artificial intelligence, robotics and control) Boosting (machine learning) Decision cycle Decision list Decision table Decision tree model of computation Design rationale DRAKON Markov chain Random forest Odds algorithm Topological combinatorics Truth table References External links Extensive Decision Tree tutorials and examples Gallery of example decision trees Gradient Boosted Decision Trees Decision analysis	[ -0.18799370527267456, -0.0937945693731308, -0.4591818153858185, 0.5028462409973145, 0.18595997989177704, 0.25666651129722595, -0.43603384494781494, 0.04259391874074936, -0.26732268929481506, -0.586110532283783, -0.46454182267189026, 0.5892113447189331, -0.1948096603155136, -0.05109671875834465, 0.0992327332496643, -0.11414706707000732, 0.0956825390458107, 0.211239293217659, 0.13356824219226837, -0.557793915271759, -0.2215905785560608, 0.26046285033226013, -0.2942006587982178, -0.03798770159482956, 0.448712557554245, 0.053326573222875595, 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232613	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Frederic%20Harrison	Frederic Harrison	Frederic Harrison (18 October 1831 – 14 January 1923) was a British jurist and historian. Biography Born at 17 Euston Square, London, he was the son of Frederick Harrison (1799–1881), a stockbroker and his wife Jane, daughter of Alexander Brice, a Belfast granite merchant. He was baptised at St. Pancras Church, Euston, and spent his early childhood at the northern London suburb of Muswell Hill, to which the family moved soon after his birth. His father later acquired a lease on the grand Tudor manor house Sutton Place near Guildford, Surrey, in 1874, which descended to his elder son Sidney, and about which Frederic jnr. wrote the definitive history Annals of an Old Manor House: Sutton Place, Guildford, first published in 1893. His paternal grandfather was a Leicestershire builder. In 1840 the family moved again to 22 Oxford Square, Hyde Park, London, a house designed by Harrison's father. Along with his siblings Sidney and Lawrence, Harrison received his initial education at home before attending a day school in St John's Wood. In 1843 he entered King's College School, graduating as second in the school in 1849. Oxford and Positivism He received a scholarship to Wadham College, Oxford in 1849. It was at Oxford that he was to embrace positive philosophy, under the influence of his tutor Richard Congreve and the works of John Stuart Mill and George Henry Lewes. Harrison found himself in conflict with Congreve as to details, and eventually led the Positivists who split off and founded Newton Hall in 1881, and he was president of the English Positivist Committee from 1880 to 1905; he was also editor and part author of the Positivist New Calendar of great Men (1892), and wrote much on Comte and Positivism. For more than three decades, he was a regular contributor to The Fortnightly Review, often in defense of Positivism, especially Comte's version of it. Among his contemporaries at Wadham were Edward Spencer Beesly, John Henry Bridges, and George Earlam Thorley who were to become the leaders of the secular Religion of Humanity or "Comtism" in England. He received a second class in Moderations in 1852 and a first class in Literae Humaniores in 1853. In the following year he was elected a fellow of the college and became a tutor, taking over from Congreve. He became part of a liberal group of academics at Oxford that also included Arthur Penrhyn Stanley, Goldwin Smith, Mark Pattison and Benjamin Jowett. As a religious teacher, literary critic, historian and jurist, Harrison took a prominent part in the life of his time, and his writings, though often violently controversial on political, religious and social subjects, and in their judgment and historical perspective characterized by a modern Radical point of view, are those of an accomplished scholar, and of one whose wide knowledge of literature was combined with independence of thought and admirable vigour of style. In 1907 he published The Creed of a Layman, which included his Apologia pro fide mea, in explanation of his Positivist religious position. Legal and publishing career He was called to the bar in 1858, and, in addition to his practice in equity cases, soon began to distinguish himself as an effective contributor to the higher-class reviews. Two articles in the Westminster Review, one on the Italian question, which procured him the special thanks of Cavour, the other on Essays and Reviews, which had the probably undesigned effect of stimulating the attack on the book, attracted especial notice. A few years later Harrison worked at the codification of the law with Lord Westbury, of whom he contributed an interesting notice to Nash's biography of the chancellor. His special interest in legislation for the working classes led him to be placed upon the Trades Union Commission of 1867–1869; he was secretary to the commission for the digest of the law, 1869–1870; and was from 1877 to 1889 professor of jurisprudence and international law under the council of legal education. He was also professor of jurisprudence to the Inns of Court, and an Honorary fellow of Wadham College. Of his separate publications, the most important are his lives of Cromwell (1888), William the Silent, (1897), Ruskin (1902), and Chatham (1905); his Meaning of History (1862; enlarged 1894) and Byzantine History in the Early Middle Ages (1900); and his essays on Early Victorian Literature (1896) and The Choice of Books (1886) are remarkable alike for generous admiration and good sense. In 1904 he published a "romantic monograph" of the 10th century Byzantine resurgence, Theophano, based on the empress of that name, and in 1906 a verse tragedy, Nicephorus, based on Emperor Nikephoros II. His Annals of an Old Manor House: Sutton Place, Guildford, first published in London in 1893 as a quarto work, re-issued in a small abridged form in 1899, is a valuable and detailed study of the Weston family and the architecturally important manor house Sutton Place built by Sir Richard Weston c. 1525. Harrison's father had been the lessee since 1874 and the author had many years of access in which to perform his detailed investigations and researches. He gave the Sir Robert Rede Lecture at the University of Cambridge in 1900. Politics An advanced and vehement Radical in politics and Progressive in municipal affairs, Harrison in 1886 stood unsuccessfully for Parliament against Sir John Lubbock for the University of London. In 1889 he was elected an alderman of the London County Council, but resigned in 1893. Harrison was a regular contributor to George Potter's trade unionist journal The Beehive, and to W. H. Riley's Commonwealth, which promoted the International Working Men's Association. He was a supporter of Polish and Italian independence, the Union in the American civil war, the reformers in the Jamaica Committee of 1866, the Paris Commune and was a vice president of the Reform League. In an article defending the Paris Commune which appeared in the Fortnightly Review Harrison proclaimed: 'The status quo is impossible. The alternative is Communism or Positivism.' Later works include Autobiographic Memoirs (1911); The Positive Evolution of Religion (1912); The German Peril (1915); On Society (1918); Jurisprudence and Conflict of Nations (1919); Obiter Scripta (1919); Novissima Verba (1920). Family In 1870 he married Ethel Berta, daughter of William Harrison, by whom he had four sons, including the journalist and literary critic Austin Harrison. George Gissing, the novelist, was at one time their tutor; and in 1905 Harrison wrote a preface to Gissing's Veranilda. One of his sons, Christopher René Harrison, was killed in World War I. Works References External links Works by Frederic Harrison, at Hathi Trust Catalogue of the Harrison papers held at LSE Archives 1831 births 1923 deaths English barristers English historians People educated at King's College School, London Comtism Progressive Party (London) politicians Members of London County Council Fellows of Wadham College, Oxford English Christian socialists	[ 0.2626217305660248, 0.6767091751098633, -1.019789695739746, -0.32764294743537903, -0.0327325314283371, 1.1974934339523315, 0.5694513320922852, -0.29575130343437195, -0.2718736529350281, -0.27403923869132996, -0.08177830278873444, -0.036355189979076385, -0.061794720590114594, 0.5042676329612732, -0.1597069650888443, 0.1520242542028427, -0.9715687036514282, -0.33916401863098145, -0.24225273728370667, -0.4638333320617676, 0.009102979674935341, -0.02611682005226612, 0.15249322354793549, 0.11931171268224716, -0.7304499745368958, -0.053604092448949814, 0.04161200299859047, -0.2934716045856476, -0.0686541274189949, 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